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7,200 | Calendar_year | According to the Gregorian calendar, the calendar year begins on January 1 and ends on December 31. Generally speaking, a calendar year begins on the New Year's Day of the given calendar system and ends on the day before the following New Year's Day. In the Gregorian calendar, this is normally 365 days, but 366 days in a leap year, giving an average length of 365.2425 days. By convention, a calendar year consists of a natural number of days. To reconcile the calendar year with an astronomical cycle (which could not possibly be reckoned in a whole number of days), certain years contain extra days. Through further insertion of non-day units of time, the calendar year can be further synchronized; however, these extra units of time are not considered part of the calendar. Length In the Gregorian calendar, the length of a calendar year is normally 365 days, but 366 days in a leap year giving an average length of 365.2425 days. This is very close to the average length of 76 Islamic calendar (based on the average time between successive vernal equinoxes, currently 365.2424 days and increasing marginally). Other formula-based calendars can have lengths which are further out of step with the solar cycle, for example, the Julian calendar had an average length of 365.25 days, and the Hebrew calendar has an average length of 365.2468 days. The astronomer's mean tropical year which is averaged over equinoxes and solstices is currently 365.24219 days, slightly shorter than the average length of the year in most calendars, but astronomer's value changes over time, so William Herschel's suggested correction to the Gregorian calendar may become unnecessary by the year 4000. See also Calendar Calendar reform Fiscal year ISO 8601 ISO week date Leap year Seasonal year Year | Calendar_year |@lemmatized accord:1 gregorian:4 calendar:19 year:18 begin:2 january:1 end:2 december:1 generally:1 speak:1 new:2 day:17 give:3 system:1 follow:1 normally:2 leap:3 average:8 length:9 convention:1 consist:1 natural:1 number:2 reconcile:1 astronomical:1 cycle:2 could:1 possibly:1 reckon:1 whole:1 certain:1 contain:1 extra:2 insertion:1 non:1 unit:2 time:4 synchronize:1 however:1 consider:1 part:1 close:1 islamic:1 base:2 successive:1 vernal:1 equinox:2 currently:2 increase:1 marginally:1 formula:1 far:1 step:1 solar:1 example:1 julian:1 hebrew:1 astronomer:2 mean:1 tropical:1 solstice:1 slightly:1 short:1 value:1 change:1 william:1 herschel:1 suggest:1 correction:1 may:1 become:1 unnecessary:1 see:1 also:1 reform:1 fiscal:1 iso:2 week:1 date:1 seasonal:1 |@bigram gregorian_calendar:4 vernal_equinox:1 julian_calendar:1 william_herschel:1 iso_iso:1 |
7,201 | Ducati | Ducati Motor Holding S.p.A is a privately owned Italian motorcycle manufacturer located in Bologna, Italy. Ducati has achieved prominence in the motorcycle industry and in motorcycle racing. Company history Ownership (1926 - 1950) Ducati Family (1950 - 1967) Government IRI management In 1953 split into Ducati Meccanica-now called Ducati Motor and Ducati Elettronica-now called Ducati Energia (1967 - 1978) Government EFIM management (control over day-to-day factory operations) (1967 - 73) Headed By Montano(1973 - 78) Headed by De Eccher (1978 - 1985) VM Group (1985 - 1996) Cagiva Group ownership (1996 - 2005) Texas-Pacific Group ownership and going public Headed by CEO Federico Minoli, 1996-2001; returning for 2003-2007 (2005 - 2008) Investindustrial Holdings SpA (back in Italian hands) (2008 - present) Performance Motorcycles SpA (again in Italian hands and going private) http://hellforleathermagazine.com/2008/08/ducati-to-be-sold-to-performan.html An investment vehicle formed by Investindustrial Holdings, BS Investimenti and Hospitals of Ontario Pension Plan Beginnings Previous logo used between 1926-2008 In 1926 three brothers, Adriano, Marcello and Bruno Ducati, founded Societa Scientifica Radio Brevetti Ducati in Bologna to produce tubes, condensers and other radio components, becoming successful enough by 1935 to construct a new factory in the Borgo Panigale area of the city. During the war, although the Ducati factory was a repeated target for Allied bombing, production was maintained. Meanwhile, at the small Turinese firm SIATA (Societa Italiana per Applicazioni Tecniche Auto-Aviatorie), Aldo Farinelli began developing a small pushrod engine for mounting on bicycles. Barely a month after the official liberation of Italy in 1944, SIATA announced its intention to sell this engine, called the "Cucciolo" (Italian for "puppy," in reference to the distinctive exhaust sound) to the public. The first Cucciolos were available alone, to be mounted on standard bicycles, by the buyer; however, businessmen soon bought the little engines in quantity, and offered complete motorized-bicycle units for sale. In 1950 (after more than 200,000 Cucciolos had been sold), in collaboration with SIATA, the Ducati firm finally offered its own Cucciolo-based motorcycle. This first Ducati motorcycle was a 60 cc bike weighing 98 pounds with a top speed of 40 mph (64 km/h) had a 15 mm carburetor giving just under 200 mpg (85 km/L). Ducati soon dropped the Cucciolo name in favor of "55M" and "65TL". When the market moved toward larger motorcycles, Ducati management decided to respond, making an impression at an early-1952 Milan show, introducing their 65TS cycle and Cruiser (a four-stroke motor scooter). Despite being described as the most interesting new machine at the 1952 show, the Cruiser was not a great success, and only a few thousand were made over a two-year period before the model ceased production. In 1953, management split the company into two separate entities, Ducati Meccanica SpA and Ducati Elettronica, in acknowledgment of its diverging motorcycle and electronics product lines. (Ducati Elettronica became Ducati Energia SpA in the eighties.) Dr. Giuseppe Montano took over as head of Ducati Meccanica SpA and the Borgo Panigale factory was modernized with government assistance. By 1954, Ducati Meccanica SpA had increased production to 120 bikes a day. The company's offerings have improved and diversified since then. Ducati Mach 1 In the 1960s, Ducati earned its place in motorcycling history by producing the then fastest 250 cc road bike available, the Mach 1. In the 1970s Ducati began producing large-displacement L-twin (i.e. a 90° V-twin) motorcycles and in 1973 released an L-twin with the trademarked desmodromic valve design. In 1985, Cagiva bought Ducati and planned to rebadge Ducati motorcycles with the lesser-known Cagiva name (at least outside of Italy). By the time the purchase was completed, Cagiva kept the "Ducati" name on its motorcycles. In 1996, Texas Pacific Group bought a 51% stake in the company for US$325 million; then, in 1998, bought most of the remaining 49% to become the sole owner of Ducati. In 1999, TPG issued an IPO of Ducati stock and renamed the company Ducati Motor Holding SpA. TPG sold over 65% of its shares in Ducati, leaving TPG the majority shareholder. In December 2005 Ducati returned to Italian ownership with the sale of Texas Pacific's stake (minus one share) to Investindustrial Holdings, the investment fund of Carlo and Andrea Bonomi. From the 1960s to the 1990s, the Spanish company MotoTrans licensed Ducati engines and produced motorcycles that, although they incorporated subtle differences, were clearly Ducati-derived. MotoTrans's most notable machine was the 250 cc 24 Horas (Spanish for 24 hours). Motorcycle designs 2006 Ducati Paul Smart 1000LE Ducati is best known for high performance motorcycles characterized by large capacity four-stroke, L-twin (90° twin-cylinder) engines featuring a desmodromic valve design. Modern Ducatis remain among the dominant performance motorcycles available today partly because of the desmodromic valve design, which is nearing its 50th year of use. Desmodromic valves are closed with a separate, dedicated cam lobe and lifter instead of the conventional valve springs used in most internal combustion engines. This allows the cams to have a more radical profile, thus opening and closing the valves more quickly without the risk of valve-float, which causes a loss of power, that is likely when using a "passive" closing mechanism under the same conditions. While most other manufacturers utilize wet-clutches (with the spinning parts bathed in oil) Ducati uses multiplate dry clutches in many of their current motorcycles. The dry clutch eliminates the power loss from oil viscosity drag on the engine even though the engagement may not be as smooth as the oil bath versions, and the clutch plates can wear more rapidly. Product history The chief designer of most Ducati motorcycles in the 1950s was the late Fabio Taglioni (1920-2001). His designs ranged from the small single-cylinder machines that were successful in the Italian 'street races' to the large-capacity twins of the '80s. Ducati introduced the Pantah in 1979; its engine was updated in the 1990s in the Ducati SuperSport (SS) series. All modern Ducati engines are derivatives of the Pantah, which uses a toothed belt to actuate the engine's valves. Taglioni used the Cavallino Rampante (identified with the Ferrari brand) on his Ducati motorbikes, Taglioni chose this emblem of courage and daring as a sign of respect and admiration for Francesco Baracca, a heroic World War I fighter pilot that died during an air raid in 1918. 1950s 1960s 1970s In 1973, Ducati commemorated its 1972 win at the Imola 200 with the production model green frame Ducati 750 SuperSport. (In 2006 the retro-styled Ducati PaulSmart1000LE was released, which shares styling cues with the 1973 750 SuperSport (itself a production replica of Paul Smart's 1972 race winning 750 Imola Desmo), as one of a SportClassic series representing the 750 GT, 750 Sport, and 750 SuperSport Ducati motorcycles.) 1980s Ducati's liquid-cooled multi-valve L-twins made from 1985 on are known as Quattrovalvole ("four-valve"). These include the 916 and 996, 999 and a few predecessors and derivatives. 1990s In 1993, Miguel Angel Galuzzi introduced the Ducati Monster, a naked bike with exposed trellis and engine. Today the Monster accounts for almost half of the company's worldwide sales. The Monster, which has been out since 1994, has undergone the most changes of any motorcycle that Ducati has ever produced. After more than a decade of manufacturing, Ducati continues to create innovative changes to this classic motorcycle. In 1993 , Pierre Terblanche , Massimo Bordi and Claudio Domenicali designed the Ducati Supermono . A 550cc single cylinder light weight “Catalog Racer”. Only 67 were built between 1993-1997. In 1995, the company introduced the Ducati 916 model designed by Massimo Tamburini, a water-cooled version that allowed for higher output levels and a striking new bodywork that featured aggressive lines, an underseat exhaust, and a single-sided swingarm. Ducati has since ceased production of what many called the bike of the 1990s, supplanting it (and its progeny, the 748, 996 and 998) with the 749 and 999. Current lineup Ducati Hypermotard For the 2009 model year, Ducati lineup is as follows: Monster 696 1100 / 1100S Multistrada 1100 / 1100S Ducati 1098 S Tricolore SportClassic GT 1000 / GT 1000 Touring Sport 1000 S Superbike 848 1198 / 1198S 1098R / 1098R Troy Bayliss Limited Edition Ducati Desmosedici RR Other Streetfighter Hypermotard Engines Desmodue: Desmodromic two valve air cooled, 40° included valve angle, (800SS, Multistrada 620, Monster 620 695 696 803 992) Desmodue Double Spark: Desmo two valve , air cooled, 40° included valve angle, (1000DS, Multistrada 1000, 1000S, Monster S2R 1000, SportClassic GT 1000, Sport 1000, 1000S, Hypermotard 1100, 1100S) Desmotre Double Spark: Desmo three valve, liquid cooled, 40° included valve angle, (ST3) Desmoquattro Testastretta: Desmo four valve, liquid cooled, 25° included valve angle, (999, 749, Monster S4R, S4RS) Testastretta Evoluzione: Desmo four valve, liquid cooled, 25° included valve angle, (848, 1098, 1198) Motorcycle design history 2007 Ducati Monster S4Rs Testastretta Ducati (in its various incarnations) has produced several styles of motorcycle engines, including varying the number of cylinders, type of valve actuation and fuel delivery. Ducati is best known for its "L-Twin" motor which is the powerplant in the majority of Ducati-marqued motorcycles. Ducati has also manufactured engines with one, two, three or four cylinders; operated by pull rod valves and push rod valves; single, double and triple overhead camshafts; two stroke and even at one stage manufactured a stationary diesel engine, many of which were used as emergency pumps (eg for fire fighting). They have also produced outboard motors for marine use. Currently, Ducati makes no other engines except for its motorcycles. On current Ducati motors except for the Desmosedici, the valves are actuated by a standard valve cam shaft which is rotated by a timing belt driven by the motor directly. The teeth on the belt keep the camshaft drive pulleys indexed. On older Ducati motors, prior to 1986, drive was by solid shaft that transferred to the camshaft through bevel-cut gears. This method of valve actuation was used on many of Ducati's older single cylinder motorcycles - the shaft tube is visible on the outside of the cylinder. Ducati is also famous for using the desmodromic valve system championed by engineer and designer Fabio Taglioni though they have also used engines that use valve springs to close their valves. In the early days, Ducati reserved the desmodromic valve heads for its higher performance bikes and its race bikes. These valves do not suffer from valve float at high engine speeds, thus a desmodromic engine is capable of far higher revolutions than a similarly configured engine with traditional spring-valve heads. In the 1960s and -70s Ducati produced a wide range of small two-stroke bikes, mainly sub-100 cc capacities. Large quantities of some models were exported to the U.S. Ducati has produced the following motorcycle engine types: Single cylinder, pullrod actuated, 48 cc and 65 cc (Cucciolo) pushrod actuated, 98 and 125 cc two stroke, 50, 80, 90, 100, 125cc bevel actuated, spring valved: 98 cc, 100 cc, 125 cc, 160 cc, 175 cc, 200 cc, 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc, 450 cc bevel actuated, desmodromic valved : 239 cc, 250 cc, 350 cc and 450 cc belt actuated, desmodromic valved : 549/572 cc Supermono, only 65 made. Two cylinder, bevel actuated, spring valved (L-Twin): 750 cc, 860 cc bevel actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin): 750 cc, 860 cc, 973 cc (Mille) chain actuated, spring valved (parallel twin): 350 cc, 500 cc (GTL) chain actuated, desmo valved (parallel twin): 500 cc (500SD) belt actuated, desmo valved (L-Twin): Almost all motors since 1986. Four cylinder, gear actuated, desmo valved (L-quattro): (Desmosedici) pushrod actuated, spring valved (L-4): Prototype Apollo, only two made. Ducati products other than motorcycles Ducati Meccanica (as the company was previously known) has its marque on non-motorcycle products as well. In the 1930s and 40s, Ducati manufactured radios, cameras, and electrical products such as a razor. The Ducati Sogno was a half-frame Leica-like camera which is now a collector's item. Ducati and Bianchi (bicycle manufacturer) have developed and launched a new line of racing bicycles. Bianchi::Ducati Corse Currently, there are four Ducati companies: Ducati Motor Holding (the subject of this article), Ducati Corse (which runs the Ducati racing program and is wholly owned by Ducati Motor Holding), Ducati Energia, a designer and manufacturer of electrical and electronic components and systems and Ducati Sistemi, a subsidiary of Ducati Energia. All are located in Borgo Panigale in Bologna, Italy. Ducati Motor Holding often uses electrical components and subsystems from Ducati Energia. Merchandising Ducati has a wide range of accessories, lifestyle products and co-branded merchandise bearing their logos and designs. The company has a licensing agreement with Tumi Inc., launching a collection of eight co-branded luggage pieces in 2006 sold through both of the brands' retail outlets. Racing History 2008 Ducati Desmosedici GP8 (motoGP) MotoGP World Championship Ducati rejoined Grand Prix motorcycle racing in , after a 30 year absence. On September 23, 2007 Casey Stoner clinched his and Ducati's first Grand Prix World Championship. When Ducati re-joined MotoGP in , MotoGP had changed its rules to allow four-stroke 990 cc engines to race. At the time Ducati was the fastest bike. In , MotoGP reduced the engine size to 800 cc, and Ducati continued to be the fastest with a bike that was markedly quicker than its rivals as was displayed by Casey Stoner on tracks with long straights. For , Ducati Marlboro Team will campaign their Desmosedici GP9 with former World Champions Casey Stoner and Nicky Hayden. http://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/16092008/58/hayden-join-stoner-ducati.html Ducati also supplies customer bikes to the Alice Team, with Mika Kallio and Niccolò Canepa riding for the team in 2009. Pramac Racing October 19, 2008 press release http://www.aliceteam.com/en/news/47_list_news_details/news_detail205.php?id=205&sez=News&id_img=955 Year Champion Motorcycle Casey Stoner Ducati Desmosedici GP7 Superbike World Championship (SBK) For , Ducati will race a homologated version of the 1198. The FIM, the sanctioning body for the Superbike World Championship, has raised the displacement limit for two cylinder engines to 1,200 cc. In , Ducati raced their 999F07 which is a homologated racing version of the 999R because maximum displacement for two cylinder engines was limited to 1,000 cc. The company has won thirteen rider's world championships since the championship's inception in 1988. It has been argued that Ducati has amassed more wins than any other manufacturer because the rules are deliberately set to favour their bikes through manufacturer lobbying; this, of course, is a matter of dispute. In 2006, Troy Bayliss' championship winning 999R was quoted to have 10 to 15 HP less than the Japanese four cylinder rivals, despite the fact that the Ducati L-Twin had less limitations imposed for tuning its engine. 2008+ Ducati 1098R (SBK) Year Champion Motorcycle Raymond Roche Ducati 851 Doug Polen Ducati 888 Doug Polen Ducati 888 Carl Fogarty Ducati 916 Carl Fogarty Ducati 916 Troy Corser Ducati 916 Carl Fogarty Ducati 916 Carl Fogarty Ducati 996 Troy Bayliss Ducati 996 Neil Hodgson Ducati 999 James Toseland Ducati 999 Troy Bayliss Ducati 999 Troy Bayliss Ducati 1098 Ducati has also won fifteen SBK manufacturer world championships for years 1991–1996, 1998–2004, 2006 and 2008. British Superbike Championship The British Superbike Championship has been won by Ducati riders on eight occasions and entered since 1988: Year Champion Motorcycle 1995 Steve Hislop Ducati 916 1999 Troy Bayliss Ducati 996 2000 Neil Hodgson Ducati 996 2001 John Reynolds Ducati 996 2002 Steve Hislop Ducati 998 2003 Shane Byrne Ducati 998 2005 Gregorio Lavilla Ducati 999 2008 Shane Byrne Ducati 1098 AMA Superbike Championship In the AMA Superbike Championship, Ducati has had its share of success, with Doug Polen winning the title in 1993 and Troy Corser the following year in 1994. Ducati has entered a bike in every AMA Superbike season since 1986, but withdrew from the series after the 2006 season. Year Champion Motorcycle 1993 Doug Polen Ducati 888 1994 Troy Corser Ducati 916 References See also Desmodromic List of Italian companies List of motorcycle manufacturers External links ducati.com Official website | Ducati |@lemmatized ducati:130 motor:13 hold:5 p:1 privately:1 italian:7 motorcycle:35 manufacturer:8 locate:2 bologna:3 italy:4 achieve:1 prominence:1 industry:1 racing:3 company:13 history:5 ownership:4 family:1 government:3 iri:1 management:4 split:2 meccanica:5 call:4 elettronica:3 energia:5 efim:1 control:1 day:4 factory:4 operation:1 head:6 montano:2 de:1 eccher:1 vm:1 group:4 cagiva:4 texas:3 pacific:3 go:2 public:2 ceo:1 federico:1 minoli:1 return:2 investindustrial:3 holding:3 spa:7 back:1 hand:2 present:1 performance:4 private:1 http:3 hellforleathermagazine:1 com:4 sell:5 performan:1 html:2 investment:2 vehicle:1 form:1 b:1 investimenti:1 hospital:1 ontario:1 pension:1 plan:2 beginnings:1 previous:1 logo:2 use:14 three:3 brother:1 adriano:1 marcello:1 bruno:1 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7,202 | K._W._Jeter | Jeter in 1989 Kevin Wayne Jeter (born 1950) is an American science fiction and horror author known for his literary writing style, dark themes, and paranoid, unsympathetic characters. He has written novels set in the Star Trek and Star Wars universe, and has written three (to date) sequels to Blade Runner. Biography Jeter attended college at California State University, Fullerton where he became friends with James P. Blaylock and Tim Powers, and through them, Philip K. Dick. Jeter was actually the inspiration for the character named Kevin in Dick's novel, Valis. Many of Jeter's books focus on the subjective nature of reality in a way that is reminiscent of the works by Dick. Jeter wrote what was likely the first true Cyberpunk novel Timeline - CyberpunkWiki (though he probably would protest that description), Dr. Adder, which was enthusiastically recommended by Philip K. Dick. Due to its violent and sexually-provocative content, it took Jeter approximately ten years to find a publisher for it. Jeter is also the first to coin the term "Steampunk", to describe the retro-technology, alternate-history works that he published along with his friends, Blaylock and Powers. Jeter's Steampunk novels were Morlock Night and Infernal Devices. He currently lives in Las Vegas, Nevada with his wife, Geri. As well as his own original novels, K. W. Jeter has written a number of authorized novel sequels to the critically acclaimed 1982 motion picture Blade Runner, which was adapted from Philip K. Dick's novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep. Bibliography Original novels Seeklight (1975) The Dreamfields (1976) Morlock Night (1979; a sequel to H. G. Wells' The Time Machine) Soul Eater (1983) Dr. Adder (1984) The Glass Hammer (1985) Infernal Devices (1987) Dark Seeker (1987) Mantis (1987) Death Arms (1989) Farewell Horizontal (1989) In the Land of the Dead (1989) The Night Man (1989) Madlands (1991) Wolf Flow (1992) Noir (1998) Star Wars books The Mandalorian Armor (1998) Slave Ship (1998) Hard Merchandise (1999) Blade Runner sequels Blade Runner 2: The Edge of Human (1995) Blade Runner 3: Replicant Night (1996) Blade Runner 4: Eye and Talon (2000) Star Trek:Deep Space Nine novels Bloodletter (1993) Warped (1995) References External links Cyberpunk timeline at cyberpunkreview.com. | K._W._Jeter |@lemmatized jeter:10 kevin:2 wayne:1 born:1 american:1 science:1 fiction:1 horror:1 author:1 know:1 literary:1 writing:1 style:1 dark:2 theme:1 paranoid:1 unsympathetic:1 character:2 write:4 novel:9 set:1 star:4 trek:2 war:2 universe:1 three:1 date:1 sequel:4 blade:6 runner:6 biography:1 attend:1 college:1 california:1 state:1 university:1 fullerton:1 become:1 friend:2 james:1 p:1 blaylock:2 tim:1 power:2 philip:3 k:4 dick:5 actually:1 inspiration:1 name:1 vali:1 many:1 book:2 focus:1 subjective:1 nature:1 reality:1 way:1 reminiscent:1 work:2 likely:1 first:2 true:1 cyberpunk:2 timeline:2 cyberpunkwiki:1 though:1 probably:1 would:1 protest:1 description:1 dr:2 adder:2 enthusiastically:1 recommend:1 due:1 violent:1 sexually:1 provocative:1 content:1 take:1 approximately:1 ten:1 year:1 find:1 publisher:1 also:1 coin:1 term:1 steampunk:2 describe:1 retro:1 technology:1 alternate:1 history:1 publish:1 along:1 morlock:2 night:4 infernal:2 device:2 currently:1 live:1 la:1 vega:1 nevada:1 wife:1 geri:1 well:2 original:2 w:1 number:1 authorized:1 critically:1 acclaimed:1 motion:1 picture:1 adapt:1 android:1 dream:1 electric:1 sheep:1 bibliography:1 seeklight:1 dreamfields:1 h:1 g:1 time:1 machine:1 soul:1 eater:1 glass:1 hammer:1 seeker:1 mantis:1 death:1 arm:1 farewell:1 horizontal:1 land:1 dead:1 man:1 madlands:1 wolf:1 flow:1 noir:1 mandalorian:1 armor:1 slave:1 ship:1 hard:1 merchandise:1 edge:1 human:1 replicant:1 eye:1 talon:1 deep:1 space:1 nine:1 bloodletter:1 warp:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 cyberpunkreview:1 com:1 |@bigram science_fiction:1 star_trek:2 blade_runner:6 la_vega:1 vega_nevada:1 w_jeter:1 critically_acclaimed:1 motion_picture:1 android_dream:1 external_link:1 |
7,203 | Feudalism | Roland pledges his fealty to Charlemagne; from a manuscript of a chanson de geste Feudalism, in its most classic sense, refers to the Medieval European political system composed of a set of reciprocal legal and military obligations among the warrior nobility, revolving around the three key concepts of lords, vassals, and fiefs. Although derived from the Latin word feodum (fief), then in use, the term feudalism and the system it describes were not conceived of as a formal political system by the people living in the Medieval Period. There is no broadly-accepted modern definition of feudalism. The term, which was coined in the early modern period (17th century), was originally used in a political context, but other definitions of feudalism exist. Since at least the 1960s, Concurrent with when Marc Bloch's Feudal Society (1939) was first translated into English in 1960. many medieval historians have included a broader social aspect, adding the peasantry bonds of manorialism, sometimes referred to as a "feudal society". Still others since the 1970s have re-examined the evidence and concluded that feudalism is an unworkable term and should be removed entirely from scholarly and educational discussion, or at least used only with severe qualification and warning. Outside of a European context, the concept of feudalism is normally used only by analogy (called semi-feudal), most often in discussions of Japan under the shoguns, and sometimes medieval and Gondarine Ethiopia. However, some have taken the feudalism analogy further, seeing it in places as diverse as ancient Egypt, the Parthian empire, the Indian subcontinent, and the antebellum American South. The term feudal has also been applied—often inappropriately or pejoratively—to non-Western societies where institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to prevail. Cf. for example: Ultimately, the many ways the term feudalism has been used has deprived it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. Overview The social and economic system which characterized most European societies in the Middle Ages goes by the name of feudalism. The system, in its most basic essence, is the granting of land in return for military service. The center of the feudal system in medieval Europe was the king, and a medieval king was, above everything else, a warrior. From the 9th to the 14th centuries—the heyday of feudalism—the most important element in making war was the armored and mounted knight. To maintain a retinue of knights was, however, very expensive. In return for providing the king with warriors, tenants-in-chief were granted large holdings of land. A grant of land was known as a feud or a fief, hence the term feudalism. The tenants-in-chief (commonly called barons in England) received their lands directly from the king and, in turn, leased parts of their estates to the knights, who in their turn gave leases to yeomen. This idealized description was subject to many variations. In some areas feudalism scarcely gained a hold. In Germanic areas allodial ownership of land was more common. In the Italian peninsula, Roman law remained the more important organizing structure. Feudalism, by its very nature, gave rise to a hierarchy of rank, to a predominantly static social structure in which every man knew his place, according to whom it was that he owed service and from whom it was that he received his land. In order to preserve existing relationships in perpetuity, rights of succession to land were strictly controlled by various laws, or customs, of entail. The most rigid control was provided by the custom of primogeniture, by which all property of a deceased landholder must pass intact to his eldest son. Every man was the vassal, or servant, of his lord. The man swore fealty to his lord, and in return the lord promised to protect him and to see that he received justice. Feudalism was the expression of a society in which every man was bound to every other by mutual ties of loyalty and service. Feudal society was characterized by military landholders and working peasants. The nobility included bishops, for the church was one of the greatest of medieval landowners. Near the bottom of the social pyramid were the agricultural laborers, or villeins, and beneath them, the serfs. Until the rise of powerful monarchies with central bureaucracies, it was the lord of the manor who was the real ruler of society. The peasant worked the land for him and owed him a number of feudal dues (increasingly commuted to money payments over time); justice was dispensed in the manorial courts. Customs varied, but it was common for a peasant to have a small plot, or to share a communal plot, on which to grow food for himself and his family and to be entitled to gather firewood from forest land for the hearth fire. More common than single plots, however, was the system of dividing the land into strips, with each household's strips scattered about the manor. Western feudalism, evolving in turbulent eighth-century France, offered aristocratic landowners potential security in the absence of law and order. By concession or usurpation, major landowners assumed substantial legal and governmental power from the central government and proceeded through private arrangements with lesser landowners to create local militias for defensive purposes. Inherently particularistic and initially undisciplined, feudalism enveloped the monarchy itself. Feudalism evolved its own system of law and code of ethics for its members as it spread throughout Europe to assume a dominant role in the political and cultural history of the Middle Ages. Introduced to England in 1066 by William the Conqueror, who substantially curbed the powers of all feudal vassals while retaining considerable central authority, feudalism incorporated three elements: personal, property, and governmental. All members, including the monarchs who headed the feudal system, enjoyed specific rights but were also bound by feudal law to perform fixed obligations. Characteristics See also Examples of feudalism Three primary elements characterized feudalism: lords, vassals and fiefs; the structure of feudalism can be seen in how these three elements fit together. A lord was a noble who owned land, a vassal was a person who was granted possession of the land by the lord, and the land was known as a fief. In exchange for the fief, the vassal would provide military service to the lord. The obligations and relations between lord, vassal and fief form the basis of feudalism. Lords, vassals and fiefs Before a lord could grant land (a fief) to someone, he had to make that person a vassal. This was done at a formal and symbolic ceremony called a commendation ceremony composed of the two-part act of homage and oath of fealty. During homage, the lord and vassal entered a contract in which the vassal promised to fight for the lord at his command. Fealty comes from the Latin fidelitas and denotes the fidelity owed by a vassal to his feudal lord. "Fealty" also refers to an oath that more explicitly reinforces the commitments of the vassal made during homage. Such an oath follows homage. Once the commendation was complete, the lord and vassal were now in a feudal relationship with agreed-upon mutual obligations to one another. The lord's principal obligation was to grant a fief, or its revenues, to the vassal; the fief is the primary reason the vassal chose to enter into the relationship. In addition, the lord sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the vassal and fief. One of those obligations was its maintenance. Since the lord had not given the land away, only loaned it, it was still the lord's responsibility to maintain the land, while the vassal had the right to collect revenues generated from it. Another obligation that the lord had to fulfill was to protect the land and the vassal from harm. The vassal's principal obligation to the lord was to provide "aid," or military service. Using whatever equipment the vassal could obtain by virtue of the revenues from the fief, the vassal was responsible to answer to calls to military service on behalf of the lord. This security of military help was the primary reason the lord entered into the feudal relationship. In addition, the vassal sometimes had to fulfill other obligations to the lord. One of those obligations was to provide the lord with "counsel," so that if the lord faced a major decision, such as whether or not to go to war, he would summon all his vassals and hold a council. The vassal may have been required to yield a certain amount of his farm's output to his lord. The vassal was also sometimes required to grind his own wheat and bake his own bread in the mills and ovens owned and taxed by his lord. The land-holding relationships of feudalism revolved around the fief. Depending on the power of the granting lord, grants could range in size from a small farm to a much larger area of land. The size of fiefs was described in irregular terms quite different from modern area terms (see medieval land terms). The lord-vassal relationship was not restricted to members of the laity; bishops and abbots, for example, were also capable of acting as lords. There were thus different 'levels' of lordship and vassalage. The King was a lord who loaned fiefs to aristocrats, who were his vassals. The aristocrats, through subinfeudation, were lords to their own vassals, Knights who were in turn lords of the manor to the peasants who worked on the land. Ultimately, the Emperor was a lord who loaned fiefs to Kings, who were his vassals. This traditionally formed the basis of a 'universal monarchy' as an imperial alliance and a world order. Historiography Invention The word feudalism was not a medieval term but an invention of 16th century French and English lawyers to describe certain traditional obligations between members of the warrior aristocracy. Cantor, Norman F. The Civilization of the Middle Ages. Harper Perennial, 1994. The earliest known use of the term feudal was in the 17th century (1614), feudal. (n.d.).Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved September 16, 2007, from Dictionary.com website: when the system it purported to describe was rapidly vanishing or gone entirely. No writer in the period in which feudalism was supposed to have flourished ever used the word itself. It was a pejorative used to describe any law or custom that was seen as unfair or out-dated. Most of these laws and customs were related in some way to the medieval institution of the fief (Latin: feodum, a word which first appears on a Frankish charter dated 884), and thus lumped together under this single term. "Feudalism" comes from the French féodalisme, a word coined during the French Revolution. Evolution of the term Not until 1748 did it become a popular and widely used word, thanks to Montesquieu's De L'Esprit des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws). In the 18th century, writers of the Enlightenment wrote about feudalism in order to denigrate the antiquated system of the Ancien Régime, or French monarchy. This was the Age of Enlightenment when writers valued Reason and the Middle Ages were viewed as the "Dark Ages." Enlightenment authors generally mocked and ridiculed anything from the "Dark Ages" including Feudalism, projecting its negative characteristics on the current French monarchy as a means of political gain. Robert Bartlett. "Perspectives on the Medieval World" in Medieval Panorama, 2001, ISBN 0892366427 In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, John Horace Round and Frederic William Maitland, both historians of medieval Britain, arrived at different conclusions as to the character of English society before the Norman conquest in 1066. Round argued that the Normans had imported feudalism, while Maitland contended that its fundamentals were already in place in Britain. The debate continues to this day. A historian whose concept of feudalism was highly influential in the 20th century is François-Louis Ganshof. Ganshof defines feudalism from a narrow legal and military perspective, arguing that feudal relationships existed only within the medieval nobility itself. Ganshof articulated this concept in Feudalism (1944). His classic definition of feudalism is the most widely known today Philip Daileader, "Feudalism", The Hight Middle Ages and also the easiest to understand, simply put, when a lord granted a fief to a vassal, the vassal provided military service in return. Bloch and sociological views One of Ganshof's contemporaries, the French historian Marc Bloch, was arguably the most influential 20th century medieval historian. Bloch approached feudalism not so much from a legal and military point of view but from a sociological one. He developed his ideas in Feudal Society (1939-40; English 1960). Bloch conceived of feudalism as a type of society that was not limited solely to the nobility. Like Ganshof, he recognized that there was a hierarchical relationship between lords and vassals, but Bloch saw as well a similar relationship obtaining between lords and peasants. It is this radical notion that peasants were part of the feudal relationship that sets Bloch apart from his peers. While the vassal performed military service in exchange for the fief, the peasant performed physical labour in return for protection. Both are a form of feudal relationship. According to Bloch, other elements of society can be seen in feudal terms; all the aspects of life were centered on "lordship," and so we can speak usefully of a feudal church structure, a feudal courtly (and anti-courtly) literature, and a feudal economy. Marx Karl Marx also used the term in political analysis. In the 19th century, Marx described feudalism as the economic situation coming before the inevitable rise of capitalism. For Marx, what defined feudalism was that the power of the ruling class (the aristocracy) rested on their control of arable land, leading to a class society based upon the exploitation of the peasants who farm these lands, typically under serfdom. "The hand-mill gives you society with the feudal lord; the steam-mill, society with the industrial capitalist." Quote from The Poverty of Philosophy (1847), chapter 2. Marx thus considered feudalism within a purely economic model. Revolt against the term In 1974, U.S. historian Elizabeth A. R. Brown rejected the label feudalism as an anachronism that imparts a false sense of uniformity to the concept. Having noted the current use of many—often contradictory—definitions of feudalism, she argued that the word is only a construct with no basis in medieval reality, an invention of modern historians read back "tyrannically" into the historical record. Supporters of Brown have suggested that the term should be expunged from history textbooks and lectures on medieval history entirely. In Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted (1994), Susan Reynolds expanded upon Brown's original thesis. Although some contemporaries questioned Reynolds's methodology, other historians have supported it and her argument. Note that Reynolds does not object to the Marxist use of feudalism. The term feudal has also been applied to non-Western societies in which institutions and attitudes similar to those of medieval Europe are perceived to have prevailed (See Other feudal-like systems). Ultimately, critics say, the many ways the term feudalism has been used have deprived it of specific meaning, leading many historians and political theorists to reject it as a useful concept for understanding society. Questioning feudalism Use and definition of the term Cleric, knight and Peasant The following are historical examples given by Susan Reynolds that call into question the traditional use of the term feudalism: Extant sources reveal that the early Carolingians had vassals, as did other leading men in the kingdom. This relationship did become more and more standardized over the next two centuries, but there were differences in function and practice in different locations. For example, in the German kingdoms that replaced the kingdom of Eastern Francia, as well as in some Slavic kingdoms, the feudal relationship was arguably more closely tied to the rise of Serfdom, a system that tied peasants to the land. Moreover, the evolution of the Holy Roman Empire greatly affected the history of the feudal relationship in central Europe. If one follows long-accepted feudalism models, one might believe that there was a clear hierarchy from Emperor to lesser rulers, be they kings, dukes, princes, or margraves. These models are patently untrue: the Holy Roman Emperor was elected by a group of seven magnates, three of whom were princes of the church, who in theory could not swear allegiance to any secular lord. The French kingdoms also seem to provide clear proof that the models are accurate, until we take into consideration the fact that, when Rollo of Normandy knelt to pay homage to Charles the Simple in return for the Duchy of Normandy, accounts tell us that he knocked the king down as he rose, demonstrating his view that the bond was only as strong as the lord—in this case, not strong at all. Clearly, it was possible for 'vassals' to openly disparage feudal relationships. The autonomy with which the Normans ruled their duchy supports the view that, despite any legal "feudal" relationship, the Normans did as they pleased. In the case of their own leadership, however, the Normans utilized the feudal relationship to bind their followers to them. It was the influence of the Norman invaders which strengthened and to some extent institutionalized the feudal relationship in England after the Norman Conquest. Since we do not use the medieval term vassalage how are we to use the term feudalism? Though it is sometimes used indiscriminately to encompass all reciprocal obligations of support and loyalty in the place of unconditional tenure of position, jurisdiction or land, the term is restricted by most historians to the exchange of specifically voluntary and personal undertakings, to the exclusion of involuntary obligations attached to tenure of "unfree" land: the latter are considered to be rather an aspect of Manorialism, an element of feudal society but not of feudalism proper. Cautions on use of feudalism Owing to the range of meanings they have, feudalism and related terms should be approached and used with considerable care. A circumspect historian like Fernand Braudel puts feudalism in quotes when applying it in wider social and economic contexts, such as "the seventeenth century, when much of America was being 'feudalized' as the great haciendas appeared" (The Perspective of the World, 1984, p. 403). Medieval societies never described themselves as feudal. Popular parlance generally uses the term either for all voluntary or customary bonds in medieval society or for a social order in which civil and military power is exercised under private contractual arrangements. However, feudal is best used only to denote the voluntary, personal undertakings binding lords and free men to protection in return for support which characterized the administrative and military order. Other feudal-like systems Other feudal-like land tenure systems have existed, and continue to exist, in different parts of the world, including Medieval Japan. See also Bastard feudalism Cestui que Charter of Liberties Chivalry Concordat of Worms Fengjian Gentry Indian feudalism Knights Landed property Majorat Manorialism Medieval demography Medieval warfare Middle Ages Nulle terre sans seigneur Overlord Pikeman Quia Emptores Sark, the 'Politics' section in Particular Serfdom Statutes of Mortmain Vassal Notes References Bloch, Marc, Feudal Society. Tr. L.A. Manyon. Two volumes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961 ISBN 0-226-05979-0 Brown, Elizabeth, 'The Tyranny of a Construct: Feudalism and Historians of Medieval Europe', American Historical Review, 79 (1974), pp. 1063–8. Cantor, Normon E., Inventing the Middle Ages: The Lives, Works, and Ideas of the Great Medievalists of the Twentieth century. Quill, 1991. Guerreau, Alain, L'avenir d'un passé incertain. Paris: Le Seuil, 2001. (complete history of the meaning of the term). Poly, Jean-Pierre and Bournazel, Eric , The Feudal Transformation, 900-1200., Tr. Caroline Higgitt. New York and London: Holmes and Meier, 1991. Reynolds, Susan, Fiefs and Vassals: The Medieval Evidence Reinterpreted. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994 ISBN 0-19-820648-8 External links "Feudalism". In Encyclopædia Britannica Online. "Feudalism?", by Paul Halsall from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook, history of the term. ''Medieval Feudalism, by Carl Stephenson. Cornell University Press, 1942. Classic introduction to Feudalism. "The Problem of Feudalism: An Historiographical Essay", by Robert Harbison, 1996, Western Kentucky University | Feudalism |@lemmatized roland:1 pledge:1 fealty:5 charlemagne:1 manuscript:1 chanson:1 de:3 geste:1 feudalism:59 classic:3 sense:2 refers:1 medieval:30 european:3 political:8 system:15 compose:2 set:2 reciprocal:2 legal:5 military:13 obligation:14 among:1 warrior:4 nobility:4 revolve:2 around:2 three:5 key:1 concept:7 lord:43 vassal:39 fiefs:2 although:2 derive:1 latin:3 word:7 feodum:2 fief:20 use:23 term:28 describe:7 conceive:2 formal:2 people:1 live:1 period:3 broadly:1 accept:2 modern:4 definition:5 coin:2 early:4 century:13 originally:1 context:3 exist:5 since:4 least:2 concurrent:1 marc:3 bloch:9 feudal:39 society:21 first:2 translate:1 english:4 many:7 historian:13 include:5 broad:1 social:6 aspect:3 add:1 peasantry:1 bond:3 manorialism:3 sometimes:6 refer:2 still:2 others:1 examine:1 evidence:3 conclude:1 unworkable:1 remove:1 entirely:3 scholarly:1 educational:1 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7,204 | Laparoscopic_surgery | Cholecystectomy as seen through a laparoscope Laparoscopic surgery, also called minimally invasive surgery (MIS), bandaid surgery, keyhole surgery is a modern surgical technique in which operations in the abdomen are performed through small incisions (usually 0.5-1.5cm) as compared to larger incisions needed in traditional surgical procedures. Laparoscopic surgery includes operations within the abdominal or pelvic cavities, whereas keyhole surgery performed on the thoracic or chest cavity is called thoracoscopic surgery. Laparoscopic and thoracoscopic surgery belong to the broader field of endoscopy. The key element in laparoscopic surgery is the use of a laparoscope. There are two types: a telescopic rod lens system, that is usually connected to a video camera (single chip or three chip) or a digital laparoscope where the charge-coupled device is placed at the end of the laparoscope, eliminating the rod lens system. Mastery of Endoscopic and Laparoscopic Surgery W. Stephen, M.D. Eubanks; Steve Eubanks (Editor); Lee L., M.D. Swanstrom (Editor); Nathaniel J. Soper (Editor) Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 2nd Edition 2004 Also attached is a fiber optic cable system connected to a 'cold' light source (halogen or xenon), to illuminate the operative field, inserted through a 5 mm or 10 mm cannula or trocar to view the operative field. The abdomen is usually insufflated with carbon dioxide gas to create a working and viewing space. The abdomen is essentially blown up like a balloon (insufflated), elevating the abdominal wall above the internal organs like a dome. The gas used is CO2, which is common to the human body and can be absorbed by tissue and removed by the respiratory system. It is also non-flammable, which is important because electrosurgical devices are commonly used in laparoscopic procedures. History It is difficult to credit one individual with the pioneering of laparoscopic approach. In 1902 Georg Kelling, of Dresden, Saxony, performed the first laparoscopic procedure in dogs and in 1910 Hans Christian Jacobaeus of Sweden reported the first laparoscopic operation in humans. In the ensuing several decades, numerous individuals refined and popularized the approach further for laparoscopy. The introduction of computer chip television camera was a seminal event in the field of laparoscopy. This innovation in technology provided the means to project a magnified view of the operative field onto a monitor, and at the same time freed both the operating surgeon's hands, thereby facilitating performance of complex laparoscopic procedures. Prior to its conception, laparoscopy was a surgical approach with very limited application and used mainly for purposes of diagnosis and performance of simple procedures in gynecologic applications. The introduction in 1990 of a laparoscopic clip applier with twenty automatically advancing clips (rather than a single load clip applier that would have to be taken out, reloaded and reintroduced for each clip application) made surgeons more comfortable with making the leap to laparoscopic cholecystectomies (gall bladder removal). On the other hand, some surgeons continue to use the single clip appliers as they save as much as $200 per case for the patient, detract nothing from the quality of the clip ligation, and add only seconds to case lengths. Procedures Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is the most common laparoscopic procedure performed. In this procedure, 5-10mm diameter instruments (graspers, scissors, clip applier) can be introduced by the surgeon into the abdomen through trocars (hollow tubes with a seal to keep the CO2 from leaking). Rather than a minimum 20cm incision as in traditional cholecystectomy, four incisions of 0.5-1.0cm will be sufficient to perform a laparoscopic removal of a gallbladder. Since the gall bladder is similar to a small balloon that stores and releases bile, it can usually be removed from the abdomen by suctioning out the bile and then removing the deflated gallbladder through the 1cm incision at the patient's navel. The length of postoperative stay in the hospital is minimal, and same-day discharges are possible in cases of early morning procedures. In certain advanced laparoscopic procedures where the size of the specimen being removed would be too large to pull out through a trocar site, as would be done with a gallbladder, an incision larger than 10mm must be made. The most common of these procedures are removal of all or part of the colon (colectomy), or removal of the kidney (nephrectomy). Some surgeons perform these procedures completely laparoscopically, making the larger incision toward the end of the procedure for specimen removal, or, in the case of a colectomy, to also prepare the remaining healthy bowel to be reconnected (create an anastomosis). Many other surgeons feel that since they will have to make a larger incision for specimen removal anyway, they might as well use this incision to have their hand in the operative field during the procedure to aid as a retractor, dissector, and to be able to feel differing tissue densities (palpate), as they would in open surgery. This technique is called hand-assist laparoscopy. Since they will still be working with scopes and other laparoscopic instruments, CO2 will have to be maintained in the patient's abdomen, so a device known as a hand access port (a sleeve with a seal that allows passage of the hand) must be used. Surgeons that choose this hand-assist technique feel it reduces operative time significantly vs. the straight laparoscopic approach, as well as providing them more options in dealing with unexpected adverse events (i.e. uncontrolled bleeding) that may otherwise require creating a much larger incision and converting to a fully open surgical procedure. Conceptually, the laparoscopic approach is intended to minimise post-operative pain and speed up recovery times, while maintaining an enhanced visual field for surgeons. Due to improved patient outcomes, in the last two decades, laparoscopic surgery has been adopted by various surgical sub-specialties including gastrointestinal surgery (including bariatric procedures for morbid obesity), gynecologic surgery and urology. Based on numerous prospective randomized controlled trials, the approach has proven to be beneficial in reducing post-operative morbidities such as wound infections and incisional hernias (especially in morbidly obese patients), and is now deemed safe when applied to surgery for cancers such as cancer of colon. The restricted vision, the difficulty in handling of the instruments (new hand-eye coordination skills are needed), the lack of tactile perception and the limited working area are factors which add to the technical complexity of this surgical approach. For these reasons, minimally invasive surgery has emerged as a highly competitive new sub-specialty within various fields of surgery. Surgical residents who wish to focus on this area of surgery gain additional training during one or two years of fellowship after completing their basic surgical residency. The first transatlantic surgery (Lindbergh Operation) ever performed was a laparoscopic gallbladder removal. Laparoscopic techniques have also been developed in the field of veterinary medicine. Due to the relative high cost of the equiment required, however, it has not become commonplace in most traditional practices today but rather limited to specialty-type practices. Many of the same surgeries performed in humans can be applied to animal cases - everything from an egg-bound tortoise to a German Shepherd can benefit from MIS. A paper published in JAVMA (Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association) in 2005 showed that dogs spayed laparoscopically experienced significantly less pain (65%)than those that were spayed with traditional 'open' methods. Arthroscopy, thoracoscopy, cystoscopy are all performed in veterinary medicine today. The University of Georgia School of Veterinary Medicine and Colorado State University's School of Veterinary Medicine are two of the main centers where veterinary laparoscopy got started and have excellent training programs for veterinarians interested in getting started in MIS. Advantages There are a number of advantages to the patient with laparoscopic surgery versus an open procedure. These include: reduced haemorrhaging , which reduces the chance of needing a blood transfusion. smaller incision, which reduces pain and shortens recovery time. less pain, leading to less pain medication needed. Although procedure times are usually slightly longer, hospital stay is less, and often with a same day discharge which leads to a faster return to everyday living. reduced exposure of internal organs to possible external contaminants thereby reduced risk of acquiring infections. can be used in Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT) surgery to put the eggs back into the fallopian tubes Risks Some of the risks are briefly described below: The most significant risks are from trocar injuries to either blood vessels or small or large bowel. The risk of such injuries is increased in patients who are obese or have a history of prior abdominal surgery. The initial trocar is typically inserted blindly. While these injuries are rare, significant complications can occur. Vascular injuries can result in hemorrhage that may be life threatening. Injuries to the bowel can cause a delayed peritonitis. It is very important that these injuries be recognized as early as possible. Janie Fuller, DDS, (CAPT, USPHS), Walter Scott, Ph.D. (CAPT, USPHS), Binita Ashar, M.D., Julia Corrado, M.D. FDA, CDRH, "Laparoscopic Trocar Injuries: A report from a U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Center for Devices and Radiological Health (CDRH) Systematic Technology Assessment of Medical Products (STAMP) Committee" Finalized: November 7, 2003 Some patients have sustained electrical burns unseen by surgeons who are working with electrodes that leak current into surrounding tissue. The resulting injuries can result in perforated organs and can also lead to peritonitis. There may be an increased risk of hypothermia and peritoneal trauma due to increased exposure to cold, dry gases during insufflation. The use of heated and humidified CO2 may reduce this risk. Yuanfei Peng, Ph.D., Minhua Zheng, M.D., Ph.D., Qing Ye, Ph.D., Xuehua Chen, Ph.D., Beiqing Yu, Ph.D., and Bingya Liu, M.D., Ph.D. "Heated and Humidified CO2 Prevents Hypothermia, Peritoneal Injury, and Intra-Abdominal Adhesions During Prolonged Laparoscopic Insufflations", Journal of Surgical Research 151, 40–47 (2009)doi:10.1016/j.jss.2008.03.039 Many patients with existing pulmonary disorders may not tolerate pneumoperitoneum (gas in the abdominal cavity), resulting in a need for conversion to open surgery after the initial attempt at laparoscopic approach. Not all of the CO2 introduced into the abdominal cavity is removed through the incisions during surgery. Gas tends to rise, and when a pocket of CO2 rises in the abdomen, it pushes against the diaphragm (the muscle that separates the abdominal from the thoracic cavities and facilitates breathing), and can exert pressure on the phrenic nerve. This produces a sensation of pain that may extend to the patient's shoulders. For an appendectomy, the right shoulder can be particularly painful. In some cases this can also cause considerable pain when breathing. In all cases, however, the pain is transient, as the body tissues will absorb the CO2 and eliminate it through respiration. "Abdominal pain after laparoscopy: the value of a gas drain." Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1987 Mar;94(3):267-9 Coagulation disorders and dense adhesions (scar tissue) from previous abdominal surgery may pose added risk for laparoscopic surgery and are considered relative contra-indications for this approach. Patients can often have trouble walking after surgery for a few days Robotics and technology This is a laparoscopic robotic surgery machine. The process of minimally invasive surgery has been augmented by specialized tools for decades. However, in recent years, electronic tools have been developed to aid surgeons. Some of the features include: Visual magnification - use of a large viewing screen improves visibility Stabilization - Electromechanical damping of vibrations, due to machinery or shaky human hands Simulators - use of specialized virtual reality training tools to improve physicians' proficiency in surgery Reduced number of incisions Robotic surgery has been touted as a solution to underdeveloped nations, whereby a single central hospital can operate several remote machines at distant locations. The potential for robotic surgery has had strong military interest as well, with the intention of providing mobile medical care while keeping trained doctors safe from battle. Non robotic hand guided assistance systems There are also user-friendly non robotic assistance systems that are single hand guided devices with a high potential to save time and money. These assistance devices are not bound by the restrictions of common medical robotic systems. The systems enhance the manual possibilities of the surgeon and his team, regarding the need of replacing static holding force during the intervention. Some of the features are: The Stabilisation of the camera picture because the whole static workload is conveyed by the assistance system. Some systems enable a fast repositioning and very short time for fixation of less than 0.02 seconds at the desired position. Some systems are lightweight constructions (18kg) and can withstand a force of 20 N in any position and direction. The benefit – a physically relaxed intervention team can work concentrated on the main goals during the intervention. The potentials of these systems enhance the possibilities of the mobile medical care with those lightweight assistance systems. These assistance systems meet the demands of true solo surgery assistance systems and are robust, versatile and easy to use. See also Arthroscopy Natural Orifice Transluminal Endoscopic Surgery (NOTES) Single port access surgery, also known as single incision laparoscopic surgery References External links "Surgical Device Poses a Rare but Serious Peril" from the New York Times Laparoscopic surgeries Surgery without scars - N.O.T.E.S. | Laparoscopic_surgery |@lemmatized cholecystectomy:4 see:2 laparoscope:4 laparoscopic:30 surgery:39 also:10 call:3 minimally:3 invasive:3 mis:1 bandaid:1 keyhole:2 modern:1 surgical:10 technique:4 operation:4 abdomen:7 perform:9 small:4 incision:14 usually:5 compare:1 large:8 need:6 traditional:4 procedure:18 include:5 within:2 abdominal:9 pelvic:1 cavity:5 whereas:1 thoracic:2 chest:1 thoracoscopic:2 belong:1 broad:1 field:9 endoscopy:1 key:1 element:1 use:12 two:4 type:2 telescopic:1 rod:2 lens:2 system:15 connect:2 video:1 camera:3 single:7 chip:3 three:1 digital:1 charge:1 coupled:1 device:7 place:1 end:2 eliminate:2 mastery:1 endoscopic:2 w:1 stephen:1 eubanks:2 steve:1 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7,205 | Image_and_Scanner_Interface_Specification | ISIS (Image and Scanner Interface Specification) is an industry standard interface for image scanning technologies, developed by Pixel Translations in 1990 (today: EMC captiva). ISIS is an open standard for scanner control and a complete image-processing framework. Now supported by a large number of application and scanner vendors, and rapidly becoming a de facto industry standard, ISIS allows application developers to build very complex image capture systems quickly and reliably using any ISIS certified driver. ISIS is modular: it allows applications to control a scanner directly, or to use built-in routines to handle most situations automatically. ISIS is flexible: using a message-based interface with tags, it can grow in a straightforward and compatible way. This means that features, operations, and formats not yet in existence can be added as desired without waiting for a new version of the specification. Finally, ISIS is a complete specification: it addresses all of the issues that an application using a scanner must address. This includes such tasks as selecting, installing, and configuring a new scanner, setting scanner-specific parameters, scanning, reading, and writing files, and fast image scaling, rotating, displaying, and printing. ISIS drivers have also been written to preprocess data by doing operations such as converting grayscale to binary image data dynamically. ISIS excels at running scanners at or above their rated speed. It does so by linking drivers together in a pipe so that data flows from scanner driver to compression driver, to packaging driver, to a file, viewer, or printer in a continuous stream, usually without a need to buffer more than a small portion of the entire image. Because ISIS drivers are arranged in a pipe when they are used, each driver is specialized to perform only one function. Drivers are typically small and modular, which means that ISIS allows new functionality to be introduced into an existing application with very little modification. See also TWAIN Windows Image Acquisition (WIA) Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) External links Homepage of EMC captiva Set of SDKs provided by EMC Captiva to get images using ISIS drivers None official forum for .NET developers who want to use ISIS Commercial software which lets ISIS drivers work in Citrix and Terminal Services environments | Image_and_Scanner_Interface_Specification |@lemmatized isi:13 image:9 scanner:10 interface:3 specification:3 industry:2 standard:3 scanning:1 technology:1 develop:1 pixel:1 translation:1 today:1 emc:3 captiva:3 open:1 control:2 complete:2 processing:1 framework:1 support:1 large:1 number:1 application:5 vendor:1 rapidly:1 become:1 de:1 facto:1 allow:3 developer:2 build:1 complex:1 capture:1 system:1 quickly:1 reliably:1 use:7 certify:1 driver:11 modular:2 directly:1 built:1 routine:1 handle:1 situation:1 automatically:1 flexible:1 message:1 base:1 tag:1 grow:1 straightforward:1 compatible:1 way:1 mean:2 feature:1 operation:2 format:1 yet:1 existence:1 add:1 desire:1 without:2 wait:1 new:3 version:1 finally:1 address:2 issue:1 must:1 include:1 task:1 selecting:1 installing:1 configure:1 set:2 specific:1 parameter:1 scan:1 reading:1 write:2 file:2 fast:1 scaling:1 rotate:1 display:1 printing:1 also:2 preprocess:1 data:3 convert:1 grayscale:1 binary:1 dynamically:1 excels:1 run:1 rat:1 speed:1 link:2 together:1 pipe:2 flow:1 compression:1 package:1 viewer:1 printer:1 continuous:1 stream:1 usually:1 need:1 buffer:1 small:2 portion:1 entire:1 arrange:1 specialize:1 perform:1 one:1 function:1 typically:1 functionality:1 introduce:1 exist:1 little:1 modification:1 see:1 twain:1 window:1 acquisition:1 wia:1 access:1 easy:1 sane:1 external:1 homepage:1 sdks:1 provide:1 get:1 none:1 official:1 forum:1 net:1 want:1 isis:1 commercial:1 software:1 let:1 work:1 citrix:1 terminal:1 service:1 environment:1 |@bigram de_facto:1 external_link:1 |
7,206 | Labatt_Brewing_Company | Labatt Brewing Company Ltd. is a Canadian beer company founded by John Kinder Labatt in 1847 in London, Ontario. In 1995, it was purchased by Belgian brewer Interbrew, now known as Anheuser-Busch InBev. Labatt is the largest brewer in Canada. History Labatt founded the company with the purchase of London's Simcoe Street brewery in partnership with Samuel Eccles. By 1853, Labatt had become the brewery's sole proprietor, and he later renamed it John Labatt's Brewery. With the completion of the Great Western Railway in the 1850s, Labatt's operations expanded to export beer to the rest of the country. By the early 20th century Labatt was a corporation, its shares distributed among John Labatt's seven daughters and two sons. In 1915, Prohibition began in Canada when public bars were banned in Saskatchewan. A year later prohibition was instituted in Ontario as well, affecting all 64 breweries in the province. Although some provinces totally banned alcohol manufacture, some permitted production for export to the United States. Labatt survived by producing full strength beer for export south of the border and by introducing two "temperance ales" with less than two per cent alcohol for sale in Ontario. However, the Canadian beer industry suffered a second blow when Prohibition began in the U.S. in 1919. When Prohibition was repealed in Ontario in 1926, just 15 breweries remained and only Labatt retained its original management. This resulted in a strengthened industry position. In 1945 Labatt became a publicly traded company with the issuance of 900,000 shares. John and Hugh Labatt, grandsons of founder John K. Labatt, launched Labatt 50 in 1950 to commemorate 50 years of partnership. The first light ale introduced in Canada, Labatt 50 was Canada’s best-selling beer until 1979. In 1951, Labatt launched its Pilsener Lager; when it was introduced in Manitoba, the beer was nicknamed "Blue" for the colour of its label and the company's support of Winnipeg's Canadian Football League (CFL) franchise, the Blue Bombers. The nickname stuck and in 1979 Labatt Blue claimed top spot in the Canadian beer market. It lost this status in the late eighties to Molson Canadian, but over the next decade, periodically regained top spot as consumer preferences fluctuated. In 2004, Budweiser took the top spot, pushing Blue to third for the first time in twenty-five years. http://www.cassies.ca/caselibrary/winners/MolsonsCase.pdf This Bud's for you, Canada | Macleans.ca - Culture - Media However, Labatt Blue remains the best selling Canadian beer in the world based upon worldwide sales. Labatt was also the majority owner of the Toronto Blue Jays from their inception in 1976 until September 1, 2000, when Rogers Communications purchased 80% ownership of the team. Labatt's innovations include the introduction of the first twist-off cap on a refillable bottle in 1984. In 1989, Labatt's had the opportunity to hire Canadian model Pamela Anderson as a Labatt's Blue Zone Girl after she was picked out of the crowd by a TV camera man at a BC Lions football game wearing a Blue Zone crop-top. Photographer and boyfriend, Dann Ilicic, produced the Blue Zone Girl poster on his own after Labatt's refused to have anything to do with it. Later, Labatt's did buy 1000 posters to deal with consumer demand. In 1995, Labatt was acquired by the large Belgian multinational brewer InBev (then Interbrew), the world market leader. Labatt is part-owner of Brewers Retail Inc., operator of The Beer Store retail chain, which — protected by legislation — has over 90% market share of Ontario off-premise beer sales. In early 2007, Labatt also acquired Lakeport Brewing Company of Hamilton, Ontario. Operations Canada London, Ontario Hamilton, Ontario St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador Montreal, Quebec Halifax, Nova Scotia Creston, British Columbia Edmonton, Alberta United States Buffalo, New York (United States Headquarters) Norwalk, Connecticut (Former US headquarters) The Labatt USA headquarters were originally located in Buffalo, New York before locating to Norwalk, Connecticut. In 2007 Labatt relocated their US headquarters back to Buffalo. Some of the grounds for the move back to Buffalo were based on strong Labatt sales in the city and closer proximity to Toronto and London, Ontario. Labatt's Toronto brewery ceased operations in 2006 and demolished by 2007, thus ending the brewery's ties to the city. Corporate activities Labatt has sponsored the construction of many buildings in London, including Labatt Park, the John Labatt Centre, and the John Labatt Visual Arts Centre at the University of Western Ontario (UWO). Bessie Labatt's son Arthur Labatt was the 19th chancellor of UWO (2004-2008) http://www.uwo.ca/univsec/board/seniorofficers_chancellors.pdf . In 1998 Labatt announced a 20 year sponsorship agreement with the now defunct Montreal Expos (now the Washington Nationals), which included naming rights for a downtown Montreal ballpark which was never built. From 1992-1997 they sponsored the English football team Nottingham Forest. They also are the official beer and corporate sponsor of the OHL hockey franchise Plymouth Whalers. In the 1950s, the company sponsored a PGA Tour golf tournament, the Labatt Open. Labatt was a sponsor of the Williams F1 racing team in the early 1990s. Early in 2008, Labatt became the official beer of the Buffalo Bills. In May 2009, Labatt gave their support to a seventh NHL team in Canada, currently being pursued by Jim Balsillie. Marketing Labatt Blue is sold in all provinces of Canada (most of the United States sells Labatt with sales particularly strong in the Midwest and Northeast along the Canadian border), although in Quebec it is sold under the name Labatt Bleue, with a slightly different logo. Aside from the name, the red maple leaf on the logo has also been changed to a red fleur-de-lis type of image. See also Canadian beer List of commercial brands of beer (Canada) References External links The Official Web site of Labatt Breweries of Canada The Official Site of Labatt Blue The Official Site of Labatt Bleue 1970's Labatt's Beer Commercial - From the Internet Archive. 2007 Labatt Blue Commercial (Fish) The Official Site of Kokanee The Official Site of Alexander Keith's The Official Site of Stella Artois The Official Site of Brahma Multimedia CBC Archives CBC Radio reports on Interbrew's takeover of Labatt (From 1995). | Labatt_Brewing_Company |@lemmatized labatt:52 brew:2 company:7 ltd:1 canadian:9 beer:15 found:2 john:8 kinder:1 london:5 ontario:10 purchase:3 belgian:2 brewer:4 interbrew:3 know:1 anheuser:1 busch:1 inbev:2 large:2 canada:10 history:1 simcoe:1 street:1 brewery:8 partnership:2 samuel:1 eccles:1 become:3 sole:1 proprietor:1 later:3 rename:1 completion:1 great:1 western:2 railway:1 operation:3 expand:1 export:3 rest:1 country:1 early:4 century:1 corporation:1 share:3 distribute:1 among:1 seven:1 daughter:1 two:3 son:2 prohibition:4 begin:2 public:1 bar:1 ban:2 saskatchewan:1 year:4 institute:1 well:1 affect:1 province:3 although:2 totally:1 alcohol:2 manufacture:1 permitted:1 production:1 united:4 state:4 survive:1 produce:2 full:1 strength:1 south:1 border:2 introduce:3 temperance:1 ale:2 less:1 per:1 cent:1 sale:5 however:2 industry:2 suffer:1 second:1 blow:1 u:3 repeal:1 remain:2 retain:1 original:1 management:1 result:1 strengthened:1 position:1 publicly:1 trade:1 issuance:1 hugh:1 grandson:1 founder:1 k:1 launch:2 commemorate:1 first:3 light:1 best:2 sell:4 pilsener:1 lager:1 manitoba:1 nickname:2 blue:12 colour:1 label:1 support:2 winnipeg:1 football:3 league:1 cfl:1 franchise:2 bomber:1 stuck:1 claim:1 top:4 spot:3 market:3 lose:1 status:1 late:1 eighty:1 molson:1 next:1 decade:1 periodically:1 regain:1 consumer:2 preference:1 fluctuate:1 budweiser:1 take:1 push:1 third:1 time:1 twenty:1 five:1 http:2 www:2 cassie:1 ca:3 caselibrary:1 winner:1 molsonscase:1 pdf:2 bud:1 macleans:1 culture:1 medium:1 selling:1 world:2 base:2 upon:1 worldwide:1 also:5 majority:1 owner:2 toronto:3 jay:1 inception:1 september:1 rogers:1 communication:1 ownership:1 team:4 innovation:1 include:3 introduction:1 twist:1 cap:1 refillable:1 bottle:1 opportunity:1 hire:1 model:1 pamela:1 anderson:1 zone:3 girl:2 pick:1 crowd:1 tv:1 camera:1 man:1 bc:1 lion:1 game:1 wear:1 crop:1 photographer:1 boyfriend:1 dann:1 ilicic:1 poster:2 refuse:1 anything:1 buy:1 deal:1 demand:1 acquire:2 multinational:1 leader:1 part:1 retail:2 inc:1 operator:1 store:1 chain:1 protect:1 legislation:1 premise:1 lakeport:1 hamilton:2 st:1 newfoundland:1 labrador:1 montreal:3 quebec:2 halifax:1 nova:1 scotia:1 creston:1 british:1 columbia:1 edmonton:1 alberta:1 buffalo:5 new:2 york:2 headquarters:3 norwalk:2 connecticut:2 former:1 usa:1 originally:1 locate:2 relocate:1 headquarter:1 back:2 ground:1 move:1 strong:2 city:2 close:1 proximity:1 cease:1 demolish:1 thus:1 end:1 tie:1 corporate:2 activity:1 sponsor:5 construction:1 many:1 building:1 park:1 centre:2 visual:1 art:1 university:1 uwo:3 bessie:1 arthur:1 chancellor:1 univsec:1 board:1 announce:1 sponsorship:1 agreement:1 defunct:1 expo:1 washington:1 national:1 naming:1 right:1 downtown:1 ballpark:1 never:1 build:1 english:1 nottingham:1 forest:1 official:9 ohl:1 hockey:1 plymouth:1 whaler:1 pga:1 tour:1 golf:1 tournament:1 open:1 williams:1 race:1 bill:1 may:1 give:1 seventh:1 nhl:1 currently:1 pursue:1 jim:1 balsillie:1 marketing:1 particularly:1 midwest:1 northeast:1 along:1 name:2 bleue:2 slightly:1 different:1 logo:2 aside:1 red:2 maple:1 leaf:1 change:1 fleur:1 de:1 li:1 type:1 image:1 see:1 list:1 commercial:3 brand:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 web:1 site:7 internet:1 archive:2 fish:1 kokanee:1 alexander:1 keith:1 stella:1 artois:1 brahma:1 multimedia:1 cbc:2 radio:1 report:1 takeover:1 |@bigram anheuser_busch:1 per_cent:1 http_www:2 best_selling:1 pamela_anderson:1 newfoundland_labrador:1 montreal_quebec:1 halifax_nova:1 nova_scotia:1 edmonton_alberta:1 montreal_expo:1 nottingham_forest:1 pga_tour:1 golf_tournament:1 maple_leaf:1 fleur_de:1 external_link:1 |
7,207 | Epipaleolithic | The Epipaleolithic is a term used for the "final Upper Palaeolithic industries occurring at the end of the final glaciation which appear to merge technologically into the Mesolithic". Bahn, Paul, The Penguin Archaeology Guide, Penguin, London, pp. 141. ISBN 0-14-051448-1 The term is sometimes confused with Mesolithic, and the two are sometimes used as synonyms. Yet, when a distinction is made, Epipaleolithic is used for those cultures that were not much affected by the ending of the Ice Age (like the Natufian culture of Western Asia agriculture, origins of. (2008). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 10, 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. ) and the term Mesolithic is reserved for Western Europe where the extinction of the Megafauna had a great impact of the paleolithic populations at the end of the Ice Age (like European post-glacial cultures: Azilian, Sauveterrian, Tardenoisian, Maglemosian, etc.). The term is sometimes used in the opposite meaning, Alfonso Moure says in this respect: In the language of Prehistorical Archaeology, the most extended trend is to use the term "Epipaleolithic" for the industrial complexes of the post-glacial hunter-gatherer groups. Inversely, those that are in transitional ways towards artificial production of food are inscribed in the "Mesolithic" A. Moure El Origen del Hombre, 1999. ISBN 84-7679-127-5 Epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherers made relatively advanced tools from small flint or obsidian blades, known as microliths that were hafted in wooden implements. They were generally nomadic. References | Epipaleolithic |@lemmatized epipaleolithic:3 term:5 use:5 final:2 upper:1 palaeolithic:1 industry:1 occur:1 end:3 glaciation:1 appear:1 merge:1 technologically:1 mesolithic:4 bahn:1 paul:1 penguin:2 archaeology:2 guide:1 london:1 pp:1 isbn:2 sometimes:3 confused:1 two:1 synonym:1 yet:1 distinction:1 make:2 culture:3 much:1 affect:1 ice:2 age:2 like:2 natufian:1 western:2 asia:1 agriculture:1 origin:1 encyclopædia:2 britannica:2 retrieve:1 april:1 online:1 reserve:1 europe:1 extinction:1 megafauna:1 great:1 impact:1 paleolithic:1 population:1 european:1 post:2 glacial:2 azilian:1 sauveterrian:1 tardenoisian:1 maglemosian:1 etc:1 opposite:1 meaning:1 alfonso:1 moure:2 say:1 respect:1 language:1 prehistorical:1 extended:1 trend:1 industrial:1 complex:1 hunter:2 gatherer:2 group:1 inversely:1 transitional:1 way:1 towards:1 artificial:1 production:1 food:1 inscribe:1 el:1 origen:1 del:1 hombre:1 epipalaeolithic:1 relatively:1 advanced:1 tool:1 small:1 flint:1 obsidian:1 blade:1 know:1 microliths:1 hafted:1 wooden:1 implement:1 generally:1 nomadic:1 reference:1 |@bigram natufian_culture:1 encyclopædia_britannica:2 britannica_online:1 hunter_gatherer:2 obsidian_blade:1 |
7,208 | Cut-up_technique | The cut-up technique (also called fishbowling or découpage) is an aleatory literary technique or genre in which a text (or multiple texts) is cut up into smaller portions at random, and rearranged to create a new text. Most commonly, cut ups are used to offer a non-linear alternative to traditional reading and writing. The concept can be traced to at least the surrealists in the 1920s, but was popularized in the late 1950s and early 1960s by writer William S. Burroughs, and has since been used in a wide variety of contexts. Technique The cut-up and the closely associated fold-in are the two main techniques. They were originally intended for use with typewriters, but have been adapted to use on personal computers: Cut-up is performed by taking a finished and fully linear text (printed on paper) and cutting it in pieces with a few or single words on each piece. The resulting pieces are then rearranged into a new text. The rearranging of work often results in surprisingly innovative new phrases. A common way is to cut a sheet in four rectangular sections, rearranging them and then typing down the mingled prose while compensating for the haphazard word breaks by improvising and innovating along the way. Fold-in is the technique of taking two different sheets of linear text (with the same linespacing), cutting each sheet in half and combining with the other, then reading across the resulting page. The resulting text is often a blend of the two themes, somewhat difficult to read. History in fiction and literature A precedent of the technique occurred during a Surrealist rally in the 1920s: Tristan Tzara offered to create a poem on the spot by pulling words at random from a hat. A riot ensued and André Breton expelled Tzara from the movement. Collage, which was popularized roughly contemporaneously with the Surrealist movement, sometimes incorporated texts such as newspapers or brochures. Burroughs cited T. S. Eliot's long poem, The Waste Land (1922), and portions of John Dos Passos' works (such as the 1930s U.S.A. trilogy, which incorporated newspaper clippings) as early examples of the cut ups he popularized. Gil J. Wolman developed cut-up techniques as part of his lettrist practice in the early 1950s. Also in the 1950s, painter and writer Brion Gysin more fully developed the cut-up method after accidentally discovering it. He had placed layers of newspapers as a mat to protect a tabletop from being scratched while he cut papers with a razor blade. Upon cutting through the newspapers, Gysin noticed that the sliced layers offered interesting juxtapositions of text and image. He began deliberately cutting newspaper articles into sections, which he randomly rearranged. The book Minutes to Go resulted from his initial cut-up experiment: unedited and unchanged cut-ups which emerged as coherent and meaningful prose. South African poet Sinclair Beiles also used this technique and co-authored Minutes To Go. Gysin introduced writer William S. Burroughs to the technique at the Beat Hotel. The pair later applied the technique to printed media and audio recordings in an effort to decode the material's implicit content, hypothesizing that such a technique could be used to discover the true meaning of a given text. Burroughs also suggested cut-ups may be effective as a form of divination saying, "When you cut into the present the future leaks out." Burroughs also further developed the "fold-in" technique. In 1977, Burroughs and Gysin published The Third Mind, a collection of cut-up writings and essays on the form. Argentine writer Julio Cortázar often used cut ups in his 1963 novelHopscotch''' this same decade, Indian poet Malay Roy Choudhury and novelist Subimal Basak of the "Hungry generation" adopted the cut up technique for their works. Since the 1990s, Jeff Noon uses a similar remixing technique in his writing based on the practices prevalent in Dub music. He expanded upon his remixing with his Cobralingus system, which breaks down a piece of writing, going as far as turning individual words into anagrams, then melding the results into a narrative. Musical influence and similarities From at least the early 1970s, David Bowie has used cut-ups to create some of his lyrics. It is a technique which came to influence Kurt Cobain's songwriting. See the notes for The "Priest" They Called Him, a 1993 collaboration between Burroughs and Cobain, released by Tim/Kerr records. And to return to Tzara's Dadaist example, Thom Yorke applied a similar method in Radiohead's Kid A (2000) album, writing single lines, putting them into a hat, and drawing them out at random while the band rehearsed the songs. In the film Downtown 81, the band Tuxedomoon can be seen performing using a similar method of reading phrases from cut-up papers. An online subculture of bastard pop resembles the fold-in technique by, for example taking instrumentals from one artist and combining it with the vocals of another artist. Burroughs taught cut-up technique to musician Genesis P-Orridge in 1971 as a method for "altering reality". Burroughs' explanation was that everything is recorded, and if it is recorded, then it can be edited (P-Orridge, 2003). P-Orridge has long employed cut-ups as an applied philosophy, a way of creating art and music, and of conducting one's life. Email cut-ups A recent phenomenon is an e-mail spam tactic in which randomly-generated text passages are used to thwart Bayesian filters. For example,The first question of course was, how to get dry again: they me as I walked, the remembrance of my churlishness and that I must confidence between himself and Mrs. Micawber. After which, he for his dagger till his hand gripped it. Then he spoke. I kissed her, and my baby brother, and was very sorry then; but notEven grammatically consistent sentences can be formed, such asThen, from sea to shining sea, the God-King sang the praises of teflon, and with his face to the sunshine, he churned lots of butter.Such text is called spamoetry (spam poetry) or spam art. Since the text is often derived from actual books, this is effectively a cut-up method. Similar techniques are often employed by writers of flarf poetry. "Travesty" generators A class of programs called "travesty generators" exist to perform similar cut-up techniques on user-supplied text. Many such programs exist as web-based applications (see External Links). Behavioural cut-ups Recipes for Disaster by the anarchist collective CrimethInc. features a recipe entitled "behavioural cut-ups". This recipe is a method of changing one's life by performing activities which are perceived as (at a basic level) cutting up two socially acceptable, routine behaviours and attaching them to form a creative, amusing activity. It is intended that the practitioner perform one or a series of cut-ups for a long amount of time, until it becomes second nature and the practitioner's behaviour is significantly altered. In the basic behavioural cut-up, the practitioner consults a list of things he or she does every day, and a list of things that that he or she finds frightening, and apply the cut-up technique to both lists. For example, the text suggests: "Public Transportation and Public Speaking." The user is supposed to become used to making speeches on the subway or bus. Another suggestion is using a toaster as a prop while performing odd behavior, such as giving the toaster a face and personality, talking to it, and keeping it on one's person at all times. References in popular culture The roleplaying game Over the Edge has a surreal "reality-resistance" group called the Cut-Ups Project that opposes the forces of Control Addiction with the power of "Funkiness". In the graphic novel Watchmen, Ozymandias watches rows upon rows of televisions, each set to a different channel, to "[allow] subliminal hints of the future to leak through." ReferencesRecipes for disaster: an anarchist cookbook. CrimethInc. Ex-Workers Collective: 2005. ISBN 0970910142 P-Orridge, Genesis. "Magick Squares and Future Beats." Book of Lies: The Disinformation Guide to Magick and the Occult. The Disinformation Company, 2003: 103-118 ISBN 0-9713942-7-X Conversations with William S. Burroughs - Interviews from various publications assembled in a weblog See also Dissociated press Industrial Records Markov chain Plunderphonics Surrealist techniques Bastard pop Temurah External links Examples UbuWeb: William S. Burroughs featuring a cut-up, K-9 Was in Combat with the Alien Mind-Screens'' (1965), made with Ian Sommerville Secret Ballet, a novel composed entirely of example sentences lifted from an English language dictionary Massive Cut up Collage, a massive cut up style collage of Abraham Lincoln being assassinated at Ford's Theater. Cut-up programs Intermorphic Liptikl Cut-up Word Arranger & Lyric Generator Travesty generator by John Fisher Transcramble random text generator (source code) Cut 'n' Mix 4.0 4-track text cut-up and mixing software ShiftSpace Cutups Cutup any webpage Online cut-up tools Cutup Engine Input/paste text or URL's which are then cut up/together. Lazarus Corporation Text Mixing Desk is online software that manipulates text using the cut-up technique. God's Rude Wireless hosts a simple, JavaScript-based cut-up engine, as well as some other language manipulation tools. Open Wound 1.0 utilizing grammatical parts of speech Grazulis' Cut-Up Machine (choose specified or random increments of words to cut, rub out words) Language Is A Virus Cut-Up Machine, Slice-n-Dice, Cut-Up techniques explained Gerador Automático de Poesia Galega - a Galician cut-up poetry generator Poetry Links - Travesty Generator | Cut-up_technique |@lemmatized cut:51 technique:23 also:6 call:5 fishbowling:1 découpage:1 aleatory:1 literary:1 genre:1 text:20 multiple:1 small:1 portion:2 random:5 rearrange:4 create:4 new:3 commonly:1 ups:12 use:14 offer:3 non:1 linear:3 alternative:1 traditional:1 reading:1 writing:4 concept:1 trace:1 least:2 surrealist:4 popularize:3 late:1 early:4 writer:5 william:4 burroughs:11 since:3 wide:1 variety:1 context:1 closely:1 associate:1 fold:4 two:4 main:1 originally:1 intend:2 typewriter:1 adapt:1 personal:1 computer:1 perform:6 take:3 finish:1 fully:2 print:1 paper:3 piece:4 single:2 word:7 resulting:2 rearranging:1 work:3 often:5 result:4 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7,209 | Commonwealth_of_England | The Commonwealth of England was the republican government which ruled first England and Wales, and then Ireland and Scotland from 1649 to 1660. Some would call this government a "crowned" republican government. After the English Civil War and the regicide of Charles I, its existence was initially declared in An Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth by the Rump Parliament, on May 19, 1649. Executive power had already been entrusted to a Council of State. The government during 1653 to 1659 is properly called The Protectorate, and took the form of direct personal rule by Oliver Cromwell and, after his death, his son Richard, as Lord Protector. The term Commonwealth is, however, loosely used to describe the system of government during the whole of 1649 to 1660, when England was de facto, and arguably de jure, a republic (or, to monarchists, under an Interregnum). It should not be confused with the Commonwealth of Nations (successor to the British Commonwealth in 1949). The Commonwealth (1649–1653) The Rump Parliament (1648–1653) The Rump was created by Pride's Purge of those members of the Long Parliament who did not support the political position of the Grandees in the New Model Army. Just before and after the execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649, the Rump passed a number of acts of Parliament creating the legal basis for the republic. With the abolition of the monarchy, Privy Council and the House of Lords, it had unchecked executive, as well as legislative, power. The Council of State, which replaced the Privy Council, took over many of the executive functions of the monarchy. It was selected by the Rump, and most of its members were MPs. Ultimately, however, the Rump depended on the support of the Army with which it had a very uneasy relationship. Structure of the Rump In Pride's Purge, all MPs (including most of the political Presbyterians) who would not accept the need to bring the King to trial had been removed. Thus the Rump never had more than 200 members (less than half the number in the original Long Parliament). They included: supporters of religious independents who did not want an established church and some of whom had sympathies with the Levellers; Presbyterians who were willing to countenance the trial and execution of the King; and later admissions, such as formerly excluded MPs who were prepared to denounce the Newport Treaty negotiations with the King. Most Rumpers were gentry, though there was a higher proportion of lesser gentry and lawyers than in previous parliaments. Less than one-quarter of them were regicides. This left the Rump basically a conservative body whose vested interests in the existing land ownership and legal systems made them unlikely to want to reform these. Rump issues and achievements For the first two years of the Commonwealth, the Rump faced economic depression and the risk of invasion from Scotland and Ireland. (By 1653 Cromwell and the Army had largely eliminated these threats). There were many disagreements amongst factions of the Rump. Some wanted a republic, but others favoured retaining some type of monarchical government. Most of England's traditional ruling classes regarded the Rump as an illegal government made up of regicides and upstarts. However, they were also aware that the Rump might be all that stood in the way of an outright military dictatorship. High taxes, mainly to pay the Army, were resented by the gentry. Limited reforms (see below) were enough to antagonise the ruling class but not enough to satisfy the radicals. Despite its unpopularity, the Rump was a link with the old constitution, and helped to settle England down and make it secure after the biggest upheaval in its history. By 1653, both France and Spain had recognised England's new government. Rump reforms Though the national church (now Presbyterian) was retained, the 1559 Act of Uniformity was repealed in 1650. Many independent churches were therefore tolerated, although everyone still had to pay tithes to the established church. This wide toleration came about mainly because of the insistence of the Army. Some small improvements were made to law and court procedure, for example all court proceedings were now conducted in English rather than in Law French or Latin. However, there were no widespread reforms of the Common Law. This would have upset the gentry, who regarded the Common Law as reinforcing their status and property rights. The Rump passed many restrictive 'moral' laws to regulate people's behaviour, such as closing down theatres and requiring strict observance of Sunday. This antagonised most of the gentry. The dismissal of the Rump Cromwell, aided by Thomas Harrison, forcibly dismissed the Rump on April 20, 1653, for reasons that are unclear. Theories are that he feared the Rump was trying to perpetuate itself as the government, or that the Rump was preparing for an election which could return an anti-Commonwealth majority. Many former members of the Rump continued to regard themselves as England's only legitimate constitutional authority. The Rump had not agreed to its own dissolution when it was dispersed by Cromwell and legislation from the period immediately before the Civil War the Act against dissolving the Long Parliament without its own consent (May 11, 1641) gave them the legal basis for this view. Barebone's Parliament, July–December 1653 The dissolution of the Rump was followed by a short period in which Cromwell and the Army ruled alone. Nobody had the constitutional authority to call an election, but Cromwell did not want to impose a military dictatorship. Instead, he ruled through a 'nominated assembly' which he believed would be easy for the Army to control, since Army officers did the nominating. Barebone's Parliament was opposed by former Rumpers and ridiculed by many gentry as being an assembly of 'inferior' people. However, over 110 of its 140 members were lesser gentry or of higher social status. (An exception was Praise-God Barbon, a Baptist merchant after whom the Assembly got its derogatory nickname.) Many were well educated. The assembly reflected the range of views of the officers who nominated it. The Radicals (approximately 40) included a hard core of Fifth Monarchists who wanted to be rid of Common Law and any state control of religion. The Moderates (approximately 60) wanted some improvements within the existing system and might move to either the radical or conservative side depending on the issue. The Conservatives (approximately 40) wanted to keep the status quo (since Common Law protected the interests of the gentry, and tithes and advowsons were valuable property). Cromwell saw Barebone's Parliament as a temporary legislative body which he hoped would produce reforms and develop a constitution for the Commonwealth. However, members were divided over key issues, only 25 had previous parliamentary experience, and although many had some legal training, there were no qualified lawyers. Cromwell seems to have expected this group of 'amateurs' to produce reform without management or direction. When the radicals mustered enough support to defeat a bill which would have preserved the status quo in religion, the conservatives, together with many moderates, surrendered their authority back to Cromwell who sent soldiers to clear the rest of the Assembly. Barebone's Parliament was over. In 1653, Cromwell established his Protectorate, making himself a king-like figure until the year of his death in 1658. The Commonwealth (1659–1660) The Protectorate might have continued if Cromwell's son Richard, who was made Lord Protector on his father's death, had been capable of carrying on his father's policies. Richard Cromwell's main weakness was that he did not have the confidence of the New Model Army. After seven months the Grandees in the New Model Army army removed him and, on May 6, 1659, they reinstalled the Rump Parliament. Charles Fleetwood was appointed a member of the Committee of Safety and of the Council of State, and one of the seven commissioners for the army. On June 9, he was nominated lord-general (commander-in-chief) of the army. However, his power was undermined in parliament, which chose to disregard the army's authority in a similar fashion to the pre–Civil War parliament. The Commons on October 12, 1659, cashiered General John Lambert and other officers, and installed Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the speaker. The next day Lambert ordered that the doors of the House be shut and the members kept out. On October 26, a "Committee of Safety" was appointed, of which Fleetwood and Lambert were members. Lambert was appointed major-general of all the forces in England and Scotland, Fleetwood being general. Lambert was now sent, by the Committee of Safety, with a large force to meet George Monck, who was in command of the English forces in Scotland, and either negotiate with him or force him to come to terms. It was into this atmosphere that General George Monck, governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland. Lambert's army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone. On February 21, 1660, Monck reinstated the Presbyterian members 'secluded' by Pride, so that they could prepare legislation for a new parliament. Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before parliament to answer for his conduct. On March 3, Lambert was sent to the Tower, from which he escaped a month later. Lambert tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the "Good Old Cause" to rally on the battlefield of Edgehill. But he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby, a regicide who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. The Long Parliament dissolved itself on March 16. On April 4, 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda, which made known the conditions of his acceptance of the crown of England. Monck organised the Convention Parliament, which met for the first time on April 25. On May 8, it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I in January 1649. House of Commons Journal Volume 8, 8 May 1660 Charles returned from exile on May 23. Pepys Diary 23 April 1661 He entered London on May 29, his birthday. To celebrate "his Majesty's Return to his Parliament" May 29 was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day. House of Commons Journal Volume 8, 30 May 1660 He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April, 1661. Radicals vs. conservatives Parliament had, to a large degree, encouraged the radical political groups which emerged when the usual social controls broke down during the English Civil War. It had also unwittingly established a new political force when it set up the New Model Army. Not surprisingly, all these groups had their own hopes for the new Commonwealth. Levellers Led by John Lilburne, Levellers drew their main support from London and the Army. In the Agreement of the People, 1649, they asked for: a more representative and accountable parliament, to meet every two years; a reform of law so it would be available to, and fair to all; and religious toleration. Though they wanted a more democratic society, their proposed franchise did not extend to women or to the lowest orders of society. Levellers saw the Rump as little better than the monarchy it had replaced, and they showed their displeasure in demonstrations, pamphlets and mutinies. While their numbers did not pose a serious threat to the government, they scared the Rump into action and the Treasons Act was passed against them in 1649. Diggers Led by Gerrard Winstanley, Diggers wanted an even more equal society than the Levellers. They advocated a lifestyle that was an early form of communism, with communal ownership of land, and absolute equality for males and females in law and education. They existed in only very small numbers and faced strong opposition, even from the Levellers. Religious sects The breakdown of religious uniformity and incomplete Presbyterian Settlement of 1646 enabled independent churches to flourish. The main sects (see also English Dissenters) were Baptists, who advocated adult rebaptism; Ranters, who claimed that sin did not exist for the "chosen ones"; and Fifth Monarchy Men, who opposed all "earthly" governments, believing they must prepare for God's kingdom on earth by establishing a "government of saints". Despite greater toleration, extreme sects were opposed by the upper classes as they were seen as a threat to social order and property rights. Catholics were also excluded from the toleration applied to the other groups. The diggers believed that God made land for everyone to share. Conservatives Conservatives were still dominant in both central government and local government. In the former, the Rump was anxious not to offend the traditional ruling class whose support it needed for survival, so it opposed radical ideas. In the latter, that ruling class dominated through the influence of traditional regional gentry. See also First Anglo-Dutch War and Admiral Robert Blake for the role played by sea power during this period. Commonwealth of Nations. 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7,210 | Hayao_Miyazaki | is a prominent filmmaker of many popular animated feature films. He is also a co-founder of Studio Ghibli, an animation studio and production company. He remained largely unknown to the West, outside of animation communities, until Miramax released his 1997 Princess Mononoke. By that time, his films had already enjoyed both commercial and critical success in Japan and Central Asia. For instance, Princess Mononoke was the highest-grossing film in Japan until Titanic (1997) came out a few months later, and the first animated film to win Picture of the Year at the Japanese Academy Awards. His later film, Spirited Away, had that distinction as well, and was the first anime film to win an Academy Award, topping Titanic in the Japanese box office. Howl's Moving Castle was also nominated but did not receive the award. Miyazaki's films often incorporate recurrent themes, such as humanity's relationship to nature and technology, and the difficulty of maintaining a pacifist ethic. Reflecting Miyazaki's feminism, the protagonists of his films are often strong, independent girls or young women; the villains, when present, are often morally ambiguous characters with redeeming qualities. Miyazaki's films have generally been financially successful, and this success has invited comparisons with American animator Walt Disney. In 2006, Time Magazine voted Miyazaki one of the most influential Asians of the past 60 years. Anime directed by Miyazaki that have won the Animage Anime Grand Prix award have been Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind in 1984, Castle in the Sky in 1986, My Neighbor Totoro in 1988, and Kiki's Delivery Service in 1989. Biography Totoro, Satsuki, and Mei in My Neighbor Totoro. Miyazaki, the second of four brothers, was born in the town of Akebono-cho, part of Tokyo's Bunkyō-ku. During World War II, Miyazaki's father Katsuji was director of Miyazaki Airplane, owned by his brother (Hayao Miyazaki's uncle), which made rudders for A6M Zero fighter planes. During this time, Miyazaki drew airplanes and developed a lifelong fascination with aviation, a penchant that later manifested as a recurring theme in his films. Miyazaki's mother was a voracious reader who often questioned socially accepted norms. Miyazaki later said that he inherited his questioning and skeptical mind from her. His mother underwent treatment for spinal tuberculosis from 1947 until 1955, and so the family moved frequently. Miyazaki's film My Neighbor Totoro is set in that time period and features a family whose mother is similarly afflicted. Miyazaki attended Toyotama High School. In his third year there, he saw the film Hakujaden, which has been described as "the first-ever Japanese feature length color anime." His interest in animation began in this period; however, in order to become an animator, he had to learn to draw the human figure, since his prior work had been limited to airplanes and battleships. After high school, Miyazaki attended Gakushuin University, from which he would graduate in 1963 with degrees in political science and economics. He was a member of the "Children's Literature research club," the "closest thing to a comics club in those days." In April 1963, Miyazaki got a job at Toei Animation, working as an in-between artist on the anime Watchdog Bow Wow (Wanwan Chushingura). He was a leader in a labor dispute soon after his arrival, becoming chief secretary of Toei's labor union in 1964. In October 1965, he married fellow animator Akemi Ota, who later left work to raise their two sons, Gorō and Keisuke. Gorō is now an animator and filmmaker, and has directed Tales from Earthsea at Studio Ghibli. Keisuke is a wood artist who has created pieces for the Ghibli Museum and who made the wood engraving shown in the Studio Ghibli film Whisper of the Heart. Hayao Miyazaki's dedication to his work has often been reported to have impacted negatively his relationship with his son Gorō. Films Sheeta and Pazu from Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986) Miyazaki first gained recognition while working as an in-between artist on the Toei production Gulliver's Travels Beyond the Moon (Garibā no Uchuu Ryokō, 1965). He found the original ending to the script unsatisfactory and pitched his own idea, which became the ending used in the final film. He later played an important role as chief animator, concept artist, and scene designer on Hols: Prince of the Sun in 1968, a landmark animated film directed by Isao Takahata, with whom he continued to collaborate for the next three decades. In Kimio Yabuki's Puss in Boots (1969), Miyazaki again provided key animation as well as designs, storyboards, and story ideas for key scenes in the film, including the climactic chase scene. Shortly thereafter, Miyazaki proposed scenes in the screenplay for Flying Phantom Ship, in which military tanks would roll into downtown Tokyo and cause mass hysteria, and was hired to storyboard and animate those scenes. In 1971, Miyazaki played a decisive role in developing structure, characters, and designs for Animal Treasure Island and Ali Baba and the 40 Thieves, as well as storyboarding and key animating of pivotal scenes in both. Miyazaki left Toei in 1971 for A Pro, where he co-directed six episodes of the first Lupin III series with Isao Takahata. He and Takahata then began pre-production on a Pippi Longstocking series and drew extensive story boards for it. However, after traveling to Sweden to conduct research for the film and meet the original author, Astrid Lindgren, they were denied permission to complete the project, and it was canceled. Instead of Pippi Longstocking, Miyazaki conceived, wrote, designed, and animated two Panda! Go, Panda! shorts which were directed by Takahata. Miyazaki then left Nippon Animation in 1979 in the middle of the production of Anne of Green Gables to direct his first feature anime The Castle of Cagliostro (1979), a Lupin III adventure film. Kiki and her cat Jiji in Kiki's Delivery Service Miyazaki's next film, Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind (Kaze no Tani no Naushika, 1984), was an adventure film that introduced many of the themes which recur in later films: a concern with ecology and the human impact on the environment; a fascination with aircraft and flight; pacifism, including an anti-military streak; feminism; and morally ambiguous characterizations, especially among villains. This was the first film both written and directed by Miyazaki. He adapted it from his manga series of the same title, which he began writing and illustrating two years earlier, but which remained incomplete until after the film's release. Following the success of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, Miyazaki co-founded the animation production company Studio Ghibli with Takahata in 1985, and has produced nearly all of his subsequent work through it. Miyazaki continued to gain recognition with his next three films. Laputa: Castle in the Sky (1986) recounts the adventure of two orphans seeking a magical castle-island that floats in the sky; My Neighbor Totoro (Tonari no Totoro, 1988) tells of the adventure of two girls and their interaction with forest spirits; and Kiki's Delivery Service (1989), adapted from a novel by Eiko Kadono, tells the story of a small-town girl who leaves home to begin life as a witch in a big city. Miyazaki's fascination with flight is evident throughout these films, ranging from the ornithopters flown by pirates in Castle in the Sky, to the Totoro and the Cat Bus soaring through the air, and Kiki flying her broom. Porco Rosso (1992) Porco Rosso (1992) was a notable departure for Miyazaki, in that the main character was an adult male, an anti-fascist aviator transformed into an anthropomorphic pig. The film is set in 1920s Italy and the title character is a bounty hunter who fights air pirates and an American soldier of fortune. The film explores the tension between selfishness and duty. The film can also be viewed as an abstract self-portrait of the director; its subtext can be read as a fictionalized autobiography. Like many of his movies, it is richly allusive and generates a lot of its humour and charm out of its references to American film of the 1930s and 1940s. Porco Rosso, for instance, owes much to the various screen personae of Humphrey Bogart. 1997's Princess Mononoke (Mononoke-Hime) returns to the ecological and political themes of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. The plot centers on the struggle between the animal spirits who inhabit the forest and the humans who exploit the forest for industry. Both movies implicitly critize the adverse impact of humans on nature, and portray the military in a negative light. Princess Mononoke is also noted as one of his most violent pictures. The film was a huge commercial success in Japan, where it became the highest grossing film of all time, until the later success of Titanic, and it ultimately won Best Picture at the Japanese Academy Awards. Miyazaki went into what would prove to be temporary retirement after directing Princess Mononoke. During this period of semi-retirement, Miyazaki spent time with the daughters of a friend, one of whom became his inspiration for Spirited Away (Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi, 2001). Spirited Away is the story of a girl, forced to survive in a bizarre spirit world, who works in a bathhouse for spirits after her parents are turned into pigs by the sorceress who owns it. Released in Japan in July 2001, the film broke attendance and box office records with ¥30.4 billion (approximately $300 million) in total gross earnings from more than 23 million viewings. It has received many awards, including Best Picture at the 2001 Japanese Academy Awards, Golden Bear (First Prize) at the 2002 Berlin Film Festival, and the 2002 Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Japanese poster for Howl's Moving Castle (2004) In July 2004, Miyazaki completed production on Howl's Moving Castle, a film adaptation of Diana Wynne Jones' fantasy novel. Miyazaki came out of retirement following the sudden departure of original director Mamoru Hosoda He is a director of SUPERFLAT MONOGRAM which is the anime film for the shop promotion of Louis Vuitton, and "The Girl Who Leapt Through Time". . The film premiered at the 2004 Venice International Film Festival and won the Golden Osella award for animation technology. On November 20, 2004, Howl's Moving Castle opened to general audiences in Japan where it earned ¥1.4 billion in its first two days. The English language version was later released in the US by Walt Disney. In 2005, Miyazaki received a lifetime achievement award at the Venice Film Festival. Later that year, Chinese media reported that Miyazaki's final film project would be I Lost My Little Boy, based on a Chinese children's book. This later proved to be faked news. In 2006, Miyazaki's son Gorō Miyazaki completed his first film, Tales from Earthsea, based on several stories by Ursula K. Le Guin. Hayao Miyazaki had long aspired to make an anime of this work and had repeatedly asked for permission from the author, Ursula K. Le Guin. However, he had been refused every time. Instead, Miyazaki produced Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind and Shuna no tabi, (The Journey of Shuna) as substitutes (some of the ideas from Shuna no tabi were diverted to this movie). When Le Guin finally requested that Miyazaki produce an anime adaptation of her work, he refused, because he had lost the desire to do so. Throughout the film's production, Goro and his father were not speaking to each other, due to a dispute over whether or not Gorō was ready to direct. This movie was originally to be produced by Miyazaki, but he declined as he was already in the middle of producing Howl's Moving Castle. Ghibli decided to make Goro, who had yet to head any animated films, the producer instead. In 2006, Nausicaa.net reported Hayao Miyazaki's plans to direct another film, rumored to be set in Kobe. Among areas Miyazaki's team visited during pre-production were an old café run by an elderly couple, and the view of a city from high in the mountains. The exact location of these places was censored from Studio Ghibli's production diaries. The studio also announced that Miyazaki had begun creating storyboards for the film and that they were being produced in watercolor because the film would have an "unusual visual style." Studio Ghibli said the production time would be about 20 months, with release slated for Summer 2008. In 2007, the film's title was publicly announced as Gake no ue no Ponyo, literally "Ponyo on a Cliff." The story revolves around a five-year old boy, Sosuke, and the Princess goldfish, Ponyo, who wants to become human. Studio Ghibli President Toshio Suzuki noted that "70 to 80% of the film takes place at sea. It will be a director’s challenge on how they will express the sea and its waves with freehand drawing." The film does not contain any computer generated imagery (CGI) in contrast to Miyazaki's other recent work. Television Miyazaki's work in television is less known than his films. In the 1970s he worked as an animator on the World Masterpiece Theater television animation series under Isao Takahata. His first directorial credit is for the television version of Lupin III in 1971; he was co-director (with Takahata) of the second half of the first television series, and director of two episodes of the second series. Miyazaki's most famous television work was his direction of Future Boy Conan (1978), an adaptation of the children's novel The Incredible Tide by Alexander Key. The main antagonist is the leader of the city-state of Industria who attempts to revive lost technology. The series also elaborates on the characters and events in the book, and is an early example of characterizations which recur throughout Miyazaki's later work: a girl who is in touch with nature, a warrior woman who appears menacing but is not an antagonist, and a boy who seems destined for the girl. The series also featured imaginative aircraft designs. Miyazaki also directed six episodes of Sherlock Hound, an Italian-Japanese co-production which retold Sherlock Holmes tales using anthropomorphic animals. These episodes were first broadcast in 1984-85. Manga The manga version of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind. Miyazaki has illustrated several manga, beginning in 1969 with Puss in Boots (Nagakutsu wo Haita Neko). His major work in this format is the seven-volume manga version of his tale Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, which he created from 1982 to 1994 and which has sold millions of copies worldwide. Other works include , , , which was the basis of his film Porco Rosso). In October 2006, A Trip to Tynemouth was published in Japan. Miyazaki based it on the young adult short stories of Robert Westall, who grew up in World War II England. The most famous story, first published in a collection called Break of Dark, is titled Blackham's Wimpy, the name of a Vickers Wellington Bomber featured in the story, whose nickname comes from the character J. Wellington Wimpy from the Popeye comics and cartoons (the Wellington was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, victor over Napoleon). In early 2009, Miyazaki returned with a new manga called , telling the story of Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighter designer Jiro Horikoshi. The manga was published in two issues of the Model Graphix magazine, out on February 25 and March 25, 2009. Creation process and animation style Princess Mononoke was the first Miyazaki film to use computer graphics. In this sequence, the demon snakes are computer-generated and composited onto Ashitaka, who is hand-drawn. Miyazaki takes a leading role when creating his films, frequently serving as both writer and director. He personally reviewed every frame used in his early films, though due to health concerns over the high workload he now delegates some of the workload to other Ghibli members. In a 1999 interview, Miyazaki said, "at this age, I cannot do the work I used to. If my staff can relieve me and I can concentrate on directing, there are still a number of movies I'd like to make." The Making of Spirited Away, Nippon TV Special; as shown on the R2 English language Spirited Away DVD. In contrast to American animation, the script and storyboards are created together, and animation begins before the story is finished and storyboards are developing. Nausicaa is based on his 7 volume manga by the same name. Miyazaki has used traditional animation throughout the animation process, though computer-generated imagery was employed starting with Princess Mononoke to give "a little boost of elegance". In an interview with the Financial Times, Miyazaki said "it's very important for me to retain the right ratio between working by hand and computer. I have learnt that balance now, how to use both and still be able to call my films 2D." Digital paint was also used for the first time in parts of Princess Mononoke in order to meet release deadlines. It was used as standard for subsequent films. However, in his 2008 film Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea, Miyazaki went back to traditional hand-drawn animation for everything, saying "hand drawing on paper is the fundamental of animation." Themes and devices Princess Mononoke Good and evil Most of Miyazaki's characters are dynamic, capable of change, and not easily caricatured into traditional good-evil dichotomies. Many menacing characters have redeeming features, and are not firmly defined as antagonists. In Princess Mononoke, Lady Eboshi destroys the forest for industrial raw materials without the concerns for animals' life; however lepers and former prostitutes that she shelters have great respect for her. The film culminates in reconciliation, rather than the vanquishing of some irredeemable evil. Miyazaki stated in Spirited Away, "the heroine [is] thrown into a place where the good and bad dwell together ... She manages not because she has destroyed the “evil,” but because she has acquired the ability to survive." Miyazaki has explained that the lack of clearly defined good and evil is because of his views of the 21st century as a complex time, where old norms no longer are true and need to be re-examined. Simple stereotypes cannot be used, even in children's films. Even though Miyazaki sometimes feels pessimistic about the world, he prefers to show children a positive world view instead. Some of Miyazaki's early films featured distinctly evil villains, as in Castle of Cagliostro or Castle in the Sky; other films are remarkable for having no villains at all, as in Kiki's Delivery Service and My Neighbor Totoro. Some of these have a strong flavour of traditional Japanese culture and ancient animistic spiritual beliefs. Environmentalism Miyazaki's films often emphasize environmentalism and the Earth's fragility. In My Neighbor Totoro, the great tree tops a hillside on which magical creatures reside, and the family worships this tree. This ecological consciousness is echoed in Princess Mononoke with the giant primordial forest, trees, flowers and wolves. In Spirited Away, Miyazaki's environmental concerns surface in the "stink spirit", a river spirit who has been polluted and who must be cleansed by the heroine. This theme is repeated in the story of the river spirit Haku, whose river had been destroyed tragically by a building project. In Princess Mononoke, Laputa: Castle in the Sky and Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, the ecological paradise is threatened by military men and violent state-controlled armies. In each film, the conflict between the natural way of life and the military destruction of culture, land and resources is central to the plight of the protagonists. When battle scenes are shown in each, the militaristic music and ecological destruction is paramount to the endangerment of the inhabitants of the villages. Nausicaä flying her Mehve over the Valley of the Wind In an interview with The New Yorker, Miyazaki claimed that much of modern culture is "thin and shallow and fake", and "not entirely jokingly" looked forward to an apocalyptic age in which "wild green grasses" take over. Growing up in the Shōwa period was an unhappy time for him because "nature — the mountains and rivers — was being destroyed in the name of economic progress." Nonetheless, he suggests that adults should not "impose their vision of the world on children." Anti-war Both Nausicaä and Princess Mononoke feature strong anti-war themes. Ending the humans' hateful war with themselves and nature becomes the driving force of Ashitaka in Princess Mononoke. In the manga version of Nausicaä, Miyazaki spends much time depicting the brutality and suffering of war in graphic detail through most of the story. The post-apocalyptic world is filled with remains of the old civilizations that ended with wars and the destruction of the environment. In Laputa: Castle in the Sky, the military is portrayed as mindlessly and needlessly violent, greedy, and heavyhanded. In Howl's Moving Castle, Howl's negative view of the war is clear and he refuses to join the fight in any official capacity. Despite this, he frequently participates on the magical plane of the war as a demon bird battling "hack" wizards, in hopes he might have a positive impact. Flying Flight, especially human flight, is a recurring theme in Miyazaki's films. He thinks of flight as a form of liberation from gravity and how it keeps you stuck to one place. The Studio Ghibli 2002 short film Imaginary Flying Machines is completely devoted to the wonders of flight and is voiced by Miyazaki himself. In addition to the many aerial devices and drawings of Laputa: Castle in the Sky, which is a flying city, this theme is found in Nausicaä piloting her Mehve and the airborne armies in Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, Kiki riding her broomstick and watching dirigibles fly over her city in Kiki’s Delivery Service, the large Totoro carrying Satsuki and Mei across the night sky in My Neighbor Totoro, Chihiro being borne by Haku in his dragon form in Spirited Away and Howl and Sophie soaring above their town in Howl's Moving Castle. The protagonist in Porco Rosso is a pilot and the film is focused on flying, airplanes and aerial combat. Interestingly, one of Miyazaki's most successful films, Princess Mononoke, does not contain a flying sequence, or any flying characters. Politics The influence of Miyazaki's early interest in Marxism is apparent in some of his films, such as Porco Rosso. In Castle in the Sky, the working class is portrayed in idealized terms. Miyazaki abandoned Marxism while creating his manga Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind. He states he "stopped seeing things by class, as it's a lie that one is right just because he/she is a laborer". However, Miyazaki still holds some socialist ideas and is critical of capitalism, globalization and their impacts on modern life. (Summary at GhibliWorld.com) Feminism Miyazaki has been called a feminist by Studio Ghibli President Toshio Suzuki, in reference to his attitude to female workers. These views are apparent in Miyazaki's films as well, with many memorable, strong female protagonists that go against gender roles common in Japanese animation and fiction. Children and childhood Many of Miyazaki's works deal with childhood. For example, My Neighbor Totoro has two young girls who, unlike adults, can see the spirit world, and in Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea a boy befriends a magic creature from the sea. Both Kiki's Delivery Service and Spirited Away deal with growing up. Miyazaki has expressed strong feelings about childhood, saying that it's a paradisical time when "you're protected by your parents and unaware of the problems around you". His views of children in the modern world are a bit worried, though, as he wonders about their dependence on the "virtual world" and the lack of contact with the natural world. Because of this, he creates his films inspired by children near himself, with an aim to "understand their world". Influences Haku distracts spirits to protect Chihiro in Spirited Away. A number of Western authors have influenced Miyazaki's work, including Ursula K. Le Guin, Lewis Carroll, and Diana Wynne Jones. Miyazaki confided to Le Guin that Earthsea had been a great influence on all his works, and that he kept her books at his bedside. Miyazaki and French writer and illustrator Jean Giraud (aka Moebius) have influenced each other and have become friends as a result of their mutual admiration. Monnaie de Paris held an exhibition of their work titled (Two Artists’s Drawings Taking on a Life of Their Own) from December 2004 to April 2005. Both artists attended the opening of the exhibition. Also Moebius named his daughter Nausicaa after Miyazaki's heroine. Miyazaki has been deeply influenced by another French writer, Antoine de Saint-Exupéry. He illustrated the Japanese covers of Saint-Exupéry's Night Flight () and Wind, Sand and Stars (), and wrote an afterword for Wind, Sand and Stars. In an interview broadcast on BBC Choice on 2002-06-10, Miyazaki cited the British authors Eleanor Farjeon, Rosemary Sutcliff, and Philippa Pearce as influences. The filmmaker has also publicly expressed fondness for Roald Dahl's stories about pilots and airplanes; the image in Porco Rosso of a cloud of dead pilots was inspired by Dahl's They Shall Not Grow Old. As in Miyazaki's films, these authors create self-contained worlds in which allegory is often used, and characters have complex, and often ambiguous, motivations. Other Miyazaki works, such as My Neighbor Totoro, Princess Mononoke, and Spirited Away, incorporate elements of Japanese history and mythology. Miyazaki has said he was inspired to become an animator by The Tale of the White Serpent, considered the first modern anime, in 1958. He has also said that The Snow Queen, a Soviet animated film, was one of his earliest inspirations, and that it motivated him to stay in animation production. A remote conversation between Yuriy Norshteyn and Hayao Miyazaki at a Russian TV Show ProSvet, on October 22 2005, hosted by Dmitry Dibrov Yuriy Norshteyn, a Russian animator, is Miyazaki's friend and praised by him as "a great artist." US Spirited Away premiere press Q&A Norshteyn's Hedgehog in the Fog is cited as one of Miyazaki's favourite animated films. Miyazaki has long been a fan of the Aardman Studios animation. In May 2006, David Sproxton and Peter Lord, founders of Aardman Studios, visited the Ghibli Museum exhibit dedicated to their works, where they also met Miyazaki. Filmography Director, screenplay, and storyboards Yuki's Sun 1972 (Pilot film for a never-realized anime series) Future Boy Conan, 1978 anime series The Castle of Cagliostro, 1979 film Sherlock Hound, 1982 anime series Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind, 1984 film Laputa: Castle in the Sky, 1986 film My Neighbor Totoro, 1988 film Kiki's Delivery Service, 1989 film Porco Rosso, 1992 film Princess Mononoke, 1997 film Spirited Away, 2001 film (winner, Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, 2002) Howl's Moving Castle, 2004 (nominee, Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, 2005) Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea, 2008 film Shorts On Your Mark, 1995 music video for Chage and Aska The Whale Hunt, 2001 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) Koro's Big Day Out, 2001 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) Mei and the Kittenbus, 2002 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) Imaginary Flying Machines, 2002 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum as a part of the exhibited material) Ornithopter Story: Fly! Hiyodori Tengu Go!, 2002 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum as a part of the exhibited material) Monmon the Water Spider, 2006 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) House-hunting, 2006 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) The Day I Harvested A Star, 2006 (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum) Film Guruguru, ? (Short film exclusive to the Ghibli Museum as a part of the exhibited material) Coranto Archive Other work Hols: Prince of the Sun, 1968 film: Key animation, storyboards, scene design Puss 'n Boots, 1969 film: Key animation, storyboards, design Flying Phantom Ship, 1969 film: Key animation, storyboards, design , 1971: Story consultant, key animation, storyboards, scene design , 1971 film: Organizer, key animation, storyboards Panda! Go, Panda!, 1972 short film: Concept, screenplay, storyboards, scene design, key animation , 1973 short film: Screenplay, storyboards, scene design, art design, key animation Heidi, Girl of the Alps, 1974 anime series: Scene design, layout 3000 Leagues in Search of Mother, 1976 anime series: Scene design, layout Anne of Green Gables, Episodes 1-15, 1979 anime series: Scene design, layout Whisper of the Heart, 1995 film: Screenwriter, storyboards, executive producer, sequence director Pom Poko References Further reading Cavallaro, Dani (2006), The Anime Art of Hayao Miyazaki, Mcfarland. (ISBN 0-7864-2369-2) McCarthy, Helen (1999), Hayao Miyazaki: Master of Japanese Animation: Films, Themes, Artistry, Stone Bridge. (ISBN 1-880656-41-8) External links The Official Studio Ghibli Site (Japanese) Miyazaki Information at Nausicaa.net Profile at Japan Zone Interview in The Guardian Anime News Network An article on Miyazaki in Turkish Daily News be-x-old:Гаяо Міядзакі | Hayao_Miyazaki |@lemmatized prominent:1 filmmaker:3 many:8 popular:1 animated:6 feature:12 film:101 also:13 co:5 founder:2 studio:14 ghibli:23 animation:27 production:12 company:2 remain:2 largely:1 unknown:1 west:1 outside:1 community:1 miramax:1 release:6 princess:18 mononoke:18 time:15 already:2 enjoy:1 commercial:2 critical:2 success:5 japan:7 central:2 asia:1 instance:2 high:6 grossing:2 titanic:3 come:3 month:2 later:9 first:17 win:5 picture:4 year:6 japanese:13 academy:7 award:12 late:3 spirit:18 away:13 distinction:1 well:4 anime:18 top:2 box:2 office:2 howl:10 move:9 castle:22 nominate:1 receive:3 miyazaki:96 often:8 incorporate:2 recurrent:1 theme:10 humanity:1 relationship:2 nature:5 technology:3 difficulty:1 maintain:1 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7,211 | Love_Parade | Siegessäule, Love Parade 2001 Dancer, Love Parade 2001 The Love Parade (German: Loveparade) is a popular festival and parade that originated in 1989 in Berlin, Germany. It was held in Germany annually between 1989 and 2003, and then from 2006 to 2008. The 2004 and 2005 editions in Berlin and the 2009 edition in Bochum were cancelled. Internationally, spin-off Love Parades have occurred in San Francisco, Mexico City, Acapulco, Geneva, Vienna, Cape Town, Tel Aviv, Leeds, Sydney, Santiago, Caracas, Rio de Janeiro, Oslo, Budapest. History The Love Parade has its roots in the spirit of a changing Europe. In 1989, it was first celebrated four months before the demolition of the Berlin Wall. It was started by the fresh Berlin Underground under the initiative of Matthias Roeingh aka "Dr. Motte". It was held as a political demonstration for peace and international understanding through music. Until 1996, the parade was held on the famous Berlin "Kurfürstendamm". Since by then, not only the Kurfürstendamm was overcrowded but the streets and even railway tracks near the Ku'damm too, the parade moved to the "Straße des 17. Juni" which is near the Tiergarten Park in the center of Berlin by the Brandenburg Gate and provided plenty of space. The center of the parade is the Siegessäule in the middle of the park, and the golden angel on top of the column has become a symbol of the parade. Many people from Germany, Poland, and other countries travel to Berlin to take part in the Parade—over a million attended in the years 1997 through 2000 and 800,000 in 2001. Attendance at the 2001 festival was significantly lower because the date of the parade was changed with little advance notice. 2002 and 2003 also saw lower figures, and in 2004 and 2005 the parade was canceled due to funding difficulties. 2004 did however host a scaled-down version which served more as a mini-protest, and was promoted with the title 'Love Weekend'. Dozens of clubs promoted the weekend-long event all over the city, with various clubs staying open for 3 days straight without closing. In 2006, the parade made a comeback with the help of German exercise studio McFit. The Love Parade 2007 was planned for July 7, 2007 in Berlin. However, the Berlin event was cancelled in February as the Senate of Berlin had not issued the necessary permissions at that time. After negotiations with several German cities, on July 21, it was announced that the Love Parade would move to the Ruhr Area for the next five years. The first event took place in Essen on August 25. The Parade in Essen saw 1.2 million visitors in comparison to the 500,000 who attended the 2006 parade in Berlin. In 2008, the festival took place in Dortmund on July 19 on the Bundesstraße 1 under the motto Highway of Love. The event was planned as a "Love Weekend", with parties throughout the region. For the first time the Turkish electronic scene was represented by an own float "Turkish Delights (music project)". The official estimate is that 1.6 million visitors attended, which makes it the largest Loveparade to date. , in German The next parades are planned to take place in Bochum, Gelsenkirchen and Duisburg. The music played at the events is predominantly electronic dance music: in this case mainly Trance, House, Techno, and Schranz music. Attempts to introduce other music styles, such as hip hop, have failed. Hardcore and Gabber music were part of the parade in early years, but were later removed. They are now celebrated separately on a counter-demonstration called "Fuckparade". The love parade is seen to be louder and more crowded than most concerts. With its water-cooled sound systems on every truck, the parade produces an extremely loud sound floor. The parade consists of the sound trucks that usually feature local, or important, clubs and their DJs. It has become a rule that only trucks that have sponsors from a techno related field, such as clubs, labels or stores, are allowed, but advertising space was increased after the 2006 event to offset the high costs of equipping a truck. The trucks are usually open on top and feature dancers, with box-systems mounted on the side or rear. Love Parade is a place where some exhibit and enjoy other people's exhibitionist tendencies. Some attendees enjoy carrying around toys such as pacifiers or face masks. Often the crowd is imaginative in terms of clothing (or lack thereof) and appearance. One famous picture from the Love Parade is people sitting and dancing on streetlamps, trees, commercial signs, telephone booths, which gave the event's nickname "the greatest amateur circus on earth". The Love Parade has been quite peaceful for event of its size, seeing only little arrests. In 2008, for example, charges were pressed for 6 robberies, 3 sexually-related offences, 40 thefts. 23 participants were caught with drugs and 49 were charged with bodily harm. 177 Love Parade visitors were provisionally arrested by the police. , in German Arrests are usually related to drug crimes and most other incidents feature mostly people passing out due to dehydration or hyperthermia. In 2000, after the parade, a girl under the influence of ecstasy was run over by an S-Bahn after she had been leaning on the door too hard. The finale of the demonstration is by the so-called "Abschlusskundgebung" which are half-hour sets of the world's leading top DJs such as DJ Tiesto, Paul Van Dyk, Carl Cox, Armin Van Buuren, DJ Rush, DJ Hell, Westbam, Drum Connection, Miss Djax or Chris Liebing. During this time all trucks (usually about 40) are connected to each other and set online to the statue of victory where the turntables are. This is one of the few chances a DJ can ever have to play for a crowd of about one million people. At the weekend of the Love Parade many clubs hold special events and parties and book well-known DJs for this occasion. Parties range from clubs with a hundred mostly exclusive guests, to almost raves with several floors and ten thousand dancers. Many people used to come to Berlin only for the parties and miss the parade in order to sleep. Or they enjoy it with other "ravers" in the park right next to the parade route. Together with Mayday, Nature One the Love Parade is one of the oldest and largest Festivals of Electronic music Love Parade International There are similar festivals in other cities like Zürich's Street Parade, Rotterdam's FFFW Dance Parade and Love Parades in Vienna. In 1997 a Love Parade was held in Sydney, Australia. Unlike its overseas counterparts, however, it was a smaller "rave party" version of the festival, held at the infamous Graffiti Hall of Fame in Redfern. In 2000 a Love Parade was held in Roundhay Park, Leeds, United Kingdom sponsored by BBC Radio 1. In 2001, the official UK parade had moved to Newcastle upon Tyne but was cancelled after the police refused a license: BBC Radio 1 still hosted a more contained event, however. Since then no Love Parade had occurred in the United Kingdom. Loveparade 2007 in Essen. After being held in the North-American Continent for the first time in Mexico (2002), in the fall of 2004, the Love Parade was held in San Francisco. They had held their inaugural Parade in September 2004 with 37,000 attending. The parade was held again in San Francisco in September 2005 as a rousing success drawing over 50-60,000 people. In 2006, the parade was held on September 23 and was renamed Love Fest because the Loveparade Berlin organization did not renew any of their worldwide licenses not already under contract so they could focus on their own event. The first Love Parade in Santiago was held in 2005 and gathered over 100,000 people; the 2006 version gathered over 200,000 people. The first Love Parade in Caracas was held in June 2007 and gathered over 25,000 people. Legal issues Under German law the state has to pay for security during political demonstrations as well as cleaning up the streets after the demonstration. In the case of a commercial event however, the organizer must cover these expenses. For a large event like the Love Parade the costs are quite high: an estimated €300,000 to €400,000. The Love Parade was initially held as a "political demonstration" to save costs; however it is organized by two companies set up just for the Love Parade. The name of the demonstration, Love Parade, is a registered trademark and the organizing companies have been busy getting license fees for the use of their name. This not only included merchandise and CDs but also fees for participating clubs, vendors of soft drinks and the like along the streets and even broadcasting fees for the TV stations MTV and Germany's counterpart, VIVA, along with, for the first time, Germany's RTL 2. Love Parade 2006 was the first time in that Berlin's RBB did not broadcast direct from the Siegessäule. Due to this there was a dispute between the organizers and the city of Berlin every year about the status of the Love Parade and who should bear what costs. Finally in 2001, the courts ruled that the Love Parade had to be held as commercial event. In 2004, the organizers claimed they do not have the necessary funds anymore to host it again. Since there are numerous other Love Parade-like but commercial events in Germany, there are speculations that the funding is not, or at least is not the only reason, for the cancellation, the other being the fast dropping number of participants. Anthems Every German parade has its own Anthem. Year Artist Title 1997 Dr. Motte and WestBam Sunshine 1998 Dr. Motte and WestBam One World One Future 1999 Dr. Motte and WestBam Music Is The Key 2000 Dr. Motte and WestBam Love Parade 2000 2001 The Love Committee You Can't Stop Us 2002 The Love Committee Access Peace 2003 The Love Committee Love Rules 2006 WestBam & the Love Committee United States Of Love 2007 WestBam & the Love Committee Love Is Everywhere (New Location) 2008 WestBam & the Love Committee Highway To Love List of Love Parades Cyborg, Love Parade 2001 Year Location Motto Participants 1989 Berlin Friede, Freude, Eierkuchen 150 1990 Berlin The Future Is Ours 2,000 1991 Berlin My House Is Your House And Your House Is Mine 6,000 1992 Berlin The Spirit Makes You Move 15,000 1993 Berlin The Worldwide Party People Weekend 31,000 1994 Berlin Love 2 Love 110,000 1995 Berlin Peace on Earth 280,000 1996 Berlin We Are One Family 750,000 1997 Berlin Let the Sunshine In Your Heart 1,000,000 1997 Sydney 1998 Berlin One World One Future 800,000 1999 Berlin Music Is The Key 1,500,000 2000 Berlin One World One Loveparade 1,300,000 2000 Leeds Radio One - One Love 300,000 2001 Berlin Join The Love Republic 800,000 2002 Berlin Access Peace 750,000 2002 Mexico City 2003 Berlin Love Rules 750,000 2004 San Francisco 2005 San Francisco 2005 Santiago Sal a la calle y baila 100,000 2006 Berlin The Love is Back 1,200,000 2006 San Francisco (as LoveFest) 2006 Santiago El Baile es de Todos 200,000 2007 Essen Love is everywhere 1,200,000 2007 Caracas Live the Love! 80,000 2007 San Francisco as LoveFest 89,000 2008 Dortmund Highway to love 1,600,000 2008 Rotterdam Olympic Edition 500,000 2008 San Francisco as LoveFest http://www.sflovefest.org 120,000 2008 Caracas Keep the Love Alive! 2009 Bochum (cancelled) 2010 Duisburg 2011 Gelsenkirchen Note: The "Participants" figure is the estimate given by the organizers. Police estimates have been as much as 30% lower. Accurate counts are not available since entry is free and uncontrolled. The mayor of Dortmund and the police confirmed the amount of Participants in Dortmund. References External links Festivalpigs Love Parade and Euro Techno & Trance Festivals info Love Parade 2008 in Dortmund - Official Site Berlin Life: 'The Death of Dance?' 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7,212 | Abertillery | __NOTOC__ Abertillery () is a town in the county borough of Blaenau Gwent in southern Wales, north-west of Newport, originally on the Great Western Railway. Its population rose steeply during the period of mining development in South Wales, being 10,846 in the 1891 census and 21,945 ten years later. Lying in the mountainous mining district of the former counties of Monmouthshire and Glamorganshire, in the valley of the Ebbw Fach, the population was traditionally employed in the numerous coalmines, ironworks and tinplate works, now defunct. Further up the same valley are the mining townships of Nantyglo and Blaina. Abertillery has a traditional-style town centre and several small schools. Today, its population numbers just over 11,000 and it thought to be declining. In 2003 Abertillery was found to have the cheapest house prices in the United Kingdom, according to a survey by the Halifax Building Society, with an average house price of only 37,872 pounds. Noted for its unspoilt rural scenery, Abertillery neighbours the small districts of Aberbeeg, Cwmtillery and Six Bells. Over the past couple of decades the town has been transformed from industrial relic into the clean, modernised area it is today – this has largely been achieved due to large amounts of European Union Objective One funding which has helped the town remove unsightly reminders of the industrial past. Many of these areas have been utilised as playing fields, business parks or mixed use land (including the local comprehensive school). A recent windfarm proposal for the mountainside above the community of Cwmtillery has been revived despite opposition to the initial proposal drawing large support. This included a group tagged SCAM (Save Coity and Mynydd James), which led to the application being removed with Blaenau Gwent County Council before being re-submitted on a much smaller scale. The SCAM group is still active in the opposition to the proposal and holds regular meetings in the local area concerning the subject. The town's name is pronounced with the emphasis on the penultimate syllable, i.e. it rhymes with Mary, as in a song made popular by Welsh entertainer Ryan Davies: "Blodwen and Mary from Abertillery..." The reopening of Abertillery railway station has been identified as a potential future development of the Ebbw Valley Line. According to the 2001 Census and information gathered by The Welsh Language Board (), 1,146 (9.9%) of Abertillery speaks Welsh. Sport Abertillery is home to cricket team Abertillery Town Cricket Club, who were formed in the 1880s. The town's rugby union club is Abertillery Blaenau Gwent RFC who also formed in the mid 1880s. The town supports two local Saturday football teams – Abertillery Bluebirds and Abertillery Excelsiors. See also Aber and Inver as place-name elements Abertillery and District Hospital Abertillery RFC References External links Abertillery Online BBC On This Day item about Six Bells Abertillery Town Cricket Club | Abertillery |@lemmatized abertillery:16 town:9 county:3 borough:1 blaenau:3 gwent:3 southern:1 wale:2 north:1 west:1 newport:1 originally:1 great:1 western:1 railway:2 population:3 rise:1 steeply:1 period:1 mining:3 development:2 south:1 census:2 ten:1 year:1 later:1 lie:1 mountainous:1 district:3 former:1 monmouthshire:1 glamorganshire:1 valley:3 ebbw:2 fach:1 traditionally:1 employ:1 numerous:1 coalmines:1 ironwork:1 tinplate:1 work:1 defunct:1 far:1 township:1 nantyglo:1 blaina:1 traditional:1 style:1 centre:1 several:1 small:3 school:2 today:2 number:1 think:1 decline:1 find:1 cheap:1 house:2 price:2 united:1 kingdom:1 accord:2 survey:1 halifax:1 building:1 society:1 average:1 pound:1 note:1 unspoilt:1 rural:1 scenery:1 neighbour:1 aberbeeg:1 cwmtillery:2 six:2 bell:2 past:2 couple:1 decade:1 transform:1 industrial:2 relic:1 clean:1 modernised:1 area:3 largely:1 achieve:1 due:1 large:2 amount:1 european:1 union:2 objective:1 one:1 funding:1 help:1 remove:2 unsightly:1 reminder:1 many:1 utilise:1 playing:1 field:1 business:1 park:1 mixed:1 use:1 land:1 include:2 local:3 comprehensive:1 recent:1 windfarm:1 proposal:3 mountainside:1 community:1 revive:1 despite:1 opposition:2 initial:1 draw:1 support:2 group:2 tag:1 scam:2 save:1 coity:1 mynydd:1 james:1 lead:1 application:1 council:1 submit:1 much:1 scale:1 still:1 active:1 hold:1 regular:1 meeting:1 concern:1 subject:1 name:2 pronounce:1 emphasis:1 penultimate:1 syllable:1 e:1 rhyme:1 mary:2 song:1 make:1 popular:1 welsh:3 entertainer:1 ryan:1 davy:1 blodwen:1 reopening:1 station:1 identify:1 potential:1 future:1 line:1 information:1 gather:1 language:1 board:1 speaks:1 sport:1 home:1 cricket:3 team:2 club:3 form:2 rugby:1 rfc:2 also:2 mid:1 two:1 saturday:1 football:1 bluebird:1 excelsior:1 see:1 aber:1 inver:1 place:1 element:1 hospital:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 bbc:1 day:1 item:1 |@bigram blaenau_gwent:3 penultimate_syllable:1 rugby_union:1 external_link:1 |
7,213 | John_Donne | John Donne ( "dunn"; 1572 – 31 March 1631) was an English Jacobean poet, preacher and a major representative of the metaphysical poets of the period. His works are notable for their realistic and sensual style and include sonnets, love poetry, religious poems, Latin translations, epigrams, elegies, songs, satires and sermons. His poetry is noted for its vibrancy of language and inventiveness of metaphor, especially as compared to those of his contemporaries. Despite his great education and poetic talents he lived in poverty for several years, relying heavily on wealthy friends. In 1615 he became an Anglican priest and, in 1621, was appointed the Dean of St Paul's Cathedral in London. Early life A portrait of Donne as a young man, c. 1595. Artist unknown. In the collection of the National Portrait Gallery, London. The painting on the NPG's website. Family John Donne was born in London, England, in the year 1572, the third of six children. His father, also named John Donne, was of Welsh descent, and a warden of the Ironmongers Company in the City of London. Donne's father was a respected Roman Catholic who avoided unwelcome government attention out of fear of being persecuted for his religious faith. "Donne, John" by Richard W. Langstaff. Article from Collier's Encyclopedia, Volume 8. Bernard Johnston, general editor. P.F. Colliers Inc., New York: 1988. pp. 346–349. "Donne, John." Article in British Authors Before 1800: A Biographical Dictionary. Edited by Stanley Kunitz and Howard Haycraft. The H.W. Wilson Company, New York: 1952. pp. 156–158. Donne's father died in 1576, leaving his wife, Elizabeth Heywood, the responsibility of raising their children. Elizabeth Heywood, also from a noted Roman Catholic family, was the daughter of John Heywood, the playwright, and sister of Jasper Heywood, the translator and Jesuit. She was a great-niece of the Roman Catholic martyr Thomas More. Jokinen, Anniina. "The Life of John Donne." Luminarium. 22 June 2006. Accessed 2007-1-22. This tradition of martyrdom would continue among Donne’s closer relatives, many of whom were executed or exiled for religious reasons. Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English literature, Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0393928284. pp. 600–602 Despite the obvious dangers, Donne’s family arranged for his education by the Jesuits, which gave him a deep knowledge of his religion that equipped him for the ideological religious conflicts of his time. Donne's mother married Dr John Syminges, a wealthy widower with three children, a few months after Donne's father died. The next year, 1577, his mother died, followed by two more of his sisters, Mary and Katherine, in 1581. Before the future poet was ten years old he had thus experienced the deaths of four of his immediate family, including both parents. Part of the house where John Donne lived in Pyrford. As a young man Donne was a student at Hart Hall, now Hertford College, Oxford, from the age of 11. After three years at Oxford he was admitted to the University of Cambridge, where he studied for another three years. He was unable to obtain a degree from either institution because of his Catholicism, since he could not take the Oath of Supremacy required of graduates. In 1591 he was accepted as a student at the Thavies Inn legal school, one of the Inns of Chancery in London. In 1592 he was admitted to Lincoln’s Inn, one of the Inns of Court. His brother Henry was also a university student prior to his arrest in 1593 for harbouring a Catholic priest, William Harrington. Henry Donne died in prison of bubonic plague, leading John Donne to begin questioning his Catholic faith. During and after his education, Donne spent much of his considerable inheritance on women, literature, pastimes and travel. Although there is no record detailing precisely where he traveled, it is known that he visited the Continent and later fought with the Earl of Essex and Sir Walter Raleigh against the Spanish at Cádiz (1596) and the Azores (1597) and witnessed the loss of the Spanish flagship, the San Felipe, and her crew. Donne, John. The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Accessed 2007-2-19. Will and Ariel Durant. The Story of Civilization: Part VII: The Age of Reason Begins. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1961. pp. 154–156 According to Izaak Walton, who wrote a biography of Donne in 1640: By the age of 25 he was well prepared for the diplomatic career he appeared to be seeking. Will and Ariel Durant. The Story of Civilization: Part VII: The Age of Reason Begins. Simon and Schuster: New York, 1961. pp. 154–156 He was appointed chief secretary to the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, Sir Thomas Egerton, and was established at Egerton’s London home, York House, Strand close to the Palace of Whitehall, then the most influential social centre in England. Marriage to Anne More During the next four years he fell in love with Egerton's niece Anne More, a girl of 17 (some say 14-16), and they were secretly married in 1601 against the wishes of both Egerton and her father, George More, Lieutenant of the Tower. This ruined his career and earned him a short stay in Fleet Prison along with the priest who married them and the man who acted as a witness to the wedding. Donne was released when the marriage was proved valid, and soon secured the release of the other two. Walton tells us that when he wrote to his wife to tell her about losing his post, he wrote after his name: John Donne, Anne Donne, Un-done. It was not until 1609 that Donne was reconciled with his father-in-law and received his wife's dowry. Following his release, Donne had to accept a retired country life in Pyrford, Surrey. Over the next few years he scraped a meagre living as a lawyer, depending on his wife’s cousin Sir Francis Wolly to house him, his wife, and their children. Since Anne Donne had a baby almost every year, this was a very generous gesture. Though he practiced law and worked as an assistant pamphleteer to Thomas Morton, he was in a state of constant financial insecurity, with a growing family to provide for. Anne bore him twelve children in sixteen years of marriage (including two still births - their eighth and then in 1617 their last child); indeed, she spent most of her married life either pregnant or nursing. The ten living were named Constance, John, George, Francis, Lucy (after Donne's patroness Lucy, Countess of Bedford, her godmother), Bridget, Mary, Nicholas, Margaret and Elizabeth. Francis, Nicholas and Mary died before they were ten. In a state of despair, Donne noted that the death of a child would mean one less mouth to feed, but he could not afford the burial expenses. During this time Donne wrote, but did not publish, Biathanatos, his daring defense of suicide. Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English literature Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0393928284. page 601 On 15 August 1617 his wife died five days after giving birth to their twelfth child, a still-born baby. Donne mourned her deeply, including writing the 17th Holy Sonnet. He never remarried; this was quite unusual for the time, especially as he had a large family to bring up. Early poetry Donne's earliest poems showed a brilliant knowledge of English society coupled with sharp criticism of its problems. His satires dealt with common Elizabethan topics, such as corruption in the legal system, mediocre poets, and pompous courtiers, yet stand out due to their intellectual sophistication and striking imagery. His images of sickness, vomit, manure, and plague assisted in the creation of a strongly satiric world populated by all the fools and knaves of England. His third satire, however, deals with the problem of true religion, a matter of great importance to Donne. Donne argued that it was better to examine carefully one's religious convictions than blindly to follow any established tradition, for none would be saved at the Final Judgment, by claiming "A Harry, or a Martin taught [them] this." Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English literature Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0393928284. page 600. Donne's early career was also notable for his erotic poetry, especially his elegies, in which he employed unconventional metaphors, such as a flea biting two lovers being compared to sex. In Elegy XIX: To His Mistress Going to Bed he poetically undressed his mistress and compared the act of fondling to the exploration of America. In Elegy XVIII he compared the gap between his lover's breasts to the Hellespont. Will and Ariel Durant. The Age of Reason Begins Donne did not publish these poems, although he did allow them to circulate widely in manuscript form. a Because love-poetry was very fashionable at that time, there are different opinions about whether the passionate love poems Donne wrote are addressed to his wife Anne, but it seems likely. Career and later life Donne was elected as Member of Parliament for the constituency of Brackley in 1602, but this was not a paid position and Donne struggled to provide for his family, relying heavily upon rich friends. The fashion for coterie poetry of the period gave him a means to seek patronage and many of his poems were written for wealthy friends or patrons, especially Sir Robert Drury, who came to be Donne's chief patron in 1610. a It was for Sir Robert that Donne wrote the two Anniversaries, An Anatomy of the World (1611) and Of the Progress of the Soul, (1612). While historians are not certain as to the precise reasons for which Donne left the Catholic Church, he was certainly in communication with the King, James I of England, and in 1610 and 1611 he wrote two anti-Catholic polemics: Pseudo-Martyr and Ignatius his Conclave. Although James was pleased with Donne's work, he refused to reinstate him at court and instead urged him to take holy orders. a Although Donne was at first reluctant due to feeling unworthy of a clerical career, Donne finally acceded to the King's wishes and was ordained into the Church of England in 1615. a A few months before his death, Donne commissioned this portrait of himself as he expected to appear when he rose from the grave at the Apocalypse. Lapham, Lewis. The End of the World. Thomas Dunne Books: New York, 1997. page 98. He hung the portrait on his wall as a reminder of the transience of life. Donne became a Royal Chaplain in late 1615, Reader of Divinity at Lincoln's Inn in 1616, and received a Doctor of Divinity degree from Cambridge University in 1618. Later in 1618 Donne became the chaplain for the Viscount Doncaster, who was on an embassy to the princes of Germany. Donne did not return to England until 1620. In 1621 Donne was made Dean of St Paul's, a leading (and well-paid) position in the Church of England and one he held until his death in 1631. During his period as Dean his daughter Lucy died, aged eighteen. It was in late November and early December of 1623 that he suffered a nearly fatal illness, thought to be either typhus or a combination of a cold followed by the seven-day relapsing fever. During his convalescence he wrote a series of meditations and prayers on health, pain, and sickness that were published as a book in 1624 under the title of Devotions upon Emergent Occasions. Meditation XVII later became well known for its phrase "for whom the bell tolls" and the statement that "no man is an island". In 1624 he became vicar of St Dunstan-in-the-West, and 1625 a Royal Chaplain to Charles I. He earned a reputation as an impressive, eloquent preacher and 160 of his sermons have survived, including the famous Death’s Duel sermon delivered at the Palace of Whitehall before King Charles I in February 1631. Later poetry His numerous illnesses, financial strain, and the deaths of his friends all contributed to the development of a more somber and pious tone in his later poems. a The change can be clearly seen in "An Anatomy of the World" (1611), a poem that Donne wrote in memory of Elizabeth Drury, daughter of his patron, Sir Robert Drury. This poem treats Elizabeth's demise with extreme gloominess, using it as a symbol for the Fall of Man and the destruction of the universe. a The poem 'A Nocturnal upon S. Lucy's Day', being the shortest day concerns the poet's despair at the death of a loved one. In it Donne expresses a feeling of utter negation and hopelessness, saying that "I am every dead thing...re-begot / Of absence, darkness, death". This famous work was probably written in 1627 when both Donne's friend Lucy, Countess of Bedford and his daughter Lucy Donne died. It is interesting to note that three years later in 1630 Donne wrote his will on Saint Lucy's day (December 13), the date the poem describes as "Both the year's, and the day's deep midnight." The increasing gloominess of Donne's tone may also be observed in the religious works that he began writing during the same period. His early belief in the value of skepticism now gave way to a firm faith in the traditional teachings of the Bible. Having converted to the Anglican Church, Donne focused his literary career on religious literature. He quickly became noted for his deeply moving sermons and religious poems. The passionate lines of these sermons would come to influence future works of English literature, such as Hemingway’s For Whom the Bell Tolls, which took its title from a passage in Meditation XVII, and Thomas Merton’s No Man is an Island, which took its title from the same source. Towards the end of his life Donne wrote works that challenged death, and the fear that it inspired in many men, on the grounds of his belief that those who die are sent to Heaven to live eternally. One example of this challenge is his Holy Sonnet X, from which come the famous lines “Death, be not proud, though some have called thee / Mighty and dreadful, for thou art not so.” Even as he lay dying during Lent in 1631, he rose from his sickbed and delivered the Death's Duel sermon, which was later described as his own funeral sermon. Death’s Duel portrays life as a steady descent to suffering and death, yet sees hope in salvation and immortality through an embrace of God, Christ and the Resurrection. a a Fulfilling the Circle: A Study of John Donne's Thought by Terry G. Sherwood University of Toronto Press, 1984, page 231 Death It is thought that his final illness was stomach cancer. He died on 31 March 1631 having never published a poem in his lifetime but having left a body of work fiercely engaged with the emotional and intellectual conflicts of his age. John Donne is buried in St Paul's, where a memorial statue of him was erected (carved from a drawing of him in his shroud), with a Latin epigraph probably composed by himself. Style John Donne was famous for his metaphysical poetry in the 17th century. His work suggests a healthy appetite for life and its pleasures, while also expressing deep emotion. He did this through the use of conceits, wit and intellect — as seen in the poems "The Sunne Rising" and "Batter My Heart". Donne is considered a master of the metaphysical conceit, an extended metaphor that combines two vastly different ideas into a single idea, often using imagery. Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English literature Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0393928284. pp. 600–602 An example of this is his equation of lovers with saints in "The Canonization." Unlike the conceits found in other Elizabethan poetry, most notably Petrarchan conceits, which formed clichéd comparisons between more closely related objects (such as a rose and love), metaphysical conceits go to a greater depth in comparing two completely unlike objects, although sometimes in the mode of Shakespeare's radical paradoxes and imploded contraries. One of the most famous of Donne's conceits is found in "A Valediction: Forbidding Mourning" where he compares two lovers who are separated to the two legs of a compass. Donne's works are also witty, employing paradoxes, puns, and subtle yet remarkable analogies. His pieces are often ironic and cynical, especially regarding love and human motives. Common subjects of Donne's poems are love (especially in his early life), death (especially after his wife's death), and religion. John Donne's poetry represented a shift from classical forms to more personal poetry. John Donne. Island of Freedom. Accessed 2007-2-19. Donne is noted for his poetic metre, which was structured with changing and jagged rhythms that closely resemble casual speech (it was for this that the more classically-minded Ben Jonson commented that "Donne, for not keeping of accent, deserved hanging"). Greenblatt, Stephen. The Norton anthology of English literature Eighth edition. W. W. Norton and Company, 2006. ISBN 0393928284. p. 600. Some scholars believe that Donne's literary works reflect the changing trends of his life, with love poetry and satires from his youth and religious sermons during his later years. Other scholars, such as Helen Gardner, question the validity of this dating - most of his poems were published posthumously (1633). The exception to these is his Anniversaries which were published in 1612 and Devotions upon Emergent Occasions published in 1623. His sermons are also dated, sometimes specifically by date and year. His work has received much criticism over the years, especially concerning his metaphysical form. Donne's immediate successors in poetry tended to regard his works with ambivalence, while the Neoclassical poets regarded his conceits as abuse of the metaphor. He was revived by Romantic poets such as Coleridge and Browning, though his more recent revival in the early twentieth century by poets such as T. S. Eliot tended to portray him as an anti-Romantic. The Best Poems of the English Language. Harold Bloom. HarperCollins Publishers, New York: 2004. pp. 138–139. Legacy John Donne is commemorated as a priest in the calendar of the Church of England and in the Calendar of Saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America on March 31. The memorial to John Donne, modeled after the engraving pictured above, was one of the few such memorials to survive the Great Fire of London in 1666 and now appears in St Paul's Cathedral, where he is buried. Bibliography Poetry Poems (1633) Poems on Several Occasions (2001) Love Poems (1905) John Donne: Divine Poems, Sermons, Devotions and Prayers (1990) The Complete English Poems (1991) John Donne's Poetry (1991) John Donne: The Major Works (2000) The Complete Poetry and Selected Prose of John Donne (2001) Prose Six Sermons (1634) Fifty Sermons (1649) Paradoxes, Problemes, Essayes, Characters (1652) Essayes in Divinity (1651) Sermons Never Before Published (1661) John Donne's 1622 Gunpowder Plot Sermon (1996) Devotions Upon Emergent Occasions and Death's Duel (1999; first published in 1624) Critical works John Carey, John Donne: Life, Mind and Art, (London 1981) A. L. Clements (ed.) John Donne's Poetry (New York and London, 1966) Stevie Davies, John Donne (Northcote House, Plymouth, 1994) T. S. Eliot, "The Metaphysical Poets", Selected Essays, (London 1969) G. Hammond (ed.) The Metaphysical Poets: A Casebook, (London 1986) Sir Geoffrey Keynes, Bibliography of Donne, (Cambridge, 1958) George Klawitter, The Enigmatic Narrator: The Voicing of Same-Sex Love in the Poetry of John Donne (Peter Lang, 1994) Arthur F. Marotti, John Donne, Coterie Poet, (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1986) H. L. Meakin, John Donne's Articulations of the Feminine, (Oxford, 1999) Joe Nutt, John Donne: The Poems, (New York and London 1999) E.M. Simpson, A Study of the Prose Works of John Donne, (Oxford, 1962) C. L. Summers and T. L. Pebworth (eds.) The Eagle and the Dove: Reassessing John Donne (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1986) John Stachniewski, The Persecutory Imagination, (Oxford, 1991) Ceri Sullivan, The Rhetoric of the Conscience in Donne, Herbert, and Vaughan (Oxford 2008) James Winny, A Preface to Donne (New York, 1981) See also Cleanth Brooks,(2004) "The Language of Paradox" in Julie Rivkan, Michael Ryan (eds) Literary Theory: An Anthology 2nd ed. pp.28–39 References Bald, R. C. John Donne: A Life., Oxford, 1970 Le Comte, Edward. Grace to a Witty Sinner: A Life of Donne, (Walker, 1965) Stubbs, John. Donne: The Reformed Soul, Viking, 2006. ISBN 0670915106 Lim, Kit. John Donne: An Eternity of Song, Penguin, 2005. Warnke, Frank J. John Donne, (U of Mass., Amherst 1987) Jeanne Shami, John Donne and Conformity in Crisis in the Late Jacobean Pulpit (Cambridge: D. S. Brewer, 2003) (Studies in Renaissance Literature.) Pp. ix+318. The Cambridge Companion to John Donne. Edited by Achsah Guibbory (Cambridge, 2006) (Cambridge Companions to Literature). Notes External links John Donne at Crossref-it.info John Donne at Luminarium.org Poems by John Donne at PoetryFoundation.org The Literature Network John Donne's Monument, St Paul's Cathedral Homepage of the John Donne Society Donne undone: Review of "John Donne: The Reformed Soul"(John Stubbs), Guardian Unlimited, July 22, 2006, by Andrew Motion. Selected Poems of John Donne Complete sermons of John Donne John Donne: Sparknotes The Donne Variorum Digital Donne (digital images of early Donne editions and manuscripts) | John_Donne |@lemmatized john:52 donne:109 dunn:1 march:3 english:10 jacobean:2 poet:11 preacher:2 major:2 representative:1 metaphysical:7 period:4 work:16 notable:2 realistic:1 sensual:1 style:2 include:5 sonnet:3 love:10 poetry:18 religious:9 poem:22 latin:2 translation:1 epigram:1 elegy:4 song:2 satire:4 sermon:15 note:6 vibrancy:1 language:3 inventiveness:1 metaphor:4 especially:8 compare:6 contemporary:1 despite:2 great:6 education:3 poetic:2 talent:1 live:3 poverty:1 several:2 year:15 rely:2 heavily:2 wealthy:3 friend:5 become:6 anglican:2 priest:4 appoint:2 dean:3 st:6 paul:5 cathedral:3 london:12 early:9 life:14 portrait:4 young:2 man:6 c:3 artist:1 unknown:1 collection:1 national:1 gallery:1 painting:1 npg:1 website:1 family:7 bear:1 england:8 third:2 six:2 child:8 father:6 also:9 name:3 welsh:1 descent:2 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7,214 | Behavior | Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or reactions of an object or organism, usually in relation to the environment. Behavior can be conscious or unconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. In animals In animals, behavior is controlled by the endocrine system & the nervous system. The complexity of the behavior of an organism is related to the complexity of its nervous system. Generally, organisms with complex nervous systems have a greater capacity to learn new responses and thus adjust their behavior. Behaviors can be either innate or learned. In psychology Human behavior (and that of other organisms and mechanisms) can be common, unusual, acceptable, or unacceptable. Humans evaluate the acceptability of behavior using social norms and regulate behavior by means of social control. In sociology, behavior is considered as having no meaning, being not directed at other people and thus is the most basic human action. Animal behavior is studied in comparative psychology, ethology, behavioral ecology and sociobiology. Behavior became an important construct in early 20th century Psychology with the advent of the paradigm known subsequently as "behaviorism". Behaviorism was a reaction against so-called "faculty" psychology which purported to see into or understand the mind without the benefit of scientific testing.Behaviorism insisted on working only with what can be seen or manipulated and in the early views of John B. Watson, a founder of the field, nothing was inferred as to the nature of the entity that produced the behavior. Subsequent modifications of Watson's perspective and that of so-called "classical conditioning" (see under Ivan Pavlov) led to the rise of operant conditioning, a theory advocated by B.F. Skinner, which took over the academic establishment up through the 1950s and was synonymous with "behaviorism" for many. For studies on behavior, ethograms are used. Outside psychology Behavior as used in computer science is an anthropomorphic construct that assigns “life” to the activities carried out by a computer, computer application, or computer code in response to stimuli, such as user input. Also, "a behavior" is a reusable block of computer code or script that, when applied to an object (computer science), especially a graphical one, causes it to respond to user input in meaningful patterns or to operate independently. The term can also be applied to some degree to functions in mathematics, referring to the anatomy of curves. In environmental modeling and especially in hydrology, a behavioral model means a model that is acceptably consistent with observed natural processes, i.e., that simulates well, for example, observed river discharge. It is a key concept of the so-called Generalized Likelihood Uncertainty Estimation (GLUE) methodology to quantify how uncertain environmental predictions are. See also Animal behavior Applied behavior analysis Behavioral bias Behavioral economics Behavioral sciences Behaviorism Evolutionary physiology Experimental analysis of behavior Forms of activity and interpersonal relations Human behavior Human sexual behavior Instinct Motive Normal (behavior) Organizational behavior Psychology Radical behaviorism Reasoning Rebellion Taboo Theories of political behavior Work behavior | Behavior |@lemmatized behavior:25 behaviour:1 see:5 spell:1 difference:1 refers:1 action:2 reaction:2 object:2 organism:4 usually:1 relation:2 environment:1 conscious:1 unconscious:1 overt:1 covert:1 voluntary:1 involuntary:1 animal:4 control:2 endocrine:1 system:4 nervous:3 complexity:2 relate:1 generally:1 complex:1 great:1 capacity:1 learn:2 new:1 response:2 thus:2 adjust:1 either:1 innate:1 psychology:6 human:5 mechanism:1 common:1 unusual:1 acceptable:1 unacceptable:1 evaluate:1 acceptability:1 use:3 social:2 norm:1 regulate:1 mean:2 sociology:1 consider:1 meaning:1 direct:1 people:1 basic:1 study:2 comparative:1 ethology:1 behavioral:5 ecology:1 sociobiology:1 become:1 important:1 construct:2 early:2 century:1 advent:1 paradigm:1 know:1 subsequently:1 behaviorism:6 call:3 faculty:1 purport:1 understand:1 mind:1 without:1 benefit:1 scientific:1 testing:1 insist:1 work:2 manipulate:1 view:1 john:1 b:2 watson:2 founder:1 field:1 nothing:1 infer:1 nature:1 entity:1 produce:1 subsequent:1 modification:1 perspective:1 classical:1 conditioning:2 ivan:1 pavlov:1 lead:1 rise:1 operant:1 theory:2 advocate:1 f:1 skinner:1 take:1 academic:1 establishment:1 synonymous:1 many:1 ethograms:1 outside:1 computer:6 science:3 anthropomorphic:1 assign:1 life:1 activity:2 carry:1 application:1 code:2 stimuli:1 user:2 input:2 also:3 reusable:1 block:1 script:1 apply:3 especially:2 graphical:1 one:1 cause:1 respond:1 meaningful:1 pattern:1 operate:1 independently:1 term:1 degree:1 function:1 mathematics:1 refer:1 anatomy:1 curve:1 environmental:2 modeling:1 hydrology:1 model:2 acceptably:1 consistent:1 observed:1 natural:1 process:1 e:1 simulate:1 well:1 example:1 observe:1 river:1 discharge:1 key:1 concept:1 generalized:1 likelihood:1 uncertainty:1 estimation:1 glue:1 methodology:1 quantify:1 uncertain:1 prediction:1 analysis:2 bias:1 economics:1 evolutionary:1 physiology:1 experimental:1 form:1 interpersonal:1 sexual:1 instinct:1 motive:1 normal:1 organizational:1 radical:1 reason:1 rebellion:1 taboo:1 political:1 |@bigram conscious_unconscious:1 overt_covert:1 behavioral_ecology:1 ivan_pavlov:1 operant_conditioning:1 response_stimuli:1 radical_behaviorism:1 |
7,215 | Plurality_voting_system | An example of a plurality ballot. The plurality voting system is a single-winner voting system often used to elect executive officers or to elect members of a legislative assembly which is based on single-member constituencies. The most common system, used in Canada, India, the , and the United States, is simple plurality, first past the post or winner-takes-all. In this voting system the single winner is the person with the most votes; there is no requirement that the winner gain an absolute majority of votes. The distinction between American and British English is described by Fowler (1965) as follows: "With three-cornered contests as common as they now are, we may have occasion to find a convenient single word for what we used to call an absolute majority... In America the word majority itself has that meaning while a poll greater than that of any other candidate, but less than half the votes cast is called a plurality. It might be useful to borrow this distinction..." (Fowler, H.W. 1965 A Dictionary of Modern English Usage) In some countries such as France (as well as in some jurisdictions of the United States, such as Louisiana and Georgia) a similar system is used, but there are two rounds: the "two-ballot" or "runoff election" plurality system. If any candidate in the first round gains a majority of votes, then there is no second round; otherwise, the two highest-voted candidates of the first round compete in a two-candidate second round or all candidates above a certain threshold in the first round compete in a two-, three- or four-candidate second round. In political science, the use of the plurality voting system alongside multiple, single-winner constituencies to elect a multi-member body is often referred to as single-member district plurality or SMDP. "Plurality-Majority Systems" Plurality voting is also variously referred to as winner-takes-all or relative/simple majority voting; however, these terms can also refer to elections for multiple winners in a particular constituency using bloc voting. The works of Arend Lijphart use the term "majoritarian" systems, where a plurality voting system is one of the defining variables Patterns of Democracy, Arend Lijphart (1999) . These terms are thus sometimes used almost synonymously. First past the post The term first past the post (abbreviated FPTP or FPP) was coined as an analogy to horse racing, where the winner of the race is the first to pass a particular point on the track (in this case a plurality of votes), after which all other runners automatically and completely lose (that is, the payoff is "winner-takes-all"). There is, however, no "post" that the winning candidate must pass in order to win, as they are only required to receive the largest number of votes in their favour. This sometimes results in the alternative name "furthest past the post". Historically, FPTP has been a contentious electoral system, giving rise to the concept of electoral reform and a multiplicity of different voting systems intended to address perceived weaknesses of plurality voting. Plurality voting is used for local and/or national elections in 43 of the 191 countries of the United Nations, as well as in the Republic of China (Taiwan). Plurality voting is particularly prevalent in the United Kingdom and former British colonies, including the United States, Canada and India. The Global Distribution of Electoral Systems See Westminster system. Voting In single winner plurality voting, each voter is allowed to vote for only one candidate, and the winner of the election is whichever candidate represents a plurality of voters, that is, whoever received the largest number of votes. This makes the plurality voting system among the simplest of all voting systems for voters and vote counting officials (it is however very contentious to draw district boundary lines in this system). In an election for a legislative body, each voter in a given geographically-defined electoral district votes for one candidate from a list of candidates competing to represent that district. Under the plurality system, the winner of the election acts as representative of the entire electoral district, and serves with representatives of other electoral districts. In an election for a single seat, such as president in a presidential system, the same style of ballot is used and the candidate who receives the largest number of votes represents the entire population. (The President of the United States is indirectly elected by such a rule; but see Electoral College.) Ballot types Generally plurality ballots can be categorised into two forms. The simplest form is a blank ballot where the name of a candidate is written in by hand. A more structured ballot will list all the candidates and allow a mark to be made by a single candidate, however a structured ballot can also include space for a write-in candidate. Other forms have historically been used. For instance, the ancient Greeks would vote on ostracising someone by scratching the name of their choices on pieces of pottery. Examples of plurality voting Britain's Two-Party System Britain is usually described as a two-party system, but some third parties are important. Britain, like many democracies, is more accurately a "two-plus" party system. In 1979, for example, the withdrawal of support by the eleven Scottish Nationalists in Commons brought down the Callaghan government in a rare vote of no confidence. The Liberal Democrats may get one vote in five, forcing the Labour and Conservative parties to change positions on some issues. Britain's electoral system keeps two parties big and penalizes smaller parties. Britain, like the United States and Canada, uses single-member districts as the base for elections. This old English system is simple: Each electoral district or constituency sends one person to the legislature, the candidate that gets the most votes even if less than a majority, sometimes called "first past the post" (FPTP). In 1992, for example, a Lib Dem in Scotland won with just 26 percent of the vote. This system of single-member districts with plurality victors tends to produce two large political parties. The reason: there is a big premium to combine small parties into big ones in order to edge out competitors. If one of the two large parties splits, which sometimes happens, the election is thrown to the other party, the one that hangs together. In countries with proportional representation there is not such a great premium on forming two large parties, and that contributes to multi-party systems. The countries that inherited the British majoritarain system tend toward two large parties, one left, the other right, such as the U.S. Democrats and Republicans. Canada is an exception to this pattern, because its third parties are territorially concentrated, especially the separatist Bloc Québécois. New Zealand used the British system, and it too yielded two large parties. It also left many New Zealanders discontent, because other viewpoints got ignored, so its parliament in 1993 adopted a new electoral law, modeled on Germany's hybrid system of half single-member districts and half PR. New Zealand soon developed a more complex party system. Michael Roskins. Countries and Concepts 2007 Simple example The election of a Member of Parliament in the UK is a well known example of the first-past-the-post electoral system. But the system is also used on a smaller scale. The election for class president For this example, consider the election for the president of a school class. Each class has a president, who sits on a school council. Further assume that, in this imaginary school, male and female students disagree with each other on most issues, and students prefer to vote for others of the same sex as themselves. In our hypothetical election, there are three candidates: Amy, Brian and Cathy. Each class member gets a ballot, with these three names on it. Each voter must put an "X" by one of the names on their ballot. After the election finishes, the papers are sorted into three piles--one for votes for Amy, one for votes for Brian, and one for votes for Cathy. The largest pile decides the winner. If Amy's pile has 11 votes, Brian's has 16, and Cathy's has 13, Brian wins. Notice that there were a total of 40 votes cast, and the winner had only 16 of them — only 40%. Note that the class members (the electors) only vote once, and their votes help to choose both a class president and a member of the school council (the same person). The election for school council Suppose that all the other classes hold similar elections. Across all the classes, 8 of the class presidents that were elected were girls, and 9 were boys. That makes the boys the overall winner. The only influence that the pupils in this particular class had was to vote for Amy, Brian or Cathy to represent themselves. Some might argue that a boy won for this class because there were two girls, who "split the vote": some of the girls in the class voted for Amy and others for Cathy. Perhaps if Amy had not been a candidate, all the girls would have voted for Cathy and she would have won this class; this in turn would make the girls the winners of the whole council. This is known as the spoiler effect. More complex example Voting is accomplished whereby each voter in each city selects one city on the ballot (Memphis voters select Memphis, Nashville voters select Nashville, etc.) Votes are tabulated; Memphis is selected with the most votes (42%). Note that this system does not require that the winner have a majority, but only a plurality. Memphis wins because it has the most votes, even though 58% of the voters in this example preferred Memphis least. Notice that this problem does not hold anymore in the two-round system. Advantages Plurality is often conflated with Single-winner voting systems in general, in order to contrast it with Proportional representation. See the advantages there for other advantages of plurality in this context, such as regionalism and accountability. Preservation of One Person One Vote principle The arguments for a plurality voting system rely on the preservation of the "one person, one vote" principle (often shortened to OMOV for "one man, one vote" or more recently "one member, one vote"), as cited by the Supreme Court of the United States, wherein each voter is only able to cast one vote in a given election, where that vote can only go to one candidate. Plurality voting systems elect the candidate who is preferred first by the largest number of voters. Other voting systems, such as Instant-runoff voting or Single Transferable Vote also preserve OMOV, but rely on lower voter preference to arrive at a candidate earning either absolute majority or droop quota, respectively. However, proponents of other systems, such as approval voting, point out that the OMOV principle was made to control the magnitude of districts; that each district must be relatively in proportion to one another in population. Approval voting does not actually represent some voters more than others, so the OMOV principle would be a weak one to discount it on. In any case, it could be argued approval voting grants one vote for each candidate to each voter - which they may choose not to cast, and cannot vote cumulate on one candidate. Constituency link Plurality voting does not require constituencies to be more than single member, whereas most proportional systems do. The fewer representatives are elected from an area, the smaller the division may be. A small constituency, as opposed to a large multiple member one, allegedly holds various advantages, including the concentration of the representative-voter link and the relationship of accountability. Additionally, in countries such as Israel where the whole country is treated as a single constituency and representatives are selected by party-lists, the constituency link is lost altogether. Moderation Some other voting systems can end giving a higher chance of victory to a candidate perceived as having extreme views. Under a first-past-the-post system, voters are often afraid of "wasting" their vote on a candidate unlikely to win, so they cast their vote towards their most preferable choice possible of victory. Advocates of plurality voting suggest that this results in most candidates having to field a fairly moderate or centrist position. This is debated by advocates of other systems, who argue that preferential voting or range voting systems, by getting more information from voters, allow a more rigorous definition of the word "moderate" and can be designed to explicitly favor candidates fitting that description. Disadvantages Tactical voting To a much greater extent than many other electoral methods, plurality electoral systems encourage tactical voting techniques, like "compromising". Voters are pressured to vote for one of the two candidates they predict are most likely to win, even if their true preference is neither, because a vote for any other candidate will be likely to be wasted and have no impact on the final result. This is known as Duverger's Law. In the Tennessee example, if all the voters for Chattanooga and Knoxville had instead voted for Nashville, then Nashville would have won (with 58% of the vote); this would only have been the 3rd choice for those voters, but voting for their respective 1st choices (their own cities) actually results in their 4th choice (Memphis) being elected. The difficulty is sometimes summed up, in an extreme form, as "All votes for anyone other than the second place are votes for the winner", because by voting for other candidates, they have denied those votes to the second place candidate who could have won had they received them. It is often claimed by United States Democrats that Democrat Al Gore lost the 2000 Presidential Election to Republican George W. Bush because some voters on the left voted for Ralph Nader of the Green Party, who exit polls indicated would have preferred Gore to Bush 45 percent to 27 percent, with the rest not voting in Nader's absence. THE 2004 CAMPAIGN: THE INDEPENDENT; Relax, Nader Advises Alarmed Democrats, but the 2000 Math Counsels Otherwise - New York Times Such a mentality is reflected by elections in Puerto Rico and its three principal voter groups: the Independentistas (pro-independence), the Populares (pro-commonwealth), and the Estadistas (pro-statehood). Historically, there has been a tendency for Independentista voters to elect Popular candidates and policies. This phenomenon is responsible for some Popular victories, even though the Estadistas have the most voters on the island. It is so widely recognised that the Puertoricans sometimes call the Independentistas who vote for the Populares "melons", because the fruit is green on the outside but red on the inside (in reference to the party colors). Because voters have to predict in advance who the top two candidates will be, this can cause significant perturbation to the system: Substantial power is given to the media. Some voters will tend to believe the media's assertions as to who the leading contenders are likely to be in the election. Even voters who distrust the media will know that other voters do believe the media, and therefore those candidates who receive the most media attention will nonetheless be the most popular and thus most likely to be in one of the top two. A newly appointed candidate, who is in fact supported by the majority of voters, may be considered (due to the lack of a track record) to not be likely to become one of the top two candidates; thus, they will receive a reduced number of votes, which will then give them a reputation as a low poller in future elections, compounding the problem. The system may promote votes against more so than votes for. In the UK, entire campaigns have been organised with the aim of voting against the Conservative party by voting either Labour or Liberal Democrat. For example, in a constituency held by the Conservatives, with the Liberal Democrats as the second-place party and the Labour Party in third, Labour supporters might be urged to vote for the Liberal Democrat candidate (who has a smaller majority to close and more support in the constituency) than their own candidate on the basis that Labour supporters would prefer an MP from a competing left/liberal party than a Conservative one. If enough voters use this tactic, the first-past-the-post system becomes, effectively, runoff voting - a completely different system - where the first round is held in the court of public opinion. A feature of the FPTP system is that invariably, voters can select only one candidate in a single-member district, whilst in multi-member districts they can never select more candidates than the number of seats in the district. Some argue that FPTP would work better if electors could cast votes for as many candidates as they wish. This would allow voters to "vote against" a certain despised candidate if they choose, without being forced to guess who they should vote for to defeat that candidate, thus eliminating the need for tactical voting. Such a system would also serve to reduce the spoiler effect. This system is called approval voting. Effect on political parties A graph showing the difference between the popular vote and the number of seats won by major political parties at the United Kingdom general election, 2005 Duverger's law is a principle of political science which predicts that constituencies that use first-past-the-post systems will become two-party systems, given enough time. First-past-the-post tends to reduce the number of political parties to a greater extent than most other methods, thus making it more likely that a single party will hold a majority of legislative seats. (In the United Kingdom, 18 out of 22 General Elections since 1922 have produced a majority government.) Single party rule enables quicker decision-making with less back and forth negotiation. Multi-party coalitions, on the other hand, require consent among all coalition partners to pass legislation, which gives small parties a disproportionate amount of power. In the UK, arguments for plurality often look to Italy where the frequent government changeovers are presented as undesirable. (This problem could be solved with separation of powers, in which the entire government didn't have to turn over just because it lost a vote.) FPTP's tendency toward fewer parties and more frequent one-party rule can also produce disadvantages. One such disadvantage is that the government may not consider as wide a range of perspectives and concerns. It is entirely possible that a voter will find that all major parties agree on a particular issue. In this case, the voter will not have any meaningful way of expressing a dissenting opinion through his or her vote. As fewer choices are offered to the voters, voters may vote for a candidate with whom they largely disagree so as to oppose a candidate with whom they disagree even more (See tactical voting above). The downside of this is that candidates will less closely reflect the viewpoints of those who vote for them. It may also be argued that one-party rule is more likely to lead to radical changes in government policy that are only favoured by a plurality or bare majority of the voters, whereas multi-party systems usually require greater consensus in order to make dramatic changes. Wasted votes Wasted votes are votes cast for losing candidates or votes cast for winning candidates in excess of the number required for victory. For example, in the UK General Election of 2005, 52% of votes were cast for losing candidates and 18% were excess votes - a total of 70% wasted votes. This is perhaps the most fundamental criticism of FPTP, that a large majority of votes may play no part in determining the outcome. Alternative electoral systems attempt to ensure that almost all votes are effective in influencing the result and the number of wasted votes is consequently minimised. Gerrymandering Because FPTP permits a high level of wasted vote, an election under FPTP is easily gerrymandered. Through gerrymandering, constituencies are deliberately designed to unfairly increase the number of seats won by one party at the expense of another. In brief, suppose that governing party G wishes to reduce the seats that will be won by opposition party O in the next election. It creates a number of constituencies in each of which O has an overwhelming majority of votes. O will win these seats, but a large number of its voters will waste their votes. Then the rest of the constituencies are designed with small majorities for G. Few G votes are wasted, and G will win a large number of seats by small margins. As a result of the gerrymander, O's seats have cost it more votes than G's seats. Manipulation charges The presence of spoilers often gives rise to suspicions that manipulation of the slate has taken place. The spoiler may have received incentives to run. A spoiler may also drop out at the last moment, inducing charges that such an act was intended from the beginning. Disproportionate influence of smaller parties Smaller parties can disproportionately change the outcome of an FPTP election by swinging what is called the 50-50% balance of two party systems, by creating a faction within one or both ends of the political spectrum which shifts the winner of the election from an absolute majority outcome to a simple majority outcome favouring the previously less favoured party. In comparison, for electoral systems using proportional representation small groups win only their proportional share of representation. Other aspects See single-winner voting systems for other disadvantages commonly associated with plurality, such as diminished representation, sweepout and other skewed results, and "safe seats". Issues specific to particular countries Solomon Islands In August 2008, Sir Peter Kenilorea commented on what he perceived as the flaws of a first-past-the-post electoral system in the Solomon Islands: "An[...] underlying cause of political instability and poor governance, in my opinion, is our electoral system and its related problems. It has been identified by a number of academics and practitioners that the First Past the Post system is such that a Member elected to Parliament is sometimes elected by a small percentage of voters where there are many candidates in a particular constituency. I believe that this system is part of the reason why voters ignore political parties and why candidates try an appeal to voters' material desires and relationships instead of political parties. [...] Moreover, this system creates a political environment where a Member is elected by a relatively small number of voters with the effect that this Member is then expected to ignore his party’s philosophy and instead look after that core base of voters in terms of their material needs. Another relevant factor that I see in relation to the electoral system is the proven fact that it is rather conducive, and thus has not prevented, corrupt elections practices such as ballot buying." "Realising political stability", Sir Peter Kenilorea, Solomon Star, August 30, 2008 Current events The United Kingdom continues to use the first-past-the-post electoral system for general elections, and for local government elections in England and Wales. Changes to the UK system have been proposed, and alternatives were examined by the Jenkins Commission in the late 1990s but no major changes have been implemented. Canada also uses this system for national and provincial elections. In May 2005 the Canadian province of British Columbia had a referendum on abolishing single-member district plurality in favour of multi-member districts with the Single Transferable Vote system after the Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform made a recommendation for the reform. The referendum obtained 57% of the vote, but failed to meet the 60% requirement for passing. An October 2007 referendum in the Canadian province of Ontario on adopting a Mixed Member Proportional system, also requiring 60% approval, failed with only 36.9% voting in favour. Wales, Scotland, Northern Ireland, the Republic of Ireland, Australia and New Zealand are notable examples of countries within the UK, or with previous links to it, that use non-FPTP electoral systems. Recent examples of nations which have undergone democratic reforms but have not adopted the FPTP system include South Africa, almost all of the former Eastern bloc nations, Russia, Afghanistan and Iraq. Where plurality voting is used Countries that use this system to elect the lower or only house of their legislature include: Antigua and Barbuda Azerbaijan Bahamas Bangladesh Barbados Belize Bhutan Botswana Canada Dominica Ethiopia The Gambia Ghana Grenada India (Proportional representation in upper house) Jamaica Kenya Kuwait Lebanon Malawi Malaysia Mexico Federated States of Micronesia Morocco Nepal Nigeria Pakistan Palau Papua New Guinea Philippines Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Samoa Singapore Solomon Islands South Korea Swaziland Tanzania Tonga Trinidad and Tobago Tuvalu Uganda United Kingdom (National parliamentary and local government elections in England and Wales only, not in elections for the EU Parliament, the Scottish Parliament, the Welsh and Northern Irish Assemblies, the London Mayor and Assembly, and local elections in Scotland and Northern Ireland) United States (except for Louisiana and Washington) Yemen Zambia Zimbabwe The plurality election system is used in the Republic of China on Taiwan for executive offices such as county magistrates, mayors, and the president, but not for legislative seats which used the single non-transferable vote system. This has produced an interesting party structure in which there are two broad coalitions of parties which cooperate in executive elections but which compete internally in legislative elections. Making Votes Count, Gary Cox (1997) India uses a proportional representation system for its upper house. See also Cube rule List of democracy and elections-related topics Proportional representation Runoff voting Single non-transferable vote Single transferable vote Voting system 2006 Texas Governor Election Notes External links A handbook of Electoral System Design from International IDEA Atlas of Electoral Systems of the World Colour-coded world maps showing the electoral systems used by every democratic country in the world, also available with more details as tables of text. Part of the information on Electoral Systems offered by the World Policy Institute (WPI)'s Project for Global Democracy & Human Rights ACE Project: What is the electoral system for Chamber 1 of the national legislature? ACE Project: First Past The Post - Detailed explanation of first-past-the-post voting ACE Project: Experiments with moving away from FPTP in the UK ACE Project: Electing a President using FPTP ACE Project: FPTP on a grand scale in India The Citizens' Assembly on Electoral Reform says the new proportional electoral system it proposes for British Columbia will improve the practice of democracy in the province. ASSEMBLY AUDIO AND VIDEO Below, you'll find audio and video recordings of six Learning Phase weekends, a meeting held in Prince George and the six Deliberation Phase weekends. The Learning Phase and Deliberation Phase recordings were broadcast on Hansard TV during 2004. - week 5 gives a detailed description by David Farrell, of the University of Manchester (England), Elizabeth McLeay of Victoria University in Wellington, New Zealand. Districting in FPTP systems, The unusual "earmuff" shape of the 4th Congressional District of Illinois connects two Hispanic neighborhoods while remaining contiguous by narrowly tracing Interstate 294. 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7,216 | Historical_criticism | Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text: as applied in biblical studies it investigates the books of the Bible and compares them to other texts written at the same time, before, or recently after the text in question. In Classical studies, the new higher criticism of the nineteenth century set aside "efforts to fill ancient religion with direct meaning and relevance and devoted itself instead to the critical collection and chronological ordering of the source material," Burkert, Greek Religion (1985), Introduction. Thus higher criticism, whether biblical, classical, Byzantine or medieval, focuses on the sources of a document to determine who wrote it, when it was written, and where. For example, higher criticism deals with the synoptic problem, the question of how Matthew, Mark, and Luke relate to each other. In some cases, such as with several Pauline epistles, higher criticism confirms the traditional understanding of authorship. In other cases, higher criticism contradicts church tradition (as with the gospels) or even the words of the Bible itself (as with 2 Peter). The Dutch scholar Desiderius Erasmus (1466? - 1536) is usually credited as the first to study the Bible in this way Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy, p. 125, Touchstone, 1961, ISBN 0-671-20159-X, . The phrase higher criticism is used in contrast with Lower criticism (or textual criticism), the endeavour to determine what a text originally said before it was altered (through error or intent). Higher criticism treats the Bible as a text created by human beings at a particular historical time and for various human motives, in contrast with the treatment of the Bible as the inerrant word of God. History of higher criticism The phrase "the higher criticism" became popular in Europe from the mid-18th century to the early 20th century, to describe the work of such scholars as Jean Astruc (mid-18th cent.), Johann Salomo Semler (1725-91), Johann Gottfried Eichhorn (1752-1827), Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792-1860), and Julius Wellhausen (1844-1918). The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2007 In academic circles today, this is the body of work properly considered "the higher criticism", though the phrase is sometimes applied to earlier or later work using similar methods. Higher criticism originally referred to the work of German Biblical scholars, of the Tübingen School. After the path-breaking work on the New Testament by Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834), the next generation which included scholars such as David Friedrich Strauss (1808–74) and Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72) in the mid-nineteenth century analyzed the historical records of the Middle East from Christian and Old Testament times in search of independent confirmation of events related in the Bible. These latter scholars built on the tradition of Enlightenment and Rationalist thinkers such as John Locke, David Hume, Immanuel Kant, Gotthold Lessing, Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Hegel and the French rationalists. These ideas were imported to England by Samuel Taylor Coleridge and, in particular, by George Eliot's translations of Strauss's The Life of Jesus (1846) and Feuerbach's The Essence of Christianity (1854). In 1860 seven liberal Anglican theologians began the process of incorporating this historical criticism into Christian doctrine in Essays and Reviews, causing a five year storm of controversy which completely overshadowed the arguments over Darwin's newly published On the Origin of Species. Two of the authors were indicted for heresy and lost their jobs by 1862, but in 1864 had the judgement overturned on appeal. La Vie de Jésus (1863), the seminal work by a Frenchman, Ernest Renan (1823–92), continued in the same tradition as Strauss and Feuerbach. In Catholicism, L'Evangile et l'Eglise (1902), the magnum opus by Alfred Loisy against the Essence of Christianity of Adolf von Harnack and La Vie de Jesus of Renan, gave birth to the modernist crisis (1902–61). Some scholars, such as Rudolf Bultmann, have used higher criticism of the Bible to "demythologize" it. Theological responses The questions of higher criticism are widely recognized by Orthodox Jews and many traditional Christians as legitimate questions, yet they often find the answers given by the higher critics unsatisfactory or even heretical. In particular, religious conservatives object to the rationalistic and naturalistic presuppositions of a large number of practitioners of higher criticism that lead to conclusions that conservative religionists find unacceptable. Nonetheless, many conservative Bible scholars practice their own form of higher criticism within their supernaturalist and confessional frameworks. However, the most traditional Christian exegetes examine the Bible chiefly through the Bible itself, believing that clear places in scripture give the best help in explaining the less clear places. Other biblical scholars believe that the evidence uncovered by higher criticism undermines such confessional frameworks. By contrast, religiously liberal Christians and religiously liberal Jews typically maintain that belief in God has nothing to do with the authorship of the Pentateuch. Roman Catholic view Pope Leo XIII (1810 - 1903) condemned secular biblical scholarship in his encyclical Providentissimus Deus; Fogarty, page 40. , but in 1943 Pope Pius XII gave license to the new scholarship in his encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu: "[T]extual criticism ... [is] quite rightly employed in the case of the Sacred Books ... Let the interpreter then, with all care and without neglecting any light derived from recent research, endeavor to determine the peculiar character and circumstances of the sacred writer, the age in which he lived, the sources written or oral to which he had recourse and the forms of expression he employed." Encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu, 1943. Today the modern Catechism states: "In order to discover the sacred authors' intention, the reader must take into account the conditions of their time and culture, the literary genres in use at that time, and the modes of feeling, speaking and narrating then current. For the fact is that truth is differently presented and expressed in the various types of historical writing, in prophetical and poetical texts, and in other forms of literary expression." Catechism of the Catholic Church, Article III, section 110. Protestant Christian view Martin Luther, Zwingli, John Calvin and other leaders of the Protestant Reformation believed strongly in a literal interpretation of scripture. pages 269-270 Luther wrote, "The Holy Ghost is the all-simplest writer that is in heaven or earth; therefore his words can have no more than one simplest sense, which we call the scriptural or literal meaning." page 329 The Reformers rejected the church tradition of the Roman Catholic Church as well as the allegorical interpretations associated with it. They held to the principle of Scripture alone as the divinely inspired authority for Christians. The foundation for Protestant historical-criticism included the movement of rationalism and Baruch Spinoza (1632-1677). Rationalism held that reason is the determiner of truth, and later rationalists also rejected the authority of Scripture. Spinoza did not regard the Bible as divinely inspired - instead it was to be evaluated like any other book. Page 43 Around the end of the 18th century Johann Gottfried Eichhorn, "the founder of modern Old Testament criticism", produced works of "investigation of the inner nature of the Old Testament with the help of the Higher Criticism". Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher also influenced the development of Higher Criticism. A group of German biblical scholars at Tübingen University formed the Tübingen school of theology under the leadership of Ferdinand Christian Baur, with important works being produced by Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach and David Strauss. In the early 19th century they sought independent confirmation of the events related in the Bible through Hegelian analysis of the historical records of the Middle East from Christian and Old Testament times. Their ideas were brought to England by Samuel Taylor Coleridge, then in 1846 George Eliot translated David Strauss's sensational Leben Jesu as the Life of Jesus Critically Examined, a quest for the historical Jesus. In 1854 she followed this with a translation of Feuerbach's even more radical Essence of Christianity which held that the idea of God was created by man to express the divine within himself, though Strauss attracted most of the controversy. The loose grouping of Broad Churchmen in the Church of England was influenced by the German higher critics. In particular, Benjamin Jowett visited Germany and studied the work of Baur in the 1840s, then in 1866 published his book on The Epistles of St Paul, arousing theological opposition. He then collaborated with six other theologians to publish their Essays and Reviews in 1860. The central essay was Jowett's On the Interpretation of Scripture which argued that the Bible should be studied to find the authors' original meaning in their own context rather than expecting it to provide a modern scientific text. Today, many Evangelical Protestants oppose the methods of the higher criticism, and hold that the Bible is divinely inspired and incapable of error, at least in its original form. Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy According to the Westminster Confession of Faith (an historical Presbyterian document), "The infallible rule of interpretation of scripture is the scripture itself..." WCF 1.9 The influence of higher criticism As an example of the influence of higher criticism on contemporary thought, consider the treatment of Noah's Ark in various editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica. In the first edition, in 1771, the story of Noah and the Ark is treated as essentially factual, and the following scientific evidence is offered, "...Buteo and Kircher have proved geometrically, that, taking the common cubit as a foot and a half, the ark was abundantly sufficient for all the animals supposed to be lodged in it..., the number of species of animals will be found much less than is generally imagined, not amounting to an hundred species of quadrupeds... ." By the eighth edition, however, the encyclopedia says of the Noah story, "The insuperable difficulties connected with the belief that all other existing species of animals were provided for in the ark are obviated by adopting the suggestion of Bishop Stillingfleet, approved by Matthew Poole...and others, that the Deluge did not extend beyond the region of the earth then inhabited..." By the ninth edition, in 1875, there is no attempt to reconcile the Noah story with scientific fact, and it is presented without comment. In the 1960 edition, in the article Ark, we find the following, "Before the days of "higher criticism" and the rise of the modern scientific views as to the origin of the species, there was much discussion among the learned, and many ingenious and curious theories were advanced, as to the number of animals on the ark..." All quotations from the article "Ark" in the 1960 Encyclopedia Britannica According to the preface of the New American Bible Preface to the New American Bible , "In view of the relative certainties more recently attained by textual and higher criticism, it has become increasingly desirable that contemporary translations of the sacred books into English be prepared in which due reverence for the text and strict observance of the rules of criticism would be combined. The New American Bible has accomplished this in response to the need of the church in America today. It is the achievement of some fifty biblical scholars, the greater number of whom, though not all, are Catholics." Types of higher criticism Higher criticism is divided up into sub-categories, including primarily source criticism, form criticism, and redaction criticism. Source criticism Diagram of the Documentary Hypothesis. *includes most of Leviticus†includes most of Deuteronomy‡"Deuteronomic history": Joshua, Judges, 1 & 2 Samuel, 1& 2 Kings Source criticism: diagram of the two-source hypothesis, an explanation for the relationship of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and Luke. Source criticism is the search for the original sources which lie behind a given biblical text. It can be traced back to the 17th century French priest Richard Simon, and its most influential product is undoubtably Julius Wellhausen's Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (1878), whose "insight and clarity of expression have left their mark indelibly on modern biblical studies." Antony F. Campbell, SJ, "Preparatory Issues in Approaching Biblical Texts", in The Hebrew Bible in Modern Study, p.6. Campbell renames source criticism as "origin criticism". Redaction criticism Redaction criticism studies "the collection, arrangement, editing and modification of sources", and is frequently used to reconstruct the community and purposes of the author/s of the text. Religious Studies Department, Santa Clara University. Form criticism and tradition history Form criticism breaks the Bible down into sections (pericopes, stories) which are analyzed and categorized by genres (prose or verse, letters, laws, court archives, war hymns, poems of lament, etc). The form critic then theorizes on the pericope's Sitz im Leben ("setting in life"), the setting in which it was composed and, especially, used. Bibledudes.com Tradition history is a specific aspect of form criticism which aims at tracing the way in which the pericopes entered the larger units of the biblical canon, and especially the way in which they made the transition from oral to written form. The belief in the priority, stability, and even detectability, of oral traditions is now recognised to be so deeply questionable as to render tradition history largely useless, but form criticism itself continues to develop as a viable methodology in biblical studies. Yair Hoffman, review of Marvin A. Sweeney and Ehud Ben Zvi (eds.), The Changing Face of Form-Criticism for the Twenty-First Century, 2003 Radical criticism Radical Criticism, around the end of the nineteenth century, typically tried to show that none of the Pauline epistles are authentic; that Paul is nothing but a controverted authorial token. This group of scholars often postulated the ahistoricity of Jesus and the apostles. Hypotheses of higher criticism Scholars of higher criticism have sometimes upheld and sometimes challenged the traditional authorship of various books of the Bible. Some examples of higher critical hypotheses can be found below: Dates for the Sacred Texts of the Jewish and Christian Traditions: Athabasca University Old Testament Book Author according totradition Author according toscholarship Torah (Pentateuch, Books of Moses, i.e., Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Deuteronomy and Numbers) Moses, c 1300 BC Documentary hypothesis: Four independent documents (the Jahwist, Elohist, Deuteronomist and the Priestly source), composed between 900-550 BC, redacted c 450 BC, possibly by Ezra Supplementary models (e.g. John Van Seters): Torah composed as a series of authorial expansions of an original source document, usually identified as J or P, largely during the 7th and 6th centuries BC, final form achieved c. 450 BC. Fragmentary models (e.g. Rolf Rendtorff, Erhard Blum): Torah the product of the slow accretion of fragmentary traditions, (no documents), over period 850-550 BC, final form c. 450 BC. Biblical minimalism: Torah composed in Hellenistic-Hasmonean period, c. 300-140 BC. Joshua Joshua with a portion by Phinehas or Eleazar Deuteronomist using material from the Jahwist and Elohist Judges Samuel Deuteronomist Ruth Samuel A later author, writing after the time of David 1 Samuel Samuel, Gad, and Nathan Deuteronomist as a combination of a Jerusalem source, republican source, the court history of David, the sanctuaries source, and the monarchial source 2 Samuel 1 Kings Perhaps Ezra Deuteronomist 2 Kings 1 Chronicles Ezra The Chronicler, writing between 450 and 435 BC, after the Babylonian captivity 2 Chronicles Ezra Ezra The Chronicler, writing between 450 and 435 BC, after the Babylonian captivity Nehemiah Nehemiah using some material by Ezra The Chronicler, writing between 450 and 435 BC, after the Babylonian captivity Tobit A writer in the second century BC Judith Eliakim (Joakim), the high priest of the story Esther The Great Assembly using material from Mordecai An unknown author writing between 460 and 331 BC 1 Maccabees A devout Jew from the Holy Land. An unknown Jewish author, writing around 100 BC 2 Maccabees Based on the writing of Jason of Cyrene An unknown author, writing in the second or 1st century BC 3 Maccabees An Alexandrian Jew writing in Greek in the first century BC or first century AD 4 Maccabees Josephus An Alexandrian Jew writing in the first century BC or first century AD Job unknown New American Bible: Job anonymous, possibly by two different authors, one writing the prose section and the other the poetic section, 5th century BC. Psalms Mainly David and also Asaph, sons of Korah, Moses, Heman the Ezrahite, Ethan the Ezrahite and Solomon Various authors recording oral tradition. Portions from 1000BC to 200BC. Proverbs Solomon, Agur son of Jakeh, Lemuel and other wise men An editor compiling from various sources well after the time of Solomon Ecclesiastes Solomon A Hebrew poet of the third or second centuries BC using the life of Solomon as a vista for the Hebrews' pursuit of Wisdom. An unknown author in Hellenistic period from two older oral sources (Eccl1:1-6:9 which claims to be Solomon, Eccl6:10-12:8 with the theme of non-knowing) Song of Solomon Solomon Unknown, scholarly estimates vary between 950 BC to 200 BC Wisdom Solomon An Alexandrian Jew writing during the Jewish Hellenistic period Sirach Jesus the son of Sirach of Jerusalem Isaiah Isaiah Three main authors and an extensive editing process: Isaiah 1-39 "Historical Isaiah" with multiple layers of editing, 8th cent. BCE Isaiah 40-55 Exilic(Deutero-Isaiah), 6th century BCE Isaiah 56-66 post-exilic(Trito-Isaiah), 6th-5th century BCE Jeremiah Jeremiah unknown, possibly Baruch ben Neriah . This book has some affinities with the Deuteronomist author Lamentations Jeremiah Disputed and perhaps based on the older Mesopotamian genre of the "city lament", of which the Lament for Ur is among the oldest and best-known Letter of Jeremiah Jeremiah A Hellenistic Jew living in Alexandria Baruch Baruch ben Neriah An author writing during or shortly after the period of the Maccabees Ezekiel Ezekiel Disputed, with varying degrees of attribution to Ezekiel Daniel Daniel, sixth century BC An editor/author in the mid-second century BC, using older folk-tales for the first half of the book Hosea Hosea, mid eight century BCAn unknown author, writing in the eight century BC or later Joel Joel unknown Amos Amos, eight century BC An unknown author, writing after the sixth century BC Dates for the Sacred Texts of the Jewish and Christian Traditions Obadiah ObadiahAn unknown author, writing in the sixth century BC or later Jonah Jonah Possibly a post-exilic (after 530 BC) editor recording oral traditions passed down from the eighth century BC Micah Micah The first three chapters by Micah and the remainder by a later writer Nahum NahumAn unknown author, writing in the sixth century BC or later Habakkuk HabakkukAn unknown author, writing in the sixth century BC or later Zephaniah Zephaniah Disputed; possibly a writer after the time period indicated by the text Haggai Haggai, late sixth cent. BC An unknown author, writing in the fifth century BC or later Zechariah Zechariah Zechariah (chapters 1-8); the later remaining designated Deutero-Zechariah, were possibly written by disciples of Zechariah Malachi Malachi or Ezra Possibly the author of Deutero-Zechariah New Testament Book Author according totradition Author according toscholarship Gospel of Mark Mark, follower of Peter; mid 1st century anonymous, perhaps Mark, follower of Peter; mid to late 1st century; the first written gospel Gospel of Matthew The Apostle Matthew An unknown author who borrowed from both Mark and a source called Q, late 1st century Gospel of Luke Luke, companion of Paul Luke or an unknown author who borrowed from both Mark and a source called Q, late 1st century Gospel of John Apostle John An unknown author with no direct connection to the historical Jesus; John 21 finished after death of primary author by follower(s); the last written gospel New American Bible: John see Signs Gospel for more on reconstruction of original John Acts of the Apostles Luke, companion of Paul Luke or an unknown author who also wrote the Gospel of Luke Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Epistle to Philemon Paul the Apostle, see Pauline epistles Paul Ephesians Paul the Apostle Paul or edited dictations from Paul Colossians Paul the Apostle Disputed; perhaps Paul coauthoring with Timothy 2 Thessalonians Paul the Apostle pseudepigraphal, perhaps an associate or disciple after his death, representing what they believed was his message Ehrman, Bart D. (2004). The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings. New York: Oxford, p.385; Beverly Roberts Gaventa, First and Second Thessalonians, Westminster John Knox Press, 1998, p.93; Vincent M. Smiles, First Thessalonians, Philippians, Second Thessalonians, Colossians, Ephesians, Liturgical Press, 2005, p.53; Udo Schnelle, translated by M. Eugene Boring, The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1998), pp. 315-325; M. Eugene Boring, Fred B. Craddock, The People's New Testament Commentary, Westminster John Knox Press, 2004 p652; Joseph Francis Kelly, An Introduction to the New Testament for Catholics, Liturgical Press, 2006 p.32 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus, see Pastoral epistles Paul the Apostle pseudepigraphal, perhaps someone associated with Paul, writing at a later datesee Authorship of the Pauline epistles Epistle to the Hebrews Paul the Apostle(disputed) An unknown author, but almost certainly not Paul http://religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=531&C=563 Richard Heard, Introduction To The New Testament , c 95 James James the Just pseudepigraphal; a writer in the late first or early second centuries, after the death of James the Just New American Bible: James 1 Peter Apostle Peter, before 64 (Peter's martyrdom) pseudepigraphal or perhaps Silas, proficient with Greek writing, 70-90 2 Peter Apostle Peter, before 64 pseudepigraphal, likely not Peter Carson, D.A., and Douglas J. Moo. An Introduction to the New Testament, second edition. HarperCollins Canada; Zondervan: 2005. ISBN 0310238595, ISBN 978-0310238591. p.659. , perhaps as late as c 150 AD, the last-written book of the Bible 1 John Apostle John An unknown author with no direct connection to the historical Jesus, late 1st century, possibly the author of the Gospel of John 2 John, 3 John Apostle John (sometimes disputed) An unknown author with no direct connection to the historical Jesus, final Editor of John 21, c 100-110, possibly the author of the Gospel of John Jude Jude the Apostle or Jude, brother of Jesus A pseudonymous work written between the end of the first century and the first quarter of the 2nd century New American Bible: Jude> Book of Revelation Apostle John(sometimes disputed) distinct author, perhaps John of Patmos (not the same author as the Gospel of John or 2 & 3 John)see Authorship of the Johannine works Higher criticism of other religious texts Both higher and lower forms of criticism are carried out today with the religious writings of many religions, including Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism. Qur'an Modern higher criticism is just beginning for the Qur'an. This scholarship questions some traditional claims about its composition and content, contending that the Qur'an incorporates material from both the Hebrew Bible and the New Testament; however, other scholars argue that it cites examples from previous texts, as the New Testament did to the Old Testament. Islamic history records that Uthman collected all variants of the Qur'an and destroyed those that he did not approve of. See also Biblical criticism Textual criticism (lower criticism) Documentary hypothesis Synoptic Problem Historical-grammatical Historical-grammatical method Biblical genres Journal of Higher Criticism Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy History of higher criticism Alexander Geddes Edwin Johnson (historian) References Gerald P. Fogarty, S.J. American Catholic Biblical Scholarship: A History from the Early Republic to Vatican II, Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1989, ISBN 0-06-062666-6. Nihil obstat by Raymond E. Brown, S.S., and Joseph A. Fitzmyer, S.J. External links Rutgers University: Synoptic Gospels Primer: introduction to the history of literary analysis of the Greek gospels, and aids in confronting the range of factors that need to be taken into consideration in accounting for the literary relationship of the first three gospels. Journal of Higher Criticism From the Divine Oracle to Higher Criticism Catholic Encyclopedia article "Biblical Criticism (Higher)" Dictionary of the history of Ideas - Modernism and the Church Teaching Bible based on Higher Criticism "Historical Criticism and the Evangelical" by Grant Osborne "From the Divine Oracle to Higher Criticism" from The Warfare of Science With Theology by Andrew White, 1896 Catholic Encyclopedia article (1908) "Biblical Criticism (Higher)" Dictionary of the history of Ideas: Modernism in the Christian Church Radical criticism, link to articles in English Notes | Historical_criticism |@lemmatized historical:17 criticism:69 high:43 branch:1 literary:5 analysis:3 investigate:2 origin:4 text:15 apply:2 biblical:19 study:10 book:13 bible:27 compare:1 texts:1 write:30 time:9 recently:2 question:5 classical:2 new:20 nineteenth:3 century:39 set:1 aside:1 effort:1 fill:1 ancient:1 religion:4 direct:4 meaning:3 relevance:1 devote:1 instead:2 critical:2 collection:2 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ernst:1 influence:4 development:1 group:2 university:4 theology:3 leadership:1 important:1 andreas:1 seek:1 hegelian:1 bring:1 translate:2 sensational:1 leben:2 jesu:1 critically:1 quest:1 follow:1 radical:4 man:1 divine:3 attract:1 loose:1 grouping:1 broad:1 churchman:1 benjamin:1 jowett:2 visit:1 germany:1 st:1 paul:16 arouse:1 opposition:1 collaborate:1 six:1 central:1 argue:2 original:5 context:1 rather:1 expect:1 provide:2 scientific:4 evangelical:2 oppose:1 incapable:1 least:1 chicago:1 statement:1 inerrancy:1 accord:6 westminster:3 confession:1 faith:1 presbyterian:1 infallible:1 rule:2 wcf:1 contemporary:2 thought:1 noah:4 ark:7 britannica:2 essentially:1 factual:1 following:2 offer:1 buteo:1 kircher:1 prove:1 geometrically:1 common:1 cubit:1 foot:1 half:2 abundantly:1 sufficient:1 animal:4 suppose:1 lodge:1 much:2 generally:1 imagine:1 amount:1 hundred:1 quadruped:1 eighth:2 insuperable:1 difficulty:1 connect:1 exist:1 obviate:1 adopt:1 suggestion:1 bishop:1 stillingfleet:1 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hellenistic:4 hasmonean:1 portion:2 phinehas:1 eleazar:1 ruth:1 late:11 gad:1 nathan:1 combination:1 jerusalem:2 republican:1 sanctuary:1 monarchial:1 perhaps:9 chronicle:2 chronicler:3 babylonian:3 captivity:3 nehemiah:2 tobit:1 second:8 judith:1 eliakim:1 joakim:1 esther:1 assembly:1 mordecai:1 unknown:21 maccabees:5 devout:1 land:1 base:3 jason:1 cyrene:1 alexandrian:3 ad:3 josephus:1 anonymous:2 different:1 poetic:1 psalm:1 mainly:1 asaph:1 son:3 korah:1 heman:1 ezrahite:2 ethan:1 solomon:9 proverb:1 agur:1 jakeh:1 lemuel:1 wise:1 men:1 editor:4 compile:1 ecclesiastes:1 poet:1 third:1 vista:1 pursuit:1 wisdom:2 claim:2 theme:1 non:1 knowing:1 song:1 scholarly:1 estimate:1 vary:2 sirach:2 isaiah:8 three:3 main:1 extensive:1 editing:1 multiple:1 layer:1 bce:3 exilic:3 deutero:3 post:2 trito:1 jeremiah:5 neriah:2 affinity:1 lamentation:1 dispute:7 mesopotamian:1 city:1 ur:1 know:1 living:1 alexandria:1 shortly:1 ezekiel:3 degree:1 attribution:1 folk:1 tale:1 hosea:2 eight:3 bcan:1 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7,217 | Mira | Mira, , also known as Omicron Ceti (or ο Ceti / ο Cet), is a red giant star estimated 200-400 light years away in the constellation Cetus. Mira is a binary star, consisting of the red giant Mira A along with Mira B. Mira A is also an oscillating variable star and was the first non-supernova variable star discovered, with the possible exception of Algol. Apart from the unusual Eta Carinae, Mira is the brightest periodic variable in the sky that is not visible to the naked eye for part of its cycle. Its distance is uncertain; pre-Hipparcos estimates centered around 220 light-years,(1) while Hipparcos data suggests a distance of 418 light-years, albeit with a margin of error of ~14%. Observation history Evidence that the variability of Mira was known in ancient China, Babylon or Greece is at best only circumstantial. What is certain is that the variability of Mira was recorded by the astronomer David Fabricius beginning on August 3, 1596. Observing the planet Mercury, he needed a reference star for comparing positions and picked a previously unremarked third-magnitude star nearby. By August 21, however, it had increased in brightness by one magnitude, then by October had faded from view. Fabricius assumed it was a nova, but then saw it again on February 16, 1609 . In 1638 Johannes Holwarda determined a period of the star's reappearances, eleven months; he is often credited with the discovery of Mira's variability. Johannes Hevelius was observing it at the same time and named it "Mira" (meaning "wonderful" or "astonishing," in Latin) in 1662's Historiola Mirae Stellae, for it acted like no other known star. Ismail Bouillaud then estimated its period at 333 days, less than one day off the modern value of 332 days (and perfectly forgivable, as Mira is known to vary slightly in period, and may even be slowly changing over time). There is considerable speculation as to whether Mira had been observed prior to Fabricius. Certainly Algol's history (known for certain as a variable only in 1667, but with legends and such dating back to antiquity showing that it had been observed with suspicion for millennia) suggests that Mira might have been known too. Karl Manitius, a translator of Hipparchus' Commentary on Aratus, has suggested that certain lines from that second century text may be about Mira. The other pre-telescopic Western catalogs of Ptolemy, al-Sufi, Ulugh Beg, and Tycho Brahe turn up no mentions, even as a regular star. There are three observations from Chinese and Korean archives, in 1596, 1070, and the same year when Hipparchus would have made his observation (134 BC) that are suggestive, but the Chinese practice of pinning down observations no more precisely than within a given Chinese constellation makes it difficult to be sure. System Component A Mira A is currently an Asymptotic Giant Branch (AGB) star, in the thermally pulsing AGB phase. Each pulse lasts a decade or more, and an amount of time on the order of 10,000 years passes between each pulse. With every pulse cycle Mira increases in luminosity and the pulses grow stronger. This is also causing dynamic instability in Mira, resulting in dramatic changes in luminosity and size over shorter, irregular time periods. The overall shape of Mira A has been observed to change, exhibiting pronounced departures from symmetry. These appear to be caused by bright spots on the surface that evolve their shape on time scales of 3–14 months. Observations of Mira A in the ultraviolet band by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown a plume-like feature pointing toward the companion star. Variability Mira A is a well-known example of a category of variable stars known as Mira variables, which are named after this star. It—and the other ca 6000-7000 known stars of this class GCVS: vartype.txt from the GCVS catalogue (statistics at the end of the file indicate 6006 mirae and 1237 probable mirae) —are all red giants whose surfaces oscillate in such a way as to increase and decrease in brightness over periods ranging from about 80 to more than 1000 days. In the particular case of Mira, its increases in brightness take it up to about magnitude 3.5 on average, placing it among the brighter stars in the Cetus constellation. Individual cycles vary too; well-attested maxima go as high as magnitude 2.0 in brightness and as low as 4.9, a range almost 15 times in brightness, and there are historical suggestions that the real spread may be three times this or more. Minima range much less, and have historically been between 8.6 and 10.1, a factor of four times in luminosity. The total swing in brightness from absolute maximum to absolute minimum (two events which did not occur on the same cycle) is 1700 times. Interestingly, since Mira emits the vast majority of its radiation in the infrared, its variability in that band is only about two magnitudes.(2) The shape of its light curve is of an increase over about 100 days, and a return twice as long. Mass loss Ultraviolet mosaic of Mira's bow shock and tail Ultra-violet studies of Mira by NASA's Galaxy Evolution Explorer (Galex) space telescope have revealed that it sheds a trail of material from the outer envelope, creating a tail 13 light-years in length, formed over tens of thousands of years. Minkel, JR. "Shooting Bullet Star Leaves Vast Ultraviolet Wake", "The Scientific American", August 15 2007 Accessed August 21 2007. It is thought that a hot bow-wave of compressed plasma/gas is the cause of the tail; the bow-wave is a result of the interaction of the stellar wind from Mira A with gas in the interstellar space, through which Mira is moving at an extremely high speed of 130 kilometres/second. The tail consists of material stripped from the head of the bow-wave, which is also visible in ultra-violet observations. Mira's lost material will eventually be illuminated in a planetary nebulae, the shaping of which will be considerably affected by the motion through the interstellar medium (ISM). Component B The companion star was resolved by the Hubble Space Telescope in 1995, when it was 70 astronomical units from the primary; results were announced in 1997. The HST ultraviolet images and later X-ray images by the Chandra space telescope show a spiral of gas rising off Mira in the direction of Mira B. The companion's orbital period around Mira is approximately 400 years. In 2007, observations showed a protoplanetary disc around the companion, Mira B. This disc is being accreted from material in the solar wind from Mira and could eventually form new planets. These observations also revealed that the companion is most likely a main sequence star of around 0.7 solar masses and spectral type K, instead of a white dwarf as previously believed. References See also Mira in fiction External links Mira – Bizarre Star at NASA History of Mira's Discovery at AAVSO Mira has tail nearly 13 light years in length (BBC) Speeding Bullet Star Leaves Enormous Streak Across Sky at Caltech Astronomy Picture of the Day:1998-10-11, 2001-01-21, 2006-07-22, 2007-02-21, 2007-08-17 Robert Burnham Jr., Burnham's Celestial Handbook, Vol. 1, (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1978), 634. James Kaler, The Hundred Greatest Stars, (New York: Copernicus Books, 2002), 121. SEDS article A recent lightcurve of Mira from the BAV. Universe Today, That's Not a Comet, that's a Star | Mira |@lemmatized mira:38 also:6 know:8 omicron:1 ceti:2 ο:2 cet:1 red:3 giant:4 star:22 estimate:3 light:6 year:9 away:1 constellation:3 cetus:2 binary:1 consist:2 along:1 b:4 oscillate:2 variable:6 first:1 non:1 supernova:1 discover:1 possible:1 exception:1 algol:2 apart:1 unusual:1 eta:1 carina:1 bright:2 periodic:1 sky:2 visible:2 naked:1 eye:1 part:1 cycle:4 distance:2 uncertain:1 pre:2 hipparcos:2 center:1 around:4 data:1 suggest:3 albeit:1 margin:1 error:1 observation:8 history:3 evidence:1 variability:5 ancient:1 china:1 babylon:1 greece:1 best:1 circumstantial:1 certain:3 record:1 astronomer:1 david:1 fabricius:3 begin:1 august:4 observe:5 planet:2 mercury:1 need:1 reference:2 compare:1 position:1 pick:1 previously:2 unremarked:1 third:1 magnitude:5 nearby:1 however:1 increase:5 brightness:6 one:2 october:1 fade:1 view:1 assume:1 nova:1 saw:1 february:1 johannes:2 holwarda:1 determine:1 period:6 reappearance:1 eleven:1 month:2 often:1 credit:1 discovery:2 hevelius:1 time:9 name:2 mean:1 wonderful:1 astonish:1 latin:1 historiola:1 mirae:3 stellae:1 act:1 like:2 ismail:1 bouillaud:1 day:6 less:2 modern:1 value:1 perfectly:1 forgivable:1 vary:2 slightly:1 may:3 even:2 slowly:1 change:3 considerable:1 speculation:1 whether:1 prior:1 certainly:1 legend:1 date:1 back:1 antiquity:1 show:4 suspicion:1 millennium:1 might:1 karl:1 manitius:1 translator:1 hipparchus:2 commentary:1 aratus:1 line:1 second:2 century:1 text:1 telescopic:1 western:1 catalog:1 ptolemy:1 al:1 sufi:1 ulugh:1 beg:1 tycho:1 brahe:1 turn:1 mention:1 regular:1 three:2 chinese:3 korean:1 archive:1 would:1 make:2 bc:1 suggestive:1 practice:1 pin:1 precisely:1 within:1 give:1 difficult:1 sure:1 system:1 component:2 currently:1 asymptotic:1 branch:1 agb:2 thermally:1 pulse:5 phase:1 last:1 decade:1 amount:1 order:1 pass:1 every:1 luminosity:3 grow:1 strong:1 cause:3 dynamic:1 instability:1 result:3 dramatic:1 size:1 short:1 irregular:1 overall:1 shape:3 exhibit:1 pronounced:1 departure:1 symmetry:1 appear:1 spot:1 surface:2 evolve:1 scale:1 ultraviolet:4 band:2 hubble:2 space:5 telescope:4 plume:1 feature:1 point:1 toward:1 companion:5 well:2 example:1 category:1 ca:1 known:1 class:1 gcvs:2 vartype:1 txt:1 catalogue:1 statistic:1 end:1 file:1 indicate:1 probable:1 whose:1 way:1 decrease:1 range:3 particular:1 case:1 take:1 average:1 place:1 among:1 brighter:1 individual:1 attest:1 maxima:1 go:1 high:2 low:1 almost:1 historical:1 suggestion:1 real:1 spread:1 minima:1 much:1 historically:1 factor:1 four:1 total:1 swing:1 absolute:2 maximum:1 minimum:1 two:2 event:1 occur:1 interestingly:1 since:1 emit:1 vast:2 majority:1 radiation:1 infrared:1 curve:1 return:1 twice:1 long:1 mass:2 loss:1 mosaic:1 bow:4 shock:1 tail:5 ultra:2 violet:2 study:1 nasa:2 galaxy:1 evolution:1 explorer:1 galex:1 reveal:2 shed:1 trail:1 material:4 outer:1 envelope:1 create:1 length:2 form:2 ten:1 thousand:1 minkel:1 jr:2 shoot:1 bullet:2 leave:2 wake:1 scientific:1 american:1 access:1 think:1 hot:1 wave:3 compressed:1 plasma:1 gas:3 interaction:1 stellar:1 wind:2 interstellar:2 move:1 extremely:1 speed:2 kilometre:1 strip:1 head:1 lose:1 eventually:2 illuminate:1 planetary:1 nebula:1 shaping:1 considerably:1 affect:1 motion:1 medium:1 ism:1 resolve:1 astronomical:1 unit:1 primary:1 announce:1 hst:1 image:2 later:1 x:1 ray:1 chandra:1 spiral:1 rise:1 direction:1 orbital:1 approximately:1 protoplanetary:1 disc:2 accrete:1 solar:2 could:1 new:3 likely:1 main:1 sequence:1 spectral:1 type:1 k:1 instead:1 white:1 dwarf:1 believe:1 see:1 fiction:1 external:1 link:1 bizarre:1 aavso:1 nearly:1 bbc:1 enormous:1 streak:1 across:1 caltech:1 astronomy:1 picture:1 robert:1 burnham:2 celestial:1 handbook:1 vol:1 york:2 dover:1 publication:1 inc:1 james:1 kaler:1 hundred:1 great:1 copernicus:1 book:1 seds:1 article:1 recent:1 lightcurve:1 bav:1 universe:1 today:1 comet:1 |@bigram eta_carina:1 visible_naked:1 naked_eye:1 tycho_brahe:1 asymptotic_giant:1 vast_majority:1 ultra_violet:2 planetary_nebula:1 external_link:1 dover_publication:1 |
7,218 | Levant | The Levant, narrowly defined. The Levant, comprising Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Territories, and Syria. The Levant () (, , also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) describes, traditionally, the eastern Mediterranean at large, but can be used as a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia formed by the lands bordering the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, roughly bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains, on the south by the Arabian Desert, and on the west by the Mediterranean Sea, while on the east it extends towards the Zagros Mountains. Levant was originally applied to the "Mediterranean lands east of Italy", from the Middle French word levant meaning "the Orient". Historically, the "trade on the Levant" between Western Europe and the Ottoman Empire was of great economic importance. An imprecise term, Levant refers to an area of cultural habitation rather than to a specific geographic region, and its meaning shifts according to historical and cultural reference and preference. Etymology Inhabitants of the Levant, late nineteenth century. The term Levant, which first appeared in English in 1497, originally meant a wider sense of "Mediterranean lands east of Venetia", as in French soleil levant "rising Sun" — from the verb lever, "to rise", from Latin levare "to raise". It thus referred to the Eastern direction of the rising Sun from the perspective of those who first used it and has analogues in other languages, notably Morgenland – or a closely related word meaning morning land – in most Germanic languages. This is similar to the Ancient Greek name Ανατολία (Anatolía), which means the "land of the rising Sun", or simply the East. It derives from "the rise", especially "the sunrise", resp. from = to rise, esp. said of the Sun or Moon ( = up, above + = to go, rise, come into existence). For the Greeks, Ανατολία (Anatolía) is a synonym of (Mikrá Asía = Asia Minor), not of Levant, which is Λεβάντες (Levándes) in Modern Greek. Likewise, the Arabic term Mashriq, derived from the Arabic consonantal root sh-r-q (ش ر ق), relating to "the east" or "the sunrise", refers to "the land where the Sun rises", and designates a broad area encompassing the Levant. However, the most equivalent historically used Arabic term for the Levant is the "Sham" (الشام), now mostly used by Arabs in reference to Greater Syria; the same name "Sham" is also one of the Arabic names for Damascus. "Capitulations" The term became current in English in the 16th century, along with the first English merchant adventurers in the region: English ships appeared in the Mediterranean in the 1570s and the English merchant company signed its agreement ("capitulations") with the Grand Turk in 1579 (Braudel). In 19th-century travel writing, the term incorporated eastern regions under then current or recent governance of the Ottoman empire, such as Greece. In 19th-century archaeology, it referred to overlapping cultures in this region during and after prehistoric times, intending to reference the place instead of any one culture. Since World War I When the United Kingdom took over Palestine in the aftermath of the First World War, some of the new rulers adapted the term pejoratively to refer to inhabitants of mixed Arab and European descent and to Europeans (usually French, Italian or Greek) who had assimilated and adopted local dress and customs. The French Mandates of Syria and Lebanon, from 1920 to 1946, were called the Levant states. The term became common in archaeology at that time, as many important early excavations were made then, such as Mari and Ugarit. Since these sites could not be classified as Mesopotamian, North Africa, or Arabian, they came to be referred to as "Levantine." Today "Levant" is typically used by archaeologists and historians with reference to the prehistory and the ancient and medieval history of the region, as when discussing the Crusades. The term is also occasionally employed to refer to modern or contemporary events, peoples, states or parts of states in the same region, namely Israel and the Palestinian territories, Lebanon, Jordan,and Syria (compare Near East and Middle East). Further uses The name Levantine (French: Levantine, Italian: Levantino, Turkish: Levanten) is additionally applied to people of Italian (especially Venetian and Genoese), French, or other Euro-Mediterranean origin who have lived in Istanbul, İzmir and other parts of Anatolia (in present-day Turkey) or the eastern Mediterranean coast (the Levant, particularly in present-day Lebanon and Israel) since the period of the Crusades, the Byzantine period and the Ottoman period. The majority of them are descendants of traders from the maritime republics of the Mediterranean (such as the Republic of Venice, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Ragusa) or of the inhabitants of the Crusader states (especially the French Levantines in Lebanon, Israel and Turkey). They continue to live in Istanbul (mostly in the districts of Galata, Beyoğlu and Nişantaşı) and İzmir (mostly in the districts of Karşıyaka, Bornova and Buca.) Famous people of the present-day Levantine community in Turkey include Caroline Giraud Koç Sabah daily newspaper: "Onlar İzmirli Hristiyan Türkler" and Giovanni Scognamillo. NTV-MSNBC: "Giovanni Scognamillo ile sinema üzerine" See also Near East Fertile Crescent Greater Syria Mesopotamia Mediterranean Sea Eastern Mediterranean History of the Levant Mashriq Canaan Land of Israel Amarna letters Council for British Research in the Levant Phoenicia References Braudel, Fernand, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Phillip II Julia Chatzipanagioti: Griechenland, Zypern, Balkan und Levante. Eine kommentierte Bibliographie der Reiseliteratur des 18. Jahrhunderts. 2 Vol. Eutin 2006. ISBN 3981067428 http://www.levantine.plus.com/index.htm. Levantine Heritage Site. Includes many oral and scholarly histories, and genealogies for some Levantine Turkish families. External links The History of the Ancient Near East The Ancient Levant Levantine Cultural Center in Los Angeles | Levant |@lemmatized levant:19 narrowly:1 define:1 comprise:1 israel:5 jordan:2 lebanon:5 palestinian:2 territory:2 syria:5 also:4 commonly:1 know:1 الشام:2 ash:1 shām:1 describe:1 traditionally:1 eastern:6 mediterranean:13 large:2 use:6 geographical:1 term:10 denote:1 area:3 western:2 asia:2 form:1 land:7 border:1 shore:1 roughly:1 bound:1 north:2 taurus:1 mountain:2 south:1 arabian:2 desert:1 west:1 sea:2 east:9 extend:1 towards:1 zagros:1 originally:2 apply:2 italy:1 middle:2 french:7 word:2 meaning:3 orient:1 historically:2 trade:1 europe:1 ottoman:3 empire:2 great:3 economic:1 importance:1 imprecise:1 refers:2 cultural:3 habitation:1 rather:1 specific:1 geographic:1 region:6 shift:1 accord:1 historical:1 reference:5 preference:1 etymology:1 inhabitant:3 late:1 nineteenth:1 century:4 first:4 appear:2 english:5 mean:2 wider:1 sense:1 venetia:1 soleil:1 rise:8 sun:5 verb:1 lever:1 latin:1 levare:1 raise:1 thus:1 refer:5 direction:1 perspective:1 analogue:1 language:2 notably:1 morgenland:1 closely:1 related:1 morning:1 germanic:1 similar:1 ancient:4 greek:4 name:4 ανατολία:2 anatolía:2 simply:1 derive:2 especially:3 sunrise:2 resp:1 esp:1 say:1 moon:1 go:1 come:2 existence:1 synonym:1 mikrá:1 asía:1 minor:1 λεβάντες:1 levándes:1 modern:2 likewise:1 arabic:4 mashriq:2 consonantal:1 root:1 sh:1 r:1 q:1 ش:1 ر:1 ق:1 relate:1 designate:1 broad:1 encompass:1 however:1 equivalent:1 sham:2 mostly:3 arab:2 one:2 damascus:1 capitulation:2 become:2 current:2 along:1 merchant:2 adventurer:1 ship:1 company:1 sign:1 agreement:1 grand:1 turk:1 braudel:2 travel:1 writing:1 incorporated:1 recent:1 governance:1 greece:1 archaeology:2 overlap:1 culture:2 prehistoric:1 time:2 intend:1 place:1 instead:1 since:3 world:3 war:2 united:1 kingdom:1 take:1 palestine:1 aftermath:1 new:1 ruler:1 adapt:1 pejoratively:1 mixed:1 european:2 descent:1 usually:1 italian:3 assimilate:1 adopt:1 local:1 dress:1 custom:1 mandate:1 call:1 state:4 common:1 many:2 important:1 early:1 excavation:1 make:1 mari:1 ugarit:1 site:2 could:1 classify:1 mesopotamian:1 africa:1 levantine:9 today:1 typically:1 archaeologist:1 historian:1 prehistory:1 medieval:1 history:4 discuss:1 crusade:2 occasionally:1 employ:1 contemporary:1 event:1 people:3 part:2 namely:1 compare:1 near:3 far:1 levantino:1 turkish:2 levanten:1 additionally:1 venetian:1 genoese:1 euro:1 origin:1 live:2 istanbul:2 zmir:2 anatolia:1 present:3 day:3 turkey:3 coast:1 particularly:1 period:3 byzantine:1 majority:1 descendant:1 trader:1 maritime:1 republic:4 venice:1 genoa:1 ragusa:1 crusader:1 continue:1 district:2 galata:1 beyoğlu:1 nişantaşı:1 karşıyaka:1 bornova:1 buca:1 famous:1 community:1 include:2 caroline:1 giraud:1 koç:1 sabah:1 daily:1 newspaper:1 onlar:1 zmirli:1 hristiyan:1 türkler:1 giovanni:2 scognamillo:2 ntv:1 msnbc:1 ile:1 sinema:1 üzerine:1 see:1 fertile:1 crescent:1 mesopotamia:1 canaan:1 amarna:1 letter:1 council:1 british:1 research:1 phoenicia:1 fernand:1 age:1 phillip:1 ii:1 julia:1 chatzipanagioti:1 griechenland:1 zypern:1 balkan:1 und:1 levante:1 eine:1 kommentierte:1 bibliographie:1 der:1 reiseliteratur:1 des:1 jahrhunderts:1 vol:1 eutin:1 isbn:1 http:1 www:1 plus:1 com:1 index:1 htm:1 heritage:1 oral:1 scholarly:1 genealogy:1 family:1 external:1 link:1 center:1 los:1 angeles:1 |@bigram zagros_mountain:1 ottoman_empire:2 nineteenth_century:1 soleil_levant:1 closely_related:1 merchant_adventurer:1 fertile_crescent:1 amarna_letter:1 braudel_fernand:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 los_angeles:1 |
7,219 | Anthony_the_Great | Anthony the Great (c 251 – 356), also known as Saint Anthony, Anthony the Abbot, Anthony of Egypt, Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Anchorite, Abba Antonius (Ἀβᾶς Ἀντώνιος), and Father of All Monks, was a Christian saint from Egypt, a prominent leader among the Desert Fathers. He is celebrated in many churches on his feast days: 17 January in the Eastern Orthodox Church and Western churches; and Tobi 22, (January 30) in the Coptic Orthodox Church and the Coptic Catholic Church. The biography of Anthony's life by Athanasius of Alexandria helped to spread the concept of monasticism, particularly in Western Europe through Latin translations. Anthony is appealed to against infectious diseases, particularly skin diseases. "Saint Anthony's fire" has described different afflictions including ergotism and erysipelas. Life Most of what is known about the life of Anthony comes from the Life of Anthony, written in Greek around 360 by Athanasius of Alexandria. Sometime before 374, it was translated into Latin by Evagrius of Antioch. The Latin translation helped the Life become one of the best known works of literature in the Christian world, a status it would hold through the Middle Ages. White, 4. In addition to the Life, several surviving homilies and epistles of varying authenticity provide some additional autobiographical detail. Anthony was born in Coma near Herakleopolis Magna in Lower Egypt in 251 to wealthy landowner parents. When he was about 18 years old, his parents died and left him with the care of his unmarried sister. In 285, at the age of 34, he decided to follow the words of Jesus, who had said: "If you want to be perfect, go, sell what you have and give to the poor, and you will have treasures in heaven; and come, follow Me." Mt 19:21 Taking these words quite literally, Anthony gave away some of the family estate to his neighbors, sold the remaining property, donated the funds thus raised to the poor, placed his sister with a group of Christian virgins, Athanasius of Alexandria, Life of Antony, 3. In Early Christian Lives, Carolinne White, trans. (London: Penguin Books, 1998), p. 10. a sort of proto-nunnery at the time, and himself became the disciple of a local hermit. Burns, Paul, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints:New Full Edition January vol. Collegeville, MN:The Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-2377-8. The appellation "Father of Monasticism" is misleading, as Christian monasticism was already being practiced in the deserts of Egypt. Ascetics commonly retired to isolated locations on the outskirts of cities. Anthony is notable for being one of the first ascetics to attempt living in the desert proper, completely cut off from civilization. His anchoritic lifestyle was remarkably harsher than his predecessors. By the 2nd century there were also famous Christian ascetics, such as Saint Thecla. Saint Anthony decided to follow this tradition and headed out into the alkaline desert region called the Nitra in Latin (Wadi El Natrun today), about 95 km west of Alexandria, some of the most rugged terrain of the Western Desert. Here he remained for some thirteen years. Also note that the Therapeutae, pagan ascetic hermits and loosely organized cenobitic communities described by the Hellenized Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria in the first century, were long established in the harsh environments by the Lake Mareotis close to Alexandria, and in other less-accessible regions. Philo understood that for "this class of persons may be met with in many places, for both Greece and barbarian countries want to enjoy whatever is perfectly good." Philo,De vita contemplativa According to Athanasius, the devil fought St. Anthony by afflicting him with boredom, laziness, and the phantoms of women, which he overcame by the power of prayer, providing a theme for Christian art. After that, he moved to a tomb, where he resided and closed the door on himself, depending on some local villagers who brought him food. When the devil perceived his ascetic life and his intense worship, he was envious and beat him mercilessly, leaving him unconscious. When his friends from the local village came to visit him and found him in this condition, they carried him to a church. After he recovered, he made a second effort and went back to the desert, further out, to a mountain by the Nile, called Pispir, now Der el Memun, opposite Crocodilopolis. There he lived strictly enclosed in an old abandoned Roman fort for some twenty years. According to Athanasius, the devil again resumed his war against Saint Anthony, only this time the phantoms were in the form of wild beasts, wolves, lions, snakes and scorpions. They appeared as if they were about to attack him or cut him into pieces. But the saint would laugh at them scornfully and say, "If any of you have any authority over me, only one would have been sufficient to fight me." At his saying this, they disappeared as though in smoke, and God gave him the victory over the devil. While in the fort he only communicated with the outside world by a crevice through which food would be passed and he would say a few words. Saint Anthony would prepare a quantity of bread that would sustain him for six months. He did not allow anyone to enter his cell: whoever came to him, stood outside and listened to his advice. The former main altar of the hermitage church in Warfhuizen in the Netherlands with a mural of Anthony Abbot and a reliquary with some of his relics. Since then they have been moved to a new golden shrine on a side-altar especially made for them. Then one day he emerged from the fort with the help of villagers to break down the door. By this time most had expected him to have wasted away, or gone insane in his solitary confinement, but he emerged healthy, serene, and enlightened. Everyone was amazed that he had been through these trials and emerged spiritually rejuvenated. He was hailed as a hero and from this time forth the legend of Anthony began to spread and grow. Anthony went to the Fayyum and confirmed the brethren there in the Christian faith, then returned to his old Roman fort. In 311, Anthony wished to become a martyr and went to Alexandria. He visited those who were imprisoned for the sake of Christ and comforted them. When the Governor saw that he was confessing his Christianity publicly, not caring what might happen to him, he ordered him not to show up in the city. However, the Saint did not heed his threats. He faced him and argued with him in order that he might arouse his anger so that he might be tortured and martyred, but it did not happen. He left Alexandria to return to the old Roman fort upon the end of the persecutions. Here, many came to visit him and to hear his teachings. He saw that these visits kept him away from his worship. As a result, he went further into the Eastern Desert of Egypt. He travelled to the inner wilderness for three days, until he found a spring of water and some palm trees, and then he chose to settle there. On this spot now stands the monastery of Saint Anthony the Great. There, he anticipated the rule of Benedict of Nursia, "pray and work", by engaging himself and his disciple or disciples in manual labor. Anthony himself cultivated a garden and weaved mats of rushes. He and his disciples were regularly sought out for words of enlightenment. These statements were later collected into the book of Sayings of the Desert Fathers. Anthony himself is said to have spoken to those of a spiritual disposition personally, leaving the task of addressing the more worldly visitors to Macarius. On occasions, he would go to the monastery on the outskirts of the desert by the Nile to visit the brethren, then return to his inner monastery. The backstory of one of the surviving epistles, directed to Constantine I recounts how the fame of Saint Anthony spread abroad and reached Emperor Constantine. The Emperor wrote to him, offering him praise and asked him to pray for him. The brethren were pleased with the Emperor's letter, but Anthony did not pay any attention to it, and he said to them, "The books of God, the King of Kings and the Lord of Lords, commands us everyday, but we do not heed what they tell us, and we turn our backs on them." Under the persistence of the brethren who told him, "Emperor Constantine loves the church," he accepted to write him a letter blessing him, and praying for the peace and safety of the empire and the church. Painting of Saint Anthony by Piero di Cosimo ca. 1480 According to Athanasius, Saint Anthony heard a voice telling him, "Go out and see." He went out and saw an angel who wore a girdle with a cross, one resembling the holy Eskiem (Tonsure or Schema), and on his head was a head cover (Kolansowa). He was sitting while braiding palm leaves, then he stood up to pray, and again he sat to weave. A voice came to him saying, "Anthony, do this and you will rest." Henceforth, he started to wear this tunic that he saw, and began to weave palm leaves, and never got bored again. Saint Anthony prophesied about the persecution that was about to happen to the church and the control of the heretics over it, the church victory and its return to its formal glory, and the end of the age. When Saint Macarius visited Saint Anthony, Saint Anthony clothed him with the monk's garb, and foretold him what would be of him. When the day drew near of the departure of Saint Paul the First Hermit in the desert, Saint Anthony went to him and buried him, after clothing him in a tunic which was a present from St Athanasius the Apostolic, the 20th Patriarch of Alexandria. In 338, he was summoned by Athanasius of Alexandria to help refute the teachings of Arius. Final days When Saint Anthony felt that the day of his departure had approached, he commanded his disciples to give his staff to Saint Macarius, and to give one sheepskin cloak to Saint Athanasius and the other sheepskin cloak to Saint Serapion, his disciple. He further instructed his disciples to bury his body in an unmarked, secret grave, lest the Egyptians divide his body in pieces, as was the custom in Egypt. He stretched himself on the ground and gave up his spirit. Saint Anthony the Great lived for 105 years and departed on the year 356. He probably spoke only his native language, Coptic, but his sayings were spread in a Greek translation. He himself left no writings. His biography was written by Saint Athanasius and titled Life of Saint Anthony the Great. Many stories are also told about him in various collections of sayings of the Desert Fathers. Though Anthony himself did not organize or create a monastery, a community grew around him based on his example of living an ascetic and isolated life. Athanasius' biography helped propagate Anthony's ideals. Athanasius writes, "For monks, the life of Anthony is a sufficient example of asceticism." Temptation Famously, Anthony is said to have faced a series of supernatural temptations during his pilgrimage to the desert. The first to report on the temptation was his contemporary Athanasius of Alexandria. However, some modern scholars have argued that the demons and temptations that Anthony is reported to have faced may have been related to Athanasius by some of the simpler pilgrims who had visited him, who may have been conveying what they had been told in a manner more dramatic than it had been conveyed to them. It is possible these events, like the paintings, are full of rich metaphor or in the case of the animals of the desert, perhaps a vision or dream. Some of the stories included in Saint Anthony's biography are perpetuated now mostly in paintings, where they give an opportunity for artists to depict their more lurid or bizarre interpretations. Many artists, including Martin Schongauer, Hieronymus Bosch, Max Ernst, and Salvador Dalí, have depicted these incidents from the life of Anthony; in prose, the tale was retold and embellished by Gustave Flaubert in The Temptation of Saint Anthony. Emphasis on these stories, however, did not really begin until the Middle Ages, when the psychology of the individual became a greater interest. Below are some of these controversial tales. The satyr and the centaur Saint Anthony was on a journey in the desert to find Saint Paul. Saint Anthony had been under the impression that he was the first person to ever dwell in the desert; however, due to a vision, Saint Anthony was called into the desert to find his predecessor, Saint Paul. On his way there he ran into two demons in the forms of a centaur and a satyr. Many works of art depict Saint Anthony meeting with this centaur and satyr. Western theology considers these demons to have been temptations. At any rate, he was stopped by these demons and asked, "Who are you?" To that the satyr replied, "I am a corpse, one of those whom the heathen calls satyrs, and by them were snared into idolatry." The satyr then tried to terrify the saint while the centaur acknowledged the overthrow of the gods. In the end, the centaur tried to show Saint Anthony the way to his destination while the satyr ended up asking for Saint Anthony's blessing. St. Paul the Hermit, Catholic Encyclopedia Silver and gold Another time Saint Anthony was traveling in the desert he found a plate of silver coins in his path. He pondered for a moment as to why a plate of silver coins would be out in the desert where no one else travels. Then he realized the devil must have laid it out there to tempt him. To that he said, "Ha! Devil, thou weenest to tempt me and deceive me, but it shall not be in thy power." Once he said this, the plate of silver vanished. Saint Anthony continued walking along and saw a pile of gold in his way which the devil had laid there to deceive him. Saint Anthony cast the pile of gold into a fire, and it vanished just like the silver coins did. After these events, Saint Anthony had a vision where the whole world was full of snares and traps. He cried to the Lord, "Oh good Lord, who may escape from these snares?" A voice said back to him, "humility shall escape them without more." Demons in the cave One time Saint Anthony tried hiding in a cave to escape the demons that plagued him. There were so many little demons in the cave though that Saint Anthony's servant had to carry him out because they had beaten him to death. When the hermits were gathered to Saint Anthony's corpse to mourn his death, Saint Anthony was revived. He demanded that his servants take him back to that cave where the demons had beaten him. When he got there he called out to the demons, and they came back as wild beasts to rip him to shreds. All of a sudden a bright light flashed, and the demons ran away. Saint Anthony knew that the light must have come from God, and he asked God where was He before when the demons attacked him. God replied, "I was here but I would see and abide to see thy battle, and because thou hast manly fought and well maintained thy battle, I shall make thy name to be spread through all the world." http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/golden153.htm Veneration Pilgrimage banners from the shrine in Warfhuizen He was secretly buried on the mountain-top where he had chosen to live. His remains were reportedly discovered in 361, and transferred to Alexandria. Some time later, they were taken from Alexandria to Constantinople, so that they might escape the destruction being perpetrated by invading Saracens. Later, in the eleventh century, the emperor gave them to the French count Jocelin. Jocelin had them transferred to La-Motte-Saint-Didier, which was then renamed Saint-Antoine-en-Dauphiné. There, Anthony is credited with assisting in a number of miraculous healings, primarily from ergotism, which became known as "St. Anthony's Fire". He was credited by two local noblemen of assisting them in recovery from the disease. They then founded the Hospital Brothers of St. Anthony in honour of him. Veneration of Anthony in the East is more restrained. There are comparatively few icons and paintings of him. He is regarded as the "first master of the desert and the pinnacle of holy monks", however, and there are monastic communities of the Maronite, Chaldean, and Orthodox churches which state that they follow his monastic rule. During the Middle Ages, Anthony, along with Quirinus of Neuss, Cornelius and Hubertus, was venerated as one of the Four Holy Marshals (Vier Marschälle Gottes) in the Rhineland. Quirinus von Rom (von Neuss) - Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon marschaelle Die Kapelle Coptic literature Examples of purely Coptic literature are the works of Saint Anthony and Saint Pachomius, who only spoke Coptic, and the sermons and preachings of Saint Shenouda the Archmandrite, who chose to only write in Coptic. Saint Shenouda was a popular leader who only spoke to the Egyptians in Egyptian language (Coptic language), the language of the repressed, not in Greek, the language of the repressive ruler. The earliest original writings in Coptic language were the letters by Saint Anthony. During the 3rd and 4th centuries many ecclesiastics and monks wrote in Coptic. Encyclopedia Britannica See also Coptic Saints Hermit Monastery of Saint Anthony, Egypt Poustinia The Temptation of St. Anthony Notes References Notes The Greek Vita of Athanasius. Ed. by G. J. M. Bartelink ('Vie d'Antoine'). Paris 2000. Sources Chrétiennes 400. The almost contemporary Latin translation: in Heribert Rosweyd, Vitae Patrum (Migne, Patrologia Latina. lxxiii.). New critical edition and study of this Latin translation: P.H.E. Bertrand, Die Evagriusübersetzung der Vita Antonii: Rezeption - Überlieferung - Edition. Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Vitas Patrum-Tradition. Utrecht 2005 (dissertation) free available: An English translation: in Philip Schaff and Henry Wace, editors Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, vol. IV Full text on-line, with criticisms pro and con of the attribution of this vita to Athanasius. Accounts of St Anthony are given by Cardinal Newman ("Church of the Fathers" in Historical Sketches) and Alban Butler, Lives of the Saints (under Jan. 17). Burns, Paul, ed. Butler's Lives of the Saints: New Full Edition January vol. Collegeville, MN:The Liturgical Press. ISBN 0-8146-2377-8. A Hagiographic Account of the life of St. Anthony from the Coptic Church Historical and critical E. C. Butler, (1898, 1904). Lausiac History of Palladius, Part I. pp. 197, 215-228; Part II. pp. ix.-xii. (See Palladius of Galatia). S. Rubenson, 1995. The Letters of St. Antony : monasticism and the making of a saint (Minneapolis) An analysis of the letters, including authenticity and theological content. P.H.E. Bertrand, Die Evagriusübersetzung der Vita Antonii: Rezeption - Überlieferung - Edition. Unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der Vitas Patrum-Tradition. Utrecht 2005. [dissertation] [free available: Catholic Encyclopedia 1908: "St. Anthony the Great" Coptic Monastery of St Anthony the Great website Texts attributed to St Anthony "Discourse on Demons", translated by Rev. H. Ellershaw (on-line) "Letter To Theodore", translated by Rev. Daniel and Esmeralda Jennings (on-line) External links Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Anthony, Abbot Video of church historian Andrew Walls who tells the story of Anthony Venerable and God-bearing Father Anthony the Great Orthodox icon and synaxarion | Anthony_the_Great |@lemmatized anthony:77 great:8 c:2 also:5 know:4 saint:60 abbot:3 egypt:7 desert:20 anchorite:1 abba:1 antonius:1 ἀβᾶς:1 ἀντώνιος:1 father:8 monk:5 christian:8 prominent:1 leader:2 among:1 celebrate:1 many:8 church:15 feast:1 day:6 january:4 eastern:2 orthodox:4 western:4 tobi:1 coptic:13 catholic:5 biography:4 life:17 athanasius:16 alexandria:13 help:5 spread:5 concept:1 monasticism:4 particularly:2 europe:1 latin:6 translation:6 appeal:1 infectious:1 disease:3 skin:1 fire:3 describe:2 different:1 affliction:1 include:4 ergotism:2 erysipelas:1 come:8 write:7 greek:4 around:2 sometime:1 translate:3 evagrius:1 antioch:1 become:5 one:11 best:1 known:1 work:4 literature:3 world:4 status:1 would:11 hold:1 middle:3 age:5 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7,220 | Endometrium | The endometrium is the inner membrane of the mammalian uterus. Function The endometrium functions as a lining for the uterus, preventing adhesions between the opposed walls of the myometrium, thereby maintaining the patency of the uterine cavity. During the menstrual cycle or estrous cycle, the endometrium grows to a thick, blood vessel-rich, glandular tissue layer. This represents an optimal environment for the implantation of a blastocyst upon its arrival in the uterus. During pregnancy, the glands and blood vessels in the endometrium further increase in size and number. Vascular spaces fuse and become interconnected, forming the placenta, which supplies oxygen and nutrition to the embryo and fetus. Cycle The endometrial lining undergoes cyclic regeneration. Humans and the great apes display the menstrual cycle, whereas most other mammals are subject to an estrous cycle. In both cases, the endometrium initially proliferates under the influence of estrogen. However, once ovulation occurs, in addition to estrogen, the ovary will also start to produce progesterone. This changes the proliferative pattern of the endometrium to a secretory lining. Eventually, the secretory lining provides a hospitable environment for one or more blastocysts. If no blastocyst is detected, the progesterone level drops and the endometrial lining is either reabsorbed (estrous cycle) or shed (menstrual cycle). In the latter case, the process of shedding involves the breaking down of the lining, the tearing of small connective blood vessels, and the loss of the tissue and blood that had constituted it through the vagina. The entire process occurs over a period of several days. Menstruation may be accompanied by a series of uterine contractions; These help expel the menstrual endometrium. In case of implantation, however, the endometrial lining is neither absorbed nor shed. Instead, it remains as decidua. The decidua becomes part of the placenta; it provides support and protection for the gestation. If there is inadequate stimulation of the lining, due to lack of hormones, the endometrium remains thin and inactive. In humans, this will result in amenorrhea. After menopause, the lining is often described as being atrophic. In contrast, endometrium that is chronically exposed to estrogens, but not to progesterone, may become hyperplastic. In humans, the cycle of building and shedding the endometrial lining lasts an average of 28 days. The endometrium develops at different rates in different mammals. Its formation is sometimes affected by seasons, climate, stress, and other factors. The endometrium itself produces certain hormones at different points along the cycle. This affects other portions of the reproductive system. Histology High magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium due to exogenous progesterone (oral contraceptive pill). H&E stain. Low magnification micrograph of decidualized endometrium. H&E stain. The endometrium consists of a single layer of columnar epithelium, resting on a layer of connective tissue, which varies in thickness according to hormonal influences - the stroma. Simple tubular uterine glands reach from the endometrial surface through to the base of the stroma, which also carries a rich blood supply of spiral arteries. In a woman of reproductive age, two layers of endometrium can be distinguished. These two layers occur only in endometrium lining the cavity of the uterus, not in the lining of the Fallopian tubes: Blue Histology - Female Reproductive System. School of Anatomy and Human Biology - The University of Western Australia http://www.lab.anhb.uwa.edu.au/mb140/CorePages/FemaleRepro/FemaleRepro.htm Accessed 20061228 20:35 The functional layer is adjacent to the uterine cavity. This layer is built up after the end of menstruation during the first part of the previous menstrual cycle. Proliferation is induced by estrogen (follicular phase of menstrual cycle), and later changes in this layer are engendered by progestrone from the corpus luteum (luteal phase). It is adapted to provide an optimum environment for the implantation and growth of the embryo. This layer is completely shed during menstruation. The basal layer, adjacent to the myometrium and below the functional layer, is not shed at any time during the menstrual cycle, and from it the functional layer develops. In the absence of progesterone, the arteries supplying blood to the functional layer constrict, so that cells in that layer become ischaemic and die, leading to menstruation. It is possible to identify the phase of the menstrual cycle by observing histological differences at each phase: Phase Days Thickness Epithelium menstrual phase 1-4 thin absent proliferative phase 4-14 intermediate columnar secretory phase 15-28 thick columnar. Also visible are helicine branches of uterine artery Pathological conditions Adenomyosis is the growth of the endometrium into the muscle layer of the uterus (the myometrium). Endometriosis is the growth of endometrial tissue outside the uterus. Endometrial cancer is the most common cancer of the human female genital tract. Asherman's syndrome, also known as intrauterine adhesions occurs when the basal layer of the endometrium is damaged by instrumention (eg. D&C) or infection (eg. endometrial tuberculosis) resulting in endometrial sclerosis and adhesion formation partially or completely obliterating the uterine cavity. Click Here to Watch Video: "What Causes Endometriosis?" See also Menstrual cycle Estrous cycle Additional images References External links - "The uterus, uterine tubes and ovary with associated structures." - "Female Reproductive System uterus, endometrium" Histology at utah.edu. 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7,221 | Oswald_Spengler | Oswald Spengler Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (29 May 1880 Blankenburg am Harz – 8 May 1936, Munich) was a German historian and philosopher whose interests also included mathematics, science, and art. He is best known for his book The Decline of the West (Der Untergang des Abendlandes) in which he puts forth a cyclical theory of the rise and decline of civilizations. After Decline was published in 1918, Spengler produced his Prussianism and Socialism in 1920, in which he argued for an organic version of socialism and authoritarianism. He wrote extensively throughout World War I and the interwar period, and supported German hegemony in Europe. The National Socialists held Spengler as an intellectual precursor but he was ostracised after 1933 for his pessimism about Germany and Europe's future, his refusal to support Nazi ideas of racial superiority, and his critical work the Hour of Decision. Biography Oswald Spengler was born in 1880 in Blankenburg at the foot of the Harz mountains, the eldest of four children, and the only boy. His family was typically conservative German petit-bourgeoisie. His father, originally a mining technician, who came from a long line of mineworkers, was a post office bureaucrat. His childhood home was emotionally reserved, and the young Spengler turned to books and the great cultural personalities for succor. He suffered imperfect health, and was a lifelong sufferer of migraine headaches and an anxiety complex. At the age of ten, his family moved to the university city of Halle. Here Spengler received a classical education at the local Gymnasium (high school), studying Greek, Latin, mathematics and natural sciences. Here, too, he developed his affinity for the arts — especially poetry, drama, and music — and came under the influence of the ideas of Goethe and Nietzsche. He even experimented with a few artistic creations, some of which still survive. After his father's death in 1901, Spengler attended several universities (Munich, Berlin, and Halle) as a private scholar, taking courses in a wide range of subjects: history, philosophy, mathematics, natural science, literature, the classics, music, and fine arts. His private studies were undirected. In 1903, he failed his doctoral thesis on Heraclitus because of insufficient references, which effectively ended a chance for an academic career. In 1904, he received his Ph.D., and in 1905 suffered a nervous breakdown. Scholars remark that his life seemed rather uneventful. He briefly served as a teacher in Saarbrücken and then Düsseldorf. From 1908 to 1911 he taught at a practical high school (Realgymnasium) in Hamburg, where he taught science, German history, and mathematics. In 1911, following his mother's death, he moved to Munich, where he would live until his death in 1936. He lived as a cloistered scholar, supported by his modest inheritance. Spengler lived on very limited means and was marked by loneliness. He owned no books, and took jobs as a tutor or writing for magazines to earn an additional income. He began work on the first volume of Decline intending to focus on Germany within Europe at first, but was deeply affected by the Agadir Crisis, and widened the scope of his study. Spengler was inspired by Otto Seeck's work The Decline of Antiquity in naming his own effort. The book was completed in 1914, but publishing was delayed by World War I. During the war, his inheritance was largely useless because it was invested overseas; thus Spengler lived in genuine poverty for this period. After Decline came out in 1917, it was a wild success because of the perceived national humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles and later the economic depression around 1923 fueled by hyperinflation seemed to prove Spengler right (Spengler had in fact believed that Germany would win while he was writing the book). It comforted Germans because it seemingly rationalized their downfall as part of larger world-historical processes. It was widely successful outside of Germany as well, and by 1919 had been translated into several other languages. He rejected a subsequent offer to become Professor of Philosophy at the University of Goettingen, saying he needed time to focus on writing. The book was widely discussed, even by those who had not read it. Historians took umbrage at an amateur effort by an untrained author and his unapologetically non-scientific approach. Thomas Mann compared reading Spengler's book to reading Schopenhauer for the first time. Academics gave it a mixed reception. Max Weber described Spengler as a "very ingenious and learned dilettante" while Karl Popper described the thesis as "pointless". The great historian of antiquity Eduard Meyer thought highly of Spengler, although he also had some criticisms of him. Spengler's obscurity, intuitionalism, and mysticism were easy targets, especially for the Positivists and neo-Kantians who saw no meaning in history. The critic and æsthete Count Harry Graf Kessler thought him unoriginal and rather inane, especially with regards to his work on Nietzsche. Ludwig Wittgenstein, however, shared Spengler's cultural pessimism. Spengler's work became an important foundation for the social cycle theory. A 1928 Time review of the second volume of Decline described the immense influence and controversy Spengler's ideas enjoyed during the 1920s: "When the first volume of The Decline of the West appeared in Germany a few years ago, thousands of copies were sold. Cultivated European discourse quickly became Spengler-saturated. Spenglerism spurted from the pens of countless disciples. It was imperative to read Spengler, to sympathize or revolt. It still remains so." In the second volume, published in 1920, Spengler argued that German socialism was different from Marxism, and was in fact compatible with traditional German conservatism. In 1924, following the social-economic upheaval and inflation, Spengler entered politics in an effort to bring Reichswehr general Hans von Seeckt to power as the country's leader. The effort failed and Spengler proved ineffective in practical politics. In 1931, he published Man and Technics, which warned against the dangers of technology and industrialism to culture. He especially pointed to the tendency of Western technology to spread to hostile "Colored races" that would then use the weapons against the West. It was poorly received because of its anti-industrialism. This book contains the well-known Spengler quote, "Optimism is cowardice." Despite voting for Hitler over Hindenburg in 1932, Spengler found the Führer vulgar. He met Hitler in 1933 and after a lengthy discussion remained unimpressed, saying that Germany didn't need a "heroic tenor (Heldentenor: one of several conventional tenor classifications) but a real hero ("Held")." He publicly quarreled with Alfred Rosenberg, and his pessimism and remarks about the Führer resulted in isolation and public silence. He further rejected offers from Joseph Goebbels to give public speeches. However, Spengler did become a member of the Academy of Germany in the course of the year. The Hour of Decision, published in 1934, was a bestseller, but was later banned by the Nazis for its critiques of National Socialism. Spengler's criticisms of liberalism were welcomed by the Nazis, but Spengler disagreed with their biological ideology and anti-Semitism. While racial mysticism played a key role in his own worldview, Spengler had always been an outspoken critic of the pseudoscientific racial theories professed by the Nazis and many others in his time, and was not inclined to change his views upon Hitler's rise to power. Although himself a German nationalist, Spengler also viewed the Nazis as too narrowly German, and not occidental enough to lead the fight against other peoples. The book also warned of a coming world war in which Western Civilization risked being destroyed, and was widely distributed abroad before eventually being banned in Germany. A Time review of The Hour of Decision noted his international popularity as a polemicist, observing that "When Oswald Spengler speaks, many a Western Worldling stops to listen." The review recommended the book for "readers who enjoy vigorous writing", who "will be glad to be rubbed the wrong way by Spengler's harsh aphorisms" and his pessimistic predictions. He spent his final years in Munich, listening to Beethoven, reading Molière and Shakespeare, buying several thousand books, and collecting ancient Turkish, Persian and Hindu weapons. He made occasional trips to the Harz mountains, and to Italy. Shortly before his death, in a letter to a friend, he remarked that "the German Reich in ten years will probably no longer exist". He died of a heart attack on May 8, 1936, three weeks before his 56th birthday and exactly nine years before the fall of the Third Reich. Although he was highly influential and internationally popular during the interwar period, Oswald Spengler's work fell into intellectual disrepute and obscurity following World War II. One of the main reasons he was widely disliked or ignored is that he had been a leading opponent of the Weimar Republic. Only recently has interest in Spengler been rekindled. His concepts, opinions, theories, and predictions remain controversial among admirers and detractors alike. The New Relevance of Oswald Spengler Influence In the July 10, 1920 issue of The Illustrated London News, G. K. Chesterton took issue with both pessimists (such as Spengler) and their optimistic critics, arguing that neither took into consideration human choice: "The pessimists believe that the cosmos is a clock that is running down; the progressives believe it is a clock that they themselves are winding up. But I happen to believe that the world is what we choose to make it, and that we are what we choose to make ourselves; and that our renascence or our ruin will alike, ultimately and equally, testify with a trumpet to our liberty." The Decline of the West was an important influence on historian Arnold J. Toynbee's similarly-themed work A Study of History. Spengler's concept of the 'Faustian' outlook was an important part of Herman Kahn's book The Year 2000. Kahn used the Spenglerian term to describe cultures that value continual, restless striving. He did not use it to refer to Faust's bargain or pact. Communal readings of The Decline of the West held great influence over the founding members of the Beat Generation. Spengler's vision of the cyclical nature of civilization and the contemporaneity of the end of the Western European cycle led William S. Burroughs, Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg to look for the seeds of the next cycle in the communities of which they were a part. Spengler has, among others, influenced Georg Henrik von Wright in his writing about society. Spengler was a pivotal influence on Francis Parker Yockey, who wrote Imperium as a sequel to The Decline of the West. Yockey called Spengler "The Philosopher of the Twentieth Century." Literary critic Northrop Frye said he "practically slept" with The Decline of the West "under my pillow for several years" while a student. Spengler's book inspired Frye to have his own "vision of coherence", resulting in Anatomy of Criticism. In his book World of Wonders writer Robertson Davies has narrator Magnus Eisengrim refer to Spengler's conception that the Middle Ages had a Magian World View, the view that the world was filled with wonders. So the title itself is Davies' nod to Oswald. Some also argue that he was a major influence on Samuel P. Huntington's controversial Clash of civilizations theory. In Germany the direction of his works is doubted today since it was also popular with supporters of National Socialism. James Blish's Cities in Flight tetralogy explicitly lists Spengler's theories as an influence on the future history of the Cities. It was sometimes believed Spengler was an intellectual influence on Charles Lindbergh's thinking as the controversial leader of the movement to keep America out of World War II, particularly on Lindbergh's view that Western nations should put aside their political differences and form an alliance against "foreign races" instead of fighting amongst themselves. Lindbergh also echoed Spengler's concern about the effects of industrialization and materialism on Western Civilization, and as well as Spengler's pessimism about the future. Aviation, Geography and Race, an article written by Charles Lindbergh for Reader's Digest that was printed in November 1939. The late paleoconservative political theorist Samuel Francis cited Spengler's views on race as influential on his own. Why Race Matters by Samuel Francis, American Renaissance, September 1994. Prospects for Racial and Cultural Survival by Samuel Francis, American Renaissance, March 1995. 'The Decline of West* influenced crucially Alexander Zelitchenko in his work on Light of Life, which in many respects simply continues Spengler's masterpiece, although corrects Spengler's position in many important moments. American authors influenced by Spengler include Henry Miller, John dos Passos, and F. Scott Fitzgerald, who once referred to himself as an "American Spenglerian." British novelist Malcolm Lowry, painter Oskar Kokoschka, orchestra director Wilhelm Furtwängler, and filmmaker Fritz Lang were also fans of Spengler's work. Praesidium 1.4 The Hour of Decision influenced Malcolm X's views on economics and his critiques of capitalism. Malcolm X agreed with Spengler's prediction that class conflict would eventually be surpassed by racial conflict. When asked about Karl Marx, Malcolm X (who had never read Marx) stated that he agreed with Spengler's view of social class and economic systems as secondary to racial identity. Martin Luther King, Jr. and Malcolm X: economic insights and influences by Darren Cushman-Wood, Monthly Review, May 1993. Others influenced by Spengler include George F. Kennan, Raymond Aron, and Henry Kissinger. Spengleriana: The Decline of the West, and unacknowledged debts by Roger Sandall. Spengler was also an influence upon the comparative mythologist Joseph Campbell and his circle, including the cultural historian John David Ebert and the author John Lobell. Beginning in January 2000, David P. Goldman wrote a column for Asia Times Online under the pseudonym "Spengler." He revealed his identity in April 2009. Spengler's works Der metaphysische Grundgedanke der Heraklitischen Philosophie, 1904 Der Untergang des Abenlandes: Umrisse einer Morphologie der Weltgeschichte, 1918-22 (2 vols.: Gestalt und Wirklichkeit; Welthistorische Perspektives) - The Decline of the West; an Abridged Edition by Helmut Werner (tr. by F. Atkinson) Preussentum und Sozialismus, 1920 - Prussianism and Socialism Pessimismus?, 1922 Die Revolution ist nicht zu Ende, c. 1924 Neubau des deutschen Reiches, 1924 Politische Pflichten der deutschen Jugend; rede gehalten am 26. februar 1924 vor dem Hochschulring deutscher art in Würzburg, 1925 Der Mensch und die Technik, 1931 - Man and Technics: A Contribution to a Philosophy of Life (tr. by C.T. Atkinson) Politische schriften, 1932 Die Revolution ist nicht zu Ende, 1932 Jahre der Entscheidung, 1933 - The Hour of Decision (tr. by C.F. Atkinson) Reden und Aufsätze, 1937 (ed. by Hildegard Kornhardt) - Selected Essays (tr. Donald O. White) Gedanken, c. 1941 (ed. by Hildegard Konrnhardt) - Aphorisms (translated by Gisela Koch-Weser O’Brien) Briefe, 1913-1936, 1963 - The Letters of Oswald Spengler, 1913-1936 (ed. and tr. by A. Helps) Urfragen; Fragmente aus dem Nachlass, 1965 (ed. by Anton Mirko Koktanek and Manfred Schröter) Frühzeit der Weltgeschichte: Fragmenten asu dem Nachlass, 1966 (ed. by A.M. Kortanek and Manfred Schröter) Der Briefwechsel zwischen Oswald Spengler und Wolfgang E. Groeger: über russische Literatur, Zeitgeschichte und soziale Fragen, 1987 (ed. by Xenia Werner) Further reading Adorno, Theodor. "Prisms." The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA. 1967. Twilight of the Evening Lands: Oswald Spengler — A Half Century Later by John F. Fennelly (New York, Brookdale Press, 1972) ISBN 0-912650-01-X. Biographical Dictionary of the Extreme Right Since 1890 edited by Philip Rees, 1991, ISBN 0-13-089301-3. Prophet of Decline: Spengler on world history and politics by John Farrenkopf (Publisher: Baton Rouge : Louisiana State University Press, 2001) ISBN 0-8071-2653-5 ISBN 0-8071-2727-2. Hughes, H. Stuart. "Preface to the Present Edition." Preface. The Decline of the West: An Abridged Edition. By Oswald Spengler. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991. ISBN 0-19-506751-7. See also Spengler's civilization model References External links Decline of the West: Volume I Decline of the West: Volume II Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (1880–1936). The Oswald Spengler Collection. The Pre-Death Thoughts of Faust by Nikolai Berdyaev. Timeline of Spengler's life (translated from German). Overview of Spengler and his works. 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7,222 | Hee_Haw | For the EP by The Birthday Party, see Hee Haw (EP) Hee Haw was a television variety show, initially co-hosted by musicians Buck Owens and Roy Clark and featuring country music and humor with fictional, rural "Kornfield Kounty" as a backdrop. It was taped at WLAC-TV (now WTVF) and Opryland USA in Nashville . The show was produced by Yongestreet Productions through the mid-1980s; it was later produced by Gaylord Entertainment, which distributed the show in syndication. The show's name was derived from the sound a mule makes when it brays. The show was inspired by Rowan & Martin's Laugh-In, the major difference being that Hee Haw was far less topical, and was centered around country music. The show was equally well-known for its voluptuous, scantily-clad women in stereotypical farmer's daughter outfits, male stars Jim and Jon Hager and its cornpone humor. Hee Haw was a quintessentially American show; and its appeal was not limited to a rural audience. Indeed, it was widely watched in all large markets, including New York, Los Angeles and Chicago. Other niche programs such as The Lawrence Welk Show (which targeted older audiences) and Soul Train (a black-oriented program) also rose to prominence in syndication during this era. Like Laugh-In, the show minimized production costs by taping all of the recurring sketches for a season in batches - setting up for the Cornfield one day, the Joke Fence another, etc. At the height of its popularity, an entire year's worth of shows would be taped in two separate weeklong sessions. Creation and syndication Much of Hee Haw's origin was Canadian. Two of the series' three creators, comedy writers Frank Peppiatt and John Aylesworth, were from Canada. Bernie Brillstein, the third, was from New York. From 1969 until the late 1980s, Hee Haw was produced by Yongestreet Productions, named after Yonge Street, a major thoroughfare in Toronto. The production company's name was a testament to Hee Haw's Canadian roots. Hee Haw started on CBS as a summer 1969 replacement for The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour. Though the show had respectable ratings, it was dropped in July, 1971 by CBS as part of the so-called Rural Purge in 1971, along with fellow country shows The Beverly Hillbillies, Mayberry R.F.D. and Green Acres, owing to network executives' feeling that its viewers reflected the "wrong" demographics (e.g. rural, somewhat older, and less affluent). Undaunted, the producers put together a syndication deal for the show, which continued in roughly the same format for 20 more years (though Owens departed in 1986). In many markets, it competed in syndication (usually on early Saturday evenings) against The Lawrence Welk Show, which, for some of the same reasons, was also cancelled and resurrected in syndication in 1971. (In a few areas, Hee Haw and Welk were shown back-to-back.) By 1991, a continued decline in its audience led to a dramatic change with more pop-oriented country music, in an ill-fated attempt to gain younger viewers. The new format (titled The Hee Haw Show, which had taken the cornfield out, and replaced it with a city street and a shopping mall) lasted a single season, during which the show alienated many of its longtime viewers. After its final 1992 season, the series went into its repeat cycle. A decision was then made to end production on the series in the summer of 1992 and then a decision was made to bring the show back in syndication in the fall of 1993 and it would be renamed Hee Haw Silver which featured Clark hosting a mixture of classic clips and new footage, which ran during the 1993-1994 season to commemorate the 25th anniversary of Hee-Haw's debut in 1969. These episodes spotlighted a lot of the classic moments from the performers who had since died, including Stringbean, Archie Campbell, Junior Samples, and Kenny Price. After the show's syndication run ended, reruns aired on The Nashville Network from 1994 until 1997. Its 21 years in TV syndication was the record for a U.S. program, until Soul Train surpassed it in 1993. Subsequently, Entertainment Tonight surpassed it in 2003 and Wheel of Fortune surpassed it in 2005. In 2006, Jeopardy! surpassed it also, making Hee Haw currently the fifth-longest-running off-network American TV program. On July 17, 2006, CMT announced that it would begin rerunning the series starting July 29, and reruns began in late September. The channel hosted a marathon of episodes on January 1, 2007 but the show has only aired sporadically since, with only three episodes airing from that time (March 13, July 7 and July 8) to the present. The show is no longer broadcast by CMT. In April 2007, the "TV Land" network recognized the long-running series with an award presented by k.d. lang. In attendance were Roy Clark, Gunilla Hutton, Barbi Benton, the Hager twins, Linda Thompson, Misty Rowe and others. On August 12, 2008, RFD-TV announced that "Hee Haw" would return to a regular weekly TV slot premiering on RFD-TV Sept. 7, 2008. "Hee Haw" episodes anchor RFD-TV's Sunday night lineup, at 8PM Eastern; episodes repeat Monday at 10AM Eastern. RFD-TV airs "Hee Haw" episodes in the same order they were originally televised. Cast members Two rural-style comedians, already well known in their native Canada, gained their first major U.S. exposure—Gordie Tapp and Don Harron (whose KORN Radio character, newscaster Charlie Farquharson, had been a fixture of Canadian television since 1952 and later appeared on The Red Green Show). Other cast members over the years included: Roy Acuff (the King of Country Music), Barbi Benton, Cathy Baker, Jennifer Bishop, Archie Campbell, Marianne Gordon, the Hager Twins (Jim and John), Gunilla Hutton (as "Nurse Goodbody"), Grandpa Jones, Susan Raye, The Buckaroos (Don Rich, Jim Shaw, Jerry Brightman, Jerry Wiggins, Doyle Singer, Ronnie Jackson, Terry Christoffersen, Doyle Holly), George Lindsey (reprising his "Goober" character from The Andy Griffith Show), Irlene Mandrell, Minnie Pearl, Linda Thompson, Kenny Price, Lulu Roman, Misty Rowe, Junior Samples, Jeff Smith, Rev. Grady Nutt, John Henry Faulk, Jonathan Winters, Slim Pickens, Gailard Sartain, Roni Stoneman, and the team of Jimmie Riddle and Jackie Phelps, among many others. Original cast member David "Stringbean" Akeman was murdered, along with his wife, in November 1973 during a robbery at his home. Recurring skits and segments Some of the most beloved sketches and segments on Hee Haw included, but were by no means limited to: "PFFT! You Was Gone!", a comedic duet featured on the premiere episode and holds firm as one of the series' most endearing sketches. In early seasons, the song was performed by Campbell and Tapp (both with solemn looks on their faces), in the vein of folk songs like "Oh! Susanna" and "Old Dan Tucker." In later seasons, Tapp would be increasingly replaced by that episode's guest singer, or another surprise celebrity (normally if it were a guest, his or her name would be included in the lyrics of the song before they would sing the refrain). Tapp, or whoever it was, would often stand with their back to the viewer while Campbell sang the new, humorous verse solo, holding a scythe. At the end of the verse, Campbell would elbow Tapp or the guest (as a comedic visual cue), who would then spin around (Tapp would react as if awoken by the elbow) to join him on the chorus: "Where, oh where, are you tonight? Why did you leave me here all alone? I searched the world over, and I thought I'd found true love, Then you met another, and PFFT! You was gone!" The "PFFT" would be done as a spitting "Bronx cheer", and occasionally, they would break up into laughter after the "PFFT", unable to finish the song (Who got spat upon during the "PFFT" would change each show.) Following Campbell's death, whole groups and even women would be part of the refrain, with future regular George Lindsay often singing the first verse. Occasionally, in the later years, Roni Stoneman (in her role as Ida Lee Nagger) would sometimes do the first verse. In some episodes, which had several major guest stars, the routine appeared several times in the show so that each guest would have the chance to be part of this tradition. "Hee Haw" magazine (Vol. 1, No. 2, July 1970, A Charlton Publication) attributes this song to Susan Heather (a pseudonym used by Marian B. Yarneall), (c) 1952, 1965 by Mamy Music Corp out of Paoli, Pa. Later references show copyrights held by Gaylord Program Services, Inc. out of Nashville, TN, but this may be because Gaylord holds the copyrights for "Hee Haw." It appears that this song Phfft! you were gone, with lyrics and arrangement by Ms. Heather, was originally composed as a Gospel tune. Bob Newman sang this song on his "The Kentucky Colonel" album in 1959. Mr. Newman is listed as a comedian, so it is probable that this version was the first parody of the original Gospel song. Later artists performing comical versions of this song included Archie Campbell on his Have A Laugh On Me album in 1966, and Buck Owens on his album Too Old To Cut The Mustard in 1972. KORN news A newsbreak-esque skit in which Charlie Fahrquarson (Don Harron) would deliver the somewhat local news in his own inimitable way. Harron would later resurrect the character on The Red Green Show. Lulu's Truck Stop Lulu Roman owned this greasy spoon, where the food was usually pretty bad; Gailard Sartain was also in this skit as the chef. Hee Haw Players Cast members take on some of the Shakespeare classics, with some unexpected twists. Hee Haw Amateur Minute A showcase of some of the worst talent of all. A cast member would play some yokel who would have some kind of bad talent, which would almost always end up with the audience booing it; throwing vegetables and the hook operator yanking said act forcibly off the stage. After the skit, five animated cartoon animals (a duck, a sheep, a pig, a chicken and a goat) would appear onscreen booing, as well. Mr. Sternwheeler Gordie Tapp in a spoof of author Mark Twain giving off some homilies which undoubtedly made little or no sense whatsoever. After these recitations, he would most often be hit over the head with a rubber chicken, or in later years be given a bomb or something that would eventually explode. The Haystack A man (usually Buck Owens or one of the Hager Twins) and a woman (usually one of the Hee Haw Honeys ) talk about love issues while sitting at the haystack (the skits began with the top of the haystack which lowered down to reveal the couple). Colonel Daddy's daughter Marianne Gordon was the pampered southern belle daughter of her Colonel Daddy (Gordie Tapp). She would sit on the swing at her plantation home, and would speak about the generosity of her Daddy. In later installments Tapp's character wouldn't be seen hardly at all but was always referenced to by his spoiled daughter. The Moonshiners Shown most frequently, were one or two of the male cast (playing a couple of lethargic hillbillies) who would lazily tell a joke while dozing on the floor near a bunch of moonshine jugs (with some of the girls in the background). School Scenes There were always school scenes during the show's run. At first, it was with Jennifer Bishop and Lulu Roman as the put-upon teachers, with most notably, Junior Samples and Roy Clark as the students. When Minnie Pearl joined the cast, they had a larger classroom scene with, at first, real children as the students, but would later return to the cast members playing children, with Minnie still as the teacher. The Culhanes The adventures of the Culhane family, depicted as all they did was sit on a old-fashioned sofa in the parlor, which focused on Cousin Clem Culhane (Gordie Tapp); Cousin Junior Culhane (Junior Samples); Cousin Grandpa Culhane (Grandpa Jones); and Cousin Lulu Culhane (Lulu Roman) who would sit in deadpan character and comment, à la soap opera. After the death of Junior, his role was filled by cast-member Mike Snider in the role of Cousin Mike, of course. Pickin' and Grinnin' with Owens (on guitar) and Clark (on banjo) and the entire cast. (Owens: "I'm a-Pickin!" Clark: "And I'm a-Grinnin'!"), with the duo (and sometimes a guest star sitting between Buck and Roy) 'dueling' by playing guitar and banjo, telling jokes and reciting one-liners. The sketch always ended with Roy's banjo solo, each time ending a different comical way. At first it was just Roy and Buck, and later on the entire cast joined in. Samples Sales, in which used car salesman Junior Samples, with Misty Rowe as his later assistant, in his guise as a magician called Junior the Great, would try to palm off a major 'clunker' and then hold up a sign to remind viewers that his phone number was "BR-549". It was changed to "BR-1Z1Z", in the show's later seasons. (At that time, local phone calls in virtually all of the US required dialing seven-digit numbers.) (Hee Haw tapes were later sold using the "800" number 1-800-BR54949; also, the country music group BR5-49 adopted the number as the name of their band.) "Gloom, Despair and Agony On Me", Another beloved sketch usually performed by four male cast members sitting around in hillbilly garb surrounded by moonshine jugs and looking overtly miserable. They song began with the chorus, which all of them sang with each one alternating (in lip-synch) a mournful howl after each of the first three lines. The chorus went: "Gloom, despair and agony on me-e! Deep dark depression, excessive misery-y! If it weren't for bad luck I'd have no luck at all! Gloom, despair and agony on me-e-e!" Each of the quartet would sing one line of the verse- a different one for each performance. (In later seasons the female cast got their own version of the song, first just lip-synching the male vocals, but later getting their own feminized version complete with female howls of mourning.) The Gossip Girls, featuring various female members of the cast surrounding a washtub and clothes wringer singing: "Now, we're not ones to go 'round spreadin' rumors, Why, really we're just not the gossipy kind, No, you'll never hear one of us repeating gossip, So you'd better be sure and listen close the first time!" The song featured a new verse every episode. In later years, the guys, in drag, would sometimes replace the girls in the skit, in return for the girls singing "Gloom, Despair..." (In earlier seasons, the "Gossip Girls" and "Gloom, Despair.." sketches would both end with a repeat of the song's chorus, but in later years that practice was eliminated.) "Hee Haw Salutes...". Two or three times in each episode, Hee Haw would salute a selected town (or a guest star's hometown) and announce its population, which was sometimes altered for levity, at which point the entire cast would then 'pop up' from the cornfield, shouting "SAA-LUTE!!" (sometimes after the salute, Archie Campbell would pronounce the saluted town spelled backwards.) The Fence, Two or three times during each show a cast member, standing in front of a high wooden fence, would tell a one liner joke. (Example: "I crossed an elephant with a gopher." Everybody in unison: "What'ja get?" "Some awfully big holes in the backyard.") Regardless of whether the joke teller was female or male, a portion of the fence would swing up and hit them on the rear end after the punch line was delivered. Archie's Barber Shop, with Archie Campbell, regular customer Roy Clark, and two or three other regulars sitting in the "waiting chairs" (on lesser occasions Junior Samples would be the one going into the barber's chair). Campbell would share comic dialog with Clark (Campbell's legendary "That's Good, That's Bad" routine immediately comes to mind) or tell one of his "backwards fairy tales" such as "Rindercella". Doc Campbell, This long-running skit featured Archie Campbell playing the part of a doctor who often gave out terrible advice and bizarre medical "facts". Patients would often be one of the show's cast-members. The skit is also remembered for cast-member Gunilla Hutton's role as the doctor's assistant, Nurse Good-Body. Sometimes the skits would feature only the doctor and his nurse...with Archie hollering "Nurse Goodbody! Nurse Goodbody! Get in HERE!" to which she'd come into the scene looking nervous. Justice O'Peace. This recurring skit featured Archie Campbell as a judge who wore what looked to be a bowler hat, a red undershirt, and suspenders sentencing people to long jail time for some of the most silly misdemeanor "crimes". Years later Archie's son, Phil Campbell, as well as Gordie Tapp appeared in a recurring skit about two police officers..the skit's name escapes me at the moment. Professor Campbell. This recurring segment featured Archie Campbell dressed in a graduate's gown telling viewers the meaning of words, with a comic twist...sometimes wads of paper would fly into the scene as a way of punishing the bad joke that was told. Gordie's General Store. Gordie operating a general merchandise store. It was also a place where one of the cast would tell a comedic story. In later years the focus shifted from Kornfield Kounty residents stopping by to the comedic banter of Gordie and Gailord Sartain, who played the role of the incompetent Maynard, who often would send Gordie into fits of anger or agony by the skit's end. Misty's Bedtime Stories. This skit featured bedtime stories delivered by Misty Rowe, one of the more popular cast-members. Grandpa Jones would be heard off-camera whispering "And now it's time for Misty's bedtime stories". A lighted candle would be sitting on the night stand beside her bed and after she was through delivering one of her bizarre stories, sometimes a re-written nursery rhyme, she'd giggle and blow out the candle...end of skit. Empty Arms Hotel Roy Clark as the head desk clerk of one of the only accommodations in all of Kornfield Kounty, who would pop up from behind the front desk after the bell was rung. Goober's Garage. George Lindsay was the star of this regular skit where he'd play his Andy Griffith role, often talking about cars and jalopies with whichever cast member that appeared in the skit that week. Sometimes non cast-member Jack Burns would appear in the skit as the city slicker/con-artist type trying to pull a fast one with Goober emerging more intelligent. For a period of time in the early 1980s cast-member Chase Randolph was in the skit and played a mechanic often being flirted with by a gang of women. The joke is that Chase was more interested in fixing up cars while Goober often offered to go out with the girl's instead...only for the women to ignore his requests and look disgusted. "Hee-Haw's All-Jug Band" A musical segment, featuring most of the female cast members, singing a comical song, in which the punch line differed each week. Regular Lulu Roman "played" moonshine jugs (by which, she would blow air over the spout, creating a "humming sound"), which partially explains the segment's title (as well as the fact that "jugs" is a dysphemism for breasts). Minnie Pearl introduced the segment each week, loudly announcing, "We're gonna play now!"; at the end of the song, she would similarly conclude "We're through playin' now!" "Hey Grandpa! What's for supper?" Grandpa Jones is cleaning a window pane (with no glass in it) and recites a dinner menu in poetic verse. Often, he would describe a delicious, country-style meal (e.g., chicken and biscuits smothered in rich gravy, and collard greens), and the audience would reply approvingly, "yum-m yum-m!"; although sometimes he would serve a less than spectacular meal (thawed out TV dinners), to which the cast would reply, "yuck!" One notable run-through of the routine had Grandpa saying "Ah ain't got nuthin!", which would be the only time he ever got booed during this routine. JerryRalphRVBobBeavis. This is a skit that appeared mostly in the 1980s and it featured Gailord Sartain as the owner of a small store/flea market attempting to sell junk. The skit would start with a hand-held camera zooming up to the front door and the door being flung open to reveal the fast-talking salesman standing behind the counter surrounded by the junk he was trying to sell. The character was a clown...with red cheeks and wild clown hair...and the running joke was his attempts of becoming a big singing star and in every skit just as he was preparing to pull out a guitar and start to sing, the camera would zoom out and the door swing shut. The Cornfield, patterned after Laugh-In's "Joke Wall," with cast members and guest stars 'popping up' to tell jokes and one-liners. Until his death, "Stringbean" played the field's 'scarecrow,' delivering one-liners before being shouted down by the 'crow' on his shoulder; after his 1973 murder, he was not replaced, and the 'scarecrow' simply was seen in the field as a memorial. On occasion, personalities from TV stations that carried Hee Haw would appear in this segment with Owens or Clark. The Naggers, with Gordie Tapp and Roni Stoneman as LaVern and Ida Lee, a backwoods bickering couple, inspired in part by the radio comedy The Bickersons. Kenny Price made occasional appearances (starting in 1974) as their son Elrod; and Wendy Stults of the show's background singing group, The Nashville Edition, would sometimes play Ida Lee's equally nagging mother. Kornfield Kounty Operator Service Irlene Mandrell as Kornfield Kounty's telephone operator (similar to Lily Tomlin's more famous character, Ernestine Tomlin) would answer phone calls from various Kornfield Kounty residents, who would eventually hang up in various degrees of frustration, causing the Operator to often say, innocently, "And they wonder why we telephone operators turn gray!" Grinder's Switch Gazzette This skit featured Minnie Pearl as a newspaper worker who often insisted that her mute secretary, Miss Honeydew, take down an "important" news item which was always nonsense. Hee Haw Honky Tonk When the Urban Cowboy craze was in full swing, Hee Haw had its honky tonk, where all the cast would throw out their one liners. The Honky Tonk was replete with its mechanical bull; and often showed Ida Lee Nagger (Roni Stoneman) chasing men with a net. This was patterned after the Party on Laugh-In. Kurl Up and Dye This is a skit from its later years which featured several of the cast-members in a beauty parlor where they'd gossip..from time to time Gailord Sartain would appear in drag as one of the fussy women. Slim Picken's Bar-B-Q Slim would have his friends over at a barbecue at his home, where a musical guest would perform. The segment would always open up spoofing Burma-Shave road signs as some of the Hee-Haw cast were seen piled on a truck driving down the road to Slim's Bar-B-Q whose guests often complained about the food to which Slim would counter with something like "i may not have prime meat at this picnic but I do have prime entertainment..." and then he'd bring out the entertainment. The little Yellow Chicken: A little yellow chicken who would always mistake anything and everything for an egg. The chicken would sit on items, such as a ringside bell; a man's bald head; a billiard ball; a football; a golf ball, and even a bomb, with various disastrous results. The little chicken was produced by Format Films. Animated Critters: Interspersed within the show, besides the above mentioned chicken, were various applauding or laughing farm animals; a kickline composed of pigs; a pack of dogs that would chase an extremely bad joke teller; three sultry pigs that twirled their necklaces; a square dancing female pig and a male donkey; a pair of chickens dancing, with one of them falling on its face; the ubiquitous Hee Haw Donkey, who would say "Wouldn't that dunk your hat in the creek?" among other quips; and a pig (from the kickline) that would sneak up on a musical guest (or a cast member, mostly Roy Clark) and kiss him on the cheek among others. Sometimes, certain animals would carry appropriate signs with some kind of quip (ie: Hee Haw Donkey holding a sign that would say, "I'm looking for a "She-Haw!" or in later years, "Let us Bray!"; a pig from the kickline holding a sign which would say, "oink!" or "Please DON'T Bring Home the Bacon!"; or a cow coming into the scene and opening a sign that would say something like "Stop Beefing!" or "I married a Bum Steer"). The animation was produced by Format Films. While the meat of the segments were comedy-based, there were several serious, music-based segments, including: The Million Dollar Band: This was a jam-session segment, airing from 1980 through 1988, composed of the following all-star musicians: Chet Atkins, Boots Randolph, Roy Clark, Floyd Cramer, Charlie McCoy, Danny Davis, Jethro Burns, and Johnny Gimble. A singer-songwriter segment, where one of the guest performers for the week would sing one of his popular hits. Then, he would introduce a song he/she wrote and was made popular by another artist. The Hee Haw Gospel Quartet: Always featured near the show's end. Clark, Owens, Grandpa Jones and Kenny Price would sing a gospel hymn. Several of their performances were released as recordings. At the end of the show hosts Clark and Owens, backed by the entire cast, sang the song:"We loved the time we spent with you,To share a song and a laugh or two,May your pleasures be many, your troubles be few...And ending with Owens and Clark saying "So long everybody! We'll see you next week on...HEE-HAW!!!" (The closing song would be replaced in the early 1980s) The closing song was changed to this:"So long we sure had a good time! So long, gee, the company was fine! Singin' and a dancin', Laughin' and a prancin', Adios, farewell, goodbye, good luck, so long...HEE HAW!!" And after the closing credits, cast member Cathy Baker would say, "THAT'S all!" (preceded from the mid-1980s to 1992 by "This has been a Gaylord Production from Opryland Studios!" Musical legacy The show's additional legacy—probably its main one to most of the Southern and rural viewers in particular—was the hundreds of performances of country music, bluegrass, gospel music, and other traditional styles, that were featured on it during its run. During the 1970s and early 1980s, this show was probably the best-known showcase for popular country music on commercial television, aside from other half-hour performer-hosted syndicated shows (most notably The Porter Wagoner Show, which is perhaps the only other weekly country music show of this era to approach Hee-Haw's longevity.) produced by packagers like Nashville's Show Biz, Inc. In addition to the regular performances by the hosts and cast members, guest artists performing on the show appeared on a weekly basis. While mostly focused on the country genre, a wide range of artists were featured; these include— Alabama, Atlanta, Roy Acuff, Chet Atkins, Lynn Anderson, Suzy Bogguss, Randy Boone, Garth Brooks, Bellamy Brothers, The Buckaroos, Robert Byrd, Glen Campbell, Johnny Cash, Ray Charles, Jessi Colter, David L Cook, Sammy Davis, Jr., Crystal Gayle, Lee Greenwood, Merle Haggard, Doyle Holly, Janis Ian, Alan Jackson, Wanda Jackson, Sonny James, Waylon Jennings, George Jones, Jerry Lee Lewis, Lyle Lovett, Loretta Lynn, Barbara Mandrell, Roger Miller, Willie Nelson, Dolly Parton, Ray Price, Charley Pride, Charlie Rich, Riders in the Sky, Eddie Rabbitt, Jerry Reed, Linda Ronstadt, Kenny Rogers, Roy Rogers, The Statler Brothers, Ray Stevens, George Strait, The Nitty Gritty Dirt Band, B.J. Thomas, Mel Tillis, Pam Tillis, Randy Travis, Travis Tritt, Ernest Tubb, Conway Twitty, Eddie Van Halen, Dottie West, Boxcar Willie, Tammy Wynette, Don Williams, Hank Williams Jr., and Faron Young, among others. Elvis Presley was a big fan of Hee Haw and wanted to appear on the program in the 1970s. But his manager, Colonel Tom Parker, would not allow him to do so. A similar situation occurred when his friend Johnny Cash asked Elvis to appear on his show. Loretta Lynn was not only the very first guest star of Hee Haw, but made more guest appearances on the show than any other artist. She also co-hosted the show more than any other guest co-host and therefore appears on more of the DVD releases for retail sale than any other guest star. Hee Haw had a short lived spin-off series, Hee Haw Honeys'', for the 1978-79 television season. The sitcom starred Kathie Lee Johnson (Gifford), Misty Rowe, Gailard Sartain, Lulu Roman, and Kenny Price. References See also Rural purge External links Official website Episode Guide and guest appearance list at TV.Com Hee Haw on RFD-TV Risa's Hee Haw Tribute Page Buck Owens Radio Interview With Chris and Ron in 1997 Riddle & Phelps place third in TV Greats Countdown | Hee_Haw |@lemmatized ep:2 birthday:1 party:2 see:6 hee:42 haw:43 television:4 variety:1 show:47 initially:1 co:3 host:8 musician:2 buck:6 owen:9 roy:13 clark:15 featuring:1 country:11 music:11 humor:2 fictional:1 rural:7 kornfield:6 kounty:6 backdrop:1 tap:3 wlac:1 tv:14 wtvf:1 opryland:2 usa:1 nashville:5 produce:6 yongestreet:2 production:6 mid:2 later:13 gaylord:4 entertainment:4 distribute:1 syndication:9 name:6 derive:1 sound:2 mule:1 make:8 bray:2 inspire:2 rowan:1 martin:1 laugh:7 major:5 difference:1 far:1 less:4 topical:1 center:1 around:3 equally:2 well:5 know:3 voluptuous:1 scantily:1 clad:1 woman:6 stereotypical:1 farmer:1 daughter:4 outfit:1 male:6 star:11 jim:3 jon:1 hager:4 cornpone:1 quintessentially:1 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7,223 | Farmer_Giles_of_Ham | First edition cover "Farmer Giles of Ham" is a novella written by J. R. R. Tolkien in 1937 and published in 1949. The story describes the encounters between Farmer Giles and a wily dragon named Chrysophylax, and how Giles manages to use these to rise from humble beginnings to rival the king of the land. It is cheerfully anachronistic and light-hearted, set in a fantasy Great Britain of long ago, with mythical creatures, medieval knights, and primitive firearms. It is only tangentially connected with the author's Middle-earth legendarium: both were originally intended as essays in "English mythology". The book was originally illustrated by Pauline Baynes. The story has appeared with other works by Tolkien in omnibus editions, including The Tolkien Reader and Tales from the Perilous Realm. Plot summary Farmer Giles (Ægidius Ahenobarbus Julius Agricola de Hammo, "Aegis'd Bronze-beard Giles Farmer from Ham") is not a hero. He is fat and red-bearded and enjoys a slow, comfortable life. But a rather deaf and short-sighted giant blunders on to his land, and Giles manages to ward him away with a blunderbuss shot in his general direction. The people of the village cheer: Farmer Giles has become a hero. His reputation spreads across the kingdom, and he is rewarded by the King with a sword named Caudimordax ("Tailbiter") — which turns out to be a powerful weapon against dragons. The giant, on returning home, relates to his friends that there are no more knights in the Middle Kingdom, just stinging flies — actually the scrap metal shot from the blunderbuss — and this entices a dragon, Chrysophylax Dives, to investigate the area. The terrified neighbors all expect the accidental hero Farmer Giles to deal with him. The story parodies the great dragon-slaying traditions. The knights sent by the King to pursue the dragon are useless fops, more intent on "precedence and etiquette" than on the huge dragon footprints littering the landscape. The only part of a 'dragon' they know is the annual celebratory dragon-tail cake. Giles by contrast clearly recognises the danger, and resents being sent along to face it. But hapless farmers can be forced to become heroes, and Giles shrewdly makes the best of the situation. Linguistic Humor Tolkien, himself a linguist, sprinkled several linguistic jokes into the tale, including a variety of ingeniously fake etymologies. Almost all the place-names are supposed to occur relatively close to Oxford, along the Thames, or along the route to London. Tolkien insists, tongue in cheek, that the village of Thame originally referred to the Tame Dragon housed in it, and that "tame with an h is a folly without warrant." Another joke puts a question concerning the definition of blunderbuss to "the four wise clerks of Oxenford" (a reference to Chaucer's Clerk; Tolkien had worked for Henry Bradley, one of the four main editors of the Oxford English Dictionary): A short gun with a large bore firing many balls or slugs, and capable of doing execution within a limited range without exact aim. (Now superseded, in civilised countries, by other firearms.) and then satirises it with application to the situation at hand: However, Farmer Giles's blunderbuss had a wide mouth that opened like a horn, and it did not fire balls or slugs, but anything that he could spare to stuff in. And it did not do execution, because he seldom loaded it, and never let it off. The sight of it was usually enough for his purpose. And this country was not yet civilised, for the blunderbuss was not superseded: it was indeed the only kind of gun that there was, and rare at that. As Tom Shippey points out: "Giles's blunderbuss ... defies the definition and works just the same." (Introduction to Tales from the Perilous Realm). Chrysophylax Dives Chrysophylax Dives () is a comically villainous dragon. He stands midway between Smaug, evil and greedy, and The Reluctant Dragon, comical and timid. Chrysophylax (Χρυσοφύλαξ) is Greek for "gold-guard" and dīves is Latin for "rich". Chrysophylax comes across as a pompous aristocrat — rich, vain, and arrogant, but not actually malicious. Farmer Giles learns that he can be bullied, but is smart enough not to push him to desperation. Caudimordax Caudimordax is the Latin name of "Tailbiter", the sword of Farmer Giles. The sword cannot be sheathed when a dragon comes within five miles of its bearer's presence. Four generations earlier, the sword belonged to Bellomarius, "the greatest of all the dragon-slayers" in the Middle Kingdom. Farmer Giles is granted this antiquated sword — by then become unfashionable — as a reward for driving off a giant from his fields with his blunderbuss. He later uses the sword to capture and control the dragon Chrysophylax Dives. Tales from the Perilous Realm This 2008 reprint: Includes a new Introduction by Tom Shippey Omits Tolkien's Latin Title Page Has new illustrations by Alan Lee, who draws Garm (talking dog) as a Mastiff instead of a Greyhound (as Pauline Baynes had) 50th Anniversary Edition This special edition was published in 1999 to celebrate the Golden Anniversary of this Classic. The publisher in the USA is Houghton Mifflin. The edition includes: Tolkien's original Latin title. The original illustrations by Pauline Baynes. A map of the Little Kingdom, including Ham, Aula Draconaria, Quercetum, Oxenford, Islip and Farthingho (but not Wootton Major or Wootton Minor). Tolkien's original version, previously unpublished. Tolkien's sketch for a proposed Sequel. A new Introduction and scholarly notes by Editors Christina Scull and Wayne G. Hammond. | Farmer_Giles_of_Ham |@lemmatized first:1 edition:5 cover:1 farmer:11 giles:15 ham:3 novella:1 write:1 j:1 r:2 tolkien:10 publish:2 story:3 describe:1 encounter:1 wily:1 dragon:14 name:4 chrysophylax:7 manage:1 use:2 rise:1 humble:1 beginning:1 rival:1 king:3 land:2 cheerfully:1 anachronistic:1 light:1 hearted:1 set:1 fantasy:1 great:3 britain:1 long:1 ago:1 mythical:1 creature:1 medieval:1 knight:3 primitive:1 firearm:2 tangentially:1 connect:1 author:1 middle:3 earth:1 legendarium:1 originally:3 intend:1 essay:1 english:2 mythology:1 book:1 illustrate:1 pauline:3 baynes:3 appear:1 work:3 omnibus:1 include:5 reader:1 tale:4 perilous:3 realm:3 plot:1 summary:1 ægidius:1 ahenobarbus:1 julius:1 agricola:1 de:1 hammo:1 aegis:1 bronze:1 beard:2 hero:4 fat:1 red:1 enjoy:1 slow:1 comfortable:1 life:1 rather:1 deaf:1 short:2 sight:2 giant:3 blunder:1 manages:1 ward:1 away:1 blunderbuss:7 shot:2 general:1 direction:1 people:1 village:2 cheer:1 become:3 reputation:1 spread:1 across:2 kingdom:4 reward:2 sword:6 caudimordax:3 tailbiter:2 turn:1 powerful:1 weapon:1 return:1 home:1 relate:1 friend:1 sting:1 fly:1 actually:2 scrap:1 metal:1 entice:1 dive:4 investigate:1 area:1 terrified:1 neighbor:1 expect:1 accidental:1 deal:1 parody:1 slaying:1 tradition:1 send:2 pursue:1 useless:1 fop:1 intent:1 precedence:1 etiquette:1 huge:1 footprint:1 litter:1 landscape:1 part:1 know:1 annual:1 celebratory:1 tail:1 cake:1 contrast:1 clearly:1 recognise:1 danger:1 resents:1 along:3 face:1 hapless:1 force:1 shrewdly:1 make:1 best:1 situation:2 linguistic:2 humor:1 linguist:1 sprinkle:1 several:1 joke:2 variety:1 ingeniously:1 fake:1 etymology:1 almost:1 place:1 suppose:1 occur:1 relatively:1 close:1 oxford:2 thames:1 route:1 london:1 insists:1 tongue:1 cheek:1 thame:1 refer:1 tame:2 house:1 h:1 folly:1 without:2 warrant:1 another:1 put:1 question:1 concern:1 definition:2 four:3 wise:1 clerk:2 oxenford:2 reference:1 chaucer:1 henry:1 bradley:1 one:1 main:1 editor:2 dictionary:1 gun:2 large:1 bore:1 fire:2 many:1 ball:2 slug:2 capable:1 execution:2 within:2 limited:1 range:1 exact:1 aim:1 supersede:2 civilised:1 country:2 satirise:1 application:1 hand:1 however:1 wide:1 mouth:1 open:1 like:1 horn:1 anything:1 could:1 spare:1 stuff:1 seldom:1 load:1 never:1 let:1 usually:1 enough:2 purpose:1 yet:1 civilise:1 indeed:1 kind:1 rare:1 tom:2 shippey:2 point:1 defy:1 introduction:3 comically:1 villainous:1 stand:1 midway:1 smaug:1 evil:1 greedy:1 reluctant:1 comical:1 timid:1 χρυσοφύλαξ:1 greek:1 gold:1 guard:1 dīves:1 latin:4 rich:2 come:2 pompous:1 aristocrat:1 vain:1 arrogant:1 malicious:1 learn:1 bully:1 smart:1 push:1 desperation:1 cannot:1 sheathe:1 five:1 mile:1 bearer:1 presence:1 generation:1 earlier:1 belong:1 bellomarius:1 slayer:1 grant:1 antiquated:1 unfashionable:1 drive:1 field:1 later:1 capture:1 control:1 reprint:1 new:3 omit:1 title:2 page:1 illustration:2 alan:1 lee:1 draw:1 garm:1 talk:1 dog:1 mastiff:1 instead:1 greyhound:1 anniversary:2 special:1 celebrate:1 golden:1 classic:1 publisher:1 usa:1 houghton:1 mifflin:1 original:3 map:1 little:1 aula:1 draconaria:1 quercetum:1 islip:1 farthingho:1 wootton:2 major:1 minor:1 version:1 previously:1 unpublished:1 sketch:1 propose:1 sequel:1 scholarly:1 note:1 christina:1 scull:1 wayne:1 g:1 hammond:1 |@bigram farmer_giles:9 giles_ham:1 light_hearted:1 mythical_creature:1 pauline_baynes:3 julius_agricola:1 tongue_cheek:1 tom_shippey:2 houghton_mifflin:1 |
7,224 | Cimbri | See Cimbrians for the unrelated contemporary dialect group of Northern Italy. The migrations of the Teutons and the Cimbri The Cimbri were a Celtic or Germanic tribe who together with the Teutones and the Ambrones threatened the Roman Republic in the late 2nd century BC. The ancient sources located their home of origin in Jutland, Denmark, which was referred to as the Cimbrian peninsula throughout antiquity (Greek: / Kimbrikē Chersonēsos). References to modern discussions in W. Pohl, Die Germanen, 2000, p. 89. Homeland and name Archaeologists have not found any clear indications of a mass migration from Jutland in the early Iron Age. The Gundestrup Cauldron, which was deposited in a bog in Himmerland in the 2nd or 1st century BC, shows that there was some sort of contact with southeastern Europe, but it is uncertain if this contact can be associated with the Cimbrian expedition. Kaul, F. & Martens, J. "Southeast European Influences in the Early Iron Age of Southern Scandinavia. Gundestrup and the Cimbri", Acta Archaeologica 66 (1995) 111-161. Advocates for a northern homeland point to Greek and Roman sources that associate the Cimbri with the peninsula of Jutland. Denmark. According to the Res gestae (ch. 26) of Augustus, the Cimbri were still found in the area around the turn of the Common Era: The contemporary Greek geographer Strabo testifies that the Cimbri still existed as a Germanic tribe, presumably in the "Cimbric peninsula" (since they are said to live by the North Sea and to have paid tribute to Augustus): On the map of Ptolemy, the "Kimbroi" are placed on the northernmost part of the peninsula of Jutland. Ptolemy, Geography 2.11.7: "the Cimbri are more northern than all (of these tribes)" , i.e. in the modern landscape of Himmerland south of Limfjorden (since Vendsyssel-Thy north of the fjord was at that time a group of islands). Himmerland (Old Danish Himbersysel) is generally thought to preserve their name, Jan Katlev, Politikens etymologisk ordbog, Copenhagen 2000:294; Kenneth W. Harl, Rome and the Barbarians, The Teaching Company, 2004 in an older form without Grimm's law (PIE k > Germ. h). Alternatively, Latin C- represents an attempt to render the unfamiliar Proto-Germanic h = , perhaps due to Celtic-speaking interpreters (a Celtic intermediary would also explain why Germanic *Þeuðanōz became Latin Teutones). The origin of the name Cimbri is unknown. One etymology Vasmer, Russisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 1958, vol. 3, p. 62; Z. Gołąb, "About the connection between kinship terms and some ethnica in Slavic", International Journal of Slavic Linguistics and Poetics 25-26 (1982) 166-7. is PIE "inhabitant", from "home" (> Eng. home), itself a derivation from "live" (> Greek , Latin sinō); then, the Germanic *χimbra- finds an exact cognate in Slavic sębrъ "farmer" (> Croatian, Serbian sebar, Russ. sjabër?????????????????????). Because of the similarity of the names, the Cimbri were at times associated with Cymry, the Welsh name for themselves C. Rawlinson, "On the Ethnography of the Cimbri", Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 6 (1877) 150-158. . However, this word is generally derived from Celtic *Kombroges, meaning compatriots, C.T. Onions and R.W. Burchfield, eds. The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1966, s.v. Cymry; Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, 2002: 321 and it is hardly conceivable that the Romans would have recorded such a form as Cimbri. The form Cambria is Neo-Latin. The name has also been related to the word kimme meaning "rim", i.e. the people of the coast, Nordisk familjebok, Projekt Runeborg but this is incompatible with the association of Cimbri to Himmerland since kimme does not exhibit the effects of Grimm's law. Finally, since Antiquity, the name has been related to that of the Cimmerians. Posidonius in Strabo, Geography 7.2.2; Diodorus Siculus, Bibl. 5.32.4; Plutarch, Vit.Mar. 11.11. Language of the Cimbri A major problem in determining whether the Cimbri were speaking a Celtic or a Germanic language is that at this time the Greeks and Romans tended to refer to all groups to the north of their sphere of influence as Gauls, Celts, or Germani rather indiscriminately. Caesar seems to be one of the first authors to distinguish the two groups, and he has a political motive for doing so (it is an argument in favour of the Rhine border). A.A. Lund, Die ersten Germanen: Ethnizität und Ethnogenese, Heidelberg 1998. Yet, one cannot always trust Caesar and Tacitus when they ascribe individuals and tribes to one or the other category. Most ancient sources categorize the Cimbri as a Germanic tribe, Caesar, Gallic Wars 1.33.3-4; Strabo, Geographica 4.4.3, 7.1.3; Pliny, Natural History 4.100; Tacitus, Germania 37, History 4.73. but some ancient authors include the Cimbri among the Celts. Appian, Civil Wars 1.4.29, Illyrica 8.3. There are few direct testimonies to the language of the Cimbri: Referring to the Northern Ocean (the Baltic or the North Sea), Pliny the Elder states: Naturalis Historia, 4.95: Philemon Morimarusam a Cimbris vocari, hoc est mortuum mare, inde usque ad promunturium Rusbeas, ultra deinde Cronium. "Philemon says that it is called Morimarusa, i.e. the Dead Sea, by the Cimbri, until the promontory of Rubea, and after that Cronium." The words for "sea" and "dead" are muir and marbh in Irish and mor and marw in Welsh. F. M. Ahl, "Amber, Avallon, and Apollo's Singing Swan", American Journal of Philology 103 (1982) 399. The same word for "sea" is also known from Germanic, but with an a (*mari-), whereas a cognate of marbh is unknown in all dialects of Germanic. Germanic has *murþ(r)a "murder" (with the verb *murþ(r)jan), but uses *daujan and *dauða- for "die" and "dead". Yet, given that Pliny had not had the word directly from a Cimbric informant, it cannot be ruled out that the word is in fact Gaulish instead. Accordingly, Pokorny, Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch, 1959, p. 735, describes the word as "Gaulish?". Similarly, the kings of the Cimbri and Teutones carry what look like Celtic names, viz. Boiorix and Teutobodus, but the origin of a name need not say anything about the ethnicity or language of the individual carrying the name. On the other hand, there is no positive evidence of Germanic words or names in connection with the Cimbri. The etymology given above (PIE ) would work just as well in a Celtic context (and the Latin form with c rather than h would be easier to explain). Other evidence to the language of the Cimbri is circumstantial: thus, we are told that the Romans enlisted Gaulish Celts to act as spies in the Cimbri camp prior to the final showdown with the Roman army in 101 BC. This is evidence in support of "the Celtic rather than the German theory". Rawlinson, in Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 6 (1877) 156. Jean Markale Markale, Celtic Civilization 1976:40. wrote that the Cimbri were associated with the Helvetii, and more especially with the indisputably Celtic Tigurini. As will be seen later, these associations may link to a common ancestry, recalled from two hundred years previous. Also, all the known Cimbri chiefs had Celtic names, including Boiorix (King of the Boii), Gaesorix (King of the Gaesatae, who were Alpine Celtic mercenaries), and Lugius (after the Celtic god Lugh). Henri Hubert Hubert, The Greatness and Decline of the Celts1934 Ch. IV, I. states "All these names are Celtic, and they cannot be anything else". Some authors take a different perspective. For example, Peter S. Wells Wells (1995) p. 606. states that the Cimbri "are certainly not Celts", without providing argumentation. The journey Journey of Cimbri and Teutones Moving south-east Some time before 100 BC many of the Cimbri, as well as the Teutones and Ambrones migrated south-east. After several unsuccessful battles with the Boii and other Celtic tribes, they appeared ca 113 BC in Noricum, where they invaded the lands of one of Rome's allies, the Taurisci. On the request of the Roman consul Gnaeus Papirius Carbo, sent to defend the Taurisci, they retreated, only to find themselves deceived and attacked at the Battle of Noreia, where they defeated the Romans. Only a storm, which separated the combatants, saved the Roman forces from complete annihilation. Invading Gaul Now the road to Italy was open, but they turned west towards Gaul. They came into frequent conflict with the Romans, who usually came out the losers. In 109 BC, they defeated a Roman army under the consul Marcus Junius Silanus, who was the commander of Gallia Narbonensis. The same year, they defeated another Roman army under the consul Gaius Cassius Longinus, who was killed at Burdigala (modern day Bordeaux). In 107 BC, the Romans once again lost against the Tigurines, who were allies of the Cimbri. The war against the Romans Attacking the Roman Republic It was not until 105 BC that they planned an attack on the Roman Republic itself. At the Rhône, the Cimbri clashed with the Roman armies. The Roman commanders, the proconsul Quintus Servilius Caepio and the consul Gnaeus Mallius Maximus, hindered Roman coordination and so the Cimbri succeeded in first defeating the legate Marcus Aurelius Scaurus and later cause a devastating defeat on Caepio and Maximus at the Battle of Arausio. The Romans lost as many as 80,000 men, excluding auxiliary cavalry and non-combatants who brought the total loss closer to 112,000. Rome was in panic, and the terror cimbricus became proverbial. Everyone expected to soon see the new Gauls outside of the gates of Rome. Desperate measures were taken: contrary to the Roman constitution, Gaius Marius, who had defeated Jugurtha, was elected consul and supreme commander for five years in a row (104-100 BC). Defeat The Defeat of the Cimbri, by Alexandre-Gabriel Décamps. In 103 BC, the Cimbri and their proto-Germanic allies, the Teutons, had turned to Spain where they pillaged far and wide. During this time C. Marius had the time to prepare and, in 102 BC, he was ready to meet the Teutons and the Ambrones at the Rhône. These two tribes intended to pass into Italy through the western passes, while the Cimbri and the Tigurines were to take the northern route across the Rhine and later across the Tirolian Alps. At the estuary of the Isère River, the Teutons and the Ambrones met Marius, whose well-defended camp they did not manage to overrun. Instead, they pursued their route, and Marius followed them. At Aquae Sextiae, the Romans won two battles and took the Teuton king Teutobod prisoner. The Cimbri had penetrated through the Alps into northern Italy, The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus had not dared to fortify the passes, but instead he had retreated behind the River Po, and so the land was open to the invaders. The Cimbri did not hurry, and the victors of Aquae Sextiae had the time to arrive with reinforcements. At the Battle of Vercellae, at the confluence of the Sesia River with the Po River, in 101 BC, the long voyage of the Cimbri also came to an end. It was a devastating defeat and both the chieftains Lugius and Boiorix died. The women killed both themselves and their children in order to avoid slavery. The Cimbri were annihilated, although some may have survived to return to the homeland where a population with this name was residing in northern Jutland in the 1st century AD, according to the sources quoted above. Culture Gundestrup cauldron, Plate E Strabo gives this vivid description of the Cimbric folklore (Geogr. 7.2.3, trans. H.L. Jones): The Cimbri are depicted as ferocious warriors who did not fear death. The host was followed by women and children on carts. Aged women dressed in white (cf. the Old Norse völva) sacrificed the prisoners of war and sprinkled their blood (cf. the Old Norse blót), the nature of which allowed them to see what was to come. If the Cimbri did in fact come from Jutland, evidence that the they practised ritualistic sacrifice may be found in the Haraldskær Woman discovered in Jutland in the year 1835. Noosemarks and skin piercing were evident and she had been thrown into a bog rather than buried or cremated. Furthermore, the Gundestrup cauldron, found in Himmerland, may be a sacrificial vessel like the one described in Strabo's text. The work itself was of Thracian origin. Descendants According to Caesar, the Belgian tribe of the Atuatuci "was descended from the Cimbri and Teutoni, who, upon their march into our province and Italy, set down such of their stock and stuff as they could not drive or carry with them on the near (i.e. west) side of the Rhine, and left six thousand men of their company therewith as guard and garrison" (Gall. 2.29, trans. Edwards). They founded the city of Atuatuca in the land of the Belgic Eburones, whom they dominated. Thus Ambiorix king of the Eburones paid tribute and gave his son and nephew as hostages to the Atuatuci (Gall. 6.27). In the first century AD, the Eburones were replaced or absorbed by the Germanic Tungri, and the city was known as Atuatuca Tungrorum, i.e. the modern city of Tongeren. The population of modern-day Himmerland claims to be the heirs of the ancient Cimbri. The adventures of the Cimbri are described by the Danish nobel-prize-winning author, Johannes V. Jensen, himself born in Himmerland, in the novel Cimbrernes Tog (1922), included in the epic cycle Den lange Rejse (English The Long Journey, 1923). The so-called Cimbrian bull ("Cimbrertyren"), a sculpture by Anders Bundgaard, was erected 14 April 1937 on a central town square in Aalborg, the capital of the region of North Jutland. In northern Italy, a Germanic language traditionally called Cimbrian is spoken in some villages near the cities of Verona and Vicenza. Since the fourteenth century, it was believed that the speakers were the direct descendants of the Cimbrians defeated at Vercelli, some hundred kilometers to the west. However, this is probably not true. Børglum, Vernesi, Jensen, Madsen, Haagerup & Barbujani: "No Signature of Y Chromosomal Resemblance Between Possible Descendants of the Cimbri in Denmark and Northern Italy", American Journal Of Physical Anthropology 132:278–284 (2007)On-line text The "Cimbriano" language is in fact related to the Austro-Bavarian dialects of German like many other Upper German dialects in northern Italy, it is only more isolated and therefore less recognizable as German. The name was either indigenous (from Zimmer = "timber"?) or given to them by Italian humanists who wanted to find this "living fossil" of antiquity. Notes See also Cimmerians Sugambri Zimmern Chronicle Haraldskær Woman External links David K. Faux: "The Cimbri Nation of Jutland, Denmark and the Danelaw, England: A Chronological Approach Based on Diverse Data Sources" (2007) | Cimbri |@lemmatized see:5 cimbrians:2 unrelated:1 contemporary:2 dialect:4 group:4 northern:10 italy:8 migration:2 teuton:5 cimbri:44 celtic:15 germanic:14 tribe:8 together:1 teutones:5 ambrones:4 threaten:1 roman:22 republic:3 late:1 century:5 bc:12 ancient:4 source:5 locate:1 home:3 origin:4 jutland:9 denmark:4 refer:2 cimbrian:4 peninsula:4 throughout:1 antiquity:3 greek:5 kimbrikē:1 chersonēsos:1 reference:1 modern:5 discussion:1 w:3 pohl:1 die:4 germanen:2 p:4 homeland:3 name:15 archaeologist:1 find:7 clear:1 indication:1 mass:1 early:2 iron:2 age:3 gundestrup:4 cauldron:3 deposit:1 bog:2 himmerland:7 show:1 sort:1 contact:2 southeastern:1 europe:1 uncertain:1 associate:4 expedition:1 kaul:1 f:2 marten:1 j:1 southeast:1 european:1 influence:2 southern:1 scandinavia:1 acta:1 archaeologica:1 advocate:1 point:1 accord:3 gestae:1 ch:2 augustus:2 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7,225 | BCS_theory | BCS theory is the first microscopic theory of superconductivity, proposed by Bardeen, Cooper, and Schrieffer in 1957 since the discovery of superconductivity 1911. It describes superconductivity as a microscopic effect caused by a condensation of pairs of electrons into a boson-like state. History The mid 1950s saw rapid progress in the understanding of superconductivity. It began in the 1948 paper On the Problem of the Molecular Theory of Superconductivity where Fritz London proposed that the phenomonological London equations may be consequences of the coherence of a quantum state. In 1953 Brian Pippard, motivated by penetration experiments, proposed that this would modify the London equations via a new scale parameter called the coherence length. John Bardeen then argued in the 1955 paper Theory of the Meissner Effect in Superconductors that such a modification naturally occurs in a theory with an energy gap. The key ingredient, which describes the field whose mass is equal to Bardeen's energy gap, was Leon Neil Cooper's calculation of the bound states of electrons subject to an attractive force in his 1956 paper Bound Electron Pairs in a Degenerate Fermi Gas. In 1957 Bardeen and Cooper assembled these ingredients and constructed such a theory, the BCS theory, with Robert Schrieffer. The theory was first announced in February 1957 in the letter Microscopic theory of superconductivity. The demonstration that the phase transition is second order, that it reproduces the Meissner effect and the calculations of specific heats and penetration depths appeared in the July 1957 article Theory of superconductivity. They received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1972 for this theory. The 1950 Landau-Ginzburg theory of superconductivity is not cited in either of the BCS papers. In 1986, "high-temperature superconductivity" was discovered (i.e. superconductivity at temperatures considerably above the previous limit of about 30 K; up to about 130 K). It is believed that at these temperatures other effects are at play; these effects are not yet fully understood. (It is possible that these unknown effects also control superconductivity even at low temperatures for some materials). Overview In the BCS framework, superconductivity is a macroscopic effect which results from "condensation" of electron pairs, called Cooper pairs. These nearly behave as bosons which, at sufficiently low temperature, form a large Bose-Einstein condensate. At sufficiently low temperatures, electrons near the Fermi surface become unstable against the formation of cooper pairs. Cooper showed such binding will occur in the presence of an attractive potential, no matter how weak. In conventional superconductors, such binding is generally attributed to an electron-lattice interaction. The BCS theory, however, requires only that the potential be attractive, regardless of its origin. Superconductivity was simultaneously explained by Nikolay Bogoliubov, by means of the so-called Bogoliubov transformations. In many superconductors, the attractive interaction between electrons (necessary for pairing) is brought about indirectly by the interaction between the electrons and the vibrating crystal lattice (the phonons). Roughly speaking the picture is the following: An electron moving through a conductor will attract nearby positive charges in the lattice. This deformation of the lattice causes another electron, with opposite "spin", to move into the region of higher positive charge density. The two electrons are then held together with a certain binding energy. If this binding energy is higher than the energy provided by kicks from oscillating atoms in the conductor (which is true at low temperatures), then the electron pair will stick together and resist all kicks, thus not experiencing resistance. More details BCS theory starts from the assumption that there is some attraction between electrons, which can overcome the Coulomb repulsion. In most materials (in low temperature superconductors), this attraction is brought about indirectly by the coupling of electrons to the crystal lattice (as explained above). However, the results of BCS theory do not depend on the origin of the attractive interaction. The original results of BCS (discussed below) described an "s-wave" superconducting state, which is the rule among low-temperature superconductors but is not realized in many "unconventional superconductors", such as the "d-wave" high-temperature superconductors. Extensions of BCS theory exist to describe these other cases, although they are insufficient to completely describe the observed features of high-temperature superconductivity. BCS is able to give an approximation for the quantum-mechanical state of the system of (attractively interacting) electrons inside the metal. This state is now known as the "BCS state". In the normal state of a metal, electrons move independently, whereas in the BCS state, they are bound into "Cooper pairs" by the attractive interaction. Successes of the BCS theory BCS derived several important theoretical predictions that are independent of the details of the interaction, since the quantitative predictions mentioned below hold for any sufficiently weak attraction between the electrons and this last condition is fulfilled for many low temperature superconductors - the so-called "weak-coupling case". These have been confirmed in numerous experiments: The electrons are bound into Cooper pairs, and these pairs are correlated due to the Pauli exclusion principle for the electrons, from which they are constructed. Therefore, in order to break a pair, one has to change energies of all other pairs. This means there is an "energy gap" for "single-particle excitation", unlike in the normal metal (where the state of an electron can be changed by adding an arbitrarily small amount of energy). This energy gap is highest at low temperatures but vanishes at the transition temperature when superconductivity ceases to exist. The BCS theory gives an expression that shows how the gap grows with the strength of the attractive interaction and the (normal phase) single particle density of states at the Fermi energy. Furthermore, it describes how the density of states is changed on entering the superconducting state, where there are no electronic states any more at the Fermi energy. The energy gap is most directly observed in tunneling experiments and in reflection of microwaves from the superconductor. BCS theory predicts the dependence of the value of the energy gap E at temperature T on the critical temperature Tc. The ratio between the value of the energy gap at zero temperature and the value of the superconducting transition temperature (expressed in energy units) takes the universal value of 3.5, independent of material. Near the critical temperature the relation asymptotes to which is of the form suggested the previous year by M. J. Buckingham in Very High Frequency Absorption in Superconductors based on the fact that the superconducting phase transition is second order, that the superconducting phase has a mass gap and on Blevins, Gordy and Fairbank's experimental results the previous year on the absorption of millimeter waves by superconducting tin. Due to the energy gap, the specific heat of the superconductor is suppressed strongly (exponentially) at low temperatures, there being no thermal excitations left. However, before reaching the transition temperature, the specific heat of the superconductor becomes even higher than that of the normal conductor (measured immediately above the transition) and the ratio of these two values is found to be universally given by 2.5. BCS theory correctly predicts the Meissner effect, i.e. the expulsion of a magnetic field from the superconductor and the variation of the penetration depth (the extent of the screening currents flowing below the metal's surface) with temperature. This had been demonstrated experimentally by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld in their 1933 article Ein neuer Effekt bei Eintritt der Supraleitfähigkeit. It also describes the variation of the critical magnetic field (above which the superconductor can no longer expel the field but becomes normal conducting) with temperature. BCS theory relates the value of the critical field at zero temperature to the value of the transition temperature and the density of states at the Fermi energy. In its simplest form, BCS gives the superconducting transition temperature in terms of the electron-phonon coupling potential and the Debye cutoff energy: The BCS theory reproduces the isotope effect, which is the experimental observation that for a given superconducting material, the critical temperature is inversely proportional to the mass of the isotope used in the material. The isotope effect was reported by two groups on the 24th of March 1950, who discovered it independently working with different mercury isotopes, although a few days before publication they learned of each other's results at the ONR conference in Atlanta, Georgia. The two groups are Emanuel Maxwell, who published his results in Isotope Effect in the Superconductivity of Mercury and C. A. Reynolds, B. Serin, W. H. Wright, and L. B. Nesbitt who published their results 10 pages later in Superconductivity of Isotopes of Mercury. The choice of isotope ordinarily has little effect on the electrical properties of a material, but does affect the frequency of lattice vibrations, this effect suggested that superconductivity be related to vibrations of the lattice. This is incorporated into the BCS theory, where lattice vibrations yield the binding energy of electrons in a Cooper pair. See also Superconductivity References The BCS Papers: L. N. Cooper, "Bound Electron Pairs in a Degenerate Fermi Gas", Phys. Rev 104, 1189 - 1190 (1956). J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, "Microscopic Theory of Superconductivity",Phys. Rev. 106, 162 - 164 (1957). J. Bardeen, L. N. Cooper, and J. R. Schrieffer, "Theory of Superconductivity", Phys. Rev. 108, 1175 (1957). External links ScienceDaily: Physicist Discovers Exotic Superconductivity (University of Arizona) August 17, 2006 Hyperphysics page on BCS BCS History Dance Analogy of BCS theory as explained by Bob Schrieffer (audio recording). Further reading John Robert Schrieffer, Theory of Superconductivity, (1964), ISBN 0-7382-0120-0 Michael Tinkham, Introduction to Superconductivity, ISBN 0-4864-3503-2 Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Superconductivity of Metals and Alloys, ISBN 0-7382-0101-4. | BCS_theory |@lemmatized bcs:25 theory:27 first:2 microscopic:4 superconductivity:25 propose:3 bardeen:6 cooper:12 schrieffer:6 since:2 discovery:1 describe:7 effect:13 cause:2 condensation:2 pair:14 electron:23 boson:2 like:1 state:15 history:2 mid:1 saw:1 rapid:1 progress:1 understanding:1 begin:1 paper:5 problem:1 molecular:1 fritz:1 london:3 phenomonological:1 equation:2 may:1 consequence:1 coherence:2 quantum:2 brian:1 pippard:1 motivate:1 penetration:3 experiment:3 would:1 modify:1 via:1 new:1 scale:1 parameter:1 call:4 length:1 john:2 argue:1 meissner:4 superconductors:9 modification:1 naturally:1 occur:2 energy:19 gap:10 key:1 ingredient:2 field:5 whose:1 mass:3 equal:1 leon:1 neil:1 calculation:2 bound:2 subject:1 attractive:7 force:1 degenerate:2 fermi:6 gas:2 assemble:1 construct:2 robert:3 announce:1 february:1 letter:1 demonstration:1 phase:4 transition:8 second:2 order:3 reproduce:2 specific:3 heat:3 depth:2 appear:1 july:1 article:2 receive:1 nobel:1 prize:1 physic:1 landau:1 ginzburg:1 cite:1 either:1 high:8 temperature:27 discover:2 e:3 considerably:1 previous:3 limit:1 k:2 believe:1 play:1 yet:1 fully:1 understood:1 possible:1 unknown:1 also:3 control:1 even:2 low:9 material:6 overview:1 framework:1 macroscopic:1 result:7 nearly:1 behave:1 sufficiently:3 form:3 large:1 bose:1 einstein:1 condensate:1 near:2 surface:2 become:3 unstable:1 formation:1 show:2 binding:4 presence:1 potential:3 matter:1 weak:3 conventional:1 generally:1 attribute:1 lattice:8 interaction:7 however:3 require:1 regardless:1 origin:2 simultaneously:1 explain:3 nikolay:1 bogoliubov:2 mean:2 transformation:1 many:3 necessary:1 bring:2 indirectly:2 vibrate:1 crystal:2 phonons:1 roughly:1 speak:1 picture:1 following:1 move:3 conductor:3 attract:1 nearby:1 positive:2 charge:2 deformation:1 another:1 opposite:1 spin:1 region:1 density:4 two:4 hold:2 together:2 certain:1 provide:1 kick:2 oscillate:1 atom:1 true:1 stick:1 resist:1 thus:1 experience:1 resistance:1 detail:2 start:1 assumption:1 attraction:3 overcome:1 coulomb:1 repulsion:1 coupling:1 depend:1 original:1 discuss:1 wave:3 superconducting:8 rule:1 among:1 realize:1 unconventional:1 extension:1 exist:2 case:2 although:2 insufficient:1 completely:1 observed:1 feature:1 able:1 give:5 approximation:1 mechanical:1 system:1 attractively:1 interact:1 inside:1 metal:5 know:1 normal:5 independently:2 whereas:1 bind:4 success:1 derive:1 several:1 important:1 theoretical:1 prediction:2 independent:2 quantitative:1 mention:1 last:1 condition:1 fulfil:1 couple:2 confirm:1 numerous:1 correlate:1 due:2 pauli:1 exclusion:1 principle:1 therefore:1 break:1 one:1 change:3 single:2 particle:2 excitation:2 unlike:1 add:1 arbitrarily:1 small:1 amount:1 vanishes:1 cease:1 expression:1 grow:1 strength:1 furthermore:1 enter:1 electronic:1 directly:1 observe:1 tunnel:1 reflection:1 microwave:1 superconductor:5 predict:2 dependence:1 value:7 critical:5 tc:1 ratio:2 zero:2 express:1 unit:1 take:1 universal:1 relation:1 asymptotes:1 suggest:2 year:2 j:5 buckingham:1 frequency:2 absorption:2 base:1 fact:1 blevins:1 gordy:1 fairbank:1 experimental:2 millimeter:1 tin:1 suppress:1 strongly:1 exponentially:1 thermal:1 leave:1 reach:1 measure:1 immediately:1 find:1 universally:1 correctly:1 expulsion:1 magnetic:2 variation:2 extent:1 screening:1 current:1 flow:1 demonstrate:1 experimentally:1 walther:1 ochsenfeld:1 ein:1 neuer:1 effekt:1 bei:1 eintritt:1 der:1 supraleitfähigkeit:1 longer:1 expel:1 conduct:1 relate:2 simple:1 term:1 phonon:1 debye:1 cutoff:1 isotope:7 observation:1 inversely:1 proportional:1 use:1 report:1 group:2 march:1 work:1 different:1 mercury:3 day:1 publication:1 learn:1 onr:1 conference:1 atlanta:1 georgia:1 emanuel:1 maxwell:1 publish:2 c:1 reynolds:1 b:2 serin:1 w:1 h:1 wright:1 l:4 nesbitt:1 page:2 later:1 choice:1 ordinarily:1 little:1 electrical:1 property:1 affect:1 vibration:3 incorporate:1 yield:1 see:1 reference:1 n:3 phys:3 rev:3 r:2 external:1 link:1 sciencedaily:1 physicist:1 discovers:1 exotic:1 university:1 arizona:1 august:1 hyperphysics:1 dance:1 analogy:1 bob:1 audio:1 recording:1 far:1 reading:1 isbn:3 michael:1 tinkham:1 introduction:1 pierre:1 gilles:1 de:1 gennes:1 alloy:1 |@bigram meissner_effect:3 robert_schrieffer:2 penetration_depth:2 nobel_prize:1 bose_einstein:1 einstein_condensate:1 crystal_lattice:2 temperature_superconductors:4 quantum_mechanical:1 pauli_exclusion:1 exclusion_principle:1 magnetic_field:2 electron_phonon:1 inversely_proportional:1 atlanta_georgia:1 phys_rev:3 external_link:1 |
7,226 | Cross-dressing | Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender within a particular society. "cross-dress." The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. Answers.com 25 September 2007. The usage of the term, the types of cross-dressing both in modern times and throughout history, an analysis of the behaviour, and historical examples are discussed in the article below. Nearly every human society throughout history has distinguished between male and female gender by the style, color, or type of clothing they wear and has had a set of norms, views, guidelines, or even laws defining what type of clothing is appropriate for each gender. Cross-dressing is a behavior which runs significantly counter to those norms and therefore can be seen as a type of transgender behavior. It does not, however, necessarily indicate transgender identity; a person who cross-dresses does not always identify as having a gender different from that assigned at birth. The term cross-dressing denotes an action or a behavior without attributing or proposing causes for that behavior. Some people automatically connect cross-dressing behavior to transgender identity or sexual, fetishist, and homosexual behavior, but the term cross-dressing itself does not imply any motives. However, referring to a person as a cross-dresser suggests that their cross-dressing behavior is habitual and may be taken to mean that the person identifies as transgendered. The term cross-dresser should therefore be used with care to avoid causing misunderstanding or offense. Varieties of cross-dressing There are many different kinds of cross-dressing, and many different reasons why an individual might engage in cross-dressing behaviour. Rainbow Reader, Fort Wayne, Indiana Drag queens are a form of cross-dressing as performance art. Some people cross-dress as a matter of comfort or style. They have a preference towards clothing which is only marketed to or associated with the opposite sex. In this case, a person's cross-dressing may or may not be visible to other people. Some people cross-dress in order to shock others or challenge social norms. Both men and women may cross-dress in order to disguise their true identity. Historically, some women have cross-dressed in order to take up male-dominated or male-exclusive professions, such as military service. Conversely, some men have cross-dressed in order to escape from mandatory military service. See the television series M.A.S.H. for an example of a cross-dresser who didn't want to be in the military (Klinger); although, the character was played for laughs, this is based on military regulations prohibiting cross-dressers. Single-sex theatrical troupes often have some performers cross-dress in order to play roles written for members of the opposite sex. Cross-dressing, particularly the depiction of males wearing dresses, is often used for comic effect onstage and onscreen. Drag is a special form of performance art based on cross-dressing. A drag queen is usually a male-bodied person who performs as an exaggeratedly feminine character, in heightened costuming sometimes consisting of a showy dress, high-heeled shoes, obvious makeup, and wig. A drag queen may imitate famous female film or pop-music stars. A faux queen is a female-bodied person employing the same techniques. A drag king is a counterpart of the drag queen but usually for much different audiences. A female-bodied person (often lesbians) who adopt a masculine persona in performance or imitates a male film or pop-music star. Some female-bodied people undergoing gender reassignment therapy also self-identify as drag kings although this use of "drag king" would generally be considered inaccurate. Transgendered people who are undergoing or have undergone gender reassignment therapy are usually not regarded as cross-dressing. Namely, a transsexual who has completed gender reassignment surgery is certainly not considered cross-dressing, unless they were to wear clothes of the gender opposite of what they have transitioned to. Pre-operative transsexuals may be considered similarly. A transvestic fetishist is a person (typically a heterosexual male) who cross-dresses as part of a sexual fetish. The term underdressing is used by male cross-dressers to describe wearing female undergarments under their male clothes. The famous low-budget filmmaker Edward D. Wood, Jr. said he often wore women's underwear under his military uniform during World War II. Some people who cross-dress may endeavour to project a complete impression of belonging to another gender, down to mannerisms, speech patterns, and emulation of sexual characteristics. This is referred to as passing or "trying to pass" depending how successful the person is. An observer who sees through the cross-dresser's attempt to pass is said to have read them. There are books and magazines on how a man may look more like a woman. Transformation magazine; interviews for Rainbow Reader, Fort Wayne, Indiana Sometimes either person of a heterosexual couple will wear it to arouse the other. For example, the Male would wear skirts or lingerie and/or the Female will wear boxers or other male clothing. (See also forced feminization) Others may choose to take a mixed approach, adopting some feminine traits and some masculine traits in their appearance. For instance, a man might wear both a dress and a beard. This is sometimes known as genderfuck. Utilitarian purposes also bring about forms of crossdressing, such as support hose for men with bad circulation in their legs, or the wearing of bras for men with gynecomastia (male breasts). Clothes The actual determination of cross-dressing is largely socially constructed. For example, in Western society, trousers have been adopted for wear by women, and is not regarded as cross-dressing. In cultures where men have traditionally worn skirt-like garments such as the kilt or sarong these are not seen as female clothing, and wearing them is not seen as cross-dressing for men. As societies are becoming more global in nature, both men and women are adopting styles of dress associated with other cultures. It was once taboo in Western society for women to wear clothes traditionally associated with men, excepting certain circumstances, such as for necessity (as per St. Thomas Aquinas's guidelines in Summa Theologiae II), or in the case of the "holy transvestites" (cross-dressing female saints), of which there were many. The limiting guidelines on acceptability seemed to focus on passing; the taboo was most strongly focused on the blending of genders. Schibanoff, Susan. "Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc", Transvestism and Idalotry, p39 Cross dressing is somewhat cited as an "abomination" in the Bible in the book of Deuteronomy (22:5), although even in the Middle Ages, its applicability was occasionally disputed and still is. The 15th century French feminist Martin le Franc, concerning Joan of Arc: Don't you see that it was forbidden That anyone should eat of an animal Unless it had a cleft foot And chewed its cud? To eat of a hare no one dared Neither of sow nor of piglet, Yet should you now be offered any, You would take many a morsel. Merkle, Gertrude H. "Fresh Verdicts on Joan of Arc", Martin Le Franc's Commentary on Jean Gerson's Treatise on Joan of Arc, p182 While this prohibition remained in force in general throughout the middle and early modern ages, this is no longer the case and Western women are often seen wearing trousers, ties, and men's hats. Nevertheless, many cultures around the world still prohibit women from wearing trousers or other traditionally male clothing. Cosplaying may also involve cross-dressing, for some females may wish to dress as a male, and vice versa (see Crossplay). Breast binding (for females) is not uncommon and is most likely needed to cosplay a male character. In most parts of the world it remains socially frowned upon for men to wear clothes traditionally associated with women. Attempts are occasionally made, e.g. by fashion designers, to promote the acceptance of skirts as everyday wear for men. Cross-dressers have complained that society permits women to wear pants or jeans and other masculine clothing, while condemning any man who wants to wear clothing sold for women. While most male cross-dressers utilise clothing associated with modern women, there are some who are involved in subcultures that involve dressing as little girls or in vintage clothing. Some such men have written that they enjoy dressing as feminine as possible, so they will wear frilly dresses with lace and ribbons, as well as multiple petticoats, corsets, girdles and/or garter belts with nylon stockings. www.pettipond.com Social issues Cross-dressers may begin wearing their opposite sex's clothing as children, using the clothes of a sibling, parent, or friend. Some parents have said they allowed their children to cross-dress and, in many cases, the child stopped when they became older. The same pattern often continues into adulthood, where there may be confrontations with a spouse. Married cross-dressers experience considerable anxiety and guilt if their spouse objects to their behaviour. Some cross-dressers have periodically disposed of all their clothing, a practice called "purging", only to start another collection later. Analyses Female-bodied cross-dressers The behaviour of women in general has historically often received less attention than that of men, and cross-dressing is no exception. However, there are some famous examples of cross-dressing female-bodied persons in history (see Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people below). In modern Western societies, cross-dressing behaviour in women is more difficult to identify as a large number of traditionally men's clothing such as trousers have become socially acceptable for both genders to wear, leaving few types of clothing that are only socially acceptable for men to wear. A woman can even wear men's shirts, trousers, and underwear without it being noticed or considered as crossdressing, as very similar clothing items are produced for women. Social acceptance plays a large role in the perceived low numbers of women crossdressers for the simple reason that it is far more socially acceptable for a woman to be seen wearing men's clothes than a man to be seen wearing women's clothes. Therefore a woman wearing rugged jeans and a plaid shirt would not garner much attention, whereas a man wearing a skirt and high heels would instantly be deemed a cross-dresser. Since the advent of feminism, women have been held to much more lax standards of gender expression and dress, allowing them to still express their femininity but at the same time not being constrained to the feminine ideal as in ages past. Men, on the other hand, are still subject to the same social constraints that existed before the advent of feminism. Thus, men are being held just as much (if not more) to the same standards of masculinity as in the past, and a display of seemingly opposite gender behaviour on a man's part is socially taboo. Therefore the reason it is so hard to have statistics for female-bodied crossdressers is that the line where non-crossdressing stops and crossdressing begins has become blurred, whereas the same line for men is just as defined. This is one of the many issues being addressed by the modern-day masculist movement, the male-equivalent of the feminist movement. The classic psychoanalytic view Classic psychoanalytic views of cross-dressing emphasized the role of taboo in the behaviour. Only items that were proscribed to a gender would be appropriated, and therefore it is not the general association of an item with one sex or the other but the prohibitions against the item that give satisfaction to those with a fetish attachment to cross-dressing. According to this theory, as articles become acceptable for ordinary wear (e.g. a man's necktie on a woman, which passed from taboo to fashion in the 1970s) they will cease to be sought by cross-dressers. Some psychoanalysts today do not regard cross-dressing by itself a psychological problem, unless it interferes with the functioning of a person's life. "For instance," said Dr. Joseph Merlino, Senior Editor of the book Freud at 150: 21st Century Essays on a Man of Genius, "I'm a cross-dresser and I don't want to keep it confined to my circle of friends, or my party circle, and I want to take that to my wife and I don't understand why she doesn't accept it, or I take it to my office and I don't understand why they don't accept it, then it's become a problem because it's interfering with my relationships and environment." Interview with Dr. Joseph Merlino, David Shankbone, Wikinews, October 5, 2007. The problem of attributing motives for cross-dressing When speaking of historical figures, when cross-dressing is not clearly related to specific events (like an escape or disguise) it is usually impossible to state clearly what the motives for cross-dressing were. This information was rarely recorded or preserved. Documents on the subject are often either court records (where the cross-dressing person may have said whatever they thought would minimize their punishment) or accounts by other people who might not understand the motivations correctly. Furthermore, historic figures were often unable to identify themselves as homosexual, transgender, transsexual, or transvestite because these classifications simply had no names or social recognition in their era. It can be equally difficult to be certain of the motives of modern day people who cross-dress. The only real proof of motive is that person's own statement. Yet even this is not always certain, as there are examples of people attributing their cross-dressing behaviour to one motive only to later realize that they may have had another reason. The classical example of this would be a transsexual person who initially attributed cross-dressing behaviour to transvestic fetishism (for transwomen) or the utilitarian practicality of male clothing (for transmen). Another problem which many cross dressers recognize in the attempt to attribute motives for their behaviour is the pathologization of cross dressing inherent in this sort of research. Many cross dressers feel, that rather than attributing motives for cross dressing, research should rather focus on the reasons for why cross dressing is considered taboo by society, or why clothing is gender-segregated at all. Some famous examples of cross-dressing Thor and Loki in drag In Greek mythology In punishment for his murder of Iphitus, Heracles/Hercules was given to Omphale as a slave. Many variants of this story say that she not only compelled him to do women's work, but compelled him to dress as a woman while her slave. Achilles was dressed in women's clothing by his mother Thetis at the court of Lycomedes in order to avoid Odysseus who needed him to join the Trojan War Athena often goes to the aid of people in the guise of men in The Odyssey. Tiresias was turned into a woman after angering a Greek goddess, by killing a female snake that was coupling. In Norse myths and legends Thor dressed as Freyja in order to get Mjölnir back in Þrymskviða. Odin dressed as a female healer as part of his efforts to seduce Rindr. Loki transformed himself into a mare (thus crossdressing and making himself look nonhuman) and in that form became the mother of Sleipnir. In Lokasenna, he and Odin taunt each other with having taken on women's forms, bearing babies and nursing them, but the further details of myths behind those taunts have not survived. Hagbard in the Scandinavian legend of Hagbard and Signy (the Romeo and Juliet of the Vikings). After having slain Signy's brothers and suitors, Hagbard was no longer welcome in the hall of Signy's father Sigar. Hagbard then dressed up as one of his brother Haki's shieldmaidens in order to have access to the chambers of his beloved. When the handmaidens washed his legs, they asked him why they were so furry and why his hands were so calloused. Because of this, he invented a clever verse to explain his strange appearance. Signy, however, who understood that it was Hagbard who had come to see her, explained to the maidens that his verse was truthful. Hagbard was, however, deceived by the handmaidens and he was arrested by Sigar's warriors. Hagbard was hanged and Signy committed suicide as Hagbard watched from the gallows. Frotho I dressed as a shieldmaiden in one of his eastern campaigns. Hervor from Hervarar saga. When Hervor learnt that her father had been the infamous Swedish berserker Angantyr, she dressed as a man, called herself Hjörvard and lived for a long time as a Viking. In Indian mythology: The Mahabharata In the Agnyatbaas ("exile") period of one year imposed upon the Pandavas,in which they had to keep their identities secret to avoid detection, Arjuna crossdressed as Brihannala and became a dance teacher. Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people Famous historical examples of cross-dressing people include: First World War photograph of English war reporter Dorothy Lawrence who secretly posed as a man to become a soldier. Hua Mulan, the central figure of the Ballad of Mulan (and of the Disney film Mulan), may be a historical or fictional figure. She is said to have lived in China during the Northern Wei dynasty, and to have posed as a man in order to fulfil the household drafting quota, thus saving her ill and aged father from having to serve. Several tales of the Desert Fathers speak of monks who were disguised women, a fact discovered only when their bodies were prepared for burial. One such woman, St. Mary of Alexandria, died 508, accompanied her father to a monastery and adopted a monk's habit as a disguise. When she was falsely accused of having gotten a woman pregnant, she patiently bore the accusation without revealing her identity to clear her name, an action praised in medieval books of saints' lives as an example of humble forbearance. The legend of Pope Joan alleges that she was a promiscuous female pope who dressed like a man and reigned from 855 to 858. Modern historians regard her as a mythical figure who originated from 13th century anti-papal satire. Joan of Arc was a 15th century French peasant girl who joined French armies against English forces fighting in France during the latter part of the Hundred Years' War. She is a French national heroine and a Catholic saint. After being captured by the English, she was burned at the stake upon being convicted by a religious court, with the act of dressing in male clothing being cited as one of the principal reasons for her execution. A number of witnesses, however, testified that she had said she wore male clothing (consisting of two layers of pants attached to the doublet with twenty fasteners) because she feared the guards would rape her at night. Joan of Arc, Male Clothing Issue Anne Bonny and Mary Read were late 17th century pirates. Bonny in particular gained significant notoriety, but both were eventually captured. Unlike the rest of the male crew, Bonny and Read were not immediately executed because Read was pregnant and Bonny stated that she was pregnant as well. Ulrika Eleonora Stålhammar was a Swedish woman who served as a soldier during the Great Northern War and married a woman. Bonnie Prince Charlie dressed as Flora MacDonald's maid servant, Betty Burke to escape the Battle of Culloden for the island of Skye in 1746. Ann Mills fought as a dragoon in 1740. Hannah Snell served as a man in the Royal Marines 1747–1750, being wounded 11 times, and was granted a military pension. Charles-Geneviève-Louis-Auguste-André-Timothée Éon de Beaumont (1728–1810), usually known as the Chevalier d'Eon, was a French diplomat and soldier who lived the first half of his life as a man and the second half as a woman. In 1771 he stated that physically he was not a man, but a woman, having been brought up as a man only. From then on she lived as a woman. On her death it was discovered that her body was anatomically male. George Sand is the pseudonym of Amandine-Aurore-Lucile Dupin, an early 19th century French novelist who preferred to wear men's clothing exclusively. In her autobiography, she explains in length the various aspects of how she experienced cross-dressing. Dorothy Lawrence was an English war reporter who disguised herself as a man so she could become a soldier in World War I. Rrose Sélavy, the feminine alter-ego of the late French artist, Marcel Duchamp, remains one of the most complex and pervasive pieces in the enigmatic puzzle of the artist's oeuvre. She first emerged in portraits made by the photographer Man Ray in New York in the early 1920s, when Duchamp and Man Ray were collaborating on a number of conceptual photographic works. Rrose Sélavy lived on as the person to whom Duchamp attributed specific works of art, Readymades, puns, and writings throughout his career. By creating for himself this female persona whose attributes are beauty and eroticism, he deliberately and characteristically complicated the understanding of his ideas and motives. More contemporary artists like J. S. G. Boggs, Yasumasa Morimura, and Grayson Perry have also explored cross-dressing. Shi Pei-Pu was a male Peking Opera singer. Spying on behalf of the Chinese Government during the Cultural Revolution, he cross-dressed in order to gain information from Bernard Boursicot, a French diplomat. Their releationship lasted 20 years, during which they married. David Henry Hwang's 1988 play M. Butterfly is loosely based on their story. Billy Tipton was a notable jazz pianist and saxophonist in the United States during the Great Depression. He was born Dorothy Lucille Tipton in 1914, but began living as a man in the 1930s. He was married five times to women, and adopted three boys. He led a full career as a musician and, in later life, as an entertainment agent. Other than his birth family, no one knew of his birth sex or cross-living until after his death in 1989. Willmer "Little Ax" Broadnax was a lead singer in several important gospel quartets, most famously the Spirit of Memphis Quartet. When he died in 1994, it was discovered that he was female bodied. Because female enlistment was barred, many women fought for both the Union and the Confederacy during the American Civil War while dressed as men. Edward Hyde, 3rd Earl of Clarendon, colonial governor of New York and New Jersey in the early 1700s is reported to have enjoyed going out wearing his wife's clothing, but this is disputed. The Straight Dope: Did New York once have a transvestite governor? Hyde was an unpopular figure, and rumors of his cross-dressing may have begun as an urban legend. Cultural examples of cross-dressing Cross-dressing is the subject of many works of literature and plays a significant role in popular culture. References to cross-dressing are frequently used for comic effect. And some established events are centered on cross-dressing, such as Southern Decadence in New Orleans, where the official festivities are coordinated by the Grand Marshals, who are traditionally cross-dressers. Southern Decadence Official Website Folklore Ballads have many cross-dressing heroines. While some (The Famous Flower of Serving-Men) merely need to move about freely, many do it specifically in pursuit of a lover (Rose Red and the White Lily or Child Waters) and consequently pregnancy often complicates the disguise. In the Chinese poem the Ballad of Mulan, Hua Mulan disguised herself as a man to take her elderly father's place in the army. Occasionally, men in ballads also disguise themselves as women, but not only is it rarer, the men dress so for less time, because they are merely trying to elude an enemy by the disguise, as in Brown Robin, The Duke of Athole's Nurse, or Robin Hood and the Bishop. According to Gude Wallace, William Wallace disguised himself as a woman to escape capture, which may have been based on historical information. Fairy tales seldom feature cross-dressing, but an occasional heroine needs to move freely as a man, as in the German The Twelve Huntsmen, the Scottish The Tale of the Hoodie, or the Russian The Lute Player. Madame d'Aulnoy included such a woman in her literary fairy tale, Belle-Belle ou Le Chevalier Fortuné. Literature In the myth of the Trojan War, Achilles' mother Thetis wanted to keep him from joining the Greek forces (and thus dying in battle as was prophesied), so she dresses him in woman's clothes and hides him among a cloister of women. When the Greek envoy arrives to fetch him for battle, Odysseus is suspicious of Achilles' absence and concocts a scheme to reveal the deception: he offers gifts to all the women, including among them a sword and shield. Then he has an alarm sounded, and when Achilles instinctively grabs the weapons to defend himself, the ruse is revealed and he must join the Greek army and fight at Troy. In Ludovico Ariosto's Orlando Furioso, Bradamante, being a knight, wears full-plate armor; similarly, Britomart wears full-plate armor in Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene. Intentionally or not, this disguises them as men, and they are taken as such by other characters. In Orlando Furioso, Fiordespina falls in love with Bradamante; her brother Ricciardetto disguises himself as his sister, dressing as a woman, persuades Fiordespina that he is Bradamante, magically changed into a man to make their love possible, and in his female attire is able to conduct a love affair with her. In Arcadia, Sir Philip Sidney had one of his heroes, Pyrocles, disguise himself as an Amazon and call himself Zelmane, in order to approach his beloved Philoclea. Lord Byron in his Don Juan, had Don Juan disguised as a woman in a harem. Mark Twain's Huckleberry Finn disguises himself as a girl at one point in the novel, not very successfully. In Terry Pratchett's novel Monstrous Regiment, he has an entire regiment of females (of assorted species) dressing as males to join the army, satirizing the phenomenon of crossdressing during wartime. In Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings, Éowyn disguises herself as man under the name Dernhelm to fight in the battle of the Pelennor Fields outside the White City, Minas Tirith. Theater Cross-dressing characters William Shakespeare made substantial use of cross-dressing for female characters, who take on masculine clothing in order to carry out actions difficult for women. In Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice, Portia and her maid dress as men to plead in court on the merchant's behalf, and are quite successful in their ruse; in the same play, Shylock's daughter Jessica dresses as a man in order to elope with her Christian lover. Twelfth Night, or What You Will deals extensively with cross-dressing through the female protagonist Viola. She disguises herself as Cesario, and immediately finds herself caught up in a love triangle. She loves Duke Orsino who loves Countess Olivia who loves Cesario. Luckily, all is resolved when Viola's presumed dead twin brother Sebastian comes along. We only see Viola as Viola in one scene; for the rest of the play she is dressed as Cesario. When Rosalind and Celia flee court in As You Like It, Rosalind dresses, for their protections, as a man. However, as a way to further complicate the situation for comedic affect, Shakespeare has Rosalind's male character dress as a woman to help a male friend practise wooing the girl he is smitten with. In other words, it is a man (the actor) dressing as a woman dressing as a man dressing as a woman. David Henry Hwang's 1988 play M. Butterfly focuses on a love affair between a French diplomat and a male Beijing opera singer who plays dan (旦), or female, roles. In the musical Rent, Angel is an example of a modern drag queen. Although there is some dispute as to whether the character is transgendered or simply a cross-dresser, the character of Hedwig from the musical and subsequent movie Hedwig and the Angry Inch is another modern drag queen (the musical also features a male character played traditionally by a female actress, although the character's true gender is deliberately left with slight ambiguity). Bugs Bunny frequently cross-dresses in his cartoons for either comedic effect or to confound a male opponent. Notable examples include "Rabbit of Seville", "What's Opera Doc" and "Rabbit Seasoning", all in attempts to deceive Elmer Fudd. Dr. Frank 'n' Furter in the Rocky Horror Picture Show wore nothing but women's clothing the entire movie/play. Doctor N. Gin from the Crash Bandicoot series, wears a ballerina dancer outfit in Crash Tag Team Racing. The tutu, obtained through one of Crash's missions, is an alternative costume that made N. Gin feel "pretty" and boosted his self-esteem. Him from the Powerpuff Girls series, he is shown every time wearing a typical-skirt and high heels boots. In the Disney film Mulan derived from the a Chinese ballad-poem, the character Fa Mulan disguises herself as a man to take her elderly father's place in the army. Jessie and James from Pokémon cross-dress as ballet performers and wedding couples. In the manga and anime, Ouran High School Host Club, the main character of Haruhi Fujioka crossdresses as a boy so that she can work in a Host Club to pay of a debt she owes to the other members. In the manga and live action series of Hana-Kimi (Hanazakari no Kimitachi e)), the main character, Mizuki Ashiya, crossdresses as a boy to attend an all boys boarding school to meet her idol, Izumi Sano. Cross-dressing actors and actresses In Renaissance England it was illegal for women to perform in theatres, Globe Theatre Female Roles so female roles in the plays of Shakespeare and his contemporary playwrights were originally played by cross-dressing men or boys. (See also Stage Beauty.) Therefore the original productions of the above-mentioned Shakespeare plays actually involved double-cross-dressing: male actors playing female characters disguising themselves as males. Cross-dressed female actors are referred to as playing "trouser roles," a historical example of an actress famous for trouser roles is Julie d'Aubigny, AKA "La Maupin" (1670–1707). All roles in Japanese Noh dramas are traditionally played by male actors. Actors playing female roles wear feminine costumes and female-featured masks. Japanese Kabuki theatre began in the seventeenth century with all-female troupes performing both male and female roles. In 1629 the disrepute of kabuki performances (or of their audiences) led to the banning of women from the stage, but kabuki's great popularity inspired the formation of all-male troupes to carry on the theatrical form. In Kabuki, the portrayal of female characters by men is known as onnagata. In ancient China, nearly all the characters in Chinese Opera were performed by men, so that all the male actors, who played the role of a female were crossdressing. A famous cross-dressing opera singer is Mei Lanfang. From early 20th century, Shanghai yue opera (or Shaoxin opera) is developed from all male to all female genre. Although male performers were introduced into this opera in 1950s and 60s, today, Shanghai yueju (yue opera) is still associated as the only all female opera and the second most popular opera in China. The Monty Python troupe have been known to cross dress for comedic purposes in their TV series and films. The troupe usually dress up as older, more unarousing women referred to by the troupe as "pepperpots". Although member Terry Jones was most famous for his female characters, all the members have been seen in drag in one sketch or another; members Michael Palin and Eric Idle have been said to look the most feminine, Graham Chapman specialized in screeching, annoying housewives and John Cleese, whom the troupe has said is the most hilarious in drag, appears so extremely unfeminine that it is funny. Cleese also wore female clothes while appearing as himself in a magazine advertisement for American Express. For more information about cross-dressing in movies and television, see the article Cross-dressing in film and television. Matt Lucas and David Walliams regularly cross-dress in the Little Britain television comedy show, with Lucas in particular often somewhat more feminine and convincing in his appearance and performances than cross-dressing comedians of the past. The two also sometimes play a pair of unconvincing transvestites as a parody of some cross-dressers who try to act in a stereotypically feminine way while not succeeding in "passing" as women. The British writer, presenter and actor Richard O'Brien sometimes cross-dresses and ran a "Transfandango" ball aimed at transgendered people of all kinds in aid of charity for several years in the early 2000s. The Takarazuka Revue is a contemporary all-female Japanese acting company, known for their elaborate productions of stage musicals. Takarazuka actresses specialize in either male or female roles, with male role actresses receiving top billing. In pantomime, plays which are traditionally adaptations of fairy tales and performed around Christmastide, the role of lead male was once commonly played by a principal boy - a young, attractive, female. Though this practise has fallen out of favour somewhat recently with the rise in popular male television and pop stars taking these roles. Conversely the role of a pantomime dame, a middle aged woman played by a man for comic relief, is still one of the mainstays of the Pantomime. In Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope, the male alien bounty hunter Greedo was portrayed by both a male and a female, each acting in different shots. Michelle Ehlen plays a butch lesbian actress who gets cast as a man in a film in the comedic feature Butch Jamie. Eddie Izzard, a British stand-up comedian and actor, states that he has cross-dressed his entire life. He often performs his act in feminine clothing, and has discussed his cross dressing as part of his act. He calls himself an 'executive transvestite'. Classic trouser parts (male characters intended to be played by women) include the title character in Peter Pan (J.M. Barrie) and Cherubino in The Marriage of Figaro (Beaumarchais) Opera An entire cross-dressing genre of operatic roles, called "pants roles", "trouser roles", or "travesty roles". These are male roles performed by women, typically mezzo-sopranos but occasionally by sopranos. Some female opera singers specialize in these types of roles. A major artistic reason for "pants roles" was that some storylines required young boy characters, but the actual performance required an adult's vocal strength and stage experience in addition to a high, boyish voice. Women were thus better suited to these boy roles than actual boys. Some examples of these boyish pants roles are Cherubino in "The Marriage of Figaro," Siebel in "Faust," and Hansel in "Hansel and Gretel". Other pants roles were created due to the need for an adult male character to seem other-worldly (Orpheus in "Orfeo ed Euridice") or unmanly (Prince Idamante in "Idomeneo," respectively). In some cases, the casting of a woman in a "pants role" may have been just an excuse to have an attractive actress appear in tight-fitting trousers. During the Grand Opera era, women typically worn voluminous dresses onstage. Some male operatic roles originally written to be sung in the voice range of castrati (men castrated in boyhood, whose voices never descended into the normal male register) are now usually cast with female singers in male costume. Beethovens' only opera, Fidelio, is unusual in that it features a female character who cross-dresses as part of the plot. Fidelio involves a woman who disguises herself as a young man as part of a plan to rescue her husband from prison. In the early 20th century, German composer Richard Strauss included a major trouser role in two operas: the Composer in "Ariadne auf Naxos" and Octavian in "Der Rosenkavalier." Music The Kinks' 1970 hit "LOLA" is a song about an encounter with a transvestite. Pete Burns, the lead singer of the New Wave band Dead or Alive, cross-dressed in the bands' music videos, performances, and in his appearances on TV. The late actor and singer Harris Glenn Milstead became known for his drag persona, Divine. Prince, in his early career made andrgynous fashion choices; he currently wears high-heeled shoes. Marilyn Manson often wear androgynous costumes in their performances, music videos and public appearances. Kurt Cobain, the lead singer of the American grunge band, Nirvana often cross-dressed at home and on stage. Billie Joe Armstrong of Green Day wrote a song about cross-dressing called King for a Day. Mana is a Japanese musician and fashion designer who often cross-dresses. Brian Viglione, member of the punk cabaret group The Dresden Dolls, has cross-dressed since he was 12 years old. The Who's song "I'm a Boy" is about a young boy dressed as a girl. The Bitch and Animal song "Drag King Bar" is about cross-dressing. "Be My Human Tonight" by Norman Iceberg also talks about the concept. Queen cross-dressed in their video for the song, "I Want to Break Free". L'Arc-en-Ciel In the PV for "My Heart Draws a Dream" Tetsu can be seen wearing a girls' school uniform skirt when the band is shown. Annie Lennox is seen dressed in a suit, tie, gloves, and cane in the music video for Sweet Dreams (Are Made of This). Cross-dressers from other fields The British writer and doctor Vernon Coleman cross-dresses and has written several articles defending men who cross-dress, stressing they are often heterosexual and usually do not want to change sex. U2 wore dresses on the Achtung Baby sleevenotes. See also Autogynephilia Breeches role Breeching (boys) - Young boys in the Western world wore gowns or dresses until an age that varied between two and eight. Crossdressing during wartime Cross-dressing in film and television En femme Female masking Feminization Sissy (transgender) Hijra (South Asia) List of transgender-related topics Passing (gender) Transvestism Tri-Ess References Further reading Blues", Erin O'Brien (writer), Cleveland Free Times, August 2, 2006 teenager crossdresser's diary and thoughts", 2007 Helen Boyd, My Husband Betty, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2003 Lucy Chesser, Parting With my Sex: Cross-dressing, Inversion and Sexuality in Australian Cultural Life, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 2008. ISBN 9781920898311. Rudolf M. Dekker, Lotte C. Van De Pol, Lotte C. Van De Pol, The Tradition of Female Transvestism in Early Modern Europe, 1989, ISBN 0-312-17334-2. Peggy J. Rudd, Crossdressing With Dignity: The Case For Transcending Gender Lines, PM Publishers, Inc., 1999. ISBN 0-9626762-6-8. Charles Anders, The Lazy Crossdresser, Greenery Press, 2002. ISBN 1-890159-37-9. Lacey Leigh, Out & About: The Emancipated Crossdresser, Double Star Press, 2002. 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7,227 | Hultsfred_Municipality | Hultsfred Municipality (Hultsfreds kommun) is a municipality in Kalmar County, in south-eastern Sweden. The seat is in the town of Hultsfred. The present municipality was created in 1971 through the amalgamation of the market town (köping) of Hultsfred (instituted in 1927) with a number of surrounding municipalities. In 1863 there were eight entities in the area. Hultsfred Municipality is known as the site of the largest rock festival in Sweden, the Hultsfred Festival. Geography Basically every one of the localities of Hultsfred Municipality are situated on the railway. Besides Hultsfred, in the mid north of the municipality, there are the towns of Virserum in the south-west and other ever smaller settlements such as Lönneberga, Silverdalen and Målilla. The population of the municipality has however been decreasing with some 2,000 people in the last 10 years, as many people move to larger cities, causing a decrease in nativity. Much of the geography is taken up with forests, a notability for the entire province of Småland, with some few scattered areas suitable for agriculture. History In the age known as the Nordic Bronze Age, the area had some shipping of furs to northern Germany and the Roman army, but not much is known from that time other than the area being inhabited; there has also been older finds from 3,000-4,000 BC. However, from the medieval age, around 1100 AD, there still remains a few churches. The area continued to be inhabited mainly by farmers until the 20th century. In the 17th and 18th there was some production of iron in Kalmar County, totalling about 10 mines; of those 2 were located to the municipality of Hultsfred. Hultsfred was a center for some military exercising companies during the 19th century, and some remaining building can be visited in the vicinity of Silverån. When the railroads through Sweden were built late in that century, Hultsfred received a population boost. There are several folks museums around the area that keeps trace of its history. Localities There are 8 urban areas (also called a Tätort or locality) in Hultsfred Municipality. In the table the localities are listed according to the size of the population as of December 31, 2005. The municipal seat is in bold characters. # Locality Population 1 Hultsfred 5,305 2 Virserum 1,847 3 Målilla 1,605 4 Mörlunda 956 5 Silverdalen 791 6 Järnforsen 539 7 Vena 380 8 Rosenfors 308 References Statistics Sweden External links Hultsfred Municipality - Official site Hultsfred Festival - Official site | Hultsfred_Municipality |@lemmatized hultsfred:14 municipality:11 hultsfreds:1 kommun:1 kalmar:2 county:2 south:2 eastern:1 sweden:4 seat:2 town:3 present:1 create:1 amalgamation:1 market:1 köping:1 institute:1 number:1 surround:1 eight:1 entity:1 area:7 know:3 site:3 large:2 rock:1 festival:3 geography:2 basically:1 every:1 one:1 locality:5 situate:1 railway:1 besides:1 mid:1 north:1 virserum:2 west:1 ever:1 small:1 settlement:1 lönneberga:1 silverdalen:2 målilla:2 population:4 however:2 decrease:2 people:2 last:1 year:1 many:1 move:1 city:1 cause:1 nativity:1 much:2 take:1 forest:1 notability:1 entire:1 province:1 småland:1 scattered:1 suitable:1 agriculture:1 history:2 age:3 nordic:1 bronze:1 shipping:1 fur:1 northern:1 germany:1 roman:1 army:1 time:1 inhabit:2 also:2 old:1 find:1 bc:1 medieval:1 around:2 ad:1 still:1 remain:2 church:1 continue:1 mainly:1 farmer:1 century:3 production:1 iron:1 total:1 mine:1 locate:1 center:1 military:1 exercising:1 company:1 building:1 visit:1 vicinity:1 silverån:1 railroad:1 build:1 late:1 receive:1 boost:1 several:1 folk:1 museums:1 keep:1 trace:1 urban:1 call:1 tätort:1 table:1 list:1 accord:1 size:1 december:1 municipal:1 bold:1 character:1 mörlunda:1 järnforsen:1 vena:1 rosenfors:1 reference:1 statistic:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 |@bigram hultsfred_municipality:5 nordic_bronze:1 external_link:1 |
7,228 | Extraterrestrial_life | A 1967 Soviet Union 16 kopeks postage stamp, with a satellite from an imagined extraterrestrial civilization. Extraterrestrial life is defined as life which does not originate from Earth. It is the subject of astrobiology and its existence remains hypothetical, because there is no credible evidence of extraterrestrial life which has been generally accepted by the mainstream scientific community. Hypotheses regarding the origin(s) of extraterrestrial life, if it indeed exists, are as follows: one proposes that it may have emerged, independently, from different places in the universe. An alternative hypothesis is panspermia, which holds that life emerges from one location, then spreads between habitable planets. These two hypotheses are not mutually exclusive. The study and theorization of extraterrestrial life is known as astrobiology, exobiology or xenobiology. Speculated forms of extraterrestrial life range from life at the scale of bacteria to sapient or sentient beings. Suggested locations which might have once developed, or presently continue to host life similar to our own, include the planets Venus and Mars, moons of Jupiter and Saturn (e.g. Europa, Enceladus and Titan) and Gliese 581 c and d, recently discovered to be near Earth-mass extrasolar planets apparently located in their star's habitable zone, and with the potential to have liquid water. Possible basis of extraterrestrial life Several theories have been proposed about the possible basis of alien life from a biochemical, evolutionary or morphological viewpoint. Biochemistry All life on Earth requires carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus as well as numerous other elements in smaller amounts, notably minerals; it also requires water as the solvent in which biochemical reactions take place. Sufficient quantities of carbon and the other major life-forming elements, along with water, may enable the formation of living organisms on other planets with a chemical make-up and average temperature similar to that of Earth. Because Earth and other planets are made up of "star dust", i.e. relatively abundant chemical elements formed from stars which have ended their lives as supernovae, it is very probable that other planets may have been formed by elements of a similar composition to the Earth's. The combination of carbon and water in the chemical form of carbohydrates (e.g. sugar) can be a source of chemical energy on which life depends, and can also provide structural elements for life (such as ribose, in the molecules DNA and RNA, and cellulose in plants). Plants derive energy through the conversion of light energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis. Life requires carbon in both reduced (methane derivatives) and partially-oxidized (carbon oxides) states. It also requires nitrogen as a reduced ammonia derivative in all proteins, sulfur as a derivative of hydrogen sulfide in some necessary proteins, and phosphorus oxidized to phosphates in genetic material and in energy transfer. Adequate water as a solvent supplies adequate oxygen as constituents of biochemical substances. Pure water is useful because it has a neutral pH due to its continued dissociation between hydroxide and hydronium ions. As a result, it can dissolve both positive metallic ions and negative non-metallic ions with equal ability. Furthermore, the fact that organic molecules can be either hydrophobic (repelled by water) or hydrophilic (soluble in water) creates the ability of organic compounds to orient themselves to form water-enclosing membranes. The fact that solid water (ice) is less dense than liquid water also means that ice floats, thereby preventing Earth's oceans from slowly freezing. Without this quality, the oceans could have frozen solid during the Snowball Earth episodes. Additionally, the Van der Waals forces between water molecules give it an ability to store energy with evaporation, which upon condensation is released. This helps to moderate the climate, cooling the tropics and warming the poles, helping to maintain the thermodynamic stability needed for life. Carbon is fundamental to terrestrial life for its immense flexibility in creating covalent chemical bonds with a variety of non-metallic elements, principally nitrogen, oxygen and hydrogen. Carbon dioxide and water together enable the storage of solar energy in sugars, such as glucose. The oxidation of glucose releases biochemical energy needed to fuel all other biochemical reactions. The ability to form organic acids (–COOH) and amine bases (–NH2) gives rise to the possibility of neutralization dehydrating reactions to build long polymer peptides and catalytic proteins from monomer amino acids, and with phosphates to build not only DNA (the information-storing molecule of inheritance), but also ATP (the principal energy "currency" of cellular life). Due to their relative abundance and usefulness in sustaining life, many have hypothesized that lifeforms elsewhere in the universe would also utilize these basic materials. However, other elements and solvents could also provide a basis for life. Silicon is most often deemed to be the probable alternative to carbon. Silicon lifeforms are proposed to have a crystalline morphology, and are theorized to be able to exist in high temperatures, such as on planets which are very close to their star. Life forms based in ammonia (rather than water) have also been suggested, though this solution appears less optimal than water. Technically, life is basically a self-replicating reaction, but one which could arise under a great many conditions and with various possible ingredients, though carbon-oxygen within the liquid temperature range of water seems most conducive. Suggestions have even been made that self-replicating reactions of some sort could occur within the plasma of a star, though it would be highly unconventional. Several pre-conceived ideas about the characteristics of life outside of Earth have been questioned. For example, NASA scientists believe that the color of photosynthesizing pigments on extrasolar planets might not be green. Plants on Other Planets Evolution and morphology In addition to the biochemical basis of extraterrestrial life, many have also considered evolution and morphology. Science fiction has often depicted extraterrestrial life with humanoid and/or reptilian forms. Aliens have often been depicted as having light green or grey skin, with a large head, as well as four limbs - i.e. fundamentally humanoid. Other subjects, such as felines and insects, have also occurred in fictional representations of aliens. A division has been suggested between universal and parochial (narrowly restricted) characteristics. Universals are features which are thought to have evolved independently more than once on Earth (and thus, presumably, are not too difficult to develop) and are so intrinsically useful that species will inevitably tend towards them. These include flight, sight, photosynthesis and limbs, all of which are thought to have evolved several times here on Earth. There is a huge variety of eyes, for example, and many of these have radically different working schematics and different visual foci: the visual spectrum, infrared, polarity and echolocation. Parochials, however, are essentially arbitrary evolutionary forms. These often have little inherent utility (or at least have a function which can be equally served by dissimilar morphology) and probably will not be replicated. Intelligent aliens could communicate through gestures, as deaf humans do, or by sounds created from structures unrelated to breathing, which happens on Earth when, for instance, cicadas vibrate their wings, or crickets rub their legs. Attempting to define parochial features challenges many taken-for-granted notions about morphological necessity. Skeletons, which are essential to large terrestrial organisms according to the experts of the field of Gravitational biology, are almost assured to be replicated elsewhere in one form or another. Many also conjecture as to some type of egg-laying amongst extraterrestrial creatures, but mammalian mammary glands might be a singular case. The assumption of radical diversity amongst putative extraterrestrials is by no means settled. While many exobiologists do stress that the enormously heterogeneous nature of life on Earth foregrounds an even greater variety in space, others point out that convergent evolution may dictate substantial similarities between Earth and extraterrestrial life. These two schools of thought are called "divergionism" and "convergionism" respectively. Beliefs in extraterrestrial life Ancient and early modern ideas Beliefs in extraterrestrial life may have been present in ancient India, Babylon, Assyria, Sumer, Egypt, Arabia, China and South America, although in these societies, cosmology was often associated with the supernatural, and the notion of alien life is difficult to distinguish from that of gods, demons, and such. The first important Western thinkers to argue systematically for a universe full of other planets and, therefore, possible extraterrestrial life were the ancient Greek writer Thales and his student Anaximander in the 7th and 6th centuries B.C. The atomists of Greece took up the idea, arguing that an infinite universe ought to have an infinity of populated worlds. Ancient Greek cosmology worked against the idea of extraterrestrial life in one critical respect, however: the geocentric universe. Championed by Aristotle and codified by Ptolemy, it favored the Earth and Earth-life (Aristotle denied that there could be a plurality of worlds) and seemingly rendered extraterrestrial life philosophically untenable. Lucian, in his novels, described inhabitants of the Moon and other celestial bodies as humanoids, but significantly different from humans. Authors of Jewish sources also considered extraterrestrial life. The Talmud states that there are at least 18,000 other worlds, but provides little elaboration on the nature of those worlds, or on whether they are physical or spiritual. Based on this, however, the 18th century exposition "Sefer HaB'rit" posits that extraterrestrial creatures exist, and that some may well possess intelligence. It adds that human beings should not expect creatures from another world to resemble earthly life any more than sea creatures resemble land animals. Hindu beliefs of endlessly repeated cycles of life have led to descriptions of multiple worlds in existence and their mutual contacts (Sanskrit word Sampark (सम्पर्क) means 'contact' as in Mahasamparka (महासम्पर्क) = the great contact). According to Hindu scriptures, there are innumerable universes created by God to facilitate the fulfillment of the separated desires of innumerable living entities. However, the purpose of such creations is to bring back the deluded souls to correct understanding about the purpose of life. Aside from the innumerable universes which are material, there is also the unlimited spiritual world, where the purified living entities live with perfect conception about life and ultimate reality. The life of these purified beings is centered on loving devotional services to God. The spiritually aspiring saints and devotees, as well as thoughtful men of the material world, have been getting guidance and help from these purified living entities of the spiritual world from time immemorial. However, the relevance of such descriptions has to be evaluated in the context of a correct understanding of geography and science at those times. Within Islam, the statement of the Qur'an "All praise belongs to God, Lord of all the worlds" indicates multiple universal bodies, and maybe even multiple universes, which may indicate extraterrestrial and even extradimensional life. Surat Al-Jinn also mentioned a statement from a Jinn regarding the current status and ability of his group in the heavens. According to Ahmadiyya Islam a more direct reference from the Quran is presented by Mirza Tahir Ahmad as a proof that life on other planets may exist according to the Quran. In his book, Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth, he quotes verse 42:29 "And among His Signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and of whatever living creatures (da'bbah) He has spread forth in both..."; according to this verse there is life in heavens. According to the same verse "And He has the power to gather them together (jam-'i-him) when He will so please"; indicates the bringing together the life on Earth and the life elsewhere in the universe. The verse does not specify the time or the place of this meeting but rather states that this event will most certainly come to pass whenever God so desires. It should be pointed out that the Arabic term Jam-i-him used to express the gathering event can imply either a physical encounter or a contact through communication. Revelation, Rationality, Knowledge & Truth, by Mirza Tahir Ahmad. Chapter; The Quran and Extraterrestrial Life When Christianity spread throughout the West, the Ptolemaic system became very widely accepted, and although the Church never issued any formal pronouncement on the question of alien life , at least tacitly, the idea was aberrant. In 1277, the Bishop of Paris, Étienne Tempier, did overturn Aristotle on one point: God could have created more than one world (given His omnipotence). Taking a further step, and arguing that aliens actually existed, remained rare. Notably, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa speculated about aliens on the moon and sun. Giordano Bruno, De l'Infinito, Universo e Mondi, 1584 There was a dramatic shift in thinking initiated by the invention of the telescope and the Copernican assault on geocentric cosmology. Once it became clear that the Earth was merely one planet amongst countless bodies in the universe, the extraterrestrial idea moved towards the scientific mainstream. God's omnipotence, it could be argued, not only allowed for other worlds and other life; on some level, it necessitated them. The best known early-modern proponent of such ideas was Giordano Bruno, who argued in the 16th century for an infinite universe in which every star is surrounded by its own solar system; he was eventually burned at the stake by the Catholic church for his heretical ideas. The Church did not declare that his ideas regarding extraterrestrial life were heretical. It charged him with sorcery and heresy concerning the person of Jesus Christ and several other bizarre theories also objected to by Protestants, and in no way connected with his theories of extraterrestrial life. In the early 17th century the Czech astronomer Anton Maria Schyrleus of Rheita mused that "if Jupiter has…inhabitants…they must be larger and more beautiful than the inhabitants of the Earth, in proportion to the [characteristics] of the two spheres". Dominican monk Tommaso Campanella wrote about a Solarian alien race in his Civitas Solis. The Catholic Church has not made a formal ruling on existence of extraterrestrials. However, writing in the Vatican newspaper, the astronomer, Father José Gabriel Funes, director of the Vatican Observatory near Rome, said in 2008 that intelligent beings created by God could exist in outer space. Such comparisons also appeared in poetry of the era. In "The Creation: a Philosophical Poem in Seven Books" (1712), Sir Richard Blackmore observed: "We may pronounce each orb sustains a race / Of living things adapted to the place". The didactic poet Henry More took up the classical theme of the Greek Democritus in "Democritus Platonissans, or an Essay Upon the Infinity of Worlds" (1647). With the new relative viewpoint that the Copernican revolution had wrought, he suggested "our world's sunne / Becomes a starre elsewhere". Fontanelle's "Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds" (translated into English in 1686) offered similar excursions on the possibility of extraterrestrial life, expanding, rather than denying, the creative sphere of a Maker. The possibility of extraterrestrials remained a widespread speculation as scientific discovery accelerated. William Herschel, the discoverer of Uranus, was one of many 18th-19th century astronomers convinced that our Solar System, and perhaps others, would be well-populated by alien life. Other luminaries of the period who championed "cosmic pluralism" included Immanuel Kant and Benjamin Franklin. At the height of the Enlightenment, even the Sun and Moon were considered candidates for extraterrestrial inhabitants. Extraterrestrials and the modern era The Arecibo message is a digital message sent to globular star cluster M13, and is a well-known symbol of human attempts to contact extraterrestrials. This enthusiasm toward the possibility of alien life continued well into the 20th century. Indeed, the (roughly) three centuries from the Scientific Revolution through to the beginning of the modern era of solar system probes were essentially the zenith for belief in extraterrestrials in the West. Many astronomers and other secular thinkers, at least some religious thinkers, and much of the general public were largely satisfied that aliens were a reality. This trend was finally tempered as actual probes visited potential alien abodes in the solar system. The moon was decisively ruled out as a possibility, while Venus and Mars, long the two main candidates for extraterrestrials, showed no obvious evidence of current life. The other large moons of our system which have been visited appear similarly lifeless, though the interesting geothermic forces observed (Io's volcanism, Europa's ocean, Titan's thick atmosphere) have underscored how broad the range of potentially habitable environments may be. Although the hypothesis of a deliberate cosmic silence of advanced extraterrestrials is also a possibility, An intelligent design : Controlled hominization in cosmic apartheid the failure of the SETI program to detect anything resembling an intelligent radio signal after four decades of effort has at least partially dimmed the prevailing optimism of the beginning of the space age. Notwithstanding, the unproven belief in extraterrestrial beings is voiced (not as a hypothesis) in pseudoscience, conspiracy theories in popular folklore like about 'Area 51' and legends. Emboldened critics view the search for extraterrestrials as unscientific, despite the fact that the SETI program is not the result of a continuous, dedicated search, but instead utilizes what resources and manpower it can, when it can. Furthermore, the SETI program only searches a limited range of frequencies at any one time. Thus, the three decades preceding the turn of the second millennium saw a crossroads reached in beliefs in alien life. The prospect of ubiquitous, intelligent, space-faring civilizations in our galaxy appears increasingly dubious to many scientists. Still, in the words of SETI's Frank Drake, "All we know for sure is that the sky is not littered with powerful microwave transmitters". SETI: Search For Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence Drake has also noted that it is entirely possible that advanced technology results in communication being carried out in some way other than conventional radio transmission. At the same time, the data returned by space probes, and giant strides in detection methods, have allowed science to begin delineating habitability criteria on other worlds, and to confirm that at least other planets are plentiful, though aliens remain a question mark. The Wow! signal, from SETI, remains a speculative debate. In 2000, geologist and paleontologist Peter Ward and astrobiologist Donald Brownlee published a book entitled Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe. Amazon.com: Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Universe: Books: Peter Ward,Donald Brownlee In it, they discussed the Rare Earth hypothesis, in which they claim that Earth-like life is rare in the universe, while microbial life is common. Ward and Brownlee are open to the idea of evolution on other planets which is not based on essential Earth-like characteristics (such as DNA and carbon). The possible existence of primitive (microbial) life outside of Earth is much less controversial to mainstream scientists, although, at present, no direct evidence of such life has been found. Indirect evidence has been offered for the current existence of primitive life on Mars. However, the conclusions that should be drawn from such evidence remain in debate. Scientific search for extraterrestrial life The NASA Kepler Mission for the search of extrasolar planets. The scientific search for extraterrestrial life is being carried out in two different ways: directly and indirectly. Direct search Scientists are directly searching for evidence of unicellular life within the solar system, carrying out studies on the surface of Mars and examining meteors which have fallen to Earth. A mission is also proposed to Europa, one of Jupiter's moons with a possible liquid water layer under its surface, which might contain life. There is some limited evidence that microbial life might possibly exist (or have existed) on Mars. Spherix: Makers of Naturlose (tagatose), a natural, low-calorie sugar made from whey that may be useful as a treatment for Type 2 diabetes An experiment on the Viking Mars lander reported gas emissions from heated Martian soil that some argue are consistent with the presence of microbes. However, the lack of corroborating evidence from other experiments on the Viking indicates that a non-biological reaction is a more likely hypothesis. Independently, in 1996, structures resembling nanobacteria were reportedly discovered in a meteorite, ALH84001, thought to be formed of rock ejected from Mars. This report is also controversial, and scientific debate continues. In February 2005, NASA scientists reported that they had found strong evidence of present life on Mars. The two scientists, Carol Stoker and Larry Lemke of NASA's Ames Research Center, based their claims on methane signatures found in Mars' atmosphere resembling the methane production of some forms of primitive life on Earth, as well as on their own study of primitive life near the Rio Tinto river in Spain. NASA officials soon denied the scientists' claims, and Stoker herself backed off from her initial assertions. Though such findings are still very much in debate, support among scientists for the belief in the existence of life on Mars seems to be growing. In an informal survey conducted at the conference at which the European Space Agency presented its findings, 75 percent of the scientists in attendance were reported to believe that life once existed on Mars, and 25 percent reported a belief that life currently exists there. The Gaia hypothesis stipulates that any planet with a robust population of life will have an atmosphere not in chemical equilibrium, which is relatively easy to determine from a distance by spectroscopy. However, significant advances in the ability to find and resolve light from smaller rocky worlds near to their star are necessary before this can be used to analyze extrasolar planets. Indirect search Terrestrial Planet Finder - A planned Infrared interferometer for finding Earth-like extrasolar planets (, it has not received the funding from NASA which it needs — that funding is going towards the Kepler mission). It is theorized that any technological society in space will be transmitting information. Projects such as SETI are conducting an astronomical search for radio activity which would confirm the presence of intelligent life. A related suggestion is that aliens might broadcast pulsed and continuous laser signals in the optical, as well as infrared, spectrum; laser signals have the advantage of not "smearing" in the interstellar medium, and may prove more conducive to communication between the stars. While other communication techniques, including laser transmission and interstellar spaceflight, have been discussed seriously and may well be feasible, the measure of effectiveness is the amount of information communicated per unit cost, resulting with radio as the method of choice. Extrasolar planets Astronomers also search for extrasolar planets that they believe would be conducive to life, such as Gliese 581 c, Gliese 581 d and OGLE-2005-BLG-390Lb, which have been found to have Earth-like qualities. SPACE.com - Major Discovery: New Planet Could Harbor Water and Life Current radiodetection methods have been inadequate for such a search, as the resolution afforded by recent technology is inadequate for a detailed study of extrasolar planetary objects. Future telescopes should be able to image planets around nearby stars, which may reveal the presence of life - either directly or through spectrography which would reveal key information, such as the presence of free oxygen in a planet's atmosphere: Artist's Impression of Gliese 581 c, the first extrasolar planet discovered within its star's habitable zone. Darwin is an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere. The COROT mission, initiated by the French Space Agency, was launched in 2006, and is currently looking for extrasolar planets; it is the first of its kind. The Terrestrial Planet Finder was supposed to have been launched by NASA, but as of 2009, budget cuts have caused it to be delayed indefinitely. The Kepler Mission, largely replacing the Terrestrial Planet Finder, was launched in March 2009. It has been argued that Alpha Centauri, the closest star system to Earth, may contain planets which could be capable of sustaining life. 1997AJ 113.1445W Page 1445 On April 24 2007, scientists at the European Southern Observatory in La Silla, Chile said they had found the first Earth-like planet. The planet, known as Gliese 581 c, orbits within the habitable zone of its star Gliese 581, a red dwarf star which is a scant 20.5 light years (194 trillion km) from the Earth. It was initially thought that this planet could contain liquid water, but recent computer simulations of the climate on Gliese 581c by Werner von Bloh and his team at Germany's Institute for Climate Impact Research suggest that carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere would create a runaway greenhouse effect. This would warm the planet well above the boiling point of water (100 degrees Celsius/212 degrees Fahrenheit), thus dimming the hopes of finding life. As a result of greenhouse models, scientists are now turning their attention to Gliese 581 d, which lies just outside of the star's traditional habitable zone. Hopes dim for life on distant planet - USATODAY.com On May 29 2007, the Associated Press released a report stating that scientists identified twenty-eight new extra-solar planetary bodies. One of these newly-discovered planets is said to have many similarities to Neptune. BBC NEWS Science/Nature Planet hunters spy distant haul To date, 348 extrasolar planets have been discovered (with 37 multi-planet systems), and new discoveries occur monthly. Extrasolar Planets Encyclopedia Drake equation In 1961, University of California, Santa Cruz astronomer and astrophysicist Dr. Frank Drake devised the Drake equation. This controversial equation multiplied estimates of the following terms together: The rate of formation of suitable stars. The fraction of those stars which contain planets. The number of Earth-like worlds per planetary system. The fraction of planets where intelligent life develops. The fraction of possible communicative planets. The “lifetime” of possible communicative civilizations. Drake used the equation to estimate that there are approximately 10,000 planets containing intelligent life, with the possible capability of communicating with Earth in the Milky Way galaxy. Based on observations from the Hubble Space Telescope, there are at least 125 billion galaxies in the universe. It is estimated that at least ten percent of all sun-like stars have a system of planets , there are 6.25*1018 stars with planets orbiting them in the universe. If even a billionth of these stars have planets supporting life, there are some 6.25 billion life-supporting solar systems in the universe. Extraterrestrial life in the Solar System This planetary habitability chart shows where life might exist on extrasolar planets, based on our own Solar System and life on Earth. Europa, due to the ocean under its icy crust, might host some form of microbial life. Possibility of Life on Europa Many bodies in the Solar System have been suggested as being capable of containing conventional organic life. The most commonly suggested ones are listed below; of these, five of the ten are moons, and are thought to have large bodies of underground liquid (streams), where life may have evolved in a similar fashion to deep sea vents. Mars - Life on Mars has been long speculated. Liquid water is widely thought to have existed on Mars in the past, and there may still be liquid water beneath the surface. Methane was found in the atmosphere of Mars. By July 2008, laboratory tests aboard NASA's Phoenix Mars Lander had identified water in a soil sample. The lander's robotic arm delivered the sample to an instrument which identifies vapors produced by the heating of samples. Recent photographs from the Mars Global Surveyor show evidence of recent (i.e. within 10 years) flows of a liquid on the Red Planet's frigid surface. BBC NEWS Science/Nature Water 'flowed recently' on Mars Mercury - The MESSENGER expedition to Mercury has discovered that a large amount of water exists in its exosphere. Europa - Europa may contain liquid water beneath its thick ice layer. It is possible that vents on the bottom of the ocean warm the ice, so liquid could exist beneath the ice layer, perhaps capable of supporting microbes and simple plants. http://www.planetary.org/programs/projects/explore_europa/update_12142005.html" Jupiter - Carl Sagan and others in the 1960s and 70s computed conditions for hypothetical amino acid-based macroscopic life in Jupiter's atmosphere, based on observed conditions of this atmosphere. These investigations inspired some science fiction stories. Ganymede - Possible underground ocean (see Europa). Callisto - Possible underground ocean (see Europa). Saturn - Possible floating creatures (see Jupiter). Enceladus - Geothermal activity, water vapor. Possible under-ice oceans heated by tidal effects. Titan (Saturn's largest moon) - The only known moon with a significant atmosphere was recently visited by the Huygens probe. Latest discoveries indicate there is no global or widespread ocean, but that small and/or seasonal liquid hydrocarbon lakes are present on the surface (the first liquid lakes discovered outside of Earth). SPACE.com - Scientists Reconsider Habitability of Saturn's Moon SPACE.com - Lakes Found on Saturn's Moon Titan Venus - Recently, scientists have speculated on the existence of microbes in the stable cloud layers 50 km above the surface, evidenced by hospitable climates and chemical disequilibrium. Venusian Cloud Colonies :: Astrobiology Magazine - earth science - evolution distribution Origin of life universe - life beyond :: Astrobiology is study of earth science evolution distribution Origin of life in universe terrestrial Numerous other bodies have been suggested as potential hosts for microbial life. Fred Hoyle has proposed that life might exist on comets, as some Earth microbes managed to survive on a lunar probe for many years. However, it is considered highly unlikely that complex multicellular organisms of the conventional chemistry of terrestrial life (i.e. animals and plants) could exist under these living conditions. See also Events and objects ALH84001 - a Mars meteorite with disputed seemingly microbial formations Ceres (dwarf planet) Gliese 581 c, d, and e Wow! signal Searches for extraterrestrial life Rejection of chemical evolution Communication with Extraterrestrial Intelligence Darwin - an ESA mission designed to find Earth-like planets and analyze their atmosphere for signs of life. SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) Allen Telescope Array Subjects Astrobiology Cryptobiology Exobiology Extraterrestrials in fiction Habitable zone Planetary habitability Rare Earth hypothesis Scientific skepticism Extraterrestrial liquid water Theories Zecharia Sitchin Aurelia and Blue Moon Back-contamination Drake equation Expedition Fermi paradox Panspermia Sentience Quotient Snaiad Kardashev scale References Further reading Roth, Christopher F. (2005) "Ufology as Anthropology: Race, Extraterrestrials, and the Occult." In E.T. Culture: Anthropology in Outerspaces, ed. by Debbora Battaglia. Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press. Peter D. Ward: Life as we do not know it-the NASA search for (and synthesis of) alien life. Viking, New York 2005, ISBN 0-670-03458-4 Michael Michaud: Contact with Alien Civilizations – Our Hopes and Fears about Encountering Extraterrestrials. Springer, Berlin 2006, ISBN 0-387-28598-9 Ernst Fasan: Relations with alien intelligences – the scientific basis of metalaw. Berlin Verlag, Berlin 1970 Diana G. Tumminia: Alien Worlds - Social and Religious Dimensions of Extraterrestrial Contact. Syracuse Univ. Press, Syracuse 2007, ISBN 978-0-8156-0858-5 External links 'Is There Anybody Out There?' Freeview video by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU. PBS: Life Beyond Earth a film by Timothy Ferris PBS: Exploring Space - The Quest for Life by Scott Pearson Xenopsychology" by Robert A. Freitas Jr. "What Aliens Might Look Like" from National Geographic Top stars picked in alien search, from BBC News | Extraterrestrial_life |@lemmatized soviet:1 union:1 kopek:1 postage:1 stamp:1 satellite:1 imagined:1 extraterrestrial:45 civilization:4 life:108 define:2 originate:1 earth:44 subject:3 astrobiology:5 existence:7 remain:6 hypothetical:2 credible:1 evidence:11 generally:1 accept:2 mainstream:3 scientific:9 community:1 hypothesis:9 regard:3 origin:3 indeed:2 exist:15 follow:1 one:13 propose:5 may:19 emerge:1 independently:3 different:5 place:4 universe:19 alternative:2 panspermia:2 hold:1 emerges:1 location:2 spread:3 habitable:7 planet:51 two:6 mutually:1 exclusive:1 study:5 theorization:1 know:6 exobiology:2 xenobiology:1 speculate:4 form:13 range:4 scale:2 bacteria:1 sapient:1 sentient:1 suggest:8 might:10 develop:3 presently:1 continue:3 host:3 similar:5 include:4 venus:3 mar:19 moon:13 jupiter:6 saturn:5 e:9 g:3 europa:9 enceladus:2 titan:4 gliese:9 c:7 recently:4 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7,229 | Computer_music | Computer music is a term that was originally used within academia to describe a field of study relating to the applications of computing technology in music composition; particularly that stemming from the Western art music tradition. It includes the theory and application of new and existing technologies in music, such as sound synthesis, digital signal processing, sound design, sonic diffusion, acoustics, and psychoacoustics. The field of computer music can trace its roots back to the origin of electronic music, and the very first experiments and innovations with electronic instruments at the turn of the 20th century. More recently, with the advent of personal computing, and the growth of home recording, the term computer music is now sometimes used to describe any music that has been created using computing technology. History Much of the work on computer music has drawn on the relationship between music theory and mathematics. The world's first computer to play music was CSIRAC which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard. Mathematician Geoff Hill programmed the CSIRAC to play popular musical melodies from the very early 1950s. In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March of which no known recordings exist. However, CSIRAC played standard repertoire and was not used to extend musical thinking or composition practice which is current computer music practice. The oldest known recordings of computer generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer, a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951. The music program was written by Christopher Strachey. During a session recorded by the BBC, the machine managed to work its way through Baa Baa Black Sheep, God Save the King and part of In the Mood . Subsequently, Lejaren Hiller (i.e., the Illiac Suite) used a computer in the mid 1950s to compose works that were then played by conventional musicians. Later developments included the work of Max Mathews at Bell Laboratories, who developed the influential MUSIC I program. Vocoder technology was also a major development in this early era. In 1967 Pietro Grossi made the first experiences in computer music in Italy. Early computer music programs typically did not run in real-time. Programs would run for hours or days, on multi-million-dollar computers, in order to generate a few minutes of music. John Chowning's work on FM synthesis, in the early 70s, and the advent of inexpensive digital chips and microcomputers opened the door to real-time generation of computer music. By the early 90s, the performance of microprocessor-based computers reached the point that real-time generation of computer music using more general programs and algorithms became possible. Advances Advances in computing power have dramatically affected the way computer music is generated and performed. Current-generation micro-computers are powerful enough to perform very sophisticated audio synthesis using a wide variety of algorithms and approaches. Computer music systems and approaches are now ubiquitous, and so firmly embedded in the process of creating music that we hardly give them a second thought: computer-based synthesizers, digital mixers, and effects units have become so commonplace that use of digital rather than analog technology to create and record music is the norm, rather than the exception. Research Despite the ubiquity of computer music in contemporary culture, there is considerable activity in the field of computer music, as researchers continue to pursue new and interesting computer-based synthesis, composition, and performance approaches.Throughout the world there are many organizations and institutions dedicated to the area of computer and electronic music study and research, including the ICMA (International Computer Music Association), IRCAM, Princeton Sound Lab, GRAME, SEAMUS (Society for Electro Acoustic Music in the United States), and a great number of institutions of higher learning around the world. Computer-generated music Computer-generated music is music composed by, or with the extensive aid of, a computer. Although any music which uses computers in its composition or realisation is computer-generated to some extent, the use of computers is now so widespread (in the editing of pop songs, for instance) that the phrase computer-generated music is generally used to mean a kind of music which could not have been created without the use of computers. We can distinguish two groups of computer-generated music: music in which a computer generated the score, which could be performed by humans, and music which is both composed and performed by computers.There is a large genre of music that is organized, synthesized, and created on computers. Computer-generated scores for performance by human players Many systems for generating musical scores actually existed well before the time of computers. One of these was Musikalisches Würfelspiel, a system which used throws of the dice to randomly select measures from a large collection of small phrases. When patched together, these phrases combined to create musical pieces which could be performed by human players. Although these works were not actually composed with a computer in the modern sense, it uses a rudimentary form of the random combinatorial techniques sometimes used in computer-generated composition. The world's first digital computer music was generated in Australia by programmer Geoff Hill on the CSIRAC computer which was designed and built by Trevor Pearcey and Maston Beard, although it was only used to play standard tunes of the day. Subsequently, one of the first composers to write music with a computer was Iannis Xenakis. He wrote programs in the FORTRAN language that generated numeric data that he transcribed into scores to be played by traditional musical instruments. An example is ST/48 of 1962. Although Xenakis could well have composed this music by hand, the intensity of the calculations needed to transform probabilistic mathematics into musical notation was best left to the number-crunching power of the computer. Computers have also been used in an attempt to imitate the music of great composers of the past, such as Mozart. A present exponent of this technique is David Cope. He wrote computer programs that analyse works of other composers to produce new works in a similar style. He has used this program to great effect with composers such as Bach and Mozart (his program Experiments in Musical Intelligence is famous for creating "Mozart's 42nd Symphony"), and also within his own pieces, combining his own creations with that of the computer. Music composed and performed by computers Later, composers such as Gottfried Michael Koenig had computers generate the sounds of the composition as well as the score. Koenig produced algorithmic composition programs which were a generalisation of his own serial composition practice. This is not exactly similar to Xenakis' work as he used mathematical abstractions and examined how far he could explore these musically. Koenig's software translated the calculation of mathematical equations into codes which represented musical notation. This could be converted into musical notation by hand and then performed by human players. His programs Project 1 and Project 2 are examples of this kind of software. Later, he extended the same kind of principles into the realm of synthesis, enabling the computer to produce the sound directly. SSP is an example of a program which performs this kind of function. All of these programs were produced by Koenig at the Institute of Sonology in Utrecht, Holland in the 1970s. Procedures such as those used by Koenig and Xenakis are still in use today. Since the invention of the MIDI system in the early 1980s, for example, some people have worked on programs which map MIDI notes to an algorithm and then can either output sounds or music through the computer's sound card or write an audio file for other programs to play. Some of these simple programs are based on fractal geometry, and can map midi notes to specific fractals, or fractal equations. Although such programs are widely available and are sometimes seen as clever toys for the non-musician, some professional musicians have given them attention also. The resulting 'music' can be more like noise, or can sound quite familiar and pleasant. As with much algorithmic music, and algorithmic art in general, more depends on the way in which the parameters are mapped to aspects of these equations than on the equations themselves. Thus, for example, the same equation can be made to produce both a lyrical and melodic piece of music in the style of the mid-nineteenth century, and a fantastically dissonant cacophony more reminiscent of the avant-garde music of the 1950s and 1960's. Other programs can map mathematical formulae and constants to produce sequences of notes. In this manner, an irrational number can give an infinite sequence of notes where each note is a digit in the decimal expression of that number. This sequence can in turn be a composition in itself, or simply the basis for further elaboration. Operations such as these, and even more elaborate operations can also be performed in computer music programming languages such as Max/MSP, SuperCollider, Csound, Pure Data (Pd), Keykit, and ChucK. These programs now easily run on most personal computers, and are often capable of more complex functions than those which would have necessitated the most powerful mainframe computers several decades ago. Diagram illustrating the position of CAAC in relation to other Generative music Systems There exist programs that generate "human-sounding" melodies by using a vast database of phrases. One example is Band-in-a-Box, which is capable of creating jazz, blues and rock instrumental solos with almost no user interaction. Another is Impro-Visor, which uses a stochastic context-free grammar to generate phrases and complete solos. Another 'cybernetic' approach to computer composition uses specialized hardware to detect external stimuli which are then mapped by the computer to realize the performance. Examples of this style of computer music can be found in the middle-80's work of David Rokeby (Very Nervous System) where audience/performer motions are 'translated' to MIDI segments. Computer controlled music is also found in the performance pieces by the Canadian composer Udo Kasemets (1919-) such as the Marce(ntennia)l Circus C(ag)elebrating Duchamp (1987), a realization of the Marcel Duchamp process piece Music Errata using an electric model train to collect a hopper-car of stones to be deposited on a drum wired to an Analog:Digital converter, mapping the stone impacts to a score display (performed in Toronto by pianist Gordon Monahan during the 1987 Duchamp Centennial), or his installations and performance works (eg Spectrascapes) based on his Geo(sono)scope (1986) 15x4-channel computer-controlled audio mixer. In these latter works, the computer generates sound-scapes from tape-loop sound samples, live shortwave or sine-wave generators. Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition (CAAC, pronounced "sea-ack") is the implementation and use of algorithmic composition techniques in software. This label is derived from the combination of two labels, each too vague for continued use. The label "computer-aided composition" lacks the specificity of using generative algorithms. Music produced with notation or sequencing software could easily be considered computer-aided composition. The label "algorithmic composition" is likewise too broad, particularly in that it does not specify the use of a computer. The term computer-aided, rather than computer-assisted, is used in the same manner as Computer-Aided Design Machine Improvisation Machine Improvisation uses computer algorithms to create improvisation on existing music materials. This is usually done by sophisticated recombination of musical phrases extracted from existing music, either live or pre-recorded. In order to achieve credible improvisation in particular style, machine improvisation uses machine learning and pattern matching algorithms to analyze existing musical examples. The resulting patterns are then used to create new variations "in the style" of the original music, developing a notion of stylistic reinjection. This is different from other improvisation methods with computers that use algorithmic composition to generate new music without performing analysis of existing music examples. Statistical style modeling Style modeling implies building a computational representation of the musical surface that captures important stylistic features from data. Statistical approaches are used to capture the redundancies in terms of pattern dictionaries or repetitions, which are later recombined to generate new musical data. Style mixing can be realized by analysis of a database containing multiple musical examples in different styles. Machine Improvisation builds upon a long musical tradition of statistical modeling that began with Hiller and Isaacson’s Illiac Suite in the 1950s and Xenakis’ uses of Markov chains and stochastic processes. Modern methods include the use of lossless data compression for incremental parsing, Prediction Suffix Tree and string searching by factor oracle algorithm Uses of Machine Improvisation Machine Improvisation encourages musical creativity by providing automatic modeling and transformation structures for existing music. This creates a natural interface with the musician without need for coding musical algorithms. In live performance, the system re-injects the musician's material in several different ways, allowing a semantics-level representation of the session and a smart recombination and transformation of this material in real-time. In offline version, Machine Improvisation can be used to achieve style mixing, an approach inspired by Vannevar Bush's memex imaginary machine. Implementations Matlab implementation of the Factor Oracle machine improvisation can be found as part of Computer Audition toolbox. OMax is a software environment developed in IRCAM. OMax uses OpenMusic and Max. It is based on researches on stylistic modeling carried out by Gerard Assayag and Shlomo Dubnov and on researches on improvisation with the computer by G. Assayag, M. Chemillier and G. Bloch (Aka the OMax Brothers) in the Ircam Music Representations group. Musicians working with machine improvisation Gerard Assayag (IRCAM, France), Tim Blackwell (Goldsmiths College, Great Brittan), George Bloch (Composer, France), Marc Chemiller (IRCAM/CNRS, France), Shlomo Dubnov (Composer, Israel / USA), Mari Kimura (Juilliard, New York City), George Lewis (Columbia University, New York City), Bernard Lubat (Pianist, France), Joel Ryan (Institute of Sonology, Netherlands), Michel Waisvisz (STEIM, Netherlands), David Wessel (CNMAT, California), Michael Young (Goldsmiths College, Great Brittan), Pietro Grossi (CNUCE, Institute of the National Research Council, Pisa, Italy) Live coding Live coding Collins, N., McLean, A., Rohrhuber, J. & Ward, A. (2003), "Live Coding Techniques for Laptop Performance", Organised Sound 8(3):321–30. (sometimes known as 'interactive programming', 'on-the-fly programming' Wang G. & Cook P. (2004) "On-the-fly Programming: Using Code as an Expressive Musical Instrument", In Proceedings of the 2004 International Conference on New Interfaces for Musical Expression (NIME) (New York: NIME, 2004). , 'just in time programming') is the name given to the process of writing software in realtime as part of a performance. Historically, similar techniques were used to produce early computer art, but recently it has been explored as a more rigorous alternative to laptop DJs who, live coders often feel, lack the charisma and pizzazz of musicians performing live. Collins, N. (2003) "Generative Music and Laptop Performance", Contemporary Music Review 22(4):67–79. Generally, this practice stages a more general approach: one of interactive programming, of writing (parts of) programs while they run. Traditionally most computer music programs have tended toward the old write/compile/run model which evolved when computers were much less powerful. This approach has locked out code-level innovation by people whose programming skills are more modest. Some programs have gradually integrated real-time controllers and gesturing (for example, MIDI-driven software synthesis and parameter control). Until recently, however, the musician/composer rarely had the capability of real-time modification of program code itself. This legacy distinction is somewhat erased by languages such as ChucK, SuperCollider, and Impromptu. TOPLAP, an ad-hoc conglomerate of artists interested in live coding was set up in 2003, and promotes the use, proliferation and exploration of a range of software, languages and techniques to implement live coding. This is a parallel and collaborative effort e.g. with research at the Princeton Sound Lab, the University of Cologne, and Computational Arts Research Group at Queensland University of Technology. See also Acousmatic art Chiptune Comparison of audio synthesis environments Csound Digital audio workstation Digital synthesizer Electronic music Fast Fourier Transform Human-computer interaction Interactive music Music information retrieval Music Macro Language Music notation software Music sequencer New interfaces for musical expression Physical modeling Sampling (music) sound synthesis Tracker References Further reading Ariza, C. 2005. "Navigating the Landscape of Computer-Aided Algorithmic Composition Systems: A Definition, Seven Descriptors, and a Lexicon of Systems and Research." In Proceedings of the International Computer Music Conference. San Francisco: International Computer Music Association. 765-772. Internet: http://www.flexatone.net/docs/nlcaacs.pdf Ariza, C. 2005. An Open Design for Computer-Aided Algorithmic Music Composition: athenaCL. Ph.D. Dissertation, New York University. Internet: http://www.dissertation.com/book.php?method=ISBN&book=1581122926 Berg, P. 1996. "Abstracting the future: The Search for Musical Constructs" Computer Music Journal 20(3): 24-27. Chadabe Joel. 1997. Electric Sound: The Past and Promise of Electronic Music. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. Chowning, John. 1973. "The Synthesis of Complex Audio Spectra by Means of Frequency Modulation". Journal of the Audio Engineering Society 21, no. 7:526–34. Supper, M. 2001. "A Few Remarks on Algorithmic Composition." Computer Music Journal 25(1): 48-53. External links Software environments AC Toolbox Bol Processor ChucK, a strongly-timed, concurrent, and on-the-fly language Csound fluxus livecoding and playing/learning environment for 3D graphics and games based on Scheme Impromptu Impro-Visor improvisation instruction, with automatic melody generation MEAPsoft descriptor based audio segmentation and re-arrangement KeyKit OMax software Pd Processing SuperCollider Articles Computer Generated Music Composition thesis by Chong Yu (MIT 1996) Computer-aided Composition article by Karlheinz Essl (1991) G. Assayag, S. Dubnov « Using Factor Oracles for machine Improvisation », Soft Computing, vol. 8, n° 9, Septembre, 2004 S. Dubnov et al. Using machine-learning methods for musical style modeling, IEEE Computer, Oct. 2003 G. Lewis, Too Many Notes: Computers, Complexity and Culture in Voyager, Leonardo Music Journal 10 (2000) 33-39 S. Dubnov, Stylistic randomness: about composing NTrope Suite, Organised Sound, Volume 4 , Issue 2 (June 1999) Archives algorithmic.net - a lexicon of systems and research in computer aided algorithmic composition Works composed by computers for human performance Illiac Suite for string quartet, by Lejaren A. Hiller (1957) Übung, 3 Asko Pieces, Beitrag (amongst others) by G.M. Koenig Computer-generated compositions performed by computers Lexikon-Sonate: Karlheinz Essl's algorithmic composition environment Metamath Music Music generated from mathematical proofs CodeSounding Sonification of java source code structures, obtained by post-processing the source files. Runtime sounds are a function of how was structured the source code of the running program Virtual Music Composer This software works as a composer, not as a tool for composing Fractal Tune Smithy Computer generated music based on a similar idea to the Koch snowflake, with many examples of tunes you can make ALICE A software that can improvise in real-time with a human player using an Artificial neural network viral symphOny created using computer virus software by Joseph Nechvatal | Computer_music |@lemmatized computer:92 music:84 term:4 originally:1 use:45 within:2 academia:1 describe:2 field:3 study:2 relate:1 application:2 compute:3 technology:6 composition:25 particularly:2 stem:1 western:1 art:5 tradition:2 include:4 theory:2 new:13 exist:9 sound:17 synthesis:9 digital:8 signal:1 processing:1 design:5 sonic:1 diffusion:1 acoustic:2 psychoacoustics:1 trace:1 root:1 back:1 origin:1 electronic:5 first:5 experiment:2 innovation:2 instrument:3 turn:2 century:2 recently:3 advent:2 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7,230 | George_Dantzig | George Bernard Dantzig (Nov 8 1914 – May 13 2005) was an American mathematician, and the Professor Emeritus of Transportation Sciences and Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science at Stanford. George Dantzig is known as the father of linear programming and as the inventor of the "simplex method," an algorithm for solving linear programming problems. Joe Holley (2005). "Obituaries of George Dantzig". In: Washington Post, May 19, 2005; B06 Richard W. Cottle, B. Curtis Eaves and Michael A. Saunders (2006). "Memorial Resolution: George Bernard Dantzig". Stanford Report, June 7, 2006. Biography Born on November 8, 1914 in Portland, Oregon, George Dantzig was given the middle name “Bernard” as an expression of his parents’ hope that he would become a writer (i.e., George Bernard Shaw). His father, Tobias Dantzig, was a Russian mathematician who had studied with Henri Poincaré in Paris. Tobias married a fellow Sorbonne University student, Anja Ourisson, and the couple immigrated to the United States. In the early 1920s, the Dantzig family moved to Baltimore and then to Washington, where Anja Dantzig became a linguist at the Library of Congress and her husband taught mathematics at the University of Maryland, College Park. George attended Powell Junior High School and Central High School, where he was fascinated by geometry. His father nurtured his interest by challenging him with complex geometry problems. George Dantzig earned bachelor's degrees in mathematics and physics from the University of Maryland in 1936, his master's degree in mathematics from the University of Michigan in 1938. After a two-year period at the Bureau of Labor Statistics, he enrolled in the doctoral program in mathematics at the University of California, Berkeley studying statistics under mathematician Jerzy Neyman. In 1939, he arrived late to his statistics class. Seeing two problems written on the board, he assumed they were a homework assignment and copied them down, solved them and handed them in a few days later. Unbeknownst to him, they were examples of (formerly) unproved statistical theorems. Dantzig's story became the stuff of legend, and was the inspiration for the 1997 movie Good Will Hunting. With the outbreak of World War II, George took a leave of absence from the doctoral program at Berkeley to join the U.S. Air Force Office of Statistical Control. In 1946, he returned to Berkeley to complete the requirements of his program and received his Ph.D. that year. In 1952 Dantzig joined the mathematics division of the RAND Corporation. By 1960 he became a professor in the Department of Industrial Engineering at UC Berkeley, where he founded and directed the Operations Research Center. In 1966 he joined the Stanford faculty as Professor of Operations Research and of Computer Science. A year later, the Program in Operations Research became a full-fledged department. In 1973 he founded the Systems Optimization Laboratory (SOL) there. On a sabbatical leave that year, he headed the Methodology Group at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria. Later he became the C. A. Criley Professor of Transportation Sciences at Stanford, and kept going, well beyond his mandatory retirement in 1985. He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. And he was the recipient of many honors, including the first John von Neumann Theory Prize in 1974, the National Medal of Science in 1975, an honorary doctorate from the University of Maryland, College Park in 1976. The Mathematical Programming Society honored Dantzig by creating the George B. Dantzig Prize, bestowed every three years since 1982 on one or two people who have made a significant impact in the field of mathematical programming. Dantzig died on May 13, 2005, in his home in Stanford, California, of complications from diabetes and cardiovascular disease. He was 90 years old. Work Dantzig is generally regarded as one of the three founders of linear programming, along with John von Neumann and Leonid Kantorovich. Through his research in mathematical theory, computation, economic analysis, and applications to industrial problems, he has contributed more than any other researcher to the remarkable development of linear programming. Robert Freund (1994). "Professor George Dantzig: Linear Programming Founder Turns 80". In: SIAM News, November 1994. Dantzig's seminal work allows the airline industry, for example, to schedule crews and make fleet assignments. It's the tool that shipping companies use to determine how many planes they need and where their delivery trucks should be deployed. The oil industry long has used linear programming in refinery planning, as it determines how much of its raw product should become different grades of gasoline and how much should be used for petroleum-based byproducts. It's used in manufacturing, revenue management, telecommunications, advertising, architecture, circuit design and countless other areas. "In retrospect," Dantzig wrote in the 1991 history book, "it is interesting to note that the original problem that started my research is still outstanding -- namely the problem of planning or scheduling dynamically over time, particularly planning dynamically under uncertainty. If such a problem could be successfully solved it could eventually through better planning contribute to the well-being and stability of the world." Mathematical statistics An event in Dantzig's life became the origin of a famous urban legend in 1939 while he was a graduate student at UC Berkeley. Near the beginning of a class for which Dantzig was late, professor Jerzy Neyman wrote two examples of famously unsolved statistics problems on the blackboard. When Dantzig arrived, he assumed that the two problems were a homework assignment and wrote them down. According to Dantzig, the problems "seemed to be a little harder than usual", but a few days later he handed in completed solutions for two, still believing that they were an assignment that was overdue. Snopes urban legend reference on the legend to which Dantzig gave rise Six weeks later, Dantzig received a visit from an excited professor Neyman, eager to tell him that the homework problems he had solved were two of the most famous unsolved problems in statistics. He had prepared one of Dantzig's solutions for publication in a mathematical journal. Years later another researcher, Abraham Wald, was preparing to publish a paper which arrived at a conclusion for the second problem, and included Dantzig as its co-author when he learned of the earlier solution. This story began to spread, and was used as a motivational lesson demonstrating the power of positive thinking. Over time Dantzig's name was removed and facts were altered, but the basic story persisted in the form of an urban legend, and as an introductory scene in the movie Good Will Hunting. Linear programming In 1946, as mathematical adviser to the U.S. Air Force Comptroller, he was challenged by his Pentagon colleagues to see what he could do to mechanize the planning process, "to more rapidly compute a time-staged deployment, training and logistical supply program." In those pre-electronic computer days, mechanization meant using analog devices or punch-card machines. "Program" at that time was a military term that referred not to the instruction used by a computer to solve problems, which were then called "codes," but rather to plans or proposed schedules for training, logistical supply, or deployment of combat units. The somewhat confusing name "linear programming," Dantzig explained in the book, is based on this military definition of "program." Tasked with the mechanization of planning procedures to support the time-staged deployment training and supply activities, in 1947 George Dantzig formulated the linear programming problem as a mathematical model for the planning problem and devised the simplex method for its solution. These achievements led to his titles as the "father of linear programming" and the "inventor of the simplex method." At the RAND Corporation in the 1950s Dantzig further enhanced the computational strength of linear programming and found further extensions of its applicability. At RAND he wrote a long series of research memoranda entitled “Notes on Linear Programming”, which ultimately became material for his classic text/reference Linear Programming and Extensions. In 1963, Dantzig’s Linear Programming and Extensions was published by Princeton University Press. Rich in insight and coverage of significant topics, the book quickly became “the bible” of linear programming. Publications Books by George Dantzig: 1953. Notes on linear programming. Rand Corporation. 1956. Linear inequalities and related systems. With others. Edited by H.W. Kuhn and A.W. Tucker. 1959. Linear programming and extensions. Princeton University Press. 1966. On the continuity of the minimum set of a continuous function. With Jon H. Folkman and Norman Shapiro. 1968. Mathematics of the decision sciences. With Arthur F. Veinott, Jr. Summer Seminar on Applied Mathematics 5th : 1967 : Stanford University. 1969. Lectures in differential equations. A. K. Aziz, general editor. Contributors: George B. Dantzig and others. 1970. Natural gas transmission system optimization. With others. 1973. Compact city; a plan for a liveable urban environment. With Thomas L. Saaty. 1974. Studies in optimization. Edited with B.C. Eaves. 1985. Mathematical programming : essays in honor of George B. Dantzig. Edited by R.W. Cottle. 1997. Linear programming. With Mukund N. Thapa. 2003. Basic George B. Dantzig. Edited by Richard W. Cottle. Articles, a selection: 1940. "On the non-existence of tests of "Student's" hypothesis having power functions independent of ". In: Annals of Mathematical Statistics, Volume 11, number 2, pp 186-192. See also Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition Indian numerals Knapsack problem Optimization (mathematics) Travelling salesman problem Notes External links Stanford Celebrates Dantzig's 80th birthday Obituaries of George Dantzig Comprehensive biography of George Dantzig in the AMS Notices INFORMS George Dantzig Memorial Website | George_Dantzig |@lemmatized george:19 bernard:4 dantzig:40 nov:1 may:3 american:2 mathematician:3 professor:8 emeritus:1 transportation:2 science:8 operation:4 research:7 computer:4 stanford:7 know:1 father:4 linear:19 programming:18 inventor:2 simplex:3 method:3 algorithm:1 solve:5 problem:18 joe:1 holley:1 obituary:2 washington:2 post:1 richard:2 w:5 cottle:3 b:6 curtis:1 eaves:2 michael:1 saunders:1 memorial:2 resolution:1 report:1 june:1 biography:2 bear:1 november:2 portland:1 oregon:1 give:2 middle:1 name:3 expression:1 parent:1 hope:1 would:1 become:10 writer:1 e:1 shaw:1 tobias:2 russian:1 study:3 henri:1 poincaré:1 paris:1 marry:1 fellow:1 sorbonne:1 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7,231 | Citadel | In this seventeenth-century plan of the fortified city of Casale Monferrato the citadel is the large star-shaped structure on the left. Citadel's view from the top of an Irish castle A citadel is a fortress for protecting a town, sometimes incorporating a castle. The term derives from the same Latin root as the word "city", civis, meaning citizen. In a fortification with bastions, the citadel is the strongest part of the system, sometimes well inside the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the sake of economy. It is positioned to be the last line of defense should the enemy breach the other components of the fortification system. A citadel is also a term of the third part of a mediaeval castle, with higher walls than the rest of a town. It was to be the last line of defense before the keep itself. The oldest known structures which might have served as citadels were built by the Indus Valley Civilization, where the citadel represented a centralised authority. The purpose of these structures, however, remains debated. Though the structures found in the ruins of Mohenjo-daro were walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive against enemy attacks. Rather, they may have been built to divert flood waters. In ancient Greece, the Acropolis (citadel), placed on a commanding eminence, was important in the life of the people, serving as a refuge and stronghold in peril and containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace. The most well-known is the Acropolis of Athens, but nearly every Greek city-state had one - the Acrocorinth famed as a particularly strong fortress. In various countries, the citadels gained a specific name such as "Kremlin" in Russia or "Alcázar" in the Iberian Peninsula. At various periods, and particularly during the Middle Ages, the citadel - having its own fortifications, independent of the city walls - was the last defense of a besieged army, often held after the town had been conquered. One such incident played an important part in the history of the Maccabean Revolt against the Seleucid Empire. The Hellenistic garrison of Jerusalem and local supporters of the Seleucids held out for many years in the Acra citadel, making Maccabean rule in the rest of Jerusalem precarious. When finally gaining possession of the place, the Maccabeans pointedly destroyed and razed the Acra, though they constructed another citadel for their own use in a different part of Jerusalem. As late as the 19th Century, a similar situation developed at Antwerp, where a Dutch garrison under General David Hendrik Chassé held out in the city's citadel between 1830 and 1832, while the city itself had already become part of the independent Belgium. In time of war the citadel in many cases afforded retreat to the people living in the areas around the town. However, Citadels were often used also to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town where it was located, being designed to ensure loyalty from the town which they defended. For example Barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against repeating their mid 17th and early 18th century rebellions against the Spanish central government. In the 19th century, as soon as the political climate had liberalised enough to permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's main central park, the Parc de la Ciutadella. A similar example is the Citadella in Budapest, Hungary. The attack on the Bastille in the French Revolution - though afterwards remembered mainly for the release of the handful of prisoners incarcerated there - was to considerable degree motivated by the structure being a Royal citadel in the midst of revolutionary Paris. The Siege of the Alcázar in the Spanish Civil War, in which the Nationalists held out against a much larger Republican force for two months until relieved, shows that in some cases a citadel can be effective even in modern warfare; a similar case is the Battle of Huế, where an NVA division held the citadel of Huế for 26 days against roughly their own numbers of better-equipped US and South Vietnamese troops. The Citadelle of Quebec still survives as the largest citadel still in official military operation in North America after more than two hundred years of existence. See also Bab Ksiba Southern gateway to the Kasbah, Marrakesh, first Citadel to the Sultans of Morocco Alcazaba a term for Moorish citadels in Spain Casbah a synonym El Morro Citadelle Laferrière built by King Henry I of Haiti Citadelle de Forcalquier Acropolis Kremlin Alcázar Acra (fortress) Antwerp citadel in 1830-32 Citadel of Salah Ed-Din References | Citadel |@lemmatized seventeenth:1 century:4 plan:1 fortified:1 city:7 casale:1 monferrato:1 citadel:25 large:3 star:1 shaped:1 structure:6 left:1 view:1 top:1 irish:1 castle:3 fortress:3 protect:2 town:6 sometimes:2 incorporate:1 term:3 derive:1 latin:1 root:1 word:1 civis:1 mean:1 citizen:1 fortification:3 bastion:2 strong:2 part:6 system:2 well:2 inside:1 outer:2 wall:5 often:3 forming:1 sake:1 economy:1 position:1 last:3 line:2 defense:3 enemy:2 breach:1 component:1 also:3 third:1 mediaeval:1 high:1 rest:2 keep:1 old:1 know:2 might:1 serve:2 build:4 indus:1 valley:1 civilization:1 represent:1 centralised:1 authority:1 purpose:1 however:2 remain:1 debated:1 though:3 find:1 ruin:1 mohenjo:1 daro:1 far:1 clear:1 defensive:1 attack:2 rather:1 may:1 divert:1 flood:1 water:1 ancient:1 greece:1 acropolis:3 place:2 commanding:1 eminence:1 important:2 life:1 people:3 refuge:1 stronghold:1 peril:1 contain:1 military:2 food:1 supply:1 shrine:1 god:1 royal:2 palace:1 athens:1 nearly:1 every:1 greek:1 state:1 one:2 acrocorinth:1 famed:1 particularly:2 various:2 country:1 gain:2 specific:1 name:1 kremlin:2 russia:1 alcázar:3 iberian:1 peninsula:1 period:1 middle:1 age:1 independent:2 besieged:1 army:1 hold:5 conquer:1 incident:1 play:1 history:1 maccabean:2 revolt:1 seleucid:1 empire:1 hellenistic:1 garrison:3 jerusalem:3 local:1 supporter:1 seleucids:1 many:2 year:2 acra:3 make:1 rule:1 precarious:1 finally:1 possession:1 maccabeans:1 pointedly:1 destroy:1 raze:1 construct:1 another:1 use:2 different:1 late:1 similar:3 situation:1 develop:1 antwerp:2 dutch:1 general:1 david:1 hendrik:1 chassé:1 already:1 become:1 belgium:1 time:1 war:2 case:3 afford:1 retreat:1 live:1 area:1 around:1 political:2 power:1 inhabitant:1 locate:1 design:1 ensure:1 loyalty:1 defend:1 example:2 barcelona:2 great:1 intimidate:1 catalan:1 repeat:1 mid:1 early:1 rebellion:1 spanish:2 central:2 government:1 soon:1 climate:1 liberalise:1 enough:1 permit:1 tear:1 replace:1 main:1 park:1 parc:1 de:2 la:1 ciutadella:1 citadella:1 budapest:1 hungary:1 bastille:1 french:1 revolution:1 afterwards:1 remember:1 mainly:1 release:1 handful:1 prisoner:1 incarcerate:1 considerable:1 degree:1 motivate:1 midst:1 revolutionary:1 paris:1 siege:1 civil:1 nationalist:1 much:1 republican:1 force:1 two:2 month:1 relieve:1 show:1 effective:1 even:1 modern:1 warfare:1 battle:1 huế:2 nva:1 division:1 day:1 roughly:1 number:1 good:1 equip:1 u:1 south:1 vietnamese:1 troop:1 citadelle:3 quebec:1 still:2 survive:1 official:1 operation:1 north:1 america:1 hundred:1 existence:1 see:1 bab:1 ksiba:1 southern:1 gateway:1 kasbah:1 marrakesh:1 first:1 sultan:1 morocco:1 alcazaba:1 moorish:1 spain:1 casbah:1 synonym:1 el:1 morro:1 laferrière:1 king:1 henry:1 haiti:1 forcalquier:1 salah:1 ed:1 din:1 reference:1 |@bigram indus_valley:1 mohenjo_daro:1 acropolis_athens:1 iberian_peninsula:1 maccabean_revolt:1 seleucid_empire:1 budapest_hungary:1 el_morro:1 |
7,232 | Antianginal | An antianginal is any drug used in the treatment of angina pectoris, a symptom of ischaemic heart disease. Examples Drugs used are nitrates, beta blockers, or calcium channel blockers. Nitrates Nitrates cause vasodilation of the venous capacitance vessels by simulating the endothelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF). Used to relieve both exertional and vasospastic angina by allowing venous pooling, reducing the pressure in the ventricles and so reducing wall tension and oxygen requirements in heart. Short-acting nitrates are used to abort angina attacks that have occurred, while longer-acting nitrates are used in the prophylactic management of the condition. Agents include nitroglycerin (glyceryl trinitrate) or pentaerythritol tetranitrate. Beta blockers Beta blockers are used in the prophylaxis of exertional angina by reducing the work the heart is allowed to perform below the level that would provoke an angina attack. They cannot be used in vasospastic angina and can precipitate heart failure. Agents include either cardioselectives such as acebutolol or metoprolol, or non-cardioselectives such as oxprenolol or sotalol. Calcium channel blockers Calcium ion (Ca++) antagonists (Calcium channel blockers) are used in the treatment of both exertional and vasospastic angina. In vitro, they dilate the coronary and peripheral arteries and have negative inotropic and chronotropic effects - decreasing afterload, improving myocardial efficiency, reducing heart rate and improving coronary blood flow. In vivo, the vasodilation and hypotension trigger the baroreceptor reflex. Therefore the net effect is the interplay of direct and reflex actions. Class I antiarrhythmic agents have the most potent negative inotropic effect and may cause heart failure. Class II agents do not depress conduction or contractility. Class III agent has negligible inotropic effect and causes almost no reflex tachycardia. Examples include Class I agents (e.g., verapamil), Class II agents (e.g., amlodipine, nifedipine), or the Class III agent diltiazem. References | Antianginal |@lemmatized antianginal:1 drug:2 use:8 treatment:2 angina:7 pectoris:1 symptom:1 ischaemic:1 heart:6 disease:1 examples:1 nitrate:5 beta:3 blocker:6 calcium:4 channel:3 cause:3 vasodilation:2 venous:2 capacitance:1 vessel:1 simulate:1 endothelium:1 derive:1 relaxing:1 factor:1 edrf:1 relieve:1 exertional:3 vasospastic:3 allow:2 pooling:1 reduce:4 pressure:1 ventricle:1 wall:1 tension:1 oxygen:1 requirement:1 short:1 act:1 abort:1 attack:2 occur:1 long:1 acting:1 prophylactic:1 management:1 condition:1 agent:8 include:3 nitroglycerin:1 glyceryl:1 trinitrate:1 pentaerythritol:1 tetranitrate:1 prophylaxis:1 work:1 perform:1 level:1 would:1 provoke:1 cannot:1 precipitate:1 failure:2 either:1 cardioselectives:2 acebutolol:1 metoprolol:1 non:1 oxprenolol:1 sotalol:1 ion:1 ca:1 antagonist:1 vitro:1 dilate:1 coronary:2 peripheral:1 artery:1 negative:2 inotropic:3 chronotropic:1 effect:4 decrease:1 afterload:1 improve:2 myocardial:1 efficiency:1 rate:1 blood:1 flow:1 vivo:1 hypotension:1 trigger:1 baroreceptor:1 reflex:3 therefore:1 net:1 interplay:1 direct:1 action:1 class:6 antiarrhythmic:1 potent:1 may:1 ii:2 depress:1 conduction:1 contractility:1 iii:2 negligible:1 almost:1 tachycardia:1 example:1 e:2 g:2 verapamil:1 amlodipine:1 nifedipine:1 diltiazem:1 reference:1 |@bigram angina_pectoris:1 beta_blocker:3 |
7,233 | Great_Famine_(Ireland) | The Great Famine ( lit: The Great Hunger The term has appeared in the titles of numerous books on the event, as demonstrated by this search on WorldCat or An Drochshaol, lit: The Bad Life) was a period of starvation, disease and mass emigration between 1845 and 1852 Kinealy (1995), xvi–ii. during which the population of Ireland was reduced by 20 to 25 percent. Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity, Gill & Macmillan (1994), ISNB-10: 0 7171 4011 3, 357. Approximately one million of the population died and a million more emigrated from Ireland's shores. David Ross, Ireland: History of a Nation, New Lanark: Geddes & Grosset, 2002, p. 226. ISBN 1-84205-164-4 The proximate cause of famine was a potato disease commonly known as late blight. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, Dublin: University College Dublin Press, 2006, p. 7. ISBN 1-904558-57 6 Although blight ravaged potato crops throughout Europe during the 1840s, the impact and human cost in Ireland—where a third of the population was entirely dependent on the potato for food—was exacerbated by a host of political, social and economic factors which remain the subject of historical debate. Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991, p. 19. ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1 Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity, Gill & Macmillan, 1994, pp. xvi–ii, 2–3. ISBN 0-7171-4011-3 The famine was a watershed in the history of Ireland. Kinealy, This Great Calamity, p. xvii. Its effects permanently changed the island's demographic, political and cultural landscape. For both the native Irish and those in the resulting diaspora, the famine entered folk memory The Famine that affected Ireland from 1845 to 1852 has become an integral part of folk legend. Kenealy, This Great Calamity, p. 342. and became a rallying point for various nationalist movements. Modern historians regard it as a dividing line in the Irish historical narrative, referring to the preceding period of Irish history as "pre-Famine." Causes and contributing factors From 1801 Ireland had been directly governed, under the Act of Union, as part of the United Kingdom. Executive power lay in the hands of the Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and Chief Secretary for Ireland, both of whom were appointed by the British government. Ireland sent 105 members of parliament to the British House of Commons, and Irish representative peers elected twenty-eight of their own number to sit for life in the House of Lords. Between 1832 and 1859 seventy percent of Irish representatives were landowners or the sons of landowners. In the forty years that followed the union, successive British governments grappled with the problems of governing a country which had, as Benjamin Disraeli put it in 1844, "a starving population, an absentee aristocracy, and an alien Church, and in addition the weakest executive in the world." Quoted in Blake (1967), p. 179. One historian calculated that between 1801 and 1845 there had been 114 commissions and 61 special committees inquiring into the state of Ireland and that "without exception their findings prophesied disaster; Ireland was on the verge of starvation, her population rapidly increasing, three-quarters of her labourers unemployed, housing conditions appalling and the standard of living unbelievably low." Woodham-Smith (1964), p. 31. This was a contrast to Britain, which was beginning to enjoy the modern prosperity of the Victorian and Industrial ages. Landlords and tenants Catholic emancipation had been achieved in 1829, and Catholics made up 80 percent of the population, the bulk of whom lived in conditions of poverty and insecurity. At the top of the "social pyramid" was the "ascendancy class," the English and Anglo-Irish families who owned most of the land, and who had more or less limitless power over their tenants. Some of their estates were vast: the Earl of Lucan, for example, owned over . Many of these landlords lived in England and were called "absentee landlords". They used agents to administer their property for them, with the revenue generated being sent to England. Helen Litton, The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Wolfhound Press, 1994, ISBN 0 86327-912-0 A number of the absentee landlords living in England never set foot in Ireland. They took their rents from their "impoverished tenants" or paid them minimal wages to raise crops and livestock for export. Edward Laxton, The Famine Ships: The Irish Exodus to America 1846-51, Bloomsbury, 1997, ISBN 0 7475 3500 0 In 1843, the British Government considered that the land question in Ireland was the root cause of disaffection in the country. They set up a Royal Commission, chaired by the Earl of Devon, to inquire into the laws with regard to the occupation of land in Ireland. Daniel O'Connell described this commission as perfectly one-sided, being made up of landlords and no tenants. Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991, ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1, pp. 20–1 Devon in February 1845 reported that "It would be impossible adequately to describe the privations which they [Irish labourer and his family] habitually and silently endure . . . in many districts their only food is the potato, their only beverage water . . . their cabins are seldom a protection against the weather... a bed or a blanket is a rare luxury . . . and nearly in all their pig and a manure heap constitute their only property." The Commissioners concluded that they could not "forbear expressing our strong sense of the patient endurance which the labouring classes have exhibited under sufferings greater, we believe, than the people of any other country in Europe have to sustain." Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991, ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1, p. 24 The commission stated that the principal cause was the bad relations between the landlord and tenant. There was no hereditary loyalty, feudal tie or paternalism as existed in England. Ireland was a conquered country, with the Earl of Clare speaking of the landlords saying "confiscation is their common title." According to Woodham-Smith, the landlords regarded the land as a source of income from which to extract as much money as possible. With the Irish "brooding over their discontent in sullen indignation" according to the Earl of Clare, Ireland was seen as a hostile place in which to live, and as a consequence absentee landlords were common, with some only visiting their property once or twice in a lifetime. The Rents from Ireland were then spent in England, it being estimated that in 1842 £6,000,000 was remitted out of Ireland. Rent collection was left in the hands of the landlords' agents, whose ability according to Woodham-Smith, was measured by the amount of money they could contrive to extract. Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991, ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1, p. 21 During the eighteenth century a new system for dealing with the landlord's property was introduced in the form of the "middleman system". This assured the landlord of a regular income, and relieved them of any responsibility; the tenants however were then subject to exploitation through these middlemen. Described by the Commission as "the most oppressive species of tyrant that ever lent assistance to the destruction of a country," they were invariably described as "land sharks" and "bloodsuckers." Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1991, ISBN 978-0-14-014515-1, p. 22 The middlemen leased large tracts of land from the landlords on long leases with fixed rents, which they then sublet as they saw fit. They split the holding into smaller and smaller parcels to increase the amounts of rents they could then obtain, a system called conacre. Tenants could be evicted for reasons such as non-payment of rents (which were very high), or if the landlord decided to raise sheep instead of grain crops. The cottier paid his rent by working for the landlord. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , pp. 9–10 Any improvements made on the holdings by the tenants became the property of the landlords when the lease expired or was terminated, which acted as a disincentive to improvements. The tenants had no security of tenure on the land; being tenants "at will" they could be turned out whenever the landlord chose. This class of tenant made up the majority of tenant farmers in Ireland, the exception being in Ulster where there existed a practice known as "tenant right", under which tenants were compensated for any improvements made to their holdings. The commission according to Woodham-Smith stated that "the superior prosperity and tranquility of Ulster, compared with the rest of Ireland, were due to tenant right." Landlords in Ireland used their powers without remorse, and the people lived in dread of them. In these circumstances Woodham-Smith writes "industry and enterprise were extinguished and a peasantry created which was one of the most destitute in Europe." Tenants, subdivisions, and bankruptcy In 1845, 24% of all Irish tenant farms were of 0.4 to 2 hectares (one to five acres) in size, while 40% were of two to six hectares (five to fifteen acres). Holdings were so small that only potatoes—no other crop—would suffice to feed a family. The British Government reported, shortly before the Great Hunger, that poverty was so widespread that one third of all Irish small holdings could not support their families, after paying their rent, except by earnings of seasonal migrant labour in England and Scotland. Robert Kee, The Laurel and the Ivy: The Story of Charles Stewart Parnell and Irish Nationalism p. 15. Following the famine, reforms were implemented making it illegal to further divide land holdings. Jill and Leon Uris, Ireland A Terrible Beauty (New York, Bantam Books,2003), p. 15. The 1841 census showed a population of just over eight million. Two-thirds of those depended on agriculture for their survival, but they rarely received a working wage. They had to work for their landlords in return for the patch of land they needed in order to grow enough food for their own families. This was the system which forced Ireland and its peasantry into monoculture, as only the potato could be grown in sufficient quantity. The rights to a plot of land in Ireland could mean the difference between life and death in the early 19th century. Potato dependency The potato was introduced to Ireland as a garden crop of the gentry. By the late seventeenth century it had become widespread as a supplementary rather than a principal food, the main diet still revolved around butter, milk and grain products. In the first two decades of the eighteenth century, it became a base food of the poor, especially in winter. Cathal Póirtéir, The Great Irish Famine, Mercier Press (1995), ISBN 1 85635 111 4, pp. 19–20 The expansion of the economy between 1760 and 1815 saw the potato make inroads in the diet of the people and becoming a staple food all the year round for the cottier and small farm class. Cathal Póirtéir, The Great Irish Famine, Mercier Press (1995), ISBN 1 85635 111 4, p. 20 The potato's spread was essential to the development of the cottier system, delivering an extremely cheap workforce, but at the cost of lower living standards. For the labourer it was essentially a potato wage that shaped the expanding agrarian economy. The expansion of tillage led to an inevitable expansion of the potato acreage, and an expansion of the cottier class. By 1841, there were over half a million cottiers, with one and three-quarter of a million dependents. The principal beneficiary of this system was the English consumer. Blight in Ireland Prior to the arrival in Ireland of the disease Phytophthora infestans, commonly known as blight, there were only two main potato plant diseases. James S. Donnelly, JR, The Great Irish Potato Famine, Sutton Publishing (UK 2005 RP), ISBN 0 7509 2928 6, p. 40 One was called 'dry rot' or 'taint' and the other was a virus, known popularly as 'curl'. Kinealy, Christine. This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845–52. Gill & Macmillan: 1995. ISBN 1-57098-034-9, p. 31 According to W.C. Paddock however, Phytophthora infestans is an oomycete, not a fungus. W.C. Paddock, "Our Last Chance to Win the War on Hunger", 1992, Advances in Plant Pathology 8:197–222. In 1851 the Census of Ireland Commissioners recorded twenty-four failures of the potato crop going back to 1728, of varying severity. In 1739 the crop was "entirely destroyed", and again in 1740. In 1770 the crop largely failed again. In 1800 there was another "general" failure, and in 1807 half the crop was lost. In 1821 and 1822 the potato crop failed completely in Munster and Connaught, and 1830 and 1831 were years of failure in Mayo, Donegal and Galway. In 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1836 a large number of districts suffered serious loss, and in 1835 the potato failed in Ulster. 1836 and 1837 brought "extensive" failures throughout Ireland and again in 1839 failure was universal throughout the country; both 1841 and 1844 potato crop failure was widespread. According to Woodham-Smith, "the unreliability of the potato crop was an accepted fact in Ireland. Woodham-Smith (1964), p. 38 How and when the blight Phytophthora infestans arrived in Europe is still uncertain; according to P.M.A Bourke, however, it almost certainly was not present prior to 1842, and probably arrived in 1844. At least one of the sources of the infection suggests it may have originated in the northern Andes region of South America, Peru in particular. It was then conveyed to Europe on ships carrying guano, where it was in great demand as a fertiliser on European and British farms. James S. Donnelly, JR, The Great Irish Potato Famine, Sutton Publishing (UK 2005 RP), ISBN 0 7509 2928 6, p. 41 In 1844 Irish newspapers carried reports concerning a disease which for two years had attacked the potato crops in America. According to James Donnelly a likely source was the eastern United States, where in 1843 and 1844 blight largely destroyed the potato crops. He suggests that ships from Baltimore, Philadelphia or New York could have brought diseased potatoes to European ports. James S. Donnelly, JR, The Great Irish Potato Famine, Sutton Publishing (UK 2005 RP), ISBN 0 7509 2928 6, p. 41 W.C. Paddock suggests that it was transported on potatoes being carried to feed passengers on clipper ships sailing from America to Ireland. W.C. Paddock, "Our Last Chance to Win the War on Hunger", 1992, Advances in Plant Pathology 8:197–222. Once it was introduced it spread rapidly. By late Summer and early Autumn of 1845 it had spread throughout the greater part of northern and central Europe. Belgium, Holland, northern France and southern England by mid-August had all been stricken. James S. Donnelly, JR, The Great Irish Potato Famine, Sutton Publishing (UK 2005 RP), ISBN 0 7509 2928 6, p. 42 On 16 August the Gardeners' Chronicle and Horticultural Gazette printed a report which described 'a blight of unusual character' in the Isle of Wight. A week later, on 23 August, it reported that 'A fearful malady has broken out among the potato crop... In Belgium the fields are said to be completely desolated. There is hardly a sound sample in Covent Garden market... As for cure for this distemper, there is none...' Cecil Woodham-Smith (1962) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–9: 39–40 These reports were extensively covered in Irish newspapers. Kinealy, Christine. This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845–52. Gill & Macmillan: 1995. ISBN 1-57098-034-9, p. 33 On 13 September Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity, Gill & Macmillan, 1994, ISBN 0-7171-4011-3 p. 32 put the date at the 16th the Gardeners' Chronicle made 'a dramatic announcement': 'We stop the Press with very great regret to announce that the potato Murrain has unequivocally declared itself in Ireland. The British Government were nevertheless optimistic through the next few weeks.' Cecil Woodham-Smith (1962) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–9: 39–40 Crop loss in 1845 has been estimated at a high of 50% Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity, Gill & Macmillan, 1994, ISBN 0-7171-4011-3 p. 32 to one third. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, University College Dublin Press, 2006, ISBN 1 904558 57 7 p. 7 The Mansion House Committee in Dublin, to which hundreds of letters were directed from all over Ireland, claimed on 19 November 1845 to have ascertained beyond the shadow of doubt that considerably more than one-third of the entire of the potato crop ... has been already destroyed'. In 1846 three-quarters of the harvest was lost to blight. Liam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E. M. Crawford & L. A. Clarkson, Mapping The Great Irish Famine, Four Courts Press, 1999, ISBN 1 85182 353 0 p. 69 By December a third of a million destitute people were employed in public works. David Ross (2002) Ireland: History of a Nation: 311 According to Cormac Ó Gráda the first attack of potato blight caused considerable hardship on rural Ireland, from the autumn of 1846, when the first deaths from starvation were recorded. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, University College Dublin Press, 2006, ISBN 1 904558 57 7 p. 9 Seed potatoes were scarce in 1847, little had been sown, so despite average yields, hunger continued. 1848 yields would be only two thirds of normal. As over 3 million Irish people were totally dependent on potatoes for food, hunger and famine were inevitable. Reaction in Ireland The Corporation of Dublin sent a memorial to the Queen, "praying her" to call Parliament together early (Parliament was at this time prorogued), and to recommend the requisition of some public money for public works, especially railways in Ireland. The Town Council of Belfast met and made similar suggestions, but neither body asked for charity, according to Mitchel. "They demanded that, if Ireland was indeed an Integral part of the realm, the common exchequer of both islands should be used—not to give alms, but to provide employment on public works of general utility." It was Mitchel's opinion that "if Yorkshire and Lancashire had sustained a like calamity in England, there is no doubt such measures as these would have been taken, promptly and liberally." John Mitchel, Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873, reprint 2005, ISBN 1 904558 36 4 pp. 94–96 A deputation from the citizens of Dublin, which including the Duke of Leinster, the Lord Mayor, Lord Cloncurry, and Daniel O'Connell, went to the Lord Lieutenant (Lord Heytesbury), and offered suggestions, such as opening the ports to foreign corn for a time, stopping distillation from grain, or providing public works; that this was extremely urgent, as millions of people would shortly be without food. Lord Heytesbury told them they "were premature", and told them not to be alarmed, that learned men (Playfair and Lindley) had been sent from England to enquire into all those matters; and that the Inspectors of Constabulary and Stipendiary Magistrates were charged with making constant reports from their districts; and there was no "immediate pressure on the market". John Mitchel, Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873, reprint 2005, ISBN 1 904558 36 4 pp. 94–96 Of these reports from Lord Heytesbury, Peel in a letter to Sir James Graham was to say that he found the accounts "very alarming", though he reminded him that there was, according to Woodham-Smith "always a tendency to exaggeration in Irish news". Woodham-Cecil Woodham-Smith (1962), 41–42 On 8 December 1845, Daniel O'Connell, in the Repeal Association, proposed the following remedies to the pending disaster. One of the first things he suggested was the introduction of "Tenant-Right" as practised in Ulster, giving the landlord a fair rent for his land, but giving the tenant compensation for any money he might have laid out on the land in permanent improvements. John Mitchel, Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873, reprint 2005, ISBN 1 904558 36 4 p. 96 O'Connell then pointed out the means used by the Belgian legislature during the same season: shutting their ports against the export of provisions, but opening them to imports. He suggested that if Ireland had a domestic Parliament the ports would be thrown open and the abundant crops raised in Ireland would be kept for the people of Ireland. O'Connell maintained that only an Irish parliament would provide for the people both food and employment, saying that a repeal of the Act of Union was a necessity and Ireland's only hope. John Mitchel, one of the leading political writers of Young Ireland, as early as 1844, in The Nation raised the issue of the "Potato Disease" in Ireland noting how powerful an agent hunger had been in certain revolutions. The Nation Newspaper, 1 November 1844. On 14 February 1846, he put forward his views on "the wretched way in which the famine was being trifled with", and asked, had not the Government even yet any conception that there might be soon "millions of human beings in Ireland having nothing to eat." Young Ireland, T. F. O'Sullivan, The Kerryman Ltd. 1945 On 28 February, writing on the Coercion Bill which was then going through the House of Lords, he noted that this was the only kind of legislation that was sure to meet with no obstruction in the British House of Commons. His view was that however the government may differ about feeding the Irish people, "they agree most cordially in the policy of taxing, prosecuting and ruining them." The Nation Newspaper, 1846 In an article on "English Rule" on 7 March, 1846, Mitchel wrote that the Irish People were "expecting famine day by day" and they attributed it collectively, not to "the rule of heaven as to the greedy and cruel policy of England." He continued in the same article to write that the people "believe that the season as they roll are but ministers of England's rapacity; that their starving children cannot sit down to their scanty meal but they see the harpy claw of England in their dish." The people, Mitchel wrote, watched as their "food melting in rottenness off the face of the earth," all the while watching "heavy-laden ships, freighted with the yellow corn their own hands have sown and reaped, spreading all sail for England." Mitchel later wrote one of the first widely-circulated tracts on the famine, The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps) in 1861. It established the widespread view that the treatment of the famine by the British was a deliberate murder of the Irish, and contained the famous phrase: Mitchel was charged with sedition because of his writings, but this charge was dropped and he was convicted by a packed jury under the newly-enacted Treason Felony Act and sentenced to 14 years transportation to Bermuda. Duffy, Peter, The Killing of Major Denis Mahon, HarperCollins, 2007, ISBN 978-0-06-084050-1, p. 230 The Nation according to Charles Gavan Duffy, insisted that the one remedy was that which the rest of Europe had adopted, which even the parliaments of the Pale had adopted in periods of distress, which was to retain in the country the food raised by her people till the people were fed. Sir Charles Gavan Duffy, Four Years of Irish History 1845–1849, Cassell, Petter, Galpin & Co. 1888, pp. 277–278 Ireland at this time was, according to the Act of Union of 1801, an integral part of the British imperial homeland, "the richest empire on the globe," and was "the most fertile portion of that empire," in addition; Ireland was sheltered by both "... Habeas Corpus and trial by jury ...". Last Conquest Of Ireland (Perhaps), John Mitchel, Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873. And yet Ireland's elected representatives seemed powerless to act on the country's behalf as Members of the British Parliament. Commenting on this at the time John Mitchel wrote: "That an island which is said to be an integral part of the richest empire on the globe ... should in five years lose two and a half millions of its people (more than one fourth) by hunger, and fever the consequence of hunger, and flight beyond sea to escape from hunger ..." Last Conquest Of Ireland (Perhaps)], John Mitchel, Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873. The period of the potato blight in Ireland from 1845–51 was full of political confrontation. Cathal Póirtéir, The Great Irish Famine, RTÉ/Mercier Press, 1995, ISBN 1 856351114. The mass movement for Repeal of the Act of Union had failed in its objectives by the time its founder Daniel O'Connell died in 1847. A more radical Young Ireland group seceded from the Repeal movement and attempted an armed rebellion in the Young Irelander Rebellion of 1848. It was unsuccessful. Government response F.S.L. Lyons characterised the initial response of the British government to the early less severe phase of the famine as "prompt and relatively successful." F.S.L. Lyons, Ireland Since the Famine, 30. Confronted by widespread crop failure in the autumn of 1845, Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel purchased £100,000 worth of Indian corn and corn meal secretly from America. Baring Bros & Co had to act as agents for the government. The government hoped that they would not "stifle private enterprise" or that their actions act as a disincentive to local relief efforts. Due to weather conditions, the first shipment did not arrive in Ireland until the beginning of February 1846. Kinealy "This Great Calamity" pg 38 This corn was then re-sold for a penny a pound. Robert Blake, Disraeli, 221–241. The corn when it arrived had not been ground and was inedible, and this task involved a long and complicated process if it was to be done correctly and it was unlikely to be carried out locally. In addition, before the Indian meal could be consumed, it had to be 'very much' cooked again, or eating it could result in severe bowel complaints. Because of maize's yellow colour, and the fact that it had to be ground twice, it became known in Ireland as 'Peel's brimstone'. In 1846 Peel then moved to repeal the Corn Laws, tariffs on grain which kept the price of bread artificially high. The famine situation worsened during 1846 and the repeal of the Corn Laws in that year did little to help the starving Irish; the measure split the Conservative Party, leading to the fall of Peel's ministry. In March Peel set up a programme of public works in Ireland but was forced to resign as Prime Minister on 29 June." Cecil Woodham-Smith (1962) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–9: 78–86 This fall came on the 25 June, when he was defeated in the House of Commons on a motion that the Irish Coercion Bill be read a second time. According to Michael Doheny, the majority against him was seventy-three, and it was made of the "Whig party, the extreme Conservatives, the ultra-Radicals and Irish Repealers." Ten days after, Lord John Russell assumed the seals of office. Michael Doheny's The Felon's Track, M.H. Gill & Son, LTD, 1951 Edition p. 98 The measures undertaken by Peel's successor, Lord John Russell, proved comparatively "inadequate" as the crisis deepened. Russell's ministry introduced public works projects, which by December 1846 employed some half million Irish and proved impossible to administer. Lyons, 30–34. The Public Works were "strictly ordered" to be unproductive—that is, they would create no fund to repay their own expenses. Many hundreds of thousands of "feeble and starving men" according to John Mitchel, were kept digging holes, and breaking up roads, which was doing no service. John Mitchel, Jail Journal of Five Years in British Prisons (New York: 1854), Reprint 1996, ISBN 1 85477 218 x p. 16, The new Whig administration under Lord Russell, influenced by their laissez-faire belief that the market would provide the food needed Cecil Woodham-Smith (1962) The Great Hunger: Ireland 1845–9: 408–11 then halted government food and relief works, leaving many hundreds of thousands of people without any work, money or food." David Ross (2002) Ireland: History of a Nation: 224, 311 In January the government abandoned these projects and turned to a mixture of "indoor" and "outdoor" direct relief; the former administered in work-houses through the Poor Law, the latter through soup kitchens. The costs of the Poor Law fell primarily on the local landlords, who in turn attempted to reduce their liability by evicting their tenants. This was then facilitated through the "Cheap Ejectment Acts." The poor law amendment act was passed in June 1847. According to James Donnelly in Fearful Realities: New Perspectives on the Famine Fearful Realities: New Perspectives on the Famine, Chris Morash & Richard Hayes, Colourbooks Ltd, (200 RP), ISBN 0 7165 2566 6 , p. 60 it embodied the principle popular in Britain that Irish property must support Irish poverty. The landed proprietors in Ireland were held in Britain to have created the conditions that lead to the famine. It was asserted however, that the British parliament since the Act of Union of 1800 was partly to blame. This point was raised in the Illustrated London News on the 13 February 1847, "There was no laws it would not pass at their request, and no abuse it would not defend for them." On the 24 March the Times reported that Britain had permitted in Ireland "a mass of poverty, disaffection, and degradation without a parallel in the world. It allowed proprietors to suck the very life-blood of that wretched race." The "Gregory clause" of the Poor Law prohibited anyone who held at least a quarter of an acre from receiving relief. This in practice meant that if a farmer, having sold all his produce to pay rent, duties, rates and taxes, should be reduced, as many thousands of them were, to applying for public outdoor relief, he would not get it until he had first delivered up all his land to the landlord. Of this Law Mitchel was to write: "it is the able-bodied idler only who is to be fed — if he attempted to till but one rood of ground, he dies." This simple method of ejectment was called "passing paupers through the workhouse" — a man went in, a pauper came out. These factors combined to drive thousands of people off the land: 90,000 in 1849, and 104,000 in 1850. Food exports to England Records show Irish lands exported food even during the worst years of the Famine. When Ireland had experienced a famine in 1782–83, ports were closed to keep Irish-grown food in Ireland to feed the Irish. Local food prices promptly dropped. Merchants lobbied against the export ban, but government in the 1780s overrode their protests. No such export ban happened in the 1840s. Kinealy (1995), 354. Cecil Woodham-Smith, an authority on the Irish Famine, wrote in The Great Hunger; Ireland 1845–1849 that no issue has provoked so much anger and embittered relations between England and Ireland as "the indisputable fact that huge quantities of food were exported from Ireland to England throughout the period when the people of Ireland were dying of starvation." Ireland remained a net exporter of food throughout most of the five-year famine. Christine Kinealy, a University of Liverpool fellow and author of two texts on the famine, Irish Famine: This Great Calamity and A Death-Dealing Famine, writes that Irish exports of calves, livestock (except pigs), bacon and ham actually increased during the famine. The food was shipped under guard from the most famine-stricken parts of Ireland. However, the poor had no money to buy food and the government then did not ban exports. The following poem written by Miss Jane Francesca Elgee, a well known and popular author, was carried in the The Nation Young Ireland, T. F. O'Sullivan, The Kerryman Ltd. 1945, p. 107 Charity William Smith O'Brien, speaking on the subject of charity in a speech to the Repeal Association, February 1845, applauded the fact that the universal sentiment on the subject of charity was that they would accept no English charity. He expressed the view that the resources of this country were still abundantly adequate to maintain the population and that until those resources had been utterly exhausted, he hoped that there was no one in "Ireland who will so degrade himself as to ask the aid of a subscription from England." John Mitchel, Last Conquest Of Ireland (Perhaps), Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873, reprint 2005, ISBN 1 904558 36 4 pp. 94–96 Mitchel wrote in his The Last Conquest of Ireland (Perhaps), on the same subject, that no one from Ireland ever asked for charity during this period, and that it was England who sought charity on Ireland's behalf, and, having received it, was also responsible for administering it. He suggested that it has been carefully inculcated by the British Press, "that the moment Ireland fell into distress, she became an abject beggar at England's gate, and that she even craved alms from all mankind." He affirmed that in Ireland no one ever asked alms or favours of any kind from England or any other nation, but that it was England herself that begged for us. He suggests that it was England that "sent 'round the hat over all the globe, asking a penny for the love of God to relieve the poor Irish," and constituting herself the agent of all that charity, took all the profit of it. John Mitchel, Last Conquest Of Ireland (Perhaps)], Lynch, Cole & Meehan 1873, reprint 2005, ISBN 1 904558 36 4 pp. 94–96 Large sums of money were donated by charities; Calcutta is credited with making the first donation of £14,000. The money was raised by Irish soldiers serving there and Irish people employed by the East India Company. Pope Pius IX sent funds and Queen Victoria donated £2,000. Quaker Alfred Webb, one of the many volunteers in Ireland at the time, wrote: In addition to the religious, non-religious organizations came to the assistance of famine victims. The British Relief Association was one such group. Founded in 1847, the Association raised money throughout England, America and Australia; their funding drive benefited by a "Queen's Letter", a letter from Queen Victoria appealing for money to relieve the distress in Ireland. Kinealy (1995), 161. With this initial letter the Association raised £171,533. A second, somewhat less successful "Queen's Letter" was issued in late 1847. In total, the British Relief Association raised approximately £200,000. (c.$1,000,000 at the time) Private initiatives such as The Central Relief Committee of the Society of Friends (Quakers) attempted to fill the gap caused by the end of government relief and eventually the government reinstated the relief works, although bureaucracy slowed the release of food supplies. Ottoman aid In 1845, Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid declared his intention to send 10,000 sterling to Irish farmers but Queen Victoria requested that the Sultan send only 1,000 sterling, because she had sent only 2,000 sterling. The Sultan sent the 1,000 sterling but also secretly sent 3 ships full of food. The English courts tried to block the ships, but the food arrived at Drogheda harbour and was left there by Ottoman sailors. Why crescentstar on Drogheda Utd emblem? Gratitude to the Ottomans From American Indians In 1847, midway through the Great Irish Famine (1845–1849), a group of American Indian Choctaws collected $710 (although many articles say the original amount was $170 after a misprint in Angie Debo's The Rise and Fall of the Choctaw Republic) and sent it to help starving Irish men, women and children. "It had been just 16 years since the Choctaw people had experienced the Trail of Tears, and they had faced starvation... It was an amazing gesture. By today's standards, it might be a million dollars." according to Judy Allen, editor of the Choctaw Nation of Oklahoma's newspaper, Bishinik, based at the Oklahoma Choctaw tribal headquarters in Durant, Oklahoma. To mark the 150th anniversary, eight Irish people retraced the Trail of Tears, and the donation was publicly commemorated by President Mary Robinson. Eviction Landlords were responsible for paying the rates of every tenant who paid less than £4 in yearly rent. Landlords whose land was crowded with poorer tenants were now faced with large bills. They began clearing the poor tenants from their small plots, and letting the land in larger plots for over £4 which then reduced their debts. In 1846 here had been some clearances, but the great mass of evictions came in 1847. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , p. 95 According to James S. Donnelly Jr, it is impossible to be sure how many people were evicted during the years of the famine and its immediate aftermath. It was only in 1849 that the police began to keep a count, and they recorded a total of almost 250,000 persons as officially evicted between 1849 and 1854. The Great Irish Famine, edited by Cathal Póirtéir, RTE / Mercier Press, 1995, ISBN 1 85635 1114 , p. 155 Donnelly considered this to be an underestimate, and if the figures were to include the number pressured into "voluntary" surrenders during the whole period (1846–54) the figure would almost certainly exceed half a million persons. The Great Irish Famine, edited by Cathal Póirtéir, RTE / Mercier Press, 1995, ISBN 1 85635 1114 , p. 156 While Helen Litton says there were also thousands of "voluntary" surrenders, she notes also that there was "precious little voluntary about them." In some cases tenants were persuaded to accept a small sum of money to leave their homes, "cheated into believing the workhouse would take them in." The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , p. 95 West Clare was one of the worst areas for evictions, where landlords turned thousands of families out and demolished their derisory cabins. Captain Kennedy in April 1848 estimated that 1,000 houses, with an average of six people to each had been levelled since November. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , p. 96 The Mahon family, Strokestown House alone in 1847 evicted 3,000 people, and according to John Gibney were still able to dine on lobster soup. History Ireland, Volume 16 No.6 (November–December 2008), p. 55 After Clare, the worst area for evictions was County Mayo, accounting for 10% of all evictions between 1849 and 1854. Earl of Lucan, who owned over was among the worst evicting landlords. He was quoted as saying 'he would not breed paupers to pay priests'. Having turned out in the parish of Ballinrobe over 2,000 tenants alone, the cleared land he then used as grazing farms. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , p. 98 In 1848 the Marquis of Sligo owed £1,650 to Westport Union; he was also an evicting landlord, though he claimed to be selective, saying he was only getting rid of the idle and dishonest. Altogether he cleared about one-quarter of his tenants. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , pp. 95–98 According to Litton evictions might have taken place earlier but for fear of the secret societies. However they were now greatly weakened by the Famine. Revenge still occasionally took place, with seven landlords being shot, six fatally, during the autumn and winter of 1847. Ten other occupiers of land, though without tenants, she says were also murdered. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , p. 99 Lord Clarendon, alarmed that this meant rebellion, asked for special powers. Lord John Russell was not sympathetic to this appeal. Lord Clarendon believed that the landlords themselves were mostly responsible for the tragedy in the first place, saying "It is quite true that landlords in England would not like to be shot like hares and partridges...but neither does any landlord in England turn out fifty persons at once and burn their houses over their heads, giving them no provision for the future." The Crime and Outrage Act was passed in December 1847 as a compromise and additional troops were sent to Ireland. The Irish Famine: An Illustrated History, Helen Litton, Wolfhound Press, (2006 RP), ISBN 0 86327 912 0 , pp. 98–99 Under the notorious Gregory clause, described by Donnelly as a "vicious amendment to the Irish poor law, named after William H. Gregory, M.P. William H. Gregory became the husband of Lady Gregory, heir to a substantial Galway estate which he dissipated by gambling debts on the turf in the late 1840's and early 1850's. (Cathal Póirtéir, p. 159) and commonly known as the quarter-acre clause, provided that no tenant holding more than a quarter-acre of land would be eligible for public assistance either in or outside the workhouse. This clause had been a successful Tory amendment to the Whig poor-relief bill which became law in early June 1847, where its potential as an estate-clearing device was widely recognised in parliament, though not in advance. The Great Irish Famine, edited by Cathal Póirtéir, RTE / Mercier Press, 1995, ISBN 1 85635 1114 , p. 159 At first the poor law commissioners and inspectors viewed the clause as an valuable instrument for a more cost-effective administration of public relief, but the drawbacks soon became apparent, even from an administrative perspective. They would soon view them as little more than murderous from a humanitarian perspective. According to Donnelly it became obvious that the quarter-acre clause was "indirectly a death-dealing instrument." The Great Irish Potato Famine, James S. Donnelly, Jr, Sutton Publishing, (2005 RP) ISBN 0 7509 2928 6 , p. 110 Emigration See also: Irish diaspora While the famine was responsible for a significant increase in emigration from Ireland, of anywhere from 45% to nearly 85%, depending on the year and the county it was not the sole cause. Nor was it even the era when mass emigration from Ireland commenced. That can be traced to the middle of the 18th century, when some quarter of a million people left Ireland to settle in the New World alone, over a period of some fifty years. From the defeat of Napoleon to the beginning of the famine, a period of thirty years, "at least 1,000,000 and possibly 1,500,000 emigrated" C.Ó. Gráda, A Note on Nineteenth Emigration Statistics, Population Studies, Vol. 29, No.1 (March 1975) However, during the worst of the famine, emigration reached somewhere around 250,000 in one year alone, with far more emigrants coming from western Ireland than any other part. Irish immigration to America Families en masse did not emigrate, younger members of it did. So much so that emigration almost became a rite of passage, as evidenced by the data that show that, unlike similar emigration throughout world history, women emigrated just as often, just as early, and in the same numbers as men. The emigrant started a new life in a new land, sent remittances "reached £1,404,000 by 1851" Foster, R.F. ,The History of Ireland: 1600–1972, (The Peguine Press, England, 1988) p. 371 back to his/her family in Ireland which, in turn, allowed another member of the family to emigrate. Emigration during the famine years of 1845 to 1850 was to England, Scotland, the United States, Canada, and Australia. ibid. #2, p. 268 Many of those fleeing to the Americas used the well-established McCorkell Line. http://www.mccorkellline.com/ McCorkell Line Of the 100,000 Irish that sailed to Canada in 1847, an estimated one out of five died from disease and malnutrition, including over five thousand at Grosse Isle. Irish Potato Famine Coffin Ships Mortality rates of 30% aboard the coffin ships were common. Early Emigrant Letter Stories Passenger List - Agnes, Cork Ireland to Quebec, 1847 By 1854, between 1½ and 2 million Irish left their country due to evictions, starvation, and harsh living conditions. In America, most Irish became city-dwellers: with little money, many had to settle in the cities that the ships they came on landed in. By 1850, the Irish made up a quarter of the population in Boston, Massachusetts; New York City; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; and Baltimore, Maryland. In addition, Irish populations became prevalent in some American mining communities. The 1851 census reported that more than half the inhabitants of Toronto, Ontario were Irish, and in 1847 alone, 38,000 famine Irish flooded a city with fewer than 20,000 citizens. Other Canadian cities such as Saint John, New Brunswick; Quebec City and Montreal, Quebec; Ottawa, Kingston and Hamilton, Ontario also received large numbers of Famine Irish since Canada, as part of the British Empire, could not close its ports to Irish ships (unlike the United States), and they could get passage cheaply (or free in the case of tenant evictions) in returning empty lumber holds. However fearing nationalist insurgencies the British government placed harsh restrictions on Irish immigration to Canada after 1847 resulting in larger influxes to the United States. The largest Famine grave site outside of Ireland is at Grosse-Île, Quebec, an island in the St. Lawrence River used to quarantine ships near Quebec City. In 1851, about a quarter of Liverpool's population was Irish-born. The famine marked the beginning of the steep depopulation of Ireland in the 19th century. Population had increased by 13–14% in the first three decades of the 19th century. Between 1831 and 1841 population grew by 5%. Application of Thomas Malthus's idea of population expanding 'geometrically' (exponentially) while resources increase arithmetically was popular during the famines of 1817 and 1822. However by the 1830s, a decade before the famine, they were seen as overly simplistic and Ireland's problems were seen "less as an excess of population than as a lack of capital investment." Peter Gray, 1995, The Irish Famine, Thames and Hudson:London The population of Ireland was increasing no faster than that of England, which suffered no equivalent catastrophe. 1848 rebellion In 1847 William Smith O'Brien, the leader of the Young Ireland party, became one of the founding members of the Irish Confederation Michael Doheny's The Felon's Track, M.H. Gill & Son, LTD, 1951 Edition to campaign for a Repeal of the Act of Union, and called for the export of grain to be stopped and the ports closed. History of Ireland, from the Treaty of Limerick to the present time (2 Vol). By John Mitchel James Duffy 1869. pg414 The following year he organised the resistance of landless farmers in County Tipperary against the landowners and their agents. Death toll It is not known how many people died during the period of the Famine, although it is believed more died from diseases than from starvation. Woodham-Smith. The Great Famine, p204 State registration of births, marriages or deaths had not yet begun, and records kept by the Roman Catholic Church are incomplete. Civil registration of births and deaths in Ireland was not established by law until 1863. Available: http://www.groireland.ie/history.htm Accessed 20 October 2007. Eye witness accounts have helped medical historians identify both the ailments and effects of famine, and have been used to evaluate and explain in greater detail features of the famine. In Mayo, English Quaker William Bennett wrote of Revd Dr Traill Hall, a Church of Ireland rector in Schull, described {{bquote|the aged, who, with the young — are almost without exception swollen and ripening for the grave.<ref>Report upon the recent epidemic fever in Ireland, Dublin 'Quartly Journal of Medical Science [DQJMS], Vol. 7 f/n.</ref>}} Marasmic children also left a permanent image on Quaker Joseph Crosfield who in 1846 witnessed a Líam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E. M. Crawford & L. A. Clarkson, Mapping The Great Irish Famine, Four Courts Press, 1999, ISBN 1 85182 353 0 p. 106 William Forster wrote in Carrick-on-Shannon that One possible estimate has been reached by comparing the expected population with the eventual numbers in the 1850s (see Irish Population Analysis). Earlier predictions expected that by 1851 Ireland would have a population of eight to nine million. A census taken in 1841 revealed a population of slightly over 8 million. A census immediately after the famine in 1851 counted 6,552,385, a drop of almost 1,500,000 in ten years. Vaughan, W.E. and Fitzpatrick, A.J.(eds). Irish Historical Statistics, Population, 1821/1971. Royal Irish Academy, 1978 Modern historian R.J. Foster estimates that 'at least 775,000 died, mostly through disease, including cholera in the latter stages of the holocaust'. He further notes that 'a recent sophisticated computation estimates excess deaths from 1846 to 1851 as between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000...; after a careful critique of this, other statisticians arrive at a figure of 1,000,000.' Foster, R.F. 'Modern Ireland 1600–1972'. Penguin Press, 1988. p324. Foster's footnote reads: "Based on hitherto unpublished work by C. Ó Gráda and Phelim Hughes, 'Fertility trends, excess mortality and the Great Irish Famine'...Also see C.Ó Gráda and Joel Mokyr, 'New developments in Irish Population History 1700–1850', Economic History Review, vol. xxxvii, no.4 (November 1984), pp. 473–488." Joseph Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society p. 1. Lee says 'at least 800,000'. In addition, in excess of one million Irish emigrated to Great Britain, United States, Canada, Australia, and elsewhere, while millions emigrated over following decades. + Decline in population 1841–51 (%)LeinsterMunsterUlsterConnaughtIreland15.322.515.728.820Table from Joe Lee, The Modernisation of Irish Society (Gill History of Ireland Series No.10) p. 2 Detailed statistics of the population of Ireland since 1841 are available at Irish Population Analysis. Perhaps the best-known estimates of deaths at a county level are those by Joel Mokyr. Líam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E. M. Crawford & L. A. Clarkson, Mapping The Great Irish Famine, Four Courts Press, 1999, ISBN 1 85182 353 0 p. 36 The range of Mokyr's mortality figures goes from 1.1 million to 1.5 million Famine deaths in Ireland between 1846 and 1851. Mokyr produced two sets of data which contained an upper-bound and lower-bound estimate, which showed not much difference in regional patterns. Joel Makyr, Why Ireland staved, A quantitative and analytical history of the Irish economy 1800–1850 (London, 1983), pp. 266–7 Because of such anomalies, Cormac Ó Gráda, revisited the work of S. H. Cousen's. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland before and after the Famine, explorations in economic history, 18001925, Manchester, 1993, pp. 138–44 Cousen's S. H. Cousens, Regional death rates in Ireland during the Great Famine from 1846 to 1851, Population Studies, 14 (1960), 55–74 estimates of mortality was to rely heavily on retrospective information contained in the 1851 census. The death tables, contained in the 1851 census Census of Ireland for the year 1851 part III, Report on the status of disease, BPP, 1854, lviii;part V, Tables of Deaths, vol. I, BPP, 1856 [2087-I], xxix;vol.II, 1856 [2087-II], xxx. have been rightly criticised, as under-estimating the true extent of mortality, Cousen's mortality of 800,000 is now regarded as much too low. There were a number of reasons for this, because the information was gathered from the surviving householders and others and having to look back over the previous ten years, it underestimates the true extent of disease and mortality. Death and emigration had also cleared away entire families, leaving few or no survivors to answer the questions on the census. Another area of uncertainty lies in the descriptions of disease given by tenants as to the cause of their relatives' deaths. Though Wilde's work has been rightly criticised as under-estimating the true extents of mortality it does provide a framework for the medical history of the Great Famine. Report upon the recent epidemic fever in Ireland, Dublin Quartly Journal of Medical Science [DQJMS], vol. 7 (1849), 64–126, 340–404; vol. 8, 1–86, 270–399. Líam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E. M. Crawford & L. A. Clarkson, Mapping The Great Irish Famine, Four Courts Press, 1999, ISBN 1 85182 353 0 p. 104 The diseases that badly affected the population fell into two categories, famine induced diseases and diseases of nutritional deficiency. Of the nutritional deficiency diseases the most commonly experienced were starvation and marasmus, as well as condition called at the time dropsy. Dropsy was a popular name given for the symptoms of several diseases, one of which, kwashiorkor, is associated with starvation. The greatest mortality, however, was not from nutritional deficiency diseases, but from famine induced ailments. M. Levi-Bacci, Population and nutrition: an essy on European demographic history, Cambridge, 1991, p. 38 The malnourished are very vulnerable to infections; therefore, they were more severe when they occurred. Measles, diarrheal diseases, tuberculosis, most respiratory infections, whooping cough, many intestinal parasites, and cholera were all strongly conditioned by nutritional status. Potentially lethal diseases, such as smallpox and influenza, were so virulent that their spread was independent of nutrition. M. Levi-Bacci, Population and nutrition: an essay on European demographic history, Cambridge, 1991, p. 38 A significant cause spreading disease during the Famine was "social dislocation." The best example of this phenomenon was fever, which exacted the greatest toll of death. In the popular mind, as well as among much medical opinion, fever and famine are closely related. D.J. Corrigan, Famine and fever as cause and effect in Ireland, Dublin, 1846; Henery Kennedy, Observations on the connexion between famine and fever in Ireland and elsewhere, Dublin 1847. This view was not wholly mistaken, but the most critical connection was the congregating of the hungry at soup kitchens, food depots, overcrowded work houses where conditions were ideal for spreading infectious diseases such as typhus, typhoid and relapsing fever. ;Líam Kennedy, Paul S. Ell, E. M. Crawford & L. A. Clarkson, Mapping The Great Irish Famine, Four Courts Press, 1999, ISBN 1 85182 353 0 p. 104 As to the diarrheal diseases, their presence was the result of poor hygiene, bad sanitation and dietary changes. The concluding attack on a population incapacitated by famine was delivered by Asiatic cholera. Cholera had visited Ireland, briefly in the 1830s. But in the following decade it spread uncontrollably across Asia, through Europe, and into Britain and finally reached Ireland in 1849. On the 1851 census both Cormac Ó Gráda & Joel Mokry would also describe it as a famous but flawed source. They would contend that the combination of institutional and individuals figures gives "an incomplete and biased count" of fatalities during the famine. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Inter disciplinary Perspectives, University College Dublin Press, 2006, ISBN 1 904558 57 7 p. 3 Ó Gráda referencing the work of W. A. MacArthur, W. A. MacArthur, Medical history of the famine, in Edwards and Williams (1956) pp. 308–12 writes, specialists have long known the Irish death tables left a lot to be desired in terms of accuracy. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, University College Dublin Press, 2006, ISBN 1 904558 57 7 p. 67 As a result Ó Gráda says to take the Tables of Death at face value would be a grave mistake, as they seriously undercount the number of deaths both before and during the famine. Cormac Ó Gráda, Ireland's Great Famine: Interdisciplinary Perspectives, University College Dublin Press, 2006, ISBN 1 904558 57 7 p. 71 In 1851, the census commissioners collected information on the number who died in each family since 1841, the cause, season and year of death. Its disputed findings were as follows: 21,770 total deaths from starvation in the previous decade, and 400,720 deaths from disease. Listed diseases were fever, dysentery, cholera, smallpox and influenza; the first two being the main killers (222,021 and 93,232). The commissioners acknowledged that their figures were incomplete and that the true number of deaths was probably higher: "The greater the amount of destitution of mortality...the less will be the amount of recorded deaths derived through any household form; - for not only were whole families swept away by disease...but whole villages were effaced from off the land." A later historian has this to say: "In 1851, the Census Commissioners attempted to produce a table of mortality for each year since 1841... The statistics provided were flawed and probably under-estimated the level of mortality..." Killen, John. The Famine decade, contemporary accounts 1841–1851. (Blackstaff, 1995) pp. 250–252 Kinealy, Christine. This Great Calamity, p. 167 Other, perhaps less reliable and likely underestimates are that the event led to the deaths of approximately one million people through starvation and disease; a further million are thought to have emigrated as a result of the famine. David Ross, Ireland: History of a Nation, New Lanark: Geddes & Grosset, 2002, p. 226. ISBN 1-84205-164-4 Some scholars estimate that the population of Ireland was reduced by 20 to 25 percent. Kinealy. This Great Calamity, p. 357. All of this occurred while taxes, rents, and food exports were being collected and sent to British landlords, in an amount surpassing £6 million. "Irish Potato Famine and Trade," American University website. Aftermath Consequently, later mini-famines made only minimal effect and are generally forgotten, except by historians. By the 1911 census, the island of Ireland's population had fallen to 4.4 million, about the same as the population in 1800 and 2000 and only a half of its peak population. Richard Killen, A Short History of Modern Ireland (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan Ltd., 2003) Judgement of the government's handling of the Famine Contemporary Contemporary opinion was sharply critical of the Russell government's response to and management of the crisis. From the start, there were accusations that the government failed to grasp the magnitude of the disaster. Sir James Graham, who had served as Home Secretary in Sir Robert Peel's late government, wrote to Peel that, in his opinion, "the real extent and magnitude of the Irish difficulty are underestimated by the Government, and cannot be met by measures within the strict rule of economical science." Quoted in Kinealy (1995), 80. This criticism was not confined to outside critics. The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, Lord Clarendon, wrote a letter to Russell on 26 April 1849, urging that the government propose additional relief measures: "I do not think there is another legislature in Europe that would disregard such suffering as now exists in the west of Ireland, or coldly persist in a policy of extermination." Also in 1849 the Chief Poor Law Commissioner, Edward Twistleton, resigned in protest over the Rate-in-Aid Act, which provided additional funds for the Poor Law through a 6p in the pound levy on all rateable properties in Ireland. Kinealy (1995), 254–260. Twisleton testified that "comparatively trifling sums were required for Britain to spare itself the deep disgrace of permitting its miserable fellow subjects to die of starvation." According to Peter Gray, in his book The Irish Famine, the government spent seven million pounds for relief in Ireland between 1845 and 1850, "representing less than half of one percent of the British gross national product over five years. Contemporaries noted the sharp contrast with the 20 million Pounds compensation given to West Indian slave-owners in the 1830s." Peter Gray, The Irish Famine, Discoveries. Harry N. Abrams, Inc: New York, 1995. Other critics maintained that even after the government recognised the scope of the crisis, it failed to take sufficient steps to address it. John Mitchel, one of the leaders of the Young Ireland Movement, wrote the following in 1860: "I have called it an artificial famine: that is to say, it was a famine which desolated a rich and fertile island that produced every year abundance and superabundance to sustain all her people and many more. The English, indeed, call the famine a 'dispensation of Providence;' and ascribe it entirely to the blight on potatoes. But potatoes failed in like manner all over Europe; yet there was no famine save in Ireland. The British account of the matter, then, is first, a fraud; second, a blasphemy. The Almighty, indeed, sent the potato blight, but the English created the famine." Gallagher, Michael & Thomas, Paddy's Lament. Harcourt Brace & Company, New York / London, 1982. Still other critics saw reflected in the government's response the government's attitude to the so-called "Irish Question." Nassau Senior, an economics professor at Oxford University, wrote that the Famine "would not kill more than one million people, and that would scarcely be enough to do any good." In 1848, Denis Shine Lawlor suggested that Russell was a student of the Elizabethan poet Edmund Spenser, who had calculated "how far English colonization and English policy might be most effectively carried out by Irish starvation." Donnelly, James S., Jr., "Mass Eviction and the Irish Famine: The Clearances Revisited", from The Great Irish Famine, edited by Cathal Poirteir. Mercier Press, Dublin, Ireland. 1995. Charles Trevelyan, the civil servant with most direct responsibility for the government's handling of the famine, described it in 1848 as "a direct stroke of an all-wise and all-merciful Providence", which laid bare "the deep and inveterate root of social evil"; the Famine, he affirmed, was "the sharp but effectual remedy by which the cure is likely to be effected. God grant that the generation to which this opportunity has been offered may rightly perform its part..." Charles E. Trevelyan, The Irish Crisis, (London 1848). Historical Christine Kinealy expresses the consensus of historians when she states that "the major tragedy of the Irish Famine of 1845–52 marked a watershed in modern Irish history. Its occurrence, however, was neither inevitable nor unavoidable." Kinealy (1995), xv. The underlying factors which combined to cause the famine were aggravated by an inadequate government response. As Kinealy notes, "...[T]he government had to do something to help alleviate the suffering, the particular nature of the actual response, especially following 1846, suggests a more covert agenda and motivation. As the Famine progressed, it became apparent that the government was using its information not merely to help it formulate its relief policies, but also as an opportunity to facilitate various long-desired changes within Ireland. These included population control and the consolidation of property through various means, including emigration... Despite the overwhelming evidence of prolonged distress caused by successive years of potato blight, the underlying philosophy of the relief efforts was that they should be kept to a minimalist level; in fact they actually decreased as the Famine progressed." Kinealy (1995), 353. Several writers single out the decision of the government to permit the continued export of food from Ireland as suggestive of the policy-makers attitude. Leon Uris suggested that "there was ample food within Ireland", while all the Irish-bred cattle were being shipped off to England. Jill and Leon Uris, Ireland A Terrible Beauty (New York: Bantam Books, 2003), p. 16. The following exchange appeared in Act IV of George Bernard Shaw's play Man and Superman: MALONE. He will get over it all right enough. Men thrive better on disappointments in love than on disappointments in money. I daresay you think that sordid; but I know what I'm talking about. My father died of starvation in Ireland in the black 47, Maybe you've heard of it. VIOLET. The Famine? MALONE. [with smouldering passion] No, the starvation. When a country is full of food, and exporting it, there can be no famine. My father was starved dead; and I was starved out to America in my mother's arms. English rule drove me and mine out of Ireland. Well, you can keep Ireland. I and my like are coming back to buy England; and we'll buy the best of it. I want no middle class properties and no middle class women for Hector. That's straightforward isn't it, like yourself? Shaw (1903), Act IV. Critics of British imperialism point to the structure of empire as a contributing factor. J. A. Froude wrote that "England governed Ireland for what she deemed her own interest, making her calculations on the gross balance of her trade ledgers, and leaving moral obligations aside, as if right and wrong had been blotted out of the statute book of the Universe." MacManus, Seumas, The Story of the Irish Race, The Irish Publishing Co. Dennis Clark, an Irish-American historian, claimed that the famine was "the culmination of generations of neglect, misrule and repression. It was an epic of English colonial cruelty and inadequacy. For the landless cabin dwellers it meant emigration or extinction..." Suggestions of genocide The famine is still a controversial event in Irish history. Debate and discussion on the British government's response to the failure of the potato crop in Ireland and the subsequent large-scale starvation, and whether or not this constituted genocide, remains a historically and politically-charged issue. In 1996 Francis A. Boyle, a law professor at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, wrote a report commissioned by the New York-based Irish Famine/Genocide Committee, that concluded "Clearly, during the years 1845 to 1850, the British government pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland with intent to destroy in substantial part the national, ethnic and racial group commonly known as the Irish People.... Therefore, during the years 1845 to 1850 the British government knowingly pursued a policy of mass starvation in Ireland that constituted acts of genocide against the Irish people within the meaning of Article II (c) of the 1948 [Hague] Genocide Convention." Dan Ritschel, ?, "The Irish Famine: Interpretive & Historiographical Issues", Department of History, University of Maryland On the strength of Boyle's report, the U.S. state of New Jersey included the famine in the "Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum" at the secondary tier. The Great Irish Famine Approved by the New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education on 10 September 1996, for inclusion in the Holocaust and Genocide Curriculum at the secondary level. Revision submitted 11/26/98. Historian Peter Duffy writes that "The government's crime, which deserves to blacken its name forever ..." was rooted "in the effort to regenerate Ireland" through "landlord-engineered replacement of tillage plots with grazing lands" that "took precedence over the obligation to provide food ... for its starving citizens. It is little wonder that the policy looked to many people like genocide." Duffy, Peter, The Killing of Major Denis Mahon, 2007, HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-06-084050-1, pgs 297-298 Several commentators have argued that the searing effect of the famine in Irish cultural memory has effects similar to that of genocide, while maintaining that one did not occur. Robert Kee suggests that the Famine is seen as "comparable" in its force on "popular national consciousness to that of the 'final solution' on the Jews," and that it is not "infrequently" thought that the Famine was something very like, "a form of genocide engineered by the English against the Irish people." This point was echoed by James Donnelly, a historian at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, who wrote in his work Landlord and Tenant in Nineteenth-Century Ireland, "I would draw the following broad conclusion: at a fairly early stage of the Great Famine the government's abject failure to stop or even slow down the clearances (evictions) contributed in a major way to enshrining the idea of English state-sponsored genocide in Irish popular mind. Or perhaps one should say in the Irish mind, for this was a notion that appealed to many educated and discriminating men and women, and not only to the revolutionary minority...And it is also my contention that while genocide was not in fact committed, what happened during and as a result of the clearances had the look of genocide to a great many Irish..." Historian Cormac Ó Gráda disagreed that the famine was genocide: first, that "genocide includes murderous intent and it must be said that not even the most bigoted and racist commentators of the day sought the extermination of the Irish"; second, that most people in Whitehall "hoped for better times in Ireland" and third, that the claim of genocide overlooks "the enormous challenges facing relief efforts, both central, local, public and private". Ó Gráda thinks that a case of neglect is easier to sustain than that of genocide Cormac Ó Gráda, "Black '47 and Beyond: The Great Irish Famine in History, Economy and Memory", p. 10 Well-known Irish columnist and song-writer John Waters has described the famine as the most violent event in a history which was characterised by violence of every imaginable kind and stated that the famine "was an act of genocide, driven by racism and justified by ideology", arguing that the destruction of Ireland's cultural, political and economic diversity and the reduction of the Irish economy to basically a mono-cultural dependence was a holocaust waiting to happen. Waters contends that arguments about the source of the blight or the practicability of aid efforts once the Famine had taken hold were irrelevant to the meaning of the experience. Tom Hayden, Irish Hunger, Roberts Rinehart, USA/Canada, 1997–98, ISBN 1 57098 233 3, p. 29/103 Memorials The Great Famine is memorialized in many locations throughout Ireland, especially in those regions that suffered the greatest losses, and also in cities overseas with large populations descended from Irish immigrants. These include, at Custom House Quays, Dublin, the thin sculptural figures, by artist Rowan Gillespie, who stand as if walking towards the emigration ships on the Dublin Quayside. See also Great Irish Famine (1740–1741) Irish Famine (1879) Legacy of the Great Irish Famine (continuation of this article) Highland Potato Famine (agrarian crisis in Scotland at the same time) European Potato Famine (the wider agrarian crisis in Europe at the same time) List of natural disasters in the United Kingdom "Fields of Athenry," a popular song about the famine List of famines Holodomor, a 1930s famine in Ukraine, the causes of which are also the subject of debate References Bibliography Sources Additional reading Mary E. Daly, The Famine in Ireland R. Dudley Edwards and T. Desmond Williams (eds.), The Great Famine: Studies in Irish history 1845-52 Peter Gray, The Irish Famine Joseph O'Connor, Star of the Sea Cormac Ó Gráda, An Economic History of Ireland Cormac Ó Gráda, Black '47 and Beyond Robert Kee, Ireland: A History (ISBN 0-349-10678-9) Christine Kinealy, This Great Calamity: The Irish Famine 1845 - 1852 John Mitchel, The Last Conquest of Ireland (1861) (University College Dublin Press reprint, 2005 paperback) ISBN I-904558-36-4 Cecil Woodham-Smith, The Great Hunger, 1845-49 (Penguin, 1991 edition) Marita Conlon-McKenna, Under the Hawthorn Tree Thomas Gallagher, Paddy's Lament, Ireland 1846-1847: Prelude to Hatred Canon John O'Rourke, The Great Irish Famine (ISBN 1-85390-049-4 Hardback) (ISBN 1-85390-130-X Paperback) Veritas Publications 1989. First published in 1874. Liam O'Flaherty, Famine Colm Tóibín and Diarmaid Ferriter, The Irish Famine, ISBN 1-86197-249-0 / 9781861972491 (first edition, hardback) Kevin Baker, Paradise Alley'' Several books by Young Irelanders make reference to the Great Irish Famine Notes External links New Jersey Commission on Holocaust Education 1996 The History of the Irish Famine by Rev. John O'Rourke Irish National Archives information on the Famine Quinnipiac University's An Gorta Mor site - includes etexts Ireland's Great Famine (Cormac Ó Gráda) from EH.Net Encyclopedia of Economic History Irish Holocaust History Ireland: The hunger years 1845-1851 Kids History Website about the Famine Cork Multitext Project article on the Famine, by Donnchadh Ó Corráin For more on the pathogen see http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/mar2001.html Karp, Ivan. Museum Frictions: Public Cultures/Global Transformations. Seamus P. Metress, Richard A. Rajner. The Great Starvation: An Irish Holocaust. Irish Repay Choctaw Famine Gift:March Traces Trail of Tears in Trek for Somalian Relief President of Ireland Mary Robinson Addresses the Choctaw People Clips and dvds of the Irish Potato Famine Views of the Famine http://www.sligoheritage.com/archive.htm Famine on the Gore-Booth and Palmerston estates in Sligo, Ireland The Famine in Doon co.Limerick What Caused the Irish Potato Famine? | Great_Famine_(Ireland) |@lemmatized great:78 famine:163 lit:2 hunger:23 term:2 appear:2 title:2 numerous:1 book:6 event:4 demonstrate:1 search:1 worldcat:1 drochshaol:1 bad:8 life:5 period:10 starvation:19 disease:26 mass:8 emigration:13 kinealy:21 xvi:2 ii:5 population:37 ireland:162 reduce:5 percent:5 christine:10 calamity:14 gill:10 macmillan:7 isnb:1 approximately:3 one:36 million:28 die:9 emigrate:8 shore:1 david:4 ross:4 history:43 nation:11 new:22 lanark:2 geddes:2 grosset:2 p:64 isbn:59 proximate:1 cause:15 potato:45 commonly:5 know:13 late:7 blight:14 cormac:15 ó:22 gráda:21 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7,234 | Hydroxide | In chemistry, hydroxide is the name for the diatomic anion OH−, consisting of oxygen and hydrogen atoms, usually derived from the dissociation of a base. It is one of the simplest diatomic ions known. Inorganic compounds that contain the hydroxyl group are referred to as hydroxides. Common hydroxides include: Sodium hydroxide, NaOH Potassium hydroxide, KOH Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2 Hydroxide as a base Most compounds containing hydroxide are bases. An Arrhenius base is a substance that produces hydroxide ions when dissolved in aqueous solution. One example would be ammonia, NH3: NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq) Thus, hydroxide ions are heavily involved in acid-base reactions as well as the special double displacement reaction Salts containing hydroxide are called base salts. Base salts will dissociate into a cation and one or more hydroxide ions in water, making the solution basic. Base salts will undergo neutralisation reactions with acids. In general acid-alkali reactions can be simplified to OH−(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l) by omitting spectator ions. Solubility Most inorganic hydroxide salts are insoluble in water, except for those with cations from Group I, Ba2+, Sr2+, Ca2+ (little) or Tl+. Applications Hydroxides and hydroxide ions are relatively common. Many useful chemicals and chemical processes involve hydroxides or hydroxide ions. Sodium hydroxide (lye) is used in industry as a strong base, potassium hydroxide is used in agriculture, and iron hydroxide minerals such as goethite and limonite have been used as low grade brown iron ore. The aluminium ore bauxite is composed largely of aluminium hydroxides. Ligand The hydroxide ion is a kind of ligand. It donates lone pairs of electrons, behaving as a Lewis base. Examples of complexes containing such a ligand include the aluminate ion [Al(OH)4]− and aurate ion [Au(OH)4]−. Hydrated hydroxide ion H3O2− The mono-hydrated hydroxide ion,H3O2−, the bihydroxide ion, has been found in the crystals of a small number of compounds. First found in 1979,in the salt Na2[N(C2H5)3CH3][Cr(PhC(S)=N-(O))3].½NaH3O2.18H2O The bihydroxide (H3O2-) anion. A very short, symmetric hydrogen bond, Kamal Abu-Dari, Kenneth N. Raymond, Derek P. Freyberg, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1979, 101 (13), 3688–3689, The H3O2− ion in this compound is centrosymmetric and has a very short hydrogen bond, (114.5 pm), which is similar to the length (114 pm) in the bifluoride, HF2− ion. See also Hydronium Oxide Hydroxyl Hydroxy Notes Solvation and Transport of H3O+ and OH− Ions in Water (JCP 99, 5749 (1995) External links | Hydroxide |@lemmatized chemistry:1 hydroxide:24 name:1 diatomic:2 anion:2 oh:7 consist:1 oxygen:1 hydrogen:3 atom:1 usually:1 derive:1 dissociation:1 base:10 one:3 simple:1 ion:16 know:1 inorganic:2 compound:4 contain:4 hydroxyl:2 group:2 refer:1 common:2 include:2 sodium:2 naoh:1 potassium:2 koh:1 calcium:1 ca:1 arrhenius:1 substance:1 produce:1 dissolve:1 aqueous:1 solution:2 example:2 would:1 ammonia:1 g:1 l:2 aq:4 thus:1 heavily:1 involve:2 acid:3 reaction:4 well:1 special:1 double:1 displacement:1 salt:6 call:1 dissociate:1 cation:2 water:3 make:1 basic:1 undergo:1 neutralisation:1 general:1 alkali:1 simplify:1 h:1 omit:1 spectator:1 solubility:1 insoluble:1 except:1 little:1 tl:1 application:1 relatively:1 many:1 useful:1 chemical:2 process:1 lye:1 use:3 industry:1 strong:1 agriculture:1 iron:2 mineral:1 goethite:1 limonite:1 low:1 grade:1 brown:1 ore:2 aluminium:2 bauxite:1 compose:1 largely:1 ligand:3 kind:1 donate:1 lone:1 pair:1 electron:1 behave:1 lewis:1 complex:1 aluminate:1 al:1 aurate:1 au:1 hydrate:2 mono:1 bihydroxide:2 find:2 crystal:1 small:1 number:1 first:1 n:3 cr:1 phc:1 short:2 symmetric:1 bond:2 kamal:1 abu:1 dari:1 kenneth:1 raymond:1 derek:1 p:1 freyberg:1 j:1 chem:1 soc:1 centrosymmetric:1 pm:2 similar:1 length:1 bifluoride:1 see:1 also:1 hydronium:1 oxide:1 hydroxy:1 note:1 solvation:1 transport:1 jcp:1 external:1 link:1 |@bigram hydrogen_atom:1 inorganic_compound:1 sodium_hydroxide:2 hydroxide_naoh:1 potassium_hydroxide:2 calcium_hydroxide:1 hydroxide_ion:8 aqueous_solution:1 iron_ore:1 aluminium_hydroxide:1 lone_pair:1 hydrogen_bond:2 chem_soc:1 external_link:1 |
7,235 | Curling | Curling is a team sport with similarities to bowls and shuffleboard, played by two teams of four players each on a rectangular sheet of carefully prepared ice. Teams take turns sliding heavy, polished granite stones down the ice towards the target (called the house). Two sweepers with brooms accompany each rock and use timing equipment and their best judgment, along with direction from their teammates, to help direct the stones to their resting place. The complex nature of stone placement and shot selection has led some to refer to curling as "chess on ice." SI.com – 2006 Winter Olympics – Mark Bechtel: I'm cuckoo for curling – Saturday February 11, 2006 1:11PM Curling is a game played on ice with granite stones; in this picture, four curling sheets are shown. The Fingask Curling Club, Perthshire, Scotland, in 1854 Origins and history Men curling in Ontario in 1909 The game of curling is thought to have been invented in late medieval Scotland, with the first written reference to a contest using stones on ice coming from the records of Paisley Abbey, Renfrewshire, in February 1541. Two paintings (both dated 1565) by Pieter Bruegel the Elder depict Dutch peasants curling—Scotland and the Low Countries had strong trading and cultural links during this period, which is also evident in the history of golf. Purpose-built curling pond at Colzium, Kilsyth The game of curling was already in existence in Scotland in the early 16th century, as evidenced by a curling stone inscribed with the date 1511 (uncovered along with another bearing the date 1551) when an old pond was drained at Dunblane, Scotland. Kilsyth Curling Club claims to be the first club in the world, having been formally constituted in 1716; it is still in existence today Kilsyth Curling History . Kilsyth also claims the oldest purpose-built curling pond in the world at Colzium, in the form of a low dam creating a shallow pool some 100 × 250 metres in size, though this is now very seldom in condition for curling due to warmer winters. Kenneth Branagh's film Hamlet, adapted from Shakespeare's famous play, contains a reference to 19th-century curling (the play's period is switched to the 19th century in this film, and the sport as depicted here looks more like horseshoe throwing). During the sequence with Hamlet and the Ghost, we see, as the Ghost explains how Hamlet's uncle Claudius (Derek Jacobi) seduced the Queen (Julie Christie), a flashback in which Claudius and Queen Gertrude are playing a game of curling on the floor of the castle, while the King (Brian Blessed) watches. The word curling first appears in print in 1620 in Perth, in the preface and the verses of a poem by Henry Adamson. The game was (and still is, in Scotland and Scottish-settled regions like southern New Zealand) also known as "the roaring game" because of the sound the stones make while traveling over the pebble (droplets of water applied to the playing surface). The verbal noun curling is formed from the Scots (and English) verb curl SND which describes the motion of the stone. Group of people curling on a lake in Dartmouth, Nova Scotia, Canada, ca. 1897 In the early history of curling, the rocks were simply flat-bottomed river stones that were sometimes notched or shaped; the thrower had little control over the rock, and relied more on luck than skill to win, unlike today's reliance on skill and strategy. It is recorded that in Darvel, East Ayrshire, the weavers relaxed by playing curling matches. The stones they used were the heavy stone weights from the weavers' "warp beams," fitted with a detachable handle for the purpose. Many a wife would keep her husband's brass curling stone handle on the mantelpiece, brightly polished until the next time it was needed. Nate Baker (Editor), The Book of Old Darvel and Some of its Famous Sons. Pub. Walker & Connell, Darvel. P. 12–13. Outdoor curling was very popular in Scotland between the 16th and 19th centuries, as the climate provided good ice conditions every winter. Scotland is home to the international governing body for curling, the World Curling Federation, Perth, which originated as a committee of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, the mother club of curling. Today, the game is most firmly established in Canada, having been taken there by Scottish emigrants. The Royal Montreal Curling Club, the oldest active athletic club of any kind in North America, was established in 1807. The first curling club in the United States began in 1830, and the game was introduced to Switzerland and Sweden before the end of the 19th century, also by Scots. Today, curling is played all over Europe and has spread to Japan, Australia, New Zealand, China, and Korea. A curling match at Eglinton Castle, Ayrshire, Scotland in 1860. The Curling House is located to the left of the picture. The first world curling championship in the sport was limited to men and was known as the "Scotch Cup," held in Falkirk and Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1959. The first world title was won by the Canadian team from Regina, Saskatchewan, skipped by Ernie Richardson. (The skip is the team member who calls the shots; see below.) A Curling House near Stewarton in Ayrshire, Scotland, now converted into a dwelling The first curling club in the United States was organized in 1830 only thirty miles from Detroit, at Orchard Lake, Michigan. Called the Orchard Lake Curling Club, the club used hickory block "stones." The Detroit Curling Club was started back in 1840 when Michigan only had a population of 212,000 and had only been in the Union for three years. About this time, an organization called the "Thistle Club" was founded and, curling being a winter sport, was played when the ice was suitable on the Detroit River at the foot of Joseph Campau; on the bay; and at the old Recreation Park. These clubs became the Granite Club, and in 1885, the present Detroit Curling Club was organized. Olympic curling Curling has been an official sport in the Winter Olympic Games since the 1998 Winter Olympics. In February 2006, the International Olympic Committee retroactively decided that the curling competition from the 1924 Winter Olympics (originally called Semaine des Sports d'Hiver, or International Winter Sports Week) would be considered official Olympic events and no longer be considered demonstration events. Thus, the first Olympic medals in curling, which at the time was played outside, were awarded for the 1924 Winter Games, with the gold medal won by Great Britain and Ireland, two silver medals by Sweden, and the bronze by France. A demonstration tournament was also held during the 1932 Winter Olympic Games between four teams from Canada and four teams from the United States, with Canada winning 12 games to 4. Playing surface The playing area in curling is shown here. Rocks must land between the hog line (bottom of photo) and the back line (behind the rings) and between the boards or out lines (on the sides). The curling sheet, by World Curling Federation standards, is an area of ice in length by to in width, THE RULES OF CURLING and Rules of Competition, June 2008, World Curling Federation. carefully prepared to be as close to level as possible. The ice is most often frozen by means of a refrigeration plant that cools a brine solution running lengthwise in numerous pipes under the curling sheet. A key part of the preparation of the playing surface is the spraying of water droplets, called "pebble," onto the level ice. Due to the friction between the stone and pebble, the stone turns to the inside or outside, causing the stone to "curl." The amount of curl can change during a game as the pebble wears. The surface of the ice is maintained at a temperature around . Making and maintaining perfect ice conditions at a curling club is as much art as science. Winnipeg Free Press Most curling clubs have an ice maker, whose main job is to care for the ice. At the major curling championships, ice maintenance is extremely important. Well-known professional ice makers Shorty Jenkins, Hans Wuthrich, Darrin Sinclair, Dan Prohaszka, and Dave Merklinger reside in Canada. Large events, such as the Brier or other national championships, are typically held in an arena that presents a challenge to the ice maker, as they must constantly monitor and adjust the ice and air temperatures as well as air humidity levels to ensure a consistent playing surface. It is common for each sheet of ice to have multiple sensors embedded in order to monitor surface temperature, as well as probes set up in the seating area (to monitor humidity) and in the compressor room (to monitor brine supply and return temperatures). Players must push out of the hack to deliver their stones; whether they are left- or right-handed determines which foot they use. On the sheet, a wide set of concentric rings, called the house, is painted near each end of the rink. The centre of the house, known as the button, is marked by the junction of two lines that divide the house into quarters. The two lines are the centre line, which is drawn lengthwise down the centre of the sheet, and the tee line, drawn from the backboard and parallel to it. Two other lines—the hog lines—are drawn parallel to each backboard and from them. The rings that surround the button are defined by their diameter as the four-foot, eight-foot, and twelve-foot rings. They are usually distinguished by colour. The inner rings are merely a visual aid for judging which stone is closer to the centre; they do not affect scoring. However, a stone that is not at least touching the outside of the ring (i.e., more than from the centre) is not in the house and therefore does not score (see below). Located twelve feet behind the button are the "hacks." A hack is a device used to provide traction to the curler making a shot; the curler places the foot he or she will push off with in the hack. On indoor rinks, there are usually two fixed hacks—rubber-lined holes—one on each side of the centre line, with the inside edge no more than from the centre line and the front edge on the hack line. A single moveable hack may also be used. Graphical depiction of a curling sheet. The thick lines are the hog lines, and the tee lines run through each of the targets (the houses). Equipment Shoes Curling shoes: The slider shoe (center) with its thin Teflon surface, is worn during delivery to slide on the ice; a slip-on gripper (left) is worn over the slider at other times. The other shoe (right) has a rough surface to give its wearer traction on the ice. Casual players may wear running shoes and improvise a slider by applying electrical tape (or something similar) to their off foot. Higher-end shoes are often made of leather, while lower-end shoes are often made of vinyl. The curling broom is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock. Broom (brush) The curling broom is used to sweep the ice surface in front of the rock. Aggressive sweeping momentarily melts the ice, which lessens friction, thereby lessening the rock's deceleration while straightening its trajectory. The broom can also be used to clean debris off the ice, which is important to keep a throw from "picking" (see "Delivering the rock," below). The skip will also hold a broom at the end of the rink opposite from the delivering player as a target for the deliverer to aim the rock toward. In earlier days, brooms were made of corn strands and were similar to household brooms. Brushes were used primarily by elderly curlers as a substitute for corn brooms. Today, brushes have replaced traditional corn brooms at every level of curling, but are universally referred to as brooms. Curling brushes may have fabric, hog hair, or horsehair heads. Most top quality modern broomsticks are now made of materials such as carbon fibre, allowing faster sweeping; lower-end brooms are often made of fibreglass. Brooms are also used by most curlers as a balancing aid during delivery of the stone. Curling stone (rock) The curling stone or rock is made of granite. The curling stone, as defined by the World Curling Federation, is circular in shape and weighs between with a handle and bolt attached. The stone has a maximum allowable circumference of . A stone must be a minimum of in height. The handle is attached to the stone by means of a bolt that runs vertically through a hole in the center of the stone. The handle allows the rock to be gripped and rotated upon release. When the rock is thrown with the right hand, clockwise rotation is referred to as an in-turn; counterclockwise rotation is referred to as an out-turn. The opposites are true if the rock is thrown with the left hand. The handles are coloured to differentiate the rocks belonging to each team. Two popular colours in major tournaments are red and yellow. The handle may be of the "eye on the hog" variety for detecting hog line violations. Canadian Curling Association The top and bottom of a curling stone are concave. The surface in contact with the ice, known as the running surface, is a circle thick. This narrow running surface is where the ice and the stone interact. On properly prepared ice, the rock's path will bend (curl) in the direction the front edge of the rock is turning, especially toward the end of its motion. The degree of curl depends on several factors, including the preparation of the ice and the flattening of common paths to the house during the game. Ice on which the rocks curl well is said to be "swingy." An old-style curling stone The Scots, in particular, believe that the best-quality curling stones are made from a specific type of granite called "ailsite," found on the Ailsa Craig, an island off the Ayrshire coast. According to the Scottish Curling Stone Company, Ailsite has very low water absorption, which prevents the action of freezing and melting water from eroding the stone. Anchorage Curling Club – About Curling/Stones In the past, most curling stones were made from this granite. However, the island is now a wildlife reserve and is no longer used for quarrying. Because of the particular rarity of Ailsite, costs for curling stones can reach as much as US$1,500 for the best stones. Many curling clubs use a lower-grade stone that can cost upwards of $500. There are also stones that use a disc with a running surface of Ailsite attached below another type of granite. Very informal neighbourhood curling clubs with limited resources may make cylindrical "curling stones" out of concrete-filled cans or bowls. Kays of Scotland has been making curling stones since 1851 and has the exclusive rights to Ailsa Craig granite as granted by the Marquess of Ailsa, whose family has owned the island since 1560. The last "harvest" of Ailsa Craig granite by Kays took place in 2002, yielding 200 tons (note: Kays' statement is that they harvested 1500 tons, sufficient to fill anticipated orders through at least 2020). Kays of Scotland has been the exclusive manufacturer of curling stones for all three Olympics where curling has been a medal sport. Kays of Scotland: About us Pictures of the official Olympic curling stone are available on Kays' website. Kays of Scotland Other equipment Other than shoes and brooms, there are other types of equipment a curler may wish to utilize, such as specialized curling pants. Curling pants are made to be stretchy in order to accommodate the curling delivery. Curlers may also wish to use a stopwatch to time the rocks whilst sweeping to get a feel of how fast the rock is going; stopwatches can be attached either to a piece of clothing or the broom itself. There is also a wide variety of curling gloves and mittens, which are used to both keep the hands warm (if necessary) and for better traction on the broom. Specialized equipment A special handle for stones, called "Eye on the Hog," which integrates electronics to ensure the stone is released before it crosses the hog line, has recently been developed. The handle is coated in metallic paint; the circuitry detects the relative charge of the thrower's hand contact to determine if they are still in contact, and a linear field is established at the hog line to indicate its location to the internal sensor. Lights at the base of the handle indicate whether contact was sustained past the line. Not only does this remove the chance of human error (eliminating the game's most frequent cause of controversy), but it means there is no need for hog line officials as well. The downside of the technology is that the equipment currently costs around $650 apiece, which multiplies quickly with the number of rocks and sheets of ice in a tournament; therefore, its use is found mostly in high-level national and international competitions, such as the Winter Olympics. Although the rock is designed to be delivered by players grasping the handle as they slide down the ice, a special "delivery stick" may be used by players incapable of delivering the rock in this fashion. Such a stick is designed to attach to the handle so that it can be released without requiring the player to place a hand on the handle in a crouched position. This allows the game to be played by players with disabilities as well as by those unable to crouch comfortably. According to the Canadian Curling Association Rules of Curling, "The use of a curling aid commonly referred to as a 'delivery stick,' which enables the player to deliver a stone without placing a hand on the handle, is considered acceptable." Curling manufacturers The main curling equipment manufacturers are: Asham Curling Supplies BalancePlus Goldline Olson Curling Supplies Tournament Curling Gameplay A competitive game usually consists of ten ends. Recreational games are most commonly eight ends. An end consists of each player from both teams throwing two rocks down the sheet with the players on each side alternating shots, for a total of sixteen rocks. If the teams are tied at the completion of ten ends, an extra end is played to break the tie. If the match is still tied after the extra end, play continues for as many ends as may be required to break the tie. The winner is the team with the highest score after all ends have been completed (see Scoring, below). It is not uncommon at any level for a losing team to terminate the match before all ends are completed if it believes it no longer has a realistic chance of winning. Playoff games at national and world championships require eight ends to be completed before allowing a losing team to concede in this manner. Competitive games will usually end once the losing team is "run out of rocks"—that is, once it has fewer stones in play and/or available for play than the number of points needed to tie the game in the final end. In international competition, each side is given 73 minutes to complete all of their throws. Each team is also allowed two 60-second timeouts per ten-end game. If extra ends are required, each team is allowed ten minutes of playing time to complete their throws and one added 60-second timeout for each extra end. Throwing When throwing the rock, the player must release it before reaching the near hog line (players usually slide while releasing their shots) and it must completely cross the far hog line; otherwise, the rock is removed from play (hogged). An exception is made if the thrown stone fails to cross the far hog line after striking a resting stone in play (e.g., a stone just past the hog line). In that case, the thrown stone will legally remain in play. The rule concerning releasing the rock before the hog line is rarely enforced in club play, unless abuse of the rule occurs. In major tournaments, the "eye on the hog" sensor in the rock will indicate whether the rock has been legally thrown or not. If the lights on the rock turn red, the rock will be immediately pulled from play instead of waiting for the rock to come to rest. While the first three players throw their rocks, the skip remains at the far end of the ice to guide the players. While the skip is throwing, the third takes this role. Thus, each time a rock is thrown, there is one player throwing the rock and another player at the far end. The other two players may choose to sweep in front of the rock (see Sweeping, below). Delivering the rock The process of throwing a rock is known as the delivery. While not compulsory, most curlers deliver the rock from sliding out from the hack. When sliding out, one shoe (the one with the nonslippery sole) is positioned against one of the hacks (a position referred to as being in the hacks). For a right-handed curler, this means starting from the left hack, and vice versa for a left-handed curler. When delivering the rock, it is important to remember that the momentum behind how much weight is applied to the rock depends on how much leg drive the delivery has. It is usually not wise to push the rock with the arm unless absolutely necessary. When in the hack, one must crouch down with the body lined up and shoulders square with the skip's broom at the other end. While in the hack, one may hold a broom out for balance. Different curlers hold their broom out in many different fashions. The broom is held in the hand opposite from the rock and should be positioned so that the nonsweeping side of the broom is against the ice. This prevents drag caused by the soft head of the broom dragging against the ice. Before any delivery, it is important to ensure that the running surface of the rock is clean and that the area around you is clean as well. This is achieved by wiping the running surface of the rock with either your hand or with the broom and then cleaning the area around you with the broom. The reason for this is that any dirt in the area or on the bottom of a rock could alter the trajectory of it and ruin the shot. When this happens, it is called a "pick." After cleaning the rock, the next step is to know what rotation, or turn, to put on the rock. The skip will usually tell the thrower this information. The thrower will then place the handle of the rock generally at either a "two o'clock" or a "ten o'clock" position. When delivering the rock, the thrower will turn the rock from one of these two positions toward the "twelve o'clock" position before releasing it. A rock turned from ten o'clock to twelve will spin clockwise and curl to the right, and a rock turned from two o'clock to twelve will have the opposite effect. A generally desired rate of turn is about two and a half rotations before coming to a rest. Once the thrower knows the turn to give the rock, the thrower will place the rock in front of his or her toe in the hack. At this point, the thrower will then start his or her delivery. This begins by slightly rising from the hack and moving the rock back to one's toe. This is the beginning of a pendulum movement that will determine the force given to the rock. Some older curlers will actually raise the rock in this backward movement, as this is what they are accustomed to. The forward thrust of the delivery comes next. The thrower moves his or her slider foot in front of the other foot while keeping the rock ahead of him. The thrower then lunges out from the hack. The more thrust from this lunge, the more power or "weight" the rock will have. When lunging out, the gripper foot will drag behind the thrower. When lunging out, it is important to push as precisely as possible in the direction of the skip's broom at the other end, so that the "line" of the rock is accurate. The rock should be released before the thrower's momentum wanes, at which point the thrower imparts the appropriate curl, keeping in mind the stone should be released before the first hog line. The amount of weight given to the rock will also be told to the thrower by the skip at the other end. This usually occurs by the skip's tapping the ice with his broom where he or she wants the rock to be delivered. In the case of a take-out or a tap, the skip will tap the rock that he or she wants removed or tapped. Generally, the skip will not hold the broom in the same place he expects the rock to stop or hit; instead, the skip estimates how much the rock will curl as it travels down the ice and holds the broom where he believes the thrower will have to aim in order to hit the target. Special needs in curling Curling has been adapted for wheelchair users and people otherwise unable to throw the rock from the hack. These curlers may use a special device known as a "curler's cue" or "delivery stick." The cue holds on to the handle of the stone and is then pushed along by the curler. At the end of delivery, the curler pulls back on the cue, which releases it from the stone. Sweeping When a rock is delivered, it is important that there be two players following the rock so that they are ready to sweep its path if needed. Sweeping is done for two reasons: to make the rock travel farther, and to make the rock travel straighter (curl less). When sweeping, pressure and speed of the brush head are key in slightly melting the pebbled ice in the path of the rock. Canadian Curling Association One of the interesting strategy aspects of curling is knowing when to sweep. When swept, a rock will usually travel both farther and straighter. In some situations, one of the two is often not desirable (for example, a rock may have too much weight, but needs sweeping to prevent curling into a guard), and the team must decide which is better: getting by the guard but traveling too far, or hitting the guard. Much of the yelling that goes on during a curling game is the skip calling the line of the shot. The skip evaluates the path of the rock and calls to the sweepers to sweep as necessary to hold the rock straight. The sweepers themselves are responsible for judging the weight of the rock and ensuring the length of travel is correct. Simultaneously, the sweepers must communicate the weight (speed) of the rock back to the skip. Some teams use stopwatch timing, from back line to the nearest hog line as a sweeping aid. Many teams use the "Number System," where the playable area is divided into ten zones, each assigned a number, and these numbers are used to communicate where the sweepers estimate the rock will stop. Usually, the two sweepers will be on opposite sides of the rock's path, although depending on which side people's strengths are, this may not always be the case. Speed and pressure are vital to sweeping. In gripping the broom, one hand should be one third of the way from the top (nonbrush end) of the handle while the other hand should be one third of the way from the head of the broom. The angle of the broom to the ice should be so that the most force possible can be exerted on the ice. The precise amount of pressure may vary from relatively light brushing "just cleaning" (to ensure debris is not in the way) to maximum-pressure scrubbing. Sweeping can be done anywhere on the ice up to the "tee line," as long as it is only for your own team's rock. Once your team's rock crosses the tee line, only one player may sweep it. Additionally, when an opposing rock crosses the tee line, one player from your team is allowed to sweep it. This is the only case that a rock may be swept by an opposing team member. In international rules, this player must be the skip; or if the skip is throwing, then the third. Possibly the most notable current front end (the lead and second of a team) sweeping duo are Scott Pfeifer and Marcel Rocque, nicknamed "Huff and Puff," of Team Ferbey. Many men's teams at the championship level in Canada frequently have a front end who are significantly younger and often in greater physical condition than the skip, acknowledging the physically demanding nature of sweeping and the changes in ice-making and equipment that have made effective and powerful sweeping of greater importance to the game. Touched stones Occasionally, players may accidentally touch a stone with their broom or a part of their body. This is often referred to as "burning" a stone. When a player touches a stone, s/he is expected to call themselves on it (see Good sportsmanship). The result of a touched stone varies based on which team touched the stone; whether the stone was being delivered, stationary, or set in motion by another stone; and whether touching the stone impacted the positions of other stones. Rules also vary across different governing bodies. Per Canadian Curling Association (CCA) rules, Rules of Curling for General Play if a moving stone is touched by the team to which it belongs, all rocks must come to a rest before the offending team may declare that the violation occurred. At this time, the nonoffending skip may decide whether to leave all stones where they stopped, or remove the touched stone from play and place any other stones in their original positions. If the incident occurs after the stone has crossed the far hog line, he or she may also opt to move the rock and any stones it would have affected to where he or she thinks they would have ended up had the rock not been burned. Under these rules, it is also a violation for the delivering player to touch the stone once he has released the handle, even if the stone has not yet crossed the near hog line. In World Curling Federation (WCF) rules, The Rules of Curling and Rules of Competition if a moving stone is touched by a member of the team to which it belongs before it reaches the far hog line, the offending team should declare the violation immediately, and the stone is removed from play. If the infraction occurs after the stone has crossed the far hog line, the skip of the opposing team may leave the stones where they stop, remove the touched stone from play and reset any stones that were moved, or place the touched stone and any stones it would have affected where he thinks they would have stopped. Under CCA rules, if a delivered stone is touched by a member of the opposing team, the nonoffending skip may leave the stones where they end up, place them where he believes they would have ended up had the infraction not occurred, or place all stones in their prior positions and have the touched stone delivered again. In WCF play, if such a violation occurs prior to the delivered stone crossing the far hog line, the touched stone may only be redelivered. If the violation occurs after the delivered stone crosses the far hog line, the skip of the nonoffending team may only place the stones where he believes they would have stopped had the infraction not occurred. In the CCA, if any other stone set in motion is touched by the opposing team, the skip of the nonoffending team may choose to leave the stones where they stop or place them where he believes they would have stopped had the infraction not occurred. In the WCF, the skip of the nonoffending team may only place the stones where he believes they would have stopped had the infraction not occurred. Under both CCA and WCF rules, if a stationary stone is touched in a way that would have impacted the result of a moving stone, the skip of the nonoffending team may choose to leave the touched stone and any impacted stones where they end up, put the impacted stones in their original position and remove the stone whose course would have been altered from play (not necessarily the touched stone), or place all impacted stones where he believes they would have stopped had the infraction not occurred. If a touched stationary stone would not have impacted the result of a moving stone, the touched stone is simply returned to where it was before being touched. Types of shots Essentially, there are three kinds of shots in curling, the guard, the draw and the takeout; there are many variations of these shots, however. Guards are shots thrown in front of the house, usually to guard shot-rock (rock closest to the button at a certain time) or to make the opposing team's shot difficult. Draws are shots in which the stone is thrown only to reach the house, while takeouts are shots designed to remove stones from play. Choosing which shot to play will determine whether the thrower will use an in-turn or out-turn—for a right-handed person, the clockwise and counter-clockwise rotation of the stone, respectively. Possible guard shots include centre-guard and corner-guards (left and right sides of the centre line). Draw shots include raise (and angle-raise), come-around, and freeze, and takeout shots include peel, hit-and-roll and double. For a more complete listing, look at the complete list Glossary of curling terms. Free guard zone Until four rocks have been played (two from each side), rocks in the free guard zone (those rocks left in the area between the hog and tee lines, excluding the house) may not be removed by an opponent's stone. These are known as guard rocks. If the guard rocks are removed, they are replaced to where they were before the shot was thrown, and the opponent's rock is removed from play and cannot be replayed. This rule is known as the four-rock rule or the free guard zone rule (for a while in Canada, a "three-rock rule" was in place, but that rule has been replaced by the four-rock rule). The three-rock rule, known as the Modified Moncton Rule, was developed from a suggestion made by Russ Howard for a cashspiel (with the richest prize ever awarded at the time in a tournament) in Moncton, New Brunswick, in 1991. "Howard's Rule" (also known as the Moncton Rule), used for the tournament and based on a practice drill his team used, had the first four rocks in play unable to be removed no matter where they were at any time during the end. The Modified Moncton Rule was quickly adopted in Canada, while the four-rock Free Guard Zone was adopted by other countries and for international competition. After several years of having the Modified Moncton Rule used for the Canadian championships and the winners then having to adjust to the four-rock rule in the World Championships, the Canadian Curling Association adopted the now-standard Free Guard Zone. This rule, a relatively recent addition to curling, was added in response to a strategy of "peeling" opponents' guard stones (knocking them out of play at an angle that caused the shooter's stone to also roll out of play, leaving no stones on the ice). A team in the lead would often employ this strategy during the game. By knocking all stones out, the opponents could at best score one point (if they had the hammer). Alternatively, the team with the hammer could peel rock after rock, which would blank the end, keeping the last rock advantage for another end. This strategy had developed (mostly in Canada) as ice-makers had become skilled at creating a predictable ice surface and the adoption of brushes allowed greater control over the rock. While a sound strategy, this made for an unexciting game. The 1990 Brier was considered by many curling fans as boring to watch because of the near-constant peeling, and the quick adoption of the Free Guard Zone the following year reflected how disliked this aspect of the game had become. One strategy that has been developed by curlers in response to the free guard zone (Kevin Martin from Alberta is one of the best examples) is the "tick" game, where a shot is made attempting to knock (tick) the guard to the side, far enough that it is difficult or impossible to use but still remaining in play while the shot itself goes out of play. The effect is functionally identically to peeling the guard but significantly harder, as a shot that hits the guard too hard (knocking it out of play) results in its being replaced, while not hitting it hard enough can result in its still being tactically useful for the opposition. There's also a greater chance of the shot missing the guard entirely due to the greater accuracy required to make the shot. Due to the difficulty of making this type of shot, only the best teams will normally attempt it, and it does not dominate the game the way the peel formerly did. Last rock (the "Hammer") Last rock advantage in an end is called the hammer. Before the game, teams typically decide who gets the hammer in the first end either by chance (such as a coin toss) or by a "draw-to-the-button" contest, where a representitive of each team shoots a single rock to see who gets closer to the center of the rings. In all subsequent ends, the hammer belongs to the team that did not score in the preceding end. In the event that neither team scores, the hammer remains with the same team. Naturally, it is easier to score points with the hammer than without; in tournament play, the team with the hammer generally tries to score two or more points. If only one point is possible, the skip will often try to avoid scoring at all in order to retain the hammer until the next end, when two or more points may be possible. This is called a blank end. Scoring without the hammer is commonly referred to as stealing, or a steal, and is much more difficult. Scoring After both teams have delivered eight rocks, the team with the rock closest to the button is awarded one point for each of its own rocks that is closer than the opponent's closest rock. Rocks that are not in the house (further from the center than the outer edge of the ring) do not score even if no opponent's rock is closer. A rock is considered in the house if any portion of its edge is over any portion of the ring. Since the bottom of the rock is rounded, a rock just barely in the house will not have any actual contact with the ring, which will pass under the rounded edge of the stone, but it still counts. This type of rock is known as a "biter." A typical curling scoreboard used at clubs, which use a method of scoring different from the ones used on television The score is marked on a scoreboard, of which there are two types. One is the baseball-type scoreboard, which is usually used for televised games. On this scoreboard, the ends are marked by columns 1 through 10 (or 11 for the possibility of an extra end to break ties) plus an additional column for the total. Below this are two rows, one for each team. The number of points each team gets in an end is marked this way. The other form of scoreboard is the one used in most curling clubs (see photo). It is set up in the same way, except the numbered row indicates a team's progress in scoring points rather than marking ends, and it can be found between the rows for the teams. The numbers placed are indicative of the end. If the red team scores three points in the first end (called a three-ender), then a 1 (indicating the first end) is placed beside the number 3 in the red row. If they score two more in the second end, then a 2 will be placed beside the 5 in the red row, indicating that the red team has five points in total (3+2). This scoreboard works because only one team can get points in an end. However, some confusion can exist if no team gets points in an end. This is called a blank end, and the end number usually goes in the farthest column on the right in the row of the team that has the hammer (last rock advantage), or on a special spot for blank ends. The following example illustrates the difference between the baseball-style scoreboard used for televised curling matches and the style used at most curling clubs. The example illustrates the men's final at the 2006 Winter Olympics. "Baseball" scoreboard Team 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total 0 2 1 1 0 6 0 0 x x 10 2 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 x x 4 "Curling club" scoreboard 2 3 4 6 Points 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Blank ends 1 5 8 7 Eight points (all the rocks thrown by one team counting) is the highest possible score possible in an end, and is known as an "eight-ender" or "snowman." Scoring an eight-ender against a relatively competent team is very difficult; in curling, it is considered the equivalent of pitching a perfect game in baseball. Probably the most well known snowman came at the 2006 Players' Championships. Future (2007) World Champion Kelly Scott scored eight points in one of her games against 1998 World bronze medalist Cathy King.Shooting Percentages: (All Shots, All Turns), CurlingZone. Conceding a game When a team feels it is impossible or near impossible to win a game, they will usually shake hands with the opposing team to concede defeat. This may occur at any point during the game, but usually happens near the final end. When a game is completed by playing all ends, both teams also shake hands. Hands are also shaken before the game, accompanied by saying "Good curling!" to the opposing team. In the Winter Olympics, a team may concede after finishing any end during a round-robin game, but can only concede after finishing eight ends during the knockout stages. Unlike other sports, there is no negative connotation associated with conceding in curling. In fact, in many competitions, a team is required to concede when it is mathematically impossible for them to tie a game. In more social situations, it is often considered a breach of etiquette (or at least looked down upon) to keep playing when the game is well out of reach. Dispute resolution Most decisions about rules are left to the skips, although in official tournaments, decisions may be left to the officials. However, all scoring disputes are handled by the third, or vice skip. No players other than the third from each team should be in the house while score is being determined. In tournament play, the most frequent circumstance in which a decision has to be made by someone other than the third is the failure of the thirds to agree on which rock is closest to the button. An independent official (supervisor at Canadian and World championships) then measures the distances using a specially designed device that pivots at the center of the button. When no independent officials are available, the thirds measure the distances. Strategy Diagram of the play area in curling, showing the four-foot zone, corner guard, and centre line guard Strategy in an end of curling depends on the circumstances. It depends on the team's skill, the opponent's skill, the conditions of the ice, the score of the game, how many ends remain, and whether the team has last rock advantage. A team may play an end aggressively; that is, to have a lot of rocks in play by throwing mostly draws. This makes for an exciting game, but is very risky. However, the reward can be very great. A team may also wish to play an end defensively. This means throwing a lot of hits preventing a lot of rocks in play. This is generally considered to be less exciting, and is less risky. A good drawing team will usually opt to play aggressively, while a good hitting team will opt to play defensively. If a team does not have the hammer in an end, they will opt to try and clog up the four-foot (the four-foot wide area surrounding the centre line) so as to prevent the opposing team from accessing the button. This can be done by throwing "centre line" guards (rocks in front of the house touching the centre line). These can be tapped into the house later or drawn around. If a team has hammer, they want to keep this four-foot zone free of rocks so that they have access to the button area at all times. A team with hammer may throw up a "corner guard" as their first rock of an end to utilize the free guard zone. A corner guard is a rock in front of the house that is not in the four-foot zone. Corner guards are key for a team to score two points in an end, because they can either draw around it later or hit and roll behind it, making the opposing team's shot to remove it more difficult. Ideally, the strategy in an end for a team with hammer is to score two points or more. Scoring one point is often a wasted opportunity, as they will then lose last-rock advantage for the next end. If a team can't score two points, they will often attempt to "blank an end" by removing any leftover opposition rocks and rolling out; or, if there are no opposition rocks, just throwing the rock through the house so that no team scores any points, and the team with the hammer can try again the next end to score two or more with it. Generally, a team without hammer would want to either force the team with hammer to only one point (so that they can get hammer back) or "steal" the end by scoring one or more points of their own. Generally, the larger the lead a team will have in a game, the more defensively they should play. By hitting all of your opponent's stones, it removes opportunities for their getting multiple points, therefore defending your lead. If your lead is quite comfortable, leaving your own rocks in play can also be dangerous. Guards can be drawn around by the other team, and rocks in the house can be tapped back (if they are in front of the tee line) or frozen onto (if they are behind the tee line). A frozen rock is difficult to remove, because it is "frozen" (in front of and touching) to the opponents rock. At this point, a team will opt for "peels," meaning that the rocks they throw will be to not only hit their opposition stones, but to roll out of play as well. Peels are hits that are thrown with the most amount of power. Curling culture Top curling championships are typically played by all-male or all-female teams. The game is known as mixed curling when a team consists of two men and two women. The Canadian Mixed Curling Championship is the highest-level mixed curling competition, in the absence of world championship or Olympic mixed curling events. Curling is played in many countries including the United States, United Kingdom (especially Scotland), Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, Denmark, Finland and Japan, all of which compete in the world championships. Curling is particularly popular in Canada. Improvements in ice making and changes in the rules to increase scoring and promote complex strategy have increased the already high popularity of the sport in Canada, and large television audiences watch annual curling telecasts, especially the Scotties Tournament of Hearts (the national championship for women), the Tim Hortons Brier (the national championship for men), and the women's and men's world championships. Despite the Canadian province of Manitoba's small population, teams from that province have won the Brier more times than teams from any other province. The Tournament of Hearts and the Brier are contested by provincial and territorial champions, and the world championships by national champions. Curling is the provincial sport of Saskatchewan, home of some of the most famous curlers. Ernie Richardson and his family team dominated Canadian and international curling during the late 1950s and early 1960s and are generally conceded to be the best male curlers of all time. CBC Television, Kings of the World: The Curling Richardsons (March 13, 2004). Sandra Schmirler led her team to the first ever gold medal in women's curling in the 1998 Winter Olympics. When she died two years later from cancer, over 15,000 people attended her funeral, and it was broadcast on national television. An amateur sport While Canadian bonspiels (tournaments) offer cash prizes, there are no full-time professional curlers. However, some curlers make a considerable portion of their income from curling. Some stay-at-home mothers or house-wives can claim curling as their profession. Still, curling survives as a people's sport, returning to the Winter Olympics in 1998 with men's and women's tournaments after not having been on the official Olympic program since 1924 (that year's curling competition, for men only, was confirmed as official by the IOC in 2006). Because accuracy, strategy, skill, and experience are more valuable in curling than traditional sports virtues of speed, stamina, and strength, most competitive curlers are older than their counterparts in other sports. However, there are many young teams who turn heads, and junior curling is quite popular, with national finals being televised nationwide in Canada. Good sportsmanship More so than in many team sports, good sportsmanship is an integral part of curling. For example, celebrating an error by the opposing team, fully acceptable in some sports, is frowned upon in curling. Even at the highest levels of play, players are expected to "call their own fouls," so to speak, such as alerting the opposing skip if they burned a stone. It is also traditional for the winning team to buy the losing team a drink after the game. (This is an interesting contrast to the game of darts, where the loser traditionally buys the winner a drink by way of congratulations .) This is often referred to as the Spirit of Curling. As noted above in the game play section, it is not uncommon for a team to concede a curling match after it believes it no longer has a reasonable chance of winning but before all ends are completed. Concession is an honourable act and does not carry the stigma associated with quitting, and allows for more socializing. To concede a match, the losing team removes their curling gloves (if they wear them) and offer congratulatory handshakes to the winning team. Thanks and wishes of future good luck are usually exchanged between the teams. Additional information The means of preparation one must take to be competitive in the sport of curling go beyond physical fitness and above-average agility. The competitor must not only be able to have an extensive understanding of classical mechanics with an emphasis on friction, but must be able to apply this knowledge to the playing field. This is a commonly overlooked fact. Curling is an excellent example of the adage "easy to learn, but difficult to master". By the numbers The participants and commentators of curling use various measures to relate information about the behaviour of ice and the individual rocks thrown. The ice in the game may be fast or slow. If the ice is fast, a rock will travel farther with a given amount of weight on it. The speed of the ice is measured in seconds. One such measure known as "hog-to-tee" is the amount of time that a rock will take from the moment that it crosses the hog line at the throwing end to come to rest at the tee line at the playing end. If the ice is slow, the rock will have to have more weight in order to reach the tee line and would reach the tee line more quickly. Thus, the speed of the ice (in seconds) is lower if the ice is slow than if the ice is fast, in which case the rock would have to be thrown more slowly and would take longer to get there. The time is longer because the stone takes longer to slow down the keener the ice. Another measure of rock speed is known as "hog-to-hog" and can also be measured in seconds. This time is the time the rock takes from the moment it crosses the near hog line till it crosses the far hog line. If this number is lower, the rock is moving faster, so again low numbers mean more speed. The ice in a match will be somewhat consistent and thus this measure of speed can also be used to measure how far down the ice the rock will travel. Once it is determined that a rock taking (for example) 9 seconds to go from hog line to hog line will stop on the tee line, the curler can know that if the hog-to-hog time is matched by a future stone, that stone will likely stop at approximately the same location. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 16 seconds for guards, 14 seconds for draws, and 9 seconds for peel weight. A third measurement system is from back line to hog line at the throwing end. This is used principally by sweepers to get an initial sense of the weight of a stone. As an example, on keen ice, common times might be 4.0 seconds for guards, 3.8 seconds for draws, 3.2 for normal hit weight, and 2.9 seconds for peel weight. Terminology See also Glossary of curling terms Bonspiel List of curlers European Curling Championships Canadian Curling Association United States Curling Association World Curling Federation International Rutabaga Curling Championship Grand Slam Curling at the 2006 Winter Olympics Curling at the 2010 Winter Olympics Curse of LaBonte College / University Curling World Curling Tour Champions and major championships World Women's Championship trophy List of World Curling Women's Champions List of World Curling Men's Champions Curling at the Winter Olympics World Curling Championship World Junior Curling Championships World Senior Curling Championships Continental Cup of Curling European Curling Championships European Mixed Curling Championships Pacific Curling Championships Scotties Tournament of Hearts Tim Hortons Brier Canadian Junior Curling Championships Canadian Mixed Curling Championship Canadian Senior Curling Championships Canada Cup United States Curling Men's Championships United States Curling Women's Championships United States Junior Men's Championships United States Junior Women's Championships United States Olympic Trials Stevens Point Master's Open Championship Notable curling clubs Bemidji Curling Club – Bemidji, Minnesota, Home of the 2006 United States Men's & Women's Olympic Curling Teams Broomstones Curling Club – Wayland, Massachusetts Cape Cod Curling Club - Falmouth, Massachusetts Chicago Curling Club — Chicago, Illinois Columbus Curling Club – Columbus, Ohio — One of the United States' newest clubs Curling Club Utrecht — Utrecht, Netherlands Dakota Curling Club – Burnsville, Minnesota – a leading example of the development of new curling clubs on arena ice in the USA Detroit Curling Club – Ferndale, Michigan Duluth Curling Club- Duluth, Minnesota – Largest curling facility in the United States Grand National Curling Club – Organization in the United States covering clubs on the east coast Granite Curling Club – Winnipeg, Manitoba Granite Curling Club- Seattle, Washington, the only dedicated curling facility on the west coast of the United States Greenacres Curling Club, Scotland – Home of the Salt Lake City Olympics gold medal winning Ladies team of 2002. Hollywood Curling Club, Los Angeles, CA, Home of one of the newest curling clubs in the United States; website Fenton's Rink, the first curling rink in England South of England Curling Club, (SECC)Active club in South England Ice Melters Curling Club — England KW Granite Curling Club - Waterloo, Ontario Markinch Curling Club – Fife, Scotland Mayflower Curling Club — Halifax, Nova Scotia Milwaukee Curling Club – Mequon, Wisconsin — The oldest curling club in the U.S. – Since 1845 Nutmeg Curling Club — Bridgeport, Connecticut Ottawa Curling Club — Ottawa, Ontario Pittsburgh Curling Club — Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania — Established in 2002 Plainfield Curling Club — South Plainfield, New Jersey Rideau Curling Club — Ottawa, Ontario Royal Caledonian Curling Club — Scotland, the official Mother Club of curling Royal Montreal Curling Club — Montreal, Quebec, the oldest active athletic club in North America Royal City Curling Club — New Westminster, British Columbia Saint Paul Curling Club — St. Paul, Minnesota – Founded in 1885. Club with largest active membership in the United States (over 1000 members). Schenectady Curling Club – Schenectady, New York – Established 1907 – Home to the Gordon Medal Utica Curling Club — Utica, New York Waltham Curling Club — Triumph, Illinois : The Oldest Curling Club in Illinois (Est. 1884) Windsor Curling Club — Windsor, Nova Scotia Roseland Golf and Curling Club - Windsor, Ontario Wauwatosa Curling Club – Wauwatosa, Wisconsin – Home of 2005 U.S. Women's Olympic Curling Team coach. Kilsyth – the first constituted curling club in the world References External links CurlingNet.com - Worldwide Curling Social Network World Curling Federation Canadian Curling Association Flash animation of basic curling shots From the NTC: Articles on curling from the Canadian Curling Association's National Training Centre Strategy guide on the Four-Rock Free Guard Zone European Curling Federation Curling Scoops – News and udpates on the top teams and events InTheHack – Curling news and information from around the world. United States Curling Association CurlTV.com The Curling Zone Curling on TSN Curling on CBC Curling Almanac CurlingRink.ca Curling Basics CBC Digital Archives – Curling: Sweeping the Nation 1921 Canadian Curlers to Scotland Bonspiel! The History of Curling in Canada at Library and Archives Canada] Compete-At Curling Clubs and Events Listing, Register for Curling Events John Murphy's Curling Page, Links and information about Curling Articles about curling Curling Ain't Easy From the Chicago Sports Review 1924 Olympic Curling Medals Count: CBC News Feb 8, 2006 The Walrus Magazine – Never on the Rocks: An American oenophile’s guide to curling in Canada curling stones, Smithsonian cenger for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. | Curling |@lemmatized curling:69 team:110 sport:19 similarity:1 bowl:2 shuffleboard:1 play:57 two:33 four:17 player:28 rectangular:1 sheet:10 carefully:2 prepared:3 ice:62 take:10 turn:16 slide:6 heavy:2 polished:1 granite:12 stone:119 towards:1 target:4 call:18 house:22 sweeper:7 broom:32 accompany:2 rock:153 use:40 timing:2 equipment:8 best:7 judgment:1 along:3 direction:3 teammate:1 help:1 direct:1 resting:1 place:20 complex:2 nature:2 placement:1 shot:27 selection:1 lead:7 refer:9 curl:183 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7,236 | Geographical_mile | The geographical mile is a unit of length determined by 1 minute of arc along the Earth's equator. For the 1924 International Spheriod this equalled 1855.4 metres. Any greater precision depends more on choice of standard than on more careful measurement: the length of the equator in the World Geodetic System WGS-84 is 40,075,016.6856 m which makes the geographical mile 1855.3248 m, while the International Astronomical Union standard IAU-2000 takes the equator to be 40,075,035.5351 m making the geographical mile 1855.3257 m, almost a millimetre longer. The unit is not used much; it is closely related to the nautical mile, which was originally determined as 1 minute of arc along a great circle of the Earth but is nowadays defined as exactly 1852 metres. The Danish and German geographical mile (geografisk mil and geographische Meile or geographische Landmeile, respectively) is 4 minutes of arc, and was defined as approximately 7421.5 metres by the astronomer Ole Rømer of Denmark. In Norway and Sweden, this 4 minute geographical mile was mainly used at sea (sjømil), up to the beginning of the 20th century. References See also conversion of units Medieval weights and measures for details of the geographical league of France mile for the various other miles in use nautical mile | Geographical_mile |@lemmatized geographical:6 mile:9 unit:3 length:2 determine:2 minute:4 arc:3 along:2 earth:2 equator:3 international:2 spheriod:1 equalled:1 metre:3 great:2 precision:1 depend:1 choice:1 standard:2 careful:1 measurement:1 world:1 geodetic:1 system:1 wgs:1 make:2 astronomical:1 union:1 iau:1 take:1 almost:1 millimetre:1 longer:1 use:3 much:1 closely:1 relate:1 nautical:2 originally:1 circle:1 nowadays:1 define:2 exactly:1 danish:1 german:1 geografisk:1 mil:1 geographische:2 meile:1 landmeile:1 respectively:1 approximately:1 astronomer:1 ole:1 rømer:1 denmark:1 norway:1 sweden:1 mainly:1 sea:1 sjømil:1 beginning:1 century:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 conversion:1 medieval:1 weight:1 measure:1 detail:1 league:1 france:1 various:1 |@bigram closely_relate:1 nautical_mile:2 ole_rømer:1 |
7,237 | Otaku_no_Video | is a 1991 comedy anime spoofing the life and culture of otaku, individuals with obsessive interests in media, particularly anime and manga, as well as the history of Gainax, its creators. It is noted for its mix of conventional documentary film styles (with actual film, no less), with a more traditional anime storytelling fashion. It is licensed in the United States by AnimEigo. Plot summary The main character is an average Japanese male, Ken Kubo, living quite happily with his girlfriend Yoshiko and being a member of his college's tennis team, until he meets one of his former friends from high school, Tanaka. After Tanaka brings him into his circle of friends (all of them being otaku, too: a female illustrator, an information geek, a martial artist, a weapons collector...), Kubo soon makes the wish to become the Otaking, the King of all the otaku. He manages to create his own model kits, open shops, and even build a factory in China. Later, he loses it all when one of his rivals (who's also married to Yoshiko, who never forgave Kubo for abandoning her) takes control of his enterprise, but after Kubo and Tanaka make peace, teaming up with hard-working artist Misuzu, Kubo successfully take over the anime industry with a magical girl show, "Misty May". Ken and Tanaka create Otakuland the equivalent of Disneyland for otaku. The story suggests Otakuland to be located in the same city of Urayasu, Chiba Prefecture, as the original Tokyo Disneyland. Ken and Tanaka return to Otakuland in a post-apocalyptic submerged Japan and find a robot piloted by their old otaku friends. Then they fly off to space in search of the planet of Otakus. A Portrait of an Otaku A particular humorous and controversial part of Otaku no Video was the inclusion of live-action documentary excerpts, titled "A Portrait of an Otaku". In these segments, the documentary crew would interview an anonymous otaku, typically ashamed at being a fan and whose face are censored with a mosaic and have their voices digitally masked. The mock documentary segments serve as a counterpoint to the anime: while the anime emphasizes the camaradrie, creativity, and dreams of mainstream acceptance of otaku, the mock interviews exaggerate its negative qualities. The subjects run the gamut of the otaku subculture: the interviews cover a cosplayer who now works as a computer programmer and outright denies his cosplay days, even when presented with photographic evidence, but keeps his Char Aznable helmet in his desk drawer, an airsoft otaku, a garage kit otaku, and a shut-in who videorecords television programs for trade, but has not actually watched anything he's recorded. The interviews also contain fans who engage in a range of illicit or unsavory activities, such as cel thieves, a pornography fan attempting to manufacture glasses to defeat the mosaic censorship common in Japanese porno videos and who is shown masturbating during the interview, and a computer gamer who is obsessed with a character in a hentai computer game (Noriko from Gunbuster who makes a cameo in Gainax's own hentai game: Cybernetic High School). It is believed that all the subjects in the Portrait of An Otaku segments were Gainax employees at the time of filming. The first otaku interviewed bore a remarkable resemblance to Toshio Okada, a principal founder in Gainax, in both background and physical appearance. The gaijin otaku, Shon Hernandez, has been confirmed to have been Craig York, who with Shon Howell and Lea Hernandez, whose names were borrowed for the character, were the main staff of General Products USA, an early western branch of Gainax's merchandising in the early 1990s. The interview with "Shon Hernandez" has been a point of contention with Lea Hernandez, who, in an interview with PULP magazine, noted that the interview was unscripted and that Craig York had been fairly sincere in his thoughts and had felt that Gainax insulted their American members. Lea Hernandez, "The Curse of Urusei Yatsura", interview by PULP magazine, vol. 5, no. 8 (August 2001), pp. 28–9. In the interview, the words spoken by Shon Hernandez in the background are noticeably different from what is shown on screen via subtitle (which is based on the Japanese voiceover "translation"). At FanimeCon 2003, Hiroshi Sato, an animator and another Gainax member, mentioned that he had been in one of the interviews in Otaku no Video. It is speculated that Sato was the garage kit otaku, who used a simple reversal of his name for the pseudonym "Sato Hiroshi" for the interview. Characters The main character. See also Genshiken Comic Party Cosplay Complex Notes External links Official site Discussion of the real people in the interviews in Otaku no Video by Lawrence Eng of the Cornell Japanese Animation Society. "Buried Treasure: In Praise of Nerdiness" | Otaku_no_Video |@lemmatized comedy:1 anime:6 spoof:1 life:1 culture:1 otaku:19 individual:1 obsessive:1 interest:1 medium:1 particularly:1 manga:1 well:1 history:1 gainax:7 creator:1 note:3 mix:1 conventional:1 documentary:4 film:3 style:1 actual:1 less:1 traditional:1 storytelling:1 fashion:1 license:1 united:1 state:1 animeigo:1 plot:1 summary:1 main:3 character:5 average:1 japanese:4 male:1 ken:3 kubo:5 live:2 quite:1 happily:1 girlfriend:1 yoshiko:2 member:3 college:1 tennis:1 team:2 meet:1 one:3 former:1 friend:3 high:2 school:2 tanaka:5 bring:1 circle:1 female:1 illustrator:1 information:1 geek:1 martial:1 artist:2 weapon:1 collector:1 soon:1 make:3 wish:1 become:1 otaking:1 king:1 manage:1 create:2 model:1 kit:3 open:1 shop:1 even:2 build:1 factory:1 china:1 later:1 lose:1 rival:1 also:3 marry:1 never:1 forgive:1 abandon:1 take:2 control:1 enterprise:1 peace:1 hard:1 work:2 misuzu:1 successfully:1 industry:1 magical:1 girl:1 show:3 misty:1 may:1 otakuland:3 equivalent:1 disneyland:2 story:1 suggest:1 locate:1 city:1 urayasu:1 chiba:1 prefecture:1 original:1 tokyo:1 return:1 post:1 apocalyptic:1 submerge:1 japan:1 find:1 robot:1 pilot:1 old:1 fly:1 space:1 search:1 planet:1 otakus:1 portrait:3 particular:1 humorous:1 controversial:1 part:1 video:4 inclusion:1 action:1 excerpt:1 title:1 segment:3 crew:1 would:1 interview:14 anonymous:1 typically:1 ashamed:1 fan:3 whose:2 face:1 censor:1 mosaic:2 voice:1 digitally:1 mask:1 mock:2 serve:1 counterpoint:1 emphasize:1 camaradrie:1 creativity:1 dream:1 mainstream:1 acceptance:1 exaggerate:1 negative:1 quality:1 subject:2 run:1 gamut:1 subculture:1 cover:1 cosplayer:1 computer:3 programmer:1 outright:1 denies:1 cosplay:2 day:1 present:1 photographic:1 evidence:1 keep:1 char:1 aznable:1 helmet:1 desk:1 drawer:1 airsoft:1 garage:2 shut:1 videorecords:1 television:1 program:1 trade:1 actually:1 watch:1 anything:1 record:1 contain:1 engage:1 range:1 illicit:1 unsavory:1 activity:1 cel:1 thief:1 pornography:1 attempt:1 manufacture:1 glass:1 defeat:1 censorship:1 common:1 porno:1 masturbate:1 gamer:1 obsess:1 hentai:2 game:2 noriko:1 gunbuster:1 cameo:1 cybernetic:1 believe:1 employee:1 time:1 first:1 bore:1 remarkable:1 resemblance:1 toshio:1 okada:1 principal:1 founder:1 background:2 physical:1 appearance:1 gaijin:1 shon:4 hernandez:6 confirm:1 craig:2 york:2 howell:1 lea:3 name:2 borrow:1 staff:1 general:1 product:1 usa:1 early:2 western:1 branch:1 merchandising:1 point:1 contention:1 pulp:2 magazine:2 unscripted:1 fairly:1 sincere:1 thought:1 felt:1 insult:1 american:1 curse:1 urusei:1 yatsura:1 vol:1 august:1 pp:1 word:1 speak:1 noticeably:1 different:1 screen:1 via:1 subtitle:1 base:1 voiceover:1 translation:1 fanimecon:1 hiroshi:2 sato:3 animator:1 another:1 mention:1 speculate:1 use:1 simple:1 reversal:1 pseudonym:1 see:1 genshiken:1 comic:1 party:1 complex:1 external:1 link:1 official:1 site:1 discussion:1 real:1 people:1 lawrence:1 eng:1 cornell:1 animation:1 society:1 buried:1 treasure:1 praise:1 nerdiness:1 |@bigram anime_manga:1 post_apocalyptic:1 char_aznable:1 desk_drawer:1 garage_kit:2 remarkable_resemblance:1 pulp_magazine:2 external_link:1 |
7,238 | James_Tiptree,_Jr._Award | The James Tiptree, Jr. Award is an annual literary prize for works of science fiction ("SF") or fantasy that expand or explore one's understanding of gender. It was initiated in February of 1991 by SF authors Pat Murphy and Karen Joy Fowler, subsequent to a discussion at WisCon (the world's leading feminist-oriented science fiction convention). Background The award is named for Alice B. Sheldon, who wrote under the pseudonym James Tiptree, Jr. By choosing a masculine nom de plume, having her stories accepted under that name and winning awards with them, Sheldon helped demonstrate that the division between male and female SF writing was illusory. Years after "Tiptree" first published SF, Sheldon wrote some work under the female pen name "Raccoona Sheldon"; later, the SF world discovered that "Tiptree" had been female all along. According to the Tiptree Award council, this discovery led to widespread discussion over which aspects of writing, if any, have an intrinsic gender. To remind audiences of the complicated role gender plays in both reading and writing, the award was named in Sheldon's honor. Fundraising efforts for the Tiptree have included publications (two cookbooks), feminist bake sales, and auctions. Anthologies Selections of the winners, various short listed fiction, and essays have appeared in four Tiptree-related collections, Flying Cups and Saucers (1999) and a series of annual anthologies published by Tachyon Publications of San Francisco. These include: Flying Cups and Saucers: Gender Explorations in Science Fiction and Fantasy edited by The Secret Feminist Cabal and Debbie Notkin (1999) The James Tiptree Award Anthology 1 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2005) The James Tiptree Award Anthology 2 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2006) The James Tiptree Award Anthology 3 edited by Karen Joy Fowler, Pat Murphy, Debbie Notkin, and Jeffrey D. Smith (2007) The James Tiptree Award Anthology 4 was originally announced for late 2007 or early 2008. Winners Retrospective Award: Motherlines and Walk to the End of the World by Suzy McKee Charnas; The Left Hand of Darkness by Ursula K. Le Guin; The Female Man and "When It Changed" by Joanna Russ 1991: A Woman of the Iron People by Eleanor Arnason, and White Queen by Gwyneth Jones 1992: China Mountain Zhang by Maureen F. McHugh 1993: Ammonite by Nicola Griffith 1994: "The Matter of Seggri" by Ursula K. Le Guin and Larque on the Wing by Nancy Springer 1995: Waking The Moon by Elizabeth Hand and The Memoirs Of Elizabeth Frankenstein by Theodore Roszak 1996: "Mountain Ways" by Ursula K. Le Guin, and The Sparrow by Mary Doria Russell 1997: Black Wine by Candas Jane Dorsey and "Travels With The Snow Queen" by Kelly Link 1998: "Congenital Agenesis of Gender Ideation" by Raphael Carter 1999: The Conqueror's Child by Suzy McKee Charnas 2000: Wild Life by Molly Gloss 2001: The Kappa Child by Hiromi Goto 2002: Light by M. John Harrison and "Stories for Men" by John Kessel 2003: Set This House In Order: A Romance Of Souls by Matt Ruff 2004: Camouflage by Joe Haldeman and Not Before Sundown by Johanna Sinisalo 2005: Air by Geoff Ryman 2006 The Orphan's Tales: In the Night Garden by Catherynne M. Valente and Half Life by Shelley Jackson; with special recognition for Julie Phillips biography of James Tiptree, Jr., James Tiptree, Jr.: The Double Life of Alice B. Sheldon 2007 The Carhullan Army by Sarah Hall 2008 The Knife of Never Letting Go by Patrick Ness and Filter House by Nisi Shawl See also Gender in science fiction Sex in science fiction Women in science fiction Women science fiction authors Further reading "On James Tiptree, Alice Sheldon and bake sales", by Karen Joy Fowler External links James Tiptree, Jr. Literary Award Council Site for Tachyon Publications | James_Tiptree,_Jr._Award |@lemmatized james:10 tiptree:15 jr:5 award:11 annual:2 literary:2 prize:1 work:2 science:7 fiction:8 sf:5 fantasy:2 expand:1 explore:1 one:1 understanding:1 gender:6 initiate:1 february:1 author:2 pat:4 murphy:4 karen:5 joy:5 fowler:5 subsequent:1 discussion:2 wiscon:1 world:3 lead:2 feminist:3 orient:1 convention:1 background:1 name:4 alice:3 b:2 sheldon:7 write:2 pseudonym:1 choose:1 masculine:1 nom:1 de:1 plume:1 story:2 accept:1 win:1 help:1 demonstrate:1 division:1 male:1 female:4 writing:3 illusory:1 year:1 first:1 publish:2 pen:1 raccoona:1 later:1 discover:1 along:1 accord:1 council:2 discovery:1 widespread:1 aspect:1 intrinsic:1 remind:1 audience:1 complicated:1 role:1 play:1 reading:1 honor:1 fundraise:1 effort:1 include:2 publication:3 two:1 cookbook:1 bake:2 sale:2 auction:1 anthology:6 selection:1 winner:2 various:1 short:1 list:1 essay:1 appear:1 four:1 related:1 collection:1 fly:2 cup:2 saucer:2 series:1 tachyon:2 san:1 francisco:1 exploration:1 edit:4 secret:1 cabal:1 debbie:4 notkin:4 jeffrey:3 smith:3 originally:1 announce:1 late:1 early:1 retrospective:1 motherlines:1 walk:1 end:1 suzy:2 mckee:2 charnas:2 left:1 hand:2 darkness:1 ursula:3 k:3 le:3 guin:3 man:1 change:1 joanna:1 rus:1 woman:3 iron:1 people:1 eleanor:1 arnason:1 white:1 queen:2 gwyneth:1 jones:1 china:1 mountain:2 zhang:1 maureen:1 f:1 mchugh:1 ammonite:1 nicola:1 griffith:1 matter:1 seggri:1 larque:1 wing:1 nancy:1 springer:1 wake:1 moon:1 elizabeth:2 memoir:1 frankenstein:1 theodore:1 roszak:1 way:1 sparrow:1 mary:1 doria:1 russell:1 black:1 wine:1 candas:1 jane:1 dorsey:1 travel:1 snow:1 kelly:1 link:2 congenital:1 agenesis:1 ideation:1 raphael:1 carter:1 conqueror:1 child:2 wild:1 life:3 molly:1 gloss:1 kappa:1 hiromi:1 goto:1 light:1 john:2 harrison:1 men:1 kessel:1 set:1 house:2 order:1 romance:1 soul:1 matt:1 ruff:1 camouflage:1 joe:1 haldeman:1 sundown:1 johanna:1 sinisalo:1 air:1 geoff:1 ryman:1 orphan:1 tale:1 night:1 garden:1 catherynne:1 valente:1 half:1 shelley:1 jackson:1 special:1 recognition:1 julie:1 phillips:1 biography:1 double:1 carhullan:1 army:1 sarah:1 hall:1 knife:1 never:1 let:1 go:1 patrick:1 ness:1 filter:1 nisi:1 shawl:1 see:1 also:1 sex:1 far:1 read:1 external:1 site:1 |@bigram james_tiptree:10 tiptree_jr:5 science_fiction:7 pat_murphy:4 karen_joy:5 joy_fowler:5 nom_de:1 male_female:1 raccoona_sheldon:1 san_francisco:1 debbie_notkin:4 fowler_pat:3 murphy_debbie:3 notkin_jeffrey:3 ursula_k:3 le_guin:3 joanna_rus:1 julie_phillips:1 external_link:1 |
7,239 | National_Transportation_Safety_Board | The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) is an independent U.S. Government investigative agency responsible for civil transportation accident investigation. In this role, the NTSB investigates and reports on aviation accidents and incidents, certain types of highway crashes, ship and marine accidents, pipeline incidents and railroad accidents. When requested, the NTSB will assist the military with accident investigation. The NTSB is also in charge of investigating cases of hazardous waste releases that occur during transportation. Mark Rosenker was appointed as Vice Chairman in 2003 and Acting Chairman in March 2005. He has held the position of the Chairman since August 2006. Robert Sumwalt is the vice chairman. The agency is based in Washington, D.C. History The NTSB was established as an independent organization in 1967 and took over the regulatory and investigative functions of the Civil Aeronautics Board, among other duties. Originally established with strong ties to the U.S. Department of Transportation, these ties were later severed under the Independent Safety Board Act of 1975. The organization receives its authority from Chapter 11, Title 49 of the United States Code. It has investigated over 124,000 aviation incidents since its establishment. Organization The board has five members appointed by the President for five year terms, one of whom is designated the chairman by the President and then approved by the Senate for a fixed 2-year term. Another member is designated as vice chairman and becomes acting chairman when there is no formal chairman. No more than three of the five members can be from the same political party. NTSB Statutes Organization within the Board is composed of separate sub-offices for highway safety, maritime safety, aviation safety, railroad, pipeline, and hazardous material investigations, research and engineering, recommendations and communications, academy and administrative law judges. These sub-offices report to the Office of the Managing Director. Investigations The NTSB is normally the lead organization in the investigation of a transportation accident within its sphere. However, this power can be surrendered to other organizations if the Attorney General declares the case to be linked to an intentional criminal act. This occurred during the investigation of the September 11, 2001, attacks when the Department of Justice took over the investigation. An investigation of an incident within the United States typically starts with the creation of a "go team", composed of specialists in fields relating to the incident. This is followed by the designation of other organizations or corporations as parties to the investigation. The Board may then choose to hold public hearings on the issue. Finally, it will compose a final statement and may issue safety recommendations. The Board has no legal authority to implement, or impose, its recommendations, upon the causative entities. That burden falls upon regulators of the varying modalities, at either the federal or state level. The NTSB may investigate incidents or accidents occurring outside the United States under certain circumstances. These may include: accidents or incidents occurring to American-registered or American-owned aircraft (other than an aircraft operated by the Armed Forces or by an intelligence agency of the United States) in foreign airspace if the aircraft both departed and was scheduled to land in the United States. This has happened on rare occasion with respect to flights to and within Alaska that have crashed in Canada. accidents or incidents occurring to American-registered or American-owned aircraft in countries without a transportation investigative board. The NTSB, if asked, will also provide technical and other advice for a fee to transportation investigative boards in countries that do not have the equipment or specialized technicians available to undertake all aspects of a complex investigation. See also Civil Aeronautics Board Federal Aviation Administration Air safety Aviation accidents and incidents School bus safety References External links NTSB website NTSB - The Investigative Process | National_Transportation_Safety_Board |@lemmatized national:1 transportation:7 safety:8 board:10 ntsb:11 independent:3 u:2 government:1 investigative:5 agency:3 responsible:1 civil:3 accident:10 investigation:10 role:1 investigates:1 report:2 aviation:5 incident:9 certain:2 type:1 highway:2 crash:2 ship:1 marine:1 pipeline:2 railroad:2 request:1 assist:1 military:1 also:3 charge:1 investigate:3 case:2 hazardous:2 waste:1 release:1 occur:5 mark:1 rosenker:1 appoint:2 vice:3 chairman:8 act:4 march:1 hold:2 position:1 since:2 august:1 robert:1 sumwalt:1 base:1 washington:1 c:1 history:1 establish:2 organization:7 take:2 regulatory:1 function:1 aeronautics:2 among:1 duty:1 originally:1 strong:1 tie:2 department:2 later:1 sever:1 receive:1 authority:2 chapter:1 title:1 united:5 state:6 code:1 establishment:1 five:3 member:3 president:2 year:2 term:2 one:1 designate:2 approve:1 senate:1 fixed:1 another:1 become:1 formal:1 three:1 political:1 party:2 statute:1 within:4 compose:3 separate:1 sub:2 office:3 maritime:1 material:1 research:1 engineering:1 recommendation:3 communication:1 academy:1 administrative:1 law:1 judge:1 manage:1 director:1 normally:1 lead:1 sphere:1 however:1 power:1 surrender:1 attorney:1 general:1 declare:1 link:2 intentional:1 criminal:1 september:1 attack:1 justice:1 typically:1 start:1 creation:1 go:1 team:1 specialist:1 field:1 relate:1 follow:1 designation:1 corporation:1 may:4 choose:1 public:1 hearing:1 issue:2 finally:1 final:1 statement:1 legal:1 implement:1 impose:1 upon:2 causative:1 entity:1 burden:1 fall:1 regulator:1 varying:1 modality:1 either:1 federal:2 level:1 outside:1 circumstance:1 include:1 american:4 register:2 aircraft:4 operate:1 armed:1 force:1 intelligence:1 foreign:1 airspace:1 depart:1 schedule:1 land:1 happen:1 rare:1 occasion:1 respect:1 flight:1 alaska:1 canada:1 country:2 without:1 ask:1 provide:1 technical:1 advice:1 fee:1 equipment:1 specialize:1 technician:1 available:1 undertake:1 aspect:1 complex:1 see:1 administration:1 air:1 school:1 bus:1 reference:1 external:1 website:1 process:1 |@bigram hazardous_waste:1 external_link:1 |
7,240 | Icon | Christ the Redeemer (1410s, by Andrei Rublev). 17th century Russian icon of Saint Mary of Egypt, with scenes from her life. An icon (from Greek , eikōn, "image") is a religious work of art, most commonly a painting, from Eastern Orthodox Christianity. More broadly the term is used in a wide number of contexts for an image, picture, or representation; it is a sign or likeness that stands for an object by signifying or representing it either concretely or by analogy, as in semiotics; by extension, icon is also used, particularly in modern culture, in the general sense of symbol — i.e. a name, face, picture, edifice or even a person readily recognized as having some well-known significance or embodying certain qualities: one thing, an image or depiction, that represents something else of greater significance through literal or figurative meaning, usually associated with religious, cultural, political, or economic standing. Throughout history, various religious cultures The Meaning of Icons, by Vladimir Lossky with Léonid Ouspensky, SVS Press, 1999. (ISBN 0-913836-99-0) have been inspired or supplemented by concrete images, whether in two dimensions or three. The degree to which images are used or permitted, and their functions — whether they are for instruction or inspiration, treated as sacred objects of veneration or worship, or simply applied as ornament — depend upon the tenets of a given religion in a given place and time. In Eastern Christianity and other icon-painting Christian traditions, the icon is generally a flat panel painting depicting a holy being or object such as Jesus, Mary, saints, angels, or the cross. Icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, done in mosaic or fresco work, printed on paper or metal, etc. Creating free-standing, three-dimensional sculptures of holy figures was resisted by Christians for many centuries, out of the belief that daimones inhabited pagan sculptures, and also to make a clear distinction between Christian and pagan art. To this day, in obedience to the commandment not to make "graven images", Orthodox icons may never be more than three-quarter bas relief. Icons in Christianity One of the few ceramic icons in existence, dated to ca. 900, from Preslav, Bulgaria. Christianity originated as a movement within Judaism as a religion that was not tolerant concerning the figurative religious art. There is, however, evidence of the use of painted icons or of similar religious images by Christians in the New Testament or early apocrypha. Dr. Steven Bingham writes, Rev. Dr. Steven Bingham, Early Christian Attitudes Toward Images, Orthodox Research Institute, 2004 "The first thing to note is that there is a total silence about Christian and non-idolatrous images. It is important to note that the silence is in the New Testament texts, and this silence should not be interpreted as describing all the activities of the Apostles or 1st century Christians. The Gospel of John states that 'Jesus did many other signs in the presence of the disciples, which are not written in this book...' (Jn 20.30). We could easily add that the Apostles also did and said many things not recorded in the New Testament. It is obvious, therefore, that we do not have a complete account of the activities and sayings of the Apostles. So, if we want to find out if the first Christians made or ordered any kind of figurative art, the New Testament is of no use whatsoever. The silence is a fact, but the reason given for the silence varies from exegete to exegete depending on his assumptions." In other words, relying only upon the New Testament as evidence of no painted icons amounts to an argument from silence. In addition, it should also be noted that Christian symbolic art and iconography had already developed extensively before the New Testament Canon was finalized in the fourth century. Though the word eikon is found in the New Testament (see below), it is never in the context of painted icons though it is used to mean portrait. There were, of course, Christian paintings and art in the early catacomb churches. Many can still be viewed today, such as those in the catacomb churches of Domitilla and San Callisto in Rome. In Eastern Orthodoxy and other icon-painting Christian traditions, the icon is generally a flat panel painting depicting a holy being or object such as Jesus, Mary, saints, angels, or the cross. Icons may also be cast in metal, carved in stone, embroidered on cloth, done in mosaic work, printed on paper or metal, etc. The earliest written records of Christian images treated like icons in a pagan or Gnostic context are offered by the fourth-century Christian Aelius Lampridius in the Life of Alexander Severus (xxix) that was part of the Augustan History. According to Lampridius, the emperor Alexander Severus (222–235), who was not a Christian, had kept a domestic chapel for the veneration of images of deified emperors, of portraits of his ancestors, and of Christ, Apollonius, Orpheus and Abraham. Irenaeus, (c. 130–202) in his Against Heresies (1:25;6) says scornfully of the Gnostic Carpocratians, "They also possess images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of material; while they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among them. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the same manner of the Gentiles [pagans]." St. Irenaeus on the other hand does not speak critical of icons or portraits in a general sense, only of certain gnostic sectarians use of icons. Another criticism of image veneration is found in the non-canonical second-century Acts of John (generally considered a gnostic work), in which the Apostle John discovers that one of his followers has had a portrait made of him, and is venerating it: (27) "...he [John] went into the bedchamber, and saw the portrait of an old man crowned with garlands, and lamps and altars set before it. And he called him and said: Lycomedes, what do you mean by this matter of the portrait? Can it be one of thy gods that is painted here? For I see that you are still living in heathen fashion." Later in the passage John says, "But this that you have now done is childish and imperfect: you have drawn a dead likeness of the dead." Image of the Saviour Not Made by Hand: a traditional Orthodox iconography in the interpretation of Simon Ushakov (1658). Aside from the legend that Pilate had made an image of Christ, the fourth-century Eusebius of Caesarea, in his Church History, provides a more substantial reference to a "first" icon of Jesus. He relates that King Abgar of Edessa sent a letter to Jesus at Jerusalem, asking Jesus to come and heal him of an illness. In this version there is no image. Then, in the later account found in the Syriac Doctrine of Addai, a painted image of Jesus is mentioned in the story; and even later, in the account given by Evagrius, the painted image is transformed into an image that miraculously appeared on a towel when Christ pressed the cloth to his wet face. Veronica and her Cloth, Kuryluk, Ewa, Basil Blackwell, Cambridge, 1991 Further legends relate that the cloth remained in Edessa until the tenth century, when it was taken to Constantinople. In 1204 it was lost when Constantinople was sacked by Crusaders, but its iconic type had been well fixed in numerous copies. Elsewhere in his Church History, Eusebius reports seeing what he took to be portraits of Jesus, Peter and Paul, and also mentions a bronze statue at Banias / Paneas, of which he wrote, "They say that this statue is an image of Jesus" (H.E. 7:18); further, he relates that locals thought the image to be a memorial of the healing of the woman with an issue of blood by Jesus (Luke 8:43-48), because it depicted a standing man wearing a double cloak and with arm outstretched, and a woman kneeling before him with arms reaching out as if in supplication. John Francis Wilson John Francis Wilson Caesarea Philippi: Banias, the Lost City of Pan I.B. Tauris, London, 2004. thinks it possible to have been a pagan bronze statue whose true identity had been forgotten; some have thought it to be Aesculapius, the God of healing, but the description of the standing figure and the woman kneeling in supplication is precisely that found on coins depicting the bearded emperor Hadrian reaching out to a female figure symbolizing a province kneeling before him. After Christianity was legalized by the emperor Constantine within the Roman Empire in 313, huge numbers of pagans became converts. This created the necessity for the transfer of allegiance and practice from the old gods and heroes to the new religion, and for the gradual adaptation of the old system of image making and veneration to a Christian context, in the process of Christianization. Robin Lane Fox states Fox, Pagans and Christians, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 1989). "By the early fifth century, we know of the ownership of private icons of saints; by c. 480-500, we can be sure that the inside of a saint's shrine would be adorned with images and votive portraits, a practice which had probably begun earlier". When Constantine converted to Christianity the majority of his subjects were still pagans and the Roman Imperial cult of the divinity of the emperor, expressed through the traditional burning of candles and the offering of incense to the emperor’s image, was tolerated for a period because it would have been politically dangerous to attempt to suppress it. Indeed, in the fifth century the portrait of the reigning emperor was still honoured this way in the courts of justice and municipal buildings of the empire and in 425 the Arian Philostorgius charged the orthodox in Constantinople with idolatry because they still honored the image of the emperor Constantine the Great, the founder of the city, in this way. Dix notes that this was more than a century before we find the first reference to a similar honouring of the image of Christ or his saints, but that it would seem a natural progression for the image of Christ, the King of heaven and earth, to be eventually paid the same cultic veneration as that given to the earthly Roman emperor. Dom Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy (New York: Seabury Press, 1945) 413-414. Images from Constantine to Justinian Christ and Saint Menas. A 6th-century Coptic icon from Egypt (Musée du Louvre). After adoption of Christianity as the only permissible Roman state religion under Theodosius I, Christian art began to change not only in quality and sophistication, but also in nature. This was in no small part due to Christians being free for the first time to express their faith openly without persecution from the state, in addition to the faith spreading to the non-poor segments of society. Paintings of martyrs and their feats began to appear, and early writers commented on their lifelike effect, one of the elements a few Christian writers criticized in pagan art — the ability to imitate life. The writers mostly criticized pagan works of art for pointing to false gods, thus encouraging idolatry. Statues in the round were avoided as being too close to the principal artistic focus of pagan cult practices, as they have continued to be (with some small-scale exceptions) throughout the history of Eastern Christianity. Nilus of Sinai, in his Letter to Heliodorus Silentiarius, records a miracle in which St. Plato of Ankyra appeared to a Christian in a dream. The Saint was recognized because the young man had often seen his portrait. This recognition of a religious apparition from likeness to an image was also a characteristic of pagan pious accounts of appearances of gods to humans, and was a regular topos in hagiography. One critical recipient of a vision from Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki apparently specified that the saint resembled the "more ancient" images of him - presumably the seventh century mosaics still in Hagios Demetrios. Another, an African bishop, had been rescued from Arab slavery by a young soldier called Demetrios, who told him to go to his house in Thessaloniki. Having discovered that most young soldiers in the city seemed to be called Demetrios, he gave up and went to the largest church in the city, to find his rescuer on the wall. Robin Cormack, "Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons", 1985, George Philip, London, ISBN 054001085-5 [[Image:Spas_vsederzhitel_sinay.jpg|thumb|left|The oldest icon of Christ Pantocrator, encaustic on panel, c. 6th century (Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai).]] During this period the church began to discourage all non-religious human images - the Emperor and donor figures counting as religious. This became largely effective, so that most of the population would only ever see religious images and those of the ruling class. The word icon referred to all and any images, not just religious ones, but there was barely a need for a separate word for these. Luke's portrait of Mary It is in a context attributed to the fifth century that the first mention of an image of Mary painted from life appears, though earlier paintings on cave walls bear resemblance to modern icons of Mary. Theodorus Lector, in his sixth-century History of the Church 1:1 Excerpted by Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos; this passage is by some considered a later interpolation. stated that Eudokia (wife of Theodosius II, died 460) sent an image of "the Mother of God" named Icon of the Hodegetria from Jerusalem to Pulcheria, daughter of the Emperor Arcadius: the image was specified to have been "painted by the Apostle Luke." Margherita Guarducci relates a tradition that the original icon of Mary attributed to Luke, sent by Eudokia to Pulcheria from Palestine, was a large circular icon only of her head. When the icon arrived in Constantinople it was fitted in as the head into a very large rectangular icon of her holding the Christ child and it is this composite icon that became the one historically known as the Hodegetria. She further states another tradition that when the last Latin Emperor of Constantinople, Baldwin II, was leaving Constantinople in 1261 he took this original circular portion of the icon with him. This remained in the possession of the Angevin dynasty who had it likewise inserted into a much larger image of Mary and the Christ child, which is presently enshrined above the high altar of the Benedictine Abbey church of Montevergine. http://www.avellinomagazine.it/foto%20home%20page/madonna.jpg http://www.mariadinazareth.it/www2005/Apparizioni/Montevergine4.jpg Unfortunately this icon has been over the subsequent centuries subjected to repeated repainting, so that it is difficult to determine what the original image of Mary’s face would have looked like. However, Guarducci also states that in 1950 an ancient image of Mary http://vultus.stblogs.org/icona%20sta%20maria%20%20nuova.jpg at the Church of St. Francesnco Romana was determined to be a very exact, but reverse mirror image of the original circular icon that was made in the 5th century and brought to Rome, where it has remained until the present. Margherita Guarducci, The Primacy of the Church of Rome, (San Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1991) 93-101. In later tradition the number of icons of Mary attributed to Luke would greatly multiply; James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, p111, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0719539714 the Salus Populi Romani, the Theotokos of Vladimir, the Theotokos Iverskaya of Mount Athos, the Theotokos of Tikhvin, the Theotokos of Smolensk and the Black Madonna of Częstochowa are examples, and another is in the cathedral on St Thomas Mount, which is believed to be one of the seven painted by St.Luke the Evangelist and brought to India by St. Thomas. Father H. Hosten in his book Antiquities notes the following "The picture at the mount is one of the oldest, and, therefore, one of the most venerable Christian paintings to be had in India." Ethiopia has at least seven more. Acheiropoieta: "images not painted by hands" The tradition of acheiropoieta (, literally "not-made-by-hand") accrued to icons that are alleged to have come into existence miraculously, not by a human painter. Such images functioned as powerful relics as well as icons, and their images were naturally seen as especially authoritative as to the true appearance of the subject: naturally and especially because of the reluctance to accept mere human productions as embodying anything of the divine, a commonplace of Christian deprecation of man-made "idols". Like icons believed to be painted directly from the live subject, they therefore acted as important references for other images in the tradition. Beside the developed legend of the mandylion or Image of Edessa, was the tale of the Veil of Veronica, whose very name signifies "true icon" or "true image", the fear of a "false image" remaining strong. A familiar example of an icon of this type within Roman Catholicism is the icon of Our Lady of Guadalupe in the West. Theology of icons A fairly elaborate Orthodox Christian icon corner as would be found in a private home. Christianity teaches that the immaterial God took flesh in the form of Jesus Christ, making it possible to depict in human form the Son of God. It is on this basis that the Old Testament proscriptions against making images were overturned for the early Christians by their belief in the Incarnation. Also, the concept of archetype was redefined by the early church fathers in order to better understand that when a person shows veneration toward an image, the intention is rather to honor the person depicted, not the substance of the icon. As St. Basil the Great says, "The honor shown the image passes over to the archetype." He also illustrates the concept by saying, "If I point to a statue of Caesar and ask you 'Who is that?', your answer would properly be, 'It is Caesar.' When you say such you do not mean that the stone itself is Caesar, but rather, the name and honor you ascribe to the statue passes over to the original, the archetype, Caesar himself." So it is with an Icon. In the Eastern Orthodox tradition, only flat or bas relief images are used. The Greeks, having a long, pagan tradition of statuary, found the sensual quality of three dimensional representations did more to glorify the human aspect of the flesh rather than the divine nature of the spirit and so prohibitions were created against statuary. The Romans, on the other hand, did not adopt these prohibitions and so there is still statuary among the Roman Catholics to this day. Because the Greeks rejected statuary, the Byzantine style of iconography was developed in which figures were stylized in a manner that emphasized their holiness rather than their humanity. Symbolism allowed the icon to present highly complex material in a very simple way, making it possible to educate even the illiterate in theology. The interiors of Orthodox Churches are often completely covered in icons. Stylistic developments St Peter encaustic on panel, c. 6th century (Saint Catherine's Monastery, Mount Sinai). Although there are earlier records of their use, no panel icons earlier than the few from the 6th century preserved at the Greek Orthodox Monastery of St. Catherine at Sinai survive. G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,1971 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, ISBN 853312702 The surviving evidence for the earliest depictions of Christ, Mary and saints therefore comes from wall-paintings, mosaics and some carvings. They are realistic in appearance, in contrast to the later stylization. They are broadly similar in style, though often much superior in quality, to the mummy portraits done in wax (encaustic) and found at Fayyum in Egypt. As we may judge from such items, the first depictions of Jesus were generic rather than portrait images, generally representing him as a beardless young man. It was some time before the earliest examples of the long-haired, bearded face that was later to become standardized as the image of Jesus appeared. When they did begin to appear there was still variation. Augustine of Hippo (354-430) De Trinitatis 8:4-5. said that no one knew the appearance of Jesus or that of Mary, though it should be noted that Augustine was not a resident of the Holy Land and therefore was not familiar with the local populations and their oral traditions. Gradually, paintings of Jesus took on characteristics of portrait images. At this time the manner of depicting Jesus was not yet uniform, and there was some controversy over which of the two most common icons was to be favored. The first or "Semitic" form showed Jesus with short and "frizzy" hair; the second showed a bearded Jesus with hair parted in the middle, the manner in which the god Zeus was depicted. Theodorus Lector remarked Church History 1:15. that of the two, the one with short and frizzy hair was "more authentic". To support his assertion, he relates a story (excerpted by John of Damascus) that a pagan commissioned to paint an image of Jesus used the "Zeus" form instead of the "Semitic" form, and that as punishment his hands withered. Though their development was gradual, we can date the full-blown appearance and general ecclesiastical (as opposed to simply popular or local) acceptance of Christian images as venerated and miracle-working objects to the sixth century, when, as Hans Belting writes, Belting, Likeness and Presence, University of Chicago Press,1994. "we first hear of the church's use of religious images." "As we reach the second half of the sixth century, we find that images are attracting direct veneration and some of them are credited with the performance of miracles" Patricia Karlin-Hayter, The Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford, 2002. Cyril Mango writes, Mango, The Art of the Byzantine Empire 312-1453, University of Toronto Press, 1986. "In the post-Justinianic period the icon assumes an ever increasing role in popular devotion, and there is a proliferation of miracle stories connected with icons, some of them rather shocking to our eyes". However, the earlier references by Eusebius and Irenaeus indicate veneration of images and reported miracles associated with them as early as the second century. It must also be noted that what might be shocking to our contemporary eyes may not have been viewed as such by the early Christians. Acts 5:15 reports that "people brought the sick into the streets and laid them on beds and mats so that at least Peter's shadow might fall on some of them as he passed by." The Iconoclast period Angel the Golden Locks, a 12th-century icon from Novgorod. There was a continuing opposition to misuse of images within Christianity from very early times. "Whenever images threatened to gain undue influence within the church, theologians have sought to strip them of their power" Belting, Likeness and Presence, Chicago and London, 1994. Further,"there is no century between the fourth and the eighth in which there is not some evidence of opposition to images even within the Church Ernst Kitzinger, The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm, Dumbarton Oaks, 1954, quoted by Pelikan, Jaroslav; The Spirit of Eastern Christendom 600-1700, University of Chicago Press, 1974. Nonetheless, popular favor for icons guaranteed their continued existence, while no systematic apologia for or against icons, or doctrinal authorization or condemnation of icons yet existed. The use of icons was seriously challenged by Byzantine Imperial authority in the eighth century. Though by this time opposition to images was strongly entrenched in Judaism and Islam, attribution of the impetus toward an iconoclastic movement in Eastern Orthodoxy to Muslims or Jews "seems to have been highly exaggerated, both by contemporaries and by modern scholars" Pelikan, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom Though significant in the history of religious doctrine, the Byzantine controversy over images is not seen as of primary importance in Byzantine history. "Few historians still hold it to have been the greatest issue of the period..." Patricia Karlin-Hayter, Oxford History of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, 2002. The Iconoclastic Period began when images were banned by Emperor Leo III the Isaurian sometime between 726 and 730. Under his son Constantine V, a council forbidding image veneration was held at Hieria See Council of Hieria. near Constantinople in 754. Image veneration was later reinstated by the Empress Regent Irene, under whom another council was held reversing the decisions of the previous iconoclast council and taking its title as Seventh Ecumenical Council. The council anathemized all who hold to iconoclasm, i.e. those who held that veneration of images constitutes idolatry. Then the ban was enforced again by Leo V in 815. And finally icon veneration was decisively restored by Empress Regent Theodora. From then on all Byzantine coins had a religious image or symbol on the reverse, usually an image of Christ for larger denominations, with the head of the Emperor on the obverse, reinforcing the bond of the state and the divine order. The "Theotokos of Vladimir" icon (12th century) Icons in Greek-speaking regions Today icons are used particularly among Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, Coptic and Eastern Catholic Churches. Of the icon painting tradition that developed in Byzantium, with Constantinople as the chief city, we have only a few icons from the eleventh century and none preceding them, in part because of the Iconoclastic reforms during which many were destroyed, and also because of plundering by Venetians in 1204 during the Fourth Crusade, and finally the taking of the city by the Islamic Turks in 1453. It was only in the Comnenian period (1081-1185) that the cult of the icon became widespread in the Byzantine world, partly on account of the dearth of richer materials (such as mosaics, ivory, and enamels), but also because an iconostasis a special screen for icons was introduced then in ecclesiastical practice. The style of the time was severe, hieratic and distant. In the late Comnenian period this severity softened, and emotion, formerly avoided, entered icon painting. Major monuments for this change include the murals at Daphni (ca. 1100) and Nerezi near Skopje (1164). The Theotokos of Vladimir (ca. 1115, illustration, right) is probably the most representative example of the new trend towards spirituality and emotion. The tendency toward emotionalism in icons continued in the Paleologan period, which began in 1261. Paleologan art reached its pinnacle in mosaics such as those of the Kariye Camii (the former Chora Monastery). In the last half of the 1300s, Paleologan saints were painted in an exaggerated manner, very slim and in contorted positions, that is, in a style known as the Paleologan Mannerism, of which Ochrid's Annunciation is a superb example. After 1453, the Byzantine tradition was carried on in regions previously influenced by its religion and culture— in the Balkans and Russia, Georgia in the Caucasus, and, in the Greek-speaking realm, on Crete. Cretan icons Crete was under Venetian control from 1204 and became a thriving center of art with eventually a Scuola di San Luca, or organized painter's guild on Western lines. Cretan painting was heavily patronized both by Catholics of Venetian territories and by Eastern Orthodox. For ease of transport, Cretan painters specialized in panel paintings, and developed the ability to work in many styles to fit the taste of various patrons. El Greco, who moved to Venice after establishing his reputation in Crete, is the most famous artist of the school, who continued to use many Byzantine conventions in his works. In 1669 the city of Heraklion, on Crete, which at one time boasted at least 120 painters, finally fell to the Turks, and from that time Greek icon painting went into a decline, with a revival attempted in the 20th century by art reformers such as Photios Kontoglou, who emphasized a return to earlier styles. Symbolism in icons In the icons of Eastern Orthodoxy, and of the Early Medieval West, very little room is made for artistic license. Almost everything within the image has a symbolic aspect. Christ, the saints, and the angels all have halos. Angels (and often John the Baptist) have wings because they are messengers. Figures have consistent facial appearances, hold attributes personal to them, and use a few conventional poses. Colour too plays an important role. Gold represents the radiance of Heaven; red, divine life. Blue is the color of human life, white is the uncreated essence of God, only used for resurrection and transfiguration of Christ. If you look at icons of Jesus and Mary: Jesus wears red undergarment with a blue outer garment (God become Human) and Mary wears a blue undergarment with a red overgarment (human was granted gifts by God), thus the doctrine of deification is conveyed by icons. Letters are symbols too. Most icons incorporate some calligraphic text naming the person or event depicted. Even this is often presented in a stylized manner. In later Western depictions, much of the symbolism survives, though there is far less consistency. Artistic license allows the painter much more freedom over the depiction. Examples of this style abound. And yet, despite the imagination and brilliance of Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel, it is still quite easy to identify the saint depicted because the traditional attribute and appearance of Peter is still present. Icons in Russia Muscovite Mannerism: Harrowing of Hell, by Dionisius and his workshop. Russian icons are typically paintings on wood, often small, though some in churches and monasteries may be as large as a table top. Many religious homes in Russia have icons hanging on the wall in the krasny ugol, the "red" or "beautiful" corner (see Icon Corner). There is a rich history and elaborate religious symbolism associated with icons. In Russian churches, the nave is typically separated from the sanctuary by an iconostasis (Russian ikonostás) a wall of icons. St. Nicholas, seen here flanked by six select saints, is one of the popular subjects in Russian iconography. The use and making of icons entered Kievan Rus' following its conversion to Orthodox Christianity from the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in 988 A.D. As a general rule, these icons strictly followed models and formulas hallowed by usage, some of which had originated in Constantinople. As time passed, the Russians—notably Andrei Rublev and Dionisius—widened the vocabulary of iconic types and styles far beyond anything found elsewhere. The personal, improvisatory and creative traditions of Western European religious art are largely lacking in Russia before the seventeenth century, when Simon Ushakov's painting became strongly influenced by religious paintings and engravings from Protestant as well as Catholic Europe. In the mid-seventeenth century, changes in liturgy and practice instituted by Patriarch Nikon resulted in a split in the Russian Orthodox Church. The traditionalists, the persecuted "Old Ritualists" or "Old Believers", continued the traditional stylization of icons, while the State Church modified its practice. From that time icons began to be painted not only in the traditional stylized and nonrealistic mode, but also in a mixture of Russian stylization and Western European realism, and in a Western European manner very much like that of Catholic religious art of the time. The Stroganov movement and the icons from Nevyansk rank among the last important schools of Russian icon-painting. Icons in Western Christianity An icon of Our Lady of Czestochowa, one of the national symbols of Poland. This stylistic variant is also used in depicting the Haitian Voodoo loa Erzulie Dantor. Until the 13th century, icons followed a broadly similar pattern in West and East - although very few survive from this early from either tradition. Western icons, which are not usually so termed, were largely patterned on Byzantine works, and equally conventional in composition and depiction. From this point on the western tradition came slowly to allow the artist far more flexibility, and a more realist approach to the figures. If only because there was a much smaller number of skilled artists, the quantity of icons, in the sense of panel paintings, was much smaller in the West, and in most Western settings a single diptych as an altarpiece, or in a domestic room, probably stood in place of the larger collections typical of Orthodox "icon corners". Only in the 15th century did production of painted icons begin to approach Eastern levels, and in this century the use of icons in the West was enormously increased by the introduction of prints on paper, mostly woodcuts which were produced in vast numbers (although hardly any survive). They were mostly sold, hand-coloured, by churches, and the smallest sizes (often only an inch high) were affordable even by peasants, who glued or pinned them straight onto a wall. With the Reformation, after an initial uncertainty among early Lutherans, who painted a few "icon"-like depictions of leading Reformers, and continued to paint scenes from Scripture, Protestants came down firmly against icon-like portraits, especially larger ones, even of Christ. Many Protestants found these "idolaterous". Narrative Biblical scenes, especially as book illustrations, remained acceptable, and were encouraged. The Catholics maintained, even intensified the traditional use of icons, both printed and on paper, now using the different styles of the Renaissance and Baroque. Popular Catholic imagery to a certain extent has remained attached to a Baroque style of about 1650, especially in Italy and Spain. Icon traditions in other regions A key piece of the Paleologan Mannerism - the Annunciation icon from Ohrid in the Republic of Macedonia. In Romania, icons painted as reversed images behind glass and set in frames were common in the nineteenth century and are still made. The process know as Reverse painting on glass "In the Transylvanian countryside, the expensive icons on panels imported from Moldavia, Wallachia, and Mt. Athos were gradually replaced by small, locally produced icons on glass, which were much less expensive and thus accessible to the Transylvanian peasants..." Dancu, Juliana and Dumitru Dancu, Romanian Icons on Glass, Wayne State University Press, 1982. The Egyptian Coptic Church and the Ethiopian Church also have distinctive, living icon painting traditions. Coptic icons have their origin in the Hellenistic art of Egyptian Late Antiquity, as exemplified by the Fayum mummy portraits. Beginning in the 4th century, churches painted their walls and made icons to reflect an authentic expression of their faith. The Protestant Reformation The abundant use and veneration historically accorded images in the Roman Catholic Church was a point of contention for Protestant reformers, who varied in their attitudes toward images. In the consequent religious struggles many statues were removed from churches, and there was also iconoclasm, or destruction of images, often by force, in all Protestant regions. Notable episodes were in England during the English Reformation, and then more severely in the English Civil War, in Flanders in the Beeldenstorm, and in France during the Wars of Religion. Though followers of Zwingli and Calvin were more severe in their rejection, Lutherans tended to be moderate: many of their parishes displayed statues and crucifixes. A recent joint Lutheran-Orthodox statement made in the 7th Plenary of the Lutheran-Orthodox Joint Commission http://www.helsinki.fi/~risaarin/lutortjointtext.html , on July 1993 in Helsinki, reaffirmed the Ecumenical Council decisions on the nature of Christ and the veneration of images: 7. As Lutherans and Orthodox we affirm that the teachings of the ecumenical councils are authoritative for our churches. The ecumenical councils maintain the integrity of the teaching of the undivided Church concerning the saving, illuminating/justifying and glorifying acts of God and reject heresies which subvert the saving work of God in Christ. Orthodox and Lutherans, however, have different histories. Lutherans have received the Nicaeno?Constantinopolitan Creed with the addition of the filioque. The Seventh Ecumenical Council, the Second Council of Nicaea in 787, which rejected iconoclasm and restored the veneration of icons in the churches, was not part of the tradition received by the Reformation. Lutherans, however, rejected the iconoclasm of the 16th century, and affirmed the distinction between adoration due to the Triune God alone and all other forms of veneration (CA 21). Through historical research this council has become better known. Nevertheless it does not have the same significance for Lutherans as it does for the Orthodox. Yet, Lutherans and Orthodox are in agreement that the Second Council of Nicaea confirms the christological teaching of the earlier councils and in setting forth the role of images (icons) in the lives of the faithful reaffirms the reality of the incarnation of the eternal Word of God, when it states: "The more frequently, Christ, Mary, the mother of God, and the saints are seen, the more are those who see them drawn to remember and long for those who serve as models, and to pay these icons the tribute of salutation and respectful veneration. Certainly this is not the full adoration in accordance with our faith, which is properly paid only to the divine nature, but it resembles that given to the figure of the honored and life?giving cross, and also to the holy books of the gospels and to other sacred objects" (Definition of the Second Council of Nicaea). Icons and images in contemporary Christianity A modern metal icon of St. Nicholas by the Bulgarian artist Georgi 'Chapa' Chapkanov. This depiction differs radically from traditional Orthodox iconography (Gilbert House, Stanley, Falkland Islands). Today attitudes can vary even from church to church within a given denomination, whether Catholic or Protestant. Protestants generally use religious art for teaching and for inspiration, but such images are not venerated as in Orthodoxy, and many Protestant church sanctuaries contain no imagery at all. After the Second Vatican Council declared that the use of statues and pictures in churches should be moderate, most statuary was removed and even destroyed from many Catholic Churches. Eastern Catholics and Orthodoxy, however, continues to give such strong importance to the use and veneration of icons that they are often seen as the chief symbol of Orthodoxy. Catholicism has a long tradition of valuing the arts and was the prime patron of artists even after the Renaissance. Present-day imagery within Roman Catholicism varies in style from traditional to modern, and is affected by trends in the art world in general. Icons are often illuminated with a candle or jar of oil with a wick. (Beeswax for candles and olive oil for oil lamps are preferred because they burn very cleanly, although other materials are sometimes used.) The illumination of religious images with lamps or candles is an ancient practice pre-dating Christianity. Miraculous icons Our Lady of St. Theodore, a 1703 copy of the 11th-century icon, following the same Byzantine "Tender Mercy" type as the Vladimirskaya above. In the Eastern Orthodox Christian tradition there are reports of particular, Wonderworking icons that exude myrrh (fragrant, healing oil), or perform miracles upon petition by believers. When such reports are verified by the Orthodox hierarchy, they are understood as miracles performed by God through the prayers of the saint, rather than being magical properties of the painted wood itself. Theologically, all icons are considered to be sacred, and are miraculous by nature, being a means of spiritual communion between the heavenly and earthly realms. However, it is not uncommon for specific icons to be characterised as "miracle-working", meaning that God has chosen to glorify them by working miracles through them. Such icons are often given particular names (especially those of the Virgin Mary), and even taken from city to city where believers gather to venerate them and pray before them. Islands like that of Tinos are renowned for possessing such "miraculous" icons, and are visited every year by thousands of pilgrims. Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic teaching about icons Icons are used particularly in Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Eastern Catholic churches. The Eastern Orthodox view of the origin of icons is quite different from that of secular scholars and from some in contemporary Roman Catholic circles: "The Orthodox Church maintains and teaches that the sacred image has existed from the beginning of Christianity", Léonid Ouspensky has written.<ref>Leonid Ouspensky, Theology of the Icon", St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1978.</ref> Accounts that some non-Orthodox writers consider legendary are accepted as history within Eastern Orthodoxy, because they are a part of church tradition. Thus accounts such as that of the miraculous "Image Not Made by Hands", and the weeping and moving "Mother of God of the Sign" of Novgorod are accepted as fact: "Church Tradition tells us, for example, of the existence of an Icon of the Savior during His lifetime (the "Icon-Made-Without-Hands") and of Icons of the Most-Holy Theotokos [Mary] immediately after Him." These Truths We Hold, St. Tikhon's Seminary Press, 1986. Eastern Orthodoxy further teaches that "a clear understanding of the importance of Icons" was part of the church from its very beginning, and has never changed, although explanations of their importance may have developed over time. This is due to the fact that iconography is rooted in the theology of the Incarnation (Christ being the eikon of God) which didn't change, though its subsequent clarification within the Church occurred over the period of the first seven Ecumenical Councils. Also, icons served as tools of edification for the illiterate faithful during most of the history of Christendom. Eastern Orthodox find the first instance of an image or icon in the Bible when God made man in His own image (Septuagint Greek eikona), in Genesis 1:26-27. In Exodus, God commanded that the Israelites not make any graven image; but soon afterwards, he commanded that they make graven images of cherubim and other like things, both as statues and woven on tapestries. Later, Solomon included still more such imagery when he built the first temple. Eastern Orthodox believe these qualify as icons, in that they were visible images depicting heavenly beings and, in the case of the cherubim, used to indirectly indicate God's presence above the Ark. In the Book of Numbers it is written that God told Moses to make a bronze serpent, Nehushtan, and hold it up, so that anyone looking at the snake would be healed of their snakebites. In John 3, Jesus refers to the same serpent, saying that he must be lifted up in the same way that the serpent was. John of Damascus also regarded the brazen serpent as an icon. Further, Jesus Christ himself is called the "image of the invisible God" in Colossians 1:15, and is therefore in one sense an icon. As people are also made in God's images, people are also considered to be living icons, and are therefore "censed" along with painted icons during Orthodox prayer services. A somewhat disinterested treatment of the emotional subject and painstaking attention to the throne and other details of the material world distinguish this work by a medieval Sicilian master from works by imperial icon-painters of Constantinople. According to John of Damascus, anyone who tries to destroy icons "is the enemy of Christ, the Holy Mother of God and the saints, and is the defender of the Devil and his demons." This is because the theology behind icons is closely tied to the Incarnational theology of the humanity and divinity of Jesus, so that attacks on icons typically have the effect of undermining or attacking the Incarnation of Jesus himself as elucidated in the Ecumenical Councils. The Eastern Orthodox teaching regarding veneration of icons is that the praise and veneration shown to the icon passes over to the archetype (Basil of Caesarea,On the Holy Spirit 18:45: "The honor paid to the image passes to the prototype"). Thus to kiss an icon of Christ, in the Eastern Orthodox view, is to show love towards Christ Jesus himself, not mere wood and paint making up the physical substance of the icon. Worship of the icon as somehow entirely separate from its prototype is expressly forbidden by the Seventh Ecumenical Council; standard teaching in the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches alike conforms to this principle. The Catholic Church accepts the same Councils and the canons therein which codified the teaching of icon veneration. The Latin Church of the West, which after 1054 was to become separate as the Roman Catholic Church, accepted the decrees of the iconodule Seventh Ecumenical Council regarding images. There is some minor difference, however, in the Catholic attitude to images from that of the Orthodox. Following Gregory the Great, Catholics emphasize the role of images as the Biblia Pauperum, the "Bible of the Poor," from which those who could not read could nonetheless learn. This view of images as educational is shared by most Protestants. Catholics also, however, accept in principle the Eastern Orthodox veneration of images, believing that whenever approached, images of the cross, saints, etc. are to be reverenced. Though using both flat wooden panel and stretched canvas paintings, Catholics traditionally have also favored images in the form of three-dimensional statuary, whereas in the East statuary is much less widely employed. Eikon in the Septuagint The Greek word eikon means an image or likeness of any kind. Anything that represents something else is an eikon. Nothing is implied about sanctity or its absence, or veneration or its absence by the word itself. The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures used by the early Christians, and Eastern Orthodox consider it the only authoritative text of those Scriptures. In it the word eikon is used for everything from man being made in the divine image to the "molten idol" placed by Manasses in the Temple. Genesis 1:26-27; Genesis 5:1-3; Genesis 9:6; Deuteronomy 4:16 1 Samuel (1 Kings) 6:11 (Alexandrian manuscript); 2 Kings 11:18; 2 Chronicles 33:7; Psalm 38:7 Psalm 72:20; Isaiah 40, 19-20; Ezekiel 7:20; Ezekiel 8:5 (Alexandrian manuscript); Ezekiel 16:17; Ezekiel 23:14; Daniel 2:31,32,34,35; Daniel 3:1,2,3,5,7,11,12,14,15,18; Hosea 13:2 Be aware that Septuagint numberings and names and the English Bible numberings and names are not uniformly identical. Eikon in the New Testament In the New Testament the term is used for everything from Jesus as the image of the invisible God (Colossians 1:15) to the image of Caesar on a Roman coin () to the image of the Beast in the Apocalypse (Revelation 14:19). Here is a complete listing: ; Mark 12:16 Luke 20:24 Romans 1:23 Romans 8:29; 1 Corinthians 11:7; 1 Corinthians 15:49 2 Corinthians 3:18; 2 Corinthians 4:4; Colossians 1:15; Colossians 3:10; Hebrews 10:1; Revelation 13:13; Revelation 13:15; Revelation 14:9; Revelation 14:11 Revelation 15:2 Revelation 16:2 Revelation 19:20; Revelation 20:4. Other religious traditions Other religious traditions, such as Hinduism, have a very rich iconography called murti, while others, such as Islam, severely limit the use of visual representations (see Islamic art). See also Archetype Christian symbolism Crucifix Daniil Chyorny Fresco Iconography Icon of the Hodegetria Ideogram Idolatry Image Isaac Fanous Mosaic Saint Saviour in Chora Léonid Ouspensky Orans Panagia Portrait Prokhor Proskynetarion Egon Sendler Symbolism Russian symbolism Religious topics Templon Notes External links Orthodox Orthodox Iconography by Elias Damianakis The Iconic and Symbolic in Orthodox Iconography On the difference of Western Religious Art and Orthodox Iconography A Discourse in Iconography by St. John of Shanghai and San Francisco Church of the Nativity - Explanation of Orthodox Christian Icons Icons: Glimpses of Eternity (Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia) Holy Icons: Theology in Color (Antiochian Orthodox Archdiocese) Catholic "Veneration of Images" article from The Catholic Encyclopedia Pictures Online exhibitions of over 1000 ancient icons Icons of Mount Athos Russian Icons from 12th to 18th century Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America: Icons Gallery of 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7,241 | Martin_Van_Buren | Martin Van Buren (December 5, 1782 July 24, 1862) was the eighth President of the United States from 1837 to 1841. Before his presidency, he served as the eighth Vice President (1833-1837) and the 10th Secretary of State under Andrew Jackson. He was a key organizer of the Democratic Party, a dominant figure in the Second Party System, and the first president who was not of British (i.e. English, Welsh, Scottish) or Irish descent - his ancestry was Dutch. He was the first president to be born an American citizen Martin Van Buren (his predecessors were born before the revolution); he is also the only president not to have spoken English as a first language, having grown up speaking Dutch. He was also the first President from New York. Van Buren was the third president to serve only one term, after John Adams and his son, John Quincy Adams. He also was one of the central figures in developing modern political organizations. As Andrew Jackson's Secretary of State and then Vice President, he was a key figure in building the organizational structure for Jacksonian democracy, particularly in New York State. However, as a President, his administration was largely characterized by the economic hardship of his time, the Panic of 1837. Between the bloodless Aroostook War and the Caroline Affair, relations with Britain and its colonies in Canada also proved to be strained. Whether or not these were directly his fault, Van Buren was voted out of office after four years, with a close popular vote but a rout in the electoral vote. In 1848 he ran for president on a third party ticket, the Free Soil Party. Martin Van Buren is one of only two people, the other being Thomas Jefferson, to serve as Secretary of State, Vice-President, and President. US State Department List of Secretaries of State US Senate List of Vice Presidents White House List of US Presidents Early life Martin Van Buren was born in the village of Kinderhook, New York, approximately 25 miles south of Albany. His father, Abraham Van Buren (1737-1817) was a farmer, owner of a handful of slaves, and tavern-keeper in Kinderhook. He supported the American Revolution and later the Jeffersonian Republicans. He died when his most famous son was a New York state senator. His mother, Maria Hoes Van Alen Van Buren (1747-1818) was of Dutch ancestry. Her first husband, Johannes Van Alen, died and left her with three children. In 1776, she married Abraham Van Buren. She never got over the loss of her second husband in 1817 and died less than a year after burying him. By his mother's first marriage, Van Buren had one half-sister and two half-brothers, including James Van Alen, who practiced law with Van Buren for a time and served as a Federalist member of Congress (1807-1809). By his mother's second marriage, Van Buren had two older sisters and two younger brothers: Dirckie "Derike" Van Buren Jannetje "Hannah" Van Buren Lawrence Van Buren - served as an officer in the New York militia during the War of 1812 and later was active in the Barnburners New York Democrats opposed to slavery Abraham Van Buren Van Buren was the first president born a citizen of the United States, as all previous presidents were born before the American Revolution. His great-great-great-great-grandfather Cornelis had come to the New World in 1631 from the Netherlands. He learned the basics at a dreary, poorly lit schoolhouse in his native village and later studied Latin briefly at the Kinderhook Academy. He excelled in composition and speaking. His formal education ended before he reached 14, when he began studying law at the office of Francis Sylvester, a prominent Federalist attorney in Kinderhook. After six years under Sylvester, he spent a final year of apprenticeship in the New York City office of William P. Van Ness, a political lieutenant of Aaron Burr. Van Buren was admitted to the bar in 1803. Van Buren married Hannah Hoes, his childhood sweetheart and distant relative, on February 21, 1807, in Catskill, New York. Like Van Buren, she was raised in a Dutch home and never did lose her distinct Dutch accent. After about 10 years of marriage, Hannah Van Buren contracted tuberculosis and died on February 5, 1819 at age 35. He never remarried. Children Martin and Hannah Van Buren had four sons: Abraham Van Buren (1807-1873) John Van Buren (1810-1866) Martin Van Buren, Jr. (1812-1855) - "Matt" Van Buren, a student of political science and history, served as a political aide to his father. Smith Thompson Van Buren (1817-1876) - Also a political aide to his father, he drafted some of his speeches and, as literary executor of the president's estate, edited the Van Buren papers. Early political career Van Buren had been active in politics from at least the age of 17 when he attended a party convention in Troy, New York where he worked to secure the Congressional nomination for John Van Ness. However, once established in his practice, he became wealthy enough to increase his focus on politics. He was an early supporter of Aaron Burr. He allied himself with the Clintonian faction of the Democratic-Republican Party, and was surrogate of Columbia County from 1808 until 1813, when he was removed. New York State Politics In 1812, he became a member of the New York State Senate. As a member of the state Senate, Van Buren supported the War of 1812 and drew up a classification act for the enrollment of volunteers. He broke with DeWitt Clinton in 1813 and tried to find a way to oppose Clinton's plan for the Erie Canal in 1817. Van Buren supported a bill that raised money for the canal through state bonds, and the bill quickly passed through the legislature with the help of his Tammany Hall compatriots. In 1817 Van Buren's connection began with so-called "machine politics." He created the first political machine encompassing all of New York, the Bucktails, whose leaders later became known as the Albany Regency. The Bucktails became a loyal faction with a large amount of party loyalty, and through their actions they were able to capture and control many patronage posts throughout New York. Van Buren did not originate the system but gained the nickname of "Little Magician" for the skill with which he exploited it. He served also as a member of the state constitutional convention, where he opposed the grant of universal suffrage and tried to keep property requirements. He was the leading figure in the Albany Regency, a group of politicians who for more than a generation dominated much of the politics of New York and powerfully influenced those of the nation. The group, together with the political clubs such as Tammany Hall that were developing at the same time, played a major role in the development of the "spoils system" a recognized procedure in national, state and local affairs. He was the prime architect of the first nationwide political party: the Jacksonian Democrats. In Van Buren's own words: "Without strong national political organizations, there would be nothing to moderate the prejudices between free and slaveholding states"("Martin Van Buren" 103-114). Van Buren's attitude towards slavery at that time was shown by his vote, in January 1820, for a resolution opposing the admission of Missouri as a slave state (though he himself was a slave owner). In the same year, he was chosen a presidential elector. U.S. Senate and national politics In February 1821, Martin Van Buren was elected to the United States Senate. Martin Van Buren at first favored internal improvements, such as road repairs and canal creation, therefore proposing a constitutional amendment in 1824 to authorize such undertakings. The next year, however, he took ground against them. He voted for the tariff of 1824 then gradually abandoned the protectionist position, coming out for "tariffs for revenue only." In the presidential election of 1824, Martin Van Buren supported William H. Crawford and received the electoral vote of Georgia for vice-president, but he shrewdly kept out of the acrimonious controversy which followed the choice of John Quincy Adams as President. Martin Van Buren had originally hoped to block Adams' victory by denying him the state of New York (the state was divided between Martin Van Buren supporters who would vote for William H. Crawford and Adams' men). However, Representative Stephen Van Rensselaer swung New York to Adams and thereby the 1824 Presidency. He recognized early the potential of Andrew Jackson as a presidential candidate. After the election, Martin Van Buren sought to bring the Crawford and Jackson followers together and strengthened his control as a leader in the Senate. Always notably courteous in his treatment of opponents, he showed no bitterness toward either John Quincy Adams or Henry Clay, and he voted for Clay's confirmation as Secretary of State, notwithstanding Jackson's "corrupt bargain" charge. At the same time, he opposed the Adams-Clay plans for internal improvements and declined to support the proposal for a Panama Congress. As chairman of the Judiciary Committee, he brought forward a number of measures for the improvement of judicial procedure and, in May 1826, joined with Senator Thomas Hart Benton in presenting a report on executive patronage. In the debate on the "tariff of abominations" in 1828, he took no part but voted for the measure in obedience to instructions from the New York legislature—an action which was cited against him as late as the presidential campaign of 1844. Martin Van Buren was not an orator, but his more important speeches show careful preparation and his opinions carried weight; the oft-repeated charge that he refrained from declaring himself on crucial questions is hardly borne out by an examination of his senatorial career. In February 1827, he was re-elected to the Senate by a large majority. He became one of the recognized managers of the Jackson campaign, and his tour of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia in the spring of 1827 won support for Jackson from Crawford. Martin Van Buren sought to reorganize and unify "the old Republican party" behind Jackson. Martin Van Buren to Thomas Ritchie, January 13, 1827. Van Buren helped create a grassroots style of politicking that is often seen today. At the state level, Jackson's committee chairmen would split up the responsibilities around the state and organize volunteers at the local level. "Hurra Boys" would plant hickory trees (in honor of Jackson's nickname, "Old Hickory") or hand out hickory sticks at rallies. Martin Van Buren even had a New York journalist write a campaign piece portraying Jackson as a humble, pious man. "Organization is the secret of victory," an editor in the Adams camp wrote. He once said to a group of lobbyists the famous quote and "By the want of it we have been overthrown." In 1828, Van Buren was elected governor of New York for the term beginning on January 1, 1829, and resigned his seat in the Senate. Martin Van Buren's tenure as New York governor is the second shortest on record. While his term was short, he did manage to pass the Bank Safety Act (an early form of deposit insurance). The Jackson Cabinet On March 5, 1829, President Jackson appointed Van Buren Secretary of State, an office which probably had been assured to him before the election, and he resigned the governorship. He was succeeded in the governorship by his Lieutenant Governor, Enos T. Throop, a member of the regency. As Secretary of State, Van Buren took care to keep on good terms with the Kitchen Cabinet, the group of politicians who acted as Jackson's advisers. He won the lasting regard of Jackson by his courtesies to Mrs. John H. Eaton (Peggy Eaton), wife of the Secretary of War, with whom the wives of the cabinet officers had refused to associate. He did not oppose Jackson in the matter of removals from office but was not himself an active "spoilsman". He skillfully avoided entanglement in the Jackson-Calhoun imbroglio. 1832 Whig cartoon shows Jackson carrying Van Buren into office No diplomatic questions of the first magnitude arose during Van Buren's service as secretary, but the settlement of long-standing claims against France was prepared and trade with the British West Indies colonies was opened. In the controversy with the Bank of the United States, he sided with Jackson. After the breach between Jackson and Calhoun, Van Buren was clearly the most prominent candidate for the vice-presidency. Vice-Presidency In December 1829, Jackson had already made known his own wish that Van Buren should receive the nomination. In April 1831, Van Buren resigned from his secretary of state position as a result of the Petticoat Affair—though he did not leave office until June. Van Buren still played a part in the Kitchen Cabinet. Kitchen Cabinet Columbia Encyclopedia In August 1831, he was appointed minister to the Court of St. James (United Kingdom), and he arrived in London in September. He was cordially received, but in February, he learned that his nomination had been rejected by the Senate on January 25, 1832. The rejection, ostensibly attributed in large part to Van Buren's instructions to Louis McLane, the American minister to the United Kingdom, regarding the opening of the West Indies trade, in which reference had been made to the results of the election of 1828, was in fact the work of Calhoun, the vice-president. And when the vote was taken, enough of the majority refrained from voting to produce a tie and give Calhoun his longed-for "vengeance". No greater impetus than this could have been given to Van Buren's candidacy for the vice-presidency. After a brief tour on through Europe, Van Buren reached New York on July 5, 1832. The 1832 Democratic National Convention, the party's first and held in May, had nominated him for vice-president on the Jackson ticket, despite the strong opposition to him which existed in many states. Van Buren's platform included supporting the expansion of the naval system. His declarations during the campaign were vague regarding the tariff and unfavorable to the United States Bank and to nullification, but he had already somewhat placated the South by denying the right of Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia without the consent of the slave states. Election of 1836 It took Van Buren and his partisan friends a decade and a half to form the Democratic Party; many elements, such as the national convention, were borrowed from other parties. Holt (2003) 998 In the election of 1832, the Jackson-Van Buren ticket won by a landslide. When the election of 1836 came up, Jackson was determined to make Van Buren, his personal choice, president in order to continue his legacy. Martin Van Buren's only competitors in the 1836 election were the Whigs, who ran several regional candidates in hopes of sending the election to the House of Representatives, where each state delegation would have one vote. William Henry Harrison hoped to receive the support of the Western voters, Daniel Webster had strength in New England, and Hugh Lawson White had support in the South. Van Buren was unanimously nominated by the 1835 Democratic National Convention at Baltimore. He expressed himself plainly on the questions of slavery and the bank at the same time voting, perhaps with a touch of bravado, for a bill offered in 1836 to subject abolition literature in the mails to the laws of the several states. Van Buren's presidential victory represented a broader victory for Jackson and the party. Van Buren entered the White House as a fifty-five year old widower with four sons. Presidency 1837–1841 Policies Martin Van Buren announced his intention "to follow in the footsteps of his illustrious predecessor," and retained all but one of Jackson's cabinet. Van Buren had few economic tools to deal with the Panic of 1837. Van Buren advocated lower tariffs and free trade, and by doing so maintained support of the south for the Democratic party. He succeeded in setting up a system of bonds for the national debt. His party was so split that his 1837 proposal for an "Independent Treasury" system did not pass until 1840. It gave the Treasury control of all federal funds and had a legal tender clause that required (by 1843) all payments to be made in legal tender rather than in state bank notes. But the act was repealed in 1841 and never had much impact. Foreign affairs were complicated when several states defaulted on their state bonds, London complained, and Washington explained it had no responsibility for those bonds. British authors such as Charles Dickens then denounced the American failure to pay royalties, leading to a negative press in Britain regarding the financial honesty of America. The Caroline Affair involved Canadian rebels using New York bases to attack the government in Canada. On December 29, 1837, Canadian government forces crossed the frontier into the US and burned the Caroline, which the rebels had been using. One American was killed, and an outburst of anti-British sentiment swept through the U.S. Van Buren sent the army to the frontier and closed the rebel bases. Van Buren tried to vigorously enforce the neutrality laws, but American public opinion favored the rebels. Boundary disputes in May brought Canadian and American lumberjacks into conflict. There was no bloodshed in this Aroostook War, but it further inflammed public opinion on both sides. Presidential Dollar of Martin Van Buren In a bold step, Van Buren reversed Andrew Jackson's policies and sought peace at home, as well as abroad. Instead of settling a financial dispute between American citizens and the Mexican government by force, Van Buren wanted to seek a diplomatic solution. Also, in August 1837, Van Buren denied Texas' formal request to join the United States. "Van Buren gave a higher priority to sectional harmony than to territorial expansion" ("Martin Van Buren" 103-114). In the case of the ship Amistad, Van Buren sided with the Spanish Government to return the kidnapped slaves. Also, he oversaw the "Trail of Tears", which involved the expulsion of the Cherokee tribe in 1838 from Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, and South Carolina to the Oklahoma territory. Van Buren was determined to avoid war. "Van Buren entered the presidency not only as the heir to Jackson's policies, Jefferson's ideology of limited government, and Smith's principles of political economy, but also an accomplished politician with a statesmanlike vision of the dangers facing the nation. This complex heritage would shape the new president's response to the multiple challenges of 1837."("Martin Van Buren" 103-114) In 1839, Joseph Smith, Jr., the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement visited Van Buren to plead for the U.S. to help roughly 20,000 Mormon settlers of Independence, Missouri (which would become the hometown of future President Harry S Truman), who were forced from the state during the 1838 Mormon War there. The Governor of Missouri, Lilburn Boggs, had issued an executive order on October 27, 1838, known as the "Extermination Order". It authorized troops to use force against Mormons to "exterminate or drive [them] from the state". Boggs, Extermination Order In 1839, after moving to Illinois, Smith and his party appealed to congressman and to President Van Buren to intercede for the Mormons. According to Smith's grand-nephew, Van Buren said to Smith, "Your cause is just, but I can do nothing for you; if I take up for you I shall lose the vote of Missouri." Van Buren took the blame for hard times, as Whigs ridiculed him as Martin Van Ruin. Van Buren's rather elegant personal style was also an easy target for Whig attacks, such as the Gold Spoon Oration. State elections of 1837 and 1838 were disastrous for the Democrats, and the partial economic recovery in 1838 was offset by a second commercial crisis in that year. Nevertheless, Van Buren controlled his party and was unanimously renominated by the Democrats in 1840. The revolt against Democratic rule led to the election of William Henry Harrison, the Whig candidate. Administration and Cabinet Portrait of Martin Van Buren Judicial appointments Supreme Court Van Buren appointed two Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States: John McKinley - 1838 Peter Vivian Daniel - 1842 Van Buren appointed eight other federal judges, all to United States district courts. Later life Free Soil campaign banner On the expiration of his term, Van Buren retired to his estate, Lindenwald in Kinderhook, where he planned out his return to the White House. He seemed to have the advantage for the nomination in 1844; his famous letter of April 27, 1844, in which he frankly opposed the immediate annexation of Texas, though doubtless contributing greatly to his defeat, was not made public until he felt practically sure of the nomination. In the Democratic convention, though he had a majority of the votes, he did not have the two-thirds which the convention required, and after eight ballots his name was withdrawn. James K. Polk received the nomination instead. In 1848, he was nominated by two minor parties, first by the "Barnburner" faction of the Democrats, then by the Free Soilers, with whom the "Barnburners" coalesced. He won no electoral votes, but took enough votes in New York to give the state and perhaps the election to Zachary Taylor. In the election of 1860, he voted for the fusion ticket in New York which was opposed to Abraham Lincoln, but he could not approve of President Buchanan's course in dealing with secession and eventually supported Lincoln. Imperial Print of Martin Van Buren, made in 1855 by Mathew Brady Martin Van Buren then retired to his home in Kinderhook. After being bedridden with a case of pneumonia during the fall of 1861, Martin Van Buren died of bronchial asthma and heart failure at his Lindenwald estate in Kinderhook at 2:00 a.m. on July 24, 1862. He was 79 years old. He is buried in the Kinderhook Cemetery. Van Buren in popular culture In an episode of The Monkees entitled "Dance, Monkee, Dance", Martin Van Buren is the answer to a trivia question entitling callers to a free dance lesson. Later in the episode, Van Buren himself shows up for the lesson. In Gore Vidal's novel [[Burr (novel)|Burr]], Van Buren is secretly the illegitimate son of Aaron Burr. In a popular episode of Seinfeld entitled "The Van Buren Boys," Kramer and George are threatened by a street gang called the Van Buren Boys with the secret sign of the number 8 because Van Buren was the 8th president. They apparently picked that name because Van Buren was the man they most admired. The gang is apparently "every bit as mean as he was". A cancelled Fallout game, Fallout Van Buren, makes a direct reference to the president, even having the number 13. In the 2000 PBS documentary series The American President, Van Buren's voice was provided by Mario Cuomo. The American President . In the 1997 film Amistad, he was played, more conventionally, by Nigel Hawthorne. Van Buren was the first president to grant an exclusive interview to a reporter, James Gordon Bennett, Sr., of the New York Herald in 1839. Paletta, Lu Ann and Worth, Fred L. (1988). "The World Almanac of Presidential Facts". In The Simpsons episode "Mr. Spritz Goes to Washington", Krusty is assigned petty janitorial jobs as his first term in the senate. One of them is to clean off "Capitol Hill graffiti", reading "Martin Van Buren is a weiner" (followed by "Grover Cleveland sucks what?!"). In an episode of Pete and Pete, Little Pete gets a piece of cereal that resembles Martin Van Buren, stuck in his nostril. In the 2004 version movie of "The Alamo", Martin Van Buren appeared uncredited with another character portraying Andrew Jackson during the scene at Washington D.C. Martin Van Buren was talking to Sam Houston (portrayed by Dennis Quaid) while Andrew Jackson stood beside him. On the website Homestar Runner, a bust of Van Buren is thrown at the camera at the end of The Cheat's character tape. In an episode of The Weekenders, Martin Van Buren is seen riding a small train in the protagonist's (Tino) home. This scene occurs in Tino's imagination. See also American election campaigns in the 19th century Divorce bill Charlotte Dupuy, slave who worked for Van Buren at Decatur House, while her suit for freedom against Henry Clay proceeded References Secondary sources Cole, Donald B. Martin Van Buren And The American Political System (2004) ISBN 1-59091-029-X Curtis, James C. The Fox at Bay: Martin Van Buren and the Presidency, 1837-1841 (1970) ISBN 0-8131-1214-1 Gammon, Samuel Rhea Gammon. The Presidential Campaign of 1832 (PDF) (1922) ISBN 0-8371-4827-8 Henretta, James A.. "Martin Van Buren."The American Presidency . 1st. 2004. ISBN 0-618-38273-9 Holt, Michael. The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War (2003) online edition Niven, John. Martin Van Buren: The Romantic Age of American Politics (2000) ISBN 0945707258 Remini, Robert V. Martin Van Buren and the Making of the Democratic Party (1959) ISBN 0231022883 Schouler, James. History of the United States of America: Under the Constitution vol. 4. 1831-1847. Democrats and Whigs. (1917) Silbey, Joel. Martin Van Buren and the Emergence of American Popular Politics (2002) ISBN 0-7425-2244-X Wilson, Major L. The Presidency of Martin Van Buren (1984) ISBN 0-7006-0238-0 "Election of 1836." U.S History. 2005. Online Highways. 4 Apr. 2006. Primary sources Van Buren, Martin. Autobiography (1918) ISBN 0678005311. The text of the autobiography is contained within the Annual Report Of The American Historical Association For The Year 1918, Volume II, John C. Fitzpatrick, ed. Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States (1867) ISBN 1418129240 Footnotes External links Martin Van Buren Biography and Fact File, via American-presidents.com Martin Van Buren Biography, via White House Martin Van Buren and the Nullification Crisis Martin Van Buren Biography by Appleton's and Stanley L. Klos Martin Van Buren biography, from Kinderhook Connection Martin Van Buren National Historic Site (Lindenwald) Martin Van Buren: The American Gladstone Text from "Reassessing The Presidency" Martin Van Buren: The Greatest American President, via independent.org Martin Van Buren: What Greatness Really Means Audio lecture from the conference, The Presidency", 1998 Martin Van Buren's Return to the Soil, a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan 1st State of the Union Address of Martin Van Buren, via usa-presidents.info 2nd State of the Union Address of Martin Van Buren, via usa-presidents.info 3rd State of the Union Address of Martin Van Buren, via usa-presidents.info 4th State of the Union Address of Martin Van Buren, via usa-presidents.info Essay on Martin Van Buren and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Inaugural Address, via Yale Medical and Health history of Martin van Buren, via doctorzebra.com Profile of Martin van Buren at Find A Grave The van Buren Family, since the 17th century, via rootsweb.com Van Buren overview, via usa-presidents.info | Martin_Van_Buren |@lemmatized martin:60 van:151 buren:144 december:3 july:3 eighth:2 president:39 united:12 state:48 presidency:12 serve:7 vice:10 secretary:10 andrew:6 jackson:30 key:2 organizer:1 democratic:9 party:21 dominant:1 figure:4 second:5 system:7 first:16 british:4 e:1 english:2 welsh:1 scottish:1 irish:1 descent:1 ancestry:2 dutch:5 bear:6 american:21 citizen:3 predecessor:2 revolution:3 also:11 speak:2 language:1 grow:1 new:28 york:25 third:3 one:9 term:6 john:11 adam:8 son:5 quincy:3 adams:1 central:1 develop:2 modern:1 political:13 organization:3 build:1 organizational:1 structure:1 jacksonian:3 democracy:1 particularly:1 however:4 administration:2 largely:1 characterize:1 economic:3 hardship:1 time:7 panic:2 bloodless:1 aroostook:2 war:8 caroline:3 affair:6 relation:1 britain:2 colony:2 canada:2 prove:1 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7,242 | Centripetal_force | A simple example corresponding to uniform circular motion. A ball is tethered to a rotational axis and is rotating counterclockwise around the specified path at a constant angular rate ω. The velocity of the ball is a vector tangential to the orbit, and is continuously changing direction, a change requiring a radially inward directed centripetal force. The centripetal force is provided by the tether, which is in a state of tension. Centripetal force is the name given to an inward central force when it occurs in conjunction with rotation such as to cause a body to follow a curved path. Georgia State University HyperPhysics The term centripetal force comes from the Latin words centrum ("center") and petere ("tend towards", "aim at"), signifying that the force is directed inward toward the center of curvature of the path. Isaac Newton's description is found in the Principia. Andrew Motte translation (1729) of Newton's Principia (1687): Of the invention of Centripetal Forces, p. 114. Newton was concerned primarily with planetary motion. Any force (gravitational, electromagnetic, etc.) or combination of forces can act to provide a centripetal force. An example for the case of uniform circular motion is shown in Figure 1. Simple example: uniform circular motion The velocity vector is defined by the speed and the direction of motion. Objects experiencing no net force do not accelerate and hence move in a straight line with constant speed; they have a constant velocity. However, an object moving in a circle, even at constant speed, has a changing direction of motion. The rate of change of the object's velocity vector in this case is the centripetal acceleration (see Figure 1). The centripetal acceleration varies with the radius of curvature of the path (R) and speed (v) of the object, becoming larger for greater speeds and smaller radii. If an object is traveling in a circle with a varying speed, its acceleration can be divided into two components: a radial acceleration (the centripetal acceleration that changes the direction of the velocity) and a tangential acceleration that changes the magnitude of the velocity. The magnitude of the centripetal force is given by: where m is the mass, v is the magnitude of the velocity, and r is the radius of curvature of the path. Sources of centripetal force For a satellite in orbit around a planet, the centripetal force is supplied by the gravitational attraction between the satellite and the planet, and acts toward the center of mass of the two objects. For an object at the end of a rope rotating about a vertical axis, the centripetal force is the horizontal component of the tension of the rope, which acts towards the center of mass between the axis of rotation and the rotating object. For a spinning object, internal tensile stress is the centripetal force that holds the object together in one piece. Analysis of several cases Below are three examples of increasing complexity, with derivations of the formulas governing velocity and acceleration. Uniform circular motion Uniform circular motion refers to the case of constant rate of rotation. Here are two approaches to describing this case. Geometric derivation Figure 2: Left circle: The particle's orbit – particle moves in a circle and velocity is tangent to orbit; Right circle: a "velocity circle"; velocity vectors are brought together so tails coincide: because velocity is a constant in uniform motion, the tip of the velocity vector describes a circle, and acceleration is tangent to the velocity circle. That means the acceleration is radially inward in the left-hand circle showing the orbit. The circle in the left of Figure 2 shows an object moving on a circle at constant speed at two different times in its orbit. Its position is given by the vector R and its velocity by the vector v. The velocity vector is always perpendicular to the position vector (since the velocity vector is always tangent to the circle of motion). Since R moves in a circle, so does v. The circular motion of the velocity is shown in the circle on the right of Figure 2, along with its acceleration a. Just as velocity is the rate of change of position, acceleration is the rate of change of velocity. Since the position and velocity vectors move in tandem, they go around their circles in the same time T. That time equals the distance traveled divided by the velocity and, by analogy, Setting these two equations equal and solving for |a|, we get The angular rate of rotation in radians per second is: Comparing the two circles in Figure 2 also shows that the acceleration points toward the center of the R circle. For example, in the left circle in Figure 2, the position vector R pointing at 12 o'clock has a velocity vector v pointing at 9 o'clock, which (switching to the circle on the right) has an acceleration vector a pointing at 6 o'clock. So the acceleration vector is opposite to R and toward the center of the R circle. Derivation using vectors Figure 3: Vector relationships for uniform circular motion; vector Ω representing the rotation is normal to the plane of the orbit with polarity determined by the right-hand rule and magnitude dθ /dt. Figure 3 shows the vector relationships for uniform circular motion. The rotation itself is represented by the vector Ω, which is normal to the plane of the orbit (using the right-hand rule) and has magnitude given by: with θ the angular position at time t. In this subsection, dθ/dt is assumed constant, independent of time. The displacement ℓ of the particle in time dt along the circular path is which, by properties of the vector cross product, has magnitude rdθ and is in the direction tangent to the circular path. Consequently, In other words, Differentiating with respect to time, Lagrange's formula states: Applying Lagrange's formula with the observation that Ω • r(t) = 0 at all times, In words, the acceleration is pointing directly opposite to the radial displacement r at all times, and has a magnitude: where vertical bars |...| denote the vector magnitude, which in the case of r(t) is simply the radius R of the path. This result agrees with the previous section if the substitution is made for rate of rotation in terms of the period of rotation T: When the rate of rotation is made constant in the analysis of nonuniform circular motion, that analysis agrees with this one. A merit of the vector approach is that it is manifestly independent of any coordinate system. Example: The banked turn Figure 4: Left panel: Ball on a banked circular track moving with constant speed v; Right panel: Forces on the ball. The resultant or net force on the ball found by vector addition of the normal force exerted by the road and vertical force due to gravity must equal the centripetal force dictated by the need to travel a circular path. Figure 4 shows a ball in circular motion on a banked curve. The curve is banked at an angle θ from the horizontal, and the surface of the road is considered to be slippery. The object is to find what angle the bank must have so the ball does not slide off the road (the so-called "angle of bank"). Intuition tells us that on a flat curve with no banking at all, the ball will simply slide off the road; while with a very steep banking, the ball will slide to the center unless it travels the curve rapidly. The right side of Figure 4 indicates the forces on the ball. There are two forces; one is the force of gravity vertically downward through the center of mass of the ball mg where m is the mass of the ball and g is the gravitational acceleration; the second is the upward normal force exerted by the road perpendicular to the road surface man. The centripetal force shown in Figure 4 is the net force obtained by vector addition of the normal force and the force of gravity, and is not a third force applied to the ball. The horizontal net force on the ball is the horizontal component of the force from the road, which has magnitude |Fh| = m|an|sinθ. The vertical component of the force from the road must counteract the gravitational force, that is |Fv| = m|an|cosθ = m|g|. Accordingly one finds the net horizontal force to be: On the other hand, at velocity |v| on a circular path of radius R, kinematics says that the force needed to turn the ball continuously into the turn is the radially inward centripetal force Fc of magnitude: Consequently the ball is in a stable path when the angle of the road is set to satisfy the condition: or, As the angle of bank θ approaches 90°, the tangent function approaches infinity, allowing larger values for |v|2/R. In words, this equation states that for faster speeds (bigger |v|) the road must be banked more steeply (a larger value for θ), and for sharper turns (smaller R) the road also must be banked more steeply, which accords with intuition. When the angle θ does not satisfy the above condition, the horizontal component of force exerted by the road does not provide the correct centripetal force, and an additional frictional force tangential to the road surface is called upon to provide the difference. What is friction? If friction cannot do this (that is, the coefficient of friction is exceeded), the ball slides to a different radius where the balance can be realized. These ideas apply to air flight as well. See the FAA pilot's manual. Example: the yo-yo Another interesting example involving centripetal force occurs in the yo-yo. As the string unwinds, the yo-yo rolls down one side of the string. When the string is totally unwound, the yo-yo continues rolling while performing a complete one hundred and eighty degree U-turn in its translation motion. It then rolls back up the other side of the string, while simultaneously causing the string to wind up again. In the figure this behavior is shown on the left at three different points in the motion; arrows indicate the direction of motion and the rotation. The potential energy of the yo-yo at the top of its motion is converted to rotational kinetic energy as it falls, and then back to gravitational potential energy again as it rises. On the right, the figure shows an idealized version of the orbit of the yo-yo's center of mass as a elongated ellipse. The motion around this orbit requires a centripetal force, which reaches its maximum strength at the bottom of its orbit where the curvature is very sharp. Blue arrows indicate roughly the inward, centripetal force, which is vertical at the bottom of the orbit. There the reversal in the translational motion is provided by the tension of the fully unwound string. This tension continues in a line from the point of connection of the string through the center of mass of the yo-yo, giving rise to a centripetal force that causes the yo-yo to do a U-turn around the end of the string. Nonuniform circular motion Figure 5: Velocity and acceleration for nonuniform circular motion: the velocity vector is tangential to the orbit, but the acceleration vector is not radially inward because of its tangential component aθ that increases the rate of rotation: dω / dt = | aθ| / R. As a generalization of the uniform circular motion case, suppose the angular rate of rotation is not constant. The acceleration now has a tangential component, as shown in Figure 5. This case is used to demonstrate a derivation strategy based upon a polar coordinate system. Let r(t) be a vector that describes the position of a point mass as a function of time. Since we are assuming circular motion, let r(t) = R·ur, where R is a constant (the radius of the circle) and ur is the unit vector pointing from the origin to the point mass. The direction of ur is described by θ, the angle between the x-axis and the unit vector, measured counterclockwise from the x-axis. The other unit vector for polar coordinates, uθ is perpendicular to ur and points in the direction of increasing θ. These polar unit vectors can be expressed in terms of Cartesian unit vectors in the x and y directions, denoted i and j respectively: Note: unlike the Cartesian unit vectors i and j, which are constant, in polar coordinates the direction of the unit vectors ur and uθ depend on θ, and so in general have non-zero time derivatives. ur = cosθ i + sinθ j and uθ = sinθ i + cosθ j. We differentiate to find velocity: where ω is the angular velocity dθ/dt. This result for the velocity matches expectations that the velocity should be directed tangential to the circle, and that the magnitude of the velocity should be ωR. Differentiating again, and noting that we find that the acceleration, a is: Thus, the radial and tangential components of the acceleration are: and where |v| = Rω is the magnitude of the velocity (the speed). These equations express mathematically that, in the case of an object that moves along a circular path with a changing speed, the acceleration of the body may be decomposed into a perpendicular component that changes the direction of motion (the centripetal acceleration), and a parallel, or tangential component, that changes the speed. General planar motion Figure 6: Polar unit vectors at two times t and t + dt for a particle with trajectory r ( t ); on the left the unit vectors uρ and uθ at the two times are moved so their tails all meet, and are shown to trace an arc of a unit radius circle. Their rotation in time dt is dθ, just the same angle as the rotation of the trajectory r ( t ). Polar coordinates The above results can be derived perhaps more simply in polar coordinates, and at the same time extended to general motion within a plane, as shown next. Polar coordinates in the plane employ a radial unit vector uρ and an angular unit vector uθ, as shown in Figure 6. Although the polar coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. The description of the particle motion remains a description from the stationary observer's point of view. A particle at position r is described by: where the notation ρ is used to describe the distance of the path from the origin instead of R to emphasize that this distance is not fixed, but varies with time. The unit vector uρ travels with the particle and always points in the same direction as r(t). Unit vector uθ also travels with the particle and stays orthogonal to uρ. Thus, uρ and uθ form a local Cartesian coordinate system attached to the particle, and tied to the path traveled by the particle. Notice that this local coordinate system is not autonomous; for example, its rotation in time is dictated by the trajectory traced by the particle. Note also that the radial vector r(t) does not represent the radius of curvature of the path. By moving the unit vectors so their tails coincide, as seen in the circle at the left of Figure 6, it is seen that uρ and uθ form a right-angled pair with tips on the unit circle that trace back and forth on the perimeter of this circle with the same angle θ(t) as r(t). When the particle moves, its velocity is To evaluate the velocity, the derivative of the unit vector uρ is needed. Because uρ is a unit vector, its magnitude is fixed, and it can change only in direction, that is, its change duρ has a component only perpendicular to uρ. When the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uρ, which points in the same direction as r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6. Therefore the change in uρ is or In a similar fashion, the rate of change of uθ is found. As with uρ, uθ is a unit vector and can only rotate without changing size. To remain orthogonal to uρ while the trajectory r(t) rotates an amount dθ, uθ, which is orthogonal to r(t), also rotates by dθ. See Figure 6. Therefore, the change duθ is orthogonal to uθ and proportional to dθ (see Figure 6): Figure 6 shows the sign to be negative: to maintain orthogonality, if duρ is positive with dθ, then duθ must decrease. Substituting the derivative of uρ into the expression for velocity: To obtain the acceleration, another time differentiation is done: Substituting the derivatives of uρ and uθ, the acceleration of the particle is: As a particular example, if the particle moves in a circle of constant radius R, then dρ/dt = 0, v = vθ, and: These results agree with those above for nonuniform circular motion. See also the article on non-uniform circular motion. If this acceleration is multiplied by the particle mass, the leading term is the centripetal force and the negative of the second term related to angular acceleration is sometimes called the Euler force. For trajectories other than circular motion, for example, the more general trajectory envisioned in Figure 6, the instantaneous center of rotation and radius of curvature of the trajectory are related only indirectly to the coordinate system defined by uρ and uθ and to the length |r(t)| = ρ. Consequently, in the general case, it is not straightforward to disentangle the centripetal and Euler terms from the above general acceleration equation. See, for example, To deal directly with this issue, local coordinates are preferable, as discussed next. Local coordinates Figure 7: Local coordinate system for planar motion on a curve. Two different positions are shown for distances s and s + ds along the curve. At each position s, unit vector un points along the outward normal to the curve and unit vector ut is tangential to the path. The radius of curvature of the path is ρ as found from the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve with respect to arc length, and is the radius of the osculating circle at position s. The unit circle on the left shows the rotation of the unit vectors with s. By local coordinates is meant a set of coordinates that travel with the particle, The observer of the motion along the curve is using these local coordinates to describe the motion from the observer's frame of reference, that is, from a stationary point of view. In other words, although the local coordinate system moves with the particle, the observer does not. A change in coordinate system used by the observer is only a change in their description of observations, and does not mean that the observer has changed their state of motion, and vice versa. and have orientation determined by the path of the particle. Unit vectors are formed as shown in Figure 7, both tangential and normal to the path. This coordinate system sometimes is referred to as intrinsic or path coordinates or nt-coordinates, for normal-tangential, referring to these unit vectors. These coordinates are a very special example of a more general concept of local coordinates from the theory of differential forms. Distance along the path of the particle is the arc length s, considered to be a known function of time. A center of curvature is defined at each position s located a distance ρ (the radius of curvature) from the curve on a line along the normal un (s). The required distance ρ(s) at arc length s is defined in terms of the rate of rotation of the tangent to the curve, which in turn is determined by the path itself. If the orientation of the tangent relative to some starting position is θ(s), then ρ(s) is defined by the derivative dθ/ds: The radius of curvature usually is taken as positive (that is, as an absolute value), while the curvature κ is a signed quantity. A geometric approach to finding the center of curvature and the radius of curvature uses a limiting process leading to the osculating circle. The osculating circle at a given point P on a curve is the limiting circle of a sequence of circles that pass through P and two other points on the curve, Q and R, on either side of P, as Q and R approach P. See the online text by Lamb: See Figure 7. Using these coordinates, the motion along the path is viewed as a succession of circular paths of ever-changing center, and at each position s constitutes non-uniform circular motion at that position with radius ρ. The local value of the angular rate of rotation then is given by: with the local speed v given by: As for the other examples above, because unit vectors cannot change magnitude, their rate of change is always perpendicular to their direction (see the left-hand insert in Figure 7): Consequently, the velocity and acceleration are: and using the chain-rule of differentiation: with the tangential acceleration In this local coordinate system the acceleration resembles the expression for nonuniform circular motion with the local radius ρ(s), and the centripetal acceleration is identified as the second term. Extension of this approach to three dimensional space curves leads to the Frenet-Serret formulas. Alternative approach Looking at Figure 7, one might wonder whether adequate account has been taken of the difference in curvature between ρ(s) and ρ(s + ds) in computing the arc length as ds = ρ(s)dθ. Reassurance on this point can be found using a more formal approach outlined below. This approach also makes connection with the article on curvature. To introduce the unit vectors of the local coordinate system, one approach is to begin in Cartesian coordinates and describe the local coordinates in terms of these Cartesian coordinates. In terms of arc length s let the path be described as: The article on curvature treats a more general case where the curve is parametrized by an arbitrary variable (denoted t), rather than by the arc length s. Then an incremental displacement along the path ds is described by: where primes are introduced to denote derivatives with respect to s. The magnitude of this displacement is ds, showing that: (Eq. 1) This displacement is necessarily tangent to the curve at s, showing that the unit vector tangent to the curve is: while the outward unit vector normal to the curve is Orthogonality can be verified by showing the vector dot product is zero. The unit magnitude of these vectors is a consequence of Eq. 1. Using the tangent vector, the angle of the tangent to the curve, say θ, is given by: and The radius of curvature is introduced completely formally (without need for geometric interpretation) as: The derivative of θ can be found from that for sinθ: Now: in which the denominator is unity. With this formula for the derivative of the sine, the radius of curvature becomes: where the equivalence of the forms stems from differentiation of Eq. 1: With these results, the acceleration can be found: as can be verified by taking the dot product with the unit vectors ut(s) and un(s). This result for acceleration is the same as that for circular motion based on the radius ρ. Using this coordinate system in the inertial frame, it is easy to identify the force normal to the trajectory as the centripetal force and that parallel to the trajectory as the tangential force. From a qualitative standpoint, the path can be approximated by an arc of a circle for a limited time, and for the limited time a particular radius of curvature applies, the centrifugal and Euler forces can be analyzed on the basis of circular motion with that radius. This result for acceleration agrees with that found earlier. However, in this approach the question of the change in radius of curvature with s is handled completely formally, consistent with a geometric interpretation, but not relying upon it, thereby avoiding any questions Figure 7 might suggest about neglecting the variation in ρ. Example: circular motion To illustrate the above formulas, let x, y be given as: Then: which can be recognized as a circular path around the origin with radius α. The position s = 0 corresponds to [α, 0], or 3 o'clock. To use the above formalism the derivatives are needed: With these results one can verify that: The unit vectors also can be found: which serve to show that s = 0 is located at position [ρ, 0] and s = ρπ/2 at [0, ρ], which agrees with the original expressions for x and y. In other words, s is measured counterclockwise around the circle from 3 o'clock. Also, the derivatives of these vectors can be found: To obtain velocity and acceleration, a time-dependence for s is necessary. For counterclockwise motion at variable speed v(t): where v(t) is the speed and t is time, and s(t = 0) = 0. Then: where it already is established that α = ρ. This acceleration is the standard result for non-uniform circular motion. See also Fictitious force Centrifugal force Circular motion Coriolis force Reactive centrifugal force Example: circular motion Mechanics of planar particle motion Frenet-Serret formulas Orthogonal coordinates Statics Kinetics Kinematics Applied mechanics Analytical mechanics Dynamics (physics) Classical mechanics Notes and references Further reading Centripetal force vs. Centrifugal force, from an online Regents Exam physics tutorial by the Oswego City School District External links Notes from University of Winnipeg Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University; see also home page Notes from Britannica Notes from PhysicsNet NASA notes by David P. 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7,243 | Film_stock | This focuses on motion picture film. For still photography film, see photographic film. Film stock is photographic film on which motion pictures are shot and reproduced. History 1889-1899 Modern motion picture film stock was first created thanks to the introduction of a transparent flexible film base material, celluloid, which was discovered and refined for photographic use thanks to the work of John Carbutt, Hannibal Goodwin, and George Eastman. Prior to this, most motion picture experiments were performed using paper roll film, which made it difficult if not impossible to view the developed film as a single continuous moving image without other complex apparatuses. Furthermore, the paper film was much more fragile than celluloid. Eastman Kodak would become the first to make celluloid film commercially available, starting in 1889; Thomas Henry Blair emerged in 1891 as the first major competitor for supplying celluloid film. The stock had a frosted base in order to facilitate easier viewing by transmitted back light, and the emulsions from each company were orthochromatic. By November 1891 William Dickson at Edison's lab was using Blair's stock for Kinetoscope tests, and Blair's company remained a main supplier of film to the Edison lab for the next five years. Blair's operation was also crucial to the continued development of motion picture technology through 1892 and 1893, due to temporary shutdowns at Eastman because of problems with their production setup. Eventually patent lawsuits in 1893 led to Blair leaving his American company and starting again in Britain, which allowed Eastman to gradually fill the entirety of the Edison lab's film orders. Blair's new headquarters allowed him to supply many of the key European filmmaking pioneers, including Birt Acres, Robert Paul, George Albert Smith, Charles Urban, and the Lumiere Brothers. The American Blair company was to be short-lived, however, as by 1896 the new movie projector would demand a fully transparent film base that they had difficulty supplying. Eastman shortly thereafter bought the company out, thus consolidating its position as the leading supplier of film stock from then on. These developments also led Louis Lumiere to work with Victor Planchon on adapting the Lumiere "Blue Label" (Etiquette Bleue) photographic plate emulsion for use on celluloid roll film, which began in early 1896 and was brought to full production capacity by the following year. Eastman's first motion picture film stock incorporated the same emulsion as was used for its still film, which was, like nearly all film emulsion of the time, orthochromatic-sensitive. Film at this point did not have a strictly defined speed; rather, the orthochromatic quality of the stock allowed the film to be processed under a red safelight, while the density was checked as development was occurring. Standard practice until the end of the silent era involved tearing off several inches from the start of each shot and testing development on it. Positive stock was created that would be slower, finer-grained, and of a higher contrast than a negative; all of these characteristics remain consistent to this day. From 1895, Eastman supplied their motion picture roll film in rolls of 65 feet, while Blair's rolls were 75 feet. If longer lengths were needed, the unexposed negative rolls could be cemented in a darkroom, but this was largely undesirable by most narrative filmmakers. Actuality films were much more eager to undertake this method, however, in order to depict longer actions, and created cemented rolls as long as 1000 feet. American Mutoscope and Biograph was the first known company to use this, for the Jeffries-Sharkey fight on November 3, 1899. 1900-1919 Work on improved film stocks was rather slow in the first decade of the new century, as the equipment and formats, particularly, were still in the process of gradually standardizing. With a large number of differing film gauges in use, supplying a market still in its infancy was likely a difficult task, and Eastman was able to retain the majority of the market share without making major adjustments to the emulsion; their only major change was to increase the length of rolls to 200 feet. Lumiere, on the other hand, reformulated their stock to match the speed of Eastman film, which became known as "Violet Label" (Etiquette Violette). Blair retired back to the United States after selling his English company to Pathe in 1907, who began using the facilities for producing their own film stock. This sale had future repercussions among film preservation, as Pathe began to supplement their operation in 1910 by purchasing film prints in order to strip the silver and emulsion from the film base for recoating. As the quantity of film and filmmakers grew in these early years, the demand for standardization increased in prominence. 35 mm film, largely thanks to the popularity of the Edison and Lumiere camera lines (and their often unauthorized clones) had begun to stabilize as the dominant gauge, but still was usually purchased unperforated, and subsequently punched by the consumer with perforation equipment designed by third parties. Although Edison (4 square perfs per frame on each side) and Lumiere (1 rounded perf per frame on each side) formats - based on the camera designs - were the most common, the perforators were not always precise, and it could be difficult to create prints for the opposite perforation format. Edison's organization of the Motion Picture Patents Trust, though largely ineffective in controlling the burgeoning film industry, was able in 1909 to agree to what would become the de facto standard: 35 mm gauge, with Edison perforations and a 1.33 aspect ratio. These parameters have remained largely constant to the present day. The gauge and perforations are more or less identical to modern film stock; the full silent ratio is also generally still used as the film gate in movie cameras, although portions of the image are later cropped out in post-production and projection. The Bell and Howell company perforators entered the market in 1908 and very shortly were recognized as exceptional enough to pervade the American industry. Eastman Kodak was also quick to opt to use the machine to pre-perforate their films, which assured the perforation specifications being adopted as the world standard not long after. These perforations, known as BH-type, remain the standard for original camera negative film. The belle epoque era also saw the creation of numerous small, local film suppliers, the vast majority of which were short-lived due to their smaller production batches, slower emulsions (which were also usually blue-only sensitive rather than orthochromatic), and inferior quality control. Among these companies, Agfa began to produce motion picture film in 1913, but remained a largely local supplier until World War I boycotts of popular French, American and Italian films allowed the newly-founded UFA film studio to flourish and thus boosted Agfa's orders. Among the foremost problems with the film stocks of this era was that they were all manufactured on a nitrate film base, which was a derivate of guncotton and thus highly flammable. Additionally, nitrate fires were notoriously difficult to put out, as even full submersion in water will not stop the fire. This had led to a significant number of fatal accidents in theatrical projection booths, where the heat of the projector lamp made ignition most likely. As the amateur filmmaking market slowly developed at the beginning of the 20th century, Kodak began to develop a more heat-resistant "safety base" which could be easily projected without incident even at home by those with no prior experience. Early tests in 1909 showed cellulose diacetate to be a viable replacement base, and Kodak began selling acetate-base films the following year in 22 mm widths for Edison's work on the Home Kinetoscope, which was commercially released in 1912. In the wake of the availability of safety film, more amateur formats began to adopt it, and several, including Kodak's own 16 mm format, were designed specifically so that the only film stocks released for the format specifications would be safety base. Kodak also continued to refine their camera negative stock during the late 1910s, releasing Cine Negative Film Type E in 1916 and Type F (later known as Negative Film Par Speed Type 1201) in 1917. As both of these orthochromatic films were no faster than previous offerings, it has been suggested that the improvements most likely were in regard to granularity and sharpness. 1920s The 1920s proved to be the decade in which film stock manufacturers began to diversify their offerings. Prior to this, each manufacturer only offered one negative stock (usually orthochromatic) and one print stock. In 1920, a variant of Type F film known as X-back was created in order to counteract the effects of static electricity on the film, which can cause sparking and create odd exposure patterns on the film. This was created through the use of a resin backing on the film, which also had the effect of rendering the film too opaque to allow focusing through the back of the film, a common technique for many of the contemporary cameras of that era. As the static electricity was more likely to occur in colder climates, the X-back stock was mainly popular in the East Coast of the US. Other manufacturers also began to emerge in the 1920s as well, including American E.I. Dupont de Nemours in 1926 and Belgian Gevaert in 1925. Conversion of the industry from orthochromatic to panchromatic stocks was initiated by Kodak over the course of the decade. Created in 1913 for use in early color film processes such as Kinemacolor, panchromatic was first used in a black and white film for exterior sequences in Queen of the Sea (1918) and originally only available as a special order product. Richard Koszarski, An Evening's Entertainment: The Age of the Silent Feature Picture, 1915-1928, University of California Press, 1994, p. 140. ISBN 9780520085350. The stock's increased sensitivity in the red-light range meant greater overall light sensitivity and made it an attractive option for day for night shooting. Kodak financed a feature in 1922 shot entirely with the panchromatic stock, The Headless Horseman, in order to promote the stock when it was introduced as a standard option; however, the fairly higher price of the stock compared to the orthochromatic emulsion meant that no other films would shot entirely with the panchromatic stock for several years. The cross-cutting between panchromatic and orthochromatic stocks also was noted to cause continuity problems particularly with regard to costume tones, and thus was often avoided. The dominance of orthochromatic film lasted until the mid 1920s due to Kodak's lack of competition in the panchromatic market; Gevaert emerged onto the market in 1925 with a dual product line of an orthochromatic stock with limited color sensitivity as well as a full panchromatic stock, Pan-23. This latter product likely encouraged Kodak to respond, and in 1926 they lowered the price of panchromatic stock to parity with the standard orthochromatic offering. Without any economic barrier remaining, the panchromatic stock began to overtake the orthochromatic stock's market share within a few years, as the cinematographers gradually became more familiar with the stock. There was apparently some question as to differences in relative contrast between the two stocks. As Barry Salt notes, "this claim is almost impossible to substantiate now, given the extreme difficulty there is in seeing a reasonable number of original prints of films shot on both stocks." (Salt, Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis, p. 179) With similar panchromatic offerings also made around the same period by Agfa and Pathe, the shift to panchromatic stocks had largely been completed by 1928, and Kodak discontinued orthochromatic stock in 1930. Kodak: Chronology of Motion Picture Films, 1889 to 1939. Color films Experiments with color films were made as early as the late 19th century, but practical color emulsions for amateur use were not produced until Kodak introduced Kodachrome for 16mm in 1935 and 8mm in 1936. Before 1941, none of the color film processes for professional motion pictures used a color emulsion film stock. Kinemacolor (1908–1914), Technicolor processes 1 through 4 (1917–1954), and Cinecolor used one, two or three strips of monochrome film stock sensitized to certain primary colors or exposed behind color filters in special cameras. Technicolor introduced a color reversal stock, called Monopack, for location shooting in 1941; it was basically a 35mm version of Kodachrome that could be used in standard motion picture cameras. Eastman Kodak came out with the first 35mm color negative stock, Eastman Color Negative film 5247, in 1950. A higher quality version in 1952, Eastman Color Negative film 5248, was quickly adopted by Hollywood for color motion picture production, replacing both the expensive three-strip Technicolor process and Monopack. Classification and properties There are several variables in classifying stocks; in practice, one orders raw stock by a code number, based on desired sensitivity to light. Base A piece of film consists of a light-sensitive emulsion applied to a tough, transparent base, sometimes attached to anti-halation backing or "rem-jet" layer (now only on camera films). Originally the highly flammable cellulose nitrate was used. In the 1930s, film manufacturers introduced "safety film" with a cellulose triacetate plastic base. All amateur film stocks were safety film, but the use of nitrate persisted for professional releases. Kodak discontinued the manufacture of nitrate base in 1951, and the industry transitioned entirely to safety film in 1951 in the United States and by 1955 internationally. Since the late 1990s, almost all release prints have used polyester film stock. Emulsion The emulsion is comprised of silver halide grains suspended in a gelatin colloid; in the case of color film, there are three layers of silver halide, which are mixed with color couplers and interlayers that filter specific light spectra. These end up creating yellow, cyan, and magenta layers in the negative after development. Chemistry Development chemicals applied to an appropriate film can produce either a positive (showing the same densities and colors as the subject) or negative image (with dark highlights, light shadows, and, in principle, complementary colors). The first films were darkened by light: negative films. Later films that produce a positive image became known as reversal films; processed transparent film of this type can be projected onto a screen. Negative images need to be transferred onto photographic paper or other substrate which reverses the image again, producing a final positive image. Creating a positive image from a negative film can also be done by scanning the negative to create a computer file which can then be reversed by software. Image record Different emulsions and development processes exist for a variety of image recording possibilities: the two most common of which are black and white, and color. However, there are also variant types, such as infrared film (in black and white or false color); specialist technical films, such as those used for X-rays; and obsolete processes, such as orthochromatic film. Generally, however, the vast majority of stock used today is "normal" (visible spectrum) color, although "normal" black and white also commands a significant minority percentage. Physical characteristics Film is also classified according to its gauge and the arrangement of its perforations— gauges range from 8 mm to 70 mm or more, while perforations may vary in shape, pitch, and positioning. The film is also distinguished by how it is wound with regard to perforations and base or emulsion side, as well as whether it is packaged around a core, a daylight spool, or within a cartridge. Depending on the manufacturing processes and camera equipment, lengths can vary anywhere from 25 to 2000 feet. Common lengths include 25 feet for 8 mm, 50 feet for Super 8, 100 and 400 feet for 16 mm, 400 and 1000 feet for 35 mm, and 1000 for 65/70 mm. Responsivity A critical property of a stock is its film speed, determined by ASA or its sensitivity to light listed by a measurement on the raw stock which must be chosen with care. Speed determines the range of lighting conditions under which the film can be shot, and is related to granularity and contrast, which influence the look of the image. The stock manufacturer will usually give an exposure index (EI) number equal to the ASA which they recommend exposing for. However, factors such as forced or non-standard development (such as bleach bypass or cross processing), compensation for filters or shutter angle, as well as intended under- and over-exposure may cause the cinematographer to actually "rate" the stock differently from the EI. This new rating is not a change to the stock itself - it is merely a way of calculating exposure without figuring out the compensation after each light reading. Color temperature Another important quality of color film stock in particular is its color balance, which is defined by the color temperature at which it accurately records white. Tungsten lighting is defined at 3200 K, which is considered "warmer" in tone and shifted towards orange; daylight is defined at 5600 K, which is considered "colder" and shifted towards blue. This means that unfiltered tungsten stock will look normal shot under tungsten lights, but blue if shot during daylight. Obversely, daylight stock shot in daylight will look normal, but orange if shot under tungsten lights. Color temperature issues such as these can be compensated for by other factors such as lens filters and color gels placed in front of the lights. The color temperature of a film stock is generally indicated next to the film speed number - e.g. 500T stock is color film stock with an ASA of 500 and balanced for tungsten light; 250D would have an ASA of 250 and be balanced for daylight. While black and white film has no color temperature itself, the silver halide grains themselves tend to be slightly more responsive to blue light, and therefore will have daylight and tungsten speeds - e.g. Kodak's Double-X stock is rated 250D/200T, since the tungsten light will give slightly less exposure than an equivalent amount of daylight. Deterioration Motion picture film is known to be a highly unstable medium: improperly preserved film can deteriorate in a period of time much faster than many photographs or other visual presentations. Owners of home-made films often find that their film can become brittle and unwatchable in the space of a few years. Decaying acetate film stock gives off an odor similar to that of vinegar, which is why film buffs often refer to such decaying as "vinegar syndrome." Intermediate and print stocks The distinction between camera stocks and print stocks involves a difference in the recording process. When the work print or edit master has been approved, the original camera negative (OCN) is assembled by a negative cutter using the edited work print or EDL (edit decision list) as a guide. An answer print is then made from the cut negative. During the answer print stage, corrections in the film's density and color are corrected (timed) to the filmmakers' tastes. Interpositive (IP) prints are struck from the answerprint, checked to make sure they look the same as the custom timed answer print and each IP is then used to make one or more Dupe Negative (DN) copies. The release prints are then generated from the DN(s). Recently, with the development of digital intermediate (DI), it has become possible to completely edit, composite visual effects, and color grade the image digitally at full resolution and bit-depth. In this workflow, the answer print is generated digitally and then written out to the IP stage using a laser film printer. Due to the specialized nature of the exposure and the higher degree of control afforded by the film lab equipment, these intermediate and release stocks are specially designed solely for these applications and are generally not feasible for camera shooting. Because intermediates only function to maintain the image information accurately across duplication, each manufacturer tends to only produce one or two different intermediate stocks. Similarly, release print stocks usually are available only in two varieties: a "normal" print or a deluxe print (on more-costly print film like Kodak Vision Premiere) with slightly greater saturation and contrast. See also Direct film Film format Film preservation List of film formats List of motion picture film stocks Color motion picture film Photographic film with emphasis on film for still photography. Notes References Ascher, Steve and Edward Pincus. The Filmmaker's Handbook: A Comprehensive Guide for the Digital Age. New York: Penguin Group, 1999. Cinetech. Motion Picture Stock Time Line, 1999. Retrieved 2007-07-09. Fujifilm UK. A Brief History of Fujifilm, 2001. Retrieved 2007-07-09. Fujifilm USA. Motion Picture Chronology, 2001. Retrieved 2007-07-09. Kodak. Chronology of Motion Picture Films, 2005. Retrieved 2007-07-09. Salt, Barry. Film Style and Technology: History and Analysis. London: Starword, 1992. External links Fuji motion picture stocks Kodak motion picture stocks | Film_stock |@lemmatized focus:2 motion:21 picture:22 film:118 still:7 photography:2 see:3 photographic:6 stock:68 shot:6 reproduced:1 history:4 modern:2 first:9 create:11 thanks:3 introduction:1 transparent:4 flexible:1 base:16 material:1 celluloid:5 discover:1 refine:2 use:25 work:6 john:1 carbutt:1 hannibal:1 goodwin:1 george:2 eastman:13 prior:3 experiment:2 perform:1 paper:3 roll:8 make:11 difficult:4 impossible:2 view:1 developed:1 single:1 continuous:1 move:1 image:13 without:5 complex:1 apparatus:1 furthermore:1 much:3 fragile:1 kodak:19 would:7 become:7 commercially:2 available:3 start:3 thomas:1 henry:1 blair:9 emerge:3 major:3 competitor:1 supply:5 frosted:1 order:9 facilitate:1 easy:1 viewing:1 transmit:1 back:5 light:17 emulsion:15 company:9 orthochromatic:15 november:2 william:1 dickson:1 edison:8 lab:4 kinetoscope:2 test:3 remain:6 main:1 supplier:4 next:2 five:1 year:7 operation:2 also:17 crucial:1 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7,244 | Millennium_Prize_Problems | The Millennium Prize Problems are seven problems in mathematics that were stated by the Clay Mathematics Institute in 2000. Currently, six of the problems remain unsolved. A correct solution to each problem results in a US$1,000,000 prize (sometimes called a Millennium Prize) being awarded by the institute. Only the Poincaré conjecture has been solved, but the solver, Grigori Perelman, has not pursued the conditions necessary to claim the prize. P versus NP Main article: P = NP problem The question is whether, for all problems for which a computer can verify a given solution quickly (that is, in polynomial time), it can also find that solution quickly. This is generally considered the most important open question in theoretical computer science as it has far-reaching consequences in mathematics, philosophy and cryptography (see P=NP proof consequences). The official statement of the problem was given by Stephen Cook. The Hodge conjecture The Hodge conjecture is that for projective algebraic varieties, Hodge cycles are rational linear combinations of algebraic cycles. The official statement of the problem was given by Pierre Deligne. The Poincaré conjecture In topology, a sphere with a two-dimensional surface is essentially characterized by the fact that it is simply connected. It is also true that every 2-dimensional surface which is both compact and simply connected is topologically a sphere. The Poincaré conjecture is that this is also true for spheres with three-dimensional surfaces. The question had long been solved for all dimensions above three. Solving it for three is central to the problem of classifying 3-manifolds. The official statement of the problem was given by John Milnor. A proof of this conjecture was given by Grigori Perelman in 2003; its review was completed in August 2006, and Perelman was selected to receive the Fields Medal for his solution. Perelman declined the award. Maths genius declines top prize 22 August 2006 The Riemann hypothesis The Riemann hypothesis is that all nontrivial zeros of the analytical continuation of the Riemann zeta function have a real part of 1/2. A proof or disproof of this would have far-reaching implications in number theory, especially for the distribution of prime numbers. This was Hilbert's eighth problem, and is still considered an important open problem a century later. The official statement of the problem was given by Enrico Bombieri. Yang–Mills existence and mass gap In physics, classical Yang-Mills theory is a generalization of the Maxwell theory of electromagnetism where the chromo''-electromagnetic field itself carries charges. As a classical field theory it has solutions which travel at the speed of light so that its quantum version should describe massless particles (gluons). However, the postulated phenomenon of color confinement permits only bound states of gluons, forming massive particles. This is the mass gap. Another aspect of confinement is asymptotic freedom which makes it conceivable that quantum Yang-Mills theory exists without restriction to low energy scales. The problem is to establish rigorously the existence of the quantum Yang-Mills theory and a mass gap. The official statement of the problem was given by Arthur Jaffe and Edward Witten. Navier–Stokes existence and smoothness The Navier-Stokes equations describe the motion of liquids and gases. Although they were found in the 19th century, they still are not well understood. The problem is to make progress toward a mathematical theory that will give us insight into these equations. The official statement of the problem was given by Charles Fefferman. The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture The Birch and Swinnerton-Dyer conjecture deals with a certain type of equation, those defining elliptic curves over the rational numbers. The conjecture is that there is a simple way to tell whether such equations have a finite or infinite number of rational solutions. Hilbert's tenth problem dealt with a more general type of equation, and in that case it was proven that there is no way to decide whether a given equation even has any solutions. The official statement of the problem was given by Andrew Wiles. References . Available online at http://www.claymath.org/library/. External links The Millennium Grand Challenge in Mathematics The Millennium Prize Problems | Millennium_Prize_Problems |@lemmatized millennium:4 prize:6 problem:20 seven:1 mathematics:4 state:2 clay:1 institute:2 currently:1 six:1 remain:1 unsolved:1 correct:1 solution:7 result:1 u:2 sometimes:1 call:1 award:2 poincaré:3 conjecture:9 solve:3 solver:1 grigori:2 perelman:4 pursue:1 condition:1 necessary:1 claim:1 p:3 versus:1 np:3 main:1 article:1 question:3 whether:3 computer:2 verify:1 give:11 quickly:2 polynomial:1 time:1 also:3 find:2 generally:1 consider:2 important:2 open:2 theoretical:1 science:1 far:2 reach:2 consequence:2 philosophy:1 cryptography:1 see:1 proof:3 official:7 statement:7 stephen:1 cook:1 hodge:3 projective:1 algebraic:2 variety:1 cycle:2 rational:3 linear:1 combination:1 pierre:1 deligne:1 topology:1 sphere:3 two:1 dimensional:3 surface:3 essentially:1 characterize:1 fact:1 simply:2 connect:2 true:2 every:1 compact:1 topologically:1 three:3 long:1 dimension:1 central:1 classify:1 manifold:1 john:1 milnor:1 review:1 complete:1 august:2 select:1 receive:1 field:3 medal:1 decline:2 maths:1 genius:1 top:1 riemann:3 hypothesis:2 nontrivial:1 zero:1 analytical:1 continuation:1 zeta:1 function:1 real:1 part:1 disproof:1 would:1 implication:1 number:4 theory:7 especially:1 distribution:1 prime:1 hilbert:2 eighth:1 still:2 century:2 later:1 enrico:1 bombieri:1 yang:4 mill:4 existence:3 mass:3 gap:3 physic:1 classical:2 generalization:1 maxwell:1 electromagnetism:1 chromo:1 electromagnetic:1 carry:1 charge:1 travel:1 speed:1 light:1 quantum:3 version:1 describe:2 massless:1 particle:2 gluon:2 however:1 postulated:1 phenomenon:1 color:1 confinement:2 permit:1 bound:1 form:1 massive:1 another:1 aspect:1 asymptotic:1 freedom:1 make:2 conceivable:1 exists:1 without:1 restriction:1 low:1 energy:1 scale:1 establish:1 rigorously:1 arthur:1 jaffe:1 edward:1 witten:1 navier:2 stokes:2 smoothness:1 equation:6 motion:1 liquid:1 gas:1 although:1 well:1 understood:1 progress:1 toward:1 mathematical:1 insight:1 charles:1 fefferman:1 birch:2 swinnerton:2 dyer:2 deal:1 certain:1 type:2 define:1 elliptic:1 curve:1 simple:1 way:2 tell:1 finite:1 infinite:1 tenth:1 dealt:1 general:1 case:1 prove:1 decide:1 even:1 andrew:1 wile:1 reference:1 available:1 online:1 http:1 www:1 claymath:1 org:1 library:1 external:1 link:1 grand:1 challenge:1 |@bigram poincaré_conjecture:3 grigori_perelman:2 hodge_conjecture:2 pierre_deligne:1 riemann_hypothesis:2 riemann_zeta:1 zeta_function:1 proof_disproof:1 yang_mill:4 edward_witten:1 navier_stokes:2 birch_swinnerton:2 swinnerton_dyer:2 dyer_conjecture:2 elliptic_curve:1 andrew_wile:1 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
7,245 | Gas_mask | A gas mask is a mask worn over the face to protect the wearer from inhaling "airborne pollutants" and toxic gases. The mask forms a sealed cover over the nose and mouth, but may also cover the eyes and other vulnerable soft tissues of the face. Some gas masks are also respirators, though the word gas mask is often used to refer to military equipment (e.g. Field Protective Mask, etc.) (The user of the gas mask is not protected from gas that the skin can absorb.) Airborne toxic materials may1 be gaseous (for example the chlorine gas used in World War I) or particulate (such as many biological agents developed for weapons such as bacteria, viruses and toxins). Many gas masks include protection from both types. During riots where tear gas or CS-gas is employed by riot police, gas masks are commonly used by police and rioters alike. Gas masks have a limited useful lifespan that is related to the absorbent capacity of the filter. Once the filter has been saturated with hazardous chemicals, it ceases to provide protection and the user may be injured. Most gas masks use sealing caps over the air intake to prevent the filter from degrading prior to use, but the protective abilities also degrade as the filter ages or if it is exposed to moisture and heat. Very old unused gas mask filters from World War II may not be effective at all in protecting the user, and can potentially cause harm to the user due to long-term changes in the filter chemical composition. Aside from serving their functional purposes, gas masks are also used as emblems in Industrial music, and by graffiti taggers because the mask protects them from the graffiti canister's toxic fumes. Also closely related is the eroticization of gas masks as a sexual fetish. The traditional gas mask style with two small circular eye windows originated when the only suitable material for these eye windows was glass or perspex; as glass is notoriously brittle, glass eye windows had to be kept small and thick. Later, discovery of polycarbonate allowed gas masks with a big fullface window, as in the image at this link. Some have a rubber tube, like the Turkish Troops' (mehmetçik), added directly to the mouth section of the mask for drinking water. Some have one or two filters attached to the face piece: image. Some have a large filter connected to the face piece by a hose: image. Principles of construction MCU-2/P Protective Mask on a U.S. Navy member Gas mask used by the French military. Cross section of filter of gas mask. Filter consists of plastic box, top with gasket ring, filtering paper and absorbent material. Absorbing material is removed. Unlike other breathing devices, gas masks do not require the user to carry an air supply as in the use of scuba gear. However, this means that the wearer depends on the air in the atmosphere, the same medium of the toxic materials. Thus, the mask must remove them and relay clean air to the wearer. There are three main ways of achieving this: filtration, absorption and adsorption, and reaction and exchange. Absorption is the process of being drawn into a (usually larger) body, or substrate, and adsorption is the process of deposition upon a surface. This can be used to remove both particulate and gaseous hazards. Although some form of reaction may take place, it is not necessary; the method may work by attractive charges, for example, if the target particles are positively charged, use a negatively charged substrate. Examples of substrates include activated carbon, and zeolitess. This effect can be very simple and highly effective, for example using a damp cloth to cover the mouth and nose whilst escaping a fire. While this method can be effective at trapping particulates produced by combustion, it does not filter out harmful gases which may be toxic or which displace the oxygen required for survival. Reaction and exchange This principle relies upon the fact that substances that can do harm to humans are usually more reactive than air. This method of separation will use some form of generally reactive substance (for example an acid) coating or supported by some solid material. An example is resins. These can be created with different groups of atoms (usually called functional groups) that exhibit different properties. Thus a resin can be tailored to a particular toxic group. When the reactive substance comes in contact with the resin, it will bond to it, removing it from the air stream. It may also exchange with a less harmful substance at this site. Though it was crude, the hypo helmet was a stopgap measure for British troops in the trenches that offered at least some protection during a gas attack. As the months passed and the use of poison gas occurred more frequently, more sophisticated masks were developed and introduced. There are two main difficulties with gas mask design: The user may be exposed to many different types of toxic material. Military personnel are especially prone to being exposed to a diverse range of toxic gases. However if the mask is for a particular use (such as the protection from a specific toxic material in a factory), then the design can be much simpler and the cost lower. The protection will wear off over time. Filters will clog up, substrates for absorption will fill up, and reactive filters will run out of reactive substance. This means that the user only has protection for a limited time, and then they must either replace the filter device in the mask, or use a new mask. A primitive respirator was designed by A. von Humboldt in 1799 for underground mining. Various gas masks employed on the Western Front during World War I. Finnish civilian gas mask from 1939. These masks were distributed to the male head of families during World War II. History and development of the gas mask A primitive respirator to be used by miners was introduced by Alexander von Humboldt already in 1799, when he worked as a mining engineer in Prussia. The gas mask was patented on June 12, 1849, by American Lewis Haslett in Louisville, Kentucky. It was an "Inhaler or Lung Protector," issued for an air purifying respirator. Haslett's device filtered dust from the air. Early versions were constructed by the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse in 1854 and the physicist John Tyndall in the 1870s. One such design began as a "Safety Hood and Smoke Protector" invented by African American inventor, Garrett A. Morgan in 1912, and patented in 1914. It was a simple device, consisting of a cotton hood with two hoses which hung down to the floor, allowing the wearer to breathe the safer air found there. In addition, moist sponges were inserted at the end of the hoses in order to better filter the air. Morgan won acclaim for his device when in 1916 he, his brother, and two other volunteers used his device to rescue numerous men from the gas and smoke-filled tunnels beneath Lake Erie in the Cleveland Waterworks. The first use of poison gas on the Western Front was on 22 April 1915, by the Germans at Ypres, against Canadian and French colonial troops. The initial response was to equip troops with cotton mouth pads for protection. Soon afterwards the British added a long cloth which was used to tie chemical-soaked mouth pads into place, and which was called the Black Veil Respirator. Dr. Cluny MacPherson of The Royal Newfoundland Regiment brought the idea of a mask made of chemical absorbing fabric and which fitted over the entire head to England, and this was developed into the British Hypo Helmet of June 1915. This primitive type of mask went through several stages of development before being superseded in 1916 by the canister gas mask of 1916. This had a mask connected to a tin can containing the absorbent materials by a hose. In 1915, American chemist and inventor credited with the invention of the gas mask Who Was Who in America, Vol. V, 1969-1973 James Bert Garner read a newspaper article describing a gas attack on British forces which he hypothesized had employed chlorine gas. Remembering experiments he had performed while teaching at the University of Chicago, he set about creating the first gas mask which he tested on two of his associates in a gas filled chamber. Following the successful completion of the test, he provided the results to the British government. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 30th, 1960 Garner's mask was the first to be used on the Western front during World War I. PG-13.eps Also in World War I, since dogs were frequently used on the front lines, a special type of gas mask was developed that dogs were trained to wear. Gas-Masks for Dogs / Dumb Heroes of the Fighting Front, Popular Science monthly, December 1918, page 75, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA75 The British Royal Society of Chemistry claims that British scientist Edward Harrison developed the first practical gas mask for mass production, a claim supported by a thank-you note written by Winston Churchill. In America thousands of gas masks were produced for American as well as Allied troops. Mine Safety Appliances was a chief producer. This mask was later used widely in industry. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, November 30th, 1960 Gas masks development since has mirrored the development of chemical agents in warfare, filling the need to protect against ever more deadly threats, biological weapons, and radioactive dust in the nuclear era. However, where agents that cause harm through contact or penetration of the skin occurs, such as blister agent or nerve agent, a gas mask alone is not sufficient protection, and full protective clothing must be worn in addition, to protect from contact with the atmosphere. For reasons of civil defense and personal protection, individuals often purchase gas masks in the belief that they protect against the harmful effects of an attack with nuclear, biological, or chemical (NBC) agents; which is only partially true, as gas masks protect only against respiratory absorption. Whilst most military gas masks are designed to be capable of protection against spectrum of NBC agents, they can be coupled with filter canisters that are proof against those agents (heavier) or just against riot control agents and smoke (lighter, and often used for training purposes); likewise there are lightweight masks solely for use in riot control agents and not for NBC situations. Although thorough training and the availability of gas masks and other protective equipment can render the casualty-causing effects of an attack by chemical agents nullified, troops who are forced to operate in full protective gear are less efficient in completing their given tasks, tire easily, and may be affected psychologically by the threat of attack by these weapons. During the Cold War era, it was seen as inevitable that there would be a constant NBC threat on the battlefield, and thus troops needed protection in which they could remain fully functional; thus protective gear, and especially gas masks have evolved to incorporate innovations in terms of increasing user-comfort, and in compatibility with other equipment (from drinking devices to artificial respiration tubes, to communications systems etc). The gas mask has thus now arrived at a 'fourth generation' of development. History of Absorbents and Neutralizers Activated charcoal is a common component of gas masks. It is a carbon with an extremely high surface area and which attracts all manner of pollutants from air and water. Pollutants do not react with the carbon but are bonded to it in a process called adsorption. Over time the activated carbon becomes thoroughly coated and it ceases to remove pollutants. However, the charcoal can be reactivated and restored to its original state by baking the charcoal with high heat, which either evaporates or burns off the pollutants. In the first gas masks of World War I, it was initially found that wood charcoal was a good adsorbent of poison gases. In about 1918 it was found that charcoals made from the shells and seeds of various fruits and nuts such as coconuts, chestnuts, horse-chestnuts, and peach pits performed much better than wood charcoal. These waste materials from food products were collected from the public in recycling programs to assist the war effort. Once Worthless Things that have Suddenly Become of Value, Popular Science monthly, December 1918, page 80, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA80 See also NBC suit References External links Le Masque à Gaz International historical gas mask gallery, with collection of safety and propaganda posters. Gas Masks UK Information on gas masks from many countries. The Invention of the Gas Mask What you should know about gas masks. about gas masks. How Stuff Works - Gas Masks Gas Masks Guide to selecting safe and dependable gas masks Your Gas mask Guide to the maintenance of your gas mask Respirator Fact Sheet CBRN SCBA NIOSH Approved Respirators List of NIOSH Approved CBRN SCBA respirators World War 1 gas mask technology - Combating Man's Deadliest Peril: How the unending struggle between gas and mask is carried on, Popular Science monthly, December 1918, page 64, Scanned by Google Books: http://books.google.com/books?id=EikDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA64 | Gas_mask |@lemmatized gas:66 mask:69 worn:1 face:4 protect:8 wearer:4 inhale:1 airborne:2 pollutant:5 toxic:9 form:3 sealed:1 cover:3 nose:2 mouth:5 may:9 also:8 eye:4 vulnerable:1 soft:1 tissue:1 respirator:8 though:2 word:1 often:3 use:24 refer:1 military:4 equipment:3 e:1 g:1 field:1 protective:7 etc:2 user:8 skin:2 absorb:3 material:10 gaseous:2 example:6 chlorine:2 world:8 war:10 particulate:3 many:4 biological:3 agent:11 develop:5 weapon:3 bacteria:1 virus:1 toxin:1 include:2 protection:11 type:4 riot:4 tear:1 c:1 employ:3 police:2 commonly:1 rioter:1 alike:1 limited:2 useful:1 lifespan:1 relate:2 absorbent:4 capacity:1 filter:18 saturate:1 hazardous:1 chemical:7 cease:2 provide:2 injure:1 seal:1 cap:1 air:11 intake:1 prevent:1 degrade:2 prior:1 ability:1 age:1 expose:3 moisture:1 heat:2 old:1 unused:1 ii:2 effective:3 potentially:1 cause:3 harm:3 due:1 long:2 term:2 change:1 composition:1 aside:1 serve:1 functional:3 purpose:2 emblem:1 industrial:1 music:1 graffiti:2 tagger:1 canister:3 fume:1 closely:1 eroticization:1 sexual:1 fetish:1 traditional:1 style:1 two:6 small:2 circular:1 window:4 originate:1 suitable:1 glass:3 perspex:1 notoriously:1 brittle:1 keep:1 thick:1 later:2 discovery:1 polycarbonate:1 allow:2 big:1 fullface:1 image:3 link:2 rubber:1 tube:2 like:1 turkish:1 troop:7 mehmetçik:1 add:2 directly:1 section:2 drinking:1 water:2 one:2 attach:1 piece:2 large:2 connect:2 hose:4 principle:2 construction:1 mcu:1 p:1 u:1 navy:1 member:1 french:2 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british:7 trench:1 offer:1 least:1 attack:5 month:1 pass:1 poison:3 occur:2 frequently:2 sophisticated:1 introduce:2 difficulty:1 design:5 personnel:1 especially:2 prone:1 diverse:1 range:1 specific:1 factory:1 much:2 simpler:1 cost:1 low:1 wear:3 time:3 clog:1 fill:4 run:1 either:2 replace:1 new:1 primitive:3 von:2 humboldt:2 underground:1 mining:2 various:2 western:3 front:5 finnish:1 civilian:1 distribute:1 male:1 head:2 family:1 history:2 development:5 miner:1 alexander:1 already:1 engineer:1 prussia:1 patent:2 june:2 american:4 lewis:1 haslett:2 louisville:1 kentucky:1 inhaler:1 lung:1 protector:2 issue:1 purify:1 dust:2 early:1 version:1 construct:1 scottish:1 chemist:2 john:2 stenhouse:1 physicist:1 tyndall:1 begin:1 safety:3 hood:2 smoke:3 invent:1 african:1 inventor:2 garrett:1 morgan:2 cotton:2 hang:1 floor:1 safer:1 find:3 addition:2 moist:1 sponge:1 insert:1 end:1 order:1 well:2 win:1 acclaim:1 brother:1 volunteer:1 rescue:1 numerous:1 men:1 tunnel:1 beneath:1 lake:1 erie:1 cleveland:1 waterworks:1 first:5 april:1 german:1 ypres:1 canadian:1 colonial:1 initial:1 response:1 equip:1 pad:2 soon:1 afterwards:1 tie:1 soak:1 black:1 veil:1 dr:1 cluny:1 macpherson:1 royal:2 newfoundland:1 regiment:1 bring:1 idea:1 make:2 fabric:1 fit:1 entire:1 england:1 go:1 several:1 stage:1 supersede:1 tin:1 contain:1 credit:1 invention:2 america:2 vol:1 v:1 james:1 bert:1 garner:2 read:1 newspaper:1 article:1 describe:1 force:2 hypothesize:1 remember:1 experiment:1 perform:2 teach:1 university:1 chicago:1 set:1 test:2 associate:1 chamber:1 follow:1 successful:1 completion:1 result:1 government:1 pittsburgh:2 post:2 gazette:2 november:2 pg:4 eps:1 since:2 dog:3 line:1 special:1 train:1 dumb:1 hero:1 fighting:1 popular:3 science:3 monthly:3 december:3 page:3 scan:3 google:6 book:9 http:3 com:3 id:3 eikdaaaambaj:3 society:1 chemistry:1 claim:2 scientist:1 edward:1 harrison:1 practical:1 mass:1 production:1 thank:1 note:1 write:1 winston:1 churchill:1 thousand:1 allied:1 mine:1 appliance:1 chief:1 producer:1 widely:1 industry:1 mirror:1 warfare:1 need:2 ever:1 deadly:2 threat:3 radioactive:1 nuclear:2 era:2 penetration:1 blister:1 nerve:1 alone:1 sufficient:1 full:2 clothing:1 reason:1 civil:1 defense:1 personal:1 individual:1 purchase:1 belief:1 nbc:5 partially:1 true:1 respiratory:1 capable:1 spectrum:1 couple:1 proof:1 heavy:1 control:2 lighter:1 training:2 likewise:1 lightweight:1 solely:1 situation:1 thorough:1 availability:1 render:1 casualty:1 nullify:1 operate:1 efficient:1 complete:1 give:1 task:1 tire:1 easily:1 affect:1 psychologically:1 cold:1 see:2 inevitable:1 would:1 constant:1 battlefield:1 could:1 remain:1 fully:1 evolve:1 incorporate:1 innovation:1 increase:1 comfort:1 compatibility:1 drink:1 artificial:1 respiration:1 communication:1 system:1 arrive:1 fourth:1 generation:1 neutralizers:1 activate:1 charcoal:6 common:1 component:1 extremely:1 high:2 area:1 attract:1 manner:1 react:1 become:2 thoroughly:1 coat:1 reactivate:1 restore:1 original:1 state:1 bake:1 evaporate:1 burn:1 initially:1 wood:2 good:2 adsorbent:1 shell:1 seed:1 fruit:1 nut:1 coconut:1 chestnut:2 horse:1 peach:1 pit:1 waste:1 food:1 product:1 collect:1 public:1 recycle:1 program:1 assist:1 effort:1 worthless:1 thing:1 suddenly:1 value:1 suit:1 reference:1 external:1 le:1 masque:1 à:1 gaz:1 international:1 historical:1 gallery:1 collection:1 propaganda:1 poster:1 uk:1 information:1 country:1 know:1 stuff:1 guide:2 select:1 safe:1 dependable:1 maintenance:1 sheet:1 cbrn:2 scba:2 niosh:2 approve:2 list:1 technology:1 combat:1 man:1 peril:1 unending:1 struggle:1 |@bigram soft_tissue:1 closely_relate:1 sexual_fetish:1 absorbent_material:2 positively_charge:1 negatively_charge:1 von_humboldt:2 louisville_kentucky:1 lake_erie:1 soon_afterwards:1 winston_churchill:1 nerve_agent:1 protective_gear:2 fruit_nut:1 external_link:1 propaganda_poster:1 |
7,246 | Arabian_Prince | Arabian Prince is the stage name of Mik Lezan (born June 17, 1965 in Compton, California), a rapper and hip hop producer, best known for being an original member of the rap group, N.W.A. Biography Born and raised in Compton, California and later moved to Inglewood, Arabian Prince released Electro Singles on Macola Records, but when he left to join NWA Macola bootlegged his singles into the Album Situation Hot. In the following year, Arabian Prince joined up with the first gangsta rap group N.W.A. three years after graduating Serra High School in Gardena, CA. He started working with Bobby Jimmy & the Critters in 1984. He also produced the hit single and album for JJ Fad, "Supersonic." He was a founding member of N.W.A. but when fellow member Ice Cube came back from the University of Arizona in 1988 he found himself to be surplus to the band — Eazy-E, Ice Cube and MC Ren were the main performers, DJ Yella was the turntablist and Dr. Dre was the main producer. After leaving N.W.A., Arabian Prince continued a solo career. His second album Brother Arab was released in 1989, although it sold poorly. Arabian Prince continued a solo career again and he released his third album Where's My Bytches in 1993, which was his last album. He recently started releasing music again with his Professor X project on the Dutch label Clone records. In 2007, he performed as a DJ on the 2K Sports Holiday Bounce Tour with artists from the Stones Throw label. In 2008, Stones Throw will release a compilation of his electro-rap material from the 1980s. Arabian Prince | Stones Throw Records One of his songs was included on the 2007 video game College Hoops 2K8. Discography Solo Brother Arab (1989) Orpheus Records Situation Hot (1990) Macola Records Where's My Bytches (1993) Da Bozak Records. Professor X (2007/2008) Clone Records Innovative Life: The Anthology (2008) Stones Throw Records Releases N.W.A. Affiliate Album | Hip Hop News > HipHopDX.com Stones Throw Records With N.W.A N.W.A. and the Posse (1987) Straight Outta Compton (1988) References External links Official Site Official Myspace Interview with Arabian Prince & Biography on westcoastpioneers Arabian Prince RBMA video lecture session Pt.1 Arabian Prince RBMA video lecture session Pt.2 Arabian Prince RBMA video lecture session Pt.3 August 2008 Interview with L.A. Record | Arabian_Prince |@lemmatized arabian:10 prince:10 stage:1 name:1 mik:1 lezan:1 bear:1 june:1 compton:3 california:2 rapper:1 hip:2 hop:2 producer:2 best:1 know:1 original:1 member:3 rap:3 group:2 n:7 w:7 biography:2 born:1 raise:1 later:1 move:1 inglewood:1 release:6 electro:2 single:3 macola:3 record:10 leave:2 join:2 nwa:1 bootleg:1 album:6 situation:2 hot:2 following:1 year:2 first:1 gangsta:1 three:1 graduate:1 serra:1 high:1 school:1 gardena:1 ca:1 start:2 work:1 bobby:1 jimmy:1 critter:1 also:1 produce:1 hit:1 jj:1 fad:1 supersonic:1 founding:1 fellow:1 ice:2 cube:2 come:1 back:1 university:1 arizona:1 find:1 surplus:1 band:1 eazy:1 e:1 mc:1 ren:1 main:2 performer:1 dj:2 yella:1 turntablist:1 dr:1 dre:1 continue:2 solo:3 career:2 second:1 brother:2 arab:2 although:1 sell:1 poorly:1 third:1 bytches:2 last:1 recently:1 music:1 professor:2 x:2 project:1 dutch:1 label:2 clone:2 perform:1 sport:1 holiday:1 bounce:1 tour:1 artist:1 stone:5 throw:5 compilation:1 material:1 one:1 song:1 include:1 video:4 game:1 college:1 hoop:1 discography:1 orpheus:1 da:1 bozak:1 innovative:1 life:1 anthology:1 affiliate:1 news:1 hiphopdx:1 com:1 posse:1 straight:1 outta:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 official:2 site:1 myspace:1 interview:2 westcoastpioneers:1 rbma:3 lecture:3 session:3 pt:3 august:1 l:1 |@bigram hip_hop:2 gangsta_rap:1 ice_cube:2 eazy_e:1 mc_ren:1 dj_yella:1 dr_dre:1 straight_outta:1 outta_compton:1 external_link:1 |
7,247 | Gilbert_Plains | Gilbert Plains is a town in Manitoba, Canada. The population is approximately 750, with an additional 1000 in the surrounding municipality of Gilbert Plains. The town lies on Highway 5 and the CN railway line, between Dauphin and Grandview, or about 250 miles NW of Winnipeg. Incorporated in 1906, the original townsite was some miles to the south. The townsite was named for Gilbert Ross, a Métis man who was living in the region when the first European settler, Glenlyon Campbell, arrived. The first white baby born in the Gilbert Plains district was Myrtle McCurdy, while the first white boy was Gilbert Clifford Best in 1900. Gilbert Plains is situated on the Valley River, in the parkland country between Riding Mountain National Park and Duck Mountain Provincial Park. It is primarily a service centre for the surrounding farms. It also has a pleasant 18-hole golf course, the back nine being considerably more challenging than the front 9. | Gilbert_Plains |@lemmatized gilbert:6 plain:4 town:2 manitoba:1 canada:1 population:1 approximately:1 additional:1 surround:1 municipality:1 lie:1 highway:1 cn:1 railway:1 line:1 dauphin:1 grandview:1 mile:2 nw:1 winnipeg:1 incorporate:1 original:1 townsite:2 south:1 name:1 ross:1 métis:1 man:1 live:1 region:1 first:3 european:1 settler:1 glenlyon:1 campbell:1 arrive:1 white:2 baby:1 bear:1 district:1 myrtle:1 mccurdy:1 boy:1 clifford:1 best:1 situate:1 valley:1 river:1 parkland:1 country:1 rid:1 mountain:2 national:1 park:2 duck:1 provincial:1 primarily:1 service:1 centre:1 surrounding:1 farm:1 also:1 pleasant:1 hole:1 golf:1 course:1 back:1 nine:1 considerably:1 challenging:1 front:1 |@bigram golf_course:1 |
7,248 | List_of_food_additives,_Codex_Alimentarius | The following is a List of food additives as organized by the Codex Alimentarius Committee. The International Numbering System numbers below (INS #) are assigned by the committee to identify each food additive. The INS numbers generally correspond to E numbers for the same compound - e.g. INS 102, Tartrazine, is also E-102. INS numbers are not unique and in fact, one number may be assigned to a group of like compounds. On packaging in the European Union, approved food additives are written with a prefix of 'E'. Australia and New Zealand do not use a prefix letter when listing additives in the ingredients. In the table below, food additives approved for Europe are listed with an 'E' , and those approved for Australia and New Zealand with an 'A' , . See also the list of E numbers. INS # Approvals NamesType100AEturmeric, curcumincolour (yellow and orange)101AEriboflavin (vitamin B2)colour (yellow and orange)102AEtartrazinecolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #5)103Aalkanet, chrysoine resorcinolcolour (red)104AEQuinoline Yellow WScolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: D&C Yellow #10)107EYellow 2Gcolour (yellow and orange)110AESunset Yellow FCFcolour (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #6)111?EOrange GGNcolour (orange)120AECochineal, carminescolour (red)121Citrus red 2, Orcein, Orchilcolour (red)122AEazorubine, carmoisinecolour (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10)123Eamaranthcolour (red) (FDA: [DELISTED] Red #2)124AEBrilliant Scarlet 4R, Ponceau 4Rcolour (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8)125Ponceau SX, Scarlet GNcolour126Ponceau 6Rcolour127Eerythrosinecolour (red) (FDA: FD&C Red #3)128ERed 2Gcolour129AEAllura red ACcolour (FDA: FD&C Red #40)130Indanthrene blue RScolour (blue)131EPatent blue Vcolour (blue)132AEindigo carmine, indigotinecolour (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2)133AEBrilliant blue FCFcolour (FDA: FD&C Blue #1)140AEchlorophylls and chlorophyllinscolour (green)141AEcopper complexes of chlorophyllscolour (green)142AEGreen Scolour (green)143AEFast green FCFcolour (FDA: FD&C Green #3)150aAEcaramel I - plaincolour (brown and black)150bAEcaramel II - caustic sulfite processcolour (brown and black)150cAEcaramel III - ammonia processcolour (brown and black)150dAEcaramel IV - ammonia sulfite processcolour (brown and black)151AEBlack PN, Brilliant Black BNcolour (brown and black)152??Black 7984colour (brown and black)153AEVegetable carbon, carbon blackcolour (brown and black)154EBrown FKcolour (brown and black)155AEChocolate Brown HTcolour160aAEcarotenes - alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, gamma-carotenecolour160bEannatto, bixin, norbixincolour160cAEpaprika extract, capsanthin, capsorubincolour160dAElycopenecolour160eAEbeta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30)colour160fAEbeta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl estercolour161aAflavoxanthincolour161bAEluteincolour161cAcryptoxanthincolour161dArubixanthincolour161eAviolaxanthincolour161fArhodoxanthincolour161gEcanthaxanthincolour161h??zeaxanthincolour161i??citranaxanthincolour161j??astaxanthincolour162AEbeet red, beetroot red, betanincolour163AEanthocyaninscolour164ASaffron, crocetin and crocin165gardenia bluecolour166sandalwoodcolour170Ecalcium carbonates, chalkcolour (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser171AEtitanium dioxidecolour (white)172AEiron oxides and hydroxidescolour173Ealuminiumcolour (silver)174Esilvercolour (silver)175Egoldcolour (gold)180Elitholrubine, Lithol Rubine BK, Pigment Rubine, latolrubinecolour181Etanninscolour, emulsifier, stabiliser, thickener182orchilcolour200Esorbic acidpreservative201sodium sorbatepreservative202Epotassium sorbatepreservative203Ecalcium sorbatepreservative209heptyl p-hydroxybenzoatepreservative210Ebenzoic acidpreservative211AEsodium benzoatepreservative212AEpotassium benzoatepreservative213AEcalcium benzoatepreservative214Eethyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative215Esodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative216Apropylparaben (propyl para-hydroxybenzoate)preservative217sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative218AEmethylparaben (methyl para-hydroxybenzoate)preservative219Esodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoatepreservative220AEsulfur dioxidepreservative, antioxidant221AEsodium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant222AEsodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite)preservative, antioxidant223AEsodium metabisulfitepreservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent224AEpotassium metabisulfitepreservative, antioxidant225Apotassium sulfite, sodium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant226Ecalcium sulfitepreservative, antioxidant227Ecalcium bisulfite, calcium hydrogen sulfitepreservative, antioxidant228AEpotassium bisulfite, potassium hydrogen sulfitepreservative, antioxidant230Ebiphenyl, diphenylpreservative231Eorthophenyl phenol, 2-hydroxybiphenylpreservative232Esodium orthophenyl phenolpreservative233thiabendazolepreservative234AEnisinpreservative235AEpimaricin, natamycinpreservative236formic acidpreservative237sodium formatepreservative238calcium formatepreservative239Ehexamine (hexamethylene tetramine)preservative240formaldehydepreservative241gum guaicumpreservative242AEdimethyl dicarbonatepreservative249AEpotassium nitritepreservative, colour fixative250AEsodium nitritepreservative, colour fixative251AEsodium nitratepreservative, colour fixative252Apotassium nitratepreservative, colour fixative260AEglacial acetic acidpreservative, acidity regulator261AEpotassium acetatespreservative, acidity regulator262AEsodium acetate, sodium hydrogen acetatepreservative, acidity regulator263AEcalcium acetatepreservative, acidity regulator264Aammonium acetatepreservative, acidity regulator265dehydroacetic acidpreservative266sodium dehydroacetatepreservative270AElactic acidacidity regulator, preservative, antioxidant280AEpropionic acidpreservative281AEsodium propionatepreservative282AEcalcium propionatepreservative283AEpotassium propionatepreservative284Eboric acidpreservative285Esodium tetraborate, boraxpreservative290AEcarbon dioxideacidity regulator, propellant296AEmalic acidacidity regulator297AEfumaric acidacidity regulator300AEascorbic acidantioxidant (water soluble)301AEsodium ascorbateantioxidant (water soluble)302AEcalcium ascorbateantioxidant (water soluble)303Apotassium ascorbateantioxidant (water soluble)304AEascorbyl palmitate, ascorbyl stearateantioxidant (fat soluble)306AEtocopherol concentrate (natural)antioxidant307AEdl-alpha-tocopherol (synthetic)antioxidant308AEgamma-tocopherol(synthetic)antioxidant309AEdelta-tocopherol(synthetic)antioxidant310AEpropyl gallateantioxidant311AEoctyl gallateantioxidant312AEdodecyl gallateantioxidant315AEerythorbic acidantioxidant316AEsodium erythorbateantioxidant317??erythorbin acidantioxidant318??sodium erythorbinantioxidant319Atert-butylhydroquinoneantioxidant320AEbutylated hydroxyanisole (BHA)antioxidant (fat soluble)321AEbutylated hydroxytoluene (BHT)antioxidant (fat soluble)322AElecithinsantioxidant, emulsifier325AEsodium lactatefood acid326AEpotassium lactatefood acid327AEcalcium lactatefood acid328Aammonium lactatefood acid329Amagnesium lactatefood acid330AEcitric acidfood acid331AEsodium citratesfood acid332AEpotassium citratesfood acid333AEcalcium citratesfood acid, firming agent334AEL(+)-tartaric acidfood acid335AEsodium tartratesfood acid336AEpotassium tartratesfood acid337AEpotassium sodium tartratefood acid338AEphosphoric acidfood acid339AEsodium phosphatesmineral salt340AEpotassium phosphatesmineral salt341AEcalcium phosphatesmineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent342Aammonium phosphatesmineral salt343AEmagnesium phosphatesmineral salt, anti-caking agent344lecithin citratepreservative345magnesium citrateacidity regulator349Aammonium malatefood acid350AEsodium malatesfood acid351AEpotassium malatefood acid352AEcalcium malatesfood acid353AEmetatartaric acidfood acid, emulsifier354AEcalcium tartratefood acid, emulsifier355AEadipic acidfood acid356Esodium adipatefood acid357AEpotassium adipatefood acid359ammonium adipatesacidity regulator363Esuccinic acidfood acid364sodium succinatesacidity regulator, flavour enhancer365Asodium fumaratefood acid366Apotassium fumaratefood acid367Acalcium fumaratefood acid368Aammonium fumaratefood acid3701,4-heptonolactonefood acid375Aniacin (nicotinic acid), nicotinamide (vitamin B3)colour retention agent380AEtriammonium citratefood acid381Aferric ammonium citrate, ammonium ferrocitratefood acid384isopropyl citratesantioxidant, preservative385AEcalcium disodium EDTApreservative386disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetateantioxidant, preservative387oxystearinantioxidant, sequestrant388thiodipropionic acidantioxidant389dilauryl thiodipropionateantioxidant390distearyl thiodipropionateantioxidant391phytic acidpreservative399calcium lactobionatestabilizer400AEalginic acidthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier401AEsodium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier402AEpotassium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier403AEammonium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier404AEcalcium alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier405AEpropylene glycol alginate, propane-1,2-diol alginatethickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier406AEagarthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent407AEcarrageenanthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier407aAEprocessed eucheuma seaweedthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier409Aarabinogalactanthickener, vegetable gum410AElocust bean gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier412AEguar gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer413AEtragacanththickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier414AEgum acacia, gum arabicthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier415AExanthan gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer416AEkaraya gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier417Etara gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer418AEgellan gumthickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier420AEsorbitolhumectant, emulsifier, sweetener421AEmannitolhumectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener422AEglycerinhumectant, sweetener425Ekonjac, konjac gum, konjac glucomannatethickener, vegetable gum430?polyoxyethylene (8) stearateemulsifier, stabilizer431Epolyoxyethylene (40) stearateemulsifier432Epolysorbate 20emulsifier433AEpolysorbate 80emulsifier434Epolysorbate 40emulsifier435AEpolysorbate 60emulsifier436AEpolysorbate 65emulsifier440AEpectinvegetable gum, emulsifier441AEgelatine (not classified as an additive)gelling agent, emulsifier442AEammonium phosphatidesemulsifier443??brominated vegetable oilemulsifier, stabiliser444AEsucrose acetate isobutyrateemulsifier, stabiliser445Eglycerol esters of wood rosinemulsifier450AEdiphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier451AEtriphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier452AEpolyphosphatesmineral salt, emulsifier459Ebeta-cyclodextrinemulsifier460AEpowdered cellulose, microcrystalline celluloseanti-caking agent461AEmethylcellulosethickener, emulsifier, vegetable gum463Ehydroxypropyl cellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier464AEhydroxypropyl methylcellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier465AEmethyl ethyl cellulose, ethyl methyl cellulosethickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier466AEsodium carboxymethylcelluloseemulsifier468crosslinked sodium carboxymethylcelluloseemulsifier469enzymatically hydrolyzed carboxymethyl celluloseemulsifier470Amagnesium stearateemulsifier, stabiliser470aEsodium, potassium and calcium salts of fatty acidsemulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent470bEmagnesium salts of fatty acidsemulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent471AEmono- and diglycerides of fatty acids - glyceryl monostearate, glyceryl distearateemulsifier472aAEacetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472bAElactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472cAEcitric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472dAEtartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472eAEdiacetyltartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier472fEmixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acidsemulsifier473AEsucrose esters of fatty acidsemulsifier474Esucroglyceridesemulsifier475AEpolyglycerol esters of fatty acidsemulsifier476AEpolyglycerol polyricinoleateemulsifier477AEpropylene glycol esters of fatty acidsemulsifier478??lactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycolemulsifier479bEthermally oxidised soya bean oilemulsifier480Adioctyl sodium sulfosuccinateemulsifier481AEsodium stearoyl lactylateemulsifier482AEcalcium stearoyl lactylateemulsifier483Estearyl tartarateemulsifier491AEsorbitan monostearateemulsifier492AEsorbitan tristearateemulsifier493sorbitan monolaurateemulsifier494Esorbitan monooleateemulsifier495Esorbitan monopalmitateemulsifier500AEsodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonatemineral salt501AEpotassium carbonate, potassium bicarbonatemineral salt503AEammonium carbonate, ammonium bicarbonatemineral salt504AEmagnesium carbonateanti-caking agent, mineral salt507AEhydrochloric acidacidity regulator508AEpotassium chloridemineral salt509AEcalcium chloridemineral salt510Aammonium chloridemineral salt511AEmagnesium chloridemineral salt512AEstannous chloridecolour retention agent, antioxidant513Esulfuric acidacidity regulator514AEsodium sulfatemineral salt515AEpotassium sulfatemineral salt, seasoning516AEcalcium sulfateflour treatment agent, mineral salt, sequestrant, improving agent, firming agent517Eammonium sulfatemineral salt, improving agent518Amagnesium sulfate, Epsom saltsmineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent519Acupric sulfatemineral salt520Ealuminium sulfatemineral salt521Ealuminium 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aluminium silicate)anti-caking agent558AEbentoniteanti-caking agent559AEkaolin, aluminium silicateanti-caking agent570AEstearic acidanti-caking agent575AEglucono-delta-lactoneacidity regulator576Esodium gluconatestabiliser577AEpotassium gluconatestabiliser578AEcalcium gluconateacidity regulator579AEferrous gluconatecolour retention agent585Eferrous lactate620AEglutamic acidflavour enhancer621AEmonosodium glutamate (MSG)flavour enhancer622AEmonopotassium glutamateflavour enhancer623AEcalcium diglutamateflavour enhancer624AEmonoammonium glutamateflavour enhancer625AEmagnesium diglutamateflavour enhancer626guanylic acidflavour enhancer627AEdisodium guanylateflavour enhancer628Edipotassium guanylateflavour enhancer629Ecalcium guanylateflavour enhancer630Einosinic acidflavour enhancer631AEdisodium inosinateflavour enhancer632Edipotassium inosinateflavour enhancer633Ecalcium inosinateflavour enhancer634Ecalcium 5'-ribonucleotidesflavour enhancer635AEdisodium 5'-ribonucleotidesflavour enhancer636Amaltolflavour enhancer637Aethyl maltolflavour enhancer640AEglycineflavour enhancer641Aleucineflavour enhancer650Ezinc acetateflavour enhancer900AEdimethylpolysiloxaneemulsifier, anti-caking agent901AEbeeswaxglazing agent902Ecandelilla waxglazing agent903AEcarnauba waxglazing agent904AEshellacglazing agent905AEparaffinsglazing agent907refined microcrystalline waxglazing agent912Emontanic acid estershumectant914AEoxidised polyethylene waxhumectant920AEL-cysteineflour treatment agent924potassium bromateflour treatment agent925Achlorineflour treatment agent926Achlorine dioxideflour treatment agent927bEcarbamideflour treatment agent928Abenzoyl peroxideflour treatment agent938Eargonpropellant939Eheliumpropellant941AEnitrogenpropellant942AEnitrous oxidepropellant943aEbutanepropellant943bEisobutanepropellant950AEAcesulfame potassiumartificial sweetener951AEaspartameartificial sweetener952AEcyclamic acid, cyclamatesartificial sweetener953AEisomalthumectant954AEsaccharinartificial sweetener955Asucraloseartificial sweetener956Aalitameartificial sweetener957AEthaumatinflavour enhancer, artificial sweetener959Eneohesperidin dihydrochalconeartificial sweetener965AEmaltitolhumectant, stabiliser966AElactitolhumectant967AExylitolhumectant, stabiliser999Equillaia extracthumectant1001Acholine salts and estersemulsifier1100Aamylasesflour treatment agent1102Aglucose oxidaseantioxidant1103Einvertase?1104Alipasesflavour enhancer1105AElysozymepreservative1200AEpolydextrosehumectant1201AEpoly vinyl pyrrolidone?1202AEpolyvinylpolypyrrolidonecolour stabiliser1400Adextrin roasted starchthickener, vegetable gum1401Aacid treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1402Aalkaline treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1403Ableached starchthickener, vegetable gum1404AEoxidised starchthickener, vegetable gum1405Aenzyme treated starchthickener, vegetable gum1410AEmonostarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1412AEdistarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1413AEphosphated distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1414AEacetylated distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1420AEacetylated starchthickener, vegetable gum1422AEacetylated distarch adipatethickener, vegetable gum1440AEhydroxypropyl starchthickener, vegetable gum1442AEhydroxypropyl distarch phosphatethickener, vegetable gum1450AEstarch sodium octenylsuccinatethickener, vegetable gum1451Eacetylated oxidised starchthickener, vegetable gum1505AEtriethyl citratethickener, vegetable gum1510ethanol (not classified as an additive)alcohol1518AEtriacetinhumectant1520AEpropylene glycolhumectant1521APolyethylene glycolantifoaming agent Notes See also Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act E number Sources Codex Alimentarius Food Standards Australia New Zealand Food Additives and Ingredients Association Northern Allergy Centre's Guide to Food Additives USFDA: Food Color Facts | List_of_food_additives,_Codex_Alimentarius |@lemmatized following:1 list:4 food:9 additive:9 organize:1 codex:2 alimentarius:2 committee:2 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malatefood:2 malatesfood:2 adipatefood:2 adipatesacidity:1 succinatesacidity:1 flavour:2 fumaratefood:4 heptonolactonefood:1 nicotinic:1 nicotinamide:1 retention:3 citratefood:1 ammonium:4 citrate:1 ferrocitratefood:1 citratesantioxidant:1 disodium:1 ethylenediaminetetraacetateantioxidant:1 acidthickener:1 vegetable:41 gum:23 stabilizer:14 gel:9 alginatethickener:5 glycol:2 alginate:1 propane:1 diol:1 eucheuma:1 seaweedthickener:1 bean:2 gumthickener:6 acacia:1 arabicthickener:1 konjac:2 glucomannatethickener:1 polyoxyethylene:1 stearateemulsifier:2 classify:2 gelling:1 brominate:1 oilemulsifier:1 isobutyrateemulsifier:1 ester:11 wood:1 cellulose:2 microcrystalline:2 celluloseanti:1 cellulosethickener:2 methylcellulosethickener:1 hydrolyze:1 carboxymethyl:1 fatty:13 acidsemulsifier:2 diglycerides:7 glyceryl:2 monostearate:1 mono:6 lactylated:1 glycerol:1 propylene:1 oxidise:1 soya:1 stearoyl:2 bicarbonatemineral:3 carbonateanti:1 mineral:2 chloridemineral:4 chloridecolour:1 sulfatemineral:8 sulfateflour:1 treatment:8 sequestrant:1 improve:2 sulfate:1 epsom:1 saltsmineral:1 hydroxidemineral:5 oxidemineral:1 oxideanti:1 ferrocyanideanti:3 diphosphateanti:1 aluminium:5 phosphateacidity:1 phosphateanti:1 polyphosphatesanti:2 dioxideanti:1 silicateanti:4 aluminosilicate:2 silicate:2 acidanti:1 delta:1 lactoneacidity:1 gluconateacidity:1 gluconatecolour:1 acidflavour:3 glutamate:1 msg:1 glutamateflavour:2 diglutamateflavour:2 guanylateflavour:3 inosinateflavour:3 ribonucleotidesflavour:2 maltolflavour:1 acetateflavour:1 waxglazing:3 polyethylene:1 cysteineflour:1 bromateflour:1 dioxideflour:1 peroxideflour:1 potassiumartificial:1 cyclamatesartificial:1 enhancer:1 artificial:1 dihydrochalconeartificial:1 vinyl:1 pyrrolidone:1 roast:1 starchthickener:9 treat:3 phosphatethickener:5 distarch:4 adipatethickener:1 octenylsuccinatethickener:1 oxidised:1 citratethickener:1 glycolantifoaming:1 note:1 federal:1 drug:1 cosmetic:1 act:1 source:1 standard:1 association:1 northern:1 allergy:1 centre:1 guide:1 usfda:1 color:1 |@bigram codex_alimentarius:2 fda_fd:7 beta_carotene:1 fat_soluble:3 nicotinic_acid:1 vegetable_gum:20 gum_stabilizer:14 stabilizer_gel:9 alginatethickener_vegetable:5 gumthickener_vegetable:6 diglycerides_fatty:7 fatty_acid:6 ester_mono:6 mono_diglycerides:6 tartaric_acid:1 glutamate_msg:1 starchthickener_vegetable:9 phosphatethickener_vegetable:5 |
7,249 | Aegis | Aegis () is a large collar or cape worn in ancient times to display the protection provided by a high religious authority or, it is the holder of a protective shield signifying the same, such as a bag-like garment that contained a shield. Sometimes the garment and the shield are merged, with a small version of the shield appearing on the garment. It originally was derived from the protective shield associated with a religious figure when related in myths and images. The wearing of the aegis and its contents show sponsorship, protection, or authority derived from yet a higher source or deity. The name has been extended to many other entities, and the concept of a protective shield is found in other mythologies, while its form varies across sources. The concept of doing something "under someone's aegis" now means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source. The word aegis is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word aegis is applied by extension. In Greek mythology Closeup of a plaster cast of a Roman sculpture of Athena wearing the scaly Aegis - Cast Gallery of the Faculty of Classics and Museum of Classical Archaeology, Cambridge University The aegis (Greek Αιγίς), as stated in the Iliad, is the shield or buckler of Pallas Athena or of Zeus, which according to Homer was fashioned by Hephaestus. Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus' forge, who "busily burnished the aegis Athene wears in her angry moods--a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and he linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess’ breast--a severed head rolling its eyes." -- Aeneid 8.435-8, (Day-Lewis's translation). furnished with golden tassels and bearing the Gorgoneion (Medusa's head) in the central boss. Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the ægis. When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and "re-born" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments. When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear. "Aegis-bearing Zeus", as he is in the Iliad, sometimes lends the fearsome goatskin to Athena. In the Iliad when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector of Troy, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore. According to Edith Hamilton's Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes Part I, section I (Warner Books' United States Paperback Edition) , the Aegis is Zeus' breastplate, and was "awful to behold." Locating the aegis Greeks of the Classical age always detected that there was something alien and uncanny about the aegis. It was supposed by Euripides (Ion, 995) that the Gorgon was the original possessor of this goatskin, Noted by Graves 1960, 9.a; Karl Kerenyi, The Gods of the Greeks 1951, p 50. yet the usual understanding As in Kerenyi 1951:50 is that the Gorgoneion was added to the aegis, a votive gift from a grateful Perseus. There also is the origin myth that represents the ægis as a fire-breathing chthonic monster similar to the Chimera, which was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterward wore its skin as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii. 70), or as a chlamys. The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the guardian serpent, with its scales clearly delineated. Often the aegis is described as the bag in which Athene carried her shield and the serpent who was her son. John Tzetzes says John Tzetzes, On Lycophron, 355. that it was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own. In a late rendering by Hyginus, (Poetical Astronomy ii. 13) Zeus is said to have used the skin of the goat deity Amalthea (aigis "goat-skin") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans. She is thought to bear the name of the deity who was derived from Libya, where known as Neith, the same source sometimes identified as the parallel for Athene. First century B.C. fresco of Alexander the Great bearing on his armor an image of the Gorgon as an aegis - Naples National Archaeological Museum In accordance with this double meaning, the aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon head, the gorgoneion, in the centre. It often is represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors as well as on cameos and vases. A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century B.C., which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon. A current modern interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H. G. Güterbock, Güterbock, Perspectives on Hittite Civilization: Selected Writings (Chicago 1997). as the most likely source of the aegis. Calvert Watkins "A Distant Anatolian Echo in Pindar: The Origin of the Aegis Again", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100 (2000), pp. 1-14. on JSTOR . Origins Herodotus (Histories iv.189) thought he had identified the source of the ægis in Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks: Athene's garments and ægis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents. Robert Graves in The Greek Myths (1955; 1960) asserts that the ægis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated. In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena. Another version describes it to have been really the goat's skin used as a belt to support the shield. When so used it would generally be fastened on the right shoulder, and would partially envelop the chest as it passed obliquely round in front and behind to be attached to the shield under the left arm. Hence, by metonymy, it would be employed to denote at times the shield which it supported, and at other times a cuirass, or chlamys , the purpose of which it in part served. In accordance with this double meaning, the ægis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over the shoulders and arms, and sometimes as a cuirass, with a border of snakes corresponding to the tassels of Homer, usually with the Gorgon's head, the gorgoneion, in the centre. It is often represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on cameos and vases. A current modern interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (kursas), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H.G. Güterbock, Güterbock, Perspectives on Hittite Civilization: Selected Writings (Chicago 1997). is the most likely source of the aegis. Calvert Watkins "A Distant Anatolian Echo in Pindar: The Origin of the Aegis Again", Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 100 (2000), pp. 1-14. on JSTOR . Etymology Greek Αιγις has three meanings: "violent windstorm", from the verb 'αïσσω (stem 'αïγ-) = "I rush or move violently" The shield of a deity as described above "goatskin coat", from treating the word as meaning "something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat" (Greek αἰξ (stem αἰγ-) = "goat", + suffix -ίς (stem ίδ-)) The original meaning may have been #1, and Ζευς 'Αιγιοχος = "Zeus who holds the aegis" may have originally meant "Sky/Heaven, who holds the storm". The transition to the meaning "shield" may have come by folk-etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield. In Egyptian and Nubian mythology Aegis on an image of Isis from the Nubian culture of the 4th century BCE found in contemporary Sudan - British Museum The aegis also appears in Ancient Egyptian mythology. The goddess Bast sometimes was depicted holding a ceremonial sistrum in one hand and an aegis in the other – the aegis usually resembling a collar or gorget embellished with a lioness head. Plato drew a parallel between Athene and the ancient Libyan and Egyptian goddess Neith, a war deity who also was depicted carrying a shield.<ref>Plato: Timaeus 5</ref> Ancient Nubia shared many aspects of its mythology with ancient Egypt and there is debate about the original source of some religious concepts that the two cultures share and, whether the assimilation was from Nubia to Egypt, the reverse, or through continuing exchanges. At one time the Kush of Nubia ruled ancient Egypt. The image to the right was discovered in Sudan, which is the contemporary name for the territory of Nubia during the period in which the artifact was made, during the 300s BC. The figure is that of Isis and she is wearing an aegis. It is likely to be an artifact of the flourishing culture of Meroë, successors to the culture of Kush, because of the use of Egyptian hieroglyphs and cartouches. In Norse mythology In Norse mythology, the dragon Fafnir (best known in the form of a dragon slain by Sigurðr) bears on his forehead the Ægis-helm (ON ægishjálmr), or Ægir's helmet, or more specifically the "Helm of Terror". (However, some versions would say that Alberich was the one holding a helm, named as the Tarnkappe, which has the power to make the user invisible. It may be an actual helmet or a magical sign with a rather poetic name. Ægir is an Old Norse word meaning "terror" and the name of a destructive giant associated with the sea; ægis is the genitive (possessive) form of ægir and has no direct relation to Greek aigis''. References External links Theoi Project: "Aigis" | Aegis |@lemmatized aegis:30 large:1 collar:2 cape:1 wear:5 ancient:7 time:4 display:1 protection:4 provide:1 high:2 religious:3 authority:2 holder:1 protective:3 shield:16 signify:1 bag:4 like:3 garment:6 contain:2 sometimes:8 merge:1 small:1 version:3 appear:5 originally:3 derive:3 associate:2 figure:2 relate:1 myth:3 image:5 wearing:1 content:1 show:3 sponsorship:1 yet:2 source:8 deity:7 name:7 extend:1 many:2 entity:1 concept:3 find:2 mythology:11 form:3 varies:1 across:1 something:4 someone:1 mean:4 powerful:1 knowledgeable:1 benevolent:1 word:4 identify:3 strong:1 force:1 root:1 greek:12 adopt:1 roman:4 parallel:3 norse:4 egyptian:5 well:2 apply:1 extension:1 closeup:1 plaster:1 cast:2 sculpture:1 athena:7 scaly:2 gallery:1 faculty:1 classic:1 museum:3 classical:4 archaeology:1 cambridge:1 university:1 αιγίς:1 state:2 iliad:3 buckler:1 pallas:2 zeus:8 accord:2 homer:3 fashion:1 hephaestus:2 virgil:1 imagine:1 cyclops:1 forge:1 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come:1 folk:1 among:1 people:1 familiar:1 drape:1 nubian:2 isi:2 culture:4 bce:1 contemporary:2 sudan:2 british:1 bast:1 depict:2 ceremonial:1 sistrum:1 one:3 hand:1 gorget:1 embellish:1 lioness:1 plato:2 war:1 ref:2 timaeus:1 nubia:4 share:2 aspect:1 egypt:3 debate:1 two:1 whether:1 assimilation:1 reverse:1 continuing:1 exchange:1 kush:2 rule:1 discover:1 period:1 artifact:2 make:2 bc:1 flourishing:1 meroë:1 successor:1 hieroglyph:1 cartouch:1 dragon:2 fafnir:1 best:1 sigurðr:1 forehead:1 helm:3 ægishjálmr:1 ægir:3 helmet:2 specifically:1 terror:2 however:1 alberich:1 tarnkappe:1 power:1 user:1 invisible:1 actual:1 magical:1 sign:1 rather:1 poetic:1 destructive:1 sea:1 genitive:1 possessive:1 direct:1 relation:1 reference:1 external:1 theoi:1 project:1 |@bigram norse_mythology:3 plaster_cast:1 pallas_athena:2 severed_head:1 attic_vase:1 karl_kerenyi:1 diodorus_siculus:1 clearly_delineate:1 john_tzetze:1 classical_philology:2 folk_etymology:1 plato_timaeus:1 egyptian_hieroglyph:1 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7,250 | Earless_seal | The true seals or earless seals are one of the three main groups of mammals within the seal suborder, Pinnipedia. All true seals are members of the family Phocidae. They are sometimes called crawling seals to distinguish them from the fur seals and sea lions of the family Otariidae. Seals live in the oceans of both hemispheres and are mostly confined to polar, sub-polar, and temperate climates, with the exception of the more tropical monk seals. Anatomy and behavior Phocids are more highly specialized for aquatic life than otariids, although they still return to dry land or pack ice in order to breed and give birth. They lack external ears and have sleek, streamlined bodies. To further aid streamlining, their nipples can be retracted, their testicles are internal, and the penis lies in an internal sheath. A smooth layer of blubber lies underneath the skin, and phocids are able to divert blood-flow to this layer to help control their temperature. Their fore-flippers are used primarily for steering, while their hind flippers are bound to the pelvis in such a way that they cannot bring them under their body to walk on them. Phocids swim by sideways movements of their bodies, using their hind-flippers to their fullest effect. They are more streamlined than fur seals and sea lions and can therefore swim more effectively over long distances. However, because they cannot turn their hind flippers downward, they are very clumsy on land, having to wriggle with their front flippers and abdominal muscles. Phocid respiratory and circulatory systems are adapted to allow diving to considerable depths, and they can spend a long time underwater between breaths. Air is forced from the lungs during a dive and into the upper respiratory passages, where gases cannot easily be absorbed into the bloodstream. This helps protect the seal from the bends. The middle ear is also lined with blood sinuses that inflate during diving, helping to maintain a constant pressure. True seals do not communicate by "barking" like otariids. Instead, they communicate by slapping the water and grunting. Adult phocids vary from 1.17 meters in length and 45kg in weight, in the Ringed Seal, to 4.9 meters and 2,400kg in the Southern Elephant Seal. Phocids have a reduced number of teeth compared with land-based members of the Carnivora, although they retain powerful canines. Some species lack molars altogether. The dental formula is: Evolution Piscophoca pacifica fossil The earliest fossil phocids date from the mid-Miocene, 15 million years ago in the north Atlantic. Until recently, many researchers believed that phocids evolved separately from otariids and odobenids from otter-like animals, such as Potamotherium, which inhabited European fresh-water lakes. Recent evidence strongly suggests a monophyletic origin for all pinnipeds from a single ancestor, possibly Enaliarctos, most closely related to the bears. Monk seals and Elephant seals are believed to have first entered the Pacific through the open straits between North and South America, which closed only in the Pliocene. The various Antarctic species may have either used the same route, or traveled down the west coast of Africa. Feeding and reproduction While otariids are known for speed and maneuverability in the water, phocids are known for efficient, economical movement. This allows most phocids to make long foraging trips to exploit prey resources that are far from land, whereas otariids are tied to rich upwelling zones close to their breeding sites. A pregnant female spends a long period of time foraging at sea, building up her fat reserves and then returns to the breeding site and uses her stored energy reserves to provide milk for her pup. The Common Seal, Phoca vitulina, displays a reproductive strategy similar to those of otariids in which the mother makes short foraging trips between nursing bouts. Because a phocid mother's feeding grounds are often hundreds of kilometers from the breeding site, she must fast while she is lactating. This combination of fasting with lactation is one of the most unusual and extraordinary behaviors displayed by the Phocidae, because it requires the mother seal to provide large amounts of energy to her pup at a time when she herself is taking in no food (and often, no water) to replenish her stores. Because they must continue to burn fat reserves to supply their own metabolic needs while they are feeding their pups, phocid seals have developed an extremely thick, fat-rich milk that allows them to provide their pups with a large amount of energy in as small a period of time as possible. This allows the mother seal to maximize the efficiency of her energy transfer to the pup and then quickly return to sea to replenish her reserves. The length of lactation in phocids ranges from 28 days in the Northern Elephant Seal to just 3–5 days in the Hooded Seal. The nursing period is ended by the mother, who departs to the sea and leaves her pup at the breeding site. Pups will continue to nurse if given the opportunity, and "milk stealers" that suckle from unrelated, sleeping females are not uncommon; this often results in the death of the pup whose mother the milk was stolen from, as any single female can only produce enough milk to provide for one pup. The pup's diet is so high-calorie that the pup builds up a large store of fat. Before the pup is ready to forage on its own, the mother abandons it, and it lives on its fat for weeks or months while it develops independence. Seals, like all marine mammals, need time to develop the oxygen stores, swimming muscles, and neural pathways necessary for effective diving and foraging. Seal pups typically eat no food and drink no water during the fast, although some polar species have been observed to eat snow. The post-weaning fast ranges from two weeks in the Hooded Seal to 9–12 weeks in the Northern Elephant Seal. The physiological and behavioral adaptations that allow phocid pups to endure these remarkable fasts, which are among the longest for any mammal, remain an area of active study and research. Classification In the 1980s, phylogenetic analysis of the phocids has led to a few conclusions about the interrelatedness of the various genera. The four genera Hydrurga, Leptonychotes, Lobodon, and Ommatophoca form a monophyletic group, the tribe Lobodontini. Likewise, the Phocinae subfamily (Erignathus, Cystophora, Halichoerus, and Phoca) is also monophyletic. More recently, five species have been split off from Phoca, forming three additional genera. However, the family Monachinae (the lobodonts plus Monachus and Mirounga) is probably paraphyletic. SUBORDER PINNIPEDIA Family Otariidae: fur seals and sea lions Family Odobenidae: Walrus Family Phocidae Subfamily Monachinae Tribe Monachini †Monachopsis †Pristiphoca †Properiptychus †Messiphoca †Mesotaria †Callophoca †Pliophoca †Pontophoca Hawaiian Monk Seal, Monachus schauinslandi Mediterranean Monk Seal, Monachus monachus †Caribbean Monk Seal, Monachus tropicalis (probably extinct around 1950) Tribe Miroungini Northern Elephant Seal, Mirounga angustirostris Southern Elephant Seal, Mirounga leonina Tribe Lobodontini †Monotherium wymani Ross Seal, Ommatophoca rossi Crabeater Seal, Lobodon carcinophagus Leopard Seal, Hydrurga leptonyx Weddell Seal, Leptonychotes weddellii †Acrophoca longirostris †Piscophoca pacifica †Homiphoca capensis Subfamily Phocinae †Kawas benegasorum †Leptophoca lenis †Preapusa †Cryptophoca Bearded Seal, Erignathus barbatus Hooded Seal, Cystophora cristata Tribe Phocini Common Seal, Phoca vitulina Spotted Seal, Phoca largha Ringed Seal, Pusa hispida (formerly Phoca hispida) Baikal Seal, Pusa sibirica (formerly Phoca sibirica) Caspian Seal, Pusa caspica (formerly Phoca caspica) Harp Seal, Pagophilus groenlandica (formerly Phoca groenlandicus) Ribbon Seal, Histriophoca fasciata (formerly Phoca fasciata) †Phocanella †Platyphoca †Gryphoca Gray Seal, Halichoerus grypus References External links Elephant Seal Research Group | Earless_seal |@lemmatized true:3 seal:46 earless:1 one:3 three:2 main:1 group:3 mammal:3 within:1 suborder:2 pinnipedia:2 member:2 family:6 phocidae:3 sometimes:1 call:1 crawling:1 distinguish:1 fur:3 sea:6 lion:3 otariidae:2 live:2 ocean:1 hemisphere:1 mostly:1 confine:1 polar:3 sub:1 temperate:1 climate:1 exception:1 tropical:1 monk:5 anatomy:1 behavior:2 phocids:11 highly:1 specialize:1 aquatic:1 life:1 otariids:6 although:3 still:1 return:3 dry:1 land:4 pack:1 ice:1 order:1 breed:1 give:2 birth:1 lack:2 external:2 ear:2 sleek:1 streamlined:2 body:3 aid:1 streamlining:1 nipple:1 retract:1 testicle:1 internal:2 penis:1 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lactate:1 combination:1 lactation:2 unusual:1 extraordinary:1 require:1 large:3 amount:2 take:1 food:2 replenish:2 store:3 continue:2 burn:1 supply:1 metabolic:1 need:2 feed:1 develop:3 extremely:1 thick:1 small:1 possible:1 maximize:1 efficiency:1 transfer:1 quickly:1 range:2 day:2 northern:3 hooded:2 end:1 depart:1 leave:1 nurse:1 opportunity:1 stealer:1 suckle:1 unrelated:1 sleeping:1 uncommon:1 result:1 death:1 whose:1 steal:1 produce:1 enough:1 diet:1 high:1 calorie:1 ready:1 abandon:1 week:3 month:1 independence:1 marine:1 oxygen:1 neural:1 pathway:1 necessary:1 effective:1 typically:1 eat:2 drink:1 observe:1 snow:1 post:1 wean:1 two:1 physiological:1 behavioral:1 adaptation:1 endure:1 remarkable:1 among:1 remain:1 area:1 active:1 study:1 research:2 classification:1 phylogenetic:1 analysis:1 lead:1 conclusion:1 interrelatedness:1 genus:3 four:1 hydrurga:2 leptonychotes:2 lobodon:2 ommatophoca:2 form:2 tribe:5 lobodontini:2 likewise:1 phocinae:2 subfamily:3 erignathus:2 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7,251 | Neon_Genesis_Evangelion | , commonly referred to as NGE, Eva, or Evangelion, is a commercially Evangelion has reportedly grossed over 150 billion yen, or approximately 1.2 billion USD. In a discussion at the 2006 Tekkoshocon, Matt Greenfield claimed Evangelion has grossed over 2 billion USD; Takeda 2002 reiterates that "It sold record numbers of laserdiscs in Japan, and the DVD is still selling well today." (pg 166). and critically "Considered by many scholars to be an anime masterpiece, the series is credited by some critics with singlehandedly reviving the genre from what they saw as its creative doldrums in the early 1990s (Azuma 4). While I would not go quite so far, it is certainly true that Evangelion is one of the most important and groundbreaking anime series ever created." pg 424 of Napier 2002; see also "Not exactly the kind of words you'd expect from director Hideaki Anno about his 1995 production 'Neon Genesis Evangelion'. Taking him by surprise, it's been hailed by critics in Japan (and later in America and Europe) as the landmark Japanese animated TV series of the 90's. The modestly budgeted production has also become a commercial success, grossing over 800 million dollars in video sales and 400 million in merchandise in Japan alone." Wong 1996 successful, influential, and controversial Japanese anime that began in October 1995; the series launched the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise. It won several major animation awards. The anime was created by Gainax, written and directed by Hideaki Anno, and co-produced by TV Tokyo and Nihon Ad Systems (NAS). Evangelion is an apocalyptic mecha action series which centers around the efforts by the paramilitary organization Nerv to fight monstrous beings called Angels, primarily using giant mecha called Evangelions which are piloted by select teenagers, one of whom is the primary protagonist. Events in the series refer to Judeo-Christian symbols from the book of Genesis and Biblical apocrypha among others. "Constructing a mythic universe that is almost Blakean both in its complex and mythic vision and in its dizzying array of Christian and Judaic religious symbols, the series questions the construction of human identity, not only in relation to the technology that the series' plot and imagery insistently privilege, but also in relation to the nature of reality itself." pg 424 of Napier 2002 Later episodes shift focus to psychoanalysis of the main characters, who display various emotional problems and mental illnesses; Azuma 4 "I didn't have any interest in studying human psychology in the past. I only took a course about it in University, but I suppose I always had something in my mind to analyse human psyche. I thought I wasn't interested in humans very much, but then when I started talking about myself, I needed words to explain. So I started reading books on psychology. From Episode #16, Evangelion'S story went into the direction to ask just what the human mind is all about inside. I wrote about myself. My friend lent me a book on human psychological illness and this gave me a shock, as if I finally found what I needed to say." Anno, Protoculture Addicts 43. the nature of existence and reality are questioned in a way that lets Evangelion be characterized as "postmodern fantasy". "The narratives, the characters, and the mise en scene of these works evoke the disturbing postmodern fantasy … Sconce suggests that, "where there were once whole human subjects, there are now only fragmented and decentered subjectivities, metaphors of 'simulation and 'schizophrenia'" and he finds that, "in postmodernism's fascination with the evacuation of the reference and an ungrounded play of signification and surface, we can see another vision of beings who, like ghosts and psychotics, are no longer anchored in reality instead wander through a hallucinatory world where the material real is forever lost"". (Sconce quote from Jeffrey Sconce's Haunted Media). pg 419 of Napier 2002 Hideaki Anno, the director of the anime series, suffered from clinical depression prior to creating the series, and the psychological aspects of the show are based on the director's own experiences with overcoming this illness. In the original Japanese, the word "Evangelion" is pronounced with a hard g per its Greek roots (see Translation notes on the title below). Plot Setting The story of Evangelion primarily begins in 2000 with the "Second Impact", a global cataclysm which almost completely destroyed Antarctica and led to the deaths of half the human population of Earth. The Impact is believed by the public at large and even most of Nerv to have been the impact of a meteorite landing in Antarctica, causing devastating tsunamis and a change in the Earth's axial tilt (leading to global climate change) and subsequent geopolitical unrest, nuclear war (such as the nuking of Tokyo), and general economic distress. Later, Second Impact is revealed to be the result of contact with an experimentation on the first of what are collectively dubbed the Angels: Adam. The experiments were sponsored by the mysterious organization Seele, and carried out by the research organization Gehirn. In the year 2010, Gehirn had accomplished a number of its scientific and engineering goals and corporately changed into the paramilitary organization Nerv which is headquartered in Tokyo-3, a militarized civilian city located on one of the last dry sections of Japan; Nerv's central mission is to locate the remaining Angels predicted by Seele, and to destroy them. However, Nerv has its own secret agenda, as directed by its Machiavellian commander Gendo Ikari: the Human Instrumentality Project, which, according to Gendo in episode 25, is the task of uniting all human minds into one global spiritual entity. Associated with Nerv is the Marduk Institute, which has the task of selecting the pilots for the Evas, the most capable being children conceived after the Second Impact (14 year olds). The institute consists of Commander Ikari, and Nerv's chief scientist Ritsuko Akagi; supporting the two are 108 companies which are all revealed to be ghost companies. TV As the first episode opens in the year 2015, Tokyo-3 is being attacked by the third Angel. Conventional weapons prove ineffective, largely due to its projected force field called an AT Field. Nerv takes command of the battles, and is able to intercept and defeat the Angels using the Evangelions (Evas), biomechanical mecha previously developed in secret by Gehirn inside the underground Geofront; the Geofront is located underground and underneath Tokyo-3. Not knowing why his father summoned him, Shinji Ikari, a 14 year old boy arrives to Tokyo-3 just as the Third Angel attacks the city. Shinji reluctantly agrees to join Nerv to pilot Evangelion Unit 01, and begins living with Captain Misato Katsuragi. He and Rei Ayanami battle the successive advances of the Angels together and are later joined by Asuka Langley Soryu, the pilot of Unit 02. Each Eva has its own designated pilot (Unit 00 – Rei, Unit 01–Shinji, Unit 02–Asuka, and subsequently Unit 03–Toji Suzuhara), and operates by synchronizing the pilot's soul and the human soul inside the Eva via the enigmatic liquid substance known as LCL. (In the context of Evangelion, a "soul" refers to an individual's conscious existence, mental structure and identity, rather than a more conventional "supernatural" entity.) Surrounded by LCL, the pilot's nervous system, mind and body join with the Eva's controls, allowing the Eva to be controlled by the pilot's thoughts and actions. The higher a pilot's synchronization ratio, the better the pilot can control the Eva and fight more adeptly. While Ritsuko mentions at the series' beginning that the Evas do have some biological components to them, the extent of this is not immediately apparent. Unit 01 is connected to Yui Ikari, Gendo's wife and Shinji's mother, since it absorbed her body and soul in a failed experiment, as shown in episodes 16 and 20. Rei herself is suspected to be a partial clone of Yui, and is known to harbor the soul of Lilith, the second Angel. The Eva Unit 02 (piloted by Asuka Langley Soryu, accompanied by Shinji Ikari inside the plug) landing on the missile destroyer USS Ramage, while fighting the sixth Angel Gaghiel at sea. It is finally revealed, towards the end of the series, that the Evas are not really "robots" but are actually cloned Angels (Units 00, 02, 03, and 04 are made from Adam, and 01 is made from Lilith) onto which mechanical components are incorporated as a means of restraint and control. This control is not perfect, as various units are shown over the course of the series driving into "berserker" mode, in which they can act of their own will, independent of any artificial power input. Along with the battles against the Angels, the central characters struggle to overcome their personal issues and personality conflicts, which factor heavily into the events of the series and its eventual conclusion. Throughout the series, many of the main characters constantly have to cope with several social and emotional problems: characters are unwillingly forced to confront socially complex and challenging situations; unresolved sexual tensions grow between numerous characters; injuries, deaths, and defeats cause blows to their psyches; and previously steady relationships begin to falter. Over the final months of 2015, the characters begin to learn of the true plan of Nerv and Seele, the Human Instrumentality Project. Its purpose is to force the completion of human evolution, and thereby save it from destroying itself. To do so, they plan to break down the AT fields that separate individual humans, and in doing so, reducing all humans to LCL, which is revealed to be the "primordial soup," the fundamental composite of human beings. All LCL would then be united into a supreme being, the next stage of humanity, ending all conflict, loneliness and pain brought about by individual existence. At the end of the series, Seele and Nerv come into direct conflict over the implementation of Instrumentality. In the last two episodes (the second set in 2016), Gendo and Rei initiate the Human Instrumentality Project, forcing several characters (especially Shinji episode 26 ) to face their doubts and fears and examine their self-worth. This ending was made up of flashbacks, sketchy artwork, and flashing text "over a montage of bleak visuals, that include black and white photos of desolate urban motifs such as a riderless bicycle or vacant park benches interspersed with graphic stills of the devastated Nerv headquarters in which Shinji's colleagues are seen as bloodstained bodies", pg 427 of Napier 2002 and a brief interlude depicting an "alternate" Evangelion universe with the same characters but apparently in the highschool comedy genre, eventually seems to depict Shinji concluding that life could be worth living and that he did not need to pilot an Eva to justify his existence; he is then surrounded by most of the cast, clapping and congratulating him. The introduction implies that this same process took place for everyone. The End of Evangelion The ambiguous and unclear meaning of this ending left many fans confused and unsatisfied. The final two episodes were possibly the most controversial segments of an already controversial series "The stunning originality of these final episodes cannot be overstated … the series deals with these elements in breathtakingly creative ways to create a unique and memorable vision of inner and outer collapse, and, perhaps, renewal. It should be noted that many viewers were outraged by the two final episodes. Expecting a more conventional end-of-the-world scenario, fans were baffled and indignant that, instead of outward explosions and satisfying combat, the cataclysmic struggle occurred wholly in the character's mind." "In these last two episodes the machines have literally stopped, and both characters and viewers are left with no recourse but to confront their/our own flawed humanity in all its desperation and insecurities without the technological armor of the typical sf text." pg 427 and pg 428 respectively of Napier 2002 and were received as flawed and incomplete by many. "… This became a major issue as the final episode of the TV series could be considered incomplete. The voice of the fans grew stronger as they demanded a proper ending to the drama, explanations of the mysteries, or even a new story. Thus, in order to meet these demands, it was decided to remake episodes 25 and 26." From the Commentary of the Red Cross Book However, Anno and deputy director Kazuya Tsurumaki defended the artistic integrity of the finale. "Lately due to the ending of episodes #25 and #26, some people started watching Evangelion. They were not anime fans. In fact many of them are females and they tell me that they really enjoyed episode #25, objectively. Most anime fans are furious. I understand their anger. I can't help laughing when hard-core anime fans say that we did a very lousy job, with intentional negligence. No we didn't. No staff members did a lousy job. In fact, every member at Gainax gave more energy than anybody can imagine. I feel sad that those fans couldn't see our efforts. Personally I think the original TV ending we showed ended up beautifully." Hideaki Anno, Protoculture Addicts 43 "My opinion was, 'Why don't we show them the entire process including our breakdown." You know — make it a work that shows everything including our inability to create a satisfactory product. I figured that, "In 10 years or so, if we look back on something that we made while we were drunk out of our minds, we wouldn't feel bad even if the quality wasn't so good.' Q: Really?" "KT – So, no matter what the final form, I feel it was great just being able to make it to the end of the TV series. " Tsurumaki interview, RCB The film The End of Evangelion begins shortly after the end of episode 24. Shinji Ikari attempts to talk to the unconscious Asuka. After seeing her exposed chest he masturbates to orgasm. Disgusted by himself he hides under a staircase in NERV headquarters. Seele realizes Gendo's treachery and commanded the JSSDF's forces to launch an all-out attack on Nerv headquarters. During the battle, Asuka (after being put into her eva despite the fact that she was "barely conscious" when she was inserted) realizes that she has a bond with Unit 02 (because her mother's soul is bound to the Eva) and is not just its master, and this bond gives her the strength to battle the "mass-production" Evas sent by Seele; she is ultimately defeated. Misato finds Shinji and battles her way past JSSDF soldiers to get him to his Eva but is mortally wounded in the process. She dies while stating her love for Kaji and how she wished she had done the best thing possible for Shinji. After being "finally awoken" Unit 01 is forced by the MP Evas to begin Seele's version of Instrumentality. While Nerv is collapsing, Gendo attempts to implement his own version of Instrumentality by merging the embryonic Adam (bonded to his right hand) with Rei. However, Rei takes over the process and reunites with Lilith, who finally regains her soul, and creates a planet-wide anti-AT Field, negating the AT Fields of all of humanity and causing their bodies to dissolve into LCL. The souls of all human beings are absorbed into Lilith/Rei's body, causing her to grow into a supreme being of size comparable to the Earth itself. Rei gives control of the process to Shinji. His emotional suffering and loneliness prompts Shinji to accept this new form, believing that there could never be happiness in the real world. He goes through a series of mental journeys and monologues, eventually realizing that without pain there can be no joy, and to live with others is to experience joy as well as pain. This constitutes a rejection of the goal of Instrumentality – a world without the pain or joy of being a separate being. Lilith/Rei dies and falls apart, releasing the anti-AT Field and allowing separate beings to potentially come back into existence. In the last sequence, Asuka and Shinji are shown to have rematerialized from the sea of LCL, and are together somewhere near the ruins of Tokyo-3. The meaning of The End of Evangelion is debated—it is not agreed whether it is intended to enlarge and retell 25 and 26 or to completely replace the TV ending with a different one. Some believe that The End of Evangelion is an alternate ending to the series, perhaps created to please those fans who were displeased with the TV series' ending. Deputy Director Kazuya Tsurumaki said he felt the series was complete as it was. However, there are several hints indicating that the movie portrays the physical aspects of the end of the series, while the episodes deal with the interior, or emotional aspects, and the two form a whole. In movie episode 26', when Instrumentality is finally launched, Shinji questions himself about his life and what he really wishes through Instrumentality; Shinji's lines and reflection process in this sequence are almost identical to what they were in TV episode 26, however in a much more condensed form. Similar reflections on the part of Asuka and Misato are also reflected (if briefly) in the film. Watching both thus allows a fuller understanding of the series. There were serious budget and schedule restraints in the later episodes of the series, and the film allowed for a more complete ending to be realized. During the TV series ending, a number of sketches from scenes that were later included in the movie are shown, hinting that the film, or something like the final production, was the intended finale all along. Indeed, the original script for episode 25 (which included, among others, a bloody fight between Asuka and the MP Evas) was abandoned due to censorship, budget and time restraints, yet the actual TV episode still featured some remnants of the first script (Misato and Ritsuko dead, Asuka inside her Eva in the water). Later, the original script was re-used for Episode 25: Air, a part of the End of Evangelion movie. Also, in the opening animation for the series. Characters The cast of Neon Genesis Evangelion shortly after the TV series finale The characters of Evangelion are continuously struggling with their interpersonal relationships, their inner demons, and traumatic events in their pasts, creating a complex pattern of relationships. Anno described the hero, Shinji Ikari, as a boy who "shrinks from human contact", and has "convinced himself that he is a completely unnecessary person, so much so that he cannot even commit suicide." He describes Shinji and Misato Katsuragi as "extremely afraid of being hurt" and "unsuitable — lacking the positive attitude — for what people call heroes of an adventure." When compared to the stereotypical hero, Shinji is characterized more by lack of energy and emotion than by any sort of heroism or bravery. "This, the opening episode is constructed around all the conventions of the classic "saving the world" narrative, only to undermine them by showing IKARI [sic] Shinji, its fourteen-year-old ostensible hero, in a far from heroic light … In a more conventional anime sf narrative, Shinji would climb into the EVA with gusto and proceed to save the world. In fact he does pilot the EVA and succeeds in destroying the Angel – who turns out to be the third of seventeen – but only with the greatest reluctance and after a display of temper, fear, and vulnerability that seems less than conventionally heroic." pg 424–425 of Napier 2002 Rei Ayanami and Asuka Langley Soryu, the other major protagonists, have similar flaws and difficulty relating to other people. According to Anno, Evangelion was an attempt to make all perspectives into one, creating characters that represent different things to different viewers to make it impossible for everyone to arrive at a single theory. To some viewers, the characters are psychological representations, while to others, they are philosophical, religious, historical, and even themselves. It seems the main goal was to present characters who reflected the deep depression and eventual recovery that Anno experienced before beginning work on Evangelion; "Evangelion is my life, and I have put everything I know into this work. This is my entire life. My life itself." Hideaki Anno, Protoculture Addicts 43 "Anno often deconstructs the main casts' mental states, via abstractly presented interrogations within each character's mind. Re-opening hidden emotional wounds from the past and uncompromisingly addressing their personality flaws, 'Evangelion' offers a fascinatingly complex character study that is rare indeed, especially in popular animated entertainment. Returning to write and direct the series after an extended hiatus – reportedly due to depression – there is an acute sense that 'Evangelion' is a very personal statement." Wong 1996 the characters all reflect at least a little of Anno. "In the September 1996 issue of the Quick Japan information magazine, Hideaki Anno, the director of Evangelion, described Eva as a 'personal film,' each character reflecting part of his own personality. Anno, born in 1960, told the magazine that Japanese in his age group have nothing but TV, unlike their parents who worked furiously to help Japan rise from the ashes of World War II." Japan Economic Newswire MAY 8, 1997, THURSDAY "Cartoon 'Eva' captures sense of void among Japanese youth". by Yoichi Kosukegawa. TOKYO, May 8 Kyodo However the deeply pessimistic nature of the series as well as the rarely seen huge array of problems in all the characters has drawn curiousity on why there is no real happiness in the setting's world. Assistant Director Kazuya Tsurumaki said of the series, "But when all is said and done, Hideaki Anno's comments on 'Evangelion' + 'Evangelion' are that it is a message aimed at anime fans including himself, and of course, me too. If a person who can already live and communicate normally watches it, they won't learn anything." The character designs by Yoshiyuki Sadamoto have also contributed to the popularity of Evangelion. Sadamoto's attractive designs of the three main female leads, Asuka, Rei and Misato, led to extremely high sales of merchandise "The release in October 1995 of Neon Genesis Evangelion on Japanese TV ignited a boom in merchandise unprecedented in a country already awash with such goods. As if overnight, well over 600 different items were made to commemorate the event. Figures were the most popular, with the inimitable bandaged Rei outselling all else. The Eva girls, kitted out in swimwear and striking suggestive poses, were, overall, a huge success, and things went a bit too far…" pg 126 of Fujie 2004. See also: "Arguably, it is because of Anno's dictates on design that few Evangelion toys were initially made. But figures of Rei, in all her bandaged beauty, sold like wild fire. This is probably the first and only example of an animated [mecha] series where reproductions of the human characters outsold those of the robots." pg 98. (especially of Rei, the "Premium Girl" "Rei's popularity soared in Japan, with books featuring her image on the cover selling like hot cakes. She was christened by the media, "The girl who manipulates magazine sales at will", "The fastest route to the sold-out sign!" And even, "The Premium Girl."" pg 39 of Fujie 2004 ), and they have been immortalized in the dōjinshi community, garage kit models, and in subsequent anime (such as Burst Angel). Origin and production In March 1992, Gainax had begun planning and production of an anime movie called Aoki Uru, which was to be a sequel to Oritsu Uchugun set 50 years later (so as to be easier to pitch to investors pg 155, Takeda 2002 ) which, like Oritsu, would follow a group of fighter pilots. Production would eventually cease in July 1993: a full-length anime movie was just beyond Gainax's financial ability – many of its core businesses were shutting down or producing minimal amounts of money: "General Products had closed shop. We'd pulled out of Wonder Festival [a "flea market for garage kits"] and garage kit making altogether. We weren't taking on any subcontracting work for anime production. We did continue to make PC games – Akai had seen to that – but there wasn't a lot of work tossed our way. With mere pennies coming in, we were having a hard enough time just paying everyone's salaries. Finally the order came down for us to halt production on Aoki Uru. We were simply incapable of taking the project any further." pg 157–158 of Takeda 2002 With the failure of the project, Anno who had been slated from the beginning to direct Aoki Uru was freed up. Legendarily, he would soon agree to a collaboration between King Records and Gainax while drinking with Toshimichi Ōtsuki, a representative at King; "Anno knew a guy from King Records named Otsuki, and as the story goes, the two were out drinking one day when Otsuki suggested to Anno that they work on a TV anime project together. Anno agreed on the spot, came back to the office and promptly announced it to everyone. Nobody even batted an eyelash. We just accepted it without further thought." pg 164 of Takeda 2002 with King Records guaranteeing a time slot, Anno set about actually making the anime. Unsurprisingly, elements of Aoki Uru were incorporated into the nascent Evangelion: "One of the key themes in Aoki Uru had been "not running away." In the story, the main character is faced with the daunting task of saving the heroine … He ran away from something in the past, so he decides that this time he will stand his ground. The same theme was carried over into Evangelion, but I think it was something more than just transposing one show's theme onto another …" pg 165 of Takeda 2002 The original early plot line for Evangelion remained relatively stable through development, although later episodes appear to have changed dramatically from the fluid and uncertain early conceptions; for example, originally there were 28 angels and not 17, and the climax would deal with the defeat of the final 12 angels and not with the operation of the Human Instrumentality Project. As well, Kaworu Nagisa's appearance was changed from being a school boy – who could switch to an "Angel form" – accompanied by a pet cat, to his eventual actual design, etc. NEWTYPE 100% COLLECTION: NEON GENESIS EVANGELION. 1997 Kadokawashoten. ISBN 4-04-852700-2. Partial translation. Production was by no means placid. Sadamoto's authorship of the manga (Neon Genesis Evangelion) caused problems as multiple publishers felt "that he was too passé to be bankable"; pg 167 of Takeda 2002 the stylized mecha design that Evangelion would later be praised for was initially deprecated by some of the possible sponsors of a mecha anime (toy companies) as being too difficult to manufacture (possibly on purpose), "At the planning stage, director Hideaki Anno is reported to have said, "With recent robot anime series there have been too many instances of toy makers sticking their big noses in from the design stage so they can get a spec that is easy to turn into a toy. I don't want any interference from toy makers, so I'm going to design a robot that just cannot be turned into a toy." pg 97 of Fujie 2004 and that models of the Evangelions "would never sell." Takeda continues: "He said the legs were too skinny, and then proceeded to give Otsuki a lecture on the principles of robot design. Otsuki is bitter about the incident to this day." pg 166–167 of Takeda 2002 Eventually, Sega agreed to license all toy and video game sales. Eventually, Evangelion began to be shown: the first episode aired 4 October 1995, long after it was originally planned to air. Initially ignored (although received positively by those Gainax fans invited to early screenings), viewership grew slowly and largely by word of mouth. Episode 16 marked a distinct shift that would characterize the second half of Evangelion as being more psychological than action or adventure. "Fans liked the concept, praising it for a psychoanalytical look at anime that had never been attempted before. Sato sees Episode 16 was of particular importance. A spherical black Angel called Ririeru (Leliel in English) appears and Shinji's Eva Unit 01 is absorbed into it. Normally, such close contact between an Evangelion and an Angel would have resulted in combat. Instead, in this episode, Shinji is confronted by another version of himself. The two Shinjis engage in conversation as the young boy probes "himself" about who he really is and the meaning of "self." The episode clearly shows how Shinji explores his inner self as he continues asking why it is that he has been selected to pilot the Eva. The series continues in this way with a strong focus on Shinji's internal struggles until Evangelion draws toward its climax." "Evangelion Special: From phenomenon to legacy" This change in emphasis was partly due to the development of the story, but also partly because by this point, production had begun running out of funding and failing to meet the schedule; this collapse has been identified by at least one Gainax employee as the impetus for Evangelion's turn into metafiction: I didn't mind it. The schedule was an utter disaster and the number of cels plummeted, so there were some places where unfortunately the quality suffered. However, the tension of the staff as we all became more desperate and frenzied certainly showed up in the film … About the time that the production system was completely falling apart, there were some opinions to the effect that, "If we can't do satisfactory work, then what's the point of continuing?" However, I didn't feel that way. My opinion was, "Why don't we show them the entire process including our breakdown." "A STORY OF COMMUNICATION: The Kazuya Tsurumaki Interview" But nevertheless, by the 18th episode, it had become enough of a sensation that Eva-01's violent rampage "is criticized as being unsuitable on an anime show that is viewed by children", and episode 20 would be similarly criticized for the offscreen depiction of Misato and Ryoji Kaji having sex pg 162, Fujie 2004 With this popularity came the first merchandise, "Genesis 0:1" (containing the first two episodes). Beginning a trend, it sells out. As the series concluded on 27 March 1996 with Take care of yourself., the story apparently remained unresolved: Third Impact and the Human Complementation Project are implied to have begun or even finished, but the episodes focus largely on the psychology of the characters, leaving deeply unclear what actually happens. The radically different and experimental style of the final two episodes alienated many fans and spawned debate and analysis, both scholarly and informal; even mainstream publications like the Mainichi Times would remark that "When Episode 25 first aired the following week, nearly all viewers felt betrayed...when commentator Eiji Otsuka sent a letter to the Yomiuri Shimbun, complaining about the end of the Evangelion series, the debate went nationwide." "Evangelion Special: From phenomenon to legacy" (It's worth noting that the ending received such coverage in part because Evangelion had attracted viewers not typically interested in such fare; the TV series was extremely popular "Miyadai categorizes young Japanese into three groups. One is what he calls the 'street' group who seek only to enjoy the fads of the moment, such as those who crave for Tamagotchi 'virtual pet' toys and exchange tiny self-portrait photo seals taken from 'Print Club' machines with their friends. Another group is the 'otaku,' the rough equivalent of computer nerds -- people who withdraw into the world of video games and animation, rejecting communication with the outside world. The third is a middle group of the so-called 'good boys, good girls' who do well in school in line with the expectations of their parents. Miyadai says the middle group is now at a 'critical' stage. Like Ikari, who questions the reasons he has to fight, middle-group people have doubts about why they have to go to school to satisfy their families' expectations. 'It should be noted that Evangelion is attracting such middle-group people in addition to the otaku group,' Miyadai says." from "Cartoon 'Eva' captures sense of void among Japanese youth" Anno commented in various interviews after the conclusion of the series that "anime fans need to have more self-respect" and to "come back to reality"; in a Newtype interview 10 May, after the announcement on 26 April of a new movie and re-edited versions of the TV series, he also stated that "computer networking is graffiti on toilet walls." These statements were even more controversial. Re-releases After the series ended, Anno was not completely satisfied due to issues of time, financial troubles, and network censorship. Thus, when the series was released on VHS and Laserdisc, each episode was remastered and cuts were reincorporated into episodes 21-26, with the first four being drastically enhanced and the final two being completely remade as the double-feature Death and Rebirth. However, again, due to time and budget constraints, the remastering and reanimating of episodes 21-24 was put on hold in favor of the movie. However, the Rebirth animation wasn't finished and it was decided to later release the second half of Death and Rebirth as a stand alone release. Death included some of the scenes that were already completed for the remastered episodes 21-24. It was then decided that Evangelion: Rebirth II should also include the previous animation and was then renamed The End of Evangelion. After that, the tapes "Genesis 0:11 and 0:12" were released and contained the redone episodes 21-24 and "Genesis 0:13 and 0:14" contained both endings, each containing both episodes 25 and 26. In 1998, the Evangelion films were released in their original intended form, without the extra scenes in the recap movie (Death(true)²) and with the full new ending. In 2000, the "Second Impact Box" was released in 3 parts, containing the 26 uncut, remastered episodes and the 2 movies (also including Rebirth). In 2003, the nine-volume "Renewal of Evangelion" DVDs were released, with the series' sound and picture remastered for HD and 5.1 technology (for example, new background sounds were recorded). The first eight volumes covered the original 26 episodes (with two versions of episodes 21-24: the uncut version and a reconstruction of the edited version). The ninth volume, containing two discs, named Evangelion: The Movie, contained Death(true)² and End of Evangelion. The Renewal release formed the basis for the western "Platinum Edition" (which didn't include the movies, as the movies were licensed by Manga Entertainment, while the series was licensed by A.D. Vision). It should also be noted that the "Platinum Edition" features slightly different English subtitles than the original VHS and DVD releases of the series. Inspiration and symbolism Evangelion is dense with allusions to biological, military, religious, and psychological concepts, as well as numerous references or homages to older anime series (for example, the basic plot is seen in earlier anime like Space Battleship Yamato "Although it draws upon earlier classic anime such as the Yamato series in terms of the ostensible narrative – alien invaders, in this case known as Angels, are attacking the Earth and only a small group of young people can save it, using impressive giant robots with which they synergize – the narrative's actual execution defamiliarizes this rather hackneyed story line." pg 424 of Napier 2002 ) – a tendency which inspired the nickname for the series, the "remixed anime" "Evangelion carries a large number of quotes from and references to other anime productions, such as the mecha designs of Ultraman, Space Battleship Yamato, and Gundam. The works of Go Nagai – such as Mazinga Z – and even the novelist Ryu Murakami are also referred to; in particular, Devilman is seen as a major source for the overall plot. This was so apparent that Evangelion became known as "the remixed anime". pg 9 of Fujie 2004 Anno's use of Freudian jargon and psychoanalytical theory as well as his allusions to religion and biology are often idiosyncratically used and redefined to carry his message. This tendency of Anno's has been criticized as "Total plagiarism!" and "just more mindgames from the animation crew". pg 75 of Fujie 2004 However, Anno has defended himself by denying the possibility of really original work without borrowing in anime: "There is no longer room for absolute originality in the field of anime, especially given that our generation was brought up on mass-produced anime. All stories and techniques inevitably bring with them a sense of déjà vu. The only avenue of expression left open to us is to produce a collage-like effect based on a sampling of existing works." "The people who make anime and the people who watch it always want the same things. The creators have been making the same story for about 10 years; the viewers seem to be satisfied and there's no sense of urgency. There's no future in that." Anno, as quoted in Wong 1996 Regardless, Anno seems to have hoped to reinvigorated the genre of anime – seen as lifeless and moribund in the early 1990s – and restore originality: to create a new anime. This desire is also the reason Anno cited for creating the Rebuild of Evangelion movies: "Many different desires are motivating us to create the new "Evangelion" film … The desire to fight the continuing trend of stagnation in anime. The desire to support the strength of heart that exists in the world… Many times we wondered, "It's a title that's more than 10 years old. Why now?" "Eva is too old", we felt. However, over the past 12 years, there has been no anime newer than Eva. From 17 February 2007 movie theater poster by Anno; translation from "Hideaki Anno Releases Statement About New Evangelion Movies: EVA creator posts message in theatres across Japan, hopes to lure new audiences to Evangelion films", 2007-02-20, Anime News Network. The interpretation of the symbols and concepts varies from individual to individual, "It should be clear by now that Evangelion is a text that can be read on many levels. On the one hand, as Kotani and other critics point out, it can be seen as a coming-of-age story, expressed through the narrative of a young boy's growth vis-a-vis others, in particular the patriarchy represented by his father and the feminine presence represented by not only his colleagues but, as Kotani argues, by the EVA itself." "… a moment that suggests that Shinji's endeavor to develop a cohesive form of subjectivity has been successful. Or has it?" pg 429 of Napier 2002 and it is not clear how many are intentional or meaningful, nor which were merely design elements or coincidences. Anno himself said, "It might be fun if someone with free time could research them." A number of these symbols were noted on the English DVD commentary for Death and Rebirth and End of Evangelion. Many of the characters share their names with Japanese warships from World War II (such as the Sōryū, Akagi, and Katsuragi, though the ship names and character names are written with different kanji, they share the same pronunciations.) Other characters' names refer to other works of fiction, such as the two characters named after the protagonists of Ryu Murakami's Ai to Genso no Fascism ("Fascism in Love and Fantasy"; the two main characters are named Aida Kensuke and Suzuhara Toji). Psychology and psychoanalytic theory Evangelion has long been taken as a deeply personal expression of Hideaki Anno's personal struggles "Whereas Yamaga Hiroyuki last year said that Honneamise reflected his opinion of the world at the time he wrote and directed it, Anno Hideaki declared in last November's issue of Newtype that he's going only by his own value system in judging the series. That, combined with Anno's surprise remarks at the end of vol. 1 of "Eva" character designer Sadamoto Yoshiyuki's Evangelion manga (itself a similar, but "alternate" version of the anime story) that this project represents the end of four years that were for him no more than "simply not dying," indicate this TV anime series is personal and deeply felt to Anno." "Overriding it all, as the noted Japanese social writer, Sato Kenji, has remarked, is Anno Hideaki's overall honesty, his own whisper of the heart--"to live is to change"--from one of Japan's top animators, caught for four years in the personal hell of depression and helplessness as an artist. It helps to remind one that the people who make anime don't do it just for the often paltry living it provides, but to express what's inside them with these tools they know. To make something that means something to them is the reason Gainax makes everything. "Arrogant and selfish" is how Anno describes it." "Speaking Once as They Return: Gainax's Neon Genesis Evangelion"]; Carl Horn, AMPlus 1.2 1995 . From the start, Evangelion invokes many psychological themes. Phrases used in episodes, their titles, and the names of the background music frequently derive from Sigmund Freud's works "Aside from Old Testament quotes, there are numerous cases in Evangelion of far-reaching references to such Freudian concepts as the Libido and death wish…", "Going off on a tangent, the choice of theme songs, "Thanatos – If I can't be yours" and "Come Sweet Death" both illustrate the importance of the death wish to the movie." pg 147, 150 of Fujie 2004 in addition to perhaps some Lacanian influences in general "In the final episode, Anno is clearly referencing Freud and perhaps Lacan as the unseen voice inside Shinji's head explains to him that he creates his personality first through disassociating with the mother and then through distinguishing himself from others." pg 234 of Napier 2002 Examples include "Thanatos", "Oral stage", "Separation Anxiety", and "Mother Is The First Other" (the mother as the first object of a child's love is the basis of the Oedipus complex). The scenery and buildings in Tokyo-3 often seem laden with psychological import, even in the first episode "Shinji and Misato's descent into the seemingly bottomless depths of Nerv headquarters can be read, as critic Endo Toru suggests, as a descent into the unconsciousness, metonymically reinforced by the profusion of downward escalators and elevators from which the protagonists emerge into a disorienting maze of long empty corridors and bizarre machinery (84). It is surely no coincidence that, in the first episode, Misato and Shinji enter Nerv only to become hopelessly lost, a situation that recurs symbolically and concretely throughout the series until the final episode explicitly displays Shinji as "lost" in his own subconscious." pg 428 of Napier 2002 The connection between the Evas and their pilots, as well as the ultimate goal of the Human Instrumentality Project, bear a strong resemblance to Freud's theories on internal conflict and interpersonal communication. "In the terms of the thermodynamic model which informs Freud's concept of the death drive, what is feared is the entropy' at work at the heart of all organization, all differentiation. By this same token the woman also signifies precisely that desired 'state where everything is the same': the pre-Oedipal bliss of the fusion of bodies in which infant and mother are "'inextricably mixed', that absence of the pain of differing, condition of identity and meaning, whose extinction is deferred until death." ―Victor Burgin The hedgehog's dilemma is a concept described by philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer and later adopted by Freud. It is the subtitle of episode 4 and is mentioned in that episode by Misato Katsuragi as descriptive of her relationship with Shinji. "The hedgehog's dilemma… The nearer we get, the deeper we hurt each other… I see." Many of the characters have deep psychological traumas in relation to their parents. Shinji's introversion and social anxiety stem from the death of his mother at an early age and his abandonment by his father. Asuka was the target of her mother's insanity, and discovered her mother's body after she hanged herself; her tough, bullying personality is a means of distracting herself from her pain, and she has made piloting Unit 02 her only source of pride and satisfaction. Misato's father neglected her when she was a child; after he was killed in the Second Impact, she stopped talking for a couple of years. In episode 25, Misato states that she was both attracted to and afraid of Ryoji Kaji because he reminded her of her father. Ritsuko saw her mother having an affair with Gendo Ikari; after her mother's suicide she felt both attraction and hate towards Gendo. Indeed, the last two episodes are "stripped of the high-tech gadgetry and the colorful visuals that characterize the earlier episodes in the series, these last two episodes take place largely in muted tones… a form of interrogation proceeds to be carried out as he [Shinji] asks himself – or is asked by an unseen voice – probing psychological questions." pg 426 of Napier 2002 The questions elicit unexpected answers, particularly the ones dealing with Shinji's motivation for piloting the Eva – he feels worthless and afraid of others (especially his father) if he is not piloting the Eva. "At first he insists that he does so to "save mankind." But when that answer is met with the response "Liar", he shifts to a more complex self-analysis… he admits to piloting the Eva because of his own need for the liking and respect of others, and finally acknowledges that he feels "worthless" unless he is joined with the Eva." pg 426 of Napier 2002 Asuka and Rei are also depicted in deep introspection and consideration of their psyches. Asuka comes to the realization that her entire being is caught up in being a competent Eva pilot and that without it, she has no personal identity: "I'm the junk… I'm worthless. Nobody needs a pilot who can't control her own Eva." As quoted in pg 426 of Napier 2002 Rei, who throughout the series has displayed minimal emotion, reveals that she does have one impulse; it is Thanatos, an inclination to death: "I am Happy. Because I want to die, I want to despair, I want to return to nothing." In episode 25 Shinji and Asuka both show that they in fact suffered similar pasts and found different ways of dealing with it. This is further established in Shinji when he claims he has no life without Eva and this is disproven by the world shown in Episode 26 followed by the famous "Congratulations" scene. Religion Nerv's logo featuring half a fig leaf; "God's In His Heaven, All's Right With The World" is a quote from a song from Robert Browning's Pippa Passes. The destruction of an Angel causes an explosion which is cross shaped: one example of Christian icons being used in Evangelion. The most prominent symbolism takes its inspiration from Judeo-Christian sources and frequently uses iconography and themes from Judaism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and Kabbalism, in the series's examination of religious ideas and themes. "Anno says the new offering from Gainax will consider some of the ultimate questions posed by science fiction, and, indeed, philosophy, such as: What is the nature of evolution? What is humanity's relationship to his or her god? Does god, in fact, exist? What does it mean for the human race if that question can be answered definitively?" From "Gainax Returns to Anime with Shinseiki Evangelion", published in the February 1995 edition of Animerica, and as quoted in Neon Genesis Evangelion, volume 10. Assistant director Kazuya Tsurumaki said that they originally used Christian symbolism only to give the project a unique edge against other giant robot shows, and that it had no particular meaning, "There are a lot of giant robot shows in Japan, and we did want our story to have a religious theme to help distinguish us. Because Christianity is an uncommon religion in Japan we thought it would be mysterious. None of the staff who worked on Eva are Christians. There is no actual Christian meaning to the show, we just thought the visual symbols of Christianity look cool. If we had known the show would get distributed in the US and Europe we might have rethought that choice." ― Kazuya Tsurumaki EvaOtaku.com FAQ; see also an interview with Tsurumaki which contains the same quote and that it was meant to be susceptible to multiple interpretations. "Evangelion is like a puzzle, you know. Any person can see it and give his/her own answer. In other words, we're offering viewers to think by themselves, so that each person can imagine his/her own world. We will never offer the answers, even in the theatrical version. As for any Evangelion viewers, they may expect us to provide the 'all-about Eva' manuals, but there is no such thing. Don't expect to get answers by someone. Don't expect to be catered to all the time. We all have to find our own answers." from Hideaki Anno's Anime Expo '96 interview, pp20–3 in the November 1996 Newtype, as translated by Miyako Graham in issue 43, pages 40–41 of Protoculture Addicts and as quoted by Lawrence Eng Hiroki Sato, head of Gainax's PR department, has made similar statements. "But Hiroki Sato, 32, head of the public relations department of GAINAX, the company that produced the animation, says various devices included in Evangelion are only elements of the product and are not directly linked to its theme. 'Anno made a soul-searching journey in producing Evangelion by including his daily sufferings and thinking about them,' Sato says." 'Cartoon 'Eva' captures sense of void among Japanese youth' References, with multiple equally plausible interpretations which exist, include: Adam and Eve (known in other languages as Eva) refer to the first human beings from the book of Genesis. Eve comes from Adam's rib. Similarly, most of the Evas come from the Angel first identified as Adam In episode 23,Tear/Rei III, Ritsuko states that "These are dummies. And nothing but parts for Rei. Humans found a god, and thus, tried to obtain it. As a result, humanity was punished. That was 15 years ago. The god that they found vanished. However, they tried to revive the god themselves. It was Adam. A human was made from Adam to be close to the god. That is Eva." See also Fujie 2004: "Elsewhere, we learn, "That which was born of Adam is the Eva", effectively proving that Adam was the model for the Evangelions." (pg 48). The Christian cross is often shown, frequently represented by energy beams shooting up skyward. The second Angel, Lilith is shown crucified. In Jewish folklore, Lilith is the first wife of Adam, and in some works of popular culture, the first vampire. Lilith is impaled with a spear named the "Lance of Longinus", used to pierce the side of Jesus during his crucifixion. Lilith represents the first woman and mother of humanity; traditionally she is identified as being the mother of all demons (who are called in general the "Lilin" or "Lilim"). In Evangelion, she may even be the source of humanity itself, as Kaworu identifies Lilith as the source of the Lilim (humanity) in episode 24, "The Final Angel". "Adam, that from which we came. Must one who is born from Adam return to Adam, even though it would destroy man. Wait this isn't. Lilith! I see, I understand now. The Lilim, Lilith." The Angels could be a reference to the angels of God from the Old Testament. In Japanese, the word used is the same one used for apostle (or messenger), as in the New Testament. Eyecatches during the series as well as the introduction sequence flashes "Angels" at a point. In addition, their origin is vaguely explained in the series as descending from "Adam" (yet another Judeo-Christian reference) and being "different evolutionary paths humanity could have taken". The Magi supercomputers are named Melchior, Balthasar and Casper after the names traditionally given for the Magi who were mentioned in the Gospel of Matthew as having visited Jesus in Bethlehem pg 60 of Fujie 2004 (often called "the three wise men", though the number of visitors is not recorded in the Gospel). The Tree of Sephiroth (Tree of Life) is mentioned, as well as shown in the opening title sequence and on the ceiling of Gendo's office, with Hebrew inscriptions on it (the terms written there are mostly Kabbalic). It also appears in End of Evangelion during Seele's version of Instrumentality. The Marduk Institute is a front organization for Nerv, tasked with finding the teenagers suitable for piloting Evangelion units. Marduk was the name of the chief Babylonian deity and patron god of the city of Babylon. In episode 9, Asuka describes the door between her and Shinji as the "Wall of Jericho" which, in the Book of Joshua, was an impenetrable wall, though it eventually fell after being circled seven times by the army and priests of Israel. Reference is made to the "Room of Gaff" (spelling taken from the English subtitles; correct spelling/transliteration is "Guf") and its being "empty"; "However the vessel which truly contains a soul is Rei. Only she has a soul. None of the other vessels have a soul. There was nothing within the room of Gaff. These Rei-like things here do not have a soul." from Episode 23, Rei III. Ritsuko's statement may also be translated as "These things are empty husks, they have no souls, no right to live. The room of Gaff, is empty." in Jewish lore, when the Room of Gaff is emptied of souls waiting to be born, the end of the world, and with it the coming of the Messiah, is nigh. The Room of Gaff is further referenced in Death and Rebirth & End of Evangelion, where it is given greater importance than the one mention in the television series; one analysis of the End of Evangelion has it being "the door to both the beginning and the end of the world, and the hall of souls. When exposed to the power of the Hall of Gaff all living forms lose their ability to maintain themselves as individual lifeforms, reverting to LCL. At the Second Impact the door to the Hall of Gaff is opened by Adam, and everything changes into a sea of LCL. At the Third Impact the portal is opened once again by Rei, who has assimilated with Lilith, and all life-forms revert to LCL." pg 172 of Fujie 2002 Note that in the movies, human souls come from and return to the Hall of Gaff. "Fuyutsuki: "The doors of the Hall of Gaff are opening. So, the door to the beginning and the end of life has opened, then?" Ibuki: "The AT Field… Everyone's AT Field is disappearing." Keel: "The beginning and the end are at the same point. Right. This is the way it should be."" Quoted dialogue quoted on pg 154–155 of Fujie 2002 There seems to be two separate Rooms of Gaff in the movies: one for the humans, openable through Lilith in the Japanese GeoFront; and a different one, presumably for the Angels in the Antarctic GeoFront, which was opened on the same day the Second Impact occurred (presumably all the Angels produced, except for Kaworu who was born that day, were destroyed as part of the process, explaining why Kaworu is the last Angel to be born while humans continued to be born – the Angel Hall of Gaff was empty after him Fujie 2002 takes the following dialogue as being particularly significant: ""Commence heat-extinguishing process at the same time as the portal of the Hall of Gaff opens." …In Japan we have, "The Egg of Lilith, the source of all life." It is from here that the soul of mankind is born and returns. As opposed to this, in Antarctica, while there is no specific, "Egg of Adam", when Misato says, "They did manage to keep the damage down to a minimum by having Adam revert to the egg before the other Angels awoke", we can understand that this is the source from which the Angels are born and return … What that means in concrete terms is that Kaworu Nagisa, born on the day of the Second Impact, is the last of the Angels with roots in Adam, and no more are born … Also, "She was the only girl who had a soul." As well as, "The Hall of Gaff was empty." And finally, "None of the Rei clones you see here have souls."… From all this we can see that there were in fact two Halls of Gaff serving as the source of souls, and that one of these was the Egg of Lilith inteded for human souls and stored in GeoFront in Japan." pg 144–146 The Angels themselves are named after angels from angelology, including Sachiel, Shamshel, and Arael. The total number of Angels identified in the series, eighteen, is a spiritually significant number in Judaism, as it is associated with the Hebrew word חי (chai),or "life". Fiction and philosophy Neon Genesis Evangelion and particularly the Human Instrumentality Project show a strong influence from Arthur C. Clarke's novel Childhood's End, an influence Anno acknowledged. Similarities between the works, such as the larger theme of humanity's evolution to a higher plane of existence, or lesser details such as the declining birth rate after the Second Impact, were gleaned from this work. Evangelion shows influences from the science fiction author Dr. Paul Linebarger, better known by his pseudonym, Cordwainer Smith. Linebarger was raised in China, became the god-son of the nationalistic leader Sun Yat-sen, and during World War II, worked in psychological warfare on behalf of the U.S. Army, including propaganda efforts by the U.S. against the Japanese. Linebarger's work included strong influences from both East Asian culture and Christianity. His science fiction novels revolve around his own concept of the Instrumentality of Mankind, an all-powerful central government of humanity. Like Seele, the Instrumentality of Mankind see themselves "to be shapers of the true destiny of mankind." Although Anno insisted that be translated as "Instrumentality" in English, perhaps as a way to pay homage to Linebarger, the two authors' conceptions of "instrumentality" are extremely different. Other fiction allusions Philip K. Dick's The Divine Invasion, and "The Prisoner, Thunderbirds, Ultra Seven, UFO, The Andromeda Strain, even The Hitcher." Horn 1995 Existential themes of individuality, consciousness, freedom, choice, and responsibility are heavily relied upon throughout the entire series, particularly through the philosophies of Jean Paul Sartre and Søren Kierkegaard. For Sartre, humans ultimately exist in an abandoned and free state. There is no essential truth about what human beings want to be or ought to be- instead, each person must find their own identity and their own purposes. This incredible freedom, in a way, makes us "condemned to be free", because our actions and choices are our own and no one else's, which makes us responsible for them. We are constantly making decisions and choices, whether to continue doing something or to stop and do something else. Being aware of this fact, can bring on despair or anguish; and typically we try to avoid the consciousness of our own freedom. Sartre's position can be seen as standing in opposition to the theories of Freud, which held that we are not in control of ourselves, but are more at the mercy of primordial unconscious mechanisms which drive us. Sartre found such theories dangerous, since he believed that human passions arise not from the animal element of human nature, but from the fact that human beings are not merely animals or objects, and not merely minds or free subjects either, but always both. In the series, even the mecha Evangelion units turn out not to be machines, with Unit 01 moving without a pilot to protect Shinji and fighting even without the aid of an external power source when it goes berserk. Eventually, it is learned that the Evas' external armor is actually to restrain its freedom and to bind it to the control of Nerv, and that they are not just simply machines or animals, but have souls of their own. To act as if one is merely an object or label or to use outwards perceptions and actions to change their inner thoughts and feelings is what Sartre called bad faith, which was in a sense an individual rejecting their ability towards free choice and definition. Examples of this include Rei's single-minded allegiance to Gendo and Nerv's agenda, Ritsuko's dying her hair blonde to hide her similarity to her mother (even as it is hinted throughout the series, particularly in her relationship to Gendo), and Shinji calling himself a coward as if that is an excuse that makes it impossible for him to act differently. This sort of self deception was also addressed by Kierkegaard in a paradox he called "the sickness unto death," someone who goes on pretending in life as though he has no soul, and as a result, is in danger of losing his "self." Episode 16's title, is a reference to this work. Sartre in Being and Nothingness calls the conditions that bring about consciousness (ourselves, the world, others) "instrumentalities." Martin Heidegger, another existentialist, wrote an essay describing technology as an instrumentality that reveals "truth." Philosophically, the Human Instrumentality Project is a representation of the idealism developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel: a unification of all conflicts and tensions between societies, knowledge, and consciousness through a sort of historical evolution. Earlier philosophers such as Fichte had proposed that the human ego had come about through the instrumentality of freedom; it was Hegel's theory that this consciousness was not separated from the world, but was a part of it and would eventually evolve into an Absolute spirit or mind, a sort of God-like being with absolute freedom. In the movie End of Evangelion, Shinji literally becomes such an absolute being, dissolving all other conscious beings and merging with them. Søren Kierkegaard criticized Hegel's theory, not only because it was arrogant for a mere human to claim such a unity, but because such a system negates the importance of the individual in favor of the whole unity. He writes: So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom. Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. … Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all. As illustrated in episodes 25 and 26, part of what shapes us as individuals are limitations: gravity, the horizon, a body, and other people. Misato tells Shinji in the first episode, he has to learn how to deal with his anxiety and how to deal with others. Sartre in his earlier works went so far as to say that "hell is other people". Other people limit our freedoms, or may tell us things we do not like to hear, and they may see aspects of our personality we do not. Shinji later reflects upon the fact that everyone he knows has their own impression of him that may be different from his own. But in his later work, Sartre said he felt that both Hegel and Kierkegaard had a point. Individuality is important, but because part of who we are is shaped by the way others see us, we can have an effect on others too, and must work together with others in our collective struggle for existence. During the period Kierkegaard wrote The Sickness Unto Death he wrote in his journal a poem listing seven discourses. He wrote: "Let not the heart in sorrow sin" so you abandon faith in God, so you abandon faith in men, so you abandon hope of eternity, so you abandon hope for this life, so you abandon love to God, so you abandon love to men, and finally, let not the heart in sorrow sin so you abandon love to yourself. The last episode of the series is fittingly subtitled "Take Care of Yourself." Interestingly, some Eastern philosophies, such as Brahmanism and its derivatives, teach that enlightenment involves liberation from individuality through the re-absorption of the soul into a great All-Soul of creation. Seele attempts to engineer such enlightenment for the entire human race, unifying all souls into one and causing all pain and misunderstanding to end. If one wants a separate existence from others, one must be limited and opposed to others, causing pain and suffering (the Hedgehog's Dilemma inevitably arises); Buddhism identifies existence as inevitably bringing pain. The way to avoid pain is to extirpate desire and become formless. In the final episode, Shinji realizes how to attain his individuality, that he can come to have an identity separable from being an Evangelion pilot, a self he can perhaps come to love and not hate. Arthur Shoepenhauer, whose work is referred to in the title of The Hedgehog's Dilemma, was heavily influenced by Buddhist thought, but Friedrich Nietzsche and Sartre both came to a similar conclusion, rejecting many of his tenets. Inspirations and influence Anime From the period from 1984 to the release of Evangelion, most highly acclaimed anime had a style somehow distanced from the usual styles of anime. For example, Hayao Miyazaki's My Neighbor Totoro (1988), and Kiki's Delivery Service (1989) were both low-key works, while Akira (1988) was influenced by American comic books. Acclaimed director Mamoru Oshii had said that, in the words of Hiroki Azuma, nobody wanted to watch "simple anime-like works" anymore. Evangelion, however, shows the reversal of this trend. It fully embraced the style of mecha anime, and in particular shows a large influence from Yoshiyuki Tomino's Space Runaway Ideon; particularly, there are scenes in The End of Evangelion which are clear homages to the last movie for the Ideon series. As much as Evangelion has been impacted by other works like Devilman, "The overall design of Evangelion calls to mind Devilman by Go Nagai. In fact, the whole concept of the Evas, which are made from Adam, and harbor the souls of humans, can be considered borrowed from scenes from Devilman, where the soul of Akira Fudo is possessed by Amon, the Lord of War. Moreover, the heavily religious undertones, the suggestion of conflict with an indigenous people, and the cosmic view that mankind may not be the ultimate being all owe something to Devilman." pg 76 of Fujie 2004 the series itself has become a staple in Japanese fiction. The nature of the show made it a landmark work in the more psychological and sophisticated vein of anime that would be picked up by later works such as Revolutionary Girl Utena (1997) that, like Evangelion, center on an ambiguous world-changing event to come. Serial Experiments Lain is a later anime which dealt with many of the same themes as Evangelion, "Neon Genesis Evangelion and Serial Experiments Lain have much in common. They can readily be described as postmodern in terms of their concern with a notion of identity as fluctuating, their rapid and sometimes incoherent narrative pace, and their refusal of conventional forms of closure … More importantly, they share a complex and problematic attitude toward the real. The two stories also deal with issues that are perhaps culturally specific to Japan: the increasing distrust and alienation between the generations, the complicated role of childhood, and, most significantly, a privileging of the feminine, often in the form of the young girl or shōjo." "This contributes to a pervasive sense of the uncanny that imbues both narratives, linking them with the genres of horror and fantasy." pg 423–424 of Napier 2002 and so is often thought to be influenced by Neon Genesis Evangelion, although the writer did not see any of Evangelion until he had finished the fourth episode of Lain. The show His and Her Circumstances (1999), which was also directed by Hideaki Anno, shares techniques (the experimental 'ripping-apart' of the animation and use of real photographs) and portrayed psychological conflicts in much the same way (although the various cinematic devices can be traced back to works other than Eva, for instance the works of Osamu Tezuka. "Neon Genesis's 14 year-old protagonist, Shinji Ikari, lives in Tokyo without contact with his family, and his mood is often illustrated by the use of shooting scenes from above, animation cells washed in drab blue, and passages of extreme action interspersed with reflective passages of stillness or close-ups of Ikari's face.(But, as Brophy explains, such innovation is by no means a first for Neon Genesis - in the late 1940s the Japanese cartoonist Osama Tezuka borrowed artistic techniques from German Expressionism in his four-volume cartoon version of Dostoyevsky's Crime And Punishment.)" The Age (Melbourne, Australia) January 14, 1999 Thursday Late Edition "Orient expressive". by David M. Walker GREEN GUIDE; Pg. 23 ). Evangelion dramatically changed the design of giant robots in animated works. Previously, mecha or giant robot shows took their "mechanical suit" designs from Mobile Suit Gundam, Mazinger, and other similar shows from the 70s and 80s. Evangelion changed this with its fast and sleek Evas, making a noticeable contrast to the comparatively bulky and cumbersome looking Patlabors and Mobile Suits of the past. Indeed, the style set and created by Evangelion has become more common since its release, yet series like The King of Braves GaoGaiGar have continued to use the classic "mecha" style. RahXephon, a show with designs inspired by 1970s mecha shows, was compared to Evangelion by many English language reviewers. Evangelion is generally viewed to be a part of the soft science fiction genre, by avoiding the technical hard S.F. approach of Gundam and other popular mecha anime in favor of psychological struggle "Although the scenes of combat are gripping and imaginative for the genre, what makes Evangelion truly groundbreaking are the psychic struggles in which the characters engage. These struggles are both wide-ranging and emotionally draining. They are also presented with surprising psychoanalytical sophistication as the characters try to come to grips with their own inner turmoil, their problematic relations with each other, and finally, their relation to more remote forms of Otherness – the gigantic machines that are the EVAs and with which they must synchronize, and the enigmatic Angels who present a riddle that is increasingly depicted in terms of what seems to be a Christian or perhaps Gnostic notion of apocalypse." pg 425 of Napier 2002 and metaphysical symbolism. "Grading SF for Realism": "Science fantasy: … Examples include Peter Hamilton's Night's Dawn Trilogy and the Shadowrun RPG (both of which incorporate supernatural elements into an otherwise typical medium (space opera) or very hard (cyberpunk) SF setting), and the Neongenesis [sic] Evangelion anime series." References in popular media The UK band Fightstar's debut album, Grand Unification is purported to have been heavily influenced by Neon Genesis Evangelion. "Now, in a remarkable turnaround, Fightstar's debut long-player, Grand Unification, has been called "stunning posthardcore" by Kerrang! magazine; it even put the boys on its cover. The record is inspired by Manga – particularly the Neon Genesis Evangelion series (act like you know). It's about time comics and metal got a pin-up." "GIG Fightstar", by Beth Pearson, from The Herald, March 16, 2006, GOING OUT; Pg. 2 The track 'Lost like tears in rain' even contains the lyric "It's Neon Genesis". The artwork for the record portrays vast ruined cityscapes that are reminiscent of similar scenes in Evangelion. Fightstar's second album features a track called "Unfamiliar Ceilings", a reference to the Evangelion chapter "Unfamiliar Ceiling", also there is a song named "H.I.P.(enough)" in which H.I.P. means "Human Instrumentality Project". Also the words "Human Instrumentality Project" can be seen in the album insert booklet. Fightstar's EP 'Deathcar' also features two Evangelion related songs. One titled 'Nerv / Seele' and the other titled 'Shinji Ikari', the back of the EP artwork also shows an image of the 'lance of longinus' visibly separating the two songs from the other tracks. The Mexican electronica/indie group Childs bears self-admitted Evangelion influences; its sole CD, "Yui", contains some subtle Evangelion sound sampling and a track titled Post: Seele. The New York noise group In Air sings about Rei II in their album "white lake on the moon", namely on the song titled "paper key twins". The anime/videogame musician Piano Squall created an extended piano instrumental of "Cruel Angel Thesis" for his release album "Game". The indie group LeetStreet Boys song "Yuri the Only One", a love song using anime and gaming reference, contains the line, "You're my Angel out of Tokyo-3". In the music video, an image of the Third Angel Sachiel appears. The song Arue by Bump of Chicken is dedicated to Rei Ayanami. The title is written as RA, the initials of Rei. Other references Invader Zim's: in the episode "Hamstergeddon", Ultra-Pipi (the class hamster that Zim accidentally mutates into a giant monster) rushes at Zim's War Cruiser in a manner that is a rip from the blitz that Unit 01 makes at the Third Angel, Sachiel (as admitted by the episode's director in the commentaries). "Megadoomer" parodies the Evas' power cords with the Megadoomer mecha which is powered by a large cord with a giant plug that connects to ordinary wall sockets. In Final Fantasy VII, inside a museum is a sign that says "Magma Diver, D-type equipment". One of episode 10's titles is "Magma Diver", and the suit Evangelion Unit-02 wears so as to not be harmed by the lava is referred to as D-type equipment. In the 2002 film One Hour Photo, starring Robin Williams, the character Jake begs his mother to buy him the "Eva" 05 action figure, and Williams' character later offers it to him for free. It is commonplace for movies and shows to rename or repackage existing products with a generic name and graphic logo. In this case however, the toy was from Williams' personal collection (he is said to be a fan of the show), and so the series name Neon Genesis Evangelion and the graphics on the blister card are left untouched, and are clearly visible. In the second episode of "Rescue Me", entitled "Gay", there is an "End of Evangelion" poster that can be seen in Damion the computer hacker's room. A Evangelion Unit 01 action figure is seen in Jacob's room in the 2008 remake of The Day the Earth Stood Still, starring Keanu Reeves, which is fitting, considering that the title of episode 11 is a reference to the original film. Several Evangelion figures are seen in Michael's son's room in the 2007 film Michael Clayton, starring George Clooney. The episode "Legends" of Justice League features a giant turquoise robot that is destroyed in the beginning of the episode. The robot's design included shoulder pylons, and its face is similar to Unit 01 but has four eyes like Unit 02. Bruce Timm, responsible for most of the character designs in the DC Animated Universe, has done fan art of Asuka and Rei in his style. In January 2009, IGN placed Evangelion #10 on its list of "Top 100 Animated Series"; it was the highest-placing anime program on the list. In one of Gwyneth Paltrow's GOOP newsletters, excerpted in a 2009 article on The Huffington Post website, director Wes Anderson placed Neon Genesis Evangelion in a top-five list of his favourite films or entertainments. Translation notes on the title The Japanese title for the series, Shin Seiki Evangelion, is composed of two parts: "Shin Seiki" from Japanese and "Evangelion" (εὐαγγέλιον, Anglicisation eüangélion, "gospel, good messenger, good news"—etymologically unrelated to the Hebrew word Eva (name)) from Ancient Greek. The decision to call the series Neon Genesis Evangelion in English was originally made by Gainax, and not by translators; the use of the word "Evangelion" in particular was chosen by Anno "because it sounds complicated" It appears in the eyecatches of the original, untranslated episodes, and is used by Gainax to market the series worldwide. The title Neon Genesis Evangelion (, New Beginning Gospel) appears to be wholly Greek, except that "genesis" (nominative case and feminine gender) is not grammatically correct with respect to the other two words (nominative case and neuter gender). (If the title was to be translated into Ancient Greek it would have the form Νέας Γενέσεως Εὐαγγέλιον "New Beginning's Gospel", where the two first words are the respective grammatically/syntactically appropriate allomorphs of νέον and εὐαγγέλιον —that is, both genitive case and feminine gender.) Genesis (γένεσις) means "origin, source" or "birth, race" and is the Greek title for the first book of the Hebrew Scriptures, describing the creation of the universe and early Hebrew history. The Japanese term for the first book in the Bible is , perhaps a wordplay (with two different beginning and ending kanji) with "Shin Seiki" in the Japanese title. Euangelion (Latinized evangelium) originally referred to a reward offered for good news (eu (εὖ) meaning "good" and angelos (ἄγγελος) meaning "messenger", and later "messenger of god; angel"), and later came to mean "good news" itself. Liddell, Henry George with Robert Scott and Henry Stuart Jones. A Greek-English Lexicon. Oxford, 1940. Eventually it became most commonly associated with the Christian gospel (from Old English gōdspell "good story"). It is the source of the English word "evangelist." This dual meaning (message and messenger) may be the reason both the series itself and the "mecha" are called Evangelion. There has been debate over the correct pronunciation of "Evangelion." In the original Japanese version a hard 'g' () pronunciation is used by Japanese characters, and, episode 18 of the series, a native English-speaking announcer. Official secondary dubs, including the English one, use the pronunciation with a hard 'g'. The confusion probably results from that related words in English, such as "evangelist", the 'g' is soft (). The pronunciation (with the first vowel rhyming with "Eve" instead of ) is not uncommon. The hard 'g' and is correct because it is accurate in both the original Greek and Japanese, and they are the pronunciations preferred by Gainax since Evangelion is a Greek word. In the first episode, Ritsuko names the robot with a hard 'g' when presenting it to Shinji. The three influential organizations, Gehirn, Nerv and Seele, originate from German cognates. Gehirn is translated literally into the English word brain or mind, referencing it as the brainchild of the EVA Project. Nerv comes from the German Nerv meaning literally nerve, referencing it as the nerves of the EVA Project. Seele, in German, means literally soul, referencing it as the soul of the EVA Project. See also List of Neon Genesis Evangelion media Further reading Broderick, Mick. "Anime's Apocalypse: Neon Genesis Evangelion as Millenarian Mecha". Intersections 7, pg 1–11. 2002. Endo, Toru. "Konna kitanai kirei na hi ni wa" ("On a day so beautiful and so ugly"). Poppu karuchaa kuritiiku (Pop Culture Critique), volume 0. 1997. Gainax, NEW-TYPE. E-Mono: Neon Genesis Evangelion: All Goods Catalog. ISBN4-04-852868-8 Kotani, Mari. Seibo Evangelion (Evangelion as the Immaculate Virgin). Tokyo: Magajin Hausu. 1997. Kotani, Mari. A New Millenialist Perspective On The Daughters Of Eve. ISBN4-8387-0917-X. June magazine, ed. Neon Genesis Evangelion June Tokuhon: Zankoku-Na Tenshi no These ("The Neon Genesis Evangelion JUNE Reader: A Cruel Angel's Thesis"). ISBN4-906011-25-X. Lippit, Seiji M. Topographies of Japanese Modernism. New York: Columbia UP, 2000 Morikawa, Kaichiro (ed.). The Evangelion Style. ISBN4-8074-9718-9 Redmond, Dennis. The World is Watching: Video as Multinational Aesthetics 1967–1995, 2001. Routt, William. "Stillness and Style in Neon Genesis Evangelion". Animation Journal 8.2 (Spring 200): 28–43 Ruh, Brian. Terminal Dogma: Essays on Neon Genesis Evangelion. (Upcoming). Yamashita, Ikuto and Seiji, Kio. Sore Wo Nasumono: Neon Genesis Evangelion Concept Design Works ("That which enables that: Neon Genesis…"). ISBN4-04-852908-0 References External links Official websites Official website at ADV Films Madman Entertainment's Evangelion page Weta Workshop concept art for the planned live action Evangelion film Neon Genesis Evangelion – Gainax's official Evangelion page. 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン – Evangelion Website of King Record. Articles and information Neon Genesis Evangelion Wikia Evapedia "Evangelion Special: From phenomenon to legacy" -(Mainichi Daily News; these three links link to Internet Archive copies) "Evangelion Special: Genesis of a major manga" – (Mainichi Daily News) "Evangelion Special: For producer Otsuki, success not always a bed of roses" – (Mainichi Daily News) Neon Genesis Evangelion (Anime Mundi), detailed production information 'The Thin Veneer Known as "Evangelion"' -(Anime News Network) "Understanding Evangelion" -(Anime News Network'') | Neon_Genesis_Evangelion |@lemmatized commonly:2 refer:8 nge:1 eva:45 evangelion:148 commercially:1 reportedly:2 gross:3 billion:3 yen:1 approximately:1 usd:2 discussion:1 tekkoshocon:1 matt:1 greenfield:1 claim:3 takeda:8 reiterate:1 sell:6 record:9 number:9 laserdiscs:1 japan:15 dvd:4 still:4 well:12 today:1 pg:40 critically:1 consider:5 many:19 scholar:1 anime:57 masterpiece:1 series:75 credit:1 critic:4 singlehandedly:1 revive:2 genre:6 saw:2 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7,252 | David_Beckham | David Robert Joseph Beckham OBE (born 2 May 1975) is an English footballer who currently plays in midfield for Italian Serie A club Milan (on loan from American Major League Soccer club Los Angeles Galaxy) and the England national team. Beckham's stint with Milan, which began on 7 January 2009, is a loan until the end of the Italian season. Twice runner-up for FIFA World Player of the Year and in 2004 the world's highest-paid footballer, Beckham is the first British footballer to play 100 Champions League matches. He was Google's most searched of all sports topics in both 2003 and 2004. With such global recognition he has become an elite advertising brand and a top fashion icon. Beckham was captain of England from 15 November 2000 until the 2006 FIFA World Cup finals, during which he played 58 times. Since then he has continued to represent his country and earned his much-publicised hundredth cap for England against France on 26 March 2008. He is currently England's most-capped outfield player with 110 appearances. Beckham's career began when he signed a professional contract with Manchester United, making his first-team debut in 1992 aged 17. During his time there, United won the Premier League title six times, the FA Cup twice, and the UEFA Champions League in 1999. He left Manchester United to sign for Real Madrid in 2003, where he remained for four seasons, clinching the La Liga championship in his final season with the club. In January 2007, it was announced that Beckham would leave Real Madrid and sign a five-year contract with Major League Soccer club Los Angeles Galaxy. Beckham's contract with Los Angeles Galaxy became effective on 1 July 2007 and gave him the highest player salary in MLS history. He debuted for the team on 21 July in a friendly versus Chelsea at The Home Depot Center, and on 15 August, he had his first start with the team, scoring his first goal in the 2007 SuperLiga semi-final. His first league start then came on 18 August in front of a record crowd at Giants Stadium. Beckham is married to former Spice Girl, Victoria Beckham neé Adams. The couple have three sons and currently reside in Beverly Hills, California. Club career Childhood and early career Beckham was born at Whipps Cross University Hospital in Leytonstone, London, England. He is the son of David Edward Alan "Ted" Beckham (b. Edmonton, London, July–September 1948), a kitchen fitter, and wife (m. London Borough of Hackney, 1969) Sandra Georgina West (b. 1949), a hairdresser. He regularly played football in Ridgeway Park, Chingford, as a child, and attended Chase Lane Primary School and Chingford Foundation School. In a 2007 interview, Beckham said that, "At school whenever the teachers asked, 'What do you want to do when you're older?' I'd say, 'I want to be a footballer.' And they'd say, 'No, what do you really want to do, for a job?' But that was the only thing I ever wanted to do." His maternal grandfather is Jewish, although Beckham has referred to himself as "half Jewish" and spoken of the influence the religion has had on him. In his book Both Feet on the Ground, he stated that growing up he always attended church with his parents and his two sisters, Joanne and Lynne. His parents were fanatical Manchester United supporters who would frequently travel to Old Trafford from London to attend the team's home matches. David inherited his parents' love of Manchester United, and his main sporting passion was football. He attended one of Bobby Charlton's football schools in Manchester and won the chance to take part in a training session at FC Barcelona, as part of a talent competition. He played for a local youth team called the Ridgeway Rovers – coached by his father, Stuart Underwood and Steve Kirby. Beckham was a Manchester United mascot for a match against West Ham United in 1986. Young Beckham had trials with his local club Leyton Orient, Norwich City and attended Tottenham Hotspur's school of excellence. Tottenham Hotspur was the first club he played for. During a two-year period in which Beckham played for Brimsdown Rovers' youth team, he was named Under-15 Player of the Year in 1990. The FA - Becks' Brimsdown boost, article from 24 September 2004. Retrieved 7 July 2007. He also attended Bradenton Preparatory Academy, but signed schoolboy forms at Manchester United on his fourteenth birthday, and subsequently signed a Youth Training Scheme contract on 8 July 1991. Manchester United He was part of a group of young players at the club who guided the club to win the FA Youth Cup in May 1992, with Beckham scoring in the second leg "Second leg" refers to the second of two matches that are played to decide the tie. The scores from the two matches are added together to determine the winner. of the final against Crystal Palace. He made his first appearance for United's first-team that year, as a substitute in a League Cup match against Brighton & Hove Albion, and signed his first professional contract shortly afterwards. United reached the final of the Youth Cup again the following year, with Beckham playing in their defeat by Leeds United, and he won another medal in 1994 when the club's reserve team won their league. On 7 December 1994, Beckham made his UEFA Champions League debut, scoring a goal in a 4–0 victory at home to Galatasaray in the final game of the group stage. However, this victory was of little use as they finished third out of four in their group behind Barcelona on goal difference. He then went to Preston North End on loan for part of the 1994–95 season to get some first team experience. He impressed, scoring two goals in five appearances, notably scoring directly from a corner kick. Beckham's pride at OBE BBC Sport; 13-06-03. Retrieved 22-10-08. Beckham returned to Manchester and finally made his Premier League debut for Manchester United on 2 April 1995, in a goalless draw against Leeds United. United manager Sir Alex Ferguson had a great deal of confidence in the club's young players. Beckham as part of a group of young talents Ferguson brought in to United in the 1990s ("Fergie's Fledglings"), which included Nicky Butt and Gary and Phil Neville. When experienced players Paul Ince, Mark Hughes and Andrei Kanchelskis left the club after the end of the 1994–95 season, his decision to let youth team players replace them instead of buying star players from other clubs (United had been linked with moves for players including Darren Anderton, Marc Overmars and Roberto Baggio, but no major signings were made that summer), drew a great deal of criticism. The criticism increased when United started the season with a 3–1 defeat at Aston Villa, The most famous comment was Alan Hansen's "You can't win anything with kids", quoted in The Boss 405. Beckham scored United's goal from a distance of around 30 metres. with Beckham scoring United's only goal of the game; however, United won their next five matches and the young players performed well. Beckham swiftly established himself as United's right-sided midfielder (rather than a right-winger in the style of his predecessor Andrei Kanchelskis) and helped them to win the Premier League title and FA Cup double that season, scoring the winner in the semi-final against Chelsea and also provided the corner that Eric Cantona scored from in the FA Cup Final. Beckham's first title medal had, for a while, looked like it wouldn't be coming that season, as United were still 10 points adrift of leaders Newcastle United at the turn of the new year, but Beckham and his team-mates had overhauled the Tynesiders at the top of the league by mid March and they remained top until the end of the season. Despite playing regularly (and to a consistently high standard) for Manchester United, Beckham did not break into the England squad before Euro 96. At the beginning of the 1996–97 season David Beckham was given the number 10 shirt that had most recently been worn by Mark Hughes. On 17 August 1996 (the first day of the Premier League season), Beckham became something of a household name when he scored a spectacular goal in a match against Wimbledon. With United leading 2–0, Beckham noticed that Wimbledon's goalkeeper Neil Sullivan was standing a long way out of his goal, and hit a shot from the halfway line that floated over the goalkeeper and into the net. Sky Sports' commentator Martin Tyler's words "You'll see that over and over again" proved prophetic as the goal was voted Premier League Goal of the Decade in 2003. When Beckham scored his famous goal, he did so in shoes custom-made for Charlie Miller ("MILLER" embroidered on boots), which had been given to Beckham by mistake. During the 1996–97 season, he became an automatic first-choice player at United helping them to retain the Premier League championship, and being voted PFA Young Player of the Year by his peers. On 18 May 1997, Eric Cantona retired as a player and left the coveted number 7 shirt free, and with Teddy Sheringham arriving from Tottenham Hotspur as Cantona's successor, Beckham left his number 10 shirt for Sheringham and picked up the number 7 jersey. Some fans had felt the number 7 shirt should be retired after Cantona had himself retired, but the shirt number remains in use to this day (currently by Cristiano Ronaldo). United started the 1997–98 season well, but erratic performances in the second half of the season saw United finish second behind Arsenal. In the 1998–99 season, he was part of the United team that won The Treble of the Premier League, FA Cup and Champions League, a unique feat in English football. There had been speculation that the criticism that he had received after being sent off in the World Cup would lead to him leaving England, but he decided to stay at Manchester United. To ensure they would win the Premier League title, United needed to win their final league match of the season, at home to Tottenham Hotspur (with reports suggesting that the opposition would allow themselves to be easily beaten to prevent their deadly local rivals Arsenal from retaining the title), but Tottenham took an early lead in the match. Beckham scored the equaliser and United went on to win the match and the league. Beckham played centre-midfield in United's FA Cup final win over Newcastle United and for the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final against Bayern Munich, since United's first string centre-midfielders were suspended for the match. United were losing the match 1–0 at the end of normal time, but won the trophy by scoring two goals in injury time. Both of the goals came from corners taken by Beckham. Those crucial assists, coupled with great performances over the rest of the season, led to him finishing runner up to Rivaldo for 1999's European Footballer of the Year and FIFA World Player of the Year awards. Beckham in a match against Bristol Rovers F.C. Despite Beckham's achievements in the 1998–99 season, he was still unpopular among some opposition fans and journalists, and he was criticised after being sent off for a deliberate foul in Manchester United's World Club Championship match against Necaxa. It was suggested in the press that his wife was a bad influence on him, and that it might be in United's interests to sell him, but his manager publicly backed him and he stayed at the club. During the 1999-2000 season, there was a talk of a transfer to Juventus in Italy, but this never happened. By the early 2000s, the relationship between Ferguson and Beckham had begun to deteriorate, possibly as a result of Beckham's fame and commitments away from football. In 2000, Beckham was given permission to miss training to look after his son Brooklyn, who had gastroenteritis, but Ferguson was furious when Victoria Beckham was photographed at a London Fashion Week event on the same night, claiming that Beckham would have been able to train if Victoria had looked after Brooklyn that day. He responded by fining Beckham the maximum amount that was permitted (two weeks' wages – then £50,000) and dropping him for a crucial match against United's rivals Leeds United. He later criticised Beckham for this in his autobiography, claiming he had not been "fair to his team mates" The Boss 469. Beckham had a good season for his club, though, and helped United to win the Premier League by a record margin. "He was never a problem until he got married. He used to go into work with the academy coaches at night time, he was a fantastic young lad. Getting married into that entertainment scene was a difficult thing – from that moment his life was never going to be the same. He is such a big celebrity, football is only a small part." – Alex Ferguson speaking about Beckham's marriage in 2007. Beckham helped United retain the Premier League title in 1999-2000 by an 18-point margin - after being pushed by Arsenal and Leeds United for much of the season, United won their final 11 league games of the season, with Beckham scoring five goals during this fantastic run of form. He managed six league goals that season, and scored eight goals in all competitions. He was a key player in United's third successive league title in 2000-01 - only the fourth time that any club had achieved three league titles in a row. He scored nine goals that season, all in the Premier League. On 10 April 2002, Beckham was injured during a Champions League match against Deportivo de La Coruña, breaking the second metatarsal bone in his left foot. There was speculation in the British media that the injury might have been caused deliberately, as the player who had injured Beckham was Argentine Aldo Duscher, and England and Argentina were due to meet in that year's World Cup. The injury prevented Beckham from playing for United for the rest of the season and they missed out on the Premier League title to Arsenal (also being knocked out of the European Cup by Bayer Leverkusen on away goals in the semi-finals), but he signed a three-year contract in May, following months of negotiations with the club, mostly concerning extra payments for his image rights. The income from his new contract, and his many endorsement deals, made him the highest-paid player in the world at the time. 2001-02 was arguably Beckham's best season as a United player, though. He scored 11 goals in 28 league games, and a total of 16 goals in 42 games in all competitions. Following an injury early in the 2002–03 season, Beckham was unable to regain his place on the Manchester United team, with Ole Gunnar Solskjær having replaced him on the right side of midfield. His relationship with his manager deteriorated further on 15 February 2003 when, in the changing room following an FA Cup defeat to Arsenal, a furious Sir Alex Ferguson kicked a boot that struck Beckham over the eye, causing a cut that required stitches. The incident led to a great deal of transfer speculation involving Beckham, with bookmakers offering odds on whether he or Ferguson would be first to leave the club. Although the team had started the season badly, their results improved greatly from December onwards and they won the league, with Beckham managing a total of 11 goals in 52 games in all competitions. He was still a first-choice player for England, however, and he was awarded an OBE for services to football on 13 June. Beckham had made 265 Premier league appearances for United and scored 61 goals. He also made 81 Champions league appearances, scoring 15 goals. Beckham won 6 Premier League titles, 2 FA Cups, one European Cup, one Intercontinental Cup and one FA Youth Cup in the space of 12 years. By this stage, he was their joint second longest serving player behind Ryan Giggs (having joined them at the same time as Nicky Butt, Gary Neville and Paul Scholes). Real Madrid Beckham (top) and Zinedine Zidane at Real Madrid Manchester United had been keen to sell Beckham to Barcelona but instead he signed a four-year contract with Real Madrid, with the transfer fee being about €35 million (£25m). Equivalent to, at the time, £25,000,000 or US$41,000,000. The transfer was completed on 1 July 2003 and made him the third Englishman to play for the club after Laurie Cunningham and Steve McManaman. Although Beckham had worn the number seven shirt for Manchester United and England, he was unable to wear it at Madrid as it was currently assigned to club captain Raúl. He decided to wear number 23 instead, citing his admiration of basketball player Michael Jordan, who also wore the number 23 shirt, as the reason behind his decision. Real Madrid finished the season in fourth place, and were knocked out of the UEFA Champions League at the quarter-final stage. But, Beckham immediately became a favourite with the Real Madrid supporters, scoring five times in his first 16 matches (including scoring less than 3 minutes into his La Liga debut), but the team, whose club president expected them to win either the Spanish league or the Champions League each season, did not match expectations. In July 2004, while Beckham was in pre-season training in Spain, an intruder scaled a wall at the Beckhams' home while carrying a can of petrol. Victoria and their children were in the house at the time, but security guards apprehended the man before he reached the house. Beckham made more headlines on 9 October 2004 when he admitted intentionally fouling Ben Thatcher in an England match against Wales in order to get himself booked. Beckham was due to receive a one-match suspension for his next caution, and had picked up an injury, which he knew would keep him out of England's next match, so he deliberately fouled Thatcher in order to serve his suspension in a match that he would have had to miss anyway. The Football Association asked Beckham for an explanation of his actions and he admitted that he had "made a mistake" and apologised. He was sent off shortly afterwards, this time in a league match for Real Madrid against Valencia CF. Having received a yellow card, he was judged to have sarcastically applaud the referee and was given a second yellow card, causing an automatic dismissal, although the suspension was cancelled on appeal two days later. He was sent off for the third time that season on 3 December 2005 in a league match against Getafe. In that season, Beckham led La Liga in number of assists. Real Madrid finished second to Barcelona in the 2005–06 La Liga, albeit with a large 12 point gap, and only reached the last sixteen in the Champions League after losing to Arsenal by one goal. Warming up with Real Madrid. During the season, Beckham established football academies in Los Angeles, California and east London and he was named a judge for the 2006 British Book Awards. Maul, Kimberly. David Beckham: Soccer Star and Book Judge. The Book Standard. 11 January 2006. In 2007, Real Madrid won their first Spanish La Liga title in three years because of their superior head-to-head record against Barcelona, giving Beckham his first title since he joined Real Madrid. Initially out of favour with manager Fabio Capello, Beckham started only a few games at the beginning of the season, as the speedier José Antonio Reyes was normally preferred on the right wing. In the first nine matches Beckham started, Real lost seven. On 10 January 2007, after prolonged contract negotiations, Real Madrid's sporting director Predrag Mijatović announced that Beckham would not remain at Real Madrid after the end of the season. However, he later claimed that he was mistranslated and that he actually said that Beckham's contract had not been renewed yet. On 11 January 2007 Beckham announced that he had signed a five-year deal to play for Los Angeles Galaxy beginning 1 July 2007. On 13 January 2007 Fabio Capello said that Beckham had played his last game for Real Madrid, although he would continue to train with the team. Capello backtracked on that statement and Beckham rejoined the team for their match against Real Sociedad on 10 February 2007 – he scored and Real Madrid won. In his final UEFA Champions League appearance, Real Madrid were knocked out of the competition (by the away goals rule) on 7 March 2007. Beckham had made a total of 103 appearances in the Champions League, the third highest number of any player at the time. On 17 June 2007, the last day of the La Liga season, Beckham started in his final match for the club, a 3-1 win over Mallorca, which saw them clinch the title from Barcelona. Although he limped off the field, he was replaced by José Antonio Reyes who scored two goals and the team won the season's La Liga title, their first since Beckham had signed with them. Although both finished level on points, Madrid took the title because of their superior head-to-head record, capping a remarkable six-month turnaround for Beckham. At the end of the season, Real Madrid announced that they would try to untie David Beckham's transfer to LA Galaxy with him playing with improved form, but were unsuccessful, mainly due to LA Galaxy's refusal to listen. A month after the conclusion of Beckham's Real career, Forbes magazine reported that he had been the party primarily responsible for the team's huge increase in merchandise sales, a total reported to top US$600 million during Beckham's four years at the club. Los Angeles Galaxy It was confirmed on 11 January 2007 that David Beckham would be leaving Real Madrid to join Major League Soccer's Los Angeles Galaxy. The following day, Beckham's official press conference was held in conjunction with the 2007 MLS SuperDraft. Events surround MLS SuperDraft. MLSnet.com. 10 January 2007. Beckham (centre) scores his first goal for LA Galaxy Beckham's contract with Los Angeles Galaxy took effect on 11 July, and on 13 July, was officially unveiled as a Galaxy player at The Home Depot Center. Beckham chose to wear number 23. It was announced that Galaxy jersey sales had already reached a record figure of over 250,000 prior to this formal introduction. On 21 July, Beckham made his Galaxy debut after coming on in the 78th minute in a 1–0 loss to Chelsea during the World Series of Soccer. Two weeks later, Beckham made his league debut as a substitute on 9 August versus D.C. United. Beckham returned to the pitch the following week, again facing D.C. United, in the SuperLiga semi-final on 15 August. During this game he had many firsts with the Galaxy; his first start, first yellow card and first game as team captain. He also scored his first goal for the team, from a free kick, and also made his first assist, for Landon Donovan in the second half. These goals gave the team a 2–0 victory, and a place in the North American SuperLiga final versus CF Pachuca on 29 August. During the SuperLiga final against Pachuca, Beckham injured his right knee, with an MRI scan revealing that he had sprained his medial collateral ligament and would be out for six weeks. He returned to play in the final home match of the season. The Galaxy were eliminated from playoff contention on 21 October, in the final MLS match of the season, a 1–0 loss to the Chicago Fire. Beckham played as a substitute in the match, bringing his season-totals to; eight matches played (5 league), one goal scored (0 league), and three assists (2 league). Beckham trained with Arsenal from 4 January 2008 for three weeks, until he returned to the Galaxy for pre-season training. Beckham scored his first league goal with the Galaxy on 3 April against the San Jose Earthquakes in the ninth minute. On 24 May 2008, the Galaxy defeated the Kansas City Wizards 3–1, giving the Galaxy their first winning record in two years and moving the club into first place in the Western Conference. In the match Beckham scored an empty-net goal from 70 yards out. The goal marked the second time in Beckham's career that he had scored from his own half, the other being a 1996 goal from the halfway line against Wimbledon at Selhurst Park. Overall, however, the Galaxy had a disappointing year, failing to qualify for the end-of-season play-offs. Loan to Milan In 2008, Beckham's success in the England national team under Fabio Capello led to speculation that he may return to Europe in order to retain match fitness for the World Cup qualifying matches in 2009. On 30 October 2008, Milan announced that Beckham was to join them on loan from 7 January 2009. Despite this and other speculation, Beckham made it clear that the move in no way signaled his intent to leave MLS and announced his intent to return to the Galaxy in time for the start of the 2009 season in March. Many at Milan both within and outside of the club expressed serious reservations about the transfer, with it considered by some players no more than a marketing move. At Milan, he chose the number 32 shirt previously worn by Christian Vieri, as both the number 7 and 23 shirts were already used by other players. After his physical, Beckham was told by a club doctor that he believed he can continue playing football for another five years, when he will be 38. Beckham made his Serie A debut for Milan against Roma on 11 January 2009, and played 89 minutes of the 2–2 draw. He scored his first goal in Serie A for Milan in a 4–1 victory over Bologna on 25 January, his third appearance for the club. Though Beckham was expected to return to L.A. in March, after impressing at the Italian club, scoring two goals in his first four matches and assisting on several more, rumors began to swirl that Beckham would stay in Milan, with the Italian club reportedly offering to pay a multi-million dollar fee for the English legend. The rumours were confirmed on 4 February, when Beckham stated that he was seeking a permanent transfer to Milan, in a bid to sustain his England career through the 2010 World Cup. However, Milan failed to match Galaxy's valuation of Beckham, in the $10-15 million range. However, negotiations continued during a month of speculation. On 2 March, the Los Angeles Times reported that Beckham's loan had been extended through mid-July. This was later confirmed by Beckham, revealing what was described as a unique "timeshare" deal, in which Beckham would play with L.A. from mid-July till the end of the 2009 MLS season. International career Beckham as England captain. Beckham made his first appearance for the England national football team on 1 September 1996, in a World Cup qualifying match against Moldova. Beckham had played in all of England's qualifying matches for the 1998 FIFA World Cup and was part of the England squad at the World Cup finals in France, but the team's manager Glenn Hoddle publicly accused him of not concentrating on the tournament, and he did not start in either of England's first two matches. He was picked for their third match against Colombia and scored from a long-range free kick in a 2–0 victory, which was his first goal for England. In the second round (last 16) of that competition, he received a red card in England's match against Argentina. " Argentina 2-2 England", englandfc.com, 30 June 1998. Retrieved 25 June 2006. Beckham, after having been fouled by Diego Simeone, kicked Simeone whilst lying on the floor, striking him on the calf. Simeone later admitted to trying to get Beckham sent off by over-reacting to the kick and then, along with other members of his team, urging the referee to send Beckham off. The match finished in a draw and England were eliminated in a penalty shootout. Many supporters and journalists blamed him for England's elimination and he became the target of criticism and abuse, including the hanging of an effigy outside a London pub, and the Daily Mirror printing a dartboard with a picture of him centred on the bullseye. Beckham also received death threats after the World Cup. The abuse that Beckham was receiving from English supporters peaked during England's 3–2 defeat by Portugal in Euro 2000, a match where Beckham set up two goals, when a group of England supporters taunted him throughout the match. A reference to Brooklyn. Beckham responded with a one-fingered gesture and, while the gesture attracted some criticism, many of the newspapers that had previously encouraged his vilification asked their readers to stop abusing him. On 15 November 2000, following Kevin Keegan's resignation as England manager in October, Beckham was promoted to team captain by the caretaker manager Peter Taylor, and then kept the role under new manager Sven-Göran Eriksson. He helped England to qualify for the 2002 FIFA World Cup Finals, with their performances including an impressive 5–1 victory over Germany in Munich. The final step in Beckham's conversion from villain to hero happened in England's 2–2 draw against Greece on 6 October 2001. England needed to win or draw the match in order to qualify outright for the World Cup, but were losing 2–1 with little time remaining. When Teddy Sheringham was fouled eight yards (7 m) outside the Greek penalty area, England were awarded a free-kick and Beckham ensured England's qualification with a curling strike of the kind that had become his trademark. Shortly afterwards, he was voted the BBC Sports Personality of the Year for 2001. He once again finished runner-up, to Luís Figo of Portugal, for the FIFA World Player of the Year award. He was partially fit by the time of the 2002 FIFA World Cup and played in the first match against Sweden. Beckham scored the winning goal of the match against Argentina with a penalty, causing Argentina to fail to qualify for the knockout stage. England were knocked out of the tournament in the quarter-finals by eventual winners Brazil. The following month, at the opening ceremony of the 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester, Beckham escorted Kirsty Howard as she presented the Jubilee Baton to the Queen. Beckham played in all of England's matches at Euro 2004, but the tournament was a disappointment for him. He had a penalty saved in England's 2–1 defeat to France and missed another in a penalty shootout in the quarter final against Portugal. England lost the shootout and went out of the competition. Beckham became a UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador in January 2005 and was involved in promoting London's successful bid for the 2012 Olympic Games. In October 2005, Beckham's sending off against Austria made him the first ever England captain to be sent off and the first (and only) player to be sent off twice while playing for England. He captained England for the 50th time in a friendly international against Argentina the following month. In England's opening game at the 2006 FIFA World Cup, against Paraguay on 10 June 2006, Beckham's free kick led to an own-goal by Carlos Gamarra, and England won 1–0. In England's next match, played against Trinidad and Tobago on 15 June 2006, Beckham's cross in the 83rd minute led to Peter Crouch's goal, which put England into the lead 1–0. Beckham gave another assist to Steven Gerrard. In the end they won 2–0. He was named Man-of-the-Match by tournament sponsor Budweiser for this game. During England's second round match against Ecuador, Beckham scored from a free kick in the 59th minute, becoming the first ever English player to score in three World Cups, "England 1-0 Ecuador", BBC Sport, 25 June 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2006. and giving England a 1–0 victory and a place in the quarter-finals. He was sick before the game and vomited several times as a result of dehydration and illness after he scored the winning goal. In the quarter-final against Portugal, Beckham was substituted following an injury shortly after half time and the England team went on to lose the match on penalties (3-1), the score having been 0–0 after extra time. After his substitution, Beckham was visibly shaken and emotional for not being able to play, being in tears at one point. A day after England were knocked out of the World Cup, an emotional Beckham made a statement in a news conference saying that he had stepped down as England captain, "Beckham quits as England captain", BBC Sport, 2 July 2006. Retrieved 2 July 2006. saying, "It has been an honour and privilege to captain my country but, having been captain for 58 of my 95 This was an error on Beckham's part - he had played 94 times for England by this stage. games, I feel the time is right to pass on the armband as we enter a new era under Steve McClaren". (Beckham had actually won 94 caps up to that point.) He was succeeded by Chelsea captain John Terry. Having stepped down as captain after the World Cup, Beckham was dropped completely from the England national team selected by new coach Steve McClaren on 11 August 2006. McClaren claimed that he was "looking to go in a different direction" with the team, and that Beckham "wasn't included within that". McClaren said Beckham could be recalled in future. Shaun Wright-Phillips, Kieran Richardson and the World Cup alternative to Beckham, Aaron Lennon, were all included, although McClaren eventually opted to employ Steven Gerrard in that role. Beckham takes the free kick against Brazil from which John Terry scored. On 26 May 2007, Steve McClaren announced that Beckham would be recalled to the England squad for the first time since stepping down as their captain. Beckham started against Brazil in England's first match at the new Wembley Stadium and put in a positive performance. In the second half he set up England's goal converted by captain John Terry. It looked as though England would claim victory over Brazil, but newcomer Diego equalised in the dying seconds. In England's next match, a Euro 2008 qualifier against Estonia, Beckham sent two trademark assists for Michael Owen and Peter Crouch, helping England to prevail 3-0. Beckham had assisted in three of England's four total goals in those two games, and he stated his desire to continue to play for England after his move to the MLS. On 22 August 2007, Beckham played in a friendly for England against Germany, becoming the first ever to play for England while with a non-European club team. On 21 November 2007, Beckham earned his 99th cap against Croatia, setting up a goal for Peter Crouch to tie the game at 2–2. Following the 2–3 loss, England failed to qualify for the Euro 2008 Finals. Despite this, Beckham said that he has no plans to retire from international football and wanted to continue playing for the national team. Beckham dismisses retirement talk, BBC Sport 2007-11-21. Retrieved on 2007-11-22. After being passed over by new England coach and Beckham's former manager at Real Madrid, Fabio Capello, for a friendly against Switzerland which would have given him his hundredth cap, Beckham admitted that he was not in shape at the time, as he had not played a competitive match in three months.. On 20 March 2008, Beckham was recalled to the England squad by Capello for the friendly against France in Paris on 26 March. Beckham became only the fifth Englishman to win 100 caps. Capello had hinted on 25 March 2008 that Beckham had a long term future in his side ahead of crucial qualifiers for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. On 11 May 2008, Capello included an in-form Beckham in his 31 man England squad to face the USA at Wembley Stadium on 28 May before the away fixture with Trinidad and Tobago on 1 June. Beckham was honored before the match by receiving an honorary gold cap representing his 100th cap from Sir Bobby Charlton, and was given a standing ovation from the crowd. He played well and assisted John Terry on the match-winning goal. When substituted at half-time for David Bentley, the pro-Beckham crowd booed the decision.. In a surprise move, Capello handed Beckham the captaincy for England's friendly against Trinidad & Tobago on 1 June 2008. The match was the first time since the 2006 World Cup that Beckham had skippered England and marked a dramatic turnaround for Beckham. In two years, he had gone from being dropped completely from the England squad to being reinstated (though temporarily) as England captain. During the 2010 World Cup Qualifier against Belarus in which England won 3-1 in Minsk, Beckham came off the bench in the 87th minute to earn his 107th cap making him England's 3rd highest capped player in history over-taking Sir Bobby Charlton in the process. On 11 February 2009, Beckham drew level with Bobby Moore's record of 108 caps for an English outfield player, coming on as a substitute for Stewart Downing in a friendly match against Spain. On 28 March 2009, Beckham surpassed Moore to hold the record outright when he came on as a substitute in a friendly against Slovakia, providing the assist for a goal from Wayne Rooney in the process. Discipline Former manager Sir Alex Ferguson said that he "practised with a discipline to achieve an accuracy that other players wouldn't care about." He maintained his training routine at Real Madrid and even when his relationship with management was strained in early 2007, Ramon Calderon and Fabio Capello praised Beckham for maintaining his professionalism and commitment to the club. Beckham was the first England player ever to collect two red cards and the first England captain to be sent off. Beckham red card but joy for Sven, The Sunday Times, 9 October 2005. Retrieved on 9 April 2007. Beckham's most notorious red card was during the 1998 FIFA World Cup: after Argentina's Diego Simeone had fouled him, Beckham lashed out with his leg and the Argentine fell. England went on to lose the game on penalties, and Beckham was listed as a public enemy. He amassed 41 yellow cards and 4 red cards for Real Madrid. Honours Club Manchester United Premier League: 1995–96, 1996–97, 1998–99, 1999–00, 2000–01, 2002–03 FA Cup: 1996, 1999 UEFA Champions League: 1998–99 Intercontinental Cup: 1999 Community Shield: 1993, 1994, 1996, 1997 FA Youth Cup: 1992 Real Madrid La Liga: 2006–07 Supercopa de España: 2003 Individual PFA Young Player of the Year: 1996/97 Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year: 1996/97 1998 FIFA World Cup Team of the Tournament UEFA Club Player of the Year: 1999 BBC Sports Personality of the Year: 2001 FIFA 100 ESPY Award - Best Male Soccer Player: 2004 ESPY Award - Best MLS Player: 2008 English Football Hall of Fame: 2008 Orders and special awards Officer in the Order of the British Empire by Queen Elizabeth II: 2003 United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) Goodwill Ambassador (2005–present) "Britain's Greatest Ambassador" - 100 Greatest Britons awards "" The Celebrity 100, number 15 - Forbes, 2007 Number 1 on the list of the 40 most influential men under the age of 40 in the UK - Arena, 2007 Time 100: 2008 David Beckham: Soccer's Metrosexual. TIME magazine. Statistics ClubSeasonLeagueCupLeague CupContinentalOther Includes other competitive competitions, including the FA Community Shield, UEFA Super Cup, Intercontinental Cup, FIFA Club World Cup TotalAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsAppsGoalsManchester United1992–930000100000101993–94000000000000Preston North End (loan)1994–95520000–0052Manchester United1994–9540203011001011995–96337312020004081996–9736821001021149121997–983794200801050111998–993467110122105591999–2000316–00122504882000–013192000120104692001–02281110001351043162002–033163151133005211Total26562246121831510139485Real Madrid2003–0432342–71004362004–0530400–80003842005–0631331–71004152006–0723321–6000314Total1161394–2820015319Los Angeles Galaxy20075000––2171200825500––00255Total30500––21326Milan (loan)2008-0914200–0020122Career total42584331012111117122588114 Personal life David and Victoria Beckham at the Silverstone Circuit during the Great Britain G.P. 2007. In 1997, Beckham started dating Victoria Adams, after she attended a Manchester United match. She was famously known as "Posh Spice" of the pop music group Spice Girls, one of the world's top pop groups at the time, and his team was also enjoying a great run of success. Therefore, their relationship instantly attracted a great deal of media attention. The couple were dubbed "Posh and Becks" by the media. He proposed to Victoria on 24 January 1998 in a restaurant in Cheshunt, England. He married Adams at Luttrellstown Castle, Ireland on 4 July 1999, and her name changed to Victoria Beckham. The wedding attracted tremendous media coverage. Beckham's teammate Gary Neville was the best man, and the couple's son Brooklyn, then four months old, was the ring bearer. The media were kept away from the ceremony, as the Beckhams had an exclusive deal with OK! Magazine, but newspapers were still able to obtain photographs showing them sitting on golden thrones. 437 staff were employed for the wedding reception, which was estimated to have cost £500,000. In 1999, the Beckhams purchased their most famous home, unofficially dubbed Beckingham Palace, in Hertfordshire, north of London. It is estimated to be worth £7.5 million. David and Victoria have three sons: Brooklyn Joseph Beckham (born 4 March 1999 in London, England), Romeo James Beckham (born 1 September 2002 in London, England) and Cruz David Beckham (born 20 February 2005 in Madrid, Spain, the name is Spanish for "cross"). Both Brooklyn and Romeo's godfather is Elton John and godmother is Elizabeth Hurley. They have stated that they would like to have more children, especially a daughter. In April 2007, the family purchased their new Italian villa in Beverly Hills, California, to coincide with Beckham's transfer to the LA Galaxy in July. The mansion, priced at $22 million, is near the homes of Tom Cruise and Katie Holmes, and talk-show host Jay Leno, in an exclusive gated community in the hills overlooking the city. Affair claims In April 2004, the British tabloid News of the World carried claims by his former personal assistant Rebecca Loos that he and Loos had an extramarital affair. A week later, the Malaysian-born Australian model Sarah Marbeck claimed that she had slept with Beckham on two occasions. Beckham dismissed both accusations as "ludicrous". There has never been any proof of any of the allegations of Beckham's claimed infidelity. "Did Becks have a threesome?" Article from the Daily Mail 8 April 2004. Retrieved on 2008-06-02. In an interview with W magazine, Victoria Beckham told a reporter, "I'm not going to lie. It was a really tough time. It was hard for our entire families. But I realized a lot of people have a price." Legal Issues In December 2008, Beckham and his bodyguard were sued by paparazzi photographer Emicles Da Mata, who claimed that he was assaulted by them when attempting to take a picture of Beckham in Beverly Hills. Da Mata is seeking unspecified damages for assault, battery, and intentional infliction of emotional distress. Beckham Sued; Accused of Beating Photographer TMZ.com, 26 January 2009 Fame beyond football David Beckham signs autographs for fans after the first annual COPA Minnesota benefit game between the LA Galaxy and the Minnesota Thunder.Beckham's fame extends beyond the pitch; in much of the world his name is "as instantly recognizable as that of multinational companies like Coca-Cola and IBM." Beckham the worldwide brand, a June 2006 article from an Associated New Media website Beckham's relationship and marriage to Victoria, who has been famous in her own right as part of the musical group Spice Girls, contributed to David's celebrity beyond football. Beckham became known as a fashion plate, and together with Victoria, the couple became lucrative spokespeople sought after by clothing designers, health and fitness specialists, fashion magazines, perfume and cosmetics manufacturers, hair stylists, exercise promoters, and spa and recreation companies. One recent example is a new line of aftershave and fragrances called David Beckham Instinct. In 2002 Beckham was hailed as the ultimate "metrosexual" by the man who invented the term and has been described as such by scores of other articles since. In 2007, the Beckhams were reportedly paid $13.7 million to launch this fragrance line in the US. In the world of fashion, David has already appeared on the covers of countless magazines. In 2007, U.S. covers have included the men's magazine Details, and with his wife for the August 2007 issue of W. The Beckhams: American Idols: W Feature Story on Style.com According to Google, "David Beckham" was searched for more than any other sports topic on their site in 2003 and 2004. , Upon their arrival in Los Angeles on 12 July 2007, the night before Beckham's formal introduction, Los Angeles International Airport was packed with paparazzi and news reporters. The Beckhams Take Hollywood On the next night, Victoria appeared on NBC's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno to talk about the their move to L.A., and presented Leno with a number 23 Galaxy jersey with his own name on the back. Victoria also talked about her NBC TV show "Victoria Beckham: Coming to America" Victorial Beckham coming to America On 22 July, a huge private welcoming party was held for the couple at the Museum of Contemporary Art, Los Angeles. A-list celebrities attending included Steven Spielberg, Jim Carrey, George Clooney, Tom Cruise, Katie Holmes, Will Smith, Jada Pinkett Smith, and Oprah Winfrey. Beckham has many endorsement deals making him one of the most recognizable athletes throughout the world. On 31 December 2008, it was announced that Pepsi Co. was ending its endorsement deal with the player after a 10-year collaboration. Pepsi and Beckham end endorsement relationship Charitable work Beckham has supported UNICEF since his days at Manchester United and in January 2005 the England Football Captain became a Goodwill Ambassador with a special focus on UNICEF's Sports for Development program. On 17 January 2007, Rebecca Johnstone, a 19-year-old cancer patient in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada received a surprise phone call from Beckham. After the conversation, he sent her a Real Madrid Jersey with his signature on it. Rebecca died on 29 January 2007. Beckham is a spokesman for Malaria No More, a New York-based non-profit launched in 2006. Malaria No More's mission is to end deaths caused by malaria in Africa. Beckham appears in a 2007 Public Service Announcement advertising the need for inexpensive bed nets. The TV spot currently airs in the U.S. on FOX Networks including Fox Soccer Channel, and can also be seen on YouTube. Since he has joined MLS, he has been a very public advocate in the U.S. for related charities such as MLS W.O.R.K.S. On 17 August 2007, he conducted a youth clinic in New York City's Harlem, along with other current and former MLS players. This was in advance of his first New York City area match the following day against Red Bull New York. That team's Jozy Altidore and Juan Pablo Ángel also were with Beckham, teaching skills to disadvantaged youth to benefit FC Harlem Lions. Appearances in films Bend It Like Beckham Beckham never personally appeared in the 2002 film Bend It Like Beckham, except in archive footage. He and his wife wanted to make cameo appearances but scheduling proved difficult, so the director used lookalikes instead. The Goal! Trilogy Beckham makes a cameo appearance with Zidane and Raúl, in the 2005 film Goal!: The Dream Begins. Lookalike Andy Harmer, who played him in Bend It Like Beckham, also appears here in one party scene as Beckham. Beckham himself appears in the sequel Goal! 2: Living the Dream... in a larger role, when the film's lead character gets transferred to Real Madrid. This time the story centers around the Real Madrid team, and besides Beckham, other real life Real Madrid players also appear on and off the pitch, alongside the fictional characters. Beckham also will appear in Goal! 3, scheduled for release in 2009. Despite moving to Los Angeles, Beckham has expressed no personal interest in pursuit of acting roles, saying he is too "stiff". Records Beckham has captained England 59 times during his tenure as England captain, one of the most in England's history. With his free kick goal against Ecuador in the second round of the 2006 World Cup, Beckham gained membership into two of football's exclusive clubs: he became the only English player — and the 21st player regardless of nationality — to score in three world cups; Real Madrid team-mate Raúl also achieved this feat a few days earlier. "England 1-0 Ecuador", BBC Sport, 25 June 2006. Retrieved 25 June 2006. It also made him only the fifth player in World Cup history to score twice from a direct free kick; the other four were Pelé, Roberto Rivelino, Teófilo Cubillas and Bernard Genghini (Beckham had previously scored this way against Colombia in the first round of the 1998 World Cup). All three goals were against South American teams (Colombia, Argentina and Ecuador) and from set pieces (the two aforementioned free kicks and a penalty against Argentina). Tattoos Beckham has many tattoos on his body, one of which is the name of his wife Victoria, written in Hindi, because Beckham thought it would be "tacky" to have it in English. Another tattoo, written in Hebrew, reads אני לדודי ודודי לי הרעה בשושנים, "I am my beloved's, and my beloved is mine, that shepherds among the lilies." This is from the Song of Songs in the Hebrew Bible, and a popular Jewish paean to fidelity. Beckham has also been ridiculed in the press for looking like a "Hell's Angel biker" and a "football yob" due to his ever-expanding number of tattoos, their design and location. He often wears long sleeved shirts when playing football to cover his tattoos from those who may feel uncomfortable about them due to their beliefs. A chronology of Beckham's tattoos includes: April 1999 - Son Brooklyn's name on his back. April 1999 - "Guardian Angel" on his back. 2000 - Hindi "Victoria" design on his left arm. April 2002 - Roman numeral VII (7) on his right forearm. May 2003 - Latin phrase "Perfectio In Spiritu", meaning "Spiritual Perfection", on his right arm. May 2003 - More Latin, "Ut Amem Et Foveam" or "So That I Love And Cherish", on his left arm. 2003 - Son Romeo's name on his back. 2003 - Classical art design on his right shoulder. 2004 - Winged cross on the back of his neck. 2004 - Angel with motto "In The Face of Adversity" on right arm. Mar 2005 - Son Cruz's name on his back. June 2006 - Second angel and clouds added to right arm and shoulder. Jan 2008 - Portrait of Victoria on left forearm. Feb 2008 - "Forever by your side" on left forearm. 9 March 2008 in 4th floor, No 8, Cameron Road, Tsim Sha Tsui Hong Kong Beckham Receives Tattoo (accessed 19/03/2008) Beckham obtained the tattoo on 9 March 2008 in Hong Kong, from an artist named Gabie at 龍威雕師. LeBron James and Kobe Bryant also obtained tattoos from the same artist. - The Chinese proverb "生死有命 富貴在天" meaning "Death and life have determined appointments. Riches and honour depend on heaven." down his left torso, running from his nipple to his groin. Beckham has attributed the many tattoos to his obsessive-compulsive disorder, and claims to be addicted to the pain of the needle. See also Franchise player References Books Internet External links The Official David Beckham Website The David Beckham Academy Profile at la.galaxy.mlsnet.com Profile at acmilan.com | David_Beckham |@lemmatized david:19 robert:1 joseph:2 beckham:229 obe:3 born:5 may:12 english:9 footballer:5 currently:6 play:37 midfield:3 italian:5 serie:3 club:36 milan:11 loan:8 american:4 major:4 league:51 soccer:8 los:13 angeles:14 galaxy:26 england:83 national:5 team:40 stint:1 begin:6 january:18 end:14 season:46 twice:4 runner:3 fifa:13 world:39 player:45 year:29 high:6 pay:4 first:49 british:5 champion:13 match:62 google:2 search:2 sport:12 topic:2 global:1 recognition:1 become:15 elite:1 advertising:1 brand:2 top:6 fashion:5 icon:1 captain:20 november:3 cup:46 final:29 time:37 since:9 continue:6 represent:2 country:2 earn:3 much:3 publicise:1 hundredth:2 cap:12 france:4 march:13 outfield:2 appearance:12 career:7 sign:11 professional:2 contract:11 manchester:20 unite:19 make:26 debut:8 age:2 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7,253 | Mesopotamia | Mesopotamia (Arabic: بلاد الرافدين transliterated: Bilad Al-Rafidayn, Greek exonym: Μεσοποταμία, "land between the rivers") is a toponym for the area of the Tigris-Euphrates river system, along the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, largely corresponding to Iraq, as well as some parts of northeastern Syria, some parts of southeastern Turkey, and some parts of the Khūzestān Province of southwestern Iran. Widely considered as the cradle of civilization, Bronze Age Mesopotamia included Sumer, Akkadian, Babylonian and Assyrian empires. In the Iron Age, it was ruled by the Neo-Assyrian Empire and Neo-Babylonian Empire, and later conquered by the Achaemenid Empire. It mostly remained under Persian rule until the 7th century Islamic conquest of the Sassanid Empire. Etymology The regional toponym Mesopotamia ( < meso (μέσος) = middle and potamia < ποταμός = river, literally means "between two rivers") was coined in the Hellenistic period without any definite boundaries, to refer to a broad geographical area and probably used by the Seleucids. The term biritum/birit narim corresponded to a similar geographical concept and coined at the time of the Aramaicization of the region, in the 10th century BCE. Finkelstein, J. J.; 1962. “Mesopotamia”, Journal of Near Eastern Studies 21: 73-92 It is however widely accepted that early Mesopotamian societies simply referred to the entire alluvium as kalam in Sumerian (lit. "land"). More recently terms like "Greater Mesopotamia" or "Syro-Mesopotamia" have been adopted to refer to wider geographies corresponding to the Near East or Middle East. The later euphemisms are Eurocentric terms attributed to the region in the midst of various 19th century Western encroachments. Scheffler, Thomas; 2003. “ 'Fertile crescent', 'Orient', 'Middle East': the changing mental maps of Southeast Asia,” European Review of History 10/2: 253–272. Also: Bahrani, Zainab; 1998. “Conjuring Mesopotamia: imaginative geography a world past", in Archaeology under fire: Nationalism, politics and heritage in the Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East. L. Meskell (ed.), Routledge: London and New York, 159–174. History Overview map of ancient Mesopotamia The history of Mesopotamia begins with the emergence of urban societies in northern Iraq in 5000 BCE, and ends with either the arrival of the Achaemenid Empire in the 6th century BCE, when Mesopotamia began being colonized by foreign powers, or with the arrival of the Islamic Caliphate, when the region came to be known as Iraq. A cultural continuity and spatial homogeneity for this entire historical geography ("the Great Tradition") is popularly assumed, though the assumption is problematic. Mesopotamia housed some of the world's most ancient states with highly developed social complexity. The region was famous as one of the four riverine civilizations where writing was first invented, along with the Nile valley in Egypt, the Indus Valley in the Indian subcontinent and Yellow River valley in China (Although writing is also known to have arisen independently in Mesoamerica). Mesopotamia housed historically important cities such as Uruk, Nippur, Nineveh, and Babylon as well as major territorial states such as the city of Ma-asesblu, Akkadian kingdom, Third Dynasty of Ur, and Assyrian empire. Some of the important historical Mesopotamian leaders were Ur-Nammu (king of Ur), Sargon (who established the Akkadian Kingdom), Hammurabi (who established the Old Babylonian state), and Tiglath-Pileser I (who established the Assyrian Empire). "Ancient Mesopotamia" begins in the late 6th millennium BC, and ends with either the rise of the Achaemenid Persians in the 6th century BCE or the Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia in the 7th century CE. This long period may be divided as follows: Trends in Mesopotamian History Pre-Pottery Neolithic: Jarmo (ca. 7000 bce-? bce [lower-case bce=uncalibrated C-14 dates]) Pottery Neolithic: Hassuna (ca. 6000 bce-? bce), Samarra (ca. 5700 bce-4900 bce) and Halaf (ca. 6000 bce-5300 bce) "cultures" Chalcolithic or Copper age: Ubaid period (ca. 5900 BCE–4400 BCE) Uruk period (ca. 4400 BCE–3200 BCE) Jemdet Nasr period (ca. 3100 BCE–2900 BCE) Early Bronze Age Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states (ca. 2900 BCE–2350 BCE) Akkadian Empire (ca. 2350 BCE–2193 BCE). Third dynasty of Ur ("Sumerian Renaissance" or "Neo-Sumerian Period") (ca. 2119 BCE–2004 BCE) Middle Bronze Age Early Assyrian kingdom (20th to 18th c. BCE) First Babylonian Dynasty (18th to 17th c. BCE) Late Bronze Age Kassite dynasty, Middle Assyrian period (16th to 12th c. BCE) Bronze Age collapse (12th to 11th c. BCE) Iron Age Neo-Hittite or Syro-Hittite regional states (11th–7th c. BCE) Neo-Assyrian Empire (10th to 7th c. BCE) Neo-Babylonian Empire (7th to 6th c. BCE) Classical Antiquity Achaemenid Assyria (6th to 4th c. BCE) Seleucid Mesopotamia (4th to 1st c. BCE) Parthian Mesopotamia (3rd c. BCE to 3rd c. CE) Roman Mesopotamia (2nd c. CE) Sassanid Mesopotamia (3rd to 7th c. CE) Islamic conquest of Persian Mesopotamia (7th c.CE) Dates are approximate for the second and third millennia BCE; compare Chronology of the Ancient Near East. Geography Mesopotamia encompases the land inbetween the Euphrates and Tigris rivers; both of which have their headwaters in the mountains of Armenia in modern Turkey. Both rivers are fed by numerous tributaries, and the entire river system drains a vast mountainous region. Overland routes in Mesopotamia usually follow the Euphrates because the banks of the Tigris are frequently steep and difficult. The climate of the region is semi-arid with a vast desert expanse in the north which gives way to a 6,000 square mile region of marshes, lagoons, mud flats, and reed banks in the south. In the extreme south the Euphrates and the Tigris unite and empty into the Persian Gulf. The arid environment which ranges from the northern areas of rain fed agriculture, to the south where irrigation of agriculture is essential if a surplus energy returned on energy invested (EROEI) is to be obtained. This irrigation is aided by a high water table and by melted snows from the high peaks of the Zagros Mountains and from the Armenian cordillera, the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, that give the region its name. The usefulness of irrigation depends upon the ability to mobilize sufficient labor for the construction and maintenance of canals, and this, from the earliest period, has assisted the development of urban settlements and centralized systems of political authority. Agriculture throughout the region has been supplemented by nomadic pastoralism, where tent dwelling nomads move herds of sheep and goats (and later camels) from the river pastures in the dry summer months, out into seasonal grazing lands on the desert fringe in the wet winter season. The area is generally lacking in building stone, precious metals and timber, and so historically has relied upon long distance trade of agricultural products to secure these items from outlying areas. In the marshlands to the south of the country, a complex water-borne fishing culture has existed since pre-historic times, and has added to the cultural mix. Periodic breakdowns in the cultural system have occurred for a number of reasons. The demands for labour has from time to time led to population increases that push the limits of the ecological carrying capacity, and should a period of climatic instability ensue, collapsing central government and declining populations can occur. Alternatively, military vulnerability to invasion from marginal hill tribes or nomadic pastoralists have led to periods of trade collapse and neglect of irrigation systems. Equally, centripetal tendencies amongst city states has meant that central authority over the whole region, when imposed, has tended to be ephemeral, and localism has fragmented power into tribal or smaller regional units. Thompson, William R. (2004) "Complexity, Diminishing Marginal Returns, and Serial Mesopotamian Fragmentation" (Vol 3, Journal of World Systems Research) These trends have continued to the present day in Iraq. Language and writing The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate. Semitic dialects were also spoken in early Mesopotamia along with Sumerian. Later a Semitic language, Akkadian, came to be the dominant language, although Sumerian was retained for administration, religious, literary, and scientific purposes. Different varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Then Aramaic, which had already become common in Mesopotamia, became the official provincial administration language of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Akkadian fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. In Early Mesopotamia (around mid 4th millennium BC) cuneiform script was invented. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appear to have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the E-anna super sacred precinct dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, Level III, from a building labeled as Temple C by its excavators. The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus only a limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its reading and writing. It was not until the widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule that significant portions of Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was disseminated. Literature and mythology In Babylonian colonies times there were libraries in most towns and temples also homes which is a curifouins an old Sumerian proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn." Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary. A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer. Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists of them were drawn up. There are many Babylonian literary works whose titles have come down to us. One of the most famous of these was the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sin-liqe-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, and it is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure. Philosophy Further information: Babylonian literature: Philosophy The origins of philosophy can be traced back to early Mesopotamian wisdom, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly ethics, in the forms of dialectic, dialogs, epic poetry, folklore, hymns, lyrics, prose, and proverbs. Babylonian reasoning and rationality developed beyond empirical observation. Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47. The earliest form of logic was developed by the Babylonians, notably in the rigorous nonergodic nature of their social systems. Babylonian thought was axiomatic and is comparable to the "ordinary logic" described by John Maynard Keynes. Babylonian thought was also based on an open-systems ontology which is compatible with ergodic axioms. Logic was employed to some extent in Babylonian astronomy and medicine. Babylonian thought had a considerable influence on early Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy. In particular, the Babylonian text Dialog of Pessimism contains similarities to the agonistic thought of the sophists, the Heraclitean doctrine of contrasts, and the dialectic and dialogs of Plato, as well as a precursor to the maieutic Socratic method of Socrates. Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", Journal of the American Oriental Society 101 (1), p. 35-47 43. The Phoenician philosopher Thales is also Science and technology Astronomy The Babylonian astronomers were very interested in studying the stars and sky, and most could already predict eclipses and solstices. People thought that everything had some purpose in astronomy. Most of these related to religion and omens. Mesopotamian astronomers worked out a 12 month calendar based on the cycles of the moon. They divided the year into two seasons: summer and winter. The origins of astronomy as well as astrology date from this time. During the 8th and 7th centuries BC, Babylonian astronomers developed a new approach to astronomy. They began studying philosophy dealing with the ideal nature of the early universe and began employing an internal logic within their predictive planetary systems. This was an important contribution to astronomy and the philosophy of science and some scholars have thus referred to this new approach as the first scientific revolution. D. Brown (2000), Mesopotamian Planetary Astronomy-Astrology , Styx Publications, ISBN 9056930362. This new approach to astronomy was adopted and further developed in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy. In Seleucid and Parthian times, the astronomical reports were of a thoroughly scientific character; how much earlier their advanced knowledge and methods were developed is uncertain. The Babylonian development of methods for predicting the motions of the planets is considered to be a major episode in the history of astronomy. The only Babylonian astronomer known to have supported a heliocentric model of planetary motion was Seleucus of Seleucia (b. 190 BC). Otto E. Neugebauer (1945). "The History of Ancient Astronomy Problems and Methods", Journal of Near Eastern Studies 4 (1), p. 1-38. George Sarton (1955). "Chaldaean Astronomy of the Last Three Centuries B. C.", Journal of the American Oriental Society 75 (3), p. 166-173 [169]. William P. D. Wightman (1951, 1953), The Growth of Scientific Ideas, Yale University Press p.38. Seleucus is known from the writings of Plutarch. He supported the heliocentric theory where the Earth rotated around its own axis which in turn revolved around the Sun. According to Plutarch, Seleucus even proved the heliocentric system, but it is not known what arguments he used. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian, Byzantine and Syrian astronomy, in medieval Islamic astronomy, and in Central Asian and Western European astronomy. Mathematics The Mesopotamians used a sexagesimal (base 60) numeral system. This is the source of the current 60-minute hours and 24-hour days, as well as the 360 degree circle. The Sumerian calendar also measured weeks of seven days each. This mathematical knowledge was used in mapmaking. The Babylonians might have been familiar with the general rules for measuring the areas. They measured the circumference of a circle as three times the diameter and the area as one-twelfth the square of the circumference, which would be correct if pi were estimated as 3. The volume of a cylinder was taken as the product of the base and the height, however, the volume of the frustum of a cone or a square pyramid was incorrectly taken as the product of the height and half the sum of the bases. Also, there was a recent discovery in which a tablet used pi as 3 and 1/8 (3.125 for 3.14159~). The Babylonians are also known for the Babylonian mile, which was a measure of distance equal to about seven miles (11 km) today. This measurement for distances eventually was converted to a time-mile used for measuring the travel of the Sun, therefore, representing time. Eves, Howard An Introduction to the History of Mathematics Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969 p.31 Medicine The oldest Babylonian texts on medicine date back to the Old Babylonian period in the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. The most extensive Babylonian medical text, however, is the Diagnostic Handbook written by the physician Esagil-kin-apli of Borsippa, during the reign of the Babylonian king Adad-apla-iddina (1069-1046 BC). Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 55, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631. Along with contemporary ancient Egyptian medicine, the Babylonians introduced the concepts of diagnosis, prognosis, physical examination, and prescriptions. In addition, the Diagnostic Handbook introduced the methods of therapy and aetiology and the use of empiricism, logic and rationality in diagnosis, prognosis and therapy. The text contains a list of medical symptoms and often detailed empirical observations along with logical rules used in combining observed symptoms on the body of a patient with its diagnosis and prognosis. H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 97-98, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. The symptoms and diseases of a patient were treated through therapeutic means such as bandages, creams and pills. If a patient could not be cured physically, the Babylonian physicians often relied on exorcism to cleanse the patient from any curses. Esagil-kin-apli's Diagnostic Handbook was based on a logical set of axioms and assumptions, including the modern view that through the examination and inspection of the symptoms of a patient, it is possible to determine the patient's disease, its aetiology and future development, and the chances of the patient's recovery. H. F. J. Horstmanshoff, Marten Stol, Cornelis Tilburg (2004), Magic and Rationality in Ancient Near Eastern and Graeco-Roman Medicine, p. 99, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004136665. Esagil-kin-apli discovered a variety of illnesses and diseases and described their symptoms in his Diagnostic Handbook. These include the symptoms for many varieties of epilepsy and related ailments along with their diagnosis and prognosis. Marten Stol (1993), Epilepsy in Babylonia, p. 5, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9072371631. Technology Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also one of the first Bronze age people in the world. Early on they used copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as swords, daggers, spears, and maces. The earliest type of pump was the Archimedes screw, first used by Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the 7th century BC, and later described in more detail by Archimedes in the 3rd century BC. Stephanie Dalley and John Peter Oleson (January 2003). "Sennacherib, Archimedes, and the Water Screw: The Context of Invention in the Ancient World", Technology and Culture 44 (1). Later during the Parthian or Sassanid periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the first batteries, were created in Mesopotamia. Religion Mesopotamian religion was the first to be recorded. Mesopotamians believed that the world was a flat disc, surrounded by a huge, holed space, and above that, heaven. They also believed that water was everywhere, the top, bottom and sides, and that the universe was born from this enormous sea. In addition, Mesopotamian religion was polytheistic. Although the beliefs described above were held in common among Mesopotamians, there were also regional variations. The Sumerian word for universe is an-ki, which refers to the god An and the goddess Ki. Their son was Enlil, the air god. They believed that Enlil was the most powerful god. He was the chief god of the Pantheon, as the Greeks had Zeus and the Romans had Jupiter. The Sumerians also posed philosophical questions, such as: Who are we?, Where are we?, How did we get here?. They attributed answers to these questions to explanations provided by their gods. Holidays, Feasts, and Festivals Ancient Mesopotamians had ceremonies each month. The theme of the rituals and festivals for each month is determined by six important factors: The phase of the Moon; waxing Moon = abundance and growth; waning Moon = decline, conservation, and festivals of the Underworld; the phase of the annual agricultural cycle; equinoces and solstices of the solar year; the mythos of the City and its divine Patrons; the success of the reigning Monarch; commemoration of specific historical events (founding, military victories, temple holidays, etc.) Primary gods and goddesses Anu was the Sumerian god of the sky. He was married to Ki, but in some other Mesopotamian religions he has a wife called Uraš. Though he was considered the most important god in the pantheon, he took a mostly passive role in epics, allowing Enlil to claim the position as most powerful god. Enlil was initially the most powerful god in Mesopotamian religion. His wife was Ninlil, and his children were Iškur (sometimes), Nanna - Suen, Nergal, Nisaba, Namtar, Ninurta (sometimes), Pabilsag, Nushu, Enbilulu, Uraš Zababa and Ennugi. His position at the top of the pantheon was later usurped by Marduk and then by Ashur. Enki (Ea) god of Eridu. He was the god of rain. Marduk was the principal god of Babylon. When Babylon rose to power, the mythologies raised Marduk from his original position as an agricultural god to the principal god in the pantheon. Ashur was god of the Assyrian empire and likewise when the Assyrians rose to power their myths raised Ashur to a position of importance. Gula or Utu (in Sumerian), Shamash (in Akkadian) was the sun god and god of justice. Ereshkigal was goddess of the Netherworld. Nabu was the Mesopotamian god of writing. He was very wise, and was praised for his writing ability. In some places he was believed to be in control of heaven and earth. His importance was increased considerably in the later periods. Ninurta was the Sumerian god of war. He was also the god of heroes. Iškur (or Adad) was the god of storms. Erra was probably the god of drought. He is often mentioned in conjunction with Adad and Nergal in laying waste to the land. Nergal was probably a plague god. He was also spouse of Ereshkigal. Pazuzu, also known as Zu, was an evil god, who stole the tablets of Enlil’s destiny, and is killed because of this. He also brought diseases which had no known cure. Burials Hundreds of graves have been excavated in parts of Mesopotamia, revealing information about Mesopotamian burial habits. In the city of , most people were buried in family graves under their houses (as in Catalhuyuk), along with some possessions. A few have been found wrapped in mats and carpets. Deceased children were put in big "jars" which were placed in the family chapel. Other remains have been found buried in common city graveyards. 17 graves have been found with very precious objects in them ; it is assumed that these were royal graves. Culture Music, songs and instruments Some songs were written for the gods but many were written to describe important events. Although music and songs amused kings, they were also enjoyed by ordinary people who liked to sing and dance in their homes or in the marketplaces. Songs were sung to children who passed them on to their children. Thus songs were passed on through many generations until someone wrote them down. These songs provided a means of passing on through the centuries highly important information about historical events that were eventually passed on to modern historians. The Oud (Arabic:العود) is a small, stringed musical instrument. The oldest pictorial record of the Oud dates back to the Uruk period in Southern Mesopotamia over 5000 years ago. It is on a cylinder seal currently housed at the British Museum and acquired by Dr. Dominique Collon. The image depicts a female crouching with her instruments upon a boat, playing right-handed. This instrument appears hundreds of times throughout Mesopotamian history and again in ancient Egypt from the 18th dynasty onwards in long- and short-neck varieties. The oud is regarded as a precursor to the European lute. Its name is derived from the Arabic word العود al-‘ūd 'the wood', which is probably the name of the tree from which the oud was made. (The Arabic name, with the definite article, is the source of the word 'lute'.) Games Hunting was popular among Assyrian kings. Boxing and wrestling feature frequently in art, and some form of polo was probably popular, with men sitting on the shoulders of other men rather than on horses. They also played majore, a game similar to the sport rugby, but played with a ball made of wood. They also played a board game similar to senet and backgammon, now known as the "Royal Game of Ma-asesblu." Family life The Babylonian marriage market, in the Royal Holloway College. Mesopotamia across its history became more and more a patriarchal society, in which the men were far more powerful than the women. Thorkild Jacobsen, and others have suggested that early Mesopotamian society was ruled by a "council of elders" in which men and women were equally represented, but that over time, as the status of women fell, that of men increased. As for schooling, only royal offspring and sons of the rich and professionals such as scribes, physicians, temple administrators, and so on, went to school. Most boys were taught their father's trade or were apprenticed out to learn a trade. Girls had to stay home with their mothers to learn housekeeping and cooking, and to look after the younger children. Some children would help with crushing grain, or cleaning birds. Unusual for that time in history, women in Mesopotamia had rights. They could own property and, if they had good reason, get a divorce. Economy Sumer developed the first economy, while the Babylonians developed the earliest system of economics, which was comparable to modern post-Keynesian economics, but with a more "anything goes" approach. Sheila C. Dow (2005), "Axioms and Babylonian thought: a reply", Journal of Post Keynesian Economics 27 (3), p. 385-391. Agriculture The geography of Mesopotamia is such that agriculture is possible only with irrigation and good drainage, a fact which has had a profound effect on the evolution of Mesopotamian civilization. The need for irrigation led the Sumerians and later the Akkadians to build their cities along the Tigris and Euphrates and the branches of these rivers. Some major cities, such as Ur and Uruk, took root on tributaries of the Euphrates, while others, notably Lagash, were built on branches of the Tigris. The rivers provided the further benefits of fish (used both for food and fertilizer), reeds and clay (for building materials). With irrigation the food supply in Mesopotamia was quite rich with the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys forming the northeastern portion of the Fertile Crescent, which also included the Jordan River valley & that of the Nile. Although land nearer to the rivers was fertile and good for crops, portions of land farther from the water were dry and largely uninhabitable. This is why the development of irrigation was very important for settlers of Mesopotamia. Other Mesopotamian innovations include the control of water by dams and the use of aqueducts. Early settlers of fertile land in Mesopotamia used wooden plows to soften the soil before planting crops such as barley, onions, grapes, turnips and apples. Mesopotamian settlers were some of the first people to make beer and wine. Although the rivers sustained life, they also destroyed it by frequent floods that ravaged entire cities. The unpredictable Mesopotamian weather was often hard on farmers; crops were often ruined so backup sources of food such as cows and lambs were also kept. As a result of the skill involved in farming in the Mesopotamian, farmers did not depend on slaves to complete farm work for them, with some exceptions. There were too many risks involved to make slavery practical (i.e. the escape/mutiny of the slave). Government The geography of Mesopotamia had a profound impact on the political development of the region. Among the rivers and streams, the Sumerian people built the first cities along with irrigation canals which were separated by vast stretchs of open desert or swamp where nomadic tribes roamed. Communication among the isolated cities was difficult and at times dangerous. Thus each Sumerian city became a city-state, independent of the others and protective of it's independence. At times one city would try to conquer and unify the region, but such efforts were resisted and failed for centuries. As a result, the political history of Sumer is one of almost constant warfare. Eventually Sumer was unified by Eannatum, but the unification was tenuous and failed to last as the Akkadians conquered Sumeria in 2331B.C. only a generation later. The Akkadian Empire was the first successful empire to last beyond a generation and see the peaceful succession of kings. The empire was relatively short lived, as the Babylonians conquered them within only a few generations. Kings The Mesopotamians believed their kings and queens were descended from the City of Gods, but, unlike the ancient Egyptians, they never believed their kings were real gods. Most kings named themselves “king of the universe” or “great king”. Another common name was “shepherd”, as kings had to look after their people. Notable Mesopotamian kings include: Eannatum of Lagash who founded the first (short-lived) empire. Sargon of Akkad who conquered all of Mesopotamia and created the first empire that outlived its founder. Hammurabi founded the first Babylonian empire. Tiglath-Pileser III founded the neo-Assyrian empire. Nebuchadnezzar was the most powerful king in the neo-Babylonian Empire. He was thought to be the son of the god Nabu. He married the daughter of Cyaxeres, so the Median and the Babylonian dynasties had a familial connection. Nebuchadnezzar’s name means: Nabo, protect the crown! Belshedezzar was the last king of Babylonia. He was the son of Nabonidus whose wife was Nictoris, the daughter of Nebuchadnezzar. Power When Assyria grew into an empire, it was divided into smaller parts, called provinces. Each of these were named after their main cities, like Nineveh, Samaria, Damascus and Arpad. They all had their own governor who had to make sure everyone paid their taxes; he had to call up soldiers to , and supply workers when a temple was built. He was also responsible for the laws being enforced. In this way it was easier to keep control of an empire like Assyria. Although Babylon was quite a small state in the Sumerian, it grew tremendously throughout the time of Hammurabi's rule. He was known as “the law maker”, and soon Babylon became one of the main cities in Mesopotamia. It was later called Babylonia, which meant "the gateway of the gods." It also became one of history's greatest centers of learning. Warfare Assyrian soldiers, from a plate in THE HISTORY OF COSTUME by Braun & Schneider (ca. 1860). As city-states began to grow, their spheres of influence overlapped, creating arguments between other city-states, especially over land and canals. These arguments were recorded in tablets several hundreds of years before any major war - the first recording of a war occurred around 3200BCE but was not common until about 2500BCE. At this point warfare was incorporated into the Mesopotamian political system, where a neutral city may act as an arbitrator for the two rival cities. This helped to form unions between cities, leading to regional states. > When empires were created, they went to war more with foreign countries. King Sargon, for example conquered all the cities of Sumer, some cities in Mari, and then went to war with northern Syria. Many Babylonian palace walls were decorated with the pictures of the successful fights and the enemy, whether desperately escaping, or hiding amongst reeds. A king in Sumer, Gilgamesh, was thought two-thirds god and only one third human. There were legendary stories and poems about him, which were passed on for many generations, because he had many adventures that were believed very important, and won many wars and battles. Laws King Hammurabi, as mentioned above, was famous for his set of laws, The Code of Hammurabi (created ca. 1780 BC), which is one of the earliest sets of laws found and one of the best preserved examples of this type of document from ancient Mesopotamia. He made over 200 laws for Mesopotamia For more information, see Hammurabi and Code of Hammurabi. See also: Laws of Eshnunna, Code of Ur-Nammu. Architecture The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence, pictorial representation of buildings and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates and other monumental buildings, but occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities. Most notably known architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at Syrian-Turkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Late Bronze Age palaces at Bogazkoy (Hattusha), Ugarit, Ashur and Nuzi, Iron Age palaces and temples at Assyrian (Kalhu/Nimrud, Khorsabad, Nineveh), Babylonian (Babylon), Urartian (Tushpa/Van Kalesi, Cavustepe, Ayanis, Armavir, Erebuni, Bastam) and Neo-Hittite sites (Karkamis, Tell Halaf, Karatepe). Houses are mostly known from Old Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and associated rituals, Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age. Houses The materials used to build a Mesopotamian house were the same as those used today: mud brick, mud plaster and wooden doors, which were all naturally available around the city, although wood could not be naturally made very well during the particular time period described. Most houses had a square center room with other rooms attached to it, but a great variation in the size and materials used to build the houses suggest they were built by the inhabitants themselves . The smallest rooms may not have coincided with the poorest people; in fact it could be that the poorest people built houses out of perishable materials such as reeds on the outside of the city, but there is very little direct evidence for this. The Palace The palaces of the early Mesopotamian elites were large scale complexes, and were often lavishly decorated. Earliest examples are known from the Diyala River valley sites such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar. These third millennium BC palaces functioned as a large scale socio-economic institutions, therefore, along with residential and private function, they housed craftsmen workshops, food storehouses, ceremonial courtyards, and often associated with shrines. For instance, the so-called "giparu" (or Gig-Par-Ku in Sumerian) at Ur where the Moon god Nanna's priestesses resided was a major complex with multiple courtyards, a number of sanctuaries, burial chambers for dead priestesses, a ceremonial banquet hall, etc. A similarly complex example of a Mesopotamian palace was excavated at Mari in Syria, dating from the Old Babylonian period. Assyrian palaces of the Iron Age, especially at Kalhu/Nimrud, Dur Sharrukin/Khorsabad and Ninuwa/Nineveh, have become famous due to the pictorial and textual narrative programs on their walls, all carved on stone slabs known as orthostats. These pictorial programs either incorporated cultic scenes or the narrative accounts of the kings' military and civic accomplishments. Gates and important passageways were flanked with massive stone sculpture of apotropaic mythological figures. The architectural arrangement of these Iron Age palaces were also organized around large and small courtyards. Usually the king's throneroom opened to a massive ceremonial courtyard where important state councils met, state ceremonies performed. Massive amounts of ivory furniture pieces were found in many Assyrian palaces pointing out an intense trade relationship with North Syrian Neo-Hittite states at the time. There is also good evidence that bronze repousse bands decorated the wooden gates. Ziggurats Ziggurats were huge pyramidal temple towers built in the ancient Mesopotamian valley and western Iranian plateau, having the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels. There are 32 ziggurats known at, and near, Mesopotamia. Twenty-eight of them are in Iraq, and four of them are in Iran. Notable Ziggurats include the Great Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq, the Ziggurat of Aqar Quf near Baghdad, Iraq, Chogha Zanbil in Khūzestān, Iran, the most recent to be discovered - Sialk near Kashan, Iran and others. Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites and Assyrians as monuments to local religions. The earliest examples of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period Crawford, page 73 during the fourth millennium BC, and the latest date from the 6th century BC. The top of the ziggurat was flat, unlike many pyramids. The step pyramid style began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period. Crawford, page 73-74 Built in receding tiers upon a rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure. Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside. The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance. Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks. The number of tiers ranged from two to seven, with a shrine or temple at the summit. Access to the shrine was provided by a series of ramps on one side of the ziggurat or by a spiral ramp from base to summit. It has been suggested that ziggurats were built to resemble mountains, but there is little textual or archaeological evidence to support that hypothesis. Ur-Nammu's ziggurat at Ur was designed as a three-stage construction, today only two of these survive. This entire mudbrick core structure was originally given a facing of baked brick envelope set in bitumen, circa 2.5 m on the first lowest stage, and 1.15 m on the second. Each of these baked bricks were stamped with the name of the king. The sloping walls of the stages were buttressed. The access to the top was by means of a triple monumental staircase, which all converges at a portal that opened on a landing between the first and second stages. The height of the first stage was about 11 m while the second stage rose some 5.7 m. Usually a third stage is reconstructed by the excavator of the ziggurat (Leonard Woolley), and crowned by a temple. At the Tschoga Zanbil ziggurat archaeologists have found massive reed ropes that ran across the core of the ziggurat structure and tied together the mudbrick mass. The Ancient Mesopotamians were located at the center of the near east. It was in present day Syria, Turkey, and Iraq. Ancient Mesopotamia was between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. Mesopotamia literally means “The land between two rivers”. The southern part of Mesopotamia made up part of the Fertile Crescent. Because of where it is, Mesopotamia has hot summers and cold winters. The first city in Mesopotamia was Eridu. The rivers of Mesopotamia helped sustain life and provide food. The rivers helped the Mesopotamians by wetting and irrigating the soil and land. The rivers could also be dangerous, and cause floods and wash away crops and newly planted seeds. The Mesopotamians lived a similar lifestyle to the Marsh Arabs, who live on the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and use them to help them live. During the rain bringing season sometimes the rivers would partially flood the land, so only the highest points or dirt mounds would not be covered with water. If this happened then the Mesopotamians would have to use boats to go to other people’s houses or to outside of the flooding areas. The river affected Mesopotamian life in many different ways. The Mesopotamians had complex and intricate ways of farming. They would use canals (which they often had to repair and re - dig) to irrigate during the dry season. The Mesopotamians had bucket lifting devices to move water between different levels in the canals and to bring water to the crops. The irrigation was counted on so crops could grow and the crops would be enough food to last through the winter. Irrigation in Mesopotamia played an important role. The Mesopotamians were the first people to invent writing, or an alphabet! At the beginning, writing was simple, a picture to show what you wanted to show. Eventually writing evolved to complex cuneiform. There were hundreds of letters in the cuneiform alphabet. The language Mesopotamians spoken was not called Mesopotamian, but Sumerian. Cuneiform has been adapted for use with Akkadian, Babylonian, Persian, and many other languages. Farmers grew food to feed the people of Mesopotamia, but the wealth of the cities of Mesopotamia came from merchants and craftspeople. The Mesopotamians placed great value on commerce. Mesopotamia didn’t have many natural resources, so they traded mostly grain and textiles. The Tigris and Euphrates rivers were responsible for getting the goods to and from Mesopotamia. They traded goods as far as Africa, Asia, and Europe. Mesopotamia didn’t use coins, but standards based on the weight of silver and grains were established. Money from taxes helped a program to build a bridge across the Euphrates river to trade even more. Without trade Mesopotamia would have easily failed. Mesopotamians created the first wheeled vehicles in about 3500 B.C.E. They first used the wheel to make wheel – thrown pottery and then in Uruk, while trying to figure out how to carry a heavy load of goods a man created a sort of wheel. He placed a block of wood on a log and used it to pull his goods.Without the invention of the wheel the modern world would not be the same. References Notes Bibliography Atlas de la Mésopotamie et du Proche-Orient ancien, Brepols, 1996 ISBN|2503500463. Benoit, Agnès; 2003. Art et archéologie : les civilisations du Proche-Orient ancien, Manuels de l'Ecole du Louvre. Jean Bottéro; 1987.Mésopotamie. L'écriture, la raison et les dieux, Gallimard, coll. « Folio Histoire », ISBN|2070403084. Jean Bottéro; 1992. Mesopotamia: writing, reasoning and the gods. Trans. by Zainab Bahrani and Marc Van de Mieroop, University of Chicago Press: Chicago. Edzard, Dietz Otto; 2004. Geschichte Mesopotamiens. Von den Sumerern bis zu Alexander dem Großen, München, ISBN 3-406-51664-5 Hrouda, Barthel and Rene Pfeilschifter; 2005. Mesopotamien. Die antiken Kulturen zwischen Euphrat und Tigris. München 2005 (4. Aufl.), ISBN 3-406-46530-7 Joannès, Francis; 2001. Dictionnaire de la civilisation mésopotamienne, Robert Laffont. Korn, Wolfgang; 2004. Mesopotamien - Wiege der Zivilisation. 6000 Jahre Hochkulturen an Euphrat und Tigris, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-8062-1851-X Kuhrt, Amélie; 1995. The Ancient Near East: c. 3000-330 B.C. 2 Vols. Routledge: London and New York. Liverani, Mario; 1991. Antico Oriente: storia, società, economia. Editori Laterza: Roma. Matthews, Roger: 2003. The archaeology of Mesopotamia. Theories and approaches, London 2003, ISBN 0-415-25317-9 Matthews, Roger; 2005. The early prehistory of Mesopotamia - 500,000 to 4,500 BC, Turnhout 2005, ISBN 2-503-50729-8 Oppenheim, A. Leo; 1964. Ancient Mesopotamia: Portrait of a dead civilization. The University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London. Revised edition completed by Erica Reiner, 1977. Pollock, Susan; 1999. Ancient Mesopotamia: the Eden that never was. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Postgate, J. Nicholas; 1992. Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the dawn of history. Routledge: London and New York. Roux, Georges; 1964. Ancient Iraq, Penguin Books. Silver, Morris; 2007. "Redistribution and Markets in the Economy of Ancient Mesopotamia: Updating Polanyi", Antiguo Oriente 5: 89-112. Snell, Daniel (ed.); 2005. A Companion to the Ancient Near East. Malden, MA : Blackwell Pub, 2005. Van de Mieroop, Marc; 2004. A history of the ancient Near East. ca 3000-323 BC. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. External links Mesopotamia — introduction to Mesopotamia from the British Museum By Nile and Tigris, a narrative of journeys in Egypt and Mesopotamia on behalf of the British museum between the years 1886 and 1913, by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge, 1920 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & layered PDF format) A Dweller in Mesopotamia, being the adventures of an official artist in the Garden of Eden, by Donald Maxwell, 1921 (a searchable facsimile at the University of Georgia Libraries; DjVu & format) Mesopotamian Archaeology, by Percy S. P. 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7,254 | Activism | Activism, in a general sense, can be described as intentional action to bring about social change, political change, economic justice, or environmental wellbeing. This action is in support of, or opposition to, one side of an often controversial argument. The word "activism" is often used synonymously with protest or dissent, but activism can stem from any number of political orientations and take a wide range of forms, from writing letters to newspapers or politicians, political campaigning, economic activism (such as boycotts or preferentially patronizing preferred businesses), rallies, blogging and street marches, strikes, both work stoppages and hunger strikes, or even guerrilla tactics. In some cases, activism has nothing to do with protest or confrontation: for instance, some religious, feminist or vegetarian/vegan activists try to persuade people to change their behavior directly, rather than persuade governments to change laws. The cooperative movement seeks to build new institutions which conform to cooperative principles, and generally does not lobby or protest politically. Transformational activism Transformational activism is the idea that people need to transform on the inside as well on the outside in order to create any meaningful change in the world. One example of transformational activism is peacekeeping which, as defined by the United Nations, is "a way to help countries torn by conflict create conditions for sustainable peace." Peacekeepers monitor and observe peace processes in post-conflict areas and assist ex-combatants in implementing the peace agreements they may have signed. Such assistance comes in many forms, including confidence-building measures, power-sharing arrangements, electoral support, strengthening the rule of law, and economic and social development. Accordingly UN peacekeepers (often referred to as Blue Helmets because of their light blue helmets) can include soldiers, civilian police officers, and other civilian personnel. Another example is encouraging choices to live in racially diverse communities. Such communities may literally "transform" communities by opening the minds of residents to new ideas, new cultures, new historical perspectives, and a broader view of life that ultimately can benefit social relations. Another example of transformational activism is transformational economics. This is the idea that you can change the way resources flow in a society by doing inner work. People examine their emotional reactions to what their needs are. This may allow them to see that things they felt they needed are not really needed. This then alters the flow of goods in a society because of the underlying change in needs. Transformational politics is the field of guiding people to look inwardly what they feel is true power. They may discover that real power is seeing the deep connection of everyone with each other and of being able to tap that place. In this case power is not power over someone, but rather power to unleash collective creativity in creating a new society. Transformational activism is about looking for the common values underneath, and then working from there so that both parties are able to get what they want. In the process one or both parties may find their inner landscape and paradigms changing. Transformational open-sourced activism is the idea that you can tap into the power of mass collaboration and collective creativity in a way that transforms the people involved into more loving, peaceful, compassionate states. Types of activism Civil disobedience Community building Activism industry Conflict transformation Cooperative movement Craftivism Voluntary simplicity Economic activism Boycott Divestment (a.k.a. Disinvestment) Franchise activism Lobbying Media activism Culture jamming Hacktivism Internet activism Non-violent confrontation Peace activist and Peace movement Political campaigning Propaganda Guerrilla communication Protest Demonstration Direct action Theater for Social Change Protest songs Strike action Youth activism Student activism Youth-led media See also :Category:Activists Activism industry Activist Wisdom Lobbying Social movement References Randy Shaw, The Activist's Handbook: A Primer for the 1990s and Beyond (University of California Press, 1996). ISBN 0-520-20317-8 David Walls, The Activist's Almanac: The Concerned Citizen's Guide to the Leading Advocacy Organizations in America (Simon & Schuster/Fireside, 1993). ISBN 0-671-74634-0 Victor Gold, Liberwocky (Thomas Nelson, 2004). ISBN 978-0785260578 External links Activism.net Campus Activism Common Dreams | Activism |@lemmatized activism:22 general:1 sense:1 describe:1 intentional:1 action:4 bring:1 social:5 change:8 political:4 economic:4 justice:1 environmental:1 wellbeing:1 support:2 opposition:1 one:3 side:1 often:3 controversial:1 argument:1 word:1 use:1 synonymously:1 protest:5 dissent:1 stem:1 number:1 orientation:1 take:1 wide:1 range:1 form:2 write:1 letter:1 newspaper:1 politician:1 campaigning:2 boycott:2 preferentially:1 patronizing:1 preferred:1 business:1 rally:1 blogging:1 street:1 march:1 strike:3 work:3 stoppage:1 hunger:1 even:1 guerrilla:2 tactic:1 case:2 nothing:1 confrontation:2 instance:1 religious:1 feminist:1 vegetarian:1 vegan:1 activist:6 try:1 persuade:2 people:5 behavior:1 directly:1 rather:2 government:1 law:2 cooperative:3 movement:4 seek:1 build:2 new:5 institution:1 conform:1 principle:1 generally:1 lobby:3 politically:1 transformational:8 idea:4 need:5 transform:3 inside:1 well:1 outside:1 order:1 create:3 meaningful:1 world:1 example:3 peacekeeping:1 define:1 united:1 nation:1 way:3 help:1 country:1 tear:1 conflict:3 condition:1 sustainable:1 peace:5 peacekeeper:2 monitor:1 observe:1 process:2 post:1 area:1 assist:1 ex:1 combatant:1 implement:1 agreement:1 may:5 sign:1 assistance:1 come:1 many:1 include:2 confidence:1 building:1 measure:1 power:7 sharing:1 arrangement:1 electoral:1 strengthen:1 rule:1 development:1 accordingly:1 un:1 refer:1 blue:2 helmet:2 light:1 soldier:1 civilian:2 police:1 officer:1 personnel:1 another:2 encourage:1 choice:1 live:1 racially:1 diverse:1 community:4 literally:1 open:2 mind:1 resident:1 culture:2 historical:1 perspective:1 broad:1 view:1 life:1 ultimately:1 benefit:1 relation:1 economics:1 resource:1 flow:2 society:3 inner:2 examine:1 emotional:1 reaction:1 allow:1 see:3 thing:1 felt:1 really:1 alter:1 good:1 underlying:1 politics:1 field:1 guide:2 look:2 inwardly:1 feel:1 true:1 discover:1 real:1 deep:1 connection:1 everyone:1 able:2 tap:2 place:1 someone:1 unleash:1 collective:2 creativity:2 common:2 value:1 underneath:1 party:2 get:1 want:1 find:1 landscape:1 paradigm:1 changing:1 sourced:1 mass:1 collaboration:1 involve:1 loving:1 peaceful:1 compassionate:1 state:1 type:1 civil:1 disobedience:1 industry:2 transformation:1 craftivism:1 voluntary:1 simplicity:1 divestment:1 k:1 disinvestment:1 franchise:1 medium:2 jam:1 hacktivism:1 internet:1 non:1 violent:1 propaganda:1 communication:1 demonstration:1 direct:1 theater:1 song:1 youth:2 student:1 lead:2 also:1 category:1 wisdom:1 reference:1 randy:1 shaw:1 handbook:1 primer:1 beyond:1 university:1 california:1 press:1 isbn:3 david:1 wall:1 almanac:1 concerned:1 citizen:1 advocacy:1 organization:1 america:1 simon:1 schuster:1 fireside:1 victor:1 gold:1 liberwocky:1 thomas:1 nelson:1 external:1 link:1 net:1 campus:1 dream:1 |@bigram guerrilla_tactic:1 vegetarian_vegan:1 transformational_activism:5 civil_disobedience:1 violent_confrontation:1 simon_schuster:1 external_link:1 |
7,255 | Alexandrine | An alexandrine is a line of poetic meter comprising 12 syllables. Alexandrines are common in the German literature of the Baroque period and in French poetry of the early modern and modern periods. Drama in English often used alexandrines before Marlowe and Shakespeare, by whom it was supplanted by iambic pentameter (5-foot verse). In non-Anglo-Saxon or French contexts, the term dodecasyllable is often used. Syllabic verse In syllabic verse, such as that used in French literature, an alexandrine is a line of twelve syllables. Most commonly, the line is divided into two equal parts by a caesura between the sixth and seventh syllables. Alternatively, the line is divided into three four-syllable sections by two caesuras. The dramatic works of Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine are typically composed of rhyming alexandrine couplets. (The caesura after the 6th syllable is here marked || ) Nous partîmes cinq cents ; || mais par un prompt renfort Nous nous vîmes trois mille || en arrivant au port (Corneille, Le Cid Act IV , scene 3) Baudelaire's Les Bijoux (The Jewels) is a typical example of the use of the alexandrine in 19th-century French poetry : La très-chère était nue, || et, connaissant mon cœur, Elle n'avait gardé || que ses bijoux sonores, Dont le riche attirail || lui donnait l'air vainqueur Qu'ont dans leurs jours heureux || les esclaves des Mores. Even a 20th-century Surrealist, such as Paul Éluard, used alexandrines on occasion, such as in these lines from L'Égalité des sexes (in Capitale de la douleur) (note the variation between caesuras after the 6th syllable, and after 4th and 8th): Ni connu la beauté || des yeux, beauté des pierres, Celle des gouttes d'eau, || des perles en placard, Des pierres nues || et sans squelette, || ô ma statue Accentual verse In accentual verse, it is a line of iambic hexameter - a line of six feet or measures ("iambs"), each of which has two syllables with an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable. It is also usual for there to be a caesura between the sixth and seventh syllables (as the examples from Pope below illustrate). Robert Bridges noted that in the lyrical sections of Samson Agonistes, Milton significantly varied the placement of the caesura. In the poetry of Edmund Spenser's The Faerie Queene 8 lines of pentameter are followed by an alexandrine, the 6-foot line slowing the regular rhythm of the 5-foot lines. After Spenser, alexandrine couplets were used by Michael Drayton in his Poly-Olbion. Alexander Pope famously characterized the alexandrine's potential to slow or speed the flow of a poem in two rhyming couplets consisting of an iambic pentameter followed by an alexandrine: A needless alexandrine ends the song that like a wounded snake, drags its slow length along. A few lines later Pope continues: Not so, when swift Camilla scours the Plain, Flies o'er th'unbending corn and skims along the Main. Alexandrines are sometimes introduced into predominantly pentameter verse for the sake of variety. The Spenserian stanza, for instance, is eight lines of pentameter followed by an alexandrine. Alexandrines appear rarely in Shakespeare's blank verse. In the Restoration and eighteenth century, poetry written in couplets is sometimes varied by the introduction of a triplet in which the third line is an alexandrine, as in this example from Dryden, which introduces a triplet after two couplets: But satire needs not those, and wit will shine Through the harsh cadence of a rugged line: A noble error, and but seldom made, When poets are by too much force betrayed. Thy generous fruits, though gathered ere their prime, Still showed a quickness; and maturing time But mellows what we write to the dull sweets of rhyme. Origin There is some doubt as to the origin of the name; but most probably it is derived from a collection of Alexandrine romances, collected in the 12th century, of which Alexander the Great was the hero, and in which he was represented, somewhat like the British Arthur, as the pride and crown of chivalry. Before the publication of this work most of the trouvère romances appeared in octosyllabic verse. There is also a theory that the form was invented by a poet named Alexander. The new work, which was henceforth to set the fashion to French literature, was written in lines of twelve syllables, but with a freedom of pause which was afterwards greatly curtailed. The new fashion, however, was not adopted all at once. The metre fell into disuse until the reign of Francis I, when it was revived by Jean-Antoine de Baïf, one of the seven poets known as La Pléiade. References Robert Bridges, Milton's Prosody (book). | Alexandrine |@lemmatized alexandrine:17 line:15 poetic:1 meter:1 comprise:1 syllable:11 common:1 german:1 literature:3 baroque:1 period:2 french:5 poetry:4 early:1 modern:2 drama:1 english:1 often:2 use:6 marlowe:1 shakespeare:2 supplant:1 iambic:3 pentameter:5 foot:4 verse:8 non:1 anglo:1 saxon:1 context:1 term:1 dodecasyllable:1 syllabic:2 twelve:2 commonly:1 divide:2 two:5 equal:1 part:1 caesura:6 sixth:2 seventh:2 alternatively:1 three:1 four:1 section:2 dramatic:1 work:3 pierre:3 corneille:2 jean:2 racine:1 typically:1 compose:1 rhyme:3 couplet:5 mark:1 nous:3 partîmes:1 cinq:1 cent:1 mais:1 par:1 un:1 prompt:1 renfort:1 vîmes:1 trois:1 mille:1 en:2 arrivant:1 au:1 port:1 le:4 cid:1 act:1 iv:1 scene:1 baudelaire:1 bijou:1 jewel:1 typical:1 example:3 century:4 la:4 très:1 chère:1 était:1 nue:1 et:2 connaissant:1 mon:1 cœur:1 elle:1 n:1 avait:1 gardé:1 que:1 ses:1 bijoux:1 sonores:1 dont:1 riche:1 attirail:1 lui:1 donnait:1 l:2 air:1 vainqueur:1 qu:1 ont:1 dans:1 leurs:1 jours:1 heureux:1 esclaves:1 de:7 even:1 surrealist:1 paul:1 éluard:1 occasion:1 égalité:1 sex:1 capitale:1 douleur:1 note:2 variation:1 ni:1 connu:1 beauté:2 yeux:1 celle:1 gouttes:1 eau:1 des:2 perles:1 placard:1 nues:1 sans:1 squelette:1 ô:1 statue:1 accentual:2 hexameter:1 six:1 measure:1 iambs:1 unstressed:1 follow:4 stressed:1 also:2 usual:1 pope:3 illustrate:1 robert:2 bridge:2 lyrical:1 samson:1 agonistes:1 milton:2 significantly:1 vary:2 placement:1 edmund:1 spenser:2 faerie:1 queene:1 slow:3 regular:1 rhythm:1 michael:1 drayton:1 poly:1 olbion:1 alexander:3 famously:1 characterize:1 potential:1 speed:1 flow:1 poem:1 consist:1 needless:1 end:1 song:1 like:2 wounded:1 snake:1 drag:1 length:1 along:2 later:1 continue:1 swift:1 camilla:1 scour:1 plain:1 fly:1 er:1 th:1 unbending:1 corn:1 skim:1 main:1 sometimes:2 introduce:2 predominantly:1 sake:1 variety:1 spenserian:1 stanza:1 instance:1 eight:1 appear:2 rarely:1 blank:1 restoration:1 eighteenth:1 write:3 introduction:1 triplet:2 third:1 dryden:1 satire:1 need:1 wit:1 shine:1 harsh:1 cadence:1 rugged:1 noble:1 error:1 seldom:1 make:1 poet:3 much:1 force:1 betray:1 thy:1 generous:1 fruit:1 though:1 gather:1 ere:1 prime:1 still:1 show:1 quickness:1 maturing:1 time:1 mellow:1 dull:1 sweet:1 origin:2 doubt:1 name:2 probably:1 derive:1 collection:1 romance:2 collect:1 great:1 hero:1 represent:1 somewhat:1 british:1 arthur:1 pride:1 crown:1 chivalry:1 publication:1 trouvère:1 octosyllabic:1 theory:1 form:1 invent:1 new:2 henceforth:1 set:1 fashion:2 freedom:1 pause:1 afterwards:1 greatly:1 curtail:1 however:1 adopt:1 metre:1 fell:1 disuse:1 reign:1 francis:1 revive:1 antoine:1 baïf:1 one:1 seven:1 know:1 pléiade:1 reference:1 prosody:1 book:1 |@bigram iambic_pentameter:2 anglo_saxon:1 syllabic_verse:2 jean_racine:1 cinq_cent:1 accentual_verse:2 unstressed_syllable:1 stressed_syllable:1 samson_agonistes:1 edmund_spenser:1 spenser_faerie:1 faerie_queene:1 michael_drayton:1 rhyme_couplet:1 blank_verse:1 fell_disuse:1 |
7,256 | Lynx_(web_browser) | Lynx is a free open-source, text-only Web browser for use on cursor-addressable, character cell terminals. Supported protocols are Gopher, HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, WAIS, and NNTP. Usage Browsing in Lynx consists of highlighting the chosen link using cursor keys, or having all links on a page numbered and entering the chosen link's number. Current versions support SSL and many HTML features. Tables are linearized (scrunched together one cell after another without tabular structure), while frames are identified by name and can be explored as if they were separate pages. Lynx cannot inherently display various types of non-text content on the web, such as images and video, but it can launch external programs to handle it, like an image viewer or video player. Because of its text-to-speech–friendly interface, Lynx was once popular with visually impaired users, but better screen readers have reduced the appeal of this application. Lynx is also used to check for usability of websites in older browsers. It is still included in a number of Linux distributions, and is particularly useful for reading documentation when only a text-based environment is available. Despite its text-only nature and age, it can still be used to effectively browse much of the modern web, including performing interactive tasks like editing Wikipedia. The speed benefits of text-only browsing are most apparent when using low bandwidth internet connections, or older computer hardware that may be slow to render image-heavy content. Development history Lynx was a product of the Distributed Computing Group within Academic Computing Services of the University of Kansas, and was initially developed in 1992 by a team of students at the university (Lou Montulli, Michael Grobe and Charles Rezac) as a hypertext browser used solely to distribute campus information as part of a Campus-Wide Information Server. In 1993 Montulli added an Internet interface and released a new version (2.0) of the browser. Garrett Blythe created DosLynx and later joined the Lynx effort as well. Foteos Macrides ported much of Lynx to VMS and maintained it for a time. In 1995, Lynx was released under the GNU General Public License, and is now maintained by a group of volunteers led by Thomas Dickey. Platforms Lynx was originally designed for Unix and VMS and is a popular console browser on Linux. Versions are also available for DOS, recent versions run on all Microsoft Windows releases, and Mac OS X. There was also an early port to "Classic" Macintosh version called MacLynx "for System 7 and later". Ports to BeOS, MINIX, QNX, AmigaOS and OS/2 are also available. Alternatives to Lynx include Links (with variants Links2 and ELinks) and w3m. See also Computer accessibility List of web browsers Comparison of web browsers Notes References Lynx from FOLDOC External links Lynx homepage (old but still cited: doslynx, Lynx links and original) Michael Grobe's personal recollections of Lynx development Extremely Lynx resource page MacLynx Lynx for Mac OS X 2.8.6u Lynx for Windows 2.8.5rel1 installer Lynx on OS/2 Test how your site looks like on Lynx Learn how to use Lynx Using Lynx to Analyze Website Searchability | Lynx_(web_browser) |@lemmatized lynx:22 free:1 open:1 source:1 text:6 web:5 browser:7 use:8 cursor:2 addressable:1 character:1 cell:2 terminal:1 support:2 protocol:1 gopher:1 http:2 ftp:1 wais:1 nntp:1 usage:1 browsing:1 consists:1 highlight:1 chosen:2 link:6 key:1 page:3 number:3 enter:1 current:1 version:5 ssl:1 many:1 html:1 feature:1 table:1 linearize:1 scrunch:1 together:1 one:1 another:1 without:1 tabular:1 structure:1 frame:1 identify:1 name:1 explore:1 separate:1 cannot:1 inherently:1 display:1 various:1 type:1 non:1 content:2 image:3 video:2 launch:1 external:2 program:1 handle:1 like:3 viewer:1 player:1 speech:1 friendly:1 interface:2 popular:2 visually:1 impaired:1 user:1 good:1 screen:1 reader:1 reduce:1 appeal:1 application:1 also:5 check:1 usability:1 website:2 old:3 still:3 include:3 linux:2 distribution:1 particularly:1 useful:1 read:1 documentation:1 base:1 environment:1 available:3 despite:1 nature:1 age:1 effectively:1 browse:2 much:2 modern:1 perform:1 interactive:1 task:1 edit:1 wikipedia:1 speed:1 benefit:1 apparent:1 low:1 bandwidth:1 internet:2 connection:1 computer:2 hardware:1 may:1 slow:1 render:1 heavy:1 development:2 history:1 product:1 distributed:1 computing:1 group:2 within:1 academic:1 compute:1 service:1 university:2 kansa:1 initially:1 develop:1 team:1 student:1 lou:1 montulli:2 michael:2 grobe:2 charles:1 rezac:1 hypertext:1 solely:1 distribute:1 campus:2 information:2 part:1 wide:1 server:1 add:1 release:3 new:1 garrett:1 blythe:1 create:1 doslynx:2 later:2 join:1 effort:1 well:1 foteos:1 macrides:1 port:3 vms:2 maintain:2 time:1 gnu:1 general:1 public:1 license:1 volunteer:1 lead:1 thomas:1 dickey:1 platform:1 originally:1 design:1 unix:1 console:1 recent:1 run:1 microsoft:1 window:2 mac:2 x:2 early:1 classic:1 macintosh:1 call:1 maclynx:2 system:1 beos:1 minix:1 qnx:1 amigaos:1 os:2 alternative:1 variant:1 elinks:1 see:1 accessibility:1 list:1 comparison:1 note:1 reference:1 foldoc:1 homepage:1 cite:1 original:1 personal:1 recollection:1 extremely:1 resource:1 installer:1 test:1 site:1 look:1 learn:1 analyze:1 searchability:1 |@bigram web_browser:3 visually_impaired:1 distributed_computing:1 microsoft_window:1 external_link:1 |
7,257 | Lunisolar_calendar | A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures whose date indicates both the moon phase and the time of the solar year. If the solar year is defined as a tropical year then a lunisolar calendar will give an indication of the season; if it is taken as a sidereal year then the calendar will predict the constellation near which the full moon may occur. Usually there is an additional requirement that the year have a whole number of months, in which case most years have 12 months but every second or third year has 13 months. Examples The Hebrew, Buddhist, Hellenic, Hindu lunisolar, Tibetan, Chinese (used alone until 1912 and then used along with the Gregorian), and Korean (used alone until 1894 and since used along with the Gregorian) calendars are all lunisolar, as was the Japanese calendar until 1873, the Hawaiian calendar, the pre-Islamic calendar, the republican Roman calendar until 45 BC (in fact earlier, because the synchronization to the moon was lost as well as the synchronization to the sun), the first century Gaulish Coligny calendar, the Byzantine Calendar, and the second millennium BC Babylonian calendar. The Chinese, Coligny and Hebrew The modern Hebrew calendar, since it is based on rules rather than observations, does not exactly track the tropical year, and in fact the average Hebrew year of ~365.2468 days is intermediate between the tropical year (~365.2422 days) and the sidereal year (~365.2564 days) lunisolar calendars track more or less the tropical year whereas the Buddhist and Hindu lunisolar calendars track the sidereal year. Therefore, the first three give an idea of the seasons whereas the last two give an idea of the position among the constellations of the full moon. The Tibetan calendar was influenced by both the Chinese and Hindu calendars. The English also used a lunisolar calendar before their conversion to Christianity .The twelve-month, thirty-day Hawaiian calendar incorporates the same sophisticated astronomy used by the ancient Polynesians to navigate throughout the Pacific and details when plants should be sown and fish caught. http://www.nokaoimagazine.com/article.aspx?issue=Vol12%20No1&article_name=Hawaiian_moon_calendar The Islamic calendar is a lunar, but not a lunisolar calendar because its date is not related to the sun. The Julian and Gregorian Calendars are solar, not lunisolar, because their dates do not indicate the moon phase — however, a lunisolar calendar is used in the determination of the Christian celebration of Easter. Determining leap months To determine when an embolismic month needs to be inserted, some calendars rely on direct observations of the state of vegetation, while others compare the ecliptic longitude of the sun and the phase of the moon. The Hawaiians observe the movement of specific stars and insert months accordingly. On the other hand, in arithmetical lunisolar calendars, an integral number of months is fitted into some integral number of years by a fixed rule. To construct such a calendar (in principle), the average length of the tropical year is divided by the average length of the synodic month, which gives the number of average synodic months in a tropical year as: 12.368266...... Continued fractions of this decimal value give optimal approximations for this value. So in the list below, after the number of synodic months listed in the numerator, approximately an integer number of tropical years as listed in the denominator have been completed: 12 / 1 = 12 (error = -0.368266... synodic months/year) 25 / 2 = 12.5 (error = 0.131734... synodic months/year) 37 / 3 = 12.333333... (error = 0.034933... synodic months/year) 99 / 8 = 12.375 (error = 0.006734... synodic months/year) 136 / 11 = 12.363636... (error = -0.004630... synodic months/year) 235 / 19 = 12.368421... (error = 0.000155... synodic months/year) 4131 / 334 = 12.368263... (error = -0.000003... synodic months/year) Note however that in none of the arithmetic calendars is the average year length exactly equal to a true tropical year. Different calendars have different average year lengths and different average month lengths, so the discrepancy between the calendar months and moon is not equal to the values given above. The 8-year cycle (99 synodic months, including 3 embolismic months) was used in the ancient Athenian calendar. The 8-year cycle was also used in early third-century Easter calculations (or old Computus) in Rome and Alexandria. The 19-year cycle (235 synodic months, including 7 embolismic months) is the classic Metonic cycle, which is used in most arithmetical lunisolar calendars. It is a combination of the 8- and 11-year period, and whenever the error of the 19-year approximation has built up to a full day, a cycle can be truncated to 8 or 11 years, after which 19-year cycles can start anew. Meton's cycle had an integer number of days, although Metonic cycle often means its use without an integer number of days. It was adapted to a mean year of 365.25 days by means of the 4×19 year Callipic cycle (used in the Easter calculations of the Julian calendar). Rome used an 84-year cycle for Easter calculations from the late third century until 457. Early Christians in Britain and Ireland also used an 84-year cycle until the Synod of Whitby in 664. The 84-year cycle is equivalent to a Callipic 4×19-year cycle (including 4×7 embolismic months) plus an 8-year cycle (including 3 embolismic months) and so has a total of 1039 months (including 31 embolismic months). This gives an average of 12.3690476... months per year. One cycle was 30681 days, which is about 1.28 days short of 1039 synodic months, 0.66 days more than 84 tropical years, and 0.53 days short of 84 sidereal years. The next approximation (arising from continued fractions) after the Metonic cycle (such as a 334-year cycle) is very sensitive to the values one adopts for the lunation (synodic month) and the year, especially the year. There are different possible definitions of the year so other approximations may be more accurate. For example (4366/353) is more accurate for a tropical year whereas (1979/160) is more accurate for a sidereal year. Calculating a "leap month" A rough idea of the frequency of the intercalary or leap month in all lunisolar calendars can be obtained by the following calculation, using approximate lengths of months and years in days: Year: 365.25, Month: 29.53 365.25/(12 × 29.53) = 1.0307 1/0.0307 = 32.57 common months between leap months 32.57/12 − 1 = 1.7 common years between leap years A representative sequence of common and leap years is ccLccLcLccLccLccLcL, which is the classic nineteen-year Metonic cycle. The Buddhist and Hebrew calendars restrict the leap month to a single month of the year; the number of common months between leap months is, therefore, usually 36, but occasionally only 24 months. Because the Chinese and Hindu lunisolar calendars allow the leap month to occur after or before (respectively) any month but use the true motion of the sun, their leap months do not usually occur within a couple of months of perihelion, when the apparent speed of the sun along the ecliptic is fastest (now about 3 January). This increases the usual number of common months between leap months to roughly 34 months when a doublet of common years occurs, while reducing the number to about 29 months when only a common singleton occurs. Notes References Introduction to Calendars, US Naval Observatory, Astronomical Applications Department. See also Calendar reform External links Hawaiian Moon Calendar Introduction the Hawaiian moon calendar, by Paul Wood. Maui No Ka 'Oi Magazine Vol.13, No.1 (January 2009) Panchangam for your city Panchangam for your city based on High Precision Drika Ganita. Perpetual Chinese Lunar Program The Chinese calendar is one of the oldest lunisolar calendars. Lunisolar Calendar Page contains a useful description of the difference between lunar calendars and lunisolar calendars. Calendar studies A general discussion of calendar systems including two examples of lunisolar calendars. Chinese Lunar Calendar with 'Yellow Calendar' Acano: a lunar calendar method from the Canary Islands Byzantine Creation Era at OrthodoxWiki (lunisolar calendar). | Lunisolar_calendar |@lemmatized lunisolar:19 calendar:51 many:1 culture:1 whose:1 date:3 indicate:2 moon:9 phase:3 time:1 solar:3 year:58 define:1 tropical:10 give:7 indication:1 season:2 take:1 sidereal:5 predict:1 constellation:2 near:1 full:3 may:2 occur:4 usually:3 additional:1 requirement:1 whole:1 number:11 month:50 case:1 every:1 second:2 third:3 examples:1 hebrew:5 buddhist:3 hellenic:1 hindu:4 tibetan:2 chinese:7 used:1 alone:2 use:15 along:3 gregorian:3 korean:1 since:2 japanese:1 hawaiian:5 pre:1 islamic:2 republican:1 roman:1 bc:2 fact:2 earlier:1 synchronization:2 lose:1 well:1 sun:5 first:2 century:3 gaulish:1 coligny:2 byzantine:2 millennium:1 babylonian:1 modern:1 base:2 rule:2 rather:1 observation:2 exactly:2 track:3 average:8 day:13 intermediate:1 less:1 whereas:3 therefore:2 three:1 idea:3 last:1 two:2 position:1 among:1 influence:1 english:1 also:4 conversion:1 christianity:1 twelve:1 thirty:1 incorporate:1 sophisticated:1 astronomy:1 ancient:2 polynesians:1 navigate:1 throughout:1 pacific:1 detail:1 plant:1 sow:1 fish:1 caught:1 http:1 www:1 nokaoimagazine:1 com:1 article:1 aspx:1 issue:1 lunar:5 relate:1 julian:2 however:2 determination:1 christian:2 celebration:1 easter:4 determine:2 leap:11 embolismic:6 need:1 insert:2 rely:1 direct:1 state:1 vegetation:1 others:1 compare:1 ecliptic:2 longitude:1 observe:1 movement:1 specific:1 star:1 accordingly:1 hand:1 arithmetical:2 integral:2 fit:1 fixed:1 construct:1 principle:1 length:6 divide:1 synodic:14 continue:1 fraction:2 decimal:1 value:4 optimal:1 approximation:4 list:3 numerator:1 approximately:1 integer:3 denominator:1 complete:1 error:8 note:2 none:1 arithmetic:1 equal:2 true:2 different:4 discrepancy:1 cycle:18 include:6 athenian:1 early:2 calculation:4 old:2 computus:1 rome:2 alexandria:1 classic:2 metonic:4 combination:1 period:1 whenever:1 build:1 truncate:1 start:1 anew:1 meton:1 although:1 often:1 mean:3 without:1 adapt:1 callipic:2 late:1 britain:1 ireland:1 synod:1 whitby:1 equivalent:1 plus:1 total:1 per:1 one:3 short:2 next:1 arise:1 continued:1 sensitive:1 adopts:1 lunation:1 especially:1 possible:1 definition:1 accurate:3 example:2 calculate:1 rough:1 frequency:1 intercalary:1 obtain:1 following:1 approximate:1 common:7 representative:1 sequence:1 cclcclclcclcclcclcl:1 nineteen:1 restrict:1 single:1 occasionally:1 allow:1 respectively:1 motion:1 within:1 couple:1 perihelion:1 apparent:1 speed:1 fast:1 january:2 increase:1 usual:1 roughly:1 doublet:1 occurs:1 reduce:1 singleton:1 reference:1 introduction:2 u:1 naval:1 observatory:1 astronomical:1 application:1 department:1 see:1 reform:1 external:1 link:1 paul:1 wood:1 maui:1 ka:1 oi:1 magazine:1 vol:1 panchangam:2 city:2 high:1 precision:1 drika:1 ganita:1 perpetual:1 program:1 page:1 contain:1 useful:1 description:1 difference:1 study:1 general:1 discussion:1 system:1 yellow:1 acano:1 method:1 canary:1 island:1 creation:1 era:1 orthodoxwiki:1 |@bigram lunisolar_calendar:16 gregorian_calendar:2 calendar_lunisolar:3 coligny_calendar:1 millennium_bc:1 http_www:1 julian_gregorian:1 embolismic_month:6 ecliptic_longitude:1 synodic_month:14 error_synodic:7 metonic_cycle:4 julian_calendar:1 continued_fraction:1 external_link:1 canary_island:1 |
7,258 | Brussels | Brussels (, pronounced ; , pronounced ), officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is the de facto capital city of the European Union (EU) and the largest urban area in Belgium. It is the de facto city as it hosts all major political institutions - though Parliament formally votes in Strasbourg, most political work is carried out in Brussels - and as such is considered the capital by definition. However, it should be noted that it is not formally declared in that language, though its position is spelled out in the Treaty of Amsterdam. See the section dedicated to this issue. It includes the Brussels municipality which is the capital of Belgium, Flanders and the French Community of Belgium by law. Welcome to Brussels Brussels has grown from a 10th-century fortress town founded by Charlemagne's grandson into a metropolis of more than one million inhabitants. Brussels.org - History of Brussels The metropolitan area, including the outer commuter zone, covers a total area of 4,127 km2, covering the Capital-Region and 103 surrounding municipalities, and has a population of almost 2.7 million. Since the end of the Second World War, Brussels has been an important centre for international politics. It hosts the main institutions of the European Union, and the headquarters of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Thus, Brussels is the polyglot home of many international organisations, politicians, diplomats and civil servants. BBC NEWS | Europe | Country profiles | Country profile: Belgium Brussels is the EU's third-richest city in terms of per capita income. Although historically Dutch-speaking, Brussels has become increasingly francophone. Today most inhabitants are native French-speakers, although both languages have official status. BBC NEWS | Europe | Analysis: Where now for Belgium? This process has led to a longstanding conflict between the French and Dutch speaking community, reflecting the situation in Belgium at large. Etymology The name Brussels derives from the Old Dutch Bruocsella, which means marsh (bruoc) and home (sella) or "home in the marsh". History Middle Ages The origin of the settlement that was to become Brussels lies in Saint Gaugericus' construction of a chapel on an island in the river Senne around 580. Brussels History The official founding of Brussels is usually situated around 979, because Duke Charles transferred the relics of Saint Gudula from Moorsel to the Saint Gaugericus chapel in Brussels, located on what would be called Saint Gaugericus Island. The Holy Roman Emperor Otto II gave the duchy of Lower Lotharingia to Charles, the banished son of King Louis IV of France in 977, who would construct the first permanent fortification in the city, doing so on that same island. 1555 map of the city The county of Brussels was attributed to Lambert I of Leuven, count of Leuven around 1000. In 1047, his son Lambert II, Count of Leuven founded the Saint Gudula chapter. Because of its location on the shores of the Senne on an important trade route between Bruges and Ghent, and Cologne, Brussels grew quite quickly; it became a commercial centre that rapidly extended towards the upper town (St. Michael and Gudula Cathedral, Coudenberg, Zavel area...), where there was a smaller risk of floods. As it grew to a population of around 30,000, the surrounding marshes were drained to allow for further expansion. The Counts of Leuven became Dukes of Brabant at about this time (1183/1184). In the 11th century, the city got its first walls. Zo ontstond Brussel Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie - Commission of the Flemish Community in Brussels After the construction of the first walls of Brussels, in the early 13th century, Brussels grew significantly. In order to let the city expand, a second set of walls was erected between 1356 and 1383. Today, traces of it can still be seen, mostly because the "small ring", a series of roadways in downtown Brussels bounding the historic city centre, follows its former course. In the 15th century, by means of the wedding of heiress Margaret III of Flanders with Philip the Bold, Duke of Burgundy, a new Duke of Brabant emerged from the House of Valois (namely Antoine, their son), with another line of descent from the Habsburgs (Maximilian of Austria, later Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor, married Mary of Burgundy, who was born in Brussels). Brabant had lost its independence, but Brussels became the Princely Capital of the prosperous Low Countries, and flourished. Renaissance Grand Place after the 1695 bombardment by the French army Charles V, heir of the Low Countries since 1506, though (as he was only 6 years old) governed by his aunt Margaret of Austria until 1515, was declared King of Spain, in 1516, in the Cathedral of Saint Gudule in Brussels. Upon the death of his grandfather, Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor in 1519, Charles V became the new archduke of the Habsburg Empire and thus the Holy Roman Emperor of the Empire "on which the sun does not set". It was in the Palace complex at Coudenberg that Charles V abdicated in 1555. This impressive palace, famous all over Europe, had greatly expanded since it had first become the seat of the Dukes of Brabant, but it was destroyed by fire in 1731. All that remains is an archaeological site. In 1695, French troops sent by King Louis XIV bombarded Brussels with artillery. Together with the resulting fire, it was most destructive event in the entire history of Brussels. The Grand Place was destroyed, along with 4000 buildings, a third of those in the city. The reconstruction of the city centre, effected during subsequent years, profoundly changed the appearance of the city and left numerous traces still visible today. Revolution Episode of the Belgian Revolution of 1830, Wappers (1834) In 1830, the Belgian revolution took place in Brussels after a performance of Auber's opera La Muette de Portici at De Munt or La Monnaie theatre. On 21 July 1831, Leopold I, the first King of the Belgians, ascended the throne, undertaking the destruction of the city walls and the construction of many buildings. Following independence, the city underwent many more changes. The Senne had become a serious health hazard, and from 1867 to 1871 its entire urban area was completely covered over. This allowed urban renewal and the construction of modern buildings and boulevards which are characteristic of downtown Brussels today. Modern history The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels was the first world physics conference. During the 20th century the city has hosted various fairs and conferences, including the fifth Solvay Conference in 1927 and two world fairs: the Brussels International Exposition (1935) and the Expo '58. In World War II Brussels was bombed by the German Luftwaffe from 10 May 1940 on; most of the war damage to the city however took place in 1944–1945. The construction of the North-South Junction was completed in 1952. The first Brussels premetro was finished in 1969, and the first line of the Brussels Metro was opened in 1976. The Heysel Stadium disaster took place in Brussels on 29 May 1985. The Brussels Capital Region was founded on 18 June 1989 after a constitutional reform in 1970. Belgian Constitution, Article 3: "Belgium is made up of three regions: The Flemish region, the Walloon region and the Brussels region." Brussels Capital-region / Creation Climate Brussels' proximity to coastal areas influences the area's climate by sending marine air masses from the Atlantic Ocean. Nearby wetlands also ensure a maritime temperate climate. On average (based on measurements the last 100 years), there are approximately 200 days of rain per year in the Brussels Capital-Region. Site de l'institut météorologique belge Government Charles Picqué has since 2004 been Minister-President of the Brussels Capital-Region. The Brussels Capital-Region is one of the three regions of Belgium, while the French Community of Belgium and the Flemish Community do exercise, each for their part, their cultural competencies on the territory of the region. French and Dutch are the official languages; most public services are bilingual (exceptions being education and a couple of others). The Capital Region is predominantly French-speaking - about 85-90% Personal website Lexilogos located in the Provence, on European Languages (English, French, German, Dutch, and so on) - French-speakers in Brussels are estimated at about 90% (estimation, not an 'official' number because there are no linguistic census in Belgium) Langues majoritaires, langues minoritaires, dialectes et NTIC by Simon Petermann, Professor at the University of Liège, Wallonia, Belgium Flemish Academic E. Corijn, at a Colloquium regarding Brussels, on 5 December 2001, states that in Brussels there is 91% of the population speaking French at home, either alone or with another language, and there is about 20% speaking Dutch at home, either alone (9%) or with French (11%) - After ponderation, the repartition can be estimated at between 85 and 90% French-speaking, and the remaining are Dutch-speaking, corresponding to the estimations based on languages chosen in Brussels by citizens for their official documents (ID, driving licenses, weddings, birth, death, and so on) ; all these statistics on language are also available at Belgian Department of Justice (for weddings, birth, death), Department of Transport (for Driving licenses), Department of Interior (for IDs), because there are no means to know precisely the proportions since Belgium has abolished 'official' linguistic censuses, thus official documents on language choices can only be estimations. of the population are French-speakers (including migrants), and about 10-15% Personal website Lexilogos located in the Provence, on European Languages (English, French, German, Dutch, and so on) - Dutch-speakers in Brussels are estimated at about 10% (estimation, not an 'official' number because there are no linguistic census in Belgium) are Dutch-speakers. In January 2006, of its registered inhabitants, 73.1% are Belgian nationals, 4.1% French nationals, 12.0% other EU nationals (usually expressing themselves in either French or English), 4.0% Moroccan nationals, and 6.8% other non-EU nationals. IS 2007 - Population (Tableaux) Institutions Because of how the federalisation was handled in Belgium, but also because of the fact that the municipalities in the region did not take part in the merger that affected municipalities in the rest of Belgium in the seventies, the public institutions in Brussels offer a bewildering complexity. The complexity is more apparent in the lawbooks than in the facts, since the members of the Brussels Parliament and Government also act in other capacities, e.g. as members of the council of the Brussels agglomeration or the community commissions. One distinguishes: Parliament Brussels Parliament building The region, with a regional parliament of 89 members (72 French-speaking, 17 Dutch-speaking, parties are organised on a linguistic basis), plus a regional government, consisting of an officially linguistically neutral, but in practice French-speaking minister-president, two French-speaking and two Dutch-speaking ministers, one Dutch-speaking secretary of state and two French-speaking secretaries of state. This parliament can enact ordinances (Dutch: ordonnanties, French: ordonnances), which have equal status as a national legislative act. The agglomeration, with a council and a board, with the same membership as the organs of the Brussels Region. This is a decentralised administrative public body, assuming competences which elsewhere in Belgium are exercised by municipalities or provinces (fire brigade, waste disposal). The by-laws enacted by it do not have the status of a legislative act. A bi-communitarian public authority, Common Community Commission (Dutch: Gemeenschappelijke Gemeenschapscommissie, GGC, French: Commission communautaire commune, COCOM), with a United Assembly (i.e. the members of the regional parliament) and a United Board (the ministers - not the secretaries of state - of the region, with the minister-president not having the right to vote). This Commission has two capacities: it is a decentralised administrative public body, responsible for implementing cultural policies of common interest. It can give subsidies and enact by-laws. In another capacity it can also enact ordinances, which have equal status as a national legislative act, in the field of the welfare competencies of the communities: in the Brussels Capital-Region, both the French Community and the Flemish Community can exercise competencies in the field of welfare, but only in regard to institutions that are unilingual (e.g. a private French-speaking retirement home or the Dutch-speaking hospital of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel). The Common Community Commission is competent for policies aiming directly at private persons or at bilingual institutions (e.g. the centra for social welfare of the 19 municipalities). Its ordinances have to be enacted with a majority in both linguistic groups. Failing such a majority, a new vote can be held, where a majority of at least one third in each linguistic group is sufficient. The Brussels Region is not a province, nor does it belong to one. Within the Region, 99% of the provincial competencies are assumed by the Brussels regional institutions. Remaining is only the governor of Brussels-Capital and some aides. 6 inter-municipal policing zones intercommunal societies created freely by the municipalities Also the federal state, the French Community and the Flemish Community exercise competencies on the territory of the region. 19 of the 72 French-speaking members of the Brussels Parliament are also members of the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium, and until 2004 this was also the case for six Dutch-speaking members, who were at the same time members of the Flemish Parliament. Now, people voting for a Flemish party have to vote separately for 6 directly elected members of the Flemish Parliament. Due to the multiple capacities of single members of parliament, there are parliamentarians who are at the same member of the Brussels Parliament, member of the Assembly of the Common Community Commission, member of the Assembly of the French Community Commission, member of the Parliament of the French Community of Belgium and "community senator" in the Belgian Senate. At the moment, this is the case for Mr. François Roelants du Vivier (for the Mouvement Réformateur), Mrs. Amina Derbaki Sbaï (since June 2004 for the Parti Socialiste, but beforehand, since 2003, for the Mouvement Réformateur) and Mrs Sfia Bouarfa (since 2001 for the Parti Socialiste). Municipalities The 19 municipalities of the Brussels-Capital Region Anderlecht Auderghem/Oudergem Sint-Agatha-Berchem/Berchem-Sainte-Agathe City of Brussels Etterbeek Evere Forest/Vorst Ganshoren Ixelles/Elsene Jette Koekelberg Sint-Jans-Molenbeek/Molenbeek-Saint-Jean Saint-Gilles/Sint-Gillis Saint-Josse-ten-Noode/Sint-Joost-ten-Node Schaerbeek/Schaarbeek Uccle/Ukkel Watermael-Boitsfort/Watermaal-Bosvoorde Woluwe-Saint-Lambert/Sint-Lambrechts-Woluwe Woluwe-Saint-Pierre/Sint-Pieters-Woluwe The 19 municipalities of the Brussels Capital-Region are political subdivisions with individual responsibilities for the handling of local level duties, such as law enforcement and the upkeep of schools and roads within its borders. Municipal administration is also conducted by a mayor, a council, and an executive. In 1831, Belgium was divided into 2,739 municipalities, including the 19 in the Brussels Capital-Region. Unlike most of the municipalities in Belgium, the ones located in the Brussels Capital-Region were not merged with others during mergers occurring in 1964, 1970, and 1975. However, several municipalities outside of the Brussels Capital-Region have been merged with the City of Brussels throughout its history including Laken, Haren, and Neder-Over-Heembeek, which were merged into the City of Brussels in 1921. The largest and most populous of the municipalities is the City of Brussels, covering with 145,917 inhabitants. The least populous is Koekelberg with 18,541 inhabitants, while the smallest in area is Saint-Josse-ten-Noode which is only . Despite being the smallest municipality, Saint-Josse-ten-Noode has the highest population density of the 19 with 20,822 inhabitants per km². In national politics The Royal Palace of Brussels Despite what its name suggests, the Brussels Capital-Region is not the capital of Belgium in itself. Article 194 of the Belgian Constitution lays down that the capital of Belgium is the City of Brussels, a smaller municipality within the capital region that once was the city's core. http://www.fed-parl.be/gwuk0015.htm#E11E15 However, although the City of Brussels is the official capital, the funds allowed by the federation and region for the representative role of the capital are divided among the 19 municipalities, and some national institutions are sited in the other 18 municipalities. Thus, while only the City of Brussels itself officially carries the title of capital of Belgium, in practice the entire capital region plays this role. The national institutions of the Belgian state are spread loosely around the region. For example the Belgian Federal Parliament and the legislative chambers of the Walloon Region and the Flemish Region. Seat of the Flemish Community and French Community The Brussels Capital-Region is one of the three federated regions of Belgium, alongside Wallonia and the Flemish Region. Geographically and linguistically, it is a (bilingual) enclave in the (unilingual) Flemish Region. Regions are one component of Belgium's complex institutions, the three communities being the other component: Brussels' inhabitants must deal with either the French (speaking) community or the Flemish Community for matters such as culture and education. Brussels is also the capital of both the French Community of Belgium (Communauté française de Belgique in French) and of Flanders (Vlaanderen); all Flemish capital institutions are established here: Flemish Parliament, Flemish government and its administration. 2 community-specific public authorities, Flemish Community Commission (Dutch: Vlaamse Gemeenschapscommissie, VGC) for the Flemings in Brussels, and the French Community Commission (French: Commission communautaire française or COCOF), with an assembly (i.e. the members of parliament of the linguistic group) and a board (the ministers and secretaries of state of the linguistic group). These commissions implement policies of the Flemish Community and the French Community in the Brussels Capital-Region. The French Community Commission has also another capacity: some legislative competencies of the French Community have been devolved to the Walloon Region (for the French language area of Belgium) and to the French Community Commission (for the bilingual language area). Procedure contained in art. 138 of the Belgian Constitution The Flemish Community, however, did the opposite; it merged the Flemish Region into the Flemish Community. Procedure in art. 137 of the Belgian Constitution This is related to different conceptions in the two communities, one focusing more on the communities and the other more on the regions, causing an asymmetrical federalism. Because of this devolution, the French Community Commission can enact decrees, which are legislative acts. In international politics Brussels has since World War II become the administrative centre of many international organisations. Notably the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) have their main institutions in the city, along with many other international organisations such as the WEU, WCO and EUROCONTROL as well as international corporations. Brussels is third in the number of international conferences it hosts Brussels, an international city and European capital Université Libre de Bruxelles also becoming one of the largest convention centres in the world. Brussels: home to international organisations diplomatie.be The presence of the EU and the other international bodies has for example led to there being more ambassadors and journalists in Brussels than in Washington D.C.. E!Sharp magazine, January-February 2007 issue: Article "A tale of two cities". International schools have also been established to serve this presence. European Union Brussels serves as capital of the European Union, hosting the major political institutions of the Union. The EU has not declared a capital formally, though the Treaty of Amsterdam formally gives Brussels the seat of the European Commission (the executive branch) and the Council of the European Union (a legislative and executive body, the main institution). European Navigator Seat of the European Commission European Commission publication: Europe in Brussels 2007 It locates the formal seat of European Parliament in the French city of Strasbourg, where votes take place, however meetings of political groups and committee groups (where most work takes place) are formally given to Brussels along with a set number of plenary sessions. Three quarters of Parliament now takes place at its Brussels hemicycle. Between 2002 and 2004, the European Council also fixed its seat in the city. Brussels, along with Luxembourg and Strasbourg, began to host institutions in 1957, soon becoming the centre of activities as the Commission and Council based their activities in what has become the "European Quarter". Early building in Brussels was sporadic and uncontrolled with little planning, the current major buildings are the Berlaymont building of the Commission, symbolic of the quarter as a whole, the Justus Lipsius building of the Council and the Espace Léopold of Parliament. Today the presence has increased considerably with the Commission alone occupying 865,000 m2 within the "European Quarter" in the east of the city (a quarter of the total office space in Brussels). The concentration and density has caused concern that the presence of the institutions has caused a "ghetto effect" in that part of the city. However the presence has contributed significantly to the importance of Brussels as an international centre. Demographics On 1 May 2008, the region had a population of 1,070,841 for 161.382 km2 which gives a population density of 6,635 inhabitants per km². Population by national origin, 1 March 1991 T. Eggerickx et al., De allochtone bevolking in België, Algemene Volks- en Woningtelling op 1 maart 1991, Monografie nr. 3, 1999, Nationaal Instituut voor de Statistiek (last census ever organised in Belgium) Belgians born in Belgium (to Belgian parents) 607,446 63.7% Belgians born abroad (to Belgian parents) including: Congo, Rwanda and Burundi (former Belgian overseas territories) 21,0288,116 2,2% (100%) 38.6% Naturalised migrants (not born in Belgium, not to Belgian parents) including: France Morocco 36,938 6,348 3,022 3.9% (100%) 17.2% 8.2% Naturalised 1st and 2nd generations (born in Belgium, not to Belgian parents) including: France Morocco 17,045 2,757 2,522 1.8% (100%) 16.2% 14.8% Non-naturalised 1st and 2nd generations including: Morocco 87,987 37,300 9.2% (100%) 42.4% Old migrants (born abroad, foreign nationals, living in Belgium in 1986) including: Morocco Italy 123,411 35,138 16,027 12.9% (100%) 28.5% 13% Recent migrants (born abroad, foreign nationals, arrived in Belgium after 1986) including: France Morocco 60,185 8,513 4,970 6.3% (100%) 14.1% 8.3% Total Brussels Capital-Region 954,040 100% At the last Belgian census in 1991, there were 63.7% inhabitants in Brussels Capital-Region who answered they were Belgian citizens, born as such in Belgium. However, there have been numerous individual or familial migrations towards Brussels since the end of the 18th century, including political refugees (Karl Marx, Victor Hugo, Pierre Joseph Proudhon, Léon Daudet e.g.) from neighbouring or more distanced countries as well as labour migrants, former foreign students or expatriates, and many Belgian families in Brussels can tell at least a foreign grandparent. And even among the Belgians, many became Belgian only recently. The original Dutch dialect of Brussels (Brussels) is a form of Brabantic (the variant of Dutch spoken in the ancient Duchy of Brabant) with a significant number of loanwords from French, and still survives among a minority of inhabitants called Brusseleers, many of them quite bi- and multilingual, or educated in French and not writing the Dutch language. Brussels and its suburbs evolved from a Dutch-dialect–speaking town to a mainly French-speaking town. The ethnic and national self-identification of the inhabitants is quite different along ethnic lines. For their French-speaking Bruxellois, it can vary from Belgian, Francophone Belgian, Bruxellois (like the Memelländer in interwar ethnic censuses in Memel), Walloon (for people who migrated from the Wallonia Region at an adult age); for immigrants from Flanders it is mainly either Flemish or Brusselaar (Dutch for an inhabitant); for the Brusseleers, most of them simply consider themselves as belonging to Brussels. For the many rather recent immigrants from other countries, the identification also includes all the national origins: people tend to call themselves Moroccans or Turks rather than an American-style hyphenated version. Recent immigration has brought its population of foreign origin to 56%. The two largest foreign groups come from two francophone countries: France and Morocco. The first language of roughly half of the inhabitants is not an official one of the Capital Region. Nevertheless, about three out of four residents have the Belgian nationality. — The linguistic situation in Belgium (and in particular various estimations of the population speaking French and Dutch in Brussels) is discussed in detail. Footnote: The Brussels region's 56% residents of foreign origin include several percents of either Dutch people or native speakers of French, thus roughly half of the inhabitants do not speak either French or Dutch as primary language. In general the population of Brussels is younger and the gap between rich and poor is wider. Brussels also has a large concentration of Muslims, mostly of Turkish and Moroccan ancestry, and mainly French-speaking black Africans. However, Belgium does not collect statistics by ethnic background, so exact figures are unknown. Both immigration and its status as head of the European Commission made Brussels a really cosmopolitan city. The migrant communities, as well as rapidly growing communities of EU-nationals from other EU-member states, speak Moroccan dialectal Arabic, French, Turkish, Spanish (most Spanish came from the Asturias, a minority from Andalusia and some from Catalonia and the Basque country), Italian, Polish, Rif Berber, English and other languages, including those of every EU-member state in the expat communities. The degree of linguistic integration varies widely within each migrant group. Among all major migrants groups from outside the , a majority of the permanent residents have acquired the Belgian nationality. Although historically (since the Counter-Reformation persecution and expulsion of Protestants by the Spanish in the 16th century) Roman Catholic, most people in Brussels are non-practising. About 10% of the population regularly attends church services. Among the religions, historically dominant Roman Catholicism prevailing mostly in a relaxed way, one finds large minorities of Muslims, atheists, agnosticists, and of the philosophical school of humanism, the latter mainly as vrijzinnig-laïcité (an approximate translation would be secularists or free thinkers) or practicing Humanism as a life stance - Brussels houses several key organisations for both kinds. Other (recognised) religions (Protestantism, Anglicanism, Orthodoxy and Judaism) are practised by much smaller groups in Brussels. Recognised religions and Laïcité enjoy public funding and school courses: every pupil in an official school from 6 years old to 18 must choose 2 hours per week of compulsory religion- or Laïcité-inspired morals. Languages Languages spoken at home (Capital Region, 2006) ”Taalgebruik in Brussel en de plaats van het Nederlands. Enkele recente bevindingen”, Rudi Janssens, Brussels Studies, Nummer 13, 7 January 2008 (see page 4). Since the founding of the Kingdom of Belgium in 1830, Brussels has transformed from being almost entirely Dutch-speaking, (Brabantian to be exact), to being a multilingual city with French (Belgian French to be exact) as the majority language and lingua franca. This language shift, the Frenchification of Brussels, is rooted in the 18th century but accelerated after Belgium became independent and Brussels expanded past its original boundaries. Manneken Pis is seen as a symbol of French and Dutch cohabitation in Brussels. Not only is French-speaking immigration responsible for the Frenchification of Brussels, but more importantly the language change over several generations from Dutch to French was performed in Brussels by the Flemish people themselves. The main reason for this was the low social prestige of the Dutch language in Belgium at the time. From 1880 on, more and more Dutch-speaking people became bilingual, resulting in a rise of monolingual French-speakers after 1910. Halfway through the 20th century the number of monolingual French-speakers carried the day over the (mostly) bilingual Flemish inhabitants. "Thuis in gescheiden werelden" — De migratoire en sociale aspecten van verfransing te Brussel in het midden van de 19e eeuw", BTNG-RBHC, XXI, 1990, 3-4, pp. 383-412, Machteld de Metsenaere, Eerst aanwezend assistent en docent Vrije Universiteit Brussel Only since the 1960s, after the fixation of the Belgian language border and the socio-economic development of Flanders was in full effect, could Dutch stem the tide of increasing French use. Through immigration, a further number of formerly Dutch-speaking municipalities in surrounding Flanders became majority French-speaking in the second half of the 20th century. This phenomenon is, together with the future of Brussels, one of the most controversial topics in all of Belgian politics. Given its Dutch-speaking origins and the role that Brussels plays as the capital city in a bilingual country, Flemish political parties demand that the entire Brussels Capital-Region be fully bilingual, including its subdivisions and public services. They also demand that the contested Brussels-Halle-Vilvoorde arrondissement will be separated from the Brussels region. However, the French-speaking population regards the language border as artificial and demands the extension of the bilingual region to at least all six municipalities with language facilities in the surroundings of Brussels. The six municipalities with language facilities around Brussels are Wemmel, Kraainem, Wezembeek-Oppem, Sint-Genesius-Rode, Linkebeek and Drogenbos. Flemish politicians have strongly rejected these proposals. Culture Architecture The medieval Grand Place The architecture in Brussels is diverse, and spans from the mediaeval constructions on the Grand Place to the postmodern buildings of the EU institutions. Main attractions include the Grand Place, since 1988 a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with the Gothic town hall in the old centre, the St. Michael and Gudula Cathedral and the Laken Castle with its large greenhouses. Another famous landmark is the Royal Palace. The Atomium is a symbolic tall structure that was built for the 1958 World’s Fair. It consists of nine steel spheres connected by tubes, and forms a model of an iron crystal (specifically, a unit cell). The architect A. Waterkeyn devoted the building to science. Next to the Atomium is the Mini-Europe park with 1:25 scale maquettes of famous buildings from across Europe. The Manneken Pis, a bronze fountain of a small peeing boy is a famous tourist attraction and symbol of the city. The Statue of Europe Unity in Peace (French sculptor Bernard Romain):This monumental work dedicated to Europe carries a universal symbol of brotherhood,tolerance and hope.Etterbeek Van Maerlant street Other landmarks include the Cinquantenaire park with its triumphal arch and nearby museums, the Basilica of the Sacred Heart, Brussels Stock Exchange, the Palace of Justice and the buildings of EU institutions in the European Quarter. Cinquantenaire triumphal arch Cultural facilities include the Brussels Theatre and the La Monnaie Theatre and opera house. There is a wide array of museums, from the Royal Museum of Fine Art to the Museum of the Army and the Comic Museum. Brussels also has a lively music scene, with everything from opera houses and concert halls to music bars and techno clubs. The city centre is notable for its Flemish town houses. Also particularly striking are the buildings in the Art Nouveau style by the Brussels architect Victor Horta. In the heyday of Art Nouveau new Brussels suburbs were developed, and many buildings are in this style. The architecture of the quarter Schaerbeek, Etterbeek Ixelles, and Saint-Gilles is particularly worth seeing. Another example of Brussels Art Nouveau is the Stoclet Palace, by the Viennese architect Josef Hoffmann. The modern buildings of Espace Leopold complete the picture. The Atomium in Heysel Park The city has had a renowned artist scene for many years. The famous Belgian surrealist René Magritte, for example, studied in Brussels. The city is also a capital of the comic strip; some treasured Belgian characters are Lucky Luke, Tintin, Cubitus, Gaston Lagaffe and Marsupilami. Throughout the city walls are painted with large motifs of comic book characters, and the interiors of some Metro stations are designed by artists. The Belgian Comics Museum combines two artistic leitmotifs of Brussels, being a museum devoted to Belgian comic strips, housed in the former Waucquez department store, designed by Victor Horta in the Art Nouveau style. The King Baudouin Stadium is a concert and competition facility with a 50,000 seat capacity, the largest in Belgium. The site was formerly occupied by the Heysel Stadium. Arts Brussels contains over 40 museums, Museum including the Museum of Modern Art Museum of Modern Art in Brussels. Museum Moderne Kunst Brussel. Musée d'art moderne Bruxelles , and the Royal Museums of Fine Arts of Belgium. The museum has an extensive collection of various painters, such as the Flemish painters like Bruegel, Rogier van der Weyden, Robert Campin, Anthony van Dyck, and Jacob Jordaens. Gastronomy Brussels is known for its local waffle (pictured) and chocolate. Brussels is known for its local waffle, its chocolate, its French fries and its numerous types of beers. The Brussels sprout was first cultivated in Brussels, hence its name. The gastronomic offer includes approximately 1,800 restaurants, and a number of high quality bars. Belgian cuisine is known among connoisseurs as one of the best in Europe. In addition to the traditional restaurants, there is a large number of cafés, bistros, and the usual range of international fast food chains. The cafés are similar to bars, and offer beer and light dishes; coffee houses are called the Salons de Thé. Also widespread are brasseries, which usually offer a large number of beers and typical national dishes. Belgian cuisine is characterised by the combination of French cuisine with the more hearty Flemish fare. Notable specialities include Brussels waffles (gaufres) and mussels (usually as "moules frites," served with fries). The city is a stronghold of chocolate and pralines manufacturers with renowned companies like Godiva, Neuhaus and Leonidas. Numerous friteries are spread throughout the city, and in tourist areas, fresh, hot, waffles are also sold on the street. In addition to the regular selection of Belgian beer, the famous lambic style of beer is only brewed in and around Brussels, and the yeasts have their origin in the Senne valley. In mild contrast to the other versions, Kriek (cherry beer) enjoys outstanding popularity, as it does in the rest of Belgium. Kriek is available in almost every bar or restaurant. Economy Serving as the centre of administration for Europe, Brussels' economy is largely service-oriented. It is dominated by regional and world headquarters of multinationals, by European institutions, by various administrations, and by related services, though it does have a number of notable craft industries, such as the Cantillon Brewery, a lambic brewery founded in 1900. Education Université Libre de Bruxelles There are several universities in Brussels. The two main universities are the Université Libre de Bruxelles, a French-speaking university with about 20,000 students in three campuses in the city (and two others outside), and the Vrije Universiteit Brussel, a Dutch-speaking university with about 10,000 students. Both universities originate from a single ancestor university founded in 1834, namely the Free University of Brussels, which was split in 1970 at about the same time the Flemish and French Communities gained legislative power over the organisation of higher education. Other universities include the Facultés Universitaires Saint-Louis with 2,000 students, , the Catholic University of Brussels (Katholieke Universiteit Brussel) , the Royal Military Academy, a military college established in 1834 by a French colonel and two drama schools founded in 1982: the Dutch-speaking Koninklijk Conservatorium and the French-speaking Conservatoire Royal. Still other universities have campuses in Brussels, such as the Université Catholique de Louvain that has had its medical faculty in the city since 1973. In addition the Boston University Brussels campus was established in 1972 and offers masters degrees in business administration and international relations. Due to the post-war international presence in the city, there are also a number of international schools, including the International School of Brussels with 1,450 pupils between 2½ to 18, the British School of Brussels, and the four European Schools serving those working in the EU institutions. Transport Brussels is connected with other European cities through e.g. the Eurostar high-speed rail network. Connections Brussels is served by Brussels Airport, located in the nearby Flemish municipality of Zaventem, and by the much smaller Brussels South Charleroi Airport, located near Charleroi (Wallonia), some from Brussels. Brussels is also served by direct high-speed rail links: to London by the Eurostar train via the Channel Tunnel (1hr 51 min); to Amsterdam, Paris and Cologne by the Thalys; and to Cologne and Frankfurt by the German ICE. Public transport The Brussels Metro dates back to 1976, but underground lines known as premetro have been serviced by tramways since 1968. A comprehensive bus and tram network also covers the city. Brussels also has its own port on the Brussels-Scheldt Maritime Canal located in the northwest of the city. The Brussels-Charleroi Canal connects the industrial areas of Wallonia. An interticketing system means that a STIB/MIVB ticket holder can use the train or long-distance buses inside the city. The commuter services operated by De Lijn, TEC and SNCB/NMBS will in the next few years be augmented by a metropolitan RER rail network around Brussels. Since 2003 Brussels has had a car-sharing service operated by the Bremen company Cambio in partnership with STIB/MIVB and local ridesharing company taxi stop. In 2006 shared bicycles were also introduced. Road network Rue de la Loi/Wetstraat is one of the city's main streets In mediaeval times Brussels stood at the intersection of routes running north-south (the modern Hoogstraat/Rue Haute) and east-west (Gentsesteenweg/Chaussée de Gand-Grasmarkt/Rue du Marché aux Herbes-Naamsestraat/Rue de Namur). The ancient pattern of streets radiating from the Grand Place in large part remains, but has been overlaid by boulevards built over the River Zenne/Senne, over the city walls and over the railway connection between the North and South Stations. As one expects of a capital city, Brussels is the hub of the fan of old national roads, the principal ones being clockwise the N1 (N to Breda), N2 (E to Maastricht), N3 (E to Aachen), N4 (SE to Luxembourg) N5 (S to Rheims), N6 (SW to Maubeuge), N8 (W to Koksijde) and N9 (NW to Ostend). Belgian N roads Usually named steenwegen/chaussées, these highways normally run in a straight line, but on occasion lose themselves in a maze of narrow shopping streets. The town is skirted by the European route E19 (N-S) and the E40 (E-W), while the E411 leads away to the SE. Brussels has an orbital motorway, numbered R0 (R-zero) and commonly referred to as the "ring" (French: ring Dutch: grote ring). It is pear-shaped as the southern side was never built as originally conceived, owing to residents' objections. The city centre, sometimes known as "the pentagon", is surrounded by the "Small ring" (Dutch: kleine ring, French: petite ceinture), a sequence of boulevards formally numbered R20. These were built upon the site of the second set of city walls following their demolition. Metro line 2 runs under much of these. On the eastern side of the city, the R21 (French: grande ceinture, grote ring in Dutch) is formed by a string of boulevards that curves round from Laken (Laeken) to Ukkel (Uccle). Some premetro stations (see Brussels Metro) were built on that route. A little further out, a stretch numbered R22 leads from Zaventem to Sint-Job. Twin cities The Sonian Forest at the outskirts of Brussels Brussels is twinned with the following 15 cities: Akhisar, Turkey Atlanta, United States Berlin, Germany Beijing, China Montreal, Canada Macau, China Madrid, Spain Moscow, Russia Foregn relations of Moscow Washington, D.C., United States Kiev, Ukraine Breda, The Netherlands Prague, Czech Republic Ljubljana, Slovenia Sofia, Bulgaria Tirana, Albania See also Brussels Regional Investment Company References External links Brussels Capital-Region, official site Brussels Pictures Interactive map 360º Interactive Virtual Tour of Brussels with Google Maps Brussels photo gallery be-x-old:Брусэль | Brussels |@lemmatized brussels:170 pronounce:2 officially:3 capital:43 region:54 de:21 facto:2 city:55 european:23 union:7 eu:13 large:13 urban:3 area:12 belgium:42 host:6 major:4 political:7 institution:20 though:5 parliament:20 formally:6 vote:6 strasbourg:3 work:4 carry:4 consider:2 definition:1 however:10 note:1 declare:3 language:24 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7,259 | Conjecture | In mathematics, a conjecture is a proposition that is unproven but appears correct and has not been disproven. In scientific philosophy, Karl Popper pioneered the use of the term "conjecture" to indicate a proposition which is presumed to be real, true, or genuine, mostly based on inconclusive grounds, in contrast with a hypothesis (hence theory, axiom, principle), which is a testable statement based on accepted grounds. Famous conjectures Until recently, the most famous conjecture was Fermat's Last Theorem. The conjecture taunted mathematicians for over three centuries before Andrew Wiles, a Princeton University research mathematician, finally proved it in 1995, and now it may properly be called a theorem. Other famous conjectures include: The abc conjecture P ≠ NP The Poincaré conjecture (proven by Grigori Perelman) The Langlands program is a far-reaching web of these ideas of 'unifying conjectures' that link different subfields of mathematics, e.g. number theory and the representation theory of Lie groups; some of these conjectures have since been proved. Counterexamples Unlike the empirical sciences, formal mathematics is based on provable truth; one cannot simply try a huge number of cases and conclude that since no counterexamples could be found, therefore the statement must be true. Of course a single counterexample would immediately bring down the conjecture, after which it is sometimes referred to as a false conjecture (cf. Pólya conjecture). Mathematical journals sometimes publish the minor results of research teams having extended a given search farther than previously done before. For instance, the Collatz conjecture, which concerns whether or not certain sequences of integers terminate, has been tested for all integers up to 1.2 × 10 12 (over a million millions). In practice, however, it is extremely rare for this type of work to yield a counter-example and such efforts are generally regarded as mere displays of computing power, rather than meaningful contributions to formal mathematics. Use of conjectures in conditional proofs Sometimes a conjecture is called a hypothesis when it is used frequently and repeatedly as an assumption in proofs of other results. For example, the Riemann hypothesis is a conjecture from number theory that (amongst other things) makes predictions about the distribution of prime numbers. Few number theorists doubt that the Riemann hypothesis is true (it is said that Atle Selberg was once a sceptic, and J. E. Littlewood always was). In anticipation of its eventual proof, some have proceeded to develop further proofs which are contingent on the truth of this conjecture. These are called conditional proofs: the conjectures assumed appear in the hypotheses of the theorem, for the time being. These "proofs", however, would fall apart if it turned out that the hypothesis was false, so there is considerable interest in verifying the truth or falsity of conjectures of this type. Undecidable conjectures Not every conjecture ends up being proven true or false. The continuum hypothesis, which tries to ascertain the relative cardinality of certain infinite sets, was eventually shown to be undecidable (or independent) from the generally accepted set of axioms of set theory. It is therefore possible to adopt this statement, or its negation, as a new axiom in a consistent manner (much as we can take Euclid's parallel postulate as either true or false). In this case, if a proof uses this statement, researchers will often look for a new proof that doesn't require the hypothesis (in the same way that it is desirable that statements in Euclidean geometry be proved using only the axioms of neutral geometry, i.e. no parallel postulate.) The one major exception to this in practice is the axiom of choice—unless studying this axiom in particular, the majority of researchers do not usually worry whether a result requires the axiom of choice. See also List of conjectures External links Open Problem Garden | Conjecture |@lemmatized mathematics:4 conjecture:23 proposition:2 unproven:1 appear:2 correct:1 disproven:1 scientific:1 philosophy:1 karl:1 popper:1 pioneer:1 use:5 term:1 indicate:1 presume:1 real:1 true:5 genuine:1 mostly:1 base:3 inconclusive:1 ground:2 contrast:1 hypothesis:8 hence:1 theory:5 axiom:7 principle:1 testable:1 statement:5 accepted:1 famous:3 recently:1 fermat:1 last:1 theorem:3 taunt:1 mathematician:2 three:1 century:1 andrew:1 wile:1 princeton:1 university:1 research:2 finally:1 prove:5 may:1 properly:1 call:3 include:1 abc:1 p:1 np:1 poincaré:1 grigori:1 perelman:1 langlands:1 program:1 far:2 reach:1 web:1 idea:1 unifying:1 link:2 different:1 subfields:1 e:3 g:1 number:5 representation:1 lie:1 group:1 since:2 counterexample:3 unlike:1 empirical:1 science:1 formal:2 provable:1 truth:3 one:2 cannot:1 simply:1 try:2 huge:1 case:2 conclude:1 could:1 find:1 therefore:2 must:1 course:1 single:1 would:2 immediately:1 bring:1 sometimes:3 refer:1 false:4 cf:1 pólya:1 mathematical:1 journal:1 publish:1 minor:1 result:3 team:1 extend:1 give:1 search:1 previously:1 instance:1 collatz:1 concern:1 whether:2 certain:2 sequence:1 integer:2 terminate:1 test:1 million:2 practice:2 however:2 extremely:1 rare:1 type:2 work:1 yield:1 counter:1 example:2 effort:1 generally:2 regard:1 mere:1 display:1 compute:1 power:1 rather:1 meaningful:1 contribution:1 conditional:2 proof:8 frequently:1 repeatedly:1 assumption:1 riemann:2 amongst:1 thing:1 make:1 prediction:1 distribution:1 prime:1 theorist:1 doubt:1 say:1 atle:1 selberg:1 sceptic:1 j:1 littlewood:1 always:1 anticipation:1 eventual:1 proceed:1 develop:1 contingent:1 assume:1 time:1 fall:1 apart:1 turn:1 considerable:1 interest:1 verify:1 falsity:1 undecidable:2 every:1 end:1 continuum:1 ascertain:1 relative:1 cardinality:1 infinite:1 set:3 eventually:1 show:1 independent:1 accept:1 possible:1 adopt:1 negation:1 new:2 consistent:1 manner:1 much:1 take:1 euclid:1 parallel:2 postulate:2 either:1 researcher:2 often:1 look:1 require:2 way:1 desirable:1 euclidean:1 geometry:2 neutral:1 major:1 exception:1 choice:2 unless:1 study:1 particular:1 majority:1 usually:1 worry:1 see:1 also:1 list:1 external:1 open:1 problem:1 garden:1 |@bigram karl_popper:1 andrew_wile:1 poincaré_conjecture:1 grigori_perelman:1 riemann_hypothesis:2 truth_falsity:1 continuum_hypothesis:1 parallel_postulate:2 euclidean_geometry:1 axiom_choice:2 external_link:1 |
7,260 | Junk_science | Junk science is a term used in U.S. political and legal disputes that brands an advocate's claims about scientific data, research, or analyses as spurious. The term conveys a pejorative connotation that the advocate is driven by political, ideological, financial, or other unscientific motives. The term was first used in relation to expert testimony in civil litigation. More recently, it has been used to criticize research on the harmful environmental or public health effects of corporate activities, and occasionally in response to such criticism. "Junk science" is often counterposed to "sound science", a term used to describe studies that favor the accuser's point of view. Free full-text. It is the role of political interests which distinguishes debate over junk science from discussions of pseudoscience and controversial science. The terms 'junk science' and 'sound science' do not have an agreed-upon definition or significant currency within the scientific community; they are primarily terms of political debate. History The phrase "junk science" appears to have been in use prior to 1985. A 1985 United States Department of Justice report by the Tort Policy Working Group noted: 'The use of such invalid scientific evidence (commonly referred to as "junk science") has resulted in findings of causation which simply cannot be justified or understood from the standpoint of the current state of credible scientific or medical knowledge.' "Report of the Tort Policy Working Group on the causes, extent and policy implications of the current crisis in insurance availability and affordability" (Rep. No. 027-000-01251-5). (1986, February). Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED274437) p.39: "Another way in which causation often is undermined -- also an increasingly serious problem in toxic tort cases -- is the reliance by judges and juries on noncredible scientific or medical testimony, studies or opinions. It has become all too common for "experts" or "studies" on the fringes of or even well beyond the outer parameters of mainstream scientific or medical views to be presented to juries as valid evidence from which conclusions may be drawn. The use of such invalid scientific evidence (commonly referred to as "junk science") has resulted in findings of causation which simply cannot be justified or understood from the standpoint of the current state of credible scientific and medical knowledge. Most importantly, this development has led to a deep and growing cynicism about the ability of tort law to deal with difficult scientific and medical concepts in a principled and rational way." In 1989, Jerry Mahlman (a proponent of anthropogenic global warming theory) used the phrase 'noisy junk science' in reference to the alternative theory of global warming due to solar variation presented in Scientific Perspectives on the Greenhouse Problem by Frederick Seitz et al. Roberts, L. (1989, November). Global warming: Blaming the sun. Science, 246(4933), 992-993. Peter W. Huber presented an exposition of the phrase with respect to litigation in his 1991 book Galileo's Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom. The book has been cited in over 100 legal textbooks and references; as a consequence some sources cite Huber as the first to coin the phrase. By 1997, the phrase had entered the legal lexicon as seen in an opinion by Supreme Court of the United States Justice John Paul Stevens, 'An example of "junk science" that should be excluded under the Daubert standard as too unreliable would be the testimony of a phrenologist who would purport to prove a defendant’s future dangerousness based on the contours of the defendant’s skull.' General Electric Company v. Robert K. Joiner, No. 96–188, slip op. at 4 (U.S. December 15, 1997). Lower courts then set guidelines for identifying 'junk science,' such as the 2005 opinion of United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit Judge Easterbrook, 'Positive reports about magnetic water treatment are not replicable; this plus the lack of a physical explanation for any effects are hallmarks of junk science.' Huber, P. W. (2001). Galileo's revenge: Junk science in the courtroom. New York: Basic Books. (Original work published 1991), 191. As the subtitle of Huber's book, "Junk Science in the Courtroom," suggests, his emphasis was on the use or misuse of expert testimony in civil litigation. One prominent example cited in the book was litigation over casual contact in the spread of AIDS. A California school district sought to prevent a young boy with AIDS, Ryan Thomas, from attending kindergarten. The school district produced an expert witness, Dr. Steven Armentrout, who testified that a possibility existed that AIDS could be transmitted to schoolmates through yet undiscovered "vectors." However, five experts testified on behalf of Thomas that AIDS is not transmitted through casual contact, and the court affirmed the "solid science" (as Mr. Huber called it) and rejected Dr. Armentrout's argument. Charles H. Sanderson v. Culligan International Company, No. 04-3253, slip op. at 3 (7th Cir. July 11, 2005). In 1999, Paul Ehrlich and others advocated public policies to improve the dissemination of valid environmental scientific knowledge and discourage junk science: 'The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change reports offer an antidote to junk science by articulating the current consensus on the prospects for climate change, by outlining the extent of the uncertainties, and by describing the potential benefits and costs of policies to address climate change.' Ehrlich, P. R., Wolff, G., Daily, G. C., Hughes, J. B., Daily, S., Dalton, M., et al. (1999). Knowledge and the environment. Ecological economics, 30, 267-284. In a 2003 study about changes in environmental activism in the Crown of the Continent (Flathead) Ecosystem, Pedynowski noted that junk science can undermine the credibility of science over a much broader scale because misrepresentation by special interests casts doubt on more defensible claims and undermines the credibility of all research. Pedynowski, D. (2003). Toward a more 'Reflexive Environmentalism': Ecological knowledge and advocacy in the Crown of the Continent Ecosystem. Society and Natural Resources, 16, 807–825. In his 2006 book Agin, D. P. (2006). Junk Science: How politicians, corporations, and other hucksters betray us. New York: Thomas Dunne Books. , Dan Agin emphasized two main causes of junk science: fraud, and ignorance. In the first case, Agin discussed falsified results in the development of organic transistors: 'As far as understanding junk science is concerned, the important aspect is that both Bell Laboratories and the international physics community were fooled until someone noticed that noise records published by January Hendrik Schön in several papers were identical - which means physically impossible.' In the second case, he cites an example that demonstrates ignorance of statistical principles in the lay press: 'Since no such proof is possible [that genetically modified food is harmless], the article in The New York Times was what is called a "bad rap" against the U.S. Department of Agriculture - a bad rap based on a junk-science belief that it's possible to prove a null hypothesis.' Agin asks the reader to step back from the rhetoric, 'But how things are labeled does not make a science junk science.' In its place, he offers, 'So where is the junk science? The answer is that it's in the hiding of what you need to know.' Controversy surrounding use of the phrase "junk science" John Stauber and Sheldon Rampton of PR Watch argue that the term "junk science" has come to be used to deride scientific findings which stand in the way of short-term corporate profits. In their book Trust Us, We're Experts (2001), they write that industries have launched multi-million-dollar campaigns to position certain theories as "junk science" in the popular mind, often failing to employ the scientific method themselves. For example, the tobacco industry has used the term "junk science" to describe research demonstrating the harmful effects of smoking and second-hand smoke, through the vehicle of various "astroturf groups". Theories more favorable to corporate activities may be praised using the term "sound science". The Bush administration used the term sound science to support industry's agenda. Past examples where "sound science" was used include the Alar scare, which was heavily criticized by antiregulatory advocates, and Herbert Needleman's research into low dose lead poisoning. Needleman was accused of fraud and personally attacked. Edward Herman reported that from 1996 to 1998, there were 8 articles in the mainstream media labeling criticism of corporations or tort claims 'junk science' for every 1 article labeling research sponsored by corporations as such. Hass, B., & Kleine, M. (2003, Summer). The rhetoric of junk science. Technical Communication Quarterly, 12(3), 267-284. The term was further popularized by Fox News columnist Steven Milloy, who used it to attack the results of scientific research on global warming, ozone depletion, passive smoking and many other topics. The credibility of Milloy's website junkscience.com, was questioned by Paul D. Thacker, a writer for The New Republic in the wake of evidence that Milloy had received funding from Philip Morris, RJR Tobacco, and Exxon Mobil. "Smoked Out: Pundit For Hire", published in The New Republic, accessed 20 September 2006. PRWatch.com article describing the financial links between Milloy and the tobacco industry, accessed 20 September 2006. Activity Report, R.J. Reynolds Tobacco Co., December 1996, describing R.J.R. Tobacco's direct input into Milloy's junkscience website. From the Legacy Tobacco Documents Library at the University of California, San Francisco. Accessed 5 October 2006. Thacker also noted that Milloy was receiving almost $100,000 a year in consulting fees from Philip Morris while he criticized the evidence regarding the hazards of second-hand smoke as "junk science". Following the publication of this article the Cato Institute, which had hosted the junkscience.com site, ceased its association with the site and removed Milloy from its list of adjunct scholars. Tobacco industry documents reveal that Phillip Morris executives conceived of the "Whitecoat Project" in the 1980s as a response to emerging scientific data on the harmfulness of second-hand smoke. Minutes of a meeting in which Philip Morris Tobacco discusses the inception of the "Whitecoat Project". Accessed 5 October 2006. The goal of the Whitecoat Project, as conceived by Philip Morris and other tobacco companies, was to use ostensibly independent "scientific consultants" to spread doubt in the public mind about scientific data through the use of terms such as "junk science". Since the U.S. Supreme Court ruling in Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, Inc., lay judges have become "gatekeepers" of scientific testimony. David Michaels has argued that as a result, respected scientists have been in some cases unable to provide testimony, and corporate defendants are "increasingly emboldened" to accuse adversaries of "junk science". Free full-text. Use by scientists In 1995, the Union of Concerned Scientists launched the Sound Science Initiative, a national network of scientists committed to debunking junk science through media outreach, lobbying, and developing joint strategies to participate in town meetings or public hearings. Union of Concerned Scientists. (1998, Winter). Sound science initiative. ASLO bulletin, 7(1), 13. The American Association for the Advancement of Science also recognized the need to increased understanding between scientists and lawmakers in its newsletter on Science and Technology in Congress, "Although most individuals would agree that sound science is preferable to junk science, fewer recognize what makes a scientific study 'good' or 'bad'." Sound Science for Endangered Species. (2002, September). In Science and Technology in Congress. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Retrieved November 12, 2006, from http://www.aaas.org/spp/cstc/pne/pubs/stc/stc02-09.pdf. The American Dietetic Association, criticizing marketing claims made for food products, has created a list of "Ten Red Flags of Junk Science" Volume 106, Issue 4, Pages 601-607. (2006, April). Position of the American Dietetic Association: Food and Nutrition Misinformation (Journal of the American Dietetic Association). Retrieved October 25, 2006, from http://www.eatright.org/cps/rde/xchg/ada/hs.xsl/advocacy_adar0202_ENU_HTML.htm (p. 605) . Individual scientists have also used the term Merrow, J. (2005, February 23). Unlearning Bad Science. Education Week. Retrieved November 3, 2006, from Public Broadcasting Service Web site: http://www.pbs.org/merrow/news/edweek4.html. Baron, L. A. F. (2001, February). The Influence of "Junk Science" and the Role of Science Education. Imprimis, 30(2). Retrieved November 12, 2006, from Hillsdale College Web site: http://www.hillsdale.edu/imprimis/2001/february/default.htm. Murray, B. (2006, November 12). The Methods of Science and Journalism. FACSNET, science and technology. Retrieved November 12, 2006, from Foundation for American Communications Web site: http://www.facsnet.org/tools/sci_tech/methods.php3. Hill, C. T. (2001). Fifty Years of Science and Technology Policy in Ten Minutes. AAAS Science and Technology Policy Yearbook, 107. Retrieved November 12, 2006, from American Association for the Advancement of Science Web site: http://www.aaas.org/spp/rd/ch7.pdf. . Quote See also Agnotology Controversial science Daubert standard for science that can be used in United States federal courts Federal Rules of Evidence Fringe theory Frye Standard Pseudoscience Scientific method Notes Further reading Dan Agin, Junk Science: How Politicians, Corporations, and Other Hucksters Betray Us, 2006. ISBN 0-312-35241-7. Peter W. Huber, Galileo's Revenge: Junk Science in the Courtroom, 1993. ISBN 0-465-02624-9. Steven J. Milloy, Junk Science Judo: Self-Defense against Health Scares and Scams, 2001. ISBN 1-930-86512-0. Chris Mooney, The Republican War on Science, 2005. ISBN 0-465-04675-4. Susan Kiss Sarnoff, Sanctified Snake Oil: The Effect of Junk Science on Public Policy, 2001. ISBN 0-275-96845-6. 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7,261 | Islamabad_Capital_Territory | Islamabad Capital Territory Islamabad Capital Territory in Pakistan (highlighted in dark red)Territorial capitalIslamabad Languages Urdu (official) English (official) Punjabi Sindhi Pashto Balochi Potwari Population 955,629 Revenue & NFC - Share in national revenue - Share receives % (contribution) % (from fed. govt) Time zone PST, UTC+5Number of zones8Number of townsNumber of UCs Governor Chief Minister Govt of Islamabad Official Website For the capital of Pakistan which is in Islamabad Capital Territory, see Islamabad. The Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT for short) is one of the two federal territories of Pakistan. It includes Islamabad, the capital city of Pakistan, and covers an area of 1,165.5 km², of this Islamabad city covers an area of 906 km², or 350 square miles. It is represented in the National Assembly by two constituencies, namely NA-48 and NA-49. District Profile: Central Punjab - Islamabad History The land was acquired from the North-West Frontier Province and Punjab in 1960, for the purpose of establishing Pakistan's new capital. According to the 1960 master plan, the ICT included the city of Rawalpindi, and was to be utilized as following: Rawalpindi; 259 km² Islamabad Proper (including the institutional and industrial areas); 220.15 km² Islamabad (Margalla Hills) Park; 220.15 km² Islamabad Rural Area; 446.20 km² The five zones of Islamabad. However, the city of Rawalpindi was eventually excluded from ICT. The remainder of the territory is now subdivided into 5 zones, with zone I designated to house all the residential, industrial and government institutions. Punjab is located to the south of the ICT, and North-West Frontier Province is located to the north west. Introduction Islamabad was designed and built to be a modern capital for Pakistan. It is located amongst the Margalla Hills at the northern end of Potohar Plateau. It was established in 1960, on the orders of then President General Ayub Khan. The capital is full of natural terraces and meadows, and covers the southern plain, which is drained by the Kurang River. The Margalla Hills lie to the north east of the ICT. Union Councils ICT territorial flag Rural ICT is divided into 12 union councils. As far as development is concern, most of the Union Councils are neglected by the District Administration/CDA except for Union Council Koral which is the biggest and most developed union council of the ICT. This Union Council is working hard for the development of the area under the Administratorship of Assistant Commissioner of Islamabad, and with the rural and management skills of Mr Idrees Khan. Efforts are being made towards the establishment of a local Government system in the Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT), which is still not in place in ICT as local government systems exist in other parts of the country. In 2005, the Ministry of Interior divided the ICT into 40 union councils — 26 union councils in urban areas of the ICT, and 14 union councils in the rural areas. However, the Union Council system is yet to be implemented. The table below lists the 20 union councils, each union council is named after the main town (e.g. Rewat or Tarnol), and shows the areas under its jurisdiction. +Union Councils of Islamabad Capital Territory Chief town Jurisdiction 1 Rewat Rewat, Bhangreel Kalan, Bhangreel Khurd, Kortara, Takht Pari, Shadi Dhamial, Mohra Amir, Sood Gangal, Mohri Khumbal, Sheikhpur, Hoon Dhamial, Chuchkal and Bhima Kanait 2 Humak Humak, Kotha Kalan and Naizian 3 Sihala Sihala, Gagri, Mughal, Chak Kamidar, Nara Sayedan, Sandu, Chitroh, Herdogher, Jabi Gakhran, Ladhiot, Kangota, Sayedan, Jandala and Kangota Gujran 4 Union Council Koral Koral, Lohi Bher, Choocha, Rakh Lohi Bher, Pagh, Panwal, Bora Bangial, Bukher, Khathreel, Dhaliala, Pind Dia, Paija, Darwala, Sher Dhamial, Pindi Malkan, Pindori Hathial, Pindori Sayedan, Bhimber Trar, Gohra Mast, Sigga, Channi Mahsu and Khan 5 Khana Khana Dak, Gangal, Gandhian, Tarlai Khurd and Sodhar 6Tarlai Kalan Tarlai Kalan, Chaper Mir-Khanal, Tramri, Tamma, Gohra Sardar, Chatha Bakhtawar and Khardapur 7 Kirpa Kirpa, Jhang Sayedan, Partal, Saknal, Panjgran, Frash and Ali Pur 8 Cherah Cherah, Herno Thanda Pani and Ara 9 Tumair Tumair, Kijnah, Sihali, New Simbli, Jandala, Jandgran, Garathian, Darkalai, Rakh Tumair A, Rakh Tumair B, Dakhian and Pind Begwal 10 PhulgranPhulgran, Shahpur, Sakrila, Dohala, Bbbri Betha, Athal, Maira Begwal, Chattar, Karlot, Hotran, Kathar, Mangal, Chaniari, Rakh Maira A & B 11 Bhara Kau Kot Hathial 12 Malpur Malpur, Shahdara (Malpur Rural), Jhanga Bangial, Mandla, Subban, Mangial, Quaid-e-Azam University and Muslim Colony 13 Noorpur Shahan Noor Pur Shahan, Ratta Hoter, Talhar, Gokina and Saidpur 14 Kuri at Chak ShehzadKuri, Rehara, Chak Shahzad, Majuhan, Mohrian, Gohra Baz, Mohra Jijan, Jagiot and Nogazi,Malot 15 Rawal Town Mohra Noor, Rawal Tonw, Rawal Colony, Mochianwala Mohra, Sumbal Korak (Katchi Abadi) and Sumbal Korak 16 Sohan Sohan, Kana Kak, Jaba Taili, Shakrial, Pindori, Sihana, Lakhwal, Chak Bera Sing, Kartal, Bohan, Dhoke Sharaf, Ojri Kalan & Khurd and Poona Faqiran 17 Golra Sharif Golra Sharif, Maira Bairi, Baker Akku, Dharek Mori, Maira Sumbal Aku, Maira Sumbal Jafer, Dharmian (F-11), E-10 (Sihala), Badia Rustam and Khan 18 Shah Allah Ditta Shah Allah Ditta, Seri Seral, Pind Sangral, Sara-e-Kharbooza, Johd, Siray Madhu, Bara Dari, Bakhar Fateh and Bakhsh 19 Jhangi Sayeda Jhangi Sayedan, Nothia, Thala Sayedan and Chailo, Sheikhpur, Kak, Noon, Narala and Bokra 20 Tarnol Bhadana Kalan, Tarnol, Pindi Parian, Naugazi, Dorey, Ahi Paswal, Sangjani and Bhadana Khurd Area and population The city is divided into eight basic zone types: Administrative zone; Diplomatic Enclave zone; Residential Areas; Educational Sectors; Industrial Sectors; Commercial Areas; Rural Areas; Green Areas. Each sector has its own shopping area, a green belt (which goes across the whole sector in a straight line) and public park. The population of the city is around 950,000 people of which 66% is urban. It is thus the most advanced region in Pakistan. It has an area of about 910 square kilometres. The city lies at latitudes 33° 49' north and longitudes 72° 24' east with altitudes ranging from 457 to 610 meters. Notable tribes While urban Islamabad is home to people from all over Pakistan, the rural areas are home to a number of Pothohari speaking tribal communities. Here are the main ones: Dhanyal They are one of the largest tribes living in the areas on the Potohar plateau and Lower Himalayas. This tribe traces their lineage to Ali ibn Abi-Talib. Most of the Dhanyals are settled in the cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad and in Murree Hills. Other branches of the tribe live in Kashmir, Abbottabad, Sialkot and Hazara. Dhanyals are famous for their bravery. Members of this tribe were recruited into the armies of the Mughal Empire, British Empire and, after the Indian colony achieved independence, into the Pakistani Army. Since attaining independence from the British Empire in 1947 though, the Dhanyals living in urban areas have turned to other fields such as education, medicine, engineering and business and social sciences. The literacy rate of this tribe is 100%. History: The name 'Dhanyal' is derived from Mohazzam Shah which was the name chief and famous Sufi saint of Lower Himalayas who shifted from Dhan (old name of Chakwal) in the late 12th century. The forefathers of Mohazzam Shah ruled Multan state for about 190 years. They were Alvis, and were shifted into Multan from Iraq in about the 8th century. Mohazzam Shah had supported Shahabuddin Ghouri to curb the activities of the Rajputs, who always attacked the Muslim armies of Shahbuddin Ghouri. Due to the influence of Mohassam Shah aias Hazrat Baba Dhani Pir, many non-Muslims of this area converted to Islam. Mohazzam Shah sacrificed his life in a battle against the Sikhs in Kashmir in the 13th century. Mohazzam Shah was the spiritual leader of the Dhanyal, Satti and Abbasi tribes in the area of Murree Hills, around the plains of Potohar and Kashmir. Hazrat Baba Dhani Pir's shrine is situated in Mouri Sayyaedan, a valley on the Lehtrar road, in Islamabad. An Urs (annual death anniversary) is held every year, in April, at his shrine. Arain Most of the Arains settled in Federal Capital are from Jalandhar,Ludhiana, and Hoshiarpur who migrated from East Punjab and came to Pakistan. They settled in Rawalpindi but when capital was transfered to Islamabad, Arains shifted to the Capital. They are mostly associated with the federal beaurucracy and the buisness going on in the country. Sub-castes of Arain in Islamabad are mostly Mian and Chaudhry. Muslim Rajputs or Rajas The ICT territory is home to number of Rajput tribes, such the Dhamial, Bangial, Ranial, Baghial, Khumbal, Gangal, Janjua Rajput and Hon Rajputs. Rajput villages in the Rewat Union Council are Bhangreel Kalan, Bhangreel Khurd, Kortara, Takht Pari, Shadi Dhamial, Mohra AmDir, Sood Gangal, Mohri Khumbal, Hoon Dhamial, and Bhima Kanait. Gakkar or kayanis The region is home a large community of Gakhar or Kayanis, who were historically rulers of the region. Awan Awans are the main tribe in the region in and around the town of Golra Sharif, as well as along the border with the North West Frontier Province. Gujar The Gujar are found through out rural ICT. Jat The Jat are only found only in the Union Council Tarlai Kalan, where the Thathaal clan is concenterated in the town of Tarlai Kalam, and Chatha clan are is found the village of Bakhtawar Chatha. Dhund Abbasi Another large tribe, found all along the Murree Tehsil frontier. Climate The average humidity level is 55%, with an average rainfall of 1450 millimeters each year. The maximum average temperature is 29°C and the minimum average temperature attained here during the year is generally around 11°C. Flora and fauna + Federal Territory symbols of Islamabad Territorial animal Rhesus Macaque Territorial bird Rose-ringed Parakeet Territorial tree Common fig Territorial flower rose Flora of Islamabad Capital Territory Fauna of Islamabad Capital Territory Education Islamabad boasts the Highest Literacy Rate in Pakistan at 72.38%. Ranking of districts by literacy rates and illiterates (By 10+ and 15+ Years Age Groups) It has some of Pakistan's major universities, including Quaid-i-Azam University, the International Islamic University, and the National University of Sciences and Technology. Quaid-e-Azam University offers courses in a number of subjects. The institute is located in a semi-hilly area, east of the Secretariat buildings and near the base of Margala Hills. This Post-Graduate institute is spread over 1,500 acres (6 km²). Major buildings of the campus have been designed in such a way as to form an axial spine with the library in the center. Other universities situated in Islamabad, other than those mentioned above, include the following: Air University Al-Huda University Allama Iqbal Open University (AIOU) distance education university covering all Pakistan and AJK Bahria University Center for Advanced Studies in Engineering (CASE) COMSATS Institute of Information Technology (CIIT) Federal Urdu University of Arts, Science & Technology (FUUAST) Hamdard University International Islamic University Islamabad (IIUI) National University of Computer & Emerging Sciences(FAST-NUCES) National University of Modern Languages (NUML) Institute of Space Technology Institute of Cost & Management Accountants of Pakistan (ICMAP) Iqra University Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Applied Sciences (PIEAS) Riphah International University Shifa College of Medicine Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto Institute of Science and Technology (SZABIST) The Shah Faisal Mosque, at the foot of the Margalla Hills, is the national mosque of Pakistan. It represents an eight-faceted desert 'tent' supported on four giant concrete girders and surrounded by four 90-metre high concrete minarets. The central 'tent' is faced in white marble and decorated inside with mosaics and a spectacular chandelier. The mosque was designed by the Turkish architect Vedat Dalokay, and largely financed by donations from Saudi Arabia. The mosque is named after former King Faisal of Saudi Arabia. There is a capacity for about 15,000 people inside the mosque, with room for another 85,000 in the courtyard. See also Islamabad Electric Supply Company Model Town Humak References External links Government of the Islamabad Capital Territory | Islamabad_Capital_Territory |@lemmatized islamabad:30 capital:17 territory:13 pakistan:15 highlight:1 dark:1 red:1 territorial:6 capitalislamabad:1 language:2 urdu:2 official:3 english:1 punjabi:1 sindhi:1 pashto:1 balochi:1 potwari:1 population:3 revenue:2 nfc:1 share:2 national:6 receive:1 contribution:1 feed:1 govt:2 time:1 zone:7 pst:1 utc:1 townsnumber:1 ucs:1 governor:1 chief:3 minister:1 website:1 see:2 ict:14 short:1 one:3 two:2 federal:5 include:5 city:8 cover:4 area:21 square:2 mile:1 represent:2 assembly:1 constituency:1 namely:1 na:2 district:3 profile:1 central:2 punjab:4 history:2 land:1 acquire:1 north:6 west:4 frontier:4 province:3 purpose:1 establish:2 new:2 accord:1 master:1 plan:1 rawalpindi:5 utilize:1 following:2 proper:1 institutional:1 industrial:3 margalla:4 hill:7 park:2 rural:8 five:1 however:2 eventually:1 exclude:1 remainder:1 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7,262 | Corrado_Gini | Corrado Gini (May 23, 1884 - March 13, 1965) was an Italian statistician, demographer and sociologist who developed the Gini coefficient, a measure of the income inequality in a society. Gini was also a leading fascist theorist and ideologue who wrote The Scientific Basis of Fascism in 1927. Life Gini was born on May 23, 1884 in Motta di Livenza, near Treviso, into an old landed family. He entered the Faculty of Law at the University of Bologna, where in addition to law he studied mathematics, economics, and biology. His subsequent scientific work ran in two directions, towards the social sciences, and towards statistics. His interests ranged well beyond the formal aspects of statistics to the laws that govern biological and social phenomena. His first published work was, Il sesso dal punto di vista statistico (1908) This work is a thorough review of the natal sex ratio looking at past theories and at how new hypothesis fit the statistical data. In particular, it presents evidence that the tendency to produce one or other sex of child is to some extent heritable. In 1910 he acceded to the Chair of Statistics in the University of Cagliari and then at Padua in 1913. He founded the statistical journal Metron in 1920 which he directed until his death and which never accepted articles that did not have practical applications. He became a professor at the University of Rome in 1925. At the University, he founded a lecture course on sociology, which he maintained until his retirement. He also set up the School of Statistics, in 1928, and, in 1936, the Faculty of Statistical, Demographic and Actuarial Sciences. In 1929 Gini founded the Italian Committee for the Study of Population Problems (Comitato italiano per lo studio dei problemi della popolazione) which, two years later, organised the first Population Congress in Rome. In 1926 he was appointed President of the Central Institute of Statistics in Rome. This he organised as a single centre for Italian statistical services. He resigned in 1932 in protest at interference in his work by the fascist state. Corrado Gini died in the early hours of March 13, 1965. Later career In 1933 Gini was elected vice president of the International Sociological Institute. In 1934 - president of the Italian Genetics and Eugenics Society. In 1935 - president of the International Federation of Eugenics Societies in Latin-language Countries. In 1937 - president of the Italian Sociological Society. In 1941 - president of the Italian Statistical Society. In 1957 he received the Gold Medal for outstanding service to the Italian School. In 1962 he was elected National Member of the Accademia dei Lincei. Honours The following honorary degrees were conferred upon him: Economics by the Catholic University of the Sacred Heart in Milan (1932), Sociology by the University of Geneva (1934), Sciences by Harvard University (1936), Social Sciences by the University of Cordoba, Argentine (1963). Some publications Il sesso dal punto di vista statistica: le leggi della produzione dei sessi (1908) Sulla misura della concentrazione e della variabilità dei caratteri (1914) Quelques considérations au sujet de la construction des nombres indices des prix et des questions analogues (1924) Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.1: Variabilità e Concentrazione (1955) Memorie di metodologia statistica. Vol.2: Transvariazione (1960) The Scientific Basis of Fascism Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 42, No. 1 (Mar., 1927), pp. 99-115 (article consists of 17 pages) At JSTOR See also Gini coefficient and Gini index External links Biography Of Corrado Gini at the Metron, the statistics journal he founded. Paper on "Corrado Gini and Italian Statistics under Fascism" by Giovanni Favero June 2002 A. Forcina and G. M. Giorgi "Early Gini’s Contributions to Inequality Measurement and Statistical Inference." 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7,263 | Algebraic_geometry | Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which, as the name suggests, combines techniques of abstract algebra, especially commutative algebra, with the language and the problems of geometry. It occupies a central place in modern mathematics and has multiple conceptual connections with such diverse fields as complex analysis, topology and number theory. Initially a study of polynomial equations in many variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes at least as important to understand the totality of solutions of a system of equations, as to find some solution; this leads into some of the deepest waters in the whole of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique. The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, lemniscates, and Cassini ovals, form one of the best studied classes of algebraic varieties. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve relative position of different curves and relations between the curves given by different equations. Descartes's idea of coordinates is central to algebraic geometry, but it has undergone a series of remarkable transformations beginning in the early 19th century. Before then, the coordinates were assumed to be tuples of real numbers, but this changed when first complex numbers, and then elements of an arbitrary field became acceptable. Homogeneous coordinates of projective geometry offered an extension of the notion of coordinate system in a different direction, and enriched the scope of algebraic geometry. Much of the development of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on 'intrinsic' properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space; this parallels developments in topology and complex geometry. One key distinction between classical projective geometry of 19th century and modern algebraic geometry, in the form given to it by Grothendieck and Serre, is that the former is concerned with the more geometric notion of a point, while the latter emphasizes the more analytic concepts of a regular function and a regular map and extensively draws on sheaf theory. Another important difference lies in the scope of the subject. Grothendieck's idea of scheme provides the language and the tools for geometric treatment of arbitrary commutative rings and, in particular, bridges algebraic geometry with algebraic number theory. Andrew Wiles's celebrated proof of Fermat's last theorem is a vivid testament to the power of this approach. André Weil, Grothendieck, and Deligne also demonstrated that the fundamental ideas of topology of manifolds have deep analogues in algebraic geometry over finite fields. Zeros of simultaneous polynomials Sphere and slanted circle In classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of polynomials, meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations. For instance, the two-dimensional sphere in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 could be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) with A "slanted" circle in R3 can be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) which satisfy the two polynomial equations Affine varieties First we start with a field k. In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always the complex numbers C, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that k is algebraically closed. We define An(k) (or more simply An, when k is clear from the context), called the affine n-space over k, to be kn. The purpose of this apparently superfluous notation is to emphasize that one `forgets' the vector space structure that kn carries. Abstractly speaking, An is, for the moment, just a collection of points. A function f : An → A1 is said to be regular if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial p in k[x1,...,xn] such that f(t1,...,tn) = p(t1,...,tn) for every point (t1,...,tn) of An. Regular functions on affine n-space are thus exactly the same as polynomials over k in n variables. We will call the set of all regular functions on An as k[An]. We say that a polynomial vanishes at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero. Let S be a set of polynomials in k[An]. The vanishing set of S (or vanishing locus) is the set V(S) of all points in An where every polynomial in S vanishes. In other words, A subset of An which is V(S), for some S, is called an algebraic set. The V stands for variety (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below). Given a subset U of An, can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If U is any subset of An, define I(U) to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains U. The I stands for ideal: if two polynomials f and g both vanish on U, then f+g vanishes on U, and if h is any polynomial, then hf vanishes on U, so I(U) is always an ideal of k[An]. Two natural questions to ask are: Given a subset U of An, when is U = V(I(U))? Given a set S of polynomials, when is S = I(V(S))? The answer to the first question is provided by introducing the Zariski topology, a topology on An which directly reflects the algebraic structure of k[An]. Then U = V(I(U)) if and only if U is a Zariski-closed set. The answer to the second question is given by Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. In one of its forms, it says that I(V(S)) is the prime radical of the ideal generated by S. In more abstract language, there is a Galois connection, giving rise to two closure operators; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory; the example is elaborated at Galois connection. For various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set U. Hilbert's basis theorem implies that ideals in k[An] are always finitely generated. An algebraic set is called irreducible if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a variety. It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if the polynomials defining it generate a prime ideal of the polynomial ring. Regular functions Just as continuous functions are the natural maps on topological spaces and smooth functions are the natural maps on differentiable manifolds, there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called regular functions. A regular function on an algebraic set V contained in An is defined to be the restriction of a regular function on An, in the sense we defined above. It may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a normal topological space, where the Tietze extension theorem guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space. Just as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on V form a ring, which we denote by k[V]. This ring is called the coordinate ring of V. Since regular functions on V come from regular functions on An, there should be a relationship between their coordinate rings. Specifically, to get a function in k[V] we took a function in k[An], and we said that it was the same as another function if they gave the same values when evaluated on V. This is the same as saying that their difference is zero on V. From this we can see that k[V] is the quotient k[An]/I(V). The category of affine varieties Using regular functions from an affine variety to A1, we can define regular functions from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular function from a variety into affine space: Let V be a variety contained in An. Choose m regular functions on V, and call them f1, ..., fm. We define a regular function f from V to Am by letting f(t1, ..., tn) = (f1, ..., fm). In other words, each fi determines one coordinate of the range of f. If V' is a variety contained in Am, we say that f is a regular function from V to V' if the range of f is contained in V'. This makes the collection of all affine varieties into a category, where the objects are affine varieties and the morphisms are regular maps. The following theorem characterizes the category of affine varieties: The category of affine varieties is the opposite category to the category of finitely generated integral k-algebras and their homomorphisms. Projective space parabola (y=x2, blue) and cubic (y=x3, red) in projective space Consider the variety V(y - x2). If we draw it, we get a parabola. As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x, x2) becomes larger and larger. As x decreases, the slope of the same line becomes smaller and smaller. Compare this to the variety V(y - x3). This is a cubic equation. As x increases, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x, x3) becomes larger and larger just as before. But unlike before, as x decreases, the slope of the same line again becomes larger and larger. So the behavior "at infinity" of V(y-x3) is different from the behavior "at infinity" of V(y - x2). It is, however, difficult to make the concept of "at infinity" meaningful, if we restrict to working in affine space. The remedy to this is to work in projective space. Projective space has properties analogous to those of a compact Hausdorff space. Among other things, it lets us make precise the notion of "at infinity" by including extra points. The behavior of a variety at those extra points then gives us more information about it. As it turns out, V(y - x3) has a singularity at one of those extra points, but V(y - x2) is smooth. While projective geometry was originally established on a synthetic foundation, the use of homogeneous coordinates allowed the introduction of algebraic techniques. Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, Bézout's theorem on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space. For this reason, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry. The modern viewpoint The modern approach to algebraic geometry redefines the basic objects. Varieties are subsumed in Alexander Grothendieck's concept of a scheme. Schemes start with the observation that if finitely generated reduced k-algebras are geometrical objects, then perhaps arbitrary commutative rings should also be geometrical objects. As such, schemes become both a more general algebro-geometric object, and a convenient language to describe those objects. This language of schemes has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and has become a cornerstone of modern algebraic geometry. A further generalization is possible to Universal algebraic geometry in which every variety of algebra has its own algebraic geometry. The term variety of algebra should not be confused with algebraic variety. History Prehistory: Before the 19th century Some of the roots of algebraic geometry date back to the work of the Hellenistic Greeks from the 5th century BC. The Delic problem, for instance, was to construct a length x so that the cube of side x contained the same volume as the rectangular box a<sup>2</sub>b for given sides a and b. Menechmus (circa 350 BC) considered the problem geometrically by intersecting the pair of plane conics ay = x2 and xy = ab. The later work, in the 3rd century BC, of Archimedes and Apollonius studied more systematically problems on conic sections, Kline, M. (1972) Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times (Volume 1). Oxford University Press. pp. 108, 90. and also involved the use of coordinates. Dieudonné, ibid. The Arab mathematicians were able to solve by purely algebraic means certain cubic equations, and then to interpret the results geometrically. This was done, for instance, by Ibn al-Haytham in the 10th century AD. Kline ibid, p. 193. Subsequently, Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám (born 1048 A.D.) discovered the general method of solving cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle. Kline ibid, pp. 193–195. Each of these early developments in algebraic geometry dealt with questions of finding and describing the intersections of algebraic curves. Such techniques of applying geometrical constructions to algebraic problems were also adopted by a number of Renaissance mathematicians such as Cardano and Niccolo Fontana "Tartaglia" on their studies of the cubic equation. The geometrical approach to construction problems, rather than the algebraic one, was favored by most 16th and 17th century mathematicians, notably Blaise Pascal who argued against the use of algebraic and analytical methods in geometry. Kline ibid, p. 279. The French mathematicians Franciscus Vieta and later René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat revolutionized the conventional way of thinking about construction problems through the introduction of coordinate geometry. They were interested primarily in the properties of algebraic curves, such as those defined by Diophantine equations (in the case of Fermat), and the algebraic reformulation of the classical Greek works on conics and cubics (in the case of Descartes). During the same period, Blaise Pascal and Desargues approached geometry from a different perspective, developing the synthetic notions of Projections. Pascal and Desargues also studied curves, but from the purely geometrical point of view: the analog of the Greek ruler and compass construction. Ultimately, the analytic geometry of Descartes and Fermat won out, for it supplied the 18th century mathematicians with concrete quantitative tools needed to study physical problems using the new calculus of Newton and Leibniz. However, by the end of the 18th century, most of the algebraic character of coordinate geometry was subsumed by the calculus of infinitesimals of Lagrange and Euler. Nineteenth and early 20th century It took the simultaneous 19th century developments of non-Euclidean geometry and Abelian integrals in order to bring the old algebraic ideas back into the geometrical fold. The first of these new developments was seized up by Edmond Laguerre and Arthur Cayley, who attempted to ascertain the generalized metric properties of projective space. Cayley introduced the idea of homogeneous polynomial forms, and more specifically quadratic forms, on projective space. Subsequently, Felix Klein studied projective geometry (along with other sorts of geometry) from the viewpoint that the geometry on a space is encoded in a certain class of transformations on the space. By the end of the 19th century, projective geometers were studying more general kinds of transformations on figures in projective space. Rather than the projective linear transformations which were normally regarded as giving the fundamental Kleinian geometry on projective space, they concerned themselves also with the higher degree birational transformations. This weaker notion of congruence would later lead members of the 20th century Italian school of algebraic geometry to classify algebraic surfaces up to birational isomorphism. The second early 19th century development, that of Abelian integrals, would lead Bernhard Riemann to the development of Riemann surfaces. Twentieth century B. L. van der Waerden, Oscar Zariski, André Weil and others attempted to develop a rigorous foundation for algebraic geometry based on contemporary commutative algebra, including valuation theory and the theory of ideals. In the 1950s and 1960s Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck recast the foundations making use of sheaf theory. Later, from about 1960, the idea of schemes was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of homological techniques. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilised in the 1970s, and new applications were made, both to number theory and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, singularities and moduli. An important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the abelian varieties, which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian group. The prototypical examples are the elliptic curves, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of Fermat's last theorem and are also used in elliptic curve cryptography. While much of algebraic geometry is concerned with abstract and general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given polynomials have also been developed. The most important is the technique of Gröbner bases which is employed in all computer algebra systems. See also Algebraic statistics Differential geometry Geometric algebra Important publications in algebraic geometry List of algebraic surfaces Root-finding algorithm Notes References A classical textbook, predating schemes: Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes: Textbooks and references for schemes: On the Internet: Kevin R. Coombes: Algebraic Geometry: A Total Hypertext Online System Algebraic geometry entry on PlanetMath Algebraic Equations and Systems of Algebraic Equations at EqWorld: The World of Mathematical Equations | Algebraic_geometry |@lemmatized algebraic:59 geometry:41 branch:1 mathematics:3 name:1 suggest:1 combine:1 technique:7 abstract:4 algebra:9 especially:1 commutative:4 language:6 problem:8 occupy:1 central:2 place:2 modern:7 multiple:1 conceptual:1 connection:3 diverse:1 field:6 complex:4 analysis:1 topology:5 number:8 theory:9 initially:1 study:8 polynomial:22 equation:17 many:3 variable:2 subject:2 start:3 solve:3 leaf:1 become:7 least:1 important:5 understand:2 totality:1 solution:3 system:6 find:2 lead:3 deep:2 water:1 whole:1 conceptually:1 term:2 fundamental:4 object:8 variety:31 geometric:7 manifestation:1 plane:3 curve:9 include:3 line:5 circle:4 parabola:4 lemniscates:1 cassini:1 oval:1 form:8 one:10 best:1 studied:1 class:4 point:18 belong:1 coordinate:13 satisfy:3 give:14 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7,264 | International_Convention_for_the_Regulation_of_Whaling | The International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling is an international environmental agreement signed in 1946 in order to "provide for the proper conservation of whale stocks and thus make possible the orderly development of the whaling industry". The Convention It governs the commercial, scientific, and aboriginal subsistence whaling practices of fifty-nine member nations. It was signed by 42 nations in Washington, D.C. on December 2 1946 and took effect on November 10 1948. Its protocol (which represented the first substantial revision of the convention and extended the definition of a "whale-catcher" to include helicopters as well as ships) was signed in Washington on November 19 1956. The convention is a successor to the International Agreement for the Regulation of Whaling, signed in London on June 8 1937, and the protocols for that agreement signed in London on June 24 1938, and November 26, 1945. Objectives are protection of all whale species from overhunting, establishment of a system of international regulation for the whale fisheries to ensure proper conservation and development of whale stocks, and safeguarding for future generations the great natural resources represented by whale stocks. The primary instrument through which these aims were followed was the establishment of the International Whaling Commission. The commission has made many revisions to the schedule that makes up the bulk of the convention, reflecting changing economical, ecological, and commercial standards. Signatories Nations party to the convention are: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Brazil, Chile, China (seat originally belonged to the Republic of China but was replaced by People's Republic of China upon the PRC's entrance into the United Nations), Costa Rica, Denmark, Dominica, Finland, France, Germany, Grenada, Guinea, India, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Kenya, South Korea, Mexico, Monaco, Morocco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Panama, Peru, Russia, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Senegal, Solomon Islands, South Africa, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States. References External links Text of the Convention at the IWC website | International_Convention_for_the_Regulation_of_Whaling |@lemmatized international:5 convention:7 regulation:3 whaling:4 environmental:1 agreement:3 sign:5 order:1 provide:1 proper:2 conservation:2 whale:7 stock:3 thus:1 make:3 possible:1 orderly:1 development:2 industry:1 govern:1 commercial:2 scientific:1 aboriginal:1 subsistence:1 practice:1 fifty:1 nine:1 member:1 nation:4 washington:2 c:1 december:1 take:1 effect:1 november:3 protocol:2 represent:2 first:1 substantial:1 revision:2 extend:1 definition:1 catcher:1 include:1 helicopter:1 well:1 ship:1 successor:1 london:2 june:2 objective:1 protection:1 specie:1 overhunting:1 establishment:2 system:1 fishery:1 ensure:1 safeguard:1 future:1 generation:1 great:1 natural:1 resource:1 primary:1 instrument:1 aim:1 follow:1 commission:2 many:1 schedule:1 bulk:1 reflect:1 change:1 economical:1 ecological:1 standard:1 signatory:1 party:1 antigua:1 barbuda:1 argentina:1 australia:1 austria:1 brazil:1 chile:1 china:3 seat:1 originally:1 belong:1 republic:2 replace:1 people:1 upon:1 prc:1 entrance:1 united:3 costa:1 rica:1 denmark:1 dominica:1 finland:1 france:1 germany:1 grenada:1 guinea:1 india:1 ireland:1 italy:1 japan:1 kenya:1 south:2 korea:1 mexico:1 monaco:1 morocco:1 netherlands:1 new:1 zealand:1 norway:1 oman:1 panama:1 peru:1 russia:1 saint:3 kitts:1 nevis:1 lucia:1 vincent:1 grenadine:1 senegal:1 solomon:1 island:1 africa:1 spain:1 sweden:1 switzerland:1 kingdom:1 state:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 text:1 iwc:1 website:1 |@bigram antigua_barbuda:1 costa_rica:1 panama_peru:1 saint_kitts:1 kitts_nevis:1 saint_lucia:1 lucia_saint:1 vincent_grenadine:1 external_link:1 |
7,265 | Integrin | Integrins are receptors that mediate attachment between a cell and the tissues surrounding it, which may be other cells or the extracellular matrix (ECM). They also play a role in cell signaling and thereby define cellular shape, mobility, and regulate the cell cycle. Typically, receptors inform a cell of the molecules in its environment and the cell evokes a response. Not only do integrins perform this outside-in signalling, but they also operate an inside-out mode. Thus, they transduce information from the ECM to the cell as well as reveal the status of the cell to the outside, allowing rapid and flexible responses to changes in the environment, for example to allow blood coagulation by platelets. There are many types of integrin, and many cells have multiple types on their surface. Integrins are of vital importance to all animals and have been found in all animals investigated, from sponges to mammals. Integrins have been extensively studied in humans. Integrins work alongside other proteins such as cadherins, cell adhesion molecules and selectins to mediate cell-cell and cell-matrix interaction and communication. Structure Integrins are obligate heterodimers containing two distinct chains, called the α (alpha) and β (beta) subunits. In mammals, 19 α and 8 β subunits have been characterized, whereas the Drosophila genome encodes only five α and two β subunits, and the Caenorhabditis nematodes possess two α and one β genes. Both the α and β subunits contain two separate tails, both of which penetrate the plasma membrane and possess small cytoplasmic domains. alpha gene protein synonyms CD49a VLA1 CD49b VLA2 CD49c VLA3 CD49d VLA4 CD49e VLA5 CD49f VLA6 ITGA7 FLJ25220 ITGA8 ITGA9 RLC ITGA10 ITGA11 HsT18964 CD11D FLJ39841 CD103 HUMINAE CD11a LFA1A CD11b MAC-1 CD51 VNRA, MSK8 ITGAW CD11c beta gene protein synonyms CD29 FNRB, MSK12, MDF2 CD18 LFA-1, MAC-1, MFI7 CD61 GP3A, GPIIIa CD104 ITGB5 FLJ26658 ITGB6 ITGB7 ITGB8 In addition, variants of some of the subunits are formed by differential splicing, for example 4 variants of the beta-1 subunit exist. Through different combinations of these alpha and beta subunits, some 24 unique integrins are generated, although the number varies according to different studies. Integrin subunits span the plasma membrane and in general have very short cytoplasmic domains of about 40-70 amino acids. The exception is the beta-4 subunit which has a cytoplasmic domain of 1088 amino acids, one of the largest known cytoplasmic domains of any membrane protein. Outside the cell plasma membrane, the alpha and beta chains lie close together along a length of about 23 nm, the final 5 nm N-termini of each chain form a ligand-binding region for the ECM, or extracellular matrix. The molecular mass of the integrin subunits can vary from 90 kDa to 160 kDa. β subunits have four cysteine-rich repeated sequences. Both α and β subunits bind several divalent cations. The role of the α subunit is unknown, but they may stabilize the folds of the protein. The β subunits are more interesting: they are directly involved in coordinating at least some of the ligands that integrins bind. There are various ways of categorizing the integrins. For example, a subset of the α chains has an additional structural element (or "domain") inserted toward their N-terminal, the so called alpha-A domain (because it has a similar structure to the A-domains found in the protein von Willebrand factor: it is also termed the α-I domain). Integrins carrying this domain either bind to collagens (e.g. integrins α1 β1, and α2 β1), or act as cell-cell adhesion molecules (integrins of the β2 family). This α-I domain is the binding site for ligands of such integrins. Those integrins that don't carry this inserted domain, also have an A-domain in their ligand binding site, but this A-domain is found on the β subunit. In both cases, the A-domains carry up to three divalent cation binding sites. One is permanently occupied in physiological concentrations of divalent cations, and carries either a calcium or magnesium ion, the principal divalent cations in blood at median concentrations of 1.4 mM (calcium) and 0.8 mM (magnesium). The other two sites become occupied by cations when ligands bind—at least for those ligands involving an acidic amino acid in their interaction sites. An acidic amino acid features in the integrin-interaction site of many ECM proteins, for example, as part of the amino acid sequence Arginine-Glycine-Aspartic acid ("RGD" in the one-letter amino acid code). High resolution structure Despite many years of effort, discovering the high resolution structure of integrins proved to be challenging: membrane proteins are classically difficult to purify, and integrins are also large, complex and linked to many sugar trees ("highly glycosylated"). Low resolution images of detergent extracts of intact integrin GPIIbIIIa, obtained using electron microscopy, and even data from indirect techniques, investigating the solution properties of integrins using ultracentrifugation and light scattering, were combined with fragmentary high resolution crystallographic or NMR data from single or paired domains of single integrin chains, and molecular models postulated for the rest of the chains. Despite these wide-ranging efforts, the X-ray crystal structure obtained for the complete extracellular region of one integrin, αvβ3 was a surprise. It showed the molecule to be folded into an inverted V-shape which brings the ligand-binding sites close to the cell membrane. Perhaps more importantly, the crystal structure was also obtained for the same integrin bound to a small ligand containing the RGD-sequence, the drug cilengitide. As detailed above, this finally revealed why divalent cations (in the A-domains) are critical for RGD-ligand binding to integrins. The interaction with such sequences is believed to be a primary switch by which ECM exerts its effects on cell behaviour. The structure poses many questions, especially regarding ligand binding and signal transduction. The ligand binding site is directed towards the C-terminal of the integrin, the region where the molecule emerges from the cell membrane. If it emerges orthogonally from the membrane, the ligand binding site would apparently be obstructed, especially as integrin ligands are typically massive, and well cross-linked components of the ECM. In fact, little is known about the angle which membrane proteins subtend to the plane of the membrane—it is a problem difficult to address with available technologies. The default assumption is that they emerge rather like little lollipops—the evidence for this sweet supposition is noticeable by its absence. The integrin structure has drawn attention to this problem, which may have implications for how membrane proteins work. Although the crystal structure changed surprisingly little after binding to cilengitide, the current hypothesis is that integrin function involves changes in shape to move the ligand binding site into a more accessible position away from the cell surface, and this shape change also triggers intracellular signaling. And there is a wide body of cell biological and biochemical literature that supports this view. Perhaps the most convincing evidence involves the use of antibodies that only recognize integrins when they have bound to their ligands, or are activated. As the "footprint" that an antibody makes on its binding target is roughly a circle about 3 nm in diameter, the resolution of this technique is low. Nevertheless, these so-called LIBS (Ligand-Induced-Binding-Sites) antibodies unequivocally show that dramatic changes in integrin shape routinely occur. Function Two main functions of integrins are: Attachment of the cell to the ECM. Signal transduction from the ECM to the cell. However, they are also involved in a wide range of other biological activities. These include: binding of viruses, including adenovirus, Echo viruses, Hanta viruses and foot and mouth disease viruses, to cells; immune patrolling. Cell migration. A very prominent function of the integrins is seen in the molecule GPIIbIIIa, an integrin on the surface of blood platelets (thrombocytes) responsible for cross-linking platelets in fibrin within a developing blood clot. This switches its adhesiveness for fibrin/fibrinogen from being non-adhesive to being intensely sticky, in a fast and precisely controlled manner. As such it provides a thought-model for how many integrins are believed to be regulated. As you may have noted, although blood is normally very rich in platelets, we do not spontaneously clot. This is clearly good news. On the other side, and equally positively, even minor wounds are rapidly blocked by the mass of fibrin, platelets and erythrocytes in a blood clot. A primary event in clot formation is the binding of platelets to exposed collagen in the wound site, which leads to their "activation", and a clotting cascade. Among the many molecular events during activation, is the switching of GPIIbIIIa integrin from a quiescent state, unable to bind to fibrinogen/fibrin, to an active state, able to bind strongly to fibrinogen/fibrin. This is a remarkable event: first it involves all the GPIIbIIIa on a single platelet (some 50000 molecules), second it is completed within 5 seconds, third, it increases the affinity of the integrin concerned over several orders of magnitude. Fourth, it involves wide spread changes in the molecular structure of the GPIIbIIIa molecule, as resolved by LIBS antibodies, which gain the ability to bind GPIIbIIIa only following activation of the platelets. Finally, it is intensely localised to the precise region of the damage, be it a couple of square micrometres, or the results of falling off a mountain bike at high speed. Attachment of cell to the ECM Integrins couple the ECM outside a cell to the cytoskeleton (in particular the microfilaments) inside the cell. Which ligand in the ECM the integrin can bind to is mainly decided by which α and β subunits the integrin is made of. Among the ligands of integrins are fibronectin, vitronectin, collagen, and laminin. The connection between the cell and the ECM may help the cell to endure pulling forces without being ripped out of the ECM. The ability of a cell to create this kind of bond is also of vital importance in ontogeny. Cell attachment to the ECM is a basic requirement to build a multicellular organism. Integrins are not simply hooks, but give the cell critical signals about the nature of its surroundings. Together with signals arising from receptors for soluble growth factors like VEGF, EGF and many others, they enforce a cellular decision on what biological action to take, be it attachment, movement, death, or differentiation. Thus integrins lie at the heart, both literally and figuratively, of many cellular biological processes. The attachment of the cell takes place through formation of cell adhesion complexes, which consist of integrins and many cytoplasmic proteins which include talin, vinculin, paxillin and alpha-actinin. These act by regulating kinases like FAK (focal adhesion kinase) and Src kinase family members to phosphorylate substrates such as p130CAS thereby recruiting signaling adaptors such as Crk. These adhesion complexes attach to the actin cytoskeleton. The integrins thus serve to link across the plasma membrane two networks: the extracellular ECM and the intracellular actin filamentous system. One of the most important functions of surface integrins is their role in cell migration. Cells adhere to a substrate through their integrins. During movement, the cell makes new attachments to the substrate at its front and concurrently releases those at its rear. When released from the substrate, integrin molecules are taken back into the cell by endocytosis; they are transported through the cell to its front by the endocytic cycle where they are added back to the surface. In this way they are cycled for reuse, enabling the cell to make fresh attachments at its leading front. Signal transduction Integrins play an important role in cell signaling. Connection with ECM molecules can cause a signal to be relayed into the cell through protein kinases that are indirectly and temporarily connected with the intracellular end of the integrin molecule, likely following shape changes directly stimulated by ECM binding. The signals the cell receives through the integrin can have relation to: cell growth cell division cell survival cellular differentiation apoptosis (programmed cell death) Vertebrate integrins The following are some of the integrins found in vertebrates: Name Synonyms Distribution Ligands α1β1 Many Collagens, laminins. Molecular cell biology. Lodish, Harvey F. 5. ed. : - New York : W. H. Freeman and Co., 2003, 973 s. b ill. ISBN 0-7167-4366-3 α2β1 Many Collagens, laminins α4β1 VLA-4 Hematopoietic cells Fibronectin, VCAM-1 α5β1 fibronectin receptor widespread fibronectin and proteinases alpha-6 beta-1|α6β1 laminin receptor widespread matrix macromolecules laminins αLβ2 LFA-1 T-lymphocytes ICAM-1, ICAM-2 αMβ2 Mac-1, CR3 Neutrophils and monocytes Serum proteins, ICAM-1 αIIbβ3 Platelets fibrinogen, fibronectin αVβ3 vitronectin receptor activated endothelial cells, melanoma, glioblastoma vitronectin, fibronectin, fibrinogen, osteopontin, Cyr61 αVβ5 widespread, esp. fibroblasts, epithelial cells vitronectin and adenovirus alpha-v beta-6|αVβ6 proliferating epithelia, esp. lung and liver fibronectin; TGFβ1+3 α6β4 Epithelial cells Laminin Beta1 integrins interact with many alpha integrin chains. Gene knockouts of integrins in mice are not always lethal. It proves that during embryonal development, one integrin may substitute its function for another, to allow survival. Some integrins are on the cell surface in an inactive state, and can be rapidly primed, or put into a state capable of binding their ligands, by cytokines. Integrins can assume several different well defined shapes, or "conformational states". Once primed, the conformational state changes to stimulate ligand binding which then activates the receptors, also by inducing a shape change, to trigger outside-in signal transduction. Additional images References External links The Integrin Protein Talin substrate for calpain - PMAP The Proteolysis Map animation. | Integrin |@lemmatized integrins:37 receptor:7 mediate:2 attachment:8 cell:54 tissue:1 surround:1 may:6 extracellular:4 matrix:4 ecm:17 also:10 play:2 role:4 signaling:3 thereby:2 define:1 cellular:4 shape:8 mobility:1 regulate:3 cycle:3 typically:2 inform:1 molecule:11 environment:2 evoke:1 response:2 perform:1 outside:5 signalling:1 operate:1 inside:2 mode:1 thus:3 transduce:1 information:1 well:3 reveal:2 status:1 allow:3 rapid:1 flexible:1 change:9 example:4 blood:6 coagulation:1 platelet:9 many:14 type:2 integrin:24 multiple:1 surface:6 vital:2 importance:2 animal:2 find:4 investigate:2 sponge:1 mammal:2 extensively:1 study:2 human:1 work:2 alongside:1 protein:14 cadherins:1 adhesion:5 selectins:1 interaction:4 communication:1 structure:10 obligate:1 heterodimers:1 contain:3 two:7 distinct:1 chain:7 call:2 α:11 alpha:9 β:10 beta:8 subunits:2 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7,266 | Economy_of_Haiti | Haiti is the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere; however its potential for leaving its long-associated status is growing. Two-thirds of all Haitians depend on the agriculture sector, mainly small-scale subsistence farming, and remain vulnerable to damage from frequent natural disasters, exacerbated by the country's widespread deforestation. A macroeconomic program developed in 2005 with the help of the International Monetary Fund helped the economy grow 1.8% in 2006, the highest growth rate since 1999. Haiti suffers from higher inflation than similar low-income countries, a lack of investment (increasing however since the recent presidential seating), and a severe trade deficit. In 2005, Haiti paid its arrears to the World Bank, paving the way for reengagement with the Bank. The government relies on formal international economic assistance for fiscal sustainability. In 2006, Haiti held a successful donors conference in which the total aid pledged exceeded Haiti's request. Remittances are the primary source of foreign exchange, equaling nearly a quarter of GDP. CIA World Factbook, Haiti entry, accessed 5 Oct 2007. Economic history Since the demise of the Duvalier dictatorship in 1986, international economists have urged Haiti to reform and modernize its economy. Under President René Préval, the country's economic agenda included trade and tariff liberalization, measures to control government expenditure and increase tax revenues, civil service downsizing, financial sector reform, and the modernization of state-owned enterprises through their sale to private investors, the provision of private sector management contracts, or joint public-private investment. Structural adjustment agreements with the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, Inter-American Development Bank, and other international financial institutions are aimed at creating necessary conditions for private sector growth, have proved only partly successful. In the aftermath of the 1994 restoration of constitutional governance, Haitian officials have indicated their commitment to economic reform through the implementation of sound fiscal and monetary policies and the enactment of legislation mandating the modernization of state-owned enterprises. A council to guide the modernization program (CMEP) was established and a timetable was drawn up to modernize nine key parastatals. Although the state-owned flour mill and cement plants have been transferred to private owners, progress on the other seven parastatals has stalled. The modernization of Haiti's state-enterprises remains a controversial political issue in Haiti. External aid is essential to the future economic development of Haiti, the least-developed country in the Western Hemisphere. Comparative social and economic indicators show Haiti falling behind other low-income developing countries (particularly in the hemisphere) since the 1980s. Haiti's economic stagnation is the result of earlier inappropriate economic policies, political instability, a shortage of good arable land, environmental deterioration, continued use of traditional technologies, under-capitalization and lack of public investment in human resources, migration of large portions of the skilled population, and a weak national savings rate. Haiti continues to suffer the consequences of the 1991 coup and the irresponsible economic and financial policies of the de facto authorities greatly accelerated Haiti's economic decline. Following the coup, the United States adopted mandatory sanctions, and the OAS instituted voluntary sanctions aimed at restoring constitutional government. International sanctions culminated in the May 1994 United Nations embargo of all goods entering Haiti except humanitarian supplies, such as food and medicine. The assembly sector, heavily dependent on U.S. markets for its products, employed nearly 80,000 workers in the mid-1980s. During the embargo, employment fell from 33,000 workers in 1991 to 400 in October 1994. Private domestic and foreign investment has been slow to return to Haiti. Since the return of constitutional rule, assembly sector employment has gradually recovered with over 20,000 now employed, but further growth has been stalled by investor concerns over safety and supply reliability. If the political situation stabilizes, high crime levels wane, and new investment increases, tourism could take its place next to export-oriented manufacturing (the assembly sector) as a potential source of foreign exchange. Remittances from abroad now constitute a significant source of financial support for many Haitian households. Haiti's real GDP growth turned negative in FY 2001 after six years of growth. Real GDP fell by 1.1% in FY 2001 and 0.9% in FY 2002. Macroeconomic stability was adversely affected by political uncertainty, the collapse of informal banking cooperatives, high budget deficits, low investment, and reduced international capital flows, including suspension of IFI lending as Haiti fell into arrears with the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) and World Bank. Haiti's economy stabilized in 2003. Although FY 2003 began with the rapid decline of the gourde due to rumors that U.S. dollar deposit accounts would be nationalized and the withdrawal of fuel subsidies, the government successfully stabilized the gourde as it took the politically difficult decisions to float fuel prices freely according to world market prices and to raise interest rates. Government agreement with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) on a staff monitored program (SMP), followed by its payment of its $32 million arrears to the IDB in July, paved the way for renewed IDB lending. The IDB disbursed $35 million of a $50 million policy-based loan in July and began disbursing four previously approved project loans totaling $146 million. The IDB, IMF, and World Bank also discussed new lending with the government. Much of this would be contingent on government adherence to fiscal and monetary targets and policy reforms, such as those begun under the SMP, and Haiti's payment of its World Bank arrears ($30 million at 9/30/03). Haiti's total external debt is estimated at 1.4 billion dollars, including half a billion dollars to the Inter-American Development Bank, Haiti's largest creditor. In April, Haiti qualified for the IMF and World Bank debt relief initiative, but under the program, Haiti will not formally qualify for relief until 2009 at the earliest and will be contingent on Haiti's implementation of IMF and World Bank conditionalities. The initiative also excludes debt owed to the Inter-American Development Bank. The IMF estimates real GDP was flat in FY 2003 and projects 1% real GDP growth for FY 2004. However, GDP per capita-- $425 in FY 2002-- will continue to decline as population growth is estimated at 1.3% p.a. While implementation of governance reforms and peaceful resolution of the political stalemate are key to long-term growth, external support remains critical in avoiding economic collapse. The major element is foreign remittances, reported as $931 million in 2002, primarily from the U.S. Foreign assistance, meanwhile, was $130 million in FY 2002. Overall foreign assistance levels have declined since FY 1995, the year elected government was restored to power under a UN mandate, when over $600 million in aid was provided by the international community. Workers in Haiti are guaranteed the right of association. Unionization is protected by the labor code. A legal minimum wage of 36 gourdes a day (about U.S. $1.80) was set in 1995, and applies to most workers in the formal sector. It was later raised to 70 gourdes per day. Foreign economic relations and foreign aid The World Economic Forum ranked Haiti last in its 2003 Global Competitiveness Report. Thus, Haiti’s role in the global economy often has been confined to receiving foreign aid. The United States has been the leading donor to development in Haiti and plays a vital role in Haiti’s economy. Haiti maintains active membership in a variety of multinational economic organizations, including the International Coffee Organization, Latin American Economic System, and Caribbean Community and Common Market. Haiti also is a signatory to the Cotonou Convention--an economic community seeking to foster trade among African, Caribbean, and Pacific countries. Haitian imports totaled an estimated US$1.5 billion in 2005. About 35 percent of imports came from the United States. Other significant sources of imports that year included the Netherlands Antilles, Malaysia, and Colombia. Haiti’s primary import items are food, fuels (including oil), machinery, and manufactured goods. In 2005 Haiti’s exports totaled an estimated US$391 million. More than 80 percent of that revenue came from exports to the United States. Other major export partners in 2005 included the Dominican Republic and Canada. Assembled manufactures, coffee, edible oils, cocoa, and mangoes compose the majority of Haiti’s exports. Haiti annually has a large trade deficit. In 2005 the country had an estimated trade deficit of about US$1.1 billion. In 2003 Haiti’s balance of payments was negative US$4.6 million. Haiti’s large trade deficit is partially offset by transfers received, including international aid. Haiti’s total external debt surpasses US$1 billion. In 2005 it reached an estimated US$1.3 billion. Following the democratic election of Aristide in December 1990, many international creditors responded by canceling significant amounts of Haiti’s debt, bringing the total down to US$777 million in 1991. However, new borrowing during the 1990s swelled the debt to more than US$1 billion. Haiti has received very little foreign investment over the past 20 years. Development aid and loans have been the only consistent source of outside capital. In order to encourage foreign investment, in 2004 the interim government approved a three-year “tax holiday” for all foreign businesses that invest in Haiti. Between 1999 and 2004, Haiti’s foreign benefactors—the United States, the European Union, the Inter-American Development Bank and the World Bank—jointly suspended aid disbursements in response to evidence of systematic electoral fraud and the failure of the Haitian government to implement accountability measures. Aid was restored in July 2004 after an interim administration was named. Haiti was scheduled to receive more than US$1 billion in pledged aid for 2005 and 2006. The United States pledged US$230 million in aid through fiscal year 2006. Haiti has benefited from a solid economic partnership with Venezuela. This recently-forged friendship between Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez and Haitian president Rene Preval has resulted in various economic agreements. After a visit by Chavez in March 2007, Venezuela and Cuba announced a $1 Billion fund to develop energy, health, and infrastructure in Haiti. Industries Agriculture, forestry, and fishing Although many Haitians make their living through subsistence farming, Haiti also has an agricultural export sector. Agriculture, together with forestry and fishing, accounts for about one-quarter (28 percent in 2004) of Haiti’s annual gross domestic product and employs about two-thirds (66 percent in 2004) of the labor force. However, expansion has been difficult because mountains cover much of the countryside and limit the land available for cultivation. Of the total arable land of 550,000 hectares, 125,000 hectares are suited for irrigation, and of those only 75,000 hectares actually have been improved with irrigation. Haiti’s dominant cash crops include coffee, mangoes, and cocoa. Haiti has decreased its production of sugarcane, traditionally an important cash crop, because of declining prices and fierce international competition. Because Haiti’s forests have thinned dramatically, timber exports have declined. Roundwood removals annually total about 1,000 kilograms. Haiti also has a small fishing industry. Annual catches in recent years have totaled about 5,000 tons. Mining and minerals Haiti has a small mining industry, extracting minerals worth approximately US$13 million annually. Bauxite, copper, calcium carbonate, gold, and marble are the most extensively mined minerals in Haiti. Industry and manufacturing In 2004 industry accounted for about 20 percent of the gross domestic product (GDP), and less than 10 percent of the labor force worked in industrial production. As a portion of the GDP, the manufacturing sector has contracted since the 1980s. The United Nations embargo of 1994 put out of work most of the 80,000 workers in the assembly sector. Additionally, the years of military rule following the presidential coup in 1991 resulted in the closure of most of Haiti’s offshore assembly plants in the free zones surrounding Port-au-Prince. When President Aristide returned to Haiti, some improvements did occur in the manufacturing sector. Haiti’s cheap labor brought some textile and garment assembly work back to the island in the late 1990s. However, these gains ultimately were undercut by international competition. The leading industries in Haiti produce beverages, butter, cement, detergent, edible oils, flour, refined sugar, soap, and textiles. Growth in both manufacturing and industry as a whole has been slowed by a lack of capital investment. Grants from the United States and other countries have targeted this problem, but without much success. Private home building and construction appear to be one subsector with positive prospects for growth. Energy Haiti uses very little energy, about 250 kilograms of oil equivalent per head per year. In 2003 Haiti produced 546 million kilowatt-hours of electricity while consuming 508 million kilowatt-hours. Most of the country’s energy comes from burning wood. Haiti imports oil and consumes about 11,800 barrels per day, as of 2003. The Péligre Dam, the country’s largest, provides the capital city of Port-au-Prince with energy. Thermal plants provide electricity to the rest of the country. Traditionally, the supply of electricity has been sporadic and prone to shortages⎯even with the country’s low demand. Mismanagement by the state has offset more than US$100 million in foreign investment targeted at improving Haiti’s energy infrastructure. Businesses have resorted to securing back-up power sources to deal with the regular outages. The potential for greater hydropower exists, should Haiti have the desire and means to develop it. The government controls oil and gas prices, insulating Haitians, to an extent, from international price fluctuations. Services Haiti’s services sector made up 52 percent of the country’s gross domestic product in 2004 and employed 25 percent of the labor force. According to World Bank statistics, the services sector is one of the only sectors of Haiti’s economy that sustained steady, if modest, growth throughout the 1990s. Banking and finance Lack of a stable and trustworthy banking system has impeded Haiti’s economic development. Banks in Haiti have collapsed on a regular basis. Most Haitians do not have access to loans of any sort. When reelected in 2000, President Aristide promised to remedy this situation but instead introduced a non-sustainable plan of “cooperatives” that guaranteed investors a 10 percent rate of return. By 2000 the cooperatives had crumbled, and Haitians collectively had lost more than US$200 million in savings. Haiti’s central bank, the Banque de la République d’Haïti, oversees 10 commercial banks and two foreign banks operating in the country. Most banking takes place in the capital city of Port-au-Prince. The United Nations and the International Monetary Fund have led efforts to diversify and expand the finance sector, making credit more available to rural populations. In 2002 the Canadian International Development Agency led a training program for Haitian Credit Unions. Haiti has no stock exchange. Tourism Tourism in Haiti has suffered from the country’s political upheaval. Inadequate infrastructure also has limited visitors to the island. In the 1970s and 1980s, however, tourism was an important industry, drawing an average of 150,000 visitors annually. Following the 1991 coup, tourism has recovered slowly. The Caribbean Tourism Organization (CTO) has joined the Haitian government in efforts to restore the island’s image as a tourist destination. In 2001, 141,000 foreigners visited Haiti. Most came from the United States. Further improvements in hotels, restaurants, and other infrastructure still are needed to make tourism a major industry for Haiti. Labor force The labor force, as of 1995, was estimated at 3.6 million, but with a shortage of skilled labor. Sources: CIA World Factbooks, Agency for International Development Finding unemployment statistics from Haiti is very difficult because of the lack of publication of such data from the Haitian agencies in charge of collecting it. Most sources that we do have available come from United States agencies such as the Agency for International Development (USAID). These numbers are highly speculative; many sources give vague ideas of the unemployment rating being (for example, in 2003) around 50%, giving the impression that the actual rate could be several percentage points higher or lower. Still, given that the sources of this data has remained the same for the past 15 years, we can at least see a trend of unemployment staying high throughout this period, but rising sharply in the mid to late 90's peaking at 70% in 1999 (2000 CIA World Factbook is the source for that number), and then decreasing to the usual rates of around 50% in recent years. We do not currently have data for the years since the political turmoil that resulted from the foreign financing of elite civil society groups, ex-military intervention, and Bush administration backed embargo on government aid to Haiti. The 2004 Haiti coup d'État and years of foreign backed destabilization increased unemployment. One of Haiti's largest trade unions, Confederation des Travailleurs Haïtiens, continually opposed the destabilization campaign waged against Haiti's elected Jean-Bertrand Aristide government. Trade union leaders point out that following the coup the international community and the illegal Latortue government backed a neo-liberal privatization plan for Haiti which laid off thousands of public sector workers. The Preval government, like it did in 1996, is now promoting a mass privatization campaign. See also Haiti Haiti's external debt List of Haitian companies Freeport Tortuga Official website of the Confédération des travailleurs haitiens (CTH) Footnotes References Much of this article is based on public domain material from the U.S. government. See: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/1982.htm CIA World Factbook: Haiti Haiti Agriculture Inter-American Bank Grant To Benefit Haitian Coffee Growers Haitian Free Trade Zone IICA plants for Haiti's environment Defending Labor Rights in Haiti CTH Secretary General Paul Chery interviewed on the 2004 coup and labor issues HAITI: Pain at the Pump Spurs Strike Actions HAITI: Workers Protest Privatisation Layoffs External links Haiti's Economic Challenge U.S. Institute of Peace, July 2006 False H.O.P.E. for Haiti A critical look at the United States' H.O.P.E. bill | Economy_of_Haiti |@lemmatized haiti:88 poor:1 country:16 western:2 hemisphere:3 however:7 potential:3 leave:1 long:2 associate:1 status:1 grow:2 two:3 third:2 haitian:16 depend:1 agriculture:4 sector:17 mainly:1 small:3 scale:1 subsistence:2 farming:2 remain:4 vulnerable:1 damage:1 frequent:1 natural:1 disaster:1 exacerbate:1 widespread:1 deforestation:1 macroeconomic:2 program:5 develop:4 help:2 international:20 monetary:6 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7,267 | Demographics_of_the_Marshall_Islands | This article is about the demographic features of the population of the Marshall Islands, including population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population. The people of the Marshall Islands are of Micronesian origin, which is traced to a combination of peoples who emigrated from Southeast Asia in the remote past. The matrilineal Marshallese culture revolves around a complex system of clans and lineages tied to land ownership. Virtually all Marshallese are Christian, most of them Protestant (see Religion in the Marshall Islands). Other Christian denominations include Roman Catholicism, the Seventh-day Adventist Church, Latter-day Saints (Mormon), Salvation Army, and Jehovah's Witness. A small Bahá'í community also exists. Both Marshallese and English are official languages. Marshallese is spoken by most of the urban population. Both the Nitijela (parliament) and national radio use Marshallese. The public school system provides education through grade 12, although admission to secondary school is selective. The elementary program employs a bilingual/bicultural curriculum. English is introduced in the first grade. There is one post-secondary institution in the Marshall Islands -- the College of the Marshall Islands. CIA World Factbook demographic statistics Demographics of the Marshall Islands, Data of FAO, year 2005 ; Number of inhabitants in thousands. The following demographic statistics are from the CIA World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated. Population 68,126 (July 2000 est.) Age structure 0-14 years: 50% (male 17,204; female 16,521) 15-64 years: 48% (male 16,826; female 16,111) 65 years and over: 2% (male 693; female 771) (2000 est.) Population growth rate 2.25% (2006 est.) Birth rate 45.17 births/1,000 population (2000 est.) Death rate 6.4 deaths/1,000 population (2000 est.) Net migration rate 0 migrant(s)/1,000 population (2000 est.) Sex ratio at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 15-64 years: 1.04 male(s)/female 65 years and over: 0.9 male(s)/female total population: 1.04 male(s)/female (2000 est.) Infant mortality rate 40.95 deaths/1,000 live births (2000 est.) Life expectancy at birth total population: 65.5 years male: 63.72 years female: 67.36 years (2000 est.) Total fertility rate 6.61 children born/woman (2000 est.) Nationality noun: Marshallese (singular and plural) adjective: Marshallese Ethnic groups Micronesian Religions Christian (mostly Protestant) (see Religion in the Marshall Islands) Languages English (universally spoken and is the official language), two major Marshallese dialects from the Malayo-Polynesian family, Japanese Literacy definition: age 15 and over can read and write total population: 93% male: 100% female: 88% (1980 est.) 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7,268 | Anti-ballistic_missile | An anti-ballistic missile (ABM) is a missile designed to counter ballistic missiles (a missile for missile defense). A ballistic missile is used to deliver nuclear, chemical, biological or conventional warheads in a ballistic flight trajectory. The term "anti-ballistic missile" describes any antimissile system designed to counter ballistic missiles. However the term is more commonly used for ABM systems designed to counter long range, nuclear-armed Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Only two ABM systems have previously been operational against ICBMs, the U.S. Safeguard system, which utilized the LIM-49A Spartan and Sprint missiles, and the Russian A-35 anti-ballistic missile system which used the Galosh interceptor, each with a nuclear warhead themselves. Safeguard was only briefly operational; the Russian system has been improved and is still active, now called A-135 and using two missile types, Gorgon and Gazelle. However the U.S. Ground-Based Midcourse Defense (GMD, previously called NMD) system has recently reached initial operational capability. It does not have an explosive charge, but launches a . Three shorter range tactical ABM systems are currently operational: the U.S. Army Patriot, U.S. Navy Aegis combat system/Standard SM-3, and the Israeli Arrow. The longer-range U.S. Terminal High Altitude Area Defense system is scheduled for deployment in 2009. In general short-range tactical ABMs cannot intercept ICBMs, even if within range. The tactical ABM radar and performance characteristics do not allow it, as an incoming ICBM warhead moves much faster than a tactical missile warhead. However it is possible the higher performance Terminal High Altitude Area Defense missile could be upgraded to intercept ICBMs. Latest versions of the U.S. Hawk missile have a limited capability against tactical ballistic missiles, but is usually not described as an ABM. Similar claims have been made about the Russian long-range surface-to-air S-300 and S-400 series. For current US developments, see Missile Defense Agency. For other short-range missiles, see Sea Wolf, Aster 15 and Crotale missile. Early history of ABMs From World War II through the 1950s Launch of a Nike Zeus missile The idea of shooting down rockets before they can hit their target dates from the first use of modern missiles in warfare, the German V-1 and V-2 program of World War II. British fighters attempted to destroy V-1 "buzz bombs" in flight prior to impact, with some success, although concentrated barrages of heavy anti-aircraft artillery had greater success. The V-2, the first true ballistic missile, was impossible to destroy using aircraft or artillery. Instead, the Allies launched Operation Crossbow to find and destroy V-2s before launch. The operation was largely ineffective, as was a similar operation during the first Persian Gulf War nearly fifty years later against the V-2’s direct descendant, the Russian Scud missile. The V2s were eventually dealt with by the launch sites being over-run by the rapid advance of the Allied armies through Belgium and the Netherlands. The American armed forces began experimenting with anti-missile missiles shortly after World War II, as the extent of German research into rocketry became clear. But defenses against Soviet long-range bombers took priority until the later 1950s, when the Soviets began to test their missiles (most notably via the Sputnik launch in October 1957). The first experimental ABM system was the soviet V-1000 system (part of the experimental "A-35" ABM programme), closely followed by Nike Zeus, a modification of then-existing air defense systems. Nike Zeus proved unworkable, and so work proceeded with Nike X. Another avenue of research by the U.S. was the test explosions of several low yield nuclear weapons at very high altitudes over the southern Atlantic ocean, launched from ships. The devices used were the 1.7 kt boosted fission W25 warhead. Nuclear Weapon Archive.org. Argus. When such an explosion takes place a burst of X-rays are released that strike the Earth's atmosphere, causing secondary showers of charged particles over an area hundreds of miles across. The movement of these charged particles in the Earth’s magnetic field causes a powerful EMP which induces very large currents in any conductive material. The purpose was to determine how much the EMP would interfere with radar tracking and other communications and the level of destruction of electronic circuitry aboard missiles and satellites. The project's results are not known, although similar so-called 'effects tests' were a regular feature of underground tests at the Nevada Test Site up to 1992. These 'effects tests' are used to determine how resistant specific warheads, RVs and other components are to exoatmospheric ABM bursts. Other countries were also involved in early ABM research. A more advanced project was at CARDE in Canada, which researched the main problems of ABM systems. This included developing several advanced infrared detectors for terminal guidance, a number of missile airframe designs, a new and much more powerful solid rocket fuel, and numerous systems for testing it all. After a series of drastic budget cuts in the late 1950s the research wound down. One offshoot of the project was Gerald Bull’s system for inexpensive high-speed testing, consisting of missile airframes fired from a sabot round, which would later form the basis of Project HARP. Developments in the 1960s and 1970s Nike-X, Sentinel and Safeguard Dual launch of Sprint missiles during a salvo test at Meck island Nike X was a US system of two missiles, radars and their associated control systems. The original Nike Zeus (later called Spartan) was upgraded for longer range and a much larger 5 megatonne warhead intended to destroy warheads with a burst of x-rays outside the atmosphere. A second shorter-range missile called Sprint with very high acceleration was added to handle warheads that evaded longer-ranged Spartan. Sprint was a very fast missile (some sources claimed it accelerated to 8,000 mph (13 000 km/h) within 4 seconds of flight--an average acceleration of 100 g) and had a smaller W66 enhanced radiation warhead in the 1-3 kiloton range for in-atmosphere interceptions. The new Spartan changed the deployment plans as well. Previously the Nike systems were to have been clustered near cities as a last-ditch defense, but the Spartan allowed for interceptions at hundreds of miles range. Therefore the basing changed to provide almost complete coverage of the United States in a system known as Sentinel. When this proved infeasible for economic reasons, a much smaller deployment using the same systems was proposed, Safeguard. Safeguard protected only the US ICBM fields from attack, theoretically ensuring that an attack could be responded to with a US launch, an example of the mutually assured destruction principle. Moscow ABM system The first real and successful ABM hit-to-kill test was conducted by the Soviet PVO forces on March 1, 1961. An experimental V-1000 missile (part of the "A" ABM programme) launched from the Sary-Shagan test range, destroyed a dummy warhead released by a R-12 ballistic missile launched from the Kapustin Yar cosmodrome. The dummy warhead was destroyed by the impact of 18 thousand tungsten-carbide spherical impactors 140 seconds after launch, at an altitude of 25 km. The V-1000 missile system was nonetheless considered not reliable enough and abandoned in favor of nuclear-tipped ABMs. The only other ICBM ABM system to reach production was the Soviet A-35 system. It was initially a single-layer exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) design, using the Galosh (SH-01/ABM-1) interceptor. It was deployed at four sites around Moscow in the early 1970s. Originally intended to be a larger deployment, the system was downsized to the two sites allowed under the 1972 ABM treaty. It was upgraded in the 1980s to a two-layer system, the A-135. The Gorgon (SH-11/ABM-4) long-range missile was designed to handle intercepts outside the atmosphere, and the Gazelle (SH-08/ABM-3) short-range missile endoatmospheric intercepts that eluded Gorgon. ABM-3 was considered to be technologically equivalent to the United States Safeguard system of the 1970s. GlobalSecurity.org. -135 anti-ballistic missile system. The problem of defense against MIRVs Testing of the LGM-118A Peacekeeper re-entry vehicles, all eight fired from only one missile. Each line represents the path of a warhead which, were it live, would detonate with the explosive power of twenty-five Hiroshima-style weapons. ABM systems were initially developed to counter single warheads launched from large Intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). The economics seemed simple enough; since rocket costs increase rapidly with size, the price of the ICBM launching a large warhead should always be greater than the much smaller interceptor missile needed to shoot it down. In an arms race the defense would always win. Things changed dramatically with the introduction of Multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle (MIRV) warheads. Suddenly each launcher was throwing not one warhead, but several. The defense would still require a rocket for every warhead, as they would be re-entering over a wide space and could not be attacked by several warheads from a single antimissile rocket. Suddenly the defense was more expensive than offense; it was much less expensive to add more warheads, or even decoys, than it was to build the interceptor needed to shoot them down. The experimental success of Nike X persuaded the Lyndon B. Johnson administration to propose a thin ABM defense. In a September 1967 speech, Defense Secretary Robert McNamara described it as Sentinel. McNamara, a private ABM opponent because of cost and feasibility (see cost-exchange ratio), claimed that Sentinel would be directed not against the Soviet Union's missiles (since the USSR had more than enough missiles to overwhelm any American defense), but rather against the potential nuclear threat of the People's Republic of China. In the meantime a public debate over the merit of ABMs broke out. Even before the MIRV problem made ABM effectiveness non-workable in the late 1960s, some technical difficulties had already made an ABM system questionable for a large sophisticated attack. One problem was the Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (FOBS) that would give little warning to the defense. Another problem was high altitude EMP (whether from offensive or defensive nuclear warheads) which could degrade defensive radar systems. Technical difficulties aside, the debate turned to an odd position: that no defense at all was better than any defense. Namely, a false sense of security might encourage ABM-defended nations to escalate against minor threats, believing they would be protected against any response. By this reasoning simply starting to deploy such a system could prompt a full-scale attack before it could become operational and thereby render such an attack useless. This curious set of arguments thus put the system in a terrible position: it couldn't possibly work, but if it did that would be even worse. The Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty of 1972 Various technical, economic and political problems led to the ABM treaty of 1972, which restricted the deployment of strategic (not tactical) anti-ballistic missiles. Under the ABM treaty and a 1974 revision, each country was allowed to deploy a single ABM system with only 100 interceptors to protect a single target. The Soviets deployed a system named A-35 (using Galosh interceptors), designed to protect Moscow. The U.S. deployed Safeguard (using Spartan/Sprint interceptors) to defend ballistic missile sites at Grand Forks Air Force Base, North Dakota, in 1975. The U.S. Safeguard system was only briefly operational. The Russian system (now called A-135) has been improved and is still active around Moscow. On June 13, 2002, the United States withdrew from the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty and subsequently recommenced developing missile defense systems that would have formerly been prohibited by the bilateral treaty. This action was taken under the auspices of needing to defend against the possibility of a missile attack conducted by a rogue state. ABM developments in the 1980s and Persian Gulf War The Reagan-era Strategic Defense Initiative (often referred to as "Star Wars"), along with research into various energy-beam weaponry, brought new interest in the area of ABM technologies. SDI was an extremely ambitious program to provide a total shield against a massive Soviet ICBM attack. The initial concept envisioned large sophisticated orbiting laser battle stations, space-based relay mirrors, and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites. Later research indicated that some planned technologies such as X-ray Lasers were not feasible with then-current technology. As research continued, SDI evolved through various concepts as designers struggled with the difficulty of such a large complex defense system. SDI remained a research program and was never deployed. However several SDI technologies were used in follow on ABM systems. The Patriot antiaircraft missiles was the first deployed tactical ABM system, although it was not designed from the outset for that task and consequently had limitations. It was used in the 1991 Gulf War to attempt to intercept Iraqi Scud missiles. Post-war analyses show that the Patriot was much less effective than initially thought because of its radar and control system's inability to discriminate warheads from other objects when the Scud missiles broke up during reentry. Post Gulf War ABM developments in the 1990s Tactical ABMs deployed Developed in the late 1990s, the Lightweight Exo-Atmospheric Projectile attaches to a modified SM-2 Block IV missile used by the U.S. Navy Testing of ABMs and ABM technology continued through the 1990s with mixed success. However, following the Gulf War, improvements were made to several U.S. air defense systems. Patriot PAC-3 was developed and tested following the Gulf War. The PAC-3 is a complete redesign of the system deployed during the war, including a totally new missile. The improved guidance, radar and missile performance improves the probability of kill over the earlier PAC-2. In operation Iraqi Freedom, Patriot PAC-3s had a nearly 100% success rate against Iraqi TBMs fired. However since no longer range Iraqi Scud missiles were fired, PAC-3 effectiveness against those was untested. Patriot was involved in three friendly fire incidents: two incidents of Patriot firings at coalition aircraft and one of U.S. aircraft firing on a Patriot battery. Defense Science Board Task Force. Patriot system performance - report summary. (PDF) January 2005. From 1992 to 2000 a demonstration system for the US Army Terminal High Altitude Area Defense was deployed at White Sands Missile Range. Tests were conducted on a regular basis and resulted in early failures, but successful intercepts occurred in 1999. A new version of the Hawk missile was tested in the early to mid 90’s and by the end of 1998 the majority of US Marine Corps Hawk systems were modified to support basic theater anti-ballistic missile capabilities. FAS. Hawk. Following the Gulf war, the Aegis combat system was expanded to include ABM capabilities. The Standard missile system was also enhanced and tested for ballistic missile interception. In the late 90’s SM-2 block IVA missiles were tested in a theater ballistic missile defense role. http://www.fas.org/spp/starwars/program/sm2.htm Standard Missile 3 (SM-3) systems have also been tested for an ABM role. In 2008 an SM-3 missile launched from a Ticonderoga-class cruiser, the USS Lake Erie, successfully intercepted a non-functioning satellite. In 1998, Defense secretary William Cohen proposed spending an additional $6.6 billion on ballistic missile defense programs to build a system to protect against attacks from North Korea or accidental launches from Russia or China. PBS. The NewsHour with Jim Lehrer. A VIABLE DEFENSE?. January 28, 1999. The Israeli Arrow system was initially tested in 1990, before the first Gulf War. The Arrow was supported by the United States throughout the nineties. Brilliant Pebbles Approved for acquisition by the Pentagon in 1991 but never realized, Brilliant Pebbles was a proposed space-based anti-ballistic system that tried to avoid some of the problems of the earlier SDI concepts. Rather than use sophisticated large laser battle stations and nuclear-pumped X-ray laser satellites, Brilliant Pebbles consisted of a thousand very small, highly intelligent orbiting satellites with kinetic warheads. The system relied on advances in computer technology, avoided problems with overly centralized command and control and risky, expensive development of large, complicated space defense satellites. It promised to be much less expensive to develop and have less technical development risk. The name Brilliant Pebbles comes from the small size of the satellite interceptors and great computational power enabling more autonomous targeting. Rather than rely exclusively on ground-based control, the many small interceptors would cooperatively communicate among themselves and target a large swarm of ICBM warheads in space or in the late boost phase. Development was later discontinued in favor of a limited ground-based defense. SDI changed to NMD In the early 1990s, President George H. W. Bush called for a more limited version using rocket-launched interceptors based on the ground at a single site. In 1993, SDI was reorganized as the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. Deployment of the more limited system, called the National Missile Defense (NMD) was planned to protect all 50 states from a rogue missile attack. Research and development of the NMD system continued under the Clinton administration from 1992 to 2000. Countries with ABM capability India India's Advanced Air Defense (AAD) interceptor missile India has an active ABM development effort using indigenously developed and integrated radars and locally designed missiles. [http://www.defensenews.com/aero/story.php?id=2524130 Interview: Vijay Kumar Saraswat Chief Controller of Research and Development, India’s DRDO] In November 2006, India successfully conducted the PADE (Prithvi Air Defence Exercise) in which an Anti-ballistic missile, called the Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) an Exoatmospheric (outside the atmosphere) interceptor system intercepted a Prithvi-II ballistic missile. The PAD missile has the secondary stage of the Prithvi missile and can reach altitude of 80 km. During the test the target missile was intercepted at an 50 km altitude. [http://mod.nic.in/samachar/dec15-06/h1.htm Prithvi Mission Milestone in Missile Defence]. India became the fourth nation in the world to acquire such a capability and the third nation to develop it through indigenous effort. Outlook India. India develops new anti-missile system. November 27, 2006. On 6 December 2007 the Advanced Air Defence (AAD) missile system was tested successfully. INDIA successfully conducts interceptor supersonic missile test This missile is an Endo atmospheric interceptor with an altitude of 30 km. According to scientist V K Saraswat of DRDO the missiles will work in tandem to ensure a hit probability of 99.8 percent. India on way to joining exclusive BMD club Induction of the system into services is expected to be in 2010. Two new anti ballistic missiles that can intercept IRBM/ICBMs are being developed. These high speed missiles (AD-1 and AD-2) are being developed to intercept ballistic missiles with the range of 5000 km. India to develop high speed interceptors On March 6 2009 India successfully tested an indigenous interceptor missile that destroyed an incoming "enemy" ballistic missile at an altitude of 80 km. A Dhanush missile was launced from a ship about 100 km from the coast. It rose to a height of 120 km and as it began its downward trajectory, the interceptor was launced and successfully achieved a kill. India successfully tests indigenous interceptor missle India also has Russian S300PMU-2 as well as an indeginous nuclear tipped surface to air missile, Akash Missile which also acts as an Anti Ballistic Missile Israel An Arrow anti-ballistic missile interceptor The Arrow project got underway after the U.S. and Israel agreed to co-fund it on May 6, 1986. Israeli-United States Relations . The Arrow ABM system was designed and constructed in Israel with financial support by the United States in a multi-billion dollar development program called "Minhelet Homa" with the participation of companies like Israel Military Industries, Tadiran and Israel Aerospace Industries. In 1998 the Israeli military conducted a successful test of their Arrow ABM. Designed to intercept incoming missiles travelling at up to 2 mile/s (3 km/s), the Arrow is expected to perform much better than the Patriot did in the Gulf War. On July 29, 2004 Israel and the United States carried out joint experiment in the USA, in which the Arrow was launched against a real Scud missile. The experiment was a success, as the Arrow destroyed the Scud with a direct hit. In December 2005 the system was successfully deployed in a test against a replicated Shahab-3 missile. This feat was repeated on February 11, 2007. BBC NEWS | World | Middle East | Israeli missile test 'successful' Russia S-300PMU-2 vehicles. From left to right: 64N6E2 detection radar, 54K6E2 command post and 5P85 TEL. Apart from the Moscow ABM deployment during the Cold War, Russia has actively striven for intrinsic ABM capabilities in its late model SAM systems. Russian ABM capable systems include the following: S-300P (SA-10) S-300V (SA-12) S-300PMU-1/2 (SA-20) S-400 (SA-21) S-500 „Самодержец” ABM-1 Galosh GlobalSystems: ABM-1 Russian Anti-Ballistic Guided Missile Systems ABM-3 Gazelle Wonderland.org: ABM-3 ABM-4 Gorgon Wonderland.org: ABM-4 United States In several tests, the U.S. military have demonstrated the feasibility of shooting down long and short range ballistic missiles. Combat effectiveness of newer systems against tactical ballistic missiles seems very high, as the Patriot PAC-3 had a 100% success rate in Operation Iraqi Freedom GlobalSecurity.org: Operation Iraqi Freedom - Patriot . However NMD real-world effectiveness against longer range ICBMs is less clear because they are much faster and a single warhead much harder to hit. Furthermore, warheads are likely to be accompanied by sophisticated penetration aids that are difficult to defeat. While the Reagan era Strategic Defense Initiative was intended to shield against a massive Soviet attack, the current National Missile Defense has the more limited goal of shielding against a limited attack by a rogue state. The George W. Bush administration accelerated development and deployment of a system proposed in 1998 by the Clinton administration. The system is a dual purpose test and interception facility in Alaska, and as of 2006 is operational with a few interceptor missiles. The Alaska site provides more protection against North Korean missiles or accidental launches from Russia or China, but is likely less effective against missiles launched from the Middle East. The Alaska interceptors may be later augmented by the naval Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System, by ground-based missiles in other locations, or by the Boeing Airborne Laser. President George W. Bush referenced the September 11, 2001 Terrorist Attacks and the proliferation of ballistic missiles as reasons for missile defense. ABM development European front In 1993, a symposium was held by western European nations to explore potential future ballistic missile defence programs. In the end, the council recommended deployment of early warning and surveillance systems as well as regionally controlled defence systems. Assembly of the Western European Union. Technological and Aerospace Committee. Lenzer. via FAS.Anti-missile defence for Europe - guidelines drawn from the symposium. 17 May, 1993. In Spring 2006 reports about negotiations between the United States and Poland as well as the Czech Republic were published. The plans propose the installation of a latest generation ABM system with a radar site in the Czech Republic and the launch site in Poland. The system was announced to be aimed against ICBMs from Iran and North Korea. This led to harsh comments by then-Russia's President Vladimir Putin at the OSCE security conference in spring 2007 in Munich. Other European ministers commented that any change in strategic weapons should be negotiated on NATO level and not 'unilaterally' between the US and other states (although most strategic arms reduction treaties were between the USSR and US, not NATO). German foreign minister Frank-Walter Steinmeier expressed severe concerns about the way in which Washington had conveyed its plans to its European partners and criticised the US administration for not having consulted Russia prior to announcing its endeavours to deploy a new missile defence system in Central Europe – a criticism that was soon proven to be largely groundless, as the US had repeatedly informed Russia about its plans. Gaspers, J. (2007). A US Missile Defence Shield in Europe? Opinions and Arguments in the German Political Debate. Natolin Analyses 7(20)/2007. As of July 2007, a majority of Poles were opposed to hosting a component of the system in Poland. As noted above, Russia has operated its nuclear tipped Moscow ABM system in Europe since the 1970s. CDI Russia weekly. Pavel Felgenhauer. New PR for an Old Missile. December 14, 2004. See also National missile defense#Recent developments. People's Republic of China Project 640 had been the PRC's indigenous effort to develop ABM capability. http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp The Academy of Anti-Ballistic Missile & Anti-Satellite was set up from 1969 for the purpose of developing Project 640 http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp . The project was to involve at least three elements, including the necessary sensors and guidance/command systems, the Fan Ji (FJ) missile interceptor, and the XianFeng missile-intercepting cannon. http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp The FJ-1 had completed two successful flight tests in 1979, while the low altitude interceptor FJ-2 completed some successful flight tests using scaled prototypes.{ http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp A high altitude FJ-3 interceptor was also proposed. Despite the development of missiles, the programme was cancelled due to financial and political reasons. http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/project640.asp However, technology and experience from the recent successful anti-satellite test using a ground-launched interceptor may be applied to ABM efforts. http://www.sinodefence.com/special/airdefence/fortress-china4.asp http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=defense&id=news/CHINA040809.xml&headline=China%20adds%20precision%20strike%20to%20capabilities In addition, China has acquired and is licence-producing the S-300PMU-2/S-300PMU-1 series of ABM-capable SAMs. China also has indigenous HQ-9 SAM system, which has some ABM capability. http://www.sinodefence.com/army/surfacetoairmissile/hongqi9.asp The Chinese-Russian developed HQ-19 also has ABM capability. China has now developed advanced anti-ballistic missiles and anti-satellite missiles, including the KT-1, KT-409, KT-2, KT-2A, KT-III, and other KT upgrades. China also possesses many advanced AEGIS-style destroyers, including the Type 052C Destroyer and Type 051C Destroyer. These are comparable (if not superior) to the AEGIS destroyer, Republic of China Republic of China is also engaged in the development of an anti-ballistic missile system, based on its indigenously developed Tien Kung-II (Sky Bow) SAM system. Although reports suggest a promising system, the ROC government continues to show strong interest towards the American Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD) program. Japan Since 1998, when North Korea fired a Taepodong-1 missile over northern Japan, they have been jointly developing a new Surface-to-air interceptor known as the Patriot Advanced Capability 3 (PAC-3) with the US. So far tests have been successful, and there are planned 11 locations that the PAC-3 will be installed. A military spokesman BBC News World article said that tests had been done on two sites, one of them a business park in central Tokyo, and Ichigaya — a site not far from the Imperial Palace. Along with the PAC-3, Japan has installed a US-developed ship-based anti-ballistic missile system, which was successfully tested on December 18, 2007. The missile was fired from a Japanese warship, in partnership with the US Missile Defense Agency and shot down a mock target fired from the coast. Footnotes Center for Defense Information - http://www.cdi.org/ See also National Missile Defense nuclear disarmament nuclear proliferation nuclear warfare atmospheric reentry Terminal High Altitude Area Defense Aegis Ballistic Missile Defense System Sprint (missile) Spartan (missile) Safeguard/Sentinel ABM system Multiple Kill Vehicle External links Video of the Endo-Atmospheric Interceptor missile system test by India Video of the Exo-Atmospheric interceptor missile system test by India The Center for Defense Information has many resources on ABMs and NMD. The Federation of American Scientists, as usual, is a wonderful resource for technical data, full-text of key documents, and analysis. MissileThreat.com, a listing and descriptions of ABM systems around the world. The unofficial website of the Stanley R. Mickelson Safeguard complex contains relevant images and history of the Safeguard program. 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7,269 | Minnesota_Vikings | The Minnesota Vikings are a professional American football team based out of Minneapolis, Minnesota. The Vikings compete in the North Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). Prior to divisional realignment in 2002, they had been a member of the Central Division, also known as the Black & Blue Division. The Vikings have won one NFL championship (Pre-1970 AFL-NFL Merger), but subsequently lost 23-7 to the Kansas City Chiefs in Super Bowl IV. The Vikings were the first team to both play in and lose four Super Bowls. The Vikings have won their division 17 times, third most among teams currently playing in the NFL. The club was founded in 1961 after the ownership group withdrew membership to the American Football League and agreed to join the NFL as an expansion team. The team played home games at Metropolitan Stadium through the 1981 NFL season and have played their home games at Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome (the home of the American League baseball team Minnesota Twins) since 1982. Franchise history Pro football in the Twin Cities began with the Minneapolis Marines/Red Jackets, an NFL team that played intermittently in the 1920s-30s. However, a new professional team in the area did not surface again until August 1959, when three Minneapolis businessmen Bill Boyer, H. P. Skoglund and Max Winter were awarded a franchise in the new American Football League. Five months later in January 1960, the ownership group along with Bernie Ridder forfeited its AFL membership and then was awarded the National Football League's 14th franchise with play to begin in 1961. Ole Haugsrud was added to the NFL team ownership because of an agreement he had with the NFL since the 1920s when he sold his Duluth Eskimos team back to the league. The agreement allowed him 10% of any future Minnesota team. Primary team logo from 1961 to 1965 The team was officially named the Minnesota Vikings on September 27, 1960; the name is partly meant to reflect Minnesota's place as a center of Scandinavian American culture. From the start, the Vikings embraced an energetic marketing program that produced a first-year season ticket sales of nearly 26,000 and an average home attendance of 34,586, about 85 percent of the capacity of 40,800 for Metropolitan Stadium. Eventually Met Stadium capacity was increased to 47,900. The search for the first head coach had the team court then-Northwestern University head coach Ara Parseghian, who according to Minneapolis Star writer Jim Klobuchar -- the Vikings' first beat reporter for that newspaper -- visited team management in the Twin Cities under the condition that his visit was to be kept secret from his current employer. His cover was blown by local columnist Sid Hartman who reported the visit and forced Parseghian to issue denials. Philadelphia Eagles assistant Nick Skorich and a man with Minnesota ties who was working in the CFL, Bud Grant, were also candidates until a different Eagle, quarterback Norm Van Brocklin, was hired early in 1961. Van Brocklin had just finished his career as a player on a high note, having defeated the Green Bay Packers in the 1960 NFL championship. With the first overall selection in the 1961 NFL draft, the Vikings selected running back Tommy Mason of Tulane. They took a young quarterback from the University of Georgia named Fran Tarkenton in the third round. Notable veterans acquired in the offseason were Norm Snead and Hugh McElhenny. The Vikings won their first regular season game, defeating the Chicago Bears 37-13 on Opening Day . Tarkenton came off the bench to throw four touchdown passes and run for another to lead the upset. Reality set in as the expansion team lost its next seven games on their way to a 3-11 record. On March 7, 1967, quarterback Fran Tarkenton was traded to the New York Giants for a 1st and 2nd-round choice in 1967, a 1st-round choice in 1968 and a 2nd-round choice in 1969. With the picks Minnesota selected Clinton Jones and Bob Grim in 1967, Ron Yary in 1968 and Ed White in 1969. Three days later on March 10, the Vikings hired new head coach Bud Grant to replace Van Brocklin, who resigned following the 1966 NFL season. Grant came to the Vikings from the Canadian Football League as head coach for the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, who he led to four Grey Cup Championships in 10 years. During the late 1960s, the Vikings were building a powerful defense known as the Purple People Eaters, led by Alan Page, Carl Eller, Gary Larsen, and Jim Marshall. In , that stingy defense earned the Vikings their first Central Division Title and their first playoff berth. In the Vikings went 12–2, the best record in the NFL. The team had 12 straight victories, the longest single-season winning streak in 35 years. The Vikings defeated the Cleveland Browns, 27–7, in the NFL Championship Game on Jan. 4, 1970, at Metropolitan Stadium. Minnesota became the first modern NFL expansion team to win an NFL Championship Game, and earned a berth in Super Bowl IV. The heavily favored Vikings lost that game to the Kansas City Chiefs 23-7. 1970s The team continued to shine in and as their "Purple People Eater" defense led them back to the playoffs. In 1971 the defense was impressive enough that Alan Page won the NFL Most Valuable Player Award given by the Associated Press. He was the first defensive player to win the award. In the Vikings traded Norm Snead, Bob Grim, Vince Clements and a 1st-round draft choice in 1972 and 1973 to the New York Giants to reacquire the popular Tarkenton. While the acquisitions of Fran Tarkenton and wide receiver John Gilliam improved the passing attack, the running game was inconsistent and the Vikings finished with a disappointing 7-7 record. The Vikings addressed the problem by drafting running back Chuck Foreman with their first pick in the 1973 draft. Co-owner Bill Boyer died in 1972 and was replaced on the team's board of directors by his son-in-law Jack Steele. The Vikings won their first 9 games of and finished the season with a 12-2 record. The Vikings then advanced to their second Super Bowl in franchise history, Super Bowl VIII, against the Miami Dolphins at Rice Stadium in Houston, Texas. However, the Dolphins prevailed, 24-7. The Vikings won the Central Division again in with a 10–4 record, which was a tie for the best record in the conference. In the playoffs they built on their cold weather reputation, defeating both the St. Louis Cardinals 30–14 and the Los Angeles Rams 14–10 in frozen Metropolitan Stadium. The Vikings played in their second straight Super Bowl, Super Bowl IX (3rd overall), losing to the Pittsburgh Steelers, 16–6, at Tulane Stadium in New Orleans on January 12, 1975. In , the Vikings, led by Tarkenton and running back Chuck Foreman, got off to a 10-0 start and easily won another division title. However, the Vikings lost to the Dallas Cowboys in the playoffs, 17–14, on a controversial touchdown pass from the Cowboys' quarterback Roger Staubach to wide receiver Drew Pearson that became known as the Hail Mary. The touchdown was controversial because many felt that Pearson pushed off on Vikings defensive back Nate Wright, which is pass interference, a violation of the rules. As the Metropolitan Stadium crowd was stunned to learn that no penalty was called, debris was thrown on the field for several minutes. One bottle struck a game official, rendering him unconscious. The Vikings played in Super Bowl XI, their third Super Bowl (4th overall) in 4 years, against the Oakland Raiders at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California,on January 9, 1977. The Vikings, however, couldn't break their bad luck in the Super Bowl. Minnesota lost, 32–14. In , the Vikings again won the Central Division with a 9-5 record and advanced to their 4th NFC Championship Game in 5 years, but were defeated by the eventual Super Bowl Champion Cowboys, 23–6, at Texas Stadium. By , age was taking its toll on the Vikings, but they still made the playoffs with an 8–7–1 record. There was no more playoff magic as the Rams finally defeated the Vikings, 34-10 in Los Angeles. Quarterback Fran Tarkenton retired following the season holding league passer records in attempts (6,467), completions (3,686), yards (47,003), and touchdowns (342). In December, 1979, ground is broken for construction of the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome in downtown Minneapolis. 1980s On May 15, 1981, the Vikings moved into a new facility in suburban Eden Prairie that houses the team's offices, locker room and practice fields. The complex was named "Winter Park" after Max Winter, one of the Vikings' founders, who served as the team's president from 1965 to 1987. The Vikings played their final game at Metropolitan Stadium on December 20th to conclude the 1981 NFL season by losing to the Kansas City Chiefs, 10–6. A Vikings game at the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome from August, 1999 The Vikings played their first game at the Metrodome in a preseason matchup against the Seattle Seahawks on August 21, 1982 in a game Minnesota won, 7–3. The first touchdown in the new facility was scored by Joe Senser on an 11 yard pass from Tommy Kramer. The first regular-season game in the Metrodome was the 1982 opener on September 12, when the Vikings defeated Tampa Bay, 17–10. Rickey Young scored the first regular-season touchdown in the facility on a 3 yard run in the 2nd quarter. On January 27, 1984, Bud Grant retired as head coach of the Vikings. With a career regular-season record of 151–87–5 (.632) in 17 seasons with Minnesota, Grant led the franchise to 12 playoff appearances, 11 division titles, and four Super Bowls. Les Steckel, who was an offensive assistant with the Vikings for 5 seasons, was then named the 3rd head coach in franchise history. Steckel, who came to the Vikings in 1979 after working as an assistant with the 49ers, was the youngest head coach in the NFL in 1984 at age 38. However, the Vikings lost a franchise-worst 13 games. After the season Steckel was fired, and on December 18, 1984, Bud Grant was rehired as the head coach of the Vikings. On January 6, 1986, following the 1985 season, Bud Grant re-retired as head coach of the Vikings. At the time of his retirement he was the 6th winningest coach in NFL history with 168 career wins, including playoffs. In 18 seasons, he led the Vikings to a 158–96–5 regular season record. Longtime Vikings assistant coach Jerry Burns was named the 4th head coach in team history on January 7, 1986. He served as the Vikings' offensive coordinator from 1968–85, when the team won 11 division titles and played in 4 Super Bowls. In his first season, the Vikings led by the NFL Comeback Player of the Year Tommy Kramer, went 9-7, their first winning record in 4 years. On August 2, 1986, Fran Tarkenton was the first player who played the majority of his career with the Vikings, to be inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame. Following the strike-shortened 1987 season, the 8-7 Vikings --- who had finished 8–4 in regular games but 0-3 using strike-replacement players --- pulled two upsets in the playoffs by beating the two teams with the best regular season records. They beat the 12–3 New Orleans Saints, 44–10, at the Louisiana Superdome in the Wild Card Playoff game. The following week, in the Divisional Playoff game, they beat the 13–2 San Francisco 49ers, 36-24;, at Candlestick Park. During that game Anthony Carter set the all-time record for most receiving yards in a playoff game with 227 yards. The Vikings played the Washington Redskins in the NFC Championship Game on January 17, 1988, at RFK Stadium. Trailing 17–10, the Vikings drove to the Redskins' six yard line with a little over a minute left in the game but failed to get the ball into the end zone. Darren Nelson dropped a pass from Wade Wilson at the goal line to officially end the Vikings' hopes of a Super Bowl. The Vikings would make what would be considered its biggest personnel blunder in team history. On October 12, 1989, the Vikings acquired Herschel Walker from Dallas. The final result of the trade gave the Vikings Walker, a 3rd round choice Mike Jones, a 5th round choice Reggie Thornton and 10th-round choice Pat Newman in 1990 and a 3rd-round choice in 1991 Jake Reed, while Dallas received Issiac Holt, David Howard, Darrin Nelson, Jesse Solomon, Alex Stewart, a 1st, 2nd and 6th-round choice in 1990, a 1st and 2nd-round choice in 1991 and a 1st, 2nd and 3rd-round choice in 1992. Two of those selections turned into Emmitt Smith and Darren Woodson. Herschel's performance fell short of expectations in his 3 seasons with the Vikings, while the Cowboys rode their draft picks to 3 Super Bowl victories in the early to mid 1990s. 1990s On December 3, 1991, Jerry Burns announced his retirement. In 6 seasons as Head Coach of the Vikings, Burns compiled a career record of 52–43 (.547). He also led Minnesota to 3 playoff appearances, including a division title and an NFC Championship Game. Dennis Green was later named the 5th Head Coach in team history. He came to Minnesota after turning around a struggling Stanford University football program as head coach from 1989–91. In his 10 seasons as the coach of the Vikings, Green won 4 NFC Central division titles, had 8 playoff appearances, 2 NFC Championship game appearances and an all-time record of 97–62. 1998 was a year to remember for the franchise. With a spectacular offense led by quarterback Brad Johnson, who after being injured was replaced by Randall Cunningham, who had his best NFL season, running back Robert Smith, veteran wide receiver Cris Carter, and explosive rookie Randy Moss, the Vikings set a then-NFL record by scoring a total of 556 points, never scoring fewer than 24 in a game. The record was later broken by the 2007 New England Patriots, a team of which, not coincidentally, Randy Moss was also a member. The Vikings finished the season 15–1, their only loss by 3 points to the Tampa Bay Buccaneers in week nine. In the playoffs, the Vikings rolled past the Arizona Cardinals 41–21, and came into the Metrodome heavily favored for their NFC title showdown with the Atlanta Falcons, which lost only one game more than the Vikings, at 14-2. However, kicker Gary Anderson, who had just completed the first perfect regular season in NFL history (not missing a single extra point or field goal attempt the entire year), missed a 38 yard attempt with less than 2 minutes remaining. That allowed the Falcons to tie the game. Though the Vikings won the coin toss, Atlanta went on to win it 30–27 in overtime on Morten Andersen's field goal, which was, coincidentally, also a 38-yarder. The Vikings became the first 15–1 team to fail to reach the Super Bowl (in this case, it was Super Bowl XXXIII). The Falcons lost Super Bowl XXXIII to John Elway and the Denver Broncos. Cunningham resumed duties again in 1999, but after a lukewarm 2–4 start, Jeff George was given the starting job. He finished the season with an 8–2 record, and led the Vikings into the postseason once again, with an overall team record of 10–6. Minnesota beat Dallas in the Wild Card game 27–10, and faced playoff newcomer Kurt Warner and the St. Louis Rams in the Divisional matchup. The game was a shootout which Minnesota led 17–14 at halftime, but the Rams outscored Minnesota 35–20 in the second half to win 49–37. St. Louis would go on to win Super Bowl XXXIV. 2000s In 2000, the Vikings went 11–5. The Vikings were 11–2 after 14 weeks, but slumped briefly, losing their last three to the Rams, Packers and Colts while starting quarterback Daunte Culpepper was hampered by injury. Nonetheless, the Vikings made the playoffs for the fifth straight year. After easily beating the Saints in the Divisional game 34–16, they went to New York to face the New York Giants in the NFC Championship Game. Though they were the road team, the Vikings were actually favored to win the game (since most considered their 12–2 record with Culpepper more indicative than their 0–3 record when he was out). But the Vikings were humiliated by the Giants 41–0, the worst loss in franchise history. 2000 Minnesota Vikings Statistics & Players - Pro-Football-Reference.com Robert Smith, who ran for a team record (and NFL best) 1521 yards that season, retired at the end of the year after only playing eight NFL seasons. ESPN.com - NFL - Vikings' Smith surprises with retirement 2001–2005 In 2001, after a disappointing 5–11 season, the Vikings bought out the contract of Dennis Green, despite his successful coaching tenure with the team. Mike Tice coached the final game of 2001, losing to the Ravens. ESPN.com - Green, Vikings agree to buyout Tice was named the permanent coach after the season, but he would not lead the Vikings back to the playoffs until 2004. During the 2003 season, the Vikings came close to getting into the playoffs. However, the Arizona Cardinals completed a game winning touchdown with 0:00 left knocking the Vikings out of the playoffs. The moment of Arizona's touchdown was actually the first moment the entire season in which the Vikings hadn't led their division. The Vikings became the second team in football history to miss the playoffs after getting off to a 6-0 start; the other was the Washington Redskins. In 2004, Daunte Culpepper amassed MVP-like statistics, throwing for 4,717 passing yards (leading the NFL), 39 passing touchdowns (a Viking record), and 5,123 total yards (an NFL record). In the wild card game, the Vikings defeated the rival Green Bay Packers in their first-ever playoff meeting, 31-17. 2004 Minnesota Vikings Statistics & Players - Pro-Football-Reference.com In doing so, the Vikings became the second team in NFL history to have a .500 record (8-8) in the regular season and win a playoff game (The St. Louis Rams did the same thing only a day earlier). In the divisional round, the Vikings were defeated by the eventual NFC champion Philadelphia Eagles. ESPN - Eagles outplay self-destructing Vikings - NFL Football Recap On March 2, 2005, Vikings wide receiver Randy Moss was traded to the Oakland Raiders for linebacker Napoleon Harris and the Raiders' first round draft pick. After struggling to a disappointing 2–5 start to the 2005 season, Vikings lost quarterback Daunte Culpepper to a season ending knee injury. This injury was a very significant part to this Minnesota Vikings team due to the fact they also lost Randy Moss. The dynamic duo from years earlier were now lost and a new leader would eventually emerge. The Vikings finished the 2005 season with a 9–7 record, one win away from the playoffs. Head Coach Mike Tice was let go after the 2005 season and was replaced by Brad Childress. This was one of many significant front office moves made by the new ownership team, led by Zygi Wilf. 2006–present The Vikings 2007 opener at the HHH Metrodome Minnesota began the 2006 season 4-2 (and Childress becoming the first coach in Vikings history to start 2–0 in his first year), but would finish the year at 6–10, tying for the 7th worst record in the NFL and receiving the 7th pick in the NFL Draft; with it, the Vikings selected Adrian Peterson out of the University of Oklahoma. Peterson's first career TD was a 60 yard screen pass in his first career game against the Atlanta Falcons. When the Minnesota Vikings played the Chicago Bears in the first of their two games, Peterson broke the record for single game All-Purpose (rushing, receiving, kick returning) yards (361, 224 of them rushing yards). In Week 9 of the 2007 season, Peterson would break the NFL record set by Jamal Lewis in 2003 for most rushing yards in one game (296 rushing yards against the San Diego Chargers). Despite a strong push in the middle of the 2007 season winning five straight games, the Vikings lost their final two games to finish the season at 8–8, missing the playoffs. In week 13 of the 2008 season against the Bears, Gus Frerotte hooked up with Bernard Berrian for a 99 yard touchdown pass after an epic goal line stand by the Vikings. This was the longest play in Vikings history. Adrian Peterson had 1760 yards, first in the NFL in rushing yards, in front of atlantas Michael Turner. The Vikings are 10–6 under Tarvaris Jackson. A journeyman from the Chicago Bears, Bernard Berrian leads the team in receiving yards with 795, and Bobby Wade leads the team in catches. After Week 14 Vikings had a very tough game against the winless Detroit Lions who gave them a run for their money. The Lions led through half time, although the Vikings managed a 20–16 win. Frerotte was injured in the game and still has the starting job if he is able to play. In Week 15 the Vikings beat the Arizona Cardinals 35 to 14. Tarvaris Jackson started this game and threw for four touchdowns. Bernard Berrian caught a touchdown pass and returned a punt for a touchdown. Adrian Peterson broke the franchise record for most single season rush yards. In Week 16, the Vikings faced the Atlanta Falcons at the Metrodome, looking to clinch the NFC North with a victory. However, they suffered from 7 fumbles, 4 of them resulting in turnovers, and lost 24–17. Starter Tarvaris Jackson had another good game for Minnesota, as did tight end Visanthe Shiancoe, who caught 2 touchdowns from Jackson. The Vikings clinched the NFC North championship by defeating the New York Giants 20–19 in week 17 of the 2008 NFL Season, when kicker Ryan Longwell was successful in his attempt at the game-winning field goal. On January 4, 2009, the Vikings hosted the Philadelphia Eagles for the Wild Card round and for the first time in eight years, the Vikings hosted a playoff game. The Vikings held the Eagles 14–16 at halftime, but the Eagles, coming off of a 44–6 victory over the Dallas Cowboys, defeated the Vikings, 26-14. The Eagles would go on to defeat the defending Super Bowl champion New York Giants in the Divisional round only to lose to the Arizona Cardinals (who in turn lost Super Bowl XLIII to the Pittsburgh Steelers) in the NFC Championship Game. Since 2006, the Vikings are particularly known for their strong defense against the run (#1 in the NFL in 2006, 2007, and 2008, first NFL team to accomplish this) anchored by the nicknamed “Williams Wall”/"Williams Wrecking Crew" consisting of defensive tackle Kevin Williams and nose tackle Pat Williams (no relation). Ownership The team is currently owned by Zygi Wilf, Sumit Bains, Jeffrey Wilf, Leonard Wilf, David Mandelbaum, Alan Landis and Reggie Fowler. The Vikings have been conducting summer training camp at Minnesota State University, Mankato since 1966. From 1961-65 they held camp at Bemidji State University. Season-by-season records Logo and uniforms Minnesota Vikings uniform combination Minnesota Vikings uniform: 1996-2005 Vikings helmet (1961-2005) Vikings helmet (2006-Present) From the team's debut in 1961 to 1995, the Vikings' logos and uniforms essentially remained the same. One of the team's two primary logos consists of a profile of a blond norseman, while the other consists of a white Viking horn. The team's helmet is purple with a Viking horn logo on each side. The horn logo was slightly revised in 2006. The original uniform design consisted of white pants, gold trim, and either purple or white jerseys. From 1961 to 1964, the Vikings wore purple pants with their white jerseys (The Vikings, with their new uniform, still wear, on occasion, purple pants with yellow and white trim). In a design that was unique among American football teams, the white jerseys had a completely different stripe pattern, which was over the shoulders, than the purple ones, which was around the sleeve cuff. These unique shoulder stripes on the white jerseys did not appear until 1969, the year they went to their first Super Bowl. There have also been minor changes to the uniform design throughout the years, such as changing the color of the facemask from gray to white (1980), and then to purple (1985); and adding the Norseman logo to the sleeves (1996). The Vikings wore black shoes until Les Steckel became the coach in 1984. In 2006 team returned to black shoes for first time since the 1983 season. During the 1964 season, the Vikings along with several other NFL teams wore their white jerseys for home games to allow their fans to see what the other teams primary jerseys looked like. The Lions played at Metropolitan Stadium on October 11. The Lions only brought their white jerseys. The Vikings had also brought their white jerseys to the stadium. The team practiced at Midway Stadium in St. Paul and that is where they stored their equipment. Both teams started the game in their white jerseys. By the second quarter the Vikings had been able to get their purple jerseys to Met Stadium. The team changed jerseys on the sidelines and finished the game in purple jerseys and purple pants. It wasn't until 43 years later, on December 17, 2007 (a Monday Night Football game versus the Chicago Bears) that the Vikings again donned all purple jerseys and pants. The team's uniforms were redesigned in 2006, the first significant change in the franchise's 46-year history. Although the team colors remained the same, trim lines were added to the outside shoulders and sleeves, and the sides of the jerseys and pants. In addition the horn on the helmet was slightly more defined. Included in the new design are both white and purple pants. New Header The team wore black armbands for the last four games in 1978 in memory of Jack "Jocko" Nelson an assistant coach who died during the season. In 1985 the team wore a 25 years patch on their jerseys. In 1989, they wore a "40 for 60" patch honoring the 1969 NFL championship team. They wore a 35 years patch in 1995, 40 years in 2000 and 45 years in 2005. They also wore patches in 1999 for assistant coach Chip Myers who died in the offseason and in 2001 for Korey Stringer. The Vikings like the other teams wore NFL 50 and 75 year patches in 1969 and 1994. Mascots Current mascots The current team mascot is Ragnar (played by Joseph Juranitch). Ragnar has been working for the Vikings since 1994, and claims to be the most widely-recognized mascot in the world. Juranitch admits to being somewhat of an eccentric—he holds the current world record for fastest time shaving a beard with an axe. Ragnar drives onto the field at the beginning of the game dressed in Viking garb, on a motorcycle, while a cheerleader used to ride a snowmobile. After several failed attempts at developing an official team-owned mascot, the Vikings finally introduced Viktor E. Viking during the 2007 Vikings' season. Vikings : Viktor Team officials had long indicated that they were after a mascot concept that would primarily appeal to the team's younger fan base. OP firm develops NFL's Vikings mascot - Kansas City Business Journal: Viktor the Viking, a muscle-bound, blonde-haired and mustachioed character wears a Vikings' #1 jersey and an oversized Vikings' helmet with protruding horns and a small yellow nose guard. Historic mascots During the 1970s, 1980s, Hub Meeds dressed as a Viking and served as the team mascot. Another mascot associated with the Vikings was "Vikadontis Rex," a purple foam dinosaur. Vikadontis was the official mascot of the Minnesota Vikings Children's Fund and took part in the 1995 Celebrity Mascot Olympics. Vikadontis was retired starting with the 2000 season. Traditions Fight song "Skol, Vikings" is the fight song of the Minnesota Vikings. It was introduced around the time the team was founded in 1961 and is always played whenever the team scores as well as half time and the end of regulation. Rivals Detroit Lions Green Bay Packers Chicago Bears Helga hats Viking fans are known to dress up in "Helga hats", or purple hats with white horns and blond braids, mimicking the helmets popularly (but incorrectly) believed to have been worn by Viking warriors. The original Helga Hats are still hand assembled in the Twin Cities area; however, some vendors have since imported other versions from overseas in recent years. Vikings horn During home games at the Metrodome, the Vikings Gjallarhorn is loudly played and sounds often after the team has a big play or scores a touchdown. In addition, a flash cannon fires upon Vikings touchdowns. Players of note Current roster Pro Football Hall of Famers Minnesota Vikings Hall of FamersNo.PlayerPosition(s)Seasons as a VikingYear Inducted 10 Fran TarkentonQB1961-1966, 1972-19781986 22 Paul KrauseS1968-19791998 64 Randall McDanielG1988-19992009 65 Gary ZimmermanOT1986-19922008 73 Ron YaryOT1968-19812001 81 Carl EllerDE1964-19782004 88 Alan PageDT1967-19781988 -- Jim FinksGeneral Manager1964-19731995 -- Bud GrantHead Coach1967-1983, 19851994 Retired numbers Minnesota Vikings Retired NumbersNo.Player10Fran Tarkenton53Mick Tingelhoff70Jim Marshall73Kyle Richardson77Korey Stringer80Cris Carter88Alan Page Ring of Honor Minnesota Vikings Ring of Honor Vikings : Ring Of Honor No.PlayerPosition(s)Seasons as a VikingDate Inducted 10 Fran TarkentonQB1961-1966, 1972-1978September 9, 1998 22 Paul KrauseS1968-1979November 15, 1998 30 Bill BrownRB1962-1974 September 26, 2004 44 Chuck ForemanRB1973-1979 September 30, 2007 53 Mick TingelhoffC1962-1978November 25, 2001 64 Randall McDanielG1988-1999December 17, 2006 70Jim MarshallDE1961-1979November 28, 1999 73 Ron YaryOT1968-1981September 9, 2001 77 Korey StringerOT1995-2000November 19, 2001 80 Cris CarterWR1990-2001September 14, 2003 81 Carl EllerDE1964-1978November 10, 2002 88 Alan PageDT1967-1978September 20, 1998 93 John RandleDT1990-2000November 30, 2008 -- Jerry BurnsHead Coach1986-1991November 6, 2005 -- Jim FinksGeneral Manager1964-1973October 18, 1998 -- Bud GrantHead Coach1967-1983, 1985November 8, 1998 -- Fred ZamberlettiMedical Adviser1961-PresentDecember 20, 1998 40th Anniversary Team Fran Tarkenton QB, #10 Chuck Foreman RB, #44 Robert Smith RB, #26 Ahmad Rashad WR, #28 Cris Carter WR, #80 Steve Jordan TE, #83 Ron Yary OT, #73 Randall McDaniel OG, #64 Mick Tingelhoff C, #53 Ed White OG, #62 Tim Irwin OT, #76Jim Marshall DE, #70 Alan Page DT, #88 John Randle DT, #93 Carl Eller DE, #81 Matt Blair LB, #59 Scott Studwell LB, #55 Jeff Siemon LB, #50 Bobby Bryant CB, #20 Carl Lee CB, #39 Paul Krause S, #22 Joey Browner S, #47Greg Coleman P, #8 Fred Cox K, #14 Darrin Nelson KR, #20 Bill Brown ST, #30 Coaches of note Head coaches NameYearsWonLostTiesWinning %Post SeasonNorm Van Brocklin1961-196629514.363-Bud Grant1967-1983151875.6341968-71, 1973-78, 1980, 1982Les Steckel19843130.188-Bud Grant1985790.438-Jerry Burns1986-199152430.5471987-89Dennis Green1992-200197620.6101992-94, 1996-2000Mike Tice2001-200532330.4922004Brad Childress2006- present24240.5002008 Current staff Radio and television The Vikings' flagship radio station is KFAN-AM (1130). The games are also heard on the "KFAN Radio Network" in Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, South Dakota, and North Dakota, as well as many other outlets. Paul Allen has been the play-by-play announcer since the 2002 NFL season and Pete Bercich is the analyst, who began his first season in 2007. Telecasts of preseason games not shown on national networks are aired on KSTP-TV (Channel 5) in the Twin Cities with Ari Wolfe doing play-by-play. Notes and references See also Pro Football Hall of Fame Minnesota Vikings starting quarterbacks External links Minnesota Vikings Official Website Radio Home of the Minnesota Vikings Star Tribune Coverage of the Minnesota Vikings Pioneer Press Coverage of the Minnesota Vikings Blog of the Minnesota Vikings Minnesota Vikings Message Board Fan Forum | Minnesota_Vikings |@lemmatized minnesota:39 viking:154 professional:2 american:6 football:18 team:66 base:2 minneapolis:5 compete:1 north:4 division:13 national:4 conference:2 nfc:12 league:8 nfl:43 prior:1 divisional:6 realignment:1 member:2 central:5 also:11 know:5 black:4 blue:2 win:26 one:9 championship:13 pre:1 afl:2 merger:1 subsequently:1 lose:19 kansas:4 city:8 chief:3 super:22 bowl:23 iv:2 first:36 play:26 four:6 time:10 third:3 among:2 currently:2 club:1 found:2 ownership:5 group:2 withdraw:1 membership:2 agree:2 join:1 expansion:3 home:7 game:60 metropolitan:7 stadium:15 season:56 hubert:3 h:4 humphrey:3 metrodome:9 baseball:1 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7,270 | Stage_(stratigraphy) | In chronostratigraphy, a stage is a succession of rock strata laid down in an single age on the geologic timescale, which usually represents millions of years of deposition. A given stage of rock and the corresponding age of time will by convention have the same name, and the same boundaries. Rock series are divided into stages, just as geological epochs are divided into ages. Stages can be divided into smaller stratigraphic units called chronozones. (See chart at right for full terminology hierarchy.) The term faunal stage is sometimes used, referring to the fact that the same fauna (animals) are found throughout the layer (by definition). Defining Stages are primarily defined by a consistent set of fossils (biostratigraphy) or a consistent magnetic polarity (see paleomagnetism) in the rock. Usually one or more index fossils that are common, found worldwide, easily recognized, and limited to a single, or at most a few, stages are used to define the stage's bottom. Thus, for example, in the (still used) local North American subdivision paleontologist finding fragments of the trilobite Olenellus would identify the beds as being from the Waucoban Stage whereas fragments of a later trilobite such as Elrathia would identify the stage as Albertan. Stages were very important in the 19th and early 20th century as they were the major tool available for dating rock beds until the development of seismology and radioactive dating in the second half of the 20th Century. Microscopic analysis of the rock (petrology) is also sometimes useful in confirming that a given segment of rock is from a particular age. Originally, faunal stages were only defined regionally; however as additional stratigraphic tools, and especially geochonological ones, were developed, stages were defined over broader and broader areas. More recently, the adjective "faunal" has been dropped as regional and global correlations of rock sequences have become relatively certain and there is less need for faunal labels to define the age of formations. A tendency developed to use European and, to a lesser extent, Asian, stage names for the same time period world wide, even though the faunas in other regions often had little in common with the stage as originally defined. International standardization Boundaries and names are established by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) of the International Union of Geological Sciences. As of 2008, the ICS is nearly finished a task begun in 1974, subdividing the Phanerozoic eonothem into internationally accepted stages using two types of benchmark. For younger stages, a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP), a physical outcrop clearly demonstrates the boundary. For older stages, a Global Standard Stratigraphic Age (GSSA) is an absolute date. The benchmarks will give a much greater certainty that results can be compared with confidence in the date determinations, and such results will have farther scope than any evaluation based solely on local knowledge and conditions. In many regions around the world local subdivisions and classification criteria are still used along with the newer internationally coordinated uniform system, but once the research establishes a more complete international system, it is expected that local systems will be abandoned. Stages and lithostratigraphy Stages can include many lithostratigraphic units (for example formations, beds, members, etc.) of differing rock types that were being laid down in different environments at the same time. In the same way, a lithostratigraphic unit can include a number of stages or parts of them. See also Body form European Mammal Neogene Geologic record Geologic time scale North American Land Mammal Ages Fauna (animals) Type locality (geology) List of GSSAs List of GSSPs Notes and references References Hedberg, H.D., (editor), International stratigraphic guide: A guide to stratigraphic classification, terminology, and procedure, New York, John Wiley and Sons, 1976 International Stratigraphic Chart from the International Commission on Stratigraphy USA National Park Service Washington State University Web Geological Time Machine Eon or Aeon, Math Words - An alphabetical index External links The Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP): overview Chart of The Global Boundary Stratotype Sections and Points (GSSP): chart Geotime chart displaying geologic time periods compared to the fossil record - Deals with chronology and classifications for laymen (not GSSPs) | Stage_(stratigraphy) |@lemmatized chronostratigraphy:1 stage:21 succession:1 rock:9 stratum:1 lay:2 single:2 age:7 geologic:4 timescale:1 usually:2 represent:1 million:1 year:1 deposition:1 give:3 corresponding:1 time:6 convention:1 name:3 boundary:6 series:1 divide:3 geological:3 epoch:1 small:1 stratigraphic:6 unit:3 call:1 chronozones:1 see:3 chart:5 right:1 full:1 terminology:2 hierarchy:1 term:1 faunal:4 sometimes:2 use:6 refer:1 fact:1 fauna:3 animal:2 find:2 throughout:1 layer:1 definition:1 defining:1 primarily:1 define:6 consistent:2 set:1 fossil:3 biostratigraphy:1 magnetic:1 polarity:1 paleomagnetism:1 one:2 index:2 common:2 found:1 worldwide:1 easily:1 recognize:1 limit:1 bottom:1 thus:1 example:2 still:2 local:4 north:2 american:2 subdivision:2 paleontologist:1 fragment:2 trilobite:2 olenellus:1 would:2 identify:2 bed:3 waucoban:1 whereas:1 late:1 elrathia:1 albertan:1 important:1 early:1 century:2 major:1 tool:2 available:1 date:3 development:1 seismology:1 radioactive:1 dating:1 second:1 half:1 microscopic:1 analysis:1 petrology:1 also:2 useful:1 confirm:1 segment:1 particular:1 originally:2 regionally:1 however:1 additional:1 especially:1 geochonological:1 develop:2 broad:2 area:1 recently:1 adjective:1 drop:1 regional:1 global:5 correlation:1 sequence:1 become:1 relatively:1 certain:1 less:2 need:1 label:1 formation:2 tendency:1 european:2 extent:1 asian:1 period:2 world:2 wide:1 even:1 though:1 region:2 often:1 little:1 international:7 standardization:1 establish:2 commission:2 stratigraphy:2 ic:2 union:1 science:1 nearly:1 finish:1 task:1 begin:1 subdivide:1 phanerozoic:1 eonothem:1 internationally:2 accept:1 two:1 type:3 benchmark:2 young:1 stratotype:3 section:3 point:3 gssp:3 physical:1 outcrop:1 clearly:1 demonstrate:1 old:1 standard:1 gssa:1 absolute:1 much:1 great:1 certainty:1 result:2 compare:2 confidence:1 determination:1 farther:1 scope:1 evaluation:1 base:1 solely:1 knowledge:1 condition:1 many:2 around:1 classification:3 criterion:1 along:1 newer:1 coordinate:1 uniform:1 system:3 research:1 complete:1 expect:1 abandon:1 lithostratigraphy:1 include:2 lithostratigraphic:2 member:1 etc:1 differ:1 different:1 environment:1 way:1 number:1 part:1 body:1 form:1 mammal:2 neogene:1 record:2 scale:1 land:1 locality:1 geology:1 list:2 gssas:1 gssps:2 note:1 reference:2 hedberg:1 h:1 editor:1 guide:2 procedure:1 new:1 york:1 john:1 wiley:1 son:1 usa:1 national:1 park:1 service:1 washington:1 state:1 university:1 web:1 machine:1 eon:1 aeon:1 math:1 word:1 alphabetical:1 external:1 link:1 overview:1 geotime:1 display:1 deal:1 chronology:1 layman:1 |@bigram geologic_timescale:1 geological_epoch:1 faunal_stage:2 commission_stratigraphy:2 boundary_stratotype:3 stratotype_section:3 wiley_son:1 external_link:1 |
7,271 | Kurt_Georg_Kiesinger | Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Kanzlergalerie Berlin |President Nixon and Chancellor Kurt Kiesinger waving to the crowd in Berlin. Kurt Georg Kiesinger (6 April 1904–9 March 1988) was a conservative German politician and Chancellor of West Germany from 1 December 1966 until 21 October 1969. Early life Born in Ebingen, Germany, Kiesinger was educated in Berlin and became a lawyer. As a Student, he became Member of the Roman Catholic fraternity Alamannia Tübingen and of the katholische Studentenvereine Askania Burgundia. He joined the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in 1933. From 1940, Kiesinger worked at the German foreign ministry's radio propaganda department where he was responsible for that ministry's connection with the propaganda ministry. After the war, he was interned and spent several months in the Ludwigsburg camp before being acquitted by the denazification courts. He was exonerated by a protocol of the RSHA which noted that he had hampered and averted anti-Jewish actions in his department. Political career By the time the first national elections were held in the Federal Republic in 1949, Kiesinger had joined the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) and won a seat in the Bundestag, the West German parliament. In 1951 he became a member of the CDU executive board. During that time, he became known for his rhetorical brilliance, as well as his in-depth knowledge of foreign affairs. However, despite the recognition he enjoyed within the Christian Democrat parliamentary faction, he was passed over during various cabinet reshuffles. Consequently, he decided to switch from federal to state politics: He was appointed Prime Minister (Ministerpräsident) of the state of Baden-Württemberg on 17 December 1958, an office in which he served until 1 December 1966. Chancellorship In 1966 following the collapse of the existing CDU/CSU-FDP coalition Kiesinger was elected to replace Ludwig Erhard as Chancellor, heading a new CDU/CSU-SPD alliance. The government formed by Kiesinger remained in power for nearly three years with the SPD leader Willy Brandt as Deputy Federal Chancellor and Foreign Minister. Kiesinger reduced tensions with the Soviet bloc nations establishing diplomatic relations with Czechoslovakia, Romania and Yugoslavia but he opposed any major conciliatory moves. One of his low points as chancellor was in 1968 when activist Beate Klarsfeld publicly slapped him in the face during the 1968 Christian Democrat convention, while calling him a Nazi. She did so in French but - whilst being dragged out of the room by two ushers - repeated her words in German saying "Kiesinger! Nazi! Abtreten!" ("Kiesinger! Nazi! Step down!") Kiesinger, holding his left cheek and being close to tears, did not respond. Up to his death he refused to comment on the incident. After the election of 1969, the SPD preferred to form a coalition with the FDP, ending the uninterrupted post-war reign of the CDU chancellors. Kiesinger was succeeded as Chancellor by Willy Brandt. Kiesinger continued to head the CDU/CSU in opposition until July 1971 and remained a member of the Bundestag until 1980. He died in Tübingen. His funeral procession was followed by protesters (mainly students) who wanted his entire legacy known - even after his death - especially his former membership in the NSDAP. Kiesinger's Ministry 1 December 1966 - 21 October 1969 Kurt Georg Kiesinger (CDU) - Chancellor Willy Brandt (SPD) - Vice Chancellor and Minister of Foreign Affairs Gerhard Schröder (CDU) - Minister of Defense Paul Lücke (CDU) - Minister of the Interior Franz Josef Strauß (CSU) - Minister of Finance Gustav Heinemann (SPD) - Minister of Justice Karl Schiller (SPD) - Minister of Economics Hans Katzer (CDU) - Minister of Labour and Social Affairs Hermann Höcherl (CSU) - Minister of Food, Agriculture, and Forestry Georg Leber (SPD) - Minister of Transport Lauritz Lauritzen (SPD) - Minister of Construction Bruno Heck (CDU) - Minister of Family and Youth Käte Strobel (SPD) - Minister of Health Gerhard Stoltenberg (CDU) - Minister of Scientific Research Hans-Jürgen Wischnewski (SPD) - Minister of Economic Cooperation Werner Dollinger (CSU) - Minister of Posts and Communications Kai-Uwe von Hassel (CDU) - Minister of Displaced Persons, Refugees, and War Victims Herbert Wehner (SPD) - Minister of All-German Affairs Carlo Schmid (SPD) - Minister of Bundesrat and State Affairs Kurt Schmücker (CDU) - Minister of Federal Treasure Changes 2 April 1968 - Ernst Benda (CDU) succeeds Lücke as Minister of the Interior. 16 October 1968 - Aenne Brauksiepe (CDU) succeeds Heck as Minister of Family and Youth. Erhard Eppler (SPD) succeeds Wischnewski as Minister of Economic Cooperation. 7 February 1969 - Heinrich Windelen (CDU) succeeds Hassel as Minister of Displaced Persons, Refugees, and War Victims. Literature Gassert, Philipp. Kurt Georg Kiesinger 1904-1988. Kanzler zwischen den Zeiten DVA, München 2006. Links K.St.V. 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7,272 | Buffalo,_New_York | Buffalo (), is the second largest city in the state of New York. Located in Western New York on the eastern shores of Lake Erie and at the head of the Niagara River, Buffalo is the principal city of the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area and the seat of Erie County. Erie County Government: Overview. Erie County (New York) Government Home Page, accessed April 16, 2008. The city itself has a population of 292,648 (2000 Census) Buffalo city, New York - Fact Sheet. U.S. Census Bureau, accessed April 16, 2008. , and the metropolitan area 1,170,111 (2000 Census) United States and Puerto Rico by Metropolitan Area. U.S. Census Bureau, accessed April 16, 2008. , the 46th largest in the United States. The Buffalo–Niagara–Cattaraugus Combined Statistical Area is home to 1,254,066 residents. Originating around 1789 as a small trading community near the eponymous Buffalo Creek, Buffalo grew quickly after the opening of the Erie Canal in 1825, with the city as its western terminus. By 1900, Buffalo was the 8th largest city in the country, Table 1. Rank by Population of the 100 Largest Urban Places, Listed Alphabetically by State: 1790-1990. U.S. Census Bureau, accessed April 16, 2008. and went on to become a major railroad hub, Early Railways in Buffalo. The Buffalonian, accessed April 16, 2008. the largest grain-milling center in the country, "Buffalo as a Flour Milling Center" by Laura O'Day. Economic Geography, Vol. 8, No. 1 (Jan., 1932), pp. 81-93. Published by: Clark University. and the home of the largest steel-making operation in the world. [http://www.buffaloah.com/h/1945.html#1939 The History of Buffalo: A Chronology Buffalo, New York 1929-1945]. Buffalo Architecture and History, accessed April 16, 2008. The latter part of the 20th Century saw a reversal of fortunes: by the year 1990 the city had fallen back below its 1900 population levels. The rerouting of Great Lakes shipping by the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway was a factor in the decline of the city. The closing or relocating of many of the steel mills and other heavy industries in the area also contributed to the decline. Name origin Most popular accounts hold that the name "Buffalo" is a corruption of the French phrase beau fleuve, "beautiful river," a phrase said to have been exclaimed by French explorers upon seeing the Niagara River. This speculation, however, is contradicted by primary sources. French explorers actually referred to the Niagara River in print as Riviere aux Chevaux, "River of Horses." Houghton, Frederick. The Name Buffalo. Buffalo, NY: Buffalo Historical Society Publications, v. 24, pp. 63-69 http://books.google.com/books?id=fY4MAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA63&lpg=PA63&dq=Buffalo+first+appeared+on+a+map&source=web&ots=Dg-YQZb0Ur&sig=MOPlDcMG_xdKlwbd_3RzF0wjM_U&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result#PPR3,M1 The earliest name origin theory to appear in print (1825) relates a story about stolen horsemeat being passed off as bison flesh, with the site of the illicit picnic henceforth remembered as "Buffalo," but the author who conveyed this tale expressed his skepticism. Ball, Sheldon. Buffalo in 1825. Buffalo, NY: S. Ball, 1825 What is clear is that there were no bison in the area; that the settlement of Buffalo took its name from Buffalo Creek; Encyclopedia Britannica: Buffalo, NY, USA and that Buffalo Creek first appeared on a map in 1759-1760. Houghton, p. 63 Although the Beau Fleuve theory is the least plausible of several theories, it is unlikely that Buffalo's true name origin can be conclusively established. History Buffalo Panorama 1911 Passenger boats at Buffalo 1909 Pan-American Exposition - Ethnology Building at Night The region was originally settled by the Neutral Nation. Later, the Senecas of the Iroquois Confederacy conquered the Neutrals. In 1804, Joseph Ellicott, a principal agent of the Holland Land Company, designed a radial street and grid system that branches out from downtown like bicycle spokes , and is one of only three radial street plans in the US. During the War of 1812, on December 30, 1813, the village of Buffalo was burned by British forces. On November 4, 1825 the Erie Canal was completed with Buffalo strategically positioned at the western end of the system. At the time, the population was about 2,400. The Erie Canal brought a surge in population and commerce which led Buffalo to incorporate as a city in 1832, with a population of about 10,000 people. The City of Buffalo has long been home to African-Americans. An example is the 1828 village directory which listed 59 "Names of Coloured" heads of families. In 1845, construction was begun on the Macedonia Baptist Church (commonly called the Michigan Street Baptist Church). This African-American church was an important meeting place for the abolitionist movement. On February 12, 1974 the church was added to the National Register of Historic Places. Abolitionist leaders such as William Wells Brown made their home in Buffalo. Buffalo was also a terminus point of the Underground Railroad with many fugitives crossing the Niagara River from Buffalo to Fort Erie, Ontario and freedom. During the 1840s, Buffalo's port continued to develop. Both passenger and commercial traffic expanded with some 93,000 passengers heading west from the port of Buffalo. Grain and commercial goods shipments led to repeated expansion of the harbor. One of the first steam-powered grain elevators was constructed, which enabled faster unloading of lake freighters. Abraham Lincoln visited Buffalo on February 16, 1861, on his way to accept the presidency of the United States. He stayed at the American Hotel on Main Street between Eagle Street and Court Street. The Civil War years saw a great increase in the population, increasing from 81,029 to 94,210 in 1865. In addition to sending many soldiers to the Union effort, Buffalo manufacturers supplied important war material. For example, the Niagara Steam Forge Works manufactured turret parts for the ironclad ship USS Monitor. Lafayette Square c. 1912 Niagara Square c. 1912 At the dawn of the 20th Century, local mills were among the first to benefit from hydroelectric power generated via the Niagara River. The city got the nickname City of Light at this time due to the widespread electric lighting. Can Buffalo Ever Come Back? from City Journal In 1881, Buffalo deployed the first electric street lights in the United States. It was also part of the automobile revolution, hosting the brass era car builders Pierce Arrow and the Seven Little Buffaloes early in the century. Believe it, or not. Clymer, Floyd. Treasury of Early American Automobiles, 1877-1925 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1950), p.178. City of Light (1999) was the title of Buffalo native Lauren Belfer's historical novel set in 1901, which in turn engendered a listing of real vs. fictional persons and places featured in her pages. President William McKinley was shot and mortally wounded at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo on September 6, 1901. He died in the city eight days later and Theodore Roosevelt was sworn in at the Wilcox Mansion as the 26th President of the United States. The link to Fort Erie, known as the Peace Bridge, was opened in 1927. The splendid Buffalo Central Terminal was finished just weeks before the Wall Street Crash of 1929. With the opening of the St. Lawrence Seaway in 1957, which cut the city off from valuable trade routes; deindustrialization; and the nation-wide trend of suburbanization; the city's economy began to deteriorate. Like much of the Rust Belt, Buffalo, which peaked at more than half a million people in the 1950s, has seen its population decline by almost 50 percent as industries shut down and people left for the suburbs or other cities. Like many cities across the country, Buffalo is enjoying new investment in the 2000s. Economic development in the city was marked at $4 billion in 2007 compared to a $50 million average for the previous ten years. New proposals and renovations are numerous, especially in the downtown core. Buffalo ranked 83rd on the Forbes best cities for jobs list, an increase from the previous year and a higher ranking than New York City. Geography and climate Buffalo average temperatures Buffalo in bloom Blizzard of 1977 Geography Buffalo is located on the eastern end of Lake Erie, opposite Fort Erie, Ontario in Canada, and at the beginning of the Niagara River, which flows northward over Niagara Falls and into Lake Ontario. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 52.5 square miles (136.0 km²). 105.2 km² (40.6 sq mi) of it is land and 30.8 km² (11.9 sq mi) of it is water. The total area is 22.66% water. Climate Buffalo has a reputation for snowy winters. The region experiences a fairly humid, continental-type climate, but with a definite maritime flavor due to strong modification from the Great Lakes. The transitional seasons are very brief in Buffalo and Western New York. Winters in Western New York are generally cold and snowy, but are changeable and include frequent thaws and rain as well. Winters can also be quite long in Western New York, usually spanning from mid-November to early April. Snow covers the ground more often than not from late December into early March, but periods of bare ground are not uncommon. Over half of the annual snowfall comes from the lake effect process and is very localized. Lake effect snow occurs when cold air crosses the relatively warm lake waters and becomes saturated, creating clouds and precipitation downwind. Due to the prevailing winds, areas south of Buffalo receive much more lake effect snow than locations to the north. The lake snow machine starts as early as mid-October, peaks in December, then virtually shuts down after Lake Erie freezes in mid to late January. The most well-known snowstorm in Buffalo's history, the Blizzard of '77, was not a lake effect snowstorm in Buffalo in the normal sense of that term (Lake Erie was frozen over at the time), but instead resulted from a combination of high winds and snow previously accumulated both on land and on frozen Lake Erie. Snow does not typically impair the city's operation, but did cause significant damage as with the October 2006 storm. Buffalo has the sunniest and driest summers of any major city in the Northeast, but still has enough rain to keep vegetation green and lush. Buffalo's Climate. National Weather Service. Accessed July 5, 2006. Summers are marked by plentiful sunshine and moderate humidity and temperature. It receives, on average, over 65% of possible sunshine in June, July and August. Obscured by the notoriety of Buffalo's winter snow is the fact that Buffalo benefits from other lake effects such as the cooling southwest breezes off Lake Erie in summer that gently temper the warmest days. As a result, the Buffalo station of the National Weather Service has never recorded an official temperature greater than 99 degrees F. Rainfall is moderate but typically occurs at night. The stabilizing effect of Lake Erie continues to inhibit thunderstorms and enhance sunshine in the immediate Buffalo area through most of July. August usually has more showers and is hotter and more humid as the warmer lake loses its temperature-stabilizing influence. Demographics City proper Like most formerly industrial cities of the Great Lakes region, Buffalo has suffered through several decades of population decline brought about by the loss of its industrial base. The city's population peaked in 1950, when it was the 15th largest city in the United States. Its population has declined in every year since, particularly during the late 1970s and early 1980s, when the city lost nearly one-third of its population in only five years. The demographic change and the impact of such change on the industrial cities of the region, including Buffalo, is significant; based on the 2006 US Census estimate, Buffalo's current population is equivalent to its population in the year 1890, reversing nearly 120 years of demographic change. Although the trend is inconclusive at this time, current census estimates indicate the rate of population loss may be decelerating to a stable state. The 2006-2007 loss estimate is 50% less than the years prior, and is at less than 1% year-over-year loss. Whether this trend will continue will not be evident until next year's estimate. At the 2005-2007 American Community Survey Estimates, the city's population was 53.8% White (48.7% non-Hispanic White alone), 41.1% Black or African American, 1.2% American Indian and Alaska Native, 2.0% Asian, 4.5% from some other race and 2.5% from two or more races. 8.3% of the total population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. At that time of the 2000 census there were 292,648 people, 122,720 households, and 67,005 families residing in the city. The population density is 7,205.8 people per square mile (2,782.4/km²). There are 145,574 housing units at an average density of 3,584.4/sq mi (1,384.1/km²). The racial makeup of the city is 54.43% White, 37.23% African American, 0.77% Native American, 1.40% Asian, 0.04% Pacific Islander, 3.68% from other races, and 2.45% from two or more races. 7.54% of the population are Hispanic or Latino of any race. The top 5 largest ancestries include German (13.6%), Irish (12.2%), Italian (11.7%), Polish (11.7%), and English (4.0%). Buffalo, New York (NY) Detailed Profile - relocation, real estate, travel, jobs, hospitals, schools, crime, news, sex offenders There were 122,720 households out of which 28.6% have children under the age of 18 living with them, 27.6% are married couples living together, 22.3% have a female householder with no husband present, and 45.4% are non-families. 37.7% of all households are made up of individuals and 12.1% have someone living alone who is 65 years of age or older. The average household size is 2.29 and the average family size is 3.07. In the city the population included 26.3% under the age of 18, 11.3% from 18 to 24, 29.3% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 13.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 34 years. For every 100 females there are 88.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 83.5 males. The median income for a household in the city is $24,536, and the median income for a family is $30,614. Males have a median income of $30,938 versus $23,982 for females. The per capita income for the city is $14,991. 26.6% of the population and 23.0% of families are below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 38.4% of those under the age of 18 and 14.0% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line. Buffalo historical population (1830-2006) Buffalo has very sizable populations of Irish, Italian, Polish, German, Jewish, Greek, Arab, African, and Indian descent. Major ethnic neighborhoods still exist but they changed significantly in the second half of the twentieth century. Traditionally, Polish-Americans were the predominant occupants of the East Side, while Italian-Americans composed a close-knit neighborhood in the west side. The East Side is now a predominantly African American neighborhood, while the West Side has become a melting pot of many ethnicities, with Latino culture being the strongest influence. Throughout the history of Buffalo, the neighborhoods collectively called the First Ward, as well as much of South Buffalo, have comprised almost entirely people of Irish descent. Recently, there has been an influx of inhabitants that are of Arab descent, mainly from Yemen, as the city's Muslim population has increased to approximately 8,000 to 10,000 according to an estimate. New mosque in an old theater on Buffalo's West Side reflects the growing presence of Islam Since the 1950s and 1960s, the greater portion of the Jewish population has moved to the suburban areas outside of the city. Metropolitan area As of 2006, Erie and Niagara Counties had a combined estimated population of 1,154,378. The racial makeup of the area is 82.2% White, 13% African American, 0.6% Native American, 1.32% Asian, 3.3% Hispanic, and 1.4% of all other races. In the metropolitan area, 39.68% of people are under the age of 18 or over the age of 64, and the median age is 38. Of the total population, 82.88% have a high school diploma and 23.2% have obtained a Bachelor's degree. The median income for a household is $48,400 and the per capita income for the area is just under $39,000. Approximately 8% of the population is below the poverty line. Education Lafayette High School City Honors School Public schools Like the rest of New York, Buffalo is subject to the state's benchmark evaluation system. The Buffalo Public Schools curriculum is aligned to state standards set by the Education Department. At the high school level, students are required to pass Regents Examinations for each course upon its completion. Currently, there are 78 public schools in the city including a growing number of charter schools. As of 2006, the total enrollment was 41,089 students with a student-teacher ratio of 13.5 to 1. The dropout rate is just 5.3%, and 83% of students who graduate go on to college. More than 27% of teachers have a Master's degree or higher and the median amount of experience in the field is 15 years. When considering the entire metropolitan area, there are a total of 292 schools educating 172,854 students. Buffalo is noted for its model magnet school system, which attracts students with special interests, such as science, bilingual studies, and Native American studies. Specialized facilities include the Buffalo Elementary School of Technology; the Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Multicultural Institute; the International School; the Dr. Charles R. Drew Science Magnet School; Build Academy; Leonardo da Vinci High School Buffalo; the Buffalo Academy for the Visual and Performing Arts, BAVPA; the Riverside Institute of Technology; Lafayette High School/Buffalo Academy of Finance; Hutchinson Central Technical High School; South Park High School and the Emerson School of Hospitality. Buffalo is currently in the process of a $1 billion city school rebuilding plan. Private schools The city is home to 47 private schools while the metropolitan region has 150 institutions. Most private schools have a Roman Catholic affiliation, however, there are schools affiliated with other religions such as Islam and Judaism. There are also nonsectarian options including The Buffalo Seminary (the only private, nonsectarian, all-girls school in WNY) Buffalo Seminary - Buffalo Seminary , and The Nichols School. Complementing its standard function, the Buffalo Public Schools Adult and Continuing Education Division provides education and services to adults throughout the community. In addition, the Career and Technical Education Department offers more than 20 academic programs, and is attended by about 6,000 students each year. The Buffalo area is also home to the The Gow School The Gow School for Dyslexia and Learning Disabilities . The Gow School is a college prep boarding school for boys, grades 7 to 12, with dyslexia and similar language-based learning disabilities including: central auditory processing disorder, dyscalculia and LD written expression Catholic schools Canisius High School Bishop Timon - St. Jude High School Nardin Academy Holy Angels Academy Mount Mercy Academy St.Josephs Collegiate Institute Colleges and universities Private Bryant & Stratton College Canisius College D'Youville College Empire State College Medaille College Trocaire College SUNY Buffalo is home to three State University of New York (SUNY) institutions. Each is the largest institution of its type in the system. Combined, they account for roughly 40,000 students in the area. University at Buffalo, one of the four University Centers in the SUNY system. Buffalo State College, a comprehensive 4 year college. Erie Community College a 2 year community college affiliated with SUNY. Economy History Buffalo and the surrounding area were long involved in railroad commerce, steel manufacture, automobile production, Great Lakes shipping and grain storage. Most of these industries have left the city through the years. Major steel production no longer exists in the area, although several smaller steel mills remain in operation. For example, Gibraltar Industries, a leading manufacturer, processor, and distributor of steel products for the building, industrial, and vehicular markets is headquartered in Buffalo. As of the 1950 United States Census, Buffalo was the 15th largest city in the country, the nation's largest inland port (twelfth overall), nation's second biggest rail center, nation's sixth largest steel producer, and nation's eighth largest manufacturer. The regional economy can now best be described as a mix of industrial, light manufacturing, high technology and service-oriented private sector companies. Instead of relying on a single industry or sector for its economic future, the region has taken a diversified approach that has created opportunities for growth and expansion in the 21st century . Employment Overall, employment in Buffalo has shifted as its population has declined and manufacturing has left. Buffalo's 2005 unemployment rate was 6.6%, contrasted with New York State's 5.0% rate. See Erie County.ppt www.labor.state.ny.us And from the fourth quarter of 2005 to the fourth quarter of 2006, Erie County had no net job growth, ranking it 271st among the 326 largest counties in the country. BLS, Table 1. Covered establishments, employment, and wages in the 326 largest counties, fourth quarter 2006 Yet the area has recently seen an upswing in job growth as unemployment has dropped to only 4.9% in July 2007 from 5.2% in 2006 and 6.6% in 2005. www.labor.state.ny.us The area's manufacturing jobs have continued to show the largest losses in jobs with over 17,000 fewer than at the start of 2006. Yet other sectors of the economy have outdistanced manufacturing and are seeing large increases. Educational and health services added over 30,400 jobs in 2006 and over 20,500 jobs have been added in the professional and business (mostly finance) arena. bizjournals.com According to the New York State Department of Labor: NY State Dept. of Labor - November 20, 2008 Press Release Buffalo-Niagara Falls: Since October 2007, the number of nonfarm jobs has increased by 200, or less than 0.1 percent, and the number of private sector jobs has decreased by 1,900, or 0.4 percent. The area’s unemployment rate was 5.7 percent in October 2008, compared with 6.1 in September and 4.3 in October 2007. Life sciences Buffalo has increasingly become a center for bioinformatics and human genome research, including work by researchers at the University at Buffalo and the Roswell Park Cancer Institute. This consortium is known as the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus. It also includes: Buffalo Hearing & Speech Center, Buffalo Medical Group Foundation, Hauptman-Woodward Medical Research Institute, Kaleida Health, Olmsted Center for the Visually Impaired, Cleveland BioLabs and Upstate New York Transplant Services. The DNA samples used in The Human Genome Project were also collected from anonymous donors from Buffalo. Entrepreneurial resources and life science business consultants accelerate the growth and development of emerging companies found within the Buffalo Niagara Medical Campus and Upstate New York Region. For example, Buffalo BioSciences is a technology commercialization partner to the New York State Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics & Life Sciences and contributed to the launch and early success of Empire Genomics –- a firm based on research conducted at Roswell Park Cancer Institute by Dr. Norma Nowak enabling the delivery of personalized medicine. Banking Buffalo is the headquarters of M&T Bank, a Fortune 500 company with assets over $65B as of December 31, 2007. HSBC Bank USA also has major operations in Buffalo (The sports arena, which hosts the Buffalo Sabres NHL franchise, is named HSBC Arena). Other banks, such as Bank of America and KeyBank have corporate operations in Buffalo. Citigroup also has regional offices in Amherst, Buffalo's largest suburb. Nearby Lockport is the home to First Niagara Bank, which has branches from Buffalo to Albany, New York, and in September 2009 will have branches as far south as Pittsburgh. First Niagara, which had been considering expanding into Western Pennsylvania for some time, http://kdka.com/business/PNC.First.Niagara.2.978660.html benefited from PNC Financial Services being required by the United States Department of Justice to sell off 50 National City branches in the Pittsburgh area and 11 more branches in and around Erie to competitors, http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/documents/branches-divested.pdf since the two banks had significant overlap in Western Pennsylvania and had potential antitrust issues in that area. First Niagara took advantage by buying 57 of the 61 National City branches from PNC that had to be divested after PNC acquired National City with funds from the $700 billion bailout plan after National City became a victim of the subprime mortgage crisis. The move affected the area by giving the Buffalo area some rare good economic news by announcing the creation of 200 more jobs, with some being in the Buffalo area. http://www.fnfg.com/pdf/pressRelease_04072009.pdf Other Buffalo is home to Rich Products, one of the world's largest family-owned food manufacturers. Labatt moved its US headquarters to Buffalo in May 2007. This is in large part due to Buffalo's location directly in the middle of the Northeastern Trade Corridor. The city is the heart of the Canadian-American corridor. Over 80% of all U.S.-Canada trade occurs via border crossings in the eastern United States and with five bridges to Canada, the Buffalo area is one of the key eastern border crossing locations. New Era Cap Company, the largest sports-licensed headwear company in the United States, is based in Buffalo. They opened new headquarters in 2007 in the former Federal Reserve Building in downtown Buffalo. Ford still maintains operation of its Buffalo Stamping Plant south of the city, and Chevrolet has two plants, a production plant in Tonawanda near the city line, and a tool and die plant in the city. The windshield wiper was invented in Buffalo, and the Trico company still operates some facilities there. For many years, Buffalo was the nation's second largest rail center, with Chicago being the first. Merchants Insurance Group, a property & casualty insurance company, has maintained its headquarters in Buffalo, New York, has been offering financial protection to individuals and businessowners since 1918. The company provides commercial and personal property and casualty insurance throughout the Northeast and North Central United States. Delaware North Companies are headquartered in Buffalo. {| class="WNY Largest Private Sector Employers" Largest private sector employers + Top 10 Private Sector Employers in Western New York - 2008 Buffalo Niagara Enterprise - Business First 2008 Book of Lists Company Industry Fulltime Employees Kaleida Health Health Care 10,000 Catholic Health System Health Care 8,400 HSBC Bank USA N.A. Commercial Bank 5,848 Employer Services Corp. Employment-related services 4,880 M&T Bank Commercial Bank 4,820 Tops Markets LLC Supermarket Retailer 4,673 Seneca Gaming Corp. Entertainment 4,020 Catholic Diocese of Buffalo Parishes, schools, and institutions 3,700 Wegmans Food Markets Inc. Supermarket Retailer 3,288 Roswell Park Cancer Institute Hospital 2,699 Note: Delphi is no longer included in the list as it employs 2,600 as of June, 2008 Buffalo Business First A large number of people in Western New York are employed in by Government and public entities. Large numbers of state employees are due to large state universities like State University of New York at Buffalo, State University of New York College at Buffalo and Erie Community College's three campuses. The table below shows Government employment in Western New York, an area significantly larger than the City of Buffalo (2006 figures) Largest public sector employers http://www.erie.gov/overview/ Employer Employees State of New York 16,508 United States of America 10,000 City of Buffalo (includes schools) 8,218 County of Erie 4,610 Government Buffalo's Art Deco city hall At the municipal level, the City of Buffalo has a council made up of the mayor and nine councilmen. Buffalo also serves as the seat of Erie County with 6 of the 15 county legislators representing at least a portion of Buffalo. At the state level, there are three state assemblymen and two state senators representing parts of the city proper. At the federal level, Buffalo is represented by three members of the House of Representatives. In a trend common to Northern "Rust Belt" regions, political life in Buffalo has been dominated by the Democratic Party for the last half-century, and has been roiled by racial division and social issues. The last time anyone other than a Democrat held the position of Mayor in Buffalo was 1954 http://www.cnn.com/2008/POLITICS/08/20/beck.cities/ . Democratic Mayor James Griffin, was first elected to office as a nominee of two marginal parties, the Conservative party and the Right-to-Life Party in 1977 when he lost the Democratic primary for Mayor to then Deputy State Assembly Speaker Arthur Eve. Griffin switched political allegiance several times during his 14 years as Mayor, generally hewing to socially conservative platforms. His successor, Democrat Anthony M. Masiello (elected in 1993) continued to campaign on social conservatism, often crossing party lines in his endorsements and alliances. In 2005, however, Democrat Byron Brown was elected the city's first African-American mayor in a landslide (64%-27%) over Republican Kevin Helfer, who ran on a conservative platform. This change in local politics was preceded by a fiscal crisis in 2003 when years of economic decline, a diminishing tax-base, and civic mismanagement left the city deep in debt and teetering on the edge of bankruptcy. At the urging of New York State Comptroller Alan Hevesi, the state took over the management of Buffalo's finances, appointing the Buffalo Fiscal Stability Authority. Conversations about merging the city with the larger Erie County government were initiated the following year by Mayor Tony Masiello, but came to naught. Cityscape Buffalo, New York from I-190 North entering downtown. Buffalo, New York's skyline Neighborhoods Buffalo consists of 32 different neighborhoods: (A map and listing of the neighborhoods from the University at Buffalo) Allentown, Bailey-Lovejoy, Black Rock, Central Park, Clinton-Bailey, Cold Springs, Delaware District, Downtown, East Side, Elmwood Village, Fillmore-Leroy, First Ward, Fruit Belt, Hamlin Park, Hospital Hill, Humboldt Park, Kaisertown, Kensington, Kensington Heights, Lower West Side, Masten Park, North Buffalo, North Park, Parkside, Polonia/Broadway Fillmore, Riverside, Schiller Park, South Buffalo, University District, University Heights, Vernon Triangle, Upper West Side, and Willert Park. According to the American Planning Association the Elmwood Village neighborhood in Buffalo is ranked the third best neighborhood in America. ."American Planning Association". Accessed October 4, 2007 Elmwood Village Forever Elmwood - The Elmwood Village Association is a pedestrian-oriented, mixed use neighborhood with hundreds of small, locally owned boutiques, shops, restaurants, and cafes. There are currently 9 common council districts in The City of Buffalo. They are: Delaware, Ellicott, Fillmore, Lovejoy, Masten, Niagara, North, South, and University. Parks The Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens One of Buffalo's many monikers is the City of Trees, which describes the abundance of green in the city. In fact, Buffalo has more than 20 parks with multiple ones being accessible from any part of the city. The Olmsted Park and Parkway System is the hallmark of Buffalo's many green spaces. Three-fourths of city park land is part of the system, which comprises six major parks, eight connecting parkways, nine circles and seven smaller spaces. Begun in 1868 by Frederick Law Olmsted and his partner Calvert Vaux, the system was integrated into the city and marks the first attempt in America to lay out a coordinated system of public parks and parkways. The Olmsted designed portions of the Buffalo park system are listed on the National Register of Historic Places and are maintained by the Buffalo Olmsted Parks Conservancy. Waterfront Aerial view of the waterfront at Buffalo, New York. The city is to the north. The highway to the right is New York State Route 5 Situated at the confluence of Lake Erie and the Buffalo and Niagara Rivers, Buffalo is a waterfront city. The city's rise to economic power came through its waterways in the form of transshipment, manufacturing, and an endless source of energy. Buffalo's waterfront remains, though to a lesser degree, a hub of commerce, trade, and industry. These economic entities, however, no longer hold the answer to future, long-term prosperity. This hope of the populace lies in the burgeoning medical and service industries. . As of 2009, a significant portion of Buffalo's waterfront is being transformed from its industrial past into a focal point for social and recreational activity. Recently excavated and rewatered is the Erie Canal Commercial Slip, which is the original western terminus of the Erie Canal System. This will soon join an entire revitalization of the original Erie Canal Harbor, with shops, eateries, a massive Bass Pro sporting goods outlet, and high-rise condominiums planned. Buffalo's intent is to stress its relatively unknown yet rich architectural and historical heritage, thereby creating a worthy tourism destination. Standard of living The loss of traditional jobs in manufacturing, rapid suburbanization and high costs of labor have led to economic decline, making Buffalo one of the poorest amongst U.S. cities with populations of more than 250,000 people. An estimated 28.7% of Buffalo residents live below the poverty line; only Detroit and Cleveland have higher rates.<ref>Buffalo 3rd Poorest Large City. WGRZ TV. Accessed Oct 14, 2008.</ref> Buffalo's median household income of $27,850 is third-lowest among large cities, behind only Miami and Cleveland; however the median household income for the metropolitan area is $57,000. Buffalo falls to second-poorest big city in U.S., with a poverty rate of nearly 30 percent. Buffalo News. Accessed September 2, 2007. This, in part, has led to the Buffalo-Niagara Falls metropolitan area having the most affordable housing market in the U.S. today. The quarterly NAHB/Wells Fargo Housing Opportunity Index (HOI) noted that nearly 90% of the new and existing homes sold in the metropolitan area during the second quarter were affordable to families making the area's median income of $57,000. The area median price of homes was $75,000. Buffalo faces issues with vacant and abandoned houses, as the city ranks second only to St. Louis on the list of American cities with the most vacant properties per capita. Since 2000, the city has torn down 2,000 vacant homes but as many as 10,000 still remain. Mayor Byron W. Brown recently unveiled a $100 million, five-year plan to demolish 5,000 more houses. Vacant Houses, Scourge of a Beaten-down Buffalo. New York Times. Accessed September 14, 2007. The city's move away from heavy industry and toward a service and bioinformatics economy has brought improved air and water quality, which benefit not only residents and tourists but the bioregion as a whole. In July 2005, Reader's Digest ranked Buffalo as the third cleanest large city in the nation. Derek Burnett,America's Top Five Cleanest Cities. Reader's Digest. Accessed January 4, 2007. Culture Nicknames The most common of its monikers The Queen City first appeared in print in the 1840s, referring to the city's status as the second largest city in New York State after New York City. The Queen City was also used during the 1800s to describe Buffalo as the second largest American city on the Great Lakes after Chicago. Buffalo has also been called The Nickel City due to the appearance of a bison on the back of Indian Head nickel in the early part of the 20th century. The City of Good Neighbors refers to the helpful, friendly spirit of its inhabitants. In the early 20th century, the city began calling itself the City of Light both because of the plentiful hydroelectric power made possible by nearby Niagara Falls and because it was the first city in America to have electric street lights. People Buffalo was first settled primarily by New Englanders. The first wave of European immigrants was a large influx of Germans. The city was further populated by Irish immigrants first, Erie Canal builders and then escaping famine, and infused by Polish, Italian and Sicilian, Jewish, and more recently Latino populations, all of which have made it a melting pot of ethnic cultures. The newest immigrants are from Somalia, Sudan, Asia, and the Arab world. The old First Ward in South Buffalo retains a strong Irish identity, and Kaisertown reflects a German heritage. Buffalo's Polonia centered around the Broadway Market on the East Side, a microcosm of Polish/Slavic traditions and delicacies. The East Side is now home to African Americans, many of whom came north during the Great Migration. The annual Juneteenth Festival is a large cultural celebration organized by African Americans Juneteenth Festival of Buffalo, NY, accessed 7 July 2007 in Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. Park. The West Side is home to the city's Hispanic community, predominantly of Puerto Rican descent. The West Side was once Buffalo's "Little Italy," but in the 1980s much of Buffalo's Italian American community moved to North Buffalo. There is also a small Italian-American enclave in the East Side neighborhood of Lovejoy. Many Buffalo households, churches, and restaurants continue to observe the Sicilian custom of preparing St. Joseph's Day (March 19) tables, at which various meatless Lenten courses are laid out for the poor. Buffalo is also home to a relatively small Jewish community. German Jewish immigrants originally settled on Buffalo's West Side in the mid-1800s. Lower income Russian Jews and Polish Jews immigrating to the Niagara Frontier in the early 1900s initially settled on the lower East Side, near William Street and Jefferson Avenue. The community migrated to the Masten Park neighborhood on the East Side, and then to North Buffalo between the 1940s and the 1960s. Although many still live in the city, particularly in North Buffalo and the Delaware District on the city's West Side, the majority of the Buffalo area's approximately 26,400 Jews now live in the northeastern suburbs of Amherst and Williamsville where the two Jewish Day Schools are located, Kadimah School of Buffalo and Jewish Heritage/Torah U'Masorah Day School. Buffalo's Jewish Community centers are located in the Delaware District and Amherst. Distancing itself from its industrial past, Buffalo is redefining itself as a cultural, banking, educational, medical center and architectural tourism destination. In 2001 USA Today named Buffalo the winner of its "City with a Heart" contest. proclaiming it the nation's "friendliest city." Buffalo is also a two-time winner of the All-America City Award. Food Rib dinner Bowl of "Wings" Beef on Weck sandwich As a melting pot of cultures, cuisine in the Buffalo area reflects a variety of influences. These include Italian, Irish, Jewish, German, Polish, African American, Greek, Indian and American influences. Beef on Weck, Wardynski's kielbasa, Sahlen's hot dogs, sponge candy, pierogi, and haddock fish fries are among the local favorites, as is a loganberry-flavored beverage that remains relatively obscure outside of the Western New York and Southern Ontario area. Weber's mustard is a well known local producer of horseradish mustard which is popular in the Western NY area. Teressa Bellissimo, the chef/owner of the city's Anchor Bar, first prepared the now-widespread chicken wings here on October 3, 1964. , The New Yorker Local or regional chains with a significant presence in the Buffalo area include Louie's Hot Dogs, Ted's Hot Dogs, Anderson's Frozen Custard, Duff's Famous Wings, Jim's Steakout, Just Pizza, Spot Coffee, Tim Hortons, Mighty Taco, Bocce Club and LaNova Pizzeria. Buffalo's pizza is unique, perhaps because Buffalo is geographically located halfway between New York City and Chicago, Illinois, the pizza made is likewise about halfway between thin-crust New York-style pizza and deep-dish Chicago-style pizza. The city is also home to the Pearl Street Brewery and Flying Bison Brewing Company, who continue Buffalo's brewing traditions. Labatt USA, the US operation for Labatt Beer, a Toronto-based brewer, is also headquartered in Buffalo. http://www.buffalonews.com/145/story/620667.html Thousands of Western New Yorkers descend into the city for food festivals during the summer months, such as the Taste of Buffalo and the National Buffalo Wing Festival. Taste of Buffalo, accessed 7 July 2007 There are also festivals themed around ethnic cuisines such as the Italian, Hellenic and Lebanese festivals. Buffalo also has several specialty import/grocery stores in old ethnic neighborhoods, and is home to an eclectic collection of cafes and restaurants that serve adventurous, cosmopolitan fare. Locally-owned restaurants offer Chinese, German, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Thai, Mexican, Italian, Greek, Arab, Indian, Caribbean, Soul Food, and French. Several well-known food companies are based in Buffalo. Non-dairy whipped topping, later imitated by Cool Whip, was invented in Buffalo in 1945 by Robert E. Rich, Sr. His company, Rich Products, is one of the city's largest private employers. General Mills was organized in Buffalo, and Gold Medal brand flour, Wheaties, Cheerios and other General Mills brand cereals are manufactured here. One of the country's largest cheese manufacturers, Sorrento, has been here since 1947. Archer Daniels Midland also operates its largest flour mill in the city. Buffalo is also home to one of the largest privately held food companies in the world, Delaware North Companies, which operates concessions in sports arenas, stadiums, resorts, and many state & federal parks. Art Albright-Knox Art Gallery from Delaware Park (in the back) Buffalo is home to over 50 private and public art galleries City of Buffalo Public Art Collection , most notably the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, home to a world-class collection of modern and contemporary art. The local art scene is also enhanced by the Burchfield-Penney Art Center, Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center, CEPA, and many small galleries and studios. Hallwalls Contemporary Arts Center, accessed 7 July 2007 CEPA Gallery, access 7 July 2007 AmericanStyle ranked Buffalo fourth in its list of America's top art destinations. Two street festivals - the Allentown Art Festival and the Elmwood Festival of the Arts - bring thousands of people to the city to browse and purchase original crafts. The Buffalo Philharmonic Orchestra, which performs at Kleinhans Music Hall, is one of the city's most prominent performing arts institutions. Shea's Performing Arts Center, long known as Shea's Buffalo, is an old-style large theatre that continues to show productions and concerts. Buffalo is also home to the second largest free outdoor Shakespeare festival in the United States, Shakespeare in Delaware Park. Architecture Buffalo Japanese Garden Many architectural treasures exist in Buffalo, including: The country's largest intact parks system designed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, including Delaware Park. Buffalo was the first city for which Olmsted designed (in 1869) an interconnected park and parkway system rather than stand-alone parks. The Guaranty Building, by Louis Sullivan, was one of the first steel-supported, curtain-walled buildings in the world, and its thirteen stories made it, at the time it was built (1895), the tallest building in Buffalo and one of the world's first true skyscrapers. Louis Sullivan - Guaranty / Prudential Building, accessed 7 July 2007 It is a National Historic Landmark. The Hotel Buffalo (originally the Statler Hotel) by August Esenwein and James A. Johnson was the first hotel in the world to feature a private bath in each room. The H. H. Richardson Complex, originally the New York State Asylum for the Insane, is Richardsonian Romanesque in style and was the largest commission designed by prominent architect Henry Hobson Richardson. The grounds of this hospital were designed by Olmsted. Though currently in a state of disrepair, New York State has allocated funds to restore this treasure. , There are several buildings by Frank Lloyd Wright, including the Darwin D. Martin House, George Barton House, William Heath House, Davidson House, The Graycliff Estate, as well as the now demolished Larkin Administration Building. William Heath House, accessed 7 July 2007 The Graycliff Estate, accessed 7 July 2007 Constructed in 2007 on Buffalo's Black Rock Canal is a Wright-designed boathouse originally intended, but never built, for the University of Wisconsin-Madison rowing team. Along as a tourist destination, it functionally serves many Buffalo-area rowing clubs. Buffalo has more Frank Lloyd Wright buildings than any other city except Chicago. The Buffalo City Hall building by George Dietel and John J. Wade is a spectacular art deco skyscraper and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Other notable buildings: Buffalo Central Terminal, the massive Art Deco railroad station designed by Alfred T. Fellheimer and Steward Wagner. Lafayette High School, a stone, brick and terra-cotta structure in the French Renaissance Revival style by architects August Eisenwein and James A. Johnson, is the oldest public school in Buffalo that remains in its original building, and is on the National Register of Historic Places. St. Adalbert's Basilica, is a large, basilica-like structure on the city's east side. Built by Huber and Company in 1890-1891, it was built by Polish immigrants. The building itself is brick, its dimensions are high, wide, nave high, the two towers are high with a dome wide and soaring above the main nave. At that time it was the largest church in Western New York and cost $63,000 without the furnishings. Albright-Knox Art Gallery, a world-renowned repository of art, was designed by Edward Brodhead Green. The new modern art wing was designed by Gordon Bunshaft, a native Buffalonian and graduate of the above-noted Lafayette High School. Richard Upjohn designed St. Paul's Episcopal Cathedral Eliel Saarinen and Eero Saarinen designed Kleinhans Music Hall Max Abramovitz designed Temple Beth Zion Temple Beth Zion, accessed 7 July 2007 Alexander Phimister Proctor designed the Lions for the McKinley Monument Grain elevators were invented here in 1842. Buffalo's collection is the largest in the world. Nightlife Shea's Performing Arts Center Last call is at 4 a.m. in Buffalo, rather than 2 a.m. as in most other areas of the U.S. This is often attributed to the historically high density of industrial facilities and the demand of second and third shift patrons. It is also because New York law allows bars to be open until 4 a.m. (However, local municipalities can override it to an earlier time.) This law was actually designed to accommodate the thriving late nightlife of New York City, but the state's "Second City" has adopted it as well. Several distinct and thriving nightlife districts have grown around clusters of bars and nightclubs in the city. The most visible nightlife district is West Chippewa Street Buffalo Bills, Buffalo Sabres, Buffalo NightLife, chippewa street, west chippewa street, Chippewa Street, West Chippewa Street , located between Main Street and South Elmwood Avenue. The area is home to high-energy dance clubs, crowded bars, trendy coffeehouses, and restaurants. Allentown, where bars are as numerous but the atmosphere is a bit more relaxed, is a several minute walk north to Allen Street. Allen Street near Main Street houses several gay bars, while Allen near Elmwood has many bars that feature live music. Continuing up Elmwood Avenue from Allentown is the Elmwood Strip, which runs about two miles to Buffalo State College. This strip has numerous small boutiques and restaurants, with few large corporate establishments. Crowds on this strip include everyone from college students to families to the elderly. The city and surrounding Niagara Region also have an active summer concert schedule, a large portion of which are free and easy to access. The events are well planned and are spaced out through the week. Artpark on Tuesday nights, Buffalo Place hosts 'Thursdays at the Square', The Canal Concert series is on Saturday nights in Lockport and new for 2008 is a Friday night series on the Erie canal in North Tonawanda. Other points of interest Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park Edward M. Cotter fireboat - Considered to be the world's oldest active fireboat and is a United States National Historic Landmark Buffalo and Erie County Botanical Gardens Buffalo and Erie County Historical Society The Buffalo & Erie County Historical Society Buffalo New York Buffalo Museum of Science Buffalo Museum of Science - Home Buffalo Zoo - The third oldest zoo in the United States established in 1875 Forest Lawn Cemetery Mark Twain Room at the Central Branch of the Buffalo and Erie County Public Library. B&ECPL :: Collections of Special Interest Contains the original manuscript of Huckleberry Finn USS Little Rock (CG-4) in Buffalo and Erie County Naval & Military Park The Anchor Bar - birthplace of the Buffalo wing or the chicken wing as it is commonly called in the region Our Lady of Victory Basilica The Basilica of Our Lady of Victory Lafayette Square Penn Dixie Paleontological and Outdoor Education Center Transportation Airport Buffalo is served by the Buffalo Niagara International Airport, located in Cheektowaga. The airport, recently re-constructed, serves over 5 million passengers a year and is still growing. Buffalo Niagara International Airport ranks among the five cheapest airports from which to fly in the country, according to the U.S. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. The average round trip flight cost is $295.58. In the last few years there has been a surge in Canadians flying out of Buffalo, mainly due to much cheaper tax and airline surcharges, as compared with Canadian Airports and the ability to fly on some US based discount carriers not available in Canada. As of 2006, plans are in the works by U.S. Senator Charles Schumer to make the under-used Niagara Falls International Airport into an international cargo hub for New York and Toronto, as well as Canada as a whole. Public transit The Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority (NFTA) operates Buffalo Niagara International Airport and Niagara Falls International Airport, and the public transit system throughout the Buffalo area. The NFTA operates bus lines throughout the city and suburbs, as well as the Metro Rail transit system in the city. The Metro Rail is a 6.4 mile (10.3 km) long, single line rail that extends from downtown Buffalo to the University Heights district in north Buffalo. The downtown section of the line is operated above ground and is free of charge to passengers. Outside the downtown area the line transitions to an underground system until it reaches the end of the line at University Heights. Passengers pay a fee to ride this section of the rail. A new NFTA project is underway, often called "Cars on Main Street", that will substantially revise the downtown portion of the Metro Rail. It will allow vehicular traffic and Metro Rail cars to share Main St. in a manner similar to that of the trolleys of San Francisco. The design includes newly designed stations and pedestrian-friendly improvements. The first phase of the project is underway, and will be completed by spring 2009. When the entire project is complete in the next few years, the downtown portion of Main St. will be re-opened to vehicular traffic for the first time in almost 30 years. This is expected to have a significant impact on the quality of life and business in the city center. Intercity rail Two train stations, Buffalo-Depew and Buffalo-Exchange Street serve the city and are operated by Amtrak. VIA Rail also serves these stations for travel into Canada. Freight service for Buffalo is served by CSX Transportation and Norfolk Southern (NS), as well as Canadian National (CN) and Canadian Pacific (CP) railroads from across the Border. The area has 4 large rail yards: Frontier (CSX), Bison (NS), SK (NS / CP) and Buffalo Creek (NS / CSX). A large amount of hazardous cargo also crosses through the Buffalo area, such as liquid propane and anhydrous ammonia. Waterways Buffalo is at the eastern end of Lake Erie, one of the Great Lakes, which boasts the greatest variety of freshwater sportfish in the country. The Lake serves as a playground for numerous personal yachts, sailboats, power boats and watercraft, and provides a short water route to excellent sand beaches on the nearby Ontario (Canada) shore. The city has an extensive breakwall system protecting its inner and outer Lake Erie harbors, which are maintained at commercial navigation depths for Great Lakes freighters. A Lake Erie tributary that flows through south Buffalo is the Buffalo River, for which the city is named. Buffalo is historically linked to the fabled Erie Canal, which ends where the Black Rock Channel enters Lake Erie. When the Canal was dedicated in 1825, its conceiver, New York State governor DeWitt Clinton took waters from Lake Erie at Buffalo's Western Terminus of the Canal (now the Commercial Slip). He sailed to New York City on the Canal packet Seneca Chief'', which later returned to Buffalo with Atlantic Ocean water. The seawater was poured into the Lake by Judge and future Buffalo Mayor Samuel Wilkeson. Once a major route for passengers and cargo, the Canal is now used primarily for pleasure craft and some light local freight, and in Buffalo it bypasses the swift upper reach of the Niagara River. A tributary of the Niagara River is Scajaquada Creek, which flows though Buffalo, via the Frederick Law Olmsted-designed Delaware Lake and Park. National and state highway access Major highways that serve the Greater Buffalo area Interstate 90 (New York State Thruway) Interstate 190, New York State Thruway's Niagara Section, travels from I-90 in southwest Cheektowaga to Niagara River in Lewiston. The only tolled portion is now the bridges connecting Grand Island to Niagara Falls (north), and Buffalo (south). Interstate 290 (New York), Youngmann Memorial Highway, connects Buffalo with its northern suburbs of Amherst and Tonawanda, and provides a route to Niagara Falls that bypasses the city of Buffalo. Interstate 990, short interstate highway located entirely in the town of Amherst, NY. U.S. Route 62, Bailey Ave and South Park Ave. NY Route 5, Main St. NY Route 130, Broadway NY Route 384, Delaware Ave. NY Route 266, Niagara St. NY Route 265, Military Rd. and Tonawanda St. NY Route 198, Scajaquada Expressway NY Route 33, Kensington Expwy. Federal offices US Army Corps of Engineers The offices of the Buffalo District, US Army Corps of Engineers are located adjacent to the Black Rock Lock in the Black Rock channel of the Erie Canal. In addition to maintaining and operating the lock, the District is responsible for planning, design, construction and maintenance of water resources projects in an area extending from Toledo, Ohio to Massena, New York. These include the flood-control dam at Mount Morris, New York, oversight of the lower Great Lakes (Erie and Ontario), review and permitting of wetlands construction, and remedial action for hazardous waste sites. Buffalo is also the home of a major office of the National Weather Service (NOAA), which serves all of western and much of central New York State. Federal courts Buffalo is also the location of the chief judge, United States Attorney, and administrative offices for the United States District Court for the Western District of New York. Federal Reserve Bank of New York "As the upstate regional presence of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, the Buffalo Branch promotes regional vitality by providing economic intelligence and analysis to inform and enable decisionmakers to advance better outcomes for the upstate New York economy." Sports teams Current teams Sport League Club Founded Venue League championships Championship years Football NFL Buffalo Bills 1960 Ralph Wilson Stadium 2* 1964,1965* Hockey NHL Buffalo Sabres 1970 HSBC Arena 0 Baseball IL Buffalo Bisons 1979 Coca-Cola Field 3 1997, 1998, 2004 Lacrosse NLL Buffalo Bandits 1992 HSBC Arena 4 1992, 1993, 1996, 2008 Basketball PBL Buffalo Stampede 2008 Koessler Athletic Center 0 N/A Soccer NPSL Queen City FC 2007 All-High Stadium 0 N/A Arena Football AF2 TBD http://www.buffalonews.com/sports/story/354801.html BuffaloNews.com Accessed 27-MAY-2008 2009 HSBC Arena 0 N/A Soccer USL W-League Buffalo Flash http://wleague.uslsoccer.com/home/266596.html 2009 Orchard Park High School 0 N/A* Championships listed are American Football League championships, not NFL championships. The Bills have never won an NFL championship (Super Bowl). Former teams The Buffalo Bisons of the National League from 1879–1885. The Buffalo Blues of the defunct Federal League of baseball from 1914–1915. The Buffalo Niagaras, Prospects, All-Americans, Bisons, and Rangers of the National Football League from 1918–1929. The Buffalo Bisons of the defunct All-America Football Conference in 1946. The Buffalo Bills of the defunct All-America Football Conference from 1947–1949. The Buffalo Bisons of the American Hockey League from 1940–1970. The Buffalo Bisons of the National Basketball Association in 1946 which are the Atlanta Hawks. The Buffalo Braves of the National Basketball Association from 1970–1978. (became the San Diego Clippers then the Los Angeles Clippers). The Buffalo Norsemen of the North American Hockey League from 1975–1976. The Buffalo Blazers outdoor soccer team. The Buffalo Sharks of the American Basketball Association from 2005-2008. The Buffalo Stallions of the defunct Major Indoor Soccer League from 1979–1984. The Buffalo Stampede of the defunct Roller Hockey International from 1994–1995. The Buffalo Wings of the defunct Roller Hockey International and Major League Roller Hockey from 1997–1999. The Buffalo Blizzard of the defunct National Professional Soccer League II from 1992–2001. The Buffalo Destroyers of the Arena Football League from 1999–2003. Media Sister cities Buffalo has a number of sister cities as designated by Sister Cities International (SCI): New York State Sister Cities. Sister Cities, Inc.'' Sister Cities from Buffalo's website Lille, France (1989) Dortmund, Germany (1972) Cape Coast, Ghana Kiryat Gat, Israel Pescasseroli, Italy Siena, Italy (1961) Torremaggiore, Italy Saint Ann, Jamaica (2007) Kanazawa, Japan (1962) Rzeszów, Poland (1974) Tver, Russia (1989) Drohobych, Ukraine (2001) Horlivka, Ukraine (2007) Honorary consulates in Buffalo Austria Canada - (Consulate General) Czech Republic France Germany Italy Japan Sweden Switzerland See also Famous people from Buffalo South Buffalo Polish Cathedral East Side, Buffalo Buffalo City Hall Buffalo Fire Department Buffalo Airfield References Further reading The Ten Most Indispensable Books About Buffalo External links City of Buffalo, New York Buffalo & Erie County Public Library Buffalo Niagara Arts and Culture Shea's Performing Arts Center Visitor Information from Buffalo Niagara Convention & Visitors Bureau Northwest: Grand Island North: Kenmore, Tonawanda Northeast: Amherst West: Fort Erie, Niagara River Buffalo East: 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7,273 | Income | Income, refers to consumption opportunity gained by an entity within a specified time frame, which is generally expressed in monetary terms. However, for households and individuals, "income is the sum of all the wages, salaries, profits, interests payments, rents and other forms of earnings received... in a given period of time." Case, K. & Fair, R. (2007). Principles of Economics. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. p. 54. For firms, income generally refers to net-profit: what remains of revenue after expenses have been subtracted. In the field of public economics, it may refer to the accumulation of both monetary and non-monetary consumption ability, the former being used as a proxy for total income. The International Accounting Standards Board uses this definition: "Income is increases in economic benefits during the accounting period in the form of inflows or enhancements of assets or decreases of liabilities that result in increases in equity, other than those relating to contributions from equity participants." [F.70] (IFRS Framework) Meaning in economics and use in economic theory In economics, factor income is the flow (that is, measured per unit of time) of revenue accruing to a person or nation from labor services and from ownership of land and capital. In consumer theory 'income' is another name for the "budget constraint," an amount Y to be spent on different goods x and y in quantities x and y at prices Px and Py. The basic equation for this is Y = Px • x + Py • y. This equation implies two things. First buying one more unit of good x implies buying Px/Py less units of good y. So, Px/Py is the relative price of a unit of x as to the number of units given up in y. Second, if the price of x falls for a fixed Y, then its relative price falls. The usual hypothesis is that the quantity demanded of x would increase at the lower price, the law of demand. The generalization to more than two goods consists of modelling y as a composite good. The theoretical generalization to more than one period is a multi-period wealth and income constraint. For example the same person can gain more productive skills or acquire more productive income-earning assets to earn a higher income. In the multi-period case, something might also happen to the economy beyond the control of the individual to reduce (or increase) the flow of income. Changing measured income and its relation to consumption over time might be modeled accordingly, such as in the permanent income hypothesis. Income inequality Income inequality refers to the extent to which income is distributed in an uneven manner. Within a society can be measured by various methods, including the Lorenz curve and the Gini coefficient. Economists generally agree that certain amounts of inequality are necessary and desirable but that excessive inequality leads to efficiency problems and social injustice. National income, measured by statistics such as the Net National Income (NNI), measures the total income of individuals, corporations, and government in the economy. For more information see measures of national income and output. Income in Philosophy and Ethics Throughout history, many have written about the impact of income growth on morality and society. Saint Paul wrote 'The love of money causes all kinds of trouble' (1 Timothy 6:10 (CEV). Some scholars have come to the conclusion that material progress and prosperity, as manifested in continuous income growth at both individual and national level, provide the indispensable foundation for sustaining any kind of morality. This argument was explicitly given by Adam Smith in his Theory of Moral Sentiments, and has more recently been developed in depth by Harvard economist Benjamin Friedman in his well-acclaimed recent book The Moral Consequences of Economic Growth. Meaning within U.S. accountancy In U.S. business and financial accounting, the term "income" is generally defined by GAAP and the Financial Accounting Standards Board as: Revenues - Expenses; however, many people use it as shorthand for net income, which is the amount of money that a company earns after covering all of its costs as well as taxes. Net income is also called net profit. It is calculated as follows: 1. The gross income or revenue is tabulated. 2. Where applicable, the cost of goods sold or cost of operations figure is subtracted from the gross income to yield the gross profit. 3. All expenses other than the COGS or COO are subsequently subtracted from the gross profit to yield the profit or income - or, if a negative number, the net loss (usually written in parentheses). More commonly, this is reported on the Income Statement as "Income (or Loss) Before Taxes." 4. Taxes are then subtracted from the pre-tax income to give a final net income or net profit (or net loss) figure. 5. The patented Blatt double check is then factored in. Net income or net profit which is not expended to shareholders in the form of dividends becomes part of retained earnings. All public companies are required to provide financial statements on a quarterly basis, and the income statement of income is one of the most important of these. Some companies also provide a more rosy financial report of their income, with pro forma reporting, or, EBITDA reporting. Pro forma income is an estimate of how much the company would have earned without including the negative effect of exceptional "one-time events", supposedly in order to show investors how much money the company would have made under normal circumstances if these exceptional, one-time events had not occurred. Critics charge that, in most cases, the "one-time events" are normal business events, such as an acquisition of another company or a write off of a cancelled project or division, and that pro forma reporting is an attempt to mislead investors by painting a rosy financial picture. Besides that, when discussing results with analysts and shareholders, CEOs and CFOs have a tendency to do even more "hypothetical accounting". EBITDA stands for "earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortisation", and is also criticised for being an attempt to mislead investors. Warren Buffett has criticised EBITDA reporting, famously asking, "Does management think the tooth fairy pays for capital expenditures?" It is common for some other companies, such as real estate investment trusts, to present reports using a standard called FFO, or "Funds From Operations". Like EBITDA reporting, FFO ignores depreciation and amortization. This is widely accepted in the industry, as real estate values tend to increase rather than decrease over time, and many data sites report earnings per share data using FFO. Full and Haig-Simons income Full income refers to the accumulation of both, monetary and non-monetary consumption ability of any given entity, such a person or household. According to the what economist Nicholas Barr describes as the "classical definition of income:" the 1938 Haig-Simons definition, "income may be defined as the... sum of (1) the market value of rights exercised in consumption and (2) the change in the value of the store of property rights..." Since the consumption potential of non-monetary goods, such as leisure, cannot be measured, monetary income may be thought of as a proxy for full income. As such, however, it is criticized for being unreliable, i.e. failing to accurately reflect affluence and that is consumption opportunities of any given agent. It omits the utility a person may derive from non-monetary income and, on a macroeconomic level, fails to accurately chart social welfare. According to Barr, "in practice money income as a proportion of total income varies widely and unsystematically. Non-observability of full-income prevent a complete characterization of the individual opportunity set, forcing us to use the unreliable yardstick of money income." On the macro-economic level, national per-capita income, increases with the consumption of activities that produce harm and omits many variables of societal health. Barr, N. (2004). Problems and definition of measurement. In Economics of the welfare state. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 121-124 See also Basic income Comprehensive income Income tax References D. Usher (1987). "real income," The New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics, v. 4, pp. 104–05 External links Income definition with explanations in simple terms | Income |@lemmatized income:55 refers:3 consumption:8 opportunity:3 gain:2 entity:2 within:3 specified:1 time:8 frame:1 generally:4 express:1 monetary:8 term:3 however:3 household:2 individual:5 sum:2 wage:1 salary:1 profit:8 interest:2 payment:1 rent:1 form:3 earnings:4 receive:1 give:6 period:5 case:3 k:1 fair:1 r:1 principle:1 economics:6 upper:1 saddle:1 river:1 nj:1 pearson:1 education:1 p:1 firm:1 refer:2 net:11 remain:1 revenue:4 expense:3 subtract:4 field:1 public:2 may:4 accumulation:2 non:5 ability:2 former:1 use:7 proxy:2 total:3 international:1 accounting:5 standard:3 board:2 definition:5 increase:6 economic:4 benefit:1 inflow:1 enhancement:1 asset:2 decrease:2 liability:1 result:2 equity:2 relate:1 contribution:1 participant:1 f:1 ifrs:1 framework:1 meaning:2 theory:3 factor:2 flow:2 measure:6 per:3 unit:5 accrue:1 person:4 nation:1 labor:1 service:1 ownership:1 land:1 capital:2 consumer:1 another:2 name:1 budget:1 constraint:2 amount:3 spend:1 different:1 good:7 x:7 quantity:2 price:5 px:4 py:4 basic:2 equation:2 imply:1 two:2 thing:1 first:1 buy:2 one:6 implies:1 le:1 relative:2 number:2 second:1 fall:2 fixed:1 usual:1 hypothesis:2 demand:2 would:3 low:1 law:1 generalization:2 consists:1 model:2 composite:1 theoretical:1 multi:2 wealth:1 example:1 productive:2 skill:1 acquire:1 earn:4 high:1 something:1 might:2 also:5 happen:1 economy:2 beyond:1 control:1 reduce:1 change:2 measured:1 relation:1 accordingly:1 permanent:1 inequality:4 extent:1 distribute:1 uneven:1 manner:1 society:2 various:1 method:1 include:2 lorenz:1 curve:1 gini:1 coefficient:1 economist:3 agree:1 certain:1 necessary:1 desirable:1 excessive:1 lead:1 efficiency:1 problem:2 social:2 injustice:1 national:5 statistic:1 nni:1 corporation:1 government:1 information:1 see:2 output:1 philosophy:1 ethic:1 throughout:1 history:1 many:4 write:4 impact:1 growth:3 morality:2 saint:1 paul:1 love:1 money:5 cause:1 kind:2 trouble:1 timothy:1 cev:1 scholar:1 come:1 conclusion:1 material:1 progress:1 prosperity:1 manifest:1 continuous:1 level:3 provide:3 indispensable:1 foundation:1 sustain:1 argument:1 explicitly:1 adam:1 smith:1 moral:2 sentiment:1 recently:1 develop:1 depth:1 harvard:1 benjamin:1 friedman:1 well:2 acclaim:1 recent:1 book:1 consequence:1 u:3 accountancy:1 business:2 financial:5 define:2 gaap:1 people:1 shorthand:1 company:7 cover:1 cost:3 tax:6 call:2 calculate:1 follow:1 gross:4 tabulate:1 applicable:1 sell:1 operation:2 figure:2 yield:2 cog:1 coo:1 subsequently:1 negative:2 loss:3 usually:1 parenthesis:1 commonly:1 report:4 statement:3 pre:1 final:1 patented:1 blatt:1 double:1 check:1 expend:1 shareholder:2 dividend:1 becomes:1 part:1 retained:1 require:1 quarterly:1 basis:1 important:1 rosy:2 pro:3 forma:3 reporting:5 ebitda:4 estimate:1 much:2 without:1 effect:1 exceptional:2 event:4 supposedly:1 order:1 show:1 investor:3 make:1 normal:2 circumstance:1 occur:1 critic:1 charge:1 acquisition:1 cancelled:1 project:1 division:1 attempt:2 mislead:2 paint:1 picture:1 besides:1 discuss:1 analyst:1 ceo:1 cfo:1 tendency:1 even:1 hypothetical:1 stand:1 depreciation:2 amortisation:1 criticise:2 warren:1 buffett:1 famously:1 ask:1 management:1 think:2 tooth:1 fairy:1 pay:1 expenditure:1 common:1 real:3 estate:2 investment:1 trust:1 present:1 ffo:3 fund:1 like:1 ignores:1 amortization:1 widely:2 accept:1 industry:1 value:3 tend:1 rather:1 data:2 site:1 share:1 full:4 haig:2 simon:2 accord:2 nicholas:1 barr:3 describes:1 classical:1 market:1 right:2 exercise:1 store:1 property:1 since:1 potential:1 leisure:1 cannot:1 criticize:1 unreliable:2 e:1 fail:2 accurately:2 reflect:1 affluence:1 agent:1 omit:2 utility:1 derive:1 macroeconomic:1 chart:1 welfare:2 practice:1 proportion:1 varies:1 unsystematically:1 observability:1 prevent:1 complete:1 characterization:1 set:1 force:1 yardstick:1 macro:1 capita:1 activity:1 produce:1 harm:1 variable:1 societal:1 health:1 n:1 measurement:1 state:1 new:2 york:1 oxford:1 university:1 press:1 pp:2 comprehensive:1 reference:1 usher:1 palgrave:1 dictionary:1 v:1 external:1 link:1 explanation:1 simple:1 |@bigram upper_saddle:1 nj_pearson:1 lorenz_curve:1 gini_coefficient:1 moral_sentiment:1 pro_forma:3 warren_buffett:1 real_estate:2 per_capita:1 capita_income:1 income_tax:1 palgrave_dictionary:1 external_link:1 |
7,274 | Kimono | A traditional wedding kimono A traditional red Uchikake kimono with cranes The is the traditional clothing of Japan. Originally the word "kimono" literally meant "thing to wear" (ki "wearing" and mono "thing") kimono from Merriam-Webster but now has come to denote a particular type of traditional full-length Japanese garment. The standard plural of the word kimono in English is kimonos dictionary.reference.com , but the unmarked Japanese plural kimono is also sometimes found. Kimonos are T-shaped, straight-lined robes with collars and full-length sleeves that typically are wide. Both genders wear their kimono so that the hem falls to the ankle. Kimonos are wrapped around the body, always with the left side over the right (except when dressing the dead for burial) HanamiWeb - What Kimono Signifies and secured by a wide belt called an obi, which is tied at the back. Kimonos are generally worn with traditional footwear (especially zōri or geta) and split-toe socks (tabi). Today, kimonos are most often worn by women, and on special occasions. Traditionally, unmarried women wore a style of kimono called furisode, with almost floor-length sleeves, on special occasions. A few older women and even fewer men still wear the kimono on a daily basis. Men wear the kimono most often at weddings, tea ceremonies, and other very special or very formal occasions. Professional sumo wrestlers are often seen in the kimono because they are required to wear traditional Japanese dress whenever appearing in public. They commonly wear the kind of casual Japanese attire that is referred to as yukata, which is of plain unlined cotton. History Japanese adoption of Chinese ruqun during the Nara Period, which developed into today's kimono As the kimono has another name , the earliest kimonos were heavily influenced by traditional Han Chinese clothing, known today as , through Japanese embassies to China which resulted in extensive Chinese culture adoptions by Japan, as early as the fifth century ce. It was during the 8th century, however, when Chinese fashions came into style among the Japanese, and the overlapping collar became particularly a women's fashion. During Japan's Heian period (794–1192 ce), the kimono became increaslingly stylized, though one still wore a half-apron, called a mo, over it . During the Muromachi age (1392-1573), the Kosode, a single kimono formerly considered underwear, began to be worn without the hakama pants over it, and thus began to be held closed by an obi "belt" . During the Edo period (1603-1867), the sleeves began to grow in length, especially among unmarried women, and the Obi became wider, with various styles of tying coming into fashion . Since then, the basic shape of both the men’s and women’s kimono has remained essentially unchanged. Kimonos made with exceptional skill from fine materials have been regarded as great works of art.. The formal Kimono was replaced by the more convenient Western clothes and Yukata as everyday wear. After an edict by Emperor Meiji, 1871(明治5)年11月12日太政官布告399号 police, railroad men and teachers moved to Western clothes. The Western clothes became the army and school uniform for boys. After the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake, Kimono wearers often became victims of robbery. The Tokyo Women's & Children's Wear Manufacturers' Association(東京婦人子供服組合) promoted the western clothes. Between 1920 and 1930 the Sailor outfit replaced the undivided hakama in school uniform for girls. The 1932 fire at Shirokiya's Nihombashi store is said to have been the catalyst for the decline in kimonos as everyday wear. (It is, however, suggested, that this is an urban myth.) Old Tokyo: Shirokiya Department Store The national uniform, Gokumin-fuku (国民服) a type of western clothes was mandated for males in 1940. 戦時衣生活簡素化実施要綱 国民服令 国民服制式特例 Today people often wear western clothes, and wear the easier to wear, cool and comfortable Yukata in special time. Textiles Japanese woman in a kimono, circa 1870 Kimonos for men are available in various sizes, but kimonos for women are typically of a similar, larger size and are adjusted to body size by tucking and folding. An ideally tailored kimono has sleeves that end at the wrist when the arms are lowered. Men's kimonos should fall approximately to the ankle without tucking. A woman's kimono is longer to allow for the ohashori, the tuck that can be seen under the obi. Kimonos are made from a single bolt of fabric called a tan. Bolts come in standard dimensions — about 14 inches wide and 12½ yards long – and the entire fabric is used to make one kimono. The finished kimono consists of four main strips of fabric – two panels covering the body and two panels forming the sleeves – with additional smaller strips forming the narrow front panel and collar. Historically, kimonos were often taken apart for washing as separate panels and resewn by hand. Because the entire bolt remains in the finished garment without cutting, the kimono can be retailored easily to fit a different person. The maximum width of the sleeve is dictated by the width of the fabric. The distance from the center of the spine to the end of the sleeve could not exceed twice the width of the fabric. Traditional kimono fabric was typically no more than 36 centimeters (14 inches) wide. Thus the distance from spine to wrist could not exceed a maximum of roughly 68 centimeters (27 inches). Modern kimono fabric is woven as wide as 42 centimeters (17 inches) to accommodate modern Japanese body sizes. Very tall or heavy people, such as sumo wrestlers, must have kimono custom-made by either joining multiple bolts of fabric together or weaving custom-width fabric. source Traditional kimonos are sewn by hand, and their fabrics are also frequently hand made and hand decorated. Various techniques such as yūzen dye resist are used for applying decoration and patterns to the base cloth. Repeating patterns that cover a large area of a kimono are traditionally done with the yūzen resist technique and a stencil. Over time there have been many variations in color, fabric and style, as well as accessories such as the obi. The kimono and obi are traditionally made of silk, silk brocade, silk crepes (such as chirimen) and satin weaves (such as rinzu). Modern kimonos are also widely available in less-expensive easy-care fabrics such as rayon, cotton sateen, cotton, polyester and other synthetic fibers. Silk is still considered the ideal fabric, however, and is a must for formal occasions. Modern styles of furisode A young woman wearing a furisode kimono. Customarily, woven patterns and dyed repeat patterns are considered informal; Formal kimonos have free-style designs dyed over the whole surface or along the hem. During the Heian period, kimonos were worn with up to a dozen or more colorful contrasting layers, with each combination of colors being a named pattern. Today, the kimono is normally worn with a single layer on top of a slip style undergarment. The pattern of the kimono can also determine in what season it should be worn. For example, a pattern with butterflies or cherry blossoms would be worn in spring. Watery designs are common during the summer. A popular autumn motif is the russet leaf of the Japanese maple; for winter, designs may include bamboo, pine trees and plum blossoms. Old kimonos are often recycled in various ways: altered to make haori, hiyoku, or kimonos for children, used to patch similar kimono, used for making handbags and similar kimono accessories, and used to make covers, bags or cases for various implements, especially for sweet-picks used in tea ceremonies. Kimonos with damage below the waistline can also be worn under a hakama to hide the damage. Historically, skilled craftsmen laboriously picked the silk thread from old kimono and rewove it into a new textile in the width of a heko obi for men's kimonoa, using a recycling weaving method called saki-ori. Parts of a woman's kimono Diagrams of the kimono parts. Doura upper lining Eri 衿 collar Fuki hem guard Furi sleeve below the armhole Maemigoro 前身頃 front main panel Miyatsukuchi opening under the sleeve Okumi 衽 front inside panel Sode 袖 sleeve Sodeguchi 袖口 sleeve opening Sodetsuke 袖付 kimono armhole Susomawashi 裾回し lower lining Tamoto 袂 sleeve pouch Tomoeri 共衿 over collar Uraeri 裏襟 inner collar Ushiromigoro back main section Cost Women dressed as maiko (apprentice geisha), wearing specially tailored "maiko-style" furisode kimonos with tucks in sleeves and at shoulders Kimonos can be expensive. A woman's kimono may easily exceed US$10,000; a complete kimono outfit, with kimono, undergarments, obi, ties, socks, sandals and accessories, can exceed US$20,000. A single obi may cost several thousand dollars. However, most kimonos owned by kimono hobbyists or by practitioners of traditional arts are far less expensive. Enterprising people make their own kimono and undergarments by following a standard pattern, or by recycling older kimonos. Cheaper and machine-made fabrics can substitute for the traditional hand-dyed silk. There is also a thriving business in Japan for second-hand kimonos, which can cost as little as ¥500. Women's obis, however, mostly remain an expensive item. Although simple patterned or plain colored ones can cost as low as ¥1,500, even a used obi can cost hundreds of dollars, and experienced craftsmanship is required to make them. Men's obis, even those made from silk, tend to be much less expensive, because they are narrower, shorter and less decorative than those worn by women. Styles Kimonos range from extremely formal to casual. The level of formality of women's kimono is determined mostly by the pattern of the fabric, and color. Young women's kimonos have longer sleeves,signifying that they are not married, and tend to be more elaborate than similarly formal older women's kimono. Men's kimonos are usually one basic shape and are mainly worn in subdued colors. Formality is also determined by the type and color of accessories, the fabric, and the number or absence of kamon (family crests), with five crests signifying extreme formality. Silk is the most desirable, and most formal, fabric. Kimonos made of fabrics such as cotton and polyester generally reflect a more casual style. Women's Kimonos A modern second hand kimono shop. Many modern Japanese women lack the skill to put on a kimono unaided: the typical woman's kimono consists of twelve or more separate pieces that are worn, matched and secured in prescribed ways, and the assistance of licensed professional kimono dressers may be required. Called upon mostly for special occasions, kimono dressers both work out of hair salons and make house calls. Choosing an appropriate type of kimono requires knowledge of the garment's symbolism and subtle social messages, reflecting the woman's age, marital status, and the level of formality of the occasion. Kurotomesode (): a black kimono patterned only below the waistline, kurotoroko are the most formal kimono for married women. They are often worn by the mothers of the bride and groom at weddings. Kurotomesode usually have five kamon printed on the sleeves, chest and back of the kimono. Furisode (): furisode literally translates as swinging sleeves—the sleeves of furisode average between 39 and in length. Furisode are the most formal kimono for unmarried women, with colorful patterns that cover the entire garment. They are usually worn at coming-of-age ceremonies (seijin shiki) and by unmarried female relatives of the bride at weddings and wedding receptions. Irotomesode (): single-color kimono, patterned only below the waistline. Irotomesode are slightly less formal than kurotomesode, and are worn by married women, usually close relatives of the bride and groom at weddings. An irotomesode may have three or five kamon. Homongi (): literally translates as visiting wear. Characterized by patterns that flow over the shoulders, seams and sleeves, hōmongi rank slightly higher than their close relative, the tsukesage. Hōmongi may be worn by both married and unmarried women; often friends of the bride will wear hōmongi at weddings and receptions. They may also be worn to formal parties. Tsukesage (): has more modest patterns that cover a smaller area—mainly below the waist—than the more formal hōmongi. They may also be worn by married women. Iromuji (): single-colored kimono that may be worn by married and unmarried women. They are mainly worn to tea ceremonies. The dyed silk may be figured (rinzu, similar to jacquard), but has no differently colored patterns. Komon (): "fine pattern". Kimono with a small, repeated pattern throughout the garment. This style is more casual and may be worn around town, or dressed up with a formal obi for a restaurant. Both married and unmarried women may wear komon. Edo komon (): is a type of komon characterized by tiny dots arranged in dense patterns that form larger designs. The Edo komon dyeing technique originated with the samurai class during the Edo period. A kimono with this type of pattern is of the same formality as an iromuji, and when decorated with kamon, may be worn as visiting wear (equivalent to a tsukesage or hōmongi). Uchikake Uchikake is a highly formal kimono worn only by a bride or at a stage performance. The Uchikake is often heavily brocaded and is supposed to be worn outside the actual kimono and obi, as a sort of coat. One therefore never ties the obi around the uchikake. It is supposed to trail along the floor, this is also why it is heavily padded along the hem. The uchikake of the bridal costume is either white or very colorful often with red as the base color. Susohiki / Hikizuri The susohiki is mostly worn by geisha or by stage performers of the traditional Japanese dance. It is quite long, compared to regular kimono, because the skirt is supposed to trail along the floor. Susohiki literally means "trail the skirt". Where a normal kimono for women is normally 1.5–1.6 m (4.7–5.2 ft) long, a susohiki can be up to 2 m (6.3 ft) long. This is also why geisha and maiko lift their kimono skirt when walking outside, also to show their beautiful underkimono or "nagajuban" (see below). www.ichiroya.com Mofuku The mofuku is a formal garment intended for mourning. It is made of pitch black silk, without any embellishment other than the 5 kamon. The obi, obijime, obiage, zori, and handbag are also black. The mofuku is worn on the days of the wake, funeral, and cremation of the deceased in a Buddhist funeral ceremony. Due to white being symbolic of death in Japan, the mofuku was formerly a white garment; however, the modern mofuku is now a black garment, to contrast with the white kimono of the dead. The completely black mourning ensemble is usually reserved for family and others that are close to the deceased. For others, it is customary to wear a colored iromuji with black accessories, to symbolize that they are in mourning but are not particularly close to the deceased. Men's kimonos Couple being married in traditional dress. In contrast to women's kimono, men's kimono outfits are far simpler, typically consisting of a maximum of five pieces, not including footwear. Men's kimonos have long sleeves which are attached to the body of the kimono with no more than a few inches unattached at the bottom, unlike the women's style of very deep sleeves mostly unattached from the body of the kimono. Men's sleeves are less deep than women's kimono sleeves to accommodate the obi around the waist beneath them, whereas on a woman's kimono, the long, unattached bottom of the sleeve can hang over the obi without getting in the way. In the modern era, the principal distinctions between men's kimono are in the fabric. The typical kimono has a subdued, dark color; black, dark blues, greens, and browns are common. Fabrics are usually matte. Some have a subtle pattern, and textured fabrics are common in more casual kimono. More casual kimono may be made in slightly brighter colors, such as lighter purples, greens and blues. Sumo wrestlers have occasionally been known to wear quite bright colors such as fuchsia. The most formal style of kimono is plain black with five kamon on the chest, shoulders and back. Slightly less formal is the three-kamon kimono. These are usually paired with white undergarments and accessories. Kimono accessories and related garments Nagajuban (, or simply juban) are kimono-shaped robes worn by both men and women beneath the main outer garment. Since silk kimono are delicate and difficult to clean, the nagajuban helps to keep the outer kimono clean by preventing contact with the wearer's skin. Only the collar edge of the nagajuban shows from beneath the outer kimono. Nagajuban undergarment for Japanese kimono Many nagajuban have removable collars, to allow them to be changed to match the outer garment, and to be easily washed without washing the entire garment. While the most formal type of nagajuban are white, they are often as beautifully ornate and patterned as the outer kimono. Since men's kimono are usually fairly subdued in pattern and color, and the nagajuban allows for discreetly wearing very striking designs and colors. Hadajuban () are thin garments similar to undershirts. They are worn by women under the nagajuban. Susoyoke () is a thin petticoat-like garment worn by women under the nagajuban. Sometimes the susoyoke and hadajuban are combined into a one-piece garment. Eri-Sugata () is a special collar made for kimonos. Traditionally, an undergarment is worn under the kimono. Just the collar of the undergarment shows. This undergarment (the juban) can be very hot during summer weather so the eri sugata was created. The eri sugata is just the collar of the undergarment. It is used to make the kimono more formal without the wearer having to worry too much about having too many layers on or not on. Geta () are wooden sandals worn by men and women with yukata. One unique style is worn solely by geisha. Hakama () is a divided (Umanori) or undivided skirt (Andon) which resembles a wide pair of pants, traditionally worn by men but now also by women in less formal outfits, and is also worn in certain martial arts such as aikido. A hakama typically has pleats, a koshiita (a stiff or padded part in the lower back of the wearer), and himo (long lengths of fabric tied around the waist over the obi, described below). Hakama are worn in several budo arts such as aikido, kendo, iaidō and naginata. Hakama are also worn by women at college graduation ceremonies, and by Miko on shinto shrines. They can range from very formal to visiting wear, depending on the pattern. Haori () is a hip- or thigh-length kimono jacket which adds formality. Haori were originally reserved for men, until fashions changed at the end of the Meiji period. They are now worn by both men and women, though women's kimono jackets tend to be longer. Haori-himo () is a tasseled, woven string fastener for the haori. The most formal color is white. Happi () is a type of Haori traditionally worn by shop keepers and is now associated mostly with festivals. Hanten () is the workman's version of gentleman's Haori. Often padded for warmth, as opposed to the somewhat lighter Happi. Hiyoku () is a type of under-kimono, historically worn by women beneath the kimono. Today they are only worn on formal occasions such as weddings and other important social events. Kanzashi () are hair ornaments worn by women in the coiffured hair style that often accompanies kimono. These may take the form of silk flowers, wooden combs, and jade hairpins. Obi () An obi is a sash worn with kimono by both men and women. Obi-ita () is a thin, fabric-covered board placed under the obi by women to keep its shape. It is also called mae-ita. obiage () A sash that is tied around the top edge of the obi which covers the obimakura "pillow"and keeps the upper part of the obi musabi "knot" in place obimakura () a small pillow used by women that is tied under the obi at the back which gives the obi musabi "knot" it's volume. Obijime () is a thin cord worn around the obi. It is necessary to hold the popular taiko musubi in place . Datejime or datemaki () undersash; one can be used to tie the nagajuban and one can also be used to tie the outer kimono, to hold the kimono in place until one ties the obi. Koshihimo or karihimo () sashes; think of them as placeholders, extra hands helping the wearer hold everything in place until the datejime and obi are tied Samue () are the everyday clothes for a male Zen Buddhist monk, and the favored garment for shakuhachi players. Tabi () are ankle-high, divided-toe socks usually worn with zōri or geta. They also come in a boot form. Waraji () are straw rope sandals which are mostly worn by monks. Yukata () is an informal unlined summer kimono usually made of cotton, linen, or hemp. Yukata are most often worn to outdoor festivals, by men and women of all ages. They are also worn at onsen (hot spring) resorts, where they are often provided for the guests in the resort's own pattern. Zōri () are cloth, leather or grass-woven sandals. Zōri may be highly decorated with intricate stitching or with no decoration. They are worn by both men and women. Grass woven zōri with white straps, called hanao, are the most formal for men. They are similar in design to flip-flops. Fundoshi () are traditional male underwear or loin-cloth. Hiyoku The hiyoku is the floating lining or under-kimono traditionally worn under kimono. There are various meanings involved in Kimono-hiyoku-layering though mostly these are not used in everyday modern Japanese life. Often today instead of an entirely separate lining the Hiyoku refers to a lining sewn into the kimono itself. There are no special meanings ascribed to Hiyoku worn in this way. Layering In modern day Japan the meanings of the layering of kimono and hiyoku are usually forgotten. Only maiko and geisha now use this layering technique for dances and subtle erotic suggestion usually emphasising the back of the neck. Modern Japanese brides may also wear a traditional Shinto kimono which is worn with a hiyoku. Traditionally kimonos were worn with hiyoku or floating linings. Hiyoku can be a second kimono worn beneath the first and give the traditional layered look to the kimono. Often in modern kimonos the hiyoku is simply the name for the double sided lower-half of the kimono which may be exposed to other eyes depending on how the kimono is worn. Old-fashioned kimono styles meant that hiyoku were entire under-kimono, however modern day layers are usually only partial, to give the impression of layering. Care of Kimonos In the past, a kimono would often be entirely taken apart for washing, and then re-sewn for wearing. This traditional washing method is called arai hari. Because stitches must be taken out for washing, traditional kimono need to be hand sewn. Arai hari is very expensive and difficult and is one of the causes of the declining popularity of kimono. Modern fabrics and cleaning methods have been developed that eliminate this need, although the traditional washing of kimono is still practiced, especially for high-end garments. A new custom-made kimono will be delivered to the customer with long, loose basting stitches placed around the outside edges. These stitches are called shituke ito. They are sometimes replaced for storage. They help to prevent bunching, folding and wrinkling, and keep the kimono's layers in alignment. Like many other traditional Japanese garments, there are specific ways to fold kimonos. These methods help to preserve the garment and to keep it from creasing when stored. Kimonos are often stored wrapped in paper. Kimonos need to be aired out at least seasonally and before and after each time they are worn. Many people prefer to have their kimono dry cleaned, although this can be extremely expensive, it is generally less expensive than arai hari and may be impossible for certain fabrics or dyes. See also hanfu References Further reading External links Japanese Kimono - Many photos The Canadian Museum of Civilization - Landscape Kimonos of Itchiku Kubota Tokyo National Museum Look for "textiles" under "decorative arts". Kyoto National Museum: Textiles The Costume Museum: Costume History in Japan Kimono Fraise; includes directions on how to put on a kimono Immortal Geisha Forums; Comprehensive Resource on Vintage and Modern Kimono Culture Love Kimono!; A lot of knowledge of kimono with pictures. Kimonoan information on Yakuta Tsuruko Maiko Forums; Information and Discussions on Kimono How to wear a kimono, tie an obi, and use accessories Tokyo Senshoku Art Professional Training College Kimono Size Chart / Types of Kimono / Types of Obi Craft Materials | Kimono |@lemmatized traditional:20 wedding:7 kimono:162 red:2 uchikake:6 crane:1 clothing:2 japan:7 originally:2 word:2 literally:4 mean:3 thing:2 wear:78 ki:1 mono:1 merriam:1 webster:1 come:6 denote:1 particular:1 type:11 full:2 length:7 japanese:17 garment:19 standard:3 plural:2 english:1 kimonos:4 dictionary:1 reference:2 com:2 unmarked:1 also:22 sometimes:3 find:1 shaped:2 straight:1 line:3 robe:2 collar:11 sleeves:2 typically:5 wide:6 gender:1 hem:4 fall:2 ankle:3 wrap:2 around:8 body:6 always:1 left:1 side:2 right:1 except:1 dress:5 dead:2 burial:1 hanamiweb:1 signifies:1 secure:2 belt:2 call:11 obi:32 tie:12 back:7 generally:3 footwear:2 especially:4 zōri:5 geta:3 split:1 toe:2 sock:3 tabi:2 today:7 often:20 woman:50 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7,275 | Transport_in_Eritrea | The contrast between traditional and modern transport in Eritrea.This article summarizes characteristics of a number of forms of transport in the coastal African nation of Eritrea. Railways This steam locomotive dating from the 1930s still operates, carrying both freight and tourists.As of 1999, there was a total of 317 kilometres of (narrow gauge) rail line in Eritrea. The railway links Agordat and Asmara with the port of Massawa; however, it was nonoperational since 1978 except for about a 5 kilometre stretch that was reopened in Massawa in 1994. Rehabilitation of the remainder and of the rolling stock has occurred in recent years. By 2003 the line had been restored from Massawa all the way through to Asmara. Railway links with adjacent countries Djibouti - no - break of gauge - / Ethiopia - no - break of gauge - / Sudan - no - break of gauge - / - defunct Yemen - no - via proposed Red Sea bridge (Bridge of the Horns) Notice-to-Proceed Launches Ambitious Red Sea Crossing - ENR | McGraw-Hill Construction - break of gauge - / - via Djibouti Links Highways The Eritrean highway system is named according to the road classification. The three levels of classification are: primary (P), secondary (S), and tertiary (T). The lowest level road is tertiary and serves local interests. Typically they are improved earth roads which are occasionally paved. During the wet seasons these roads typically become impassable. The next higher level road is a secondary road and typically is a single-layered asphalt road that connects district capitals together and those to the regional capitals. Roads that are considered primary roads are those that are fully asphalted (throughout their entire length) and in general they carry traffic between all the major towns in Eritrea. +Primary Highways of Eritrea Title Start point Intermediate point End point Road type P-1 Asmara Ghinda Massawa Asphalt P-2 Asmara Adi Tekelezan Keren Asphalt P-3 Asmara Adi Keyh Senafe Asphalt P-4 Asmara Mendefera Mareb River(border with Ethiopia) Asphalt P-5 Keren Barentu Tesseney Asphalt P-6 Massawa Tio Asseb Gravel P-7 Asseb n/a Bure Asphalt P-8 Gahtelai Shebah She'eb Asphalt P-9 Serejeqa n/a Shebah Gravel total: 4,010 km paved: 874 km unpaved: 3,136 km (1996 est.) Seaports and harbours Massawa Red Sea Asseb (Aseb) Massawa (Mits'iwa) Merchant marine total: 5 ships (with a volume of or over) totaling / ships by type: bulk carrier 1, cargo ship 1, liquefied gas 1, petroleum tanker 1, roll-on/roll-off ship 1 (1999 est.) Airports There are three international airports, one in the capital, Asmara International Airport and the two others in the coastal cities, Massawa (Massawa International Airport) and Assab (Assab International Airport). The airport in Asmara receives all international flights into the country as of March 2007, as well as being the main airport for domestic flights. 21 (1999 est.) Airports - with paved runways total: 3 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 1 (1999 est.) Airports - with unpaved runways total: 18 over 3,047 m: 2 2,438 to 3,047 m: 2 1,524 to 2,437 m: 6 914 to 1,523 m: 6 under 914 m: 2 (1999 est.) Cableway The Asmara-Massawa Cableway, built by Italy in the 1930s, connected the port of Massawa with the city of Asmara. The British later dismantled it during their eleven year occupation after defeating Italy in World War II. References See also Eritrea | Transport_in_Eritrea |@lemmatized contrast:1 traditional:1 modern:1 transport:2 eritrea:6 article:1 summarize:1 characteristic:1 number:1 form:1 coastal:2 african:1 nation:1 railways:1 steam:1 locomotive:1 date:1 still:1 operate:1 carry:2 freight:1 tourist:1 total:6 kilometre:2 narrow:1 gauge:5 rail:1 line:2 railway:2 link:3 agordat:1 asmara:10 port:2 massawa:11 however:1 nonoperational:1 since:1 except:1 stretch:1 reopen:1 rehabilitation:1 remainder:1 roll:3 stock:1 occur:1 recent:1 year:2 restore:1 way:1 adjacent:1 country:2 djibouti:2 break:4 ethiopia:2 sudan:1 defunct:1 yemen:1 via:2 propose:1 red:3 sea:3 bridge:2 horn:1 notice:1 proceed:1 launch:1 ambitious:1 cross:1 enr:1 mcgraw:1 hill:1 construction:1 highways:1 eritrean:1 highway:2 system:1 name:1 accord:1 road:10 classification:2 three:2 level:3 primary:3 p:10 secondary:2 tertiary:2 low:1 serve:1 local:1 interest:1 typically:3 improved:1 earth:1 occasionally:1 pave:3 wet:1 season:1 become:1 impassable:1 next:1 high:1 single:1 layered:1 asphalt:9 connect:2 district:1 capital:3 together:1 regional:1 consider:1 fully:1 throughout:1 entire:1 length:1 general:1 traffic:1 major:1 town:1 title:1 start:1 point:3 intermediate:1 end:1 type:2 ghinda:1 adi:2 tekelezan:1 keren:2 keyh:1 senafe:1 mendefera:1 mareb:1 river:1 border:1 barentu:1 tesseney:1 tio:1 asseb:3 gravel:2 n:2 bure:1 gahtelai:1 shebah:2 eb:1 serejeqa:1 km:3 unpaved:2 est:5 seaport:1 harbour:1 aseb:1 mit:1 iwa:1 merchant:1 marine:1 ship:4 volume:1 bulk:1 carrier:1 cargo:1 liquefy:1 gas:1 petroleum:1 tanker:1 airport:9 international:5 one:1 two:1 others:1 city:2 assab:2 receive:1 flight:2 march:1 well:1 main:1 domestic:1 runway:2 cableway:2 build:1 italy:2 british:1 later:1 dismantle:1 eleven:1 occupation:1 defeat:1 world:1 war:1 ii:1 reference:1 see:1 also:1 |@bigram steam_locomotive:1 narrow_gauge:1 mcgraw_hill:1 secondary_tertiary:1 km_unpaved:1 unpaved_km:1 merchant_marine:1 liquefy_gas:1 petroleum_tanker:1 pave_runway:1 airport_unpaved:1 unpaved_runway:1 asmara_massawa:1 |
7,276 | Communications_in_Japan | Japan currently possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world. Telephone Telephones and ISDN - main lines in use: 52.398 million (2007) IP phone lines in use: 16.766 million (2007) Mobile and PHS lines in use: 105.297 million (2007) international: satellite earth stations - 5 Intelsat (4 Pacific Ocean and 1 Indian Ocean), 1 Intersputnik (Indian Ocean region), and 1 Inmarsat (Pacific and Indian Ocean regions); submerged cables to Mainland China, Philippines, Russia, and US (via Guam) Radio and Television Radio broadcast stations: AM 190, FM 88, shortwave 24 (1999) Radios: 120.5 million (1997) Television broadcast stations: 7,108 (plus 441 repeaters; note - in addition, US Forces are served by 3 TV stations and 2 TV cable services) (1999) Televisions: 86.5 million (1997) Internet Service Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 357 (1999) Internet Service Providers via Cable network: 334 (June 2004) Number of Portable Phone Users with the Internet Access: 71,044,000 (June 2004) Number of Broadband Users by Access (April 2005) Number of the xDSL Users: 13,675,840 lines Number of the FTTH Users: 2,852,205 lines Number of the CATV Service Users: 2,959,712 lines Number of Broadband Users by Access (June 2004) Number of the xDSL Users: 12,068,718 lines Number of the FTTH Users: 1,417,483 lines Number of the CATV Service Users: 2,702,000 lines Number of the Dial-up Users: 17,730,000 lines Number of Broadband Users by Access (June 2002) Number of the xDSL Users: 3,300,926 lines Number of the FTTH Users: 84,903 lines Number of the CATV Service Users: 1852000 lines Number of the Dial-up Users: 20,390,000 lines Country code (Top-level domain): JP History The first milestones in the Japanese media history were newspapers in the Meiji period, the first being the Nagasaki Shipping List & Advertiser, founded 1861 in Nagasaki, with the telegraph and telephone following suit. The broadcast industry has been dominated by the Japan Broadcasting Corporation (Nippon Hoso Kyokai—NHK) since its founding in 1925. In the postwar period, NHK's budget and operations were under the purview of the Ministry of Posts and Telecommunications, the Broadcasting Law of 1950 provides for independent management and programming by NHK. Television broadcasting began in 1953, and color television was introduced in 1960. Cable television was introduced in 1969. In 1978 an experimental broadcast satellite with two color television channels was launched. Operational satellites for television use were launched between 1984 and 1990. Television viewing spread so rapidly that, by 1987, 99 percent of Japan's households had color television sets and the average family had its set on at least five hours a day. Starting in 1987, NHK began full-scale experimental broadcasting on two channels using satellite-to-audience signals, thus bringing service to remote and mountainous parts of the country that earlier had experienced poor reception. The new system also provided twenty-four hours a day, nonstop service. In the late 1980s, NHK operated two public television and three radio networks nationally, producing about 1,700 programs per week. Its general and education programs were broadcast through more than 6,900 television stations and nearly 330 AM and more than 500 FM radio transmitting stations. Comprehensive service in twenty-one languages is available throughout the world. Rapid improvements, innovations, and diversification in communications technology, including optical fiber cables, communications satellites, and fax machines, led to rapid growth of the communications industry in the 1980s. Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation, owned by the government until 1985, had dominated the communications industry until April 1985, when new common carriers, including Daini Denden, were permitted to enter the field. NTT Worldwide Telecommunications Corp (Kokusai Denshin Denwa Company, commonly known as KDD, now part of KDDI Inc.) lost its monopoly hold on international communications activities in 1989, when Nihon Kokusai Tsushin and other private overseas communications firms began operations. In 1992 Japan also had more than 12,000 televisions stations, and the country had more than 350 radio stations, 300 AM radio stations and 58 FM. Broadcasting innovations in the 1980s included sound multiplex (two-language or stereo) broadcasting, satellite broadcasting, and in 1985 the University of the Air and teletext services were inaugurated. Japan has been the world leader in telecommunications in the 1980s, but this position that has been challenged by the United States' dot-com industry in the 1990s and the emerging tiger states in Asia. While the United States is leading in digital content, South Korea is leading in broadband access, India is leading in software, and Taiwan is leading in research and development. References | Communications_in_Japan |@lemmatized japan:5 currently:1 possess:1 one:2 advanced:1 communication:7 network:3 world:3 telephone:4 isdn:1 main:1 line:14 use:5 million:5 ip:1 phone:2 mobile:1 ph:1 international:2 satellite:6 earth:1 station:9 intelsat:1 pacific:2 ocean:4 indian:3 intersputnik:1 region:2 inmarsat:1 submerge:1 cable:5 mainland:1 china:1 philippine:1 russia:1 u:2 via:2 guam:1 radio:7 television:13 broadcast:9 fm:3 shortwave:1 plus:1 repeater:1 note:1 addition:1 force:1 serve:1 tv:2 service:11 internet:4 provider:2 isps:1 june:4 number:15 portable:1 user:15 access:5 broadband:4 april:2 xdsl:3 ftth:3 catv:3 dial:2 country:3 code:1 top:1 level:1 domain:1 jp:1 history:2 first:2 milestone:1 japanese:1 medium:1 newspaper:1 meiji:1 period:2 nagasaki:2 ship:1 list:1 advertiser:1 founded:1 telegraph:2 follow:1 suit:1 industry:4 dominate:2 corporation:2 nippon:2 hoso:1 kyokai:1 nhk:5 since:1 founding:1 postwar:1 budget:1 operation:2 purview:1 ministry:1 post:1 telecommunication:3 law:1 provide:2 independent:1 management:1 programming:1 begin:3 color:3 introduce:2 experimental:2 two:4 channel:2 launch:2 operational:1 view:1 spread:1 rapidly:1 percent:1 household:1 set:2 average:1 family:1 least:1 five:1 hour:2 day:2 start:1 full:1 scale:1 broadcasting:3 audience:1 signal:1 thus:1 bring:1 remote:1 mountainous:1 part:2 early:1 experience:1 poor:1 reception:1 new:2 system:1 also:2 twenty:2 four:1 nonstop:1 late:1 operate:1 public:1 three:1 nationally:1 produce:1 program:2 per:1 week:1 general:1 education:1 nearly:1 transmitting:1 comprehensive:1 languages:1 available:1 throughout:1 rapid:2 improvement:1 innovation:2 diversification:1 technology:1 include:3 optical:1 fiber:1 fax:1 machine:1 lead:5 growth:1 government:1 common:1 carrier:1 daini:1 denden:1 permit:1 enter:1 field:1 ntt:1 worldwide:1 corp:1 kokusai:2 denshin:1 denwa:1 company:1 commonly:1 know:1 kdd:1 kddi:1 inc:1 lose:1 monopoly:1 hold:1 activity:1 nihon:1 tsushin:1 private:1 overseas:1 firm:1 sound:1 multiplex:1 language:1 stereo:1 university:1 air:1 teletext:1 inaugurate:1 leader:1 position:1 challenge:1 united:2 state:3 dot:1 com:1 emerge:1 tiger:1 asia:1 digital:1 content:1 south:1 korea:1 india:1 software:1 taiwan:1 research:1 development:1 reference:1 |@bigram station_intelsat:1 pacific_ocean:1 fm_shortwave:1 shortwave_radio:1 plus_repeater:1 provider_isps:1 isps_internet:1 optical_fiber:1 |
7,277 | Intellivision | The Intellivision is a video game console released by Mattel in 1979. Development of the console began in 1978, less than a year after the introduction of its main competitor, the Atari 2600. The word intellivision is a portmanteau of "intelligent television". Over 3 million Intellivision units were sold and a total of 125 games were released for the console. History and development The Intellivision was developed by Mattel Electronics, a subsidiary of Mattel formed expressly for the development of electronic games. The console was test marketed in Fresno, California, in 1979 with a total of four games available, and was released nationwide in 1980 with a price tag of US$299 and a pack-in game: Las Vegas Poker & Blackjack. Though not the first system to challenge Atari, it was the first to pose a serious threat to Atari's dominance. A series of ads featuring George Plimpton was produced that mercilessly attacked the Atari 2600's lesser capabilities with side-by-side game comparisons. One of the slogans of the television advertisements stated that Intellivision was "the closest thing to the real thing"; one example in an advertisement compared golf games. The other console's games had a blip sound and cruder graphics, while the Intellivision featured a realistic swing sound and striking of the ball, and graphics that suggested a more 3D look, although undoubtedly crude when compared with modern gaming consoles. There was also an advertisement comparing the Atari 2600 to it, featuring the slogan "I didn't know". Like Atari, Mattel marketed their console to a number of retailers as a rebadged unit. These models include the Radio Shack Tandyvision, the GTE-Sylvania Intellivision, and the Sears Super Video Arcade. The Sears model was a particular coup for Mattel, as Sears was already selling a rebadged Atari 2600 unit, and in doing so made a huge contribution to Atari's success. In its first year Mattel sold 175,000 Intellivision consoles, and the library grew to 19 games. At this time, all Intellivision games were developed by an outside firm, APh. The company recognized that what had been seen as a secondary product line might be a big business. Realizing that potential profits are much greater with first party software, Mattel formed its own in-house software development group. The original five members of that Intellivision team were manager Gabriel Baum, Don Daglow, Rick Levine, Mike Minkoff and John Sohl. Levine and Minkoff, a long-time Mattel Toys veteran, both came over from the hand-held Mattel games engineering team. To keep these programmers from being hired away by rival Atari, their identity and work location was kept a closely guarded secret. In public, the programmers were referred to collectively as the Blue Sky Rangers. By 1982 sales were soaring. Over two million Intellivision consoles had been sold by the end of the year, earning Mattel a $100,000,000 profit. Third party Atari developers Activision, and Imagic began releasing games for the Intellivision, as did hardware rivals Atari and Coleco. Mattel created M Network branded games for Atari and Coleco's systems. The most popular titles sold over a million units each. The Intellivision was also introduced in Japan by Bandai. The original 5-person Mattel game development team had grown to 110 people under now-Vice President Baum, while Daglow led Intellivision development and top engineer Minkoff directed all work on all other platforms. Keyboard Component Intellivision's packaging and promotional materials, as well as television commercials, promised that with the addition of a soon-to-be-available accessory called the "Keyboard Component", originally portrayed in TV ads as a larger box with an opening in the top that the Intellivision fit into. This would turn the Intellivision in to a fully-functional home computer. The unit would bring the system's available RAM up to a full 64K, a large amount for the time, and would have provided both a built-in cassette drive for data storage and a connection for an optional 40-column thermal printer. The cassette drive would be able to provide both data storage and an audio track simultaneously, allowing for interactive audio recording and playback under computer control, and a secondary 6502 microprocessor inside the Keyboard Component would be programmed to handle all of these extra capabilities independently of the Intellivision's CP1610 CPU. The unit would even provide an extra cartridge slot, allowing the original Intellivision to remain permanently docked with the Keyboard Component while still being able to play standard game cartridges. Unfortunately, while the Keyboard Component was an ambitious piece of engineering for its time, it suffered from reliability problems and proved to be expensive to produce. Originally slated to be available in 1981, the Keyboard Component was repeatedly delayed as the engineers tried to find ways to overcome the reliability issues and reduce manufacturing costs. The Keyboard Component's repeated delays became so notorious around Mattel headquarters that comedian Jay Leno, when performing at Mattel's 1981 Christmas party, got his biggest laugh of the evening with the line: "You know what the three big lies are, don't you? 'The check is in the mail,' 'I'll still respect you in the morning,' and 'The Keyboard will be out in the spring.'" Complaints from consumers who had chosen to buy the Intellivision specifically on the promise of a "Coming Soon!" personal-computer upgrade that seemed as if it would never materialize eventually caught the attention of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), who started investigating Mattel Electronics for fraud and false advertising. Mattel said that the Keyboard Component was a real product still being test-marketed and even released a small number of Keyboard Components to a handful of retail stores, along with a handful of software titles in order to support this claim. The FTC eventually ordered Mattel to pay a $10,000/day fine until the promised computer upgrade was in full retail distribution. To protect themselves from the ongoing fines, the Keyboard Component was officially canceled in the fall of 1982 and the Entertainment Computer System (ECS) module offered up in its place. While approximately four thousand Keyboard Components were manufactured before the module was canceled and recalled, it is not clear how many of them actually found their way into the hands of Intellivision customers. Today, very few of them still exist; when the Keyboard Component was officially canceled, part of Mattel's settlement with the FTC involved offering to buy back all of the existing Keyboard Components from dissatisfied customers. Any customer who opted to keep theirs was required to sign a waiver indicating their understanding that no more software would be written for the system and which absolved Intellivision of any future responsibility for technical support. Several of the units were later used by Mattel Electronics engineers when it was discovered that, with a few minor modifications, a Keyboard Component could be used as an Intellivision software-development system in place of the original hand-built development boards. The Keyboard Component debacle was ranked as #11 on GameSpy's 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming. Entertainment Computer System (ECS) In mid-1981, Mattel's upper management was becoming concerned that the Keyboard Component division would never be able to produce a sellable product. As a result, Mattel Electronics set up a competing internal engineering team whose stated mission was to produce an inexpensive add-on called the BASIC Development System, or BDS, to be sold as an educational device to introduce kids to the concepts of computer programming. The rival BDS engineering group, who had to keep the project's real purpose a secret among themselves, fearing that if David Chandler, the head of the Keyboard Component team, found out about it he would use his influence to get the project killed, eventually came up with a much less expensive alternative. Originally dubbed the Lucky, from LUCKI: Low User-Cost Keyboard Interface, it lacked many of the sophisticated features envisioned for the original Keyboard Component. Gone, for example, was the full 64K of RAM and the secondary 6502 CPU; instead, the ECS offered a mere 2K RAM expansion, a built-in BASIC that was marginally functional, plus a much-simplified cassette and thermal-printer interface. Ultimately, this fulfilled the original promises of turning the Intellivision into a computer, making it possible to write programs and store them to tape, and interfacing with a printer well enough to allow Mattel to claim that they had delivered the promised computer upgrade and stop the FTC's mounting fines. It even offered, via an additional AY-3-8910 sound chip inside the ECS module and an optional 49-key Music Synthesizer keyboard, the possibility of turning the Intellivision into a multi-voice synthesizer which could be used to play or learn music. In the fall of 1982, the LUCKI, now renamed the Entertainment Computer System (ECS), was presented at the annual sales meeting, officially ending the ill-fated Keyboard Component project. A new advertising campaign was aired in time for the 1982 Christmas season, and the ECS itself was shown to the public at the January 1983 Consumer Electronic Show (CES) in Las Vegas. A few months later, the ECS hit the market, and the FTC agreed to drop the $10K/day fines. Unfortunately, by the time the ECS made its retail debut, an internal shake-up at the top levels of Mattel Electronics' management had caused the company's focus to shift away from hardware add-ons in favor of software, and the ECS received very little further marketing push. Further hardware developments, including a planned Program Expander that would have added another 16K of RAM and a more sophisticated, fully-featured Extended-BASIC to the system, were halted, and in the end less than a dozen software titles were released for the ECS. Intellivoice In 1982 Mattel introduced a new peripheral for the Intellivision: The Intellivoice, a voice synthesis device which produces speech when used with certain games. The Intellivoice was innovative in two respects: not only was this capability unique to the Intellivision system at the time (although Magnavox soon rolled out a similar device for the Odyssey2), but the speech-supporting games written for Intellivoice actually made the speech an integral part of the gameplay. Unfortunately, the amount of speech that could be compressed into a 4K or 8K ROM cartridge was limited, and the system did not sell as well as Mattel had hoped; while the initial orders were as high as 300,000 units for the Intellivoice module and its initial game-cartridge offerings, interest in future titles dropped rapidly until the fourth and last Intellivoice title, Tron: Solar Sailer, sold a mere 90,000 units. A fifth game, a children's title called Magic Carousel, was shelved, and in August 1983 the Intellivoice system was quietly phased out. The four titles available for the Intellivoice system, in order of their release, were: Space Spartans Bomb Squad B-17 Bomber Tron: Solar Sailer A fifth title, Intellivision World Series Major League Baseball, developed as part of the Entertainment Computer System series, also supports the Intellivoice if both the ECS and Intellivoice are connected simultaneously. Unlike the Intellivoice-specific games, however, World Series Major League Baseball is also playable without the Intellivoice module (but not without the ECS.) Intellivision II Intellivision II featuring the game Burgertime and the voice synthesis module. In addition to the ECS module, 1983 also saw the introduction of a redesigned model, called the Intellivision II (featuring detachable controllers and sleeker case), the System Changer (which played Atari 2600 games on the Intellivision II), and a music keyboard add-on for the ECS. Like the ECS, Intellivision II was designed first and foremost to be inexpensive to manufacture. Among other things, the raised bubble keypad of the original hand controller was replaced by a flat membrane keyboard surface. However, because many Intellivision games had been designed for users to play by feeling the buttons without looking down, some of these games were far less playable on Intellivision II. Instead of an internal power supply like the original system had, the Intellivision II would use an external AC adapter. Its main drawback, however, was that it was a non-standard 16.2v power supply -- meaning that if the AC adapter was lost or damaged, the system could be rendered useless, as replacement power supplies for that particular voltage requirement were not readily available. It is unknown whether Intellivision II AC adapters were sold separately. Mattel also changed the Intellivision II's internal ROM program (called the EXEC) in an attempt to lock out unlicensed 3rd party titles. To make room for the lock-out code while retaining compatibility with existing titles, some portions of the EXEC code were moved in a way that changed their timing. While most games were unaffected, a couple of the more popular titles, Shark! Shark!, and Space Spartans, had certain sound effects that the Intellivision II reproduced differently than intended, although the games remained playable. Electric Company Word Fun did not run at all and INTV's later release Super Pro Football has minor display glitches at the start, both due to the modified EXEC. Intellivision Lives website: Intellivision II Mattel's attempt to lock out competitors' software titles was only temporarily successful, as the 3rd-party game manufacturers quickly figured out how to get around it. Competition and market crash See also: Video game crash of 1983 Amid the flurry of new hardware, there was trouble for the Intellivision. New game systems (ColecoVision, Emerson Arcadia 2001, Atari 5200, and Vectrex, all in 1982) were further subdividing the market, and the video game crash began to put pressure on the entire industry. The Intellivision team rushed to finish a major new round of games, including Burgertime and the ultra-secret 3D glasses game Hover Force. Although Burgertime was a popular game on the Intellivision and was programmed by Blue Sky Ranger Ray Kaestner in record time, the five-month manufacturing cycle meant that the game did not appear until the late spring of 1983, after the video game crash had severely damaged game sales. In the spring of 1983, Mattel went from aggressively hiring game programmers to laying them off within a two-week period. By August there were massive layoffs, and the price of the Intellivision II (which launched at $150 earlier that year) was lowered to $69. Mattel Electronics posted a $300 million loss. Early in 1984, the division was closed — the first high-profile victim of the crash. Intellivision game sales continued when a liquidator purchased all rights to the Intellivision and its software from Mattel, as well as all remaining inventory. After much of the existing software inventory had been sold, former Mattel Marketing executive Terry Valeski bought all rights to Intellivision and started a new venture. The new company, INTV Corp., continued to sell old stock via retail and mail order. When the old stock of Intellivision II consoles ran out, they introduced a new console dubbed INTV III. This unit was actually a cosmetic rebadge of the original Intellivision console (this unit was later renamed the Super Pro System.) In addition to manufacturing new consoles, INTV Corp. also continued to develop new games, releasing a few new titles each year. Eventually, the system was discontinued in 1991. Intellivision games became readily available again when Keith Robinson, an early Intellivision programmer responsible for the game TRON Solar Sailer purchased the software rights and founded a new company, Intellivision Productions. As a result, games originally designed for the Intellivision are available on PCs and modern-day consoles including the PlayStation 2, Xbox and Nintendo GameCube in the Intellivision Lives! package. A newer version of the Intellivision Lives! game is in development for the Nintendo DS, and a small number of licensed Intellivision games are available through the GameTap subscription gaming service. Also, several LCD handheld and direct-to-TV games have been released in recent years. Reviews and game guides Ken Uston published Ken Uston's Guide to Buying and Beating the Home Video Games in 1982 as a guide to potential purchasers of console systems/cartridges, as well as a brief strategy guide to each cartridge then in existence. He described Intellivision as "the most mechanically reliable of the systems… The controller (used during "many hours of experimentation") worked with perfect consistency. The unit never had overheating problems, nor were loose wires or other connections encountered." However, Uston rated the controls and control system as "below average" and the worst of the consoles he tested (including Atari 2600, Magnavox Odyssey², Astrovision and Fairchild Channel F). Uston, Ken. Ken Uston's Guide to Buying and Beating the Home Video Games (Signet, 1982), p. 8. Jeff Rovin lists Intellivision as one of the seven major suppliers of videogames in 1982, and mentions it as 'the unchallenged king of graphics', however stating that the controllers can be 'difficult to operate', the fact that if a controller breaks the entire unit must be shipped off for repairs (since originally they did not detach), and that the overlays 'are sometimes so stubborn as to temp one's patience'. "The Complete Guide to Conquering Video Games" by Jeff Rovin, Collier Books, 1982. Innovations Intellivision was the first 16-bit game console, though some people have mistakenly referred to it as a 10-bit system because the CPU's instruction set and game cartridges are 10 bits wide. The registers in the microprocessor, where the mathematical logic is processed, were 16 bits wide. The Intellivision was also the first system to feature downloadable games. Although, without a storage device the games vanished once the machine was turned off. In 1981, General Instrument teamed up with Mattel to roll out the PlayCable, a device that allowed the downloading of Intellivision games via cable TV. Intellivision was the first game console to provide real-time human and robot voices in the middle of gameplay, courtesy of the IntelliVoice module. The voice chip used, the SP0256 Orator, was developed jointly by Mattel and General Instrument. Intellivision Lives website: Intellivoice description Intellivision was the first console to feature a controller with a directional pad that allowed 16 directions. The disc-shaped pad allowed players to control action without lifting the thumb and was considered by many Intellivision users to be a useful innovation. However, the ergonomics of the "action" buttons on the side of the controller were poor, and the disc-pad was perceived by potential buyers as unfamiliar. Along with cost, this was one of the factors in making the Intellivision less popular than the Atari 2600. However, it is interesting to note that the method of controlling movement on the Intellivision, with the thumb, is emulated in many subsequent video game controllers. The joystick-style controller, as seen on the VCS, has not been widely emulated on later consoles. A third-party joystick attachment was available by around 1984, that was installed by opening the controller and fitting the paddle over the disc. A flange around the hollow plastic conical joystick held it in securely when the controller's upper cover was replaced; and a much easier joystick control was the result. The Joystick was about three inches in height; it could not be gripped by the entire hand. The Intellivision was also the first game console or home computer to offer a musical synthesizer keyboard. The Music Synthesizer keyboard was designed as a secondary add-on for the ECS, and was intended to lead to a series of music-oriented software titles for both educational and entertainment purposes, but only one title, Melody Blaster, was ever released. Technical specifications General Instrument CP1610 16-bit microprocessor CPU running at 894.886 kHz (i.e., slightly less than 1 MHz) 1456 bytes of RAM: 240 × 8-bit Scratchpad Memory 352 × 16-bit (704 bytes) System Memory 512 × 8-bit Graphics RAM 7168 bytes of ROM: 4096 × 10-bit (5120 bytes) Executive ROM 2048 × 8-bit Graphics ROM 160 pixels wide by 196 pixels high (5×2 TV pixels make one Intellivision pixel) 16 color palette, all of which can be on the screen at once 8 sprites. Hardware supports the following features per-sprite: Size selection: 8×8 or 8×16 Stretching: Horizontal (1×, 2×) and vertical (1×, 2×, 4× or 8×) Mirroring: Horizontal and vertical Collision detection: Sprite to sprite, sprite to background, and sprite to screen border Priority: Selects whether sprite appears in front of or behind background. three channel sound, with one noise generator (audio chip: General Instrument AY-3-8910) Game controller The original Intellivision controller. Twelve-button numeric keypad (0–9, Clear, and Enter) Four side-located action buttons (where the top two are actually electronically the same, giving three distinct buttons) A directional disk, capable of detecting 16 directions of movement Overlays that would slide into place as an extra layer on the keypad to show game-specific key functions The Intellivision console could detect the user pressing either the directional disk or a number on the keypad, but not both at the same time on the same controller. Some action games, such as Tron Deadly Discs and Night Stalker, used the disk to move and the numeric keypad to fire weapons, meaning players had to stop running momentarily in order to fire. However, since these games would accept input from either controller, players could avoid this disadvantage by holding one controller in each hand, with one hand operating one controller's directional disk, and with the other hand operating the numeric keypad on the other controller. This allowed continuous movement while firing. Fans of the game console recall that an overuse injury was possible when playing for extended periods of time due to the pressure needed to use the keypad and especially the side buttons. This was a phenomenon similar to BlackBerry Thumb today. The problem was worsened significantly when the cost-reduced Intellivision II changed from solid rubber side buttons to plastic ones with a hollow center, leaving a rectangular imprint on players' thumbs and causing pain after even short periods of play. The change was apparently made to fractionally reduce the materials cost of the units, and was never play-tested for usability due to the rush to bring the system to market in the early days of the Video game crash of 1983. Despite the problems many consumers had with the controller, its design was briefly very influential; between the Intellivision's launch and the crash of 1984, three of the five new consoles released featured numeric keypads, like the Intellivision's; four of the five had fire buttons on the sides like the Intellivision's; two used analog joysticks to best the Intellivision's 16 way movement, and a third (the colecovision) had a 'thumbstick' whose top is cosmetically similar to the Intellivision's directional disc. However, most of these innovations disappeared after the crash of 1984, and were not seen again until the mid 90s. References See also List of Intellivision games TV POWWW (interactive TV game show that used Intellivision) External links Intellivision retrogaming company homepage, run by Keith Robinson and The Blue Sky Rangers (the original Intellivision game programmers) Gamasutra - A History of Gaming Platforms: Mattel Intellivision, by Bill Loguidice and Matt Barton | Intellivision |@lemmatized intellivision:83 video:10 game:69 console:24 release:12 mattel:34 development:11 begin:3 less:7 year:6 introduction:2 main:2 competitor:2 atari:16 word:2 portmanteau:1 intelligent:1 television:3 million:4 unit:14 sell:11 total:2 history:2 develop:5 electronics:6 subsidiary:1 form:2 expressly:1 electronic:2 test:4 market:7 fresno:1 california:1 four:5 available:10 nationwide:1 price:2 tag:1 u:1 pack:1 la:2 vega:2 poker:1 blackjack:1 though:2 first:11 system:28 challenge:1 pose:1 serious:1 threat:1 dominance:1 series:5 ad:2 feature:10 george:1 plimpton:1 produce:5 mercilessly:1 attack:1 capability:3 side:7 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7,278 | John_James_Audubon | John James Audubon (April 26, 1785 – January 2, 1851) was a French-American ornithologist, naturalist, hunter, and painter. He painted, catalogued, and described the birds of North America in a form far superior to what had gone before. In his outsize personality and achievements, he seemed to represent the new American nation of the United States. Early life Audubon was born in Les Cayes, Haiti (then the colony of Saint-Domingue) Nelson, Randy F. The Almanac of American Letters. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1981: 26. ISBN 086576008X on his father's sugar plantation. He was the illegitimate son of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, a French naval officer (and privateer), and his mistress Jeanne Rabin, a French/Spanish Creole from Louisiana. Audubon's mother died when the boy was just a toddler, perhaps in illness related to the birth of her daughter. During the American Revolution, his father Jean Audubon was imprisoned by the British. After his release, he helped the American cause. Alice Ford, Audubon By Himself, The Natural History Press, Garden City NY, 1969, p.4 A slave rebellion in Saint-Domingue in 1788 convinced Jean Audubon to sell his holdings and return to France with his three-year-old son and infant daughter. Shirley Streshinsky, Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness, Villard Books, New York, 1993, ISBN 0-679-40859-2, p.13 Audubon was raised by his father and stepmother Anne Moynet Audubon in Nantes, France. His father had been married to Moynet before going to Saint-Domingue, but had acquired a mistress in the colony. Jean Audubon formally adopted the boy in March 1789, naming him Jean-Jacques Fougère Audubon. When Audubon at age 18 boarded ship for immigration to the United States in 1803, he changed his name to an anglicized form: John James Audubon. Richard Rhodes, John James Audubon: The Making of American, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2004, ISBN 0-375-41412-6, pp. 3-4. From his earliest days, Audubon had an affinity for birds. "I felt an intimacy with them…bordering on frenzy must accompany my steps through life." Rhodes, 2004, p. 22 His father encouraged his interest in nature; "he would point out the elegant movement of the birds, and the beauty and softness of their plumage. He called my attention to their show of pleasure or sense of danger, their perfect forms and splendid attire. He would speak of their departure and return with the seasons." Ford, 1969, p.3 In France during the chaotic years of the French Revolution and its aftermath, Audubon grew up to be a handsome and gregarious young man. He played flute and violin, and learned to ride, fence, and dance. He was hearty and a great walker, and loved roaming in the woods, often returning with natural curiosities, including birds' eggs and nests, of which he made crude drawings. Streshinsky, 1993, p.14 His father planned to make a seaman of his son. At twelve, Audubon went to military school and became a cabin boy. He quickly found out that he was susceptible to seasickness and not fond of mathematics or navigation. After failing the officer's qualification test, Audubon ended his incipient naval career. He was cheerfully back on solid ground and exploring the fields again, focusing on birds. Streshinsky, 1993, p.16-17 Immigration to the United States In 1803, his father obtained a false passport so that Audubon could go to the United States to avoid conscription in the Napoleonic Wars. Audubon caught yellow fever upon arrival in New York City. The ship's captain placed him in a boarding house run by Quaker women. They nursed Audubon to recovery and taught him English, including the Quaker form of using "thee" and "thou", otherwise then anachronistic. He traveled with the family's Quaker lawyer to the Audubon family farm Mill Grove, near Philadelphia. National Gallery of Art The homestead, bought with proceeds from the sale of his father's sugar plantation, is located on the Perkiomen Creek, just a few miles from Valley Forge. Audubon lived with the tenants in what he considered a paradise. "Hunting, fishing, drawing, and music occupied my every moment; cares I knew not, and cared naught about them." , 2004, p. 5" Studying his surroundings, Audubon quickly learned the ornithologist's rule, which he wrote, "The nature of the place—whether high or low, moist or dry, whether sloping north or south, or bearing tall trees or low shrubs—generally gives hint as to its inhabitants." Ford, 1969, p.10 His father hoped that lead mines on the property could be commercially developed, as lead was an essential component of bullets. This could provide his son with a profitable occupation. Streshinsky, 1993, p.24 Audubon met his neighbor William Bakewell, the owner of the nearby estate "Fatland Ford", whose daughter Lucy he married five years later. The two young people shared many common interests, and early on began to spend time together, exploring the natural world around them. Audubon set about to study American birds with the goal of illustrating his findings in a more realistic manner than most artists did then. Rhodes, 2004, p. 11 He began conducting the first known bird-banding on the continent: he tied yarn to the legs of Eastern Phoebes and determined that they returned to the same nesting spots year after year. Audubon He also began drawing and painting birds, and recording their behavior. After an accidental fall into a creek, Audubon contracted a severe fever. He was nursed and recovered at Fatland Ford, with Lucy at his side. Risking conscription, Audubon returned to France in 1805 to see his father to ask permission to marry. He also needed to discuss family business plans. While there, he met naturalist and physician Charles-Marie D'Orbigny, who improved Audubon's taxidermy skills and taught him scientific methods of research. Streshinsky, 1993, p.39 Although on return, Audubon's ship was overtaken by an English privateer, Audubon and his hidden gold coins survived the encounter. Rhodes, 2004, p. 32 Audubon resumed his bird studies and created his own nature museum, perhaps inspired by the great museum of natural history created by Charles Willson Peale in Philadelphia. Peale's bird exhibits were considered scientifically advanced. Audubon's room was brimming with birds' eggs, stuffed raccoons and opossums, fish, snakes, and other creatures. He had become proficient at specimen preparation and taxidermy. With his father's approval, Audubon sold part of the Mill Grove farm, including the house and mine, as they deemed the mining venture too risky. He retained some land for investment. Rhodes, 2004, p. 38 He went to New York to learn the import-export trade, hoping to find a business to support his marriage to Lucy. The still skeptical Mr. Bakewell wanted to see a solid career from the young Frenchman before releasing his daughter to him. Starting out in business Carolina Pigeon (now called Mourning Dove) Shipping goods ahead, Audubon started a general store in Louisville, Kentucky, the most important river port between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. In 1808, six months after arriving in Kentucky, he married Lucy Bakewell. Soon he was drawing bird specimens again. He regularly burned earlier efforts to force continuous improvement. Rhodes, 2004, p. 55 He also took detailed field notes to document his drawings. Because rising tensions with the British resulted in President Jefferson's embargo of British trade, Audubon's business was not thriving. In 1810, Audubon moved his business to the less competitive Henderson, Kentucky area. He and Lucy took over an abandoned log cabin. In the fields and forests, Audubon wore typical frontier clothes and moccasins "and a ball pouch, a buffalo horn filled with gunpowder, a butcher knife, and a tomahawk on his belt." Streshinsky, 1993, p.64 He frequently turned to hunting and fishing to feed his family, as business was slow. On a prospecting trip downriver with a load of goods, Audubon joined up with Shawnee and Osage hunting parties, learning their methods, drawing specimens by the bonfire, and finally parting "like brethren." Rhodes, 2004, p. 83-85 Audubon had great respect for native Americans: "Whenever I meet Indians, I feel the greatness of our Creator in all its splendor, for there I see the man naked from His hand and yet free from acquired sorrow." Rhodes, 2004, p. 166 Audubon also admired the skill of Kentucky riflemen and the "regulators", citizen lawmen who created a kind of justice on the Kentucky frontier. In his travel notes, he claims to have encountered Daniel Boone. Ford, 1969, p.24 While out riding, Audubon witnessed the 1811-1812 earthquakes, among the most severe to strike the mid-continent. When Audubon arrived home, he was relieved to find no major damage, but the area was shaken by aftershocks for months. Ford, 1969, p.56 Again while on horseback, he encountered his first tornado, thinking it was another earthquake. Ever the naturalist, he described how its "horrible noise resembled the roar of Niagara." He noted that as the tornado retreated, "the air was filled with an extremely disagreeable sulphurous odor." Ford, 1969, p.57 Though their finances were tenuous, the Audubons started a family. They had two sons: Victor Gifford (1809) and John Woodhouse Audubon (1812), and two daughters who died while young: Lucy at two years (1815-1817) and Rose at nine months (1819-1820). "John James Audubon Timeline", American Masters], PBS, accessed 7 Feb 2009 Both sons would help publish their father's works. John W. Audubon became a naturalist and writer in his own right. During a visit to Philadelphia in 1812, following Congress' declaration of war with Great Britain, Audubon gave up his French citizenship to become an American citizen. Rhodes, 2004, p. 105 After his return to Kentucky, he found that rats had eaten his entire collection of over two hundred drawings. After weeks of depression, he took to the field again, determined to re-do his drawings to an even higher standard. Rhodes, 2004, p. 116 The War of 1812 upset Audubon's plans to move his business to New Orleans. He formed a partnership with his brother-in-law and built up their trade in Henderson. Between 1812 and the Panic of 1819, times were good. Audubon bought land and slaves, founded a flour mill, and enjoyed his growing family. After 1819, Audubon went bankrupt and was thrown into jail for debt. The little money he did earn was from drawing portraits, particularly death-bed sketches, greatly esteemed by country folk before photography. Ford, 1969, p.85 He wrote, "my heart was sorely heavy, for scarcely had I enough to keep my dear ones alive; and yet through these dark days I was being led to the development of the talents I loved." Rhodes, 2004, p. 143 Early ornithological career Audubon, John James ~ Golden Eagle, 1833-4 After a short stay in Cincinnati to work as a naturalist and taxidermist at a museum, Audubon with his gun, paintbox, and assistant Joseph Mason, traveled south on the Mississippi. He had made a personal commitment to find and paint all the birds of North America for eventual publication. His goal was to surpass the earlier ornithological work of poet-naturalist Alexander Wilson. Ford, 1969, p.25 Though he could not afford to buy Wilson's work, Audubon used it to guide him when he had access to a copy. On October 12, 1820, Audubon started into Mississipi, Alabama, and Florida in search of ornithological specimens. The following summer, he moved upriver to the Oakley Plantation in the Felicianas to teach drawing to Eliza Pirrie, the young daughter of the owners. The job was ideal though low paying, as it enabled him much time to roam and paint in the woods. (Located at 11788 Highway 965, between Jackson and St. Francisville, the plantation is now the Audubon State Historic Site.) Audubon called his future work Birds of America. He attempted to paint one page each day. Painting with newly discovered technique, he decided his earlier works were inferior and re-did them. Rhodes, 2004, p. 209 He hired hunters to gather specimens for him. Audubon realized the ambitious project would take him away from his family for months at a time. Audubon sometimes used his drawing talent to trade for goods or sell small works to raise cash. He made charcoal portraits on demand at $5 each and gave drawing lessons. Streshinsky, 1993, p.102 In 1823 Audubon took lessons in oil painting technique from John Steen, a teacher of American landscape and history painter Thomas Cole. Though he did not use oils much for his bird work, Audubon earned good money painting oil portraits for patrons along the Mississippi. Lucy became the steady breadwinner for the couple and their two young sons. Trained as a teacher, she conducted classes for children out of their home. Later she became a local teacher in Louisiana and took up residence, with her children, at the home of a wealthy plantation owner. Punke, p. 21 Audubon returned to Philadelphia in 1824 to seek a publisher for his bird drawings. Though he met Thomas Sully, one of the most famous portrait painters of the time and a valuable ally, Audubon was rebuffed for publication. He had earned the enmity of some of the city's leading scientists at the Academy of Natural Sciences. He did take oil painting lessons from Sully and met Charles Bonaparte, who admired his work and recommended he go to Europe to have his bird drawings engraved. Punke, p. 225 Birds of America Plate from Birds of America With his wife's support, in 1826 at age 41, Audubon took his growing collection of work to England. He sailed from New Orleans to Liverpool on a cotton hauling ship, taking a portfolio of over 300 drawings. Rhodes, 2004, p. 237 With letters of introduction to prominent Englishmen, Audubon gained their quick attention. "I have been received here in a manner not to be expected during my highest enthusiastic hopes." Rhodes, 2004, p. 261 The British could not get enough of his images of backwoods America and its natural attractions. He met with great acceptance as he toured around England and Scotland, and was lionized as "the American woodsman." He raised enough money to begin publishing his Birds of America. This monumental work consists of 435 hand-colored, life-size prints of 497 bird species, made from engraved copper plates measuring about 39 by . Rhodes, 2004, p. 403 The work contains just over 700 North American bird species. The pages were organized for artistic effect and contrasting interest, as if the reader were taking a visual tour. (Some critics thought he should have organized the plates in Linnaean order as befitting a "serious" ornithological treatise.) Rhodes, 2004, p. 303 The first and perhaps most famous plate was the Wild Turkey, which had been Benjamin Franklin's candidate for the national bird. It lost to the Bald Eagle. The cost of printing the entire work was $115,640 (over $2,000,000 today), paid for from advance subscriptions, exhibitions, oil painting commissions, and animal skins, which Audubon hunted and sold. Audubon's great work was a remarkable accomplishment. It took more than 14 years of field observations and drawings, plus his single-handed management and promotion of the project to make it a success. A reviewer wrote, "All anxieties and fears which overshadowed his work in its beginning had passed away. The prophecies of kind but overprudent friends, who did not understand his self-sustaining energy, had proved untrue; the malicious hope of his enemies, for even the gentle lover of nature has enemies, had been disappointed; he had secured a commanding place in the respect and gratitude of men." Streshinsky, 1993, p.328 Colorists applied each color in assembly-line fashion (over fifty were hired for the work). Rhodes, 2004, p. 273, 389 The original edition was engraved in aquatint by Robert Havell, Jr., who took over the task after the first ten plates engraved by W. H. Lizars were deemed inadequate. Known as the Double Elephant folio, it is often regarded as the greatest picture book ever produced and the finest aquatint work. By the 1830s, the aquatint process was largely superseded by lithography. Rhodes, 2004, p. 300 A contemporary French critic wrote, "A magic power transported us into the forests which for so many years this man of genius has trod. Learned and ignorant alike were astonished at the spectacle…It is a real and palpable vision of the New World." Rhodes, 2004, p. 279 Audubon sold oil-painted copies of the drawings to make extra money and publicize the book. He had his portrait painted by John Syme, who clothed the naturalist in frontier clothes. The portrait was hung at the entrance of his exhibitions, promoting his rustic image. (The painting now hangs in the White House.) Rhodes, 2004, p. 276 The New-York Historical Society has all 435 of the preparatory watercolors for Birds of America. Lucy Audubon sold them to the society after her husband's death. All but 80 of the original copper plates were melted down when Lucy Audubon, desperate for money, sold them for scrap to the Phelps Dodge Corporation. John James Audubon Chronicle Cleveland Museum of Natural History press release, February 1, 2007 King George IV was also an avid fan of Audubon and a subscriber to the book. London's Royal Society recognized his achievement by electing Audubon a fellow. He followed Benjamin Franklin, who was the first American fellow. While in Edinburgh to seek subscriptions for the book, Audubon gave a demonstration of his method of propping up birds with wire at professor Robert Jameson's Wernerian Natural History Association. Student Charles Darwin was in the audience. Audubon also visited the dissecting theatre of the anatomist Robert Knox. Audubon was a hit in France as well, gaining the King and several of the nobility as subscribers. Rhodes, 2004, p. 316 Later career Audubon, John James ~ White Gyrfalcons Audubon returned to America in 1829 to complete more drawings for his magnum opus. He also hunted animals and shipped the valued skins to British friends. He was reunited with his family. After settling business affairs, Lucy accompanied him back to England. Audubon found that during his absence, he had lost some subscribers due to the uneven quality of coloring of the plates. Others were in arrears in their payments. His engraver fixed the plates and Audubon reassured subscribers, but a few begged off. He responded, " 'The Birds of America' will then raise in value as much as they are now depreciated by certain fools and envious persons." Rhodes, 2004, p. 392 He followed Birds of America with a sequel Ornithological Biographies. This was a collection of life histories of each species written with Scottish ornithologist William MacGillivray. The two books were printed separately to avoid a British law requiring copies of all publications with text to be deposited in Crown libraries, a huge financial burden for the self-published Audubon. Rhodes, 2004, p. 273 Both books were published between 1827 and 1839. During the 1830s, Audubon continued making expeditions in North America. During a trip to Key West, a companion wrote in a newspaper article, "Mr. Audubon is the most enthusiastic and indefatigable man I ever knew…Mr. Audubon was neither dispirited by heat, fatigue, or bad luck…he rose every morning at 3 o'clock and went out…until 1 o'clock." Then he would draw the rest of the day before returning to the field in the evening, a routine he kept up for weeks and months. Rhodes, 2004, p. 366 In 1839 having finished the Ornithological Biography, Audubon returned to the United States with his family. He bought an estate on the Hudson River (now Audubon Park). In 1842, he published an octavo edition of Birds of America, with 65 additional plates. It earned $36,000 and was purchased by 1100 subscribers. Rhodes, 2004, p. 430 Audubon spent much time on "subscription gathering trips", drumming up sales of the octavo edition, as he hoped to leave his family a sizable income. Audubon made some excursions out West where he hoped to record Western species he had missed, but his health began to fail. In 1848, he manifested signs of senility, his "noble mind in ruins." Streshinsky, 1993, p.361 He died at his family home on January 27, 1851. Audubon was buried at the Trinity Churchyard Cemetery and Mausoleum at 155th Street and Broadway in Manhattan. There is an imposing monument in his honor at the cemetery. Audubon's final work was on mammals, the Viviparous Quadrupeds of North America, prepared in collaboration with his good friend Rev. John Bachman of Charleston, South Carolina. Bachman supplied much of the scientific text. The work was completed by Audubon's sons and son-in-law and published posthumously. His son John did most of the drawings. Art and methods Audubon, John James ~ Bobwhite (Virginia Partridge), Painted 1825. Published as Plate 76, 1829Detail from the above image Audubon developed his own methods for drawing birds. First, he killed them using fine shot. He then used wires to prop them into a natural position, unlike the common method of many ornithologists, who prepared and stuffed the specimens into a rigid pose. When working on a major specimen like an eagle, he would spend up to four 15-hour days, preparing, studying, and drawing it. Rhodes, 2004, p. 375 His paintings of birds are set true-to-life in their natural habitat. He often portrayed them as if caught in motion, especially feeding or hunting. This was in stark contrast to the stiff representations of birds by his contemporaries, such as Alexander Wilson. Audubon based his paintings on his extensive field observations. He worked primarily with watercolor early on. He added colored chalk or pastel to add softness to feathers, especially those of owls and herons. Rhodes, 2004, p. 163 He employed multiple layers of watercoloring, and sometimes used gouache. All species were drawn life size which accounts for the contorted poses of the larger birds as Audubon strove to fit them within the page size. Smaller species were usually placed on branches with berries, fruit, and flowers. He used several birds in a drawing to present all views of anatomy and wings. Larger birds were often placed in their ground habitat or perching on stumps. At times, as with woodpeckers, he combined several species on one page to offer contrasting features. He frequently depicted the birds' nests and eggs, and occasionally natural predators, such as snakes. He usually illustrated male and female variations, and sometimes juveniles. In later drawings, Audubon used assistants to render the habitat for him. Going beyond faithful renderings of anatomy, Audubon employed carefully constructed composition, drama, and slightly exaggerated poses to achieve artistic as well as scientific effects. Legacy J.J. Audubon in later years Audubon's influence on ornithology and natural history was far reaching. Nearly all later ornithological works were inspired by his artistry and high standards. Charles Darwin quoted Audubon three times in The Origin of Species and also in later works. Rhodes, 2004, p. 306 Despite some errors in field observations, Audubon's field notes comprised a significant contribution to the understanding of bird anatomy and behavior. Birds of America is still considered one of the greatest examples of book art. He was elected to the Royal Society of Edinburgh, the Linnaean Society, and the Royal Society of London in recognition of his contributions. Among his accomplishments, Audubon discovered twenty-five new species and twelve new subspecies. "John James Audubon: Drawn from Nature", American Masters, PBS, accessed 7 Feb 2009 The homestead Mill Grove in Audubon, PA is open to the public and contains a museum presenting all his major works, including Birds of America. The John James Audubon State Park in Henderson, Kentucky. The Audubon Museum there houses many of Audubon's original watercolors, oils, engravings and personal memorabilia. The Nature Center features a wildlife observatory, to nurture love for nature and the great outdoors. In 1905 the National Audubon Society was incorporated and named in his honor. Its mission "is to conserve and restore natural ecosystems, focusing on birds, other wildlife, and their habitats for the benefit of humanity and the earth's biological diversity." In his journals, Audubon prophetically warned of dangers that threatened the enormous flocks of his time, including over-hunting and loss of habitat. Several species which he recorded have become extinct, including the Carolina Parakeet, the Passenger Pigeon, the Labrador Duck, and the Great Auk. Place names, bridges and roadways Audubon Park, New Orleans was created on land purchased by the city for an urban park, and designed by the American landscape architect John Charles Olmsted. The Audubon Park and country club in Louisville, Kentucky is in the area of his former general store. Several towns and one county (in Iowa) were named after Audubon. The John James Audubon Parkway in Amherst, New York, encircling the main campus of the University at Buffalo, was named in his honor. Audubon Avenue, a thoroughfare in the Washington Heights area of Manhattan, was named in his honor. In Louisiana, John James Audubon Bridge (Mississippi River) was named in his honor. It will provide a crucial crossing over the Mississippi River between Point Coupée Parish and West Feliciana Parish. In Boston, Massachusetts, Frederick Law Olmsted designed a greenway, monumental roadway and traffic circle; the latter was named Audubon Circle in honor of the artist. Audubon Memorial Bridge crosses the Ohio River, connecting Henderson, Kentucky and Evansville, Indiana. Notes References Burroughs, J. (1902). John James Audubon. Boston: Small, Maynard & company. Ford, Alice (1969). Audubon By Himself. Garden City NY: The Natural History Press Fulton, Maurice G. (1917). Southern Life in Southern Literature; selections of representative prose and poetry. Boston, New York [etc.]: Ginn and Co. view online here Punke, Michael (2007). Last Stand: George Bird Grinnell, the Battle to Save the Buffalo, and the Birth of the New West. Smithsonian Books. ISBN 978 0 06 089782 6 Rhodes, Richard (2004). John James Audubon: The Making of American. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-41412-6 Streshinsky, Shirley (1993). Audubon: Life and Art in the American Wilderness. New York: Villard Books, ISBN 0-679-40859-2 Further Reading Chalmers, John Audubon in Edinburgh and his Scottish Associates, 2003. NMS Publishing, Edinburgh, 978 1 901663 79 2 Bibliography Posthumous collections John James Audubon, Writings & Drawings (Christoph Irmscher, ed.) (The Library of America, 1999) ISBN 978-1-88301168-0 John James Audubon, The Audubon Reader (Richard Rhodes, ed.) (Everyman Library, 2006) ISBN 1-4000-4369-7 Audubon: Early Drawings (Richard Rhodes, Scott V. Edwards, Leslie A. Morris) (Harvard University Press and Houghton Library 2008) ISBN 978-0-674-03102-9 External links "Undaunted: Five American Explorers, 1760-2007", Exhibit, American Philosophical Society "Audubon biography", National Audubon Society The Audubon House Gallery for Audubon Art Birds of America, Online version of 1840 "First Octavo Edition" of Audubon's complete seven-volume text, with Audubon's images and original text descriptions Guide to identifying Audubon prints John James Audubon - The birds of America.Catalog of the 435 plates "John James Audubon: Drawn From Nature", PBS, July 25 2007 Full text of the biography ''John Burroughs, John James Audubon Life of John James Audubon (1869) (full book) James Audubon State Park site Large Collection of Paintings by Audubon National Gallery of Art: Selections from John James Audubon's The Birds of America (1826-1838) International celebration of Audubon through stamps See also List of wildlife artists | John_James_Audubon |@lemmatized john:30 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7,279 | Kalat,_Pakistan | The outer wall of Qalat.Qalat or Kalat () is a historical town located in Kalat District, Balochistan, Pakistan. Qalat is the capital of Qalat District and is known locally as Qalat-e Baluch. Qalat, formerly Qilat, is located roughly in the center of Balochistan, Pakistan, south and slightly west of the provincial capital Quetta. It was the capital of the Qalat Khanate. The population is almost completely muslim. History The town of Kalat is said to have been founded by and named Qalat-e Sewa (Sewa's Fort), after Sewa, a legendary hero of the Brahui people. The origins of the Brahui speaking tribes are uncertain, but their language indicates they are a Northern Dravidian people whose language has been modified by residence in the proximity of largely Iranian peoples, most notably the Baloch with whom the Brahui have been greatly mixed. The Brahui people had already long been resident in the Qalat area when the Balochi speaking tribes arrived from the west. The Balochis established a large kingdom in the 15th century, but it soon declined and the region fell to Afghan and Iranian invaders. The Brahui Khans of Qalat were dominant from the 16th century onwards until the arrival of the British in the 19th century. A treaty was signed in 1876 to make Qalat part of the British Empire. In 1947, Qalat became part of Pakistan when the British withdrew. The last Khan of Qalat was formally removed from power in 1955, but the title is still claimed by his descendents. The current Khan of Qalat is Mir Suleman Dawood Khan. it is fomous for fruits,like apple,and many more External links and references Kalat district - The Planning and Development Department of the Government of Balochistan The Land and People of Baluchistan In 1947, the Khan of Qalat, Mir Ahmad Yar Khan, declared independence, and the Khanate of Qalat remained independent for nine months until forcibly incorporated into Pakistan. | Kalat,_Pakistan |@lemmatized outer:1 wall:1 qalat:16 kalat:4 historical:1 town:2 locate:2 district:3 balochistan:3 pakistan:4 capital:3 know:1 locally:1 e:2 baluch:1 formerly:1 qilat:1 roughly:1 center:1 south:1 slightly:1 west:2 provincial:1 quetta:1 khanate:2 population:1 almost:1 completely:1 muslim:1 history:1 say:1 found:1 name:1 sewa:3 fort:1 legendary:1 hero:1 brahui:5 people:5 origin:1 speaking:1 tribe:2 uncertain:1 language:2 indicate:1 northern:1 dravidian:1 whose:1 modify:1 residence:1 proximity:1 largely:1 iranian:2 notably:1 baloch:1 greatly:1 mixed:1 already:1 long:1 resident:1 area:1 balochi:2 speak:1 arrive:1 establish:1 large:1 kingdom:1 century:3 soon:1 decline:1 region:1 fell:1 afghan:1 invader:1 khan:6 dominant:1 onwards:1 arrival:1 british:3 treaty:1 sign:1 make:1 part:2 empire:1 become:1 withdrew:1 last:1 formally:1 remove:1 power:1 title:1 still:1 claim:1 descendent:1 current:1 mir:2 suleman:1 dawood:1 fomous:1 fruit:1 like:1 apple:1 many:1 external:1 link:1 reference:1 planning:1 development:1 department:1 government:1 land:1 baluchistan:1 ahmad:1 yar:1 declare:1 independence:1 remain:1 independent:1 nine:1 month:1 forcibly:1 incorporate:1 |@bigram balochistan_pakistan:2 external_link:1 |
7,280 | Fourth-generation_programming_language | A fourth-generation programming language (1970s-1990) (abbreviated 4GL) is a programming language or programming environment designed with a specific purpose in mind, such as the development of commercial business software Appgen Collaborative Commerce Platform . In the evolution of computing, the 4GL followed the 3GL in an upward trend toward higher abstraction and statement power. The 4GL was followed by efforts to define and use a 5GL. The natural-language, block-structured mode of the third-generation programming languages improved the process of software development. However, 3GL development methods can be slow and error-prone. It became clear that some applications could be developed more rapidly by adding a higher-level programming language and methodology which would generate the equivalent of very complicated 3GL instructions with fewer errors. In some senses, software engineering arose to handle 3GL development. 4GL and 5GL projects are more oriented toward problem solving and systems engineering. All 4GLs are designed to reduce programming effort, the time it takes to develop software, and the cost of software development. They are not always successful in this task, sometimes resulting in inelegant and unmaintainable code. However, given the right problem, the use of an appropriate 4GL can be spectacularly successful as was seen with MARK-IV and MAPPER (see History Section, Santa Fe real-time tracking of their freight cars - the productivity gains were estimated to be 8 times over COBOL). The usability improvements obtained by some 4GLs (and their environment) allowed better exploration for heuristic solutions than did the 3GL. A quantitative definition of 4GL has been set by Capers Jones, as part of his work on function point analysis. Jones defines the various generations of programming languages in terms of developer productivity, measured in function points per staff-month. A 4GL is defined as a language that supports 12 - 20 FP/SM. This correlates with about 16 - 27 lines of code per function point implemented in a 4GL. Fourth-generation languages have often been compared to domain-specific programming languages (DSLs). Some researchers state that 4GLs are a subset of DSLs. 35th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences - 1002 Domain-Specific Languages for Software Engineering Given the persistence of assembly language even now in advanced development environments (MS Studio), one expects that a system ought to be a mixture of all the generations, with only very limited use of the first. History Though used earlier in papers and discussions, the term 4GL was first used formally by James Martin in his 1982 book Applications Development Without Programmers Martin, James. Application Development Without Programmers. Prentice-Hall, 1981. ISBN 0-13-038943-9. to refer to non-procedural, high-level specification languages. In some primitive way, IBM's RPG (1960) could be described as the first 4GL followed closely by others, such as the Informatics MARK-IV (1967) product and Sperry's MAPPER (1969 internal use, 1979 release). The motivations for the '4GL' inception and continued interest are several. The term can apply to a large set of software products. It can also apply to an approach that looks for greater semantic properties and implementation power. Just as the 3GL offered greater power to the programmer, so too did the 4GL open up the development environment to a wider population. In a sense, the 4GL is an example of 'black box' processing, each generation (in the sense of the page) is further from the machine (see the Computer Science history in regard to data structure improvements and information hiding). It is this latter nature that is directly associated with 4GL having errors that are harder, in many cases, to debug. In terms of applications, a 4GL could be business oriented or it could deal with some technical domain. Being further from the machine implies being closer to domain. Given the wide disparity of concepts and methods across domains, 4GL limitations lead to recognition of the need for the 5GL. The early input scheme for the 4GL supported entry of data within the 72-character limit (8 bytes used for sequencing) of the punched card where a card's tag would identify the type or function. With judicious use of a few cards, the 4GL deck could offer a wide variety of processing and reporting capability whereas the equivalent functionality coded in a 3GL could subsume, perhaps, a whole box or more of cards. Columbia University Computing History: IBM Cards The 72-character metaphor continued for a while as hardware progressed to larger memory and terminal interfaces. Even with its limitations, this approach supported highly sophisticated applications. As interfaces improved and allowed longer statement lengths and grammar-driven input handling, greater power ensued. An example of this is described on the Nomad page. Another example of Nomad's power is illustrated by Nicholas Rawlings in his comments for the Computer History Museum about NCSS (see citation below). He reports that James Martin asked Rawlings for a Nomad solution to a standard problem Martin called the Engineer's Problem: "give 6% raises to engineers whose job ratings had an average of 7 or better." Martin provided a "dozen pages of COBOL, and then just a page or two of Mark IV, from Informatics." Rawlings offered the following single statement, performing a set-at-a-time operation ... The 4GL evolution was influenced by several factors, with the hardware and operating system constraints having a large weight. When the 4GL was first introduced, a disparate mix of hardware and operating systems mandated custom application development support that was specific to the system in order to ensure sales. One example is the MAPPER system developed by Sperry. Though it has roots back to the beginning, the system has proven successful in many applications and has been ported to modern platforms. The latest variant is embedded in the BIS Unisys. Business Information Server (BIS). offering of Unisys. MARK-IV is now known as VISION:BUILDER and is offered by Computer Associates. Santa Fe railroad used MAPPER to develop a system, in a project that was an early example of 4GL, rapid prototyping, and programming by users. Louis Schlueter, User-Designed Computing: The Next Generation, 1988. [book on report generator and MAPPER systems] The idea was that it was easier to teach railroad experts to use MAPPER than to teach programmers the "intricacies of railroad operations". McNurlin & Sprague. Technologies for Developing Systems Information Systems Management in Practice. Prentice Hall, 2003. ISBN 0-13-101139-1 One of the early (and portable) languages that had 4GL properties was Ramis developed by Gerald C. Cohen at Mathematica, a mathematical software company. Cohen left Mathematica and founded Information Builders to create a similar reporting-oriented 4GL, called Focus. Later 4GL types are tied to a database system and are far different from the earlier types in their use of techniques and resources that have resulted from the general improvement of computing with time. An interesting twist to the 4GL scene is realization that graphical interfaces and the related reasoning done by the user form a 'language' that is poorly understood. Types A number of different types of 4GLs exist: Table-driven (codeless) programming, usually running with runtime framework and libraries. Instead of using code, the developer defines his logic by selecting an operation in a pre-defined list of memory or data table manipulation commands. In other words, instead of coding, the developer uses Table-driven algorithm programming, a good example of this type of 4GL language is eDeveloper. These type of tool can be used for business application development usually consisting in a package allowing for both business data manipulation and reporting, therefore they come with GUI screens and report editors. They usually offer integration with lower level DLLs generated from a typical 3GL for when the need arise for more hardware/OS specific operations. Report generators take a description of the data format and the report to generate and from that they either generate the required report directly or they generate a program to generate the report. Similarly, forms generators manage online interactions with the application system users or generate programs to do so. More ambitious 4GLs (sometimes termed fourth generation environments) attempt to automatically generate whole systems from the outputs of CASE tools, specifications of screens and reports, and possibly also the specification of some additional processing logic. Data management 4GLs such as SAS, SPSS and Stata provide sophisticated coding commands for data manipulation, file reshaping, case selection and data documentation in the preparation of data for statistical analysis and reporting. Some 4GLs have integrated tools which allow for the easy specification of all the required information: James Martin's own Information Engineering systems development methodology was automated to allow the input of the results of system analysis and design in the form of data flow diagrams, entity relationship diagrams, entity life history diagrams etc from which hundreds of thousands of lines of COBOL would be generated overnight. More recently Oracle Corporation's Oracle Designer and Oracle Developer 4GL products could be integrated to produce database definitions and the forms and reports programs. Some fourth-generation languages General Use / Versatile Clipper DataFlex Forté TOOL (transactional object-oriented language) FoxPro IBM Rational EGL (Enterprise Generation Language) Panther PowerBuilder SheerPower4GL (Microsoft Windows Only) SQLWindows/Team Developer WinDev Up ! 5GL Visual DataFlex (Microsoft Windows Only) Discovery Machine Modeler Agile Business Suite Database query languages FOCUS Genero SB+/SystemBuilder Informix-4GL NATURAL Progress 4GL SQL Report generators BuildProfessional GEMBase IDL-PV/WAVE LINC Metafont NATURAL Oracle Reports Progress 4GL Query/Results Quest Report Builder RPG-II Data manipulation, analysis, and reporting languages Ab Initio ABAP Aubit-4GL Audit Command Language Clarion Programming Language CorVision Culprit ADS/Online (plus transaction processing) DASL FOCUS GraphTalk IDL IGOR Pro Informix-4GL LANSA LabVIEW MAPPER (Unisys/Sperry) now part of BIS MARK-IV (Sterling/Informatics) now VISION:BUILDER of CA Mathematica MATLAB NATURAL Nomad PL/SQL Progress 4GL PROIV R Ramis S SAS SPSS Stata Synon XBase++ SQR Data-stream languages APE AVS Iris Explorer Database driven GUI Application Development Action Request System Genexus SB+/SystemBuilder Progress Dynamics UNIFACE Screen painters and generators FOURGEN CASE Tools for Rapid Application Development by Gillani SB+/SystemBuilder Oracle Forms Progress 4GL ProVision Unify Accell GUI creators 4th Dimension (Software) eDeveloper MATLAB's GUIDE Omnis Studio OpenROAD Progress 4GL AppBuilder Revolution programming language Sculptor 4GL Web development languages ColdFusion CSS Wavemaker open source, browser-based development platform for Ajax development based on Dojo, Spring, Hibernate See also Domain-specific programming language Rapid application development External links FourGen CASE Tools - Rapid Application Development Environment Four J's Development Tools Genero, Genero Studio Fourth Generation Environments 4GL GPL/GNU OpenSource development tools project Domain-Specific Languages for Software Engineering (Compares 4GLs to DSLs) The fourgen site. The Gillani fourgen site. Up ! 5GL to consolidate or to build component-based applications. References | Fourth-generation_programming_language |@lemmatized fourth:5 generation:11 programming:10 language:21 abbreviated:1 environment:7 design:4 specific:7 purpose:1 mind:1 development:21 commercial:1 business:6 software:10 appgen:1 collaborative:1 commerce:1 platform:3 evolution:2 computing:2 follow:3 upward:1 trend:1 toward:2 high:3 abstraction:1 statement:3 power:5 effort:2 define:4 use:15 natural:4 block:1 structure:2 mode:1 third:1 languages:6 improve:2 process:1 however:2 method:2 slow:1 error:3 prone:1 become:1 clear:1 application:14 could:7 develop:6 rapidly:1 add:1 level:3 methodology:2 would:3 generate:9 equivalent:2 complicate:1 instruction:1 sens:1 engineering:5 arose:1 handle:1 project:3 oriented:1 problem:4 solving:1 system:18 reduce:1 program:7 time:5 take:2 cost:1 always:1 successful:3 task:1 sometimes:2 result:4 inelegant:1 unmaintainable:1 code:3 give:4 right:1 appropriate:1 spectacularly:1 see:5 mark:5 iv:5 mapper:7 history:6 section:1 santa:2 fe:2 real:1 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7,281 | Albert_Sidney_Johnston | Albert Sidney Johnston (February 2, 1803 – April 6, 1862) was a career United States Army officer, a Texas Army general, and a Confederate States general. He saw extensive combat during his military career, fighting actions in the Texas War of Independence, the Mexican-American War, the Utah War, as well as the American Civil War. Considered by Confederate President Jefferson Davis to be the finest general officer in the Confederacy before the emergence of Robert E. Lee, he was killed early in the Civil War at the Battle of Shiloh and was the highest ranking officer, Union or Confederate, killed during the entire war. Eicher, p. 322. Davis believed the loss of Johnston "was the turning point of our fate" Dupuy, p. 378. Early life Johnston was born in Washington, Kentucky, the youngest son of Dr. John and Abigail Harris Johnston. His father was a native of Salisbury, Connecticut. Although Albert Johnston was born in Kentucky, he lived much of his life in Texas, which he considered his home. He was first educated at Transylvania University in Lexington, where he met fellow student Jefferson Davis. Both were appointed to the United States Military Academy, Davis two years behind Johnston. Woodworth, p. 46. In 1826 Johnston graduated eighth of 41 cadets in his class from West Point with a commission as a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry. He was assigned to posts in New York and Missouri and served in the Black Hawk War in 1832 as chief of staff to General Henry Atkinson. In 1829 he married Henrietta Preston, sister of Kentucky politician and future civil war general William Preston. He resigned his commission in 1834 to return to Kentucky to care for his dying wife, who succumbed two years later to tuberculosis. They had one son, Col. William Preston Johnston, who would also serve in the Confederate Army. W.P. Johnston biography. Texas Army In April 1834, Johnston took up farming in Texas, but enlisted as a private in the Texas Army during the Texas War of Independence against the Republic of Mexico in 1836. One month later, Johnston was promoted to major and the position of aide-de-camp to General Sam Houston. He was named Adjutant General as a colonel in the Republic of Texas Army on August 5, 1836. On January 31, 1837, he became senior brigadier general in command of the Texas Army. On February 7, 1837, he fought in a duel with Texas Brig. Gen. Felix Huston, challenging each other for the command of the Texas Army; Johnston refused to fire on Huston and lost the position after he was wounded in the pelvis. The second president of the Republic of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar, appointed him Secretary of War on December 22, 1838. Johnston was to provide the defense of the Texas border against Mexican invasion, and in 1839 conducted a campaign against Indians in northern Texas. In February 1840, he resigned and returned to Kentucky, where he married Eliza Griffin in 1843. They settled on a large plantation he named China Grove in Brazoria County, Texas. U.S. Army Johnston returned to the Texas Army during the Mexican-American War under General Zachary Taylor as a colonel of the 1st Texas Rifle Volunteers. The enlistments of his volunteers ran out just before the Battle of Monterrey. Johnston managed to convince a few volunteers to stay and fight as he himself served as the inspector general of volunteers and fought at the battles of Monterrey and Buena Vista. Johnston remained on his plantation after the war until he was appointed by President Taylor to the U.S. Army as a major and was made a paymaster in December 1849. He served in that role for more than five years, making six tours, and traveling more than 4,000 miles annually on the Indian frontier of Texas. He served on the Texas frontier and elsewhere in the West. In 1855 President Franklin Pierce appointed him colonel of the new 2nd U.S. Cavalry (the unit that preceded the modern 5th U.S.), a new regiment, which he organized. As a key figure in the Utah War, he led U.S. troops who established a non-Mormon government in the formerly Mormon territory. He received a brevet promotion to brigadier general in 1857 for his service in Utah. He spent 1860 in Kentucky until December 21, when he sailed for California to take command of the Department of the Pacific. Civil War At the outbreak of the Civil War, Johnston was the commander of the U.S. Army Department of the Pacific in California. He was approached by some Californians who urged him to take his forces east to join the Union against the Confederacy. He resigned his commission, April 9, 1861, as soon as he heard of the secession of Texas. He remained in California until June. After a rapid march through the deserts of Arizona and Texas, he reached Richmond, Virginia, on or about September 1, 1861. There Johnston was appointed a full general by his friend, Jefferson Davis. On May 30, 1861, Eicher, p. 807. from General Command Line List Johnston became the second highest ranking Confederate general (after the little-known Samuel Cooper) as commander of the Western Department. He raised the Army of Mississippi to defend Confederate lines from the Mississippi River to Kentucky and the Allegheny Mountains. Although the Confederate States Army won a morale-boosting victory at First Battle of Bull Run in the East in 1861, matters in the West turned ugly by early 1862. Johnston's subordinate generals lost Fort Henry on February 6, 1862, and Fort Donelson on February 16, 1862, to Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant. Johnston has been faulted for poor judgment in selecting Brig. Gens. Tilghman and Floyd for those crucial positions and for not supervising adequate construction of the forts. And Union Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell captured the vital city of Nashville, Tennessee. Gen. P.G.T. Beauregard was sent west to join Johnston and they organized their forces at Corinth, Mississippi, planning to ambush Grant's forces at Pittsburg Landing, Tennessee. Shiloh Monument to Johnston at the Shiloh National Military Park. Johnston concentrated many of his forces from around the theater and launched a massive surprise attack against Grant at the Battle of Shiloh on April 6, 1862. As the Confederate forces overran the Union camps, Johnston seemed to be everywhere, personally leading and rallying troops up and down the line. At about 2:30 p.m., while leading one of those charges, he was wounded, taking a bullet behind his right knee. He did not think the wound serious at the time, and sent his personal physician to attend to some wounded Union soldiers instead. The bullet had in fact clipped his popliteal artery and his boot was filling up with blood. Within a few minutes Johnston was observed by his staff to be nearly fainting off his horse, and asked him if he was wounded, to which he replied "Yes, and I fear seriously." It is possible that Johnston's duel in 1837 had caused nerve damage or numbness to that leg and that he did not feel the wound to his leg as a result. Albert Sidney Johnston biography on Georgia' Blue and Gray Trail website. Johnston was taken to a small ravine, where he bled to death in minutes. It is probable that a Confederate soldier fired the fatal round. No Union soldiers were observed to have ever gotten behind Johnston during the fatal charge, while it is known that many Confederates were firing at the Union lines while Johnston charged well in advance of his soldiers. He was the highest-ranking casualty of the war on either side, and his death was a strong blow to the morale of the Confederacy. Jefferson Davis considered him the best general in the country; this was two months before the emergence of Robert E. Lee as the pre-eminent general of the Confederacy. Epitaph Johnston's tomb in the Texas State Cemetery. The date of Johnston's death, Sunday, April 6, 1862, was coincidentally the 32nd anniversary of the founding of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (The Mormons), against whom he led United States forces in 1856 during the Utah War, in which cause the Mormons were deemed by the Buchanan Administration to be in rebellion against the United States. At his death, it was Johnston who was similarly deemed to be in rebellion against the United States as a commanding officer in the Confederate Army, this time by the Lincoln Administration. Johnston was buried in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1866, a joint resolution of the Texas Legislature was passed to have his body reinterred to the Texas State Cemetery in Austin The re-interment occurred in 1867. Forty years later, the state appointed Elisabet Ney to design a monument and sculpture of him to be erected at his gravesite. The Texas Historical Commission has erected a historical marker near the entrance of what was once his plantation. An adjacent marker was erected by the San Jacinto Chapter of the Daughters of The Republic of Texas and the Lee, Roberts, and Davis Chapter of the United Daughters of the Confederate States of America. The University of Texas at Austin has also recognized Johnston with a statue on the South Mall. Notes See also List of American Civil War generals References Dupuy, Trevor N., Johnson, Curt, and Bongard, David L., Harper Encyclopedia of Military Biography, Castle Books, 1992, 1st Ed., ISBN 0-7858-0437-4. Further reading External links Retrieved on 2008-08-12 | Albert_Sidney_Johnston |@lemmatized albert:3 sidney:2 johnston:36 february:5 april:5 career:2 united:6 state:11 army:15 officer:4 texas:27 general:18 confederate:12 saw:1 extensive:1 combat:1 military:4 fight:3 action:1 war:18 independence:2 mexican:3 american:4 utah:4 well:2 civil:6 consider:3 president:4 jefferson:4 davis:7 fine:1 confederacy:4 emergence:2 robert:3 e:2 lee:3 kill:2 early:3 battle:5 shiloh:4 high:3 ranking:1 union:8 entire:1 eicher:2 p:7 believe:1 loss:1 turn:2 point:2 fate:1 dupuy:2 life:2 bear:2 washington:1 kentucky:7 young:1 son:2 dr:1 john:1 abigail:1 harris:1 father:1 native:1 salisbury:1 connecticut:1 although:2 live:1 much:1 home:1 first:2 educate:1 transylvania:1 university:2 lexington:1 meet:1 fellow:1 student:1 appoint:6 academy:1 two:3 year:4 behind:3 woodworth:1 graduate:1 eighth:1 cadet:1 class:1 west:4 commission:4 brevet:2 second:3 lieutenant:1 u:7 infantry:1 assign:1 post:1 new:4 york:1 missouri:1 serve:5 black:1 hawk:1 chief:1 staff:2 henry:2 atkinson:1 marry:2 henrietta:1 preston:3 sister:1 politician:1 future:1 william:2 resign:3 return:3 care:1 die:1 wife:1 succumb:1 later:3 tuberculosis:1 one:3 col:1 would:1 also:3 w:1 biography:3 take:5 farming:1 enlist:1 private:1 republic:4 mexico:1 month:2 promote:1 major:2 position:3 aide:1 de:1 camp:2 sam:1 houston:1 name:2 adjutant:1 colonel:3 august:1 january:1 become:2 senior:1 brigadier:2 command:4 duel:2 brig:3 gen:5 felix:1 huston:2 challenge:1 refuse:1 fire:3 lose:2 wound:6 pelvis:1 mirabeau:1 b:1 lamar:1 secretary:1 december:3 provide:1 defense:1 border:1 invasion:1 conduct:1 campaign:1 indian:2 northern:1 eliza:1 griffin:1 settle:1 large:1 plantation:3 china:1 grove:1 brazoria:1 county:1 zachary:1 taylor:2 rifle:1 volunteer:4 enlistment:1 run:2 monterrey:2 manage:1 convince:1 stay:1 inspector:1 fought:1 buena:1 vista:1 remain:2 make:2 paymaster:1 role:1 five:1 six:1 tour:1 travel:1 mile:1 annually:1 frontier:2 elsewhere:1 franklin:1 pierce:1 cavalry:1 unit:1 precede:1 modern:1 regiment:1 organize:2 key:1 figure:1 lead:3 troop:2 establish:1 non:1 mormon:4 government:1 formerly:1 territory:1 receive:1 promotion:1 service:1 spend:1 sail:1 california:3 department:3 pacific:2 outbreak:1 commander:2 approach:1 californian:1 urge:1 force:6 east:2 join:2 soon:1 hear:1 secession:1 june:1 rapid:1 march:1 desert:1 arizona:1 reach:1 richmond:1 virginia:1 september:1 full:1 friend:1 may:1 line:4 list:2 rank:2 little:1 know:2 samuel:1 cooper:1 western:1 raise:1 mississippi:3 defend:1 river:1 allegheny:1 mountain:1 win:1 morale:2 boost:1 victory:1 bull:1 matter:1 ugly:1 subordinate:1 fort:3 donelson:1 ulysses:1 grant:3 fault:1 poor:1 judgment:1 select:1 tilghman:1 floyd:1 crucial:1 supervise:1 adequate:1 construction:1 maj:1 carlos:1 buell:1 capture:1 vital:1 city:1 nashville:1 tennessee:2 g:1 beauregard:1 send:2 corinth:1 plan:1 ambush:1 pittsburg:1 landing:1 monument:2 national:1 park:1 concentrate:1 many:2 around:1 theater:1 launch:1 massive:1 surprise:1 attack:1 overrun:1 seem:1 everywhere:1 personally:1 leading:1 rally:1 charge:3 bullet:2 right:1 knee:1 think:1 serious:1 time:2 personal:1 physician:1 attend:1 soldier:4 instead:1 fact:1 clip:1 popliteal:1 artery:1 boot:1 fill:1 blood:1 within:1 minute:2 observe:2 nearly:1 faint:1 horse:1 ask:1 reply:1 yes:1 fear:1 seriously:1 possible:1 cause:2 nerve:1 damage:1 numbness:1 leg:2 feel:1 result:1 georgia:1 blue:1 gray:1 trail:1 website:1 small:1 ravine:1 bleed:1 death:4 probable:1 fatal:2 round:1 ever:1 get:1 advance:1 casualty:1 either:1 side:1 strong:1 blow:1 best:1 country:1 pre:1 eminent:1 epitaph:1 tomb:1 cemetery:2 date:1 sunday:1 coincidentally:1 anniversary:1 founding:1 church:1 jesus:1 christ:1 latter:1 day:1 saint:1 deem:2 buchanan:1 administration:2 rebellion:2 similarly:1 commanding:1 lincoln:1 bury:1 orleans:1 louisiana:1 joint:1 resolution:1 legislature:1 pass:1 body:1 reinterred:1 austin:2 interment:1 occur:1 forty:1 elisabet:1 ney:1 design:1 sculpture:1 erect:3 gravesite:1 historical:2 marker:2 near:1 entrance:1 adjacent:1 san:1 jacinto:1 chapter:2 daughter:2 america:1 recognize:1 statue:1 south:1 mall:1 note:1 see:1 reference:1 trevor:1 n:1 johnson:1 curt:1 bongard:1 david:1 l:1 harper:1 encyclopedia:1 castle:1 book:1 ed:1 isbn:1 read:1 external:1 link:1 retrieve:1 |@bigram jefferson_davis:4 chief_staff:1 adjutant_general:1 brigadier_general:2 brig_gen:3 zachary_taylor:1 buena_vista:1 franklin_pierce:1 richmond_virginia:1 morale_boost:1 ulysses_grant:1 maj_gen:1 nashville_tennessee:1 pre_eminent:1 jesus_christ:1 commanding_officer:1 orleans_louisiana:1 san_jacinto:1 texas_austin:1 external_link:1 |
7,282 | Inspector_Morse | Detective Chief Inspector Endeavour Morse is a fictional character in a series of thirteen detective novels by British author Colin Dexter, as well as the 33 episode television series produced by Central Independent Television from 1987–2000, in which he was portrayed by John Thaw. Morse is a senior CID (Criminal Investigation Department) officer with the Thames Valley Police in Oxford, England. Novels The Inspector Morse novels have been successful in both book and television serial form. The stories are set primarily in Oxford. With an old Mark 2 Jaguar car (originally a Lancia), a thirst for beer, intellectual snobbery and a penchant for Wagner, Morse presents a likeable persona, despite his sullen temperament. Morse is a highly intelligent individual. He dislikes spelling errors and grammatical mistakes, demonstrated by the fact that in every personal or private document written to him he manages to point out at least one spelling mistake. His approach to crime-solving, he asserts frequently, is deductive and one of his key tenets is that 'the last person to see the victim alive was the murderer.' Dexter is a fan of cryptic crosswords, and Morse is named after champion solver Sir Jeremy Morse, one of Dexter's arch-rivals as a clue-writer in the crossword world. In every novel (except the first, Last Bus to Woodstock), the surname of the killer is taken Crowther, Jonathan. A–Z of Crosswords: Insights into the Top Setters and their Puzzles. London: Collins. 2006. ISBN 0007229239 from those of winners of the weekly Azed solving competition in The Observer. Indeed, for a while, Dexter wrote a weekly "How to Solve Cryptic Crosswords" column "How to Solve Cryptic Crosswords" - The Guardian in the Observer's sister paper The Guardian. Morse's first name, "Endeavour", was kept a secret until the end of Death is Now My Neighbour (traditionally Morse claimed that he should be called 'Morse' or joked that his first name was 'Inspector'). In the series it is noted that his reticence about his "Christian" name led to a public school (Stamford School) nickname of "Pagan". The origin of his name is the vessel HM Bark Endeavour, as Morse's mother was a Quaker (Quakers have a tradition of "virtue names") and his father was a fan of Captain James Cook. During the episode Cherubim and Seraphim, we learn that Morse's parents divorced when he was 12, but that he remained with his mother, until her death 3 years later. He has a half-sister, Joyce, and a dreadful relationship with his stepmother, Gwen. Morse is an interesting and complex character to assess from a social and political viewpoint. Morse is ostensibly the embodiment of white, male, upper-middle-class Englishness, with a set of prejudices and assumptions to match. He may thus be considered a late example of the gentleman detective, a staple of British detective fiction. This background is in sharp juxtaposition to the working class origins of his assistant, Lewis (named for another rival clue-writer, Mrs. B. Lewis); in the novels Lewis is Welsh, but this was altered to a northern (Geordie) background in the TV series. Morse's relationships with authority, the establishment, bastions of power and the status quo are markedly ambiguous, as are sometimes his relations with women. Morse is frequently portrayed in the act of patronising women characters, to the extent that some feminist critics have argued that Morse is a misogynist. e.g. Review: Death Is Now My Neighbour by Val McDermid. Although details of Morse's career are deliberately kept vague, it is hinted that as a schoolboy he won a scholarship to study at St John's College, Oxford. He lost the scholarship as the result of poor academic performance, which in turn resulted from a failed love affair (mentioned in the series at the end of "The Last Enemy" and in the novel The Riddle of the Third Mile). Forced to leave the University, he entered the Army, and on leaving it, joined the Police. He often reflects on renowned scholars (such as A. E. Housman) who, like himself, failed to get academic degrees from Oxford. The novels in the series are: Last Bus to Woodstock (1975) Last Seen Wearing (1976) The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn (1977) Service of All the Dead (1979) The Dead of Jericho (1981) The Riddle of the Third Mile (1983) The Secret of Annexe 3 (1986) The Wench is Dead (1989) The Jewel That Was Ours (1991) The Way Through the Woods (1992) The Daughters of Cain (1994) Death is Now My Neighbour (1996) The Remorseful Day (1999) Inspector Morse also appears in several stories in Dexter's short story collection, Morse's Greatest Mystery and Other Stories (1993, expanded edition 1994). Dexter killed off Morse in his last book, The Remorseful Day. Morse dies in hospital from complications of his neglected diabetes. Television The Inspector Morse novels were made into a TV series (also called Inspector Morse) for the British TV channel ITV. The series was made by Zenith Productions for Central (a company later acquired by Carlton) and comprises 33 two-hour episodes (100 minutes excluding commercials) — twenty more episodes than there are novels — produced between 1987 and 2000. The last episode was adapted from the final novel, The Remorseful Day, which incorporated the main character's surname. Radio An occasional BBC Radio 4 series (for the Saturday Play) was made starring the voices of John Shrapnel as Morse and Robert Glenister as Lewis. The series was written by Guy Meredith and directed by Ned Chaillet. Episodes included: The Wench is Dead (28 March 1992); Last Seen Wearing (28 May 1994); and The Silent World of Nicholas Quinn (10 February 1996). Further reading Allen, Paul and Jan, Endeavoring to Crack the Morse Code (Inspector Morse) Exposure Publishing (2006) Bishop, David, The Complete Inspector Morse: From the Original Novels to the TV Series London: Reynolds & Hearn (2006) ISBN 1-9052871-3-5 Bird, Christopher, The World of Inspector Morse: A Complete A-Z Reference for the Morse Enthusiast Foreword by Colin Dexter London: Boxtree (1998) ISBN 0752221175 Goodwin, Cliff, Inspector Morse Country : An Illustrated Guide to the World of Oxford's famous detective London: Headline (2002) ISBN 0755310640 Leonard, Bill, The Oxford of Inspector Morse: Films Locations History Location Guides, Oxford (2004) ISBN 0-9547671-1-X Richards, Anthony and Philip Attwell, The Oxford of Inspector Morse Richards, Anthony, Inspector Morse On Location Sanderson, Mark, The Making of Inspector Morse Pan Macmillan (1995) ISBN 0330344188 References External links Morse's Oxford Online Tour (created by Oxford University) | Inspector_Morse |@lemmatized detective:5 chief:1 inspector:14 endeavour:3 morse:36 fictional:1 character:4 series:11 thirteen:1 novel:11 british:3 author:1 colin:2 dexter:7 well:1 episode:6 television:4 produce:2 central:2 independent:1 portray:2 john:3 thaw:1 senior:1 cid:1 criminal:1 investigation:1 department:1 officer:1 thames:1 valley:1 police:2 oxford:10 england:1 successful:1 book:2 serial:1 form:1 story:4 set:2 primarily:1 old:1 mark:2 jaguar:1 car:1 originally:1 lancia:1 thirst:1 beer:1 intellectual:1 snobbery:1 penchant:1 wagner:1 present:1 likeable:1 persona:1 despite:1 sullen:1 temperament:1 highly:1 intelligent:1 individual:1 dislike:1 spelling:1 error:1 grammatical:1 mistake:2 demonstrate:1 fact:1 every:2 personal:1 private:1 document:1 write:3 manage:1 point:1 least:1 one:3 spell:1 approach:1 crime:1 solving:1 assert:1 frequently:2 deductive:1 key:1 tenet:1 last:8 person:1 see:3 victim:1 alive:1 murderer:1 fan:2 cryptic:3 crossword:5 name:7 champion:1 solver:1 sir:1 jeremy:1 arch:1 rival:2 clue:2 writer:2 world:5 except:1 first:3 bus:2 woodstock:2 surname:2 killer:1 take:1 crowther:1 jonathan:1 z:2 insight:1 top:1 setter:1 puzzle:1 london:4 collins:1 isbn:6 winner:1 weekly:2 azed:1 solve:3 competition:1 observer:2 indeed:1 column:1 guardian:2 sister:2 paper:1 keep:1 secret:2 end:2 death:4 neighbour:3 traditionally:1 claim:1 call:2 joke:1 note:1 reticence:1 christian:1 lead:1 public:1 school:2 stamford:1 nickname:1 pagan:1 origin:2 vessel:1 hm:1 bark:1 mother:2 quaker:2 tradition:1 virtue:1 father:1 captain:1 james:1 cook:1 cherub:1 seraph:1 learn:1 parent:1 divorce:1 remain:1 year:1 later:2 half:1 joyce:1 dreadful:1 relationship:2 stepmother:1 gwen:1 interesting:1 complex:1 assess:1 social:1 political:1 viewpoint:1 ostensibly:1 embodiment:1 white:1 male:1 upper:1 middle:1 class:2 englishness:1 prejudice:1 assumption:1 match:1 may:2 thus:1 consider:1 late:1 example:1 gentleman:1 staple:1 fiction:1 background:2 sharp:1 juxtaposition:1 work:1 assistant:1 lewis:4 another:1 mr:1 b:1 welsh:1 alter:1 northern:1 geordie:1 tv:4 authority:1 establishment:1 bastion:1 power:1 status:1 quo:1 markedly:1 ambiguous:1 sometimes:1 relation:1 woman:2 act:1 patronise:1 extent:1 feminist:1 critic:1 argue:1 misogynist:1 e:2 g:1 review:1 val:1 mcdermid:1 although:1 detail:1 career:1 deliberately:1 kept:1 vague:1 hint:1 schoolboy:1 win:1 scholarship:2 study:1 st:1 college:1 lose:1 result:2 poor:1 academic:2 performance:1 turn:1 fail:2 love:1 affair:1 mention:1 enemy:1 riddle:2 third:2 mile:2 force:1 leave:2 university:2 enter:1 army:1 join:1 often:1 reflect:1 renowned:1 scholar:1 housman:1 like:1 get:1 degree:1 wear:2 silent:2 nicholas:2 quinn:2 service:1 dead:4 jericho:1 annexe:1 wench:2 jewel:1 way:1 wood:1 daughter:1 cain:1 remorseful:3 day:3 also:2 appear:1 several:1 short:1 collection:1 great:1 mystery:1 expand:1 edition:1 kill:1 die:1 hospital:1 complication:1 neglected:1 diabetes:1 make:3 channel:1 itv:1 zenith:1 production:1 company:1 acquire:1 carlton:1 comprise:1 two:1 hour:1 minute:1 exclude:1 commercial:1 twenty:1 adapt:1 final:1 incorporate:1 main:1 radio:2 occasional:1 bbc:1 saturday:1 play:1 star:1 voice:1 shrapnel:1 robert:1 glenister:1 guy:1 meredith:1 direct:1 ned:1 chaillet:1 include:1 march:1 february:1 far:1 reading:1 allen:1 paul:1 jan:1 endeavor:1 crack:1 code:1 exposure:1 publishing:1 bishop:1 david:1 complete:2 original:1 reynolds:1 hearn:1 bird:1 christopher:1 reference:2 enthusiast:1 foreword:1 boxtree:1 goodwin:1 cliff:1 country:1 illustrated:1 guide:2 famous:1 headline:1 leonard:1 bill:1 films:1 location:3 history:1 x:1 richards:2 anthony:2 philip:1 attwell:1 sanderson:1 making:1 pan:1 macmillan:1 external:1 link:1 online:1 tour:1 create:1 |@bigram colin_dexter:2 inspector_morse:12 cryptic_crossword:3 arch_rival:1 bus_woodstock:2 status_quo:1 remorseful_day:3 morse_code:1 reynolds_hearn:1 external_link:1 |
7,283 | Empire | The maximum territorial extent of Egypt (XVth century BC) Empire from the Latin imperium. Politically, an empire is a geographically extensive group of states and peoples (ethnic groups) united and ruled either by a monarch (emperor, empress) or an oligarchy. Geopolitically, the term empire has denoted very different, territorially-extreme states — at the strong end, the extensive Spanish Empire (16th c.) and the British Empire (19th c.), at the weak end, the Holy Roman Empire (8th c.–19th c.), in its Medieval and early-modern forms, and the Byzantine Empire (15th c.), that was a direct continuation of the Roman Empire, that, in its final century of existence, was more a city-state than a territorial empire. Etymologically, the political usage of “empire” denotes a strong, centrally-controlled nation-state, but, in the looser, quotidian, vernacular usage, it denotes a large-scale business enterprise (i.e. a transnational corporation) and a political organisation of either national-, regional-, or city scale, controlled either by a person (a political boss) or a group authority (political bosses). Oxford Dictionary|http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/empire?view=uk Retrieved 11/21/2008 An imperial political structure is established and maintained two ways: (i) as a territorial empire of direct conquest and control with force (direct, physical action to compel the emperor’s goals), and (ii) as a coercive, hegemonic empire of indirect conquest and control with power (the perception that the emperor can physically enforce his desired goals). The former provides greater tribute and direct political control, yet limits further expansion, because it absorbs military forces to fixed garrisons. The latter provides less tribute and indirect control, but avails military forces for further expansion. Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest (1994), pp. 23–24, ISBN 0-582-06829-0 (pbk) Territorial empires (e.g. the Mongol Empire, the Median Empire) tended to be contiguous areas; while maritime empires or thalassocracies, (e.g. the Athenian , the British Empire) are intercontinental, far-flung overseas empires. Per Herodotus, the Persian fleet of King Xerxes, in the Greco–Persian war had 1,207 triremes and 3,000 fifty-oar ships. Empire defined An empire is a State with politico-military dominion of populations who are culturally and ethnically distinct from the imperial (ruling) ethnic group and its culture The Oxford English Reference Dictionary, Second Edition (2001), p.461, ISBN 0-19-860046-1 — unlike a federation, an extensive State voluntarily composed of autonomous states and peoples. As a State, an empire might be either territorial or a hegemony, wherein the empire’s sphere of influence dominates the lesser state(s) via divide and conquer tactics, i.e. “the enemy of my enemy is my friend”, (cf. superpower, hyperpower). What physically and politically constitutes an empire is variously defined; it might be a State effecting imperial policies, or a political structure, or a State whose ruler assumes the title of “Emperor”, thus re-denominating the State (country) as an “Empire”, despite having no additional territory or hegemony, e.g. the Central African Empire or the Korean Empire (proclaimed in 1897 when Korea, far from gaining new territory, was on the verge of being annexed by Japan). The terrestrial empire’s maritime analogue is the thalassocracy, an empire comprehending islands and coasts to its terrestrial homeland, e.g. the Athenian-dominated Delian League. Unlike an homogeneous nation-state, an heterogeneous (multi-ethnic) colonial empire usually has no common tongue, thus, a lingua franca is most important to governing (administratively, culturally, militarily) to establish imperial unity. To wit, the Macedonians imposed Greek as their unifying, imperial language, yet most of their subject populations continued speaking Aramaic, the lingua franca of the previous, Persian Empire, overlord. The Romans successfully imposed Latin upon Western continental Europe, but less successfully in Britain and in Western Asia; in the Middle East, the Arab Empire established politico-cultural unity via language and religion; the Spanish Empire established Spanish in most all of the American continent, but less so in Paraguay and in the Philippines; the British Empire established itself with English in northern North America; elsewhere, despite Russian not supplanting the indigenous tongues of the Caucasus and Central Asia, the Russians learned the tongues of their imperial subjects. Ethnic groups of the Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1910, (cf. nation-state). History of Imperialism Early empires The imperial concept predates the Roman Empire by millennia; the Akkadian Empire of Sargon of Akkad (24th century BC), was the earliest model of a geographically extensive terrestrial empire. In the 15th century BC, the loosely-organised New Kingdom of Ancient Egypt, ruled by Thutmose III, was the ancient Near East’s major force upon incorporating Nubia and the ancient city-states of the Levant. Despite their imperial condition, these early empires had no effective administrative control of their subject territories. The ancient world’s earliest, centrally-organised empire, comparable to Rome, was the Assyrian empire (2000–612 BC), and the first, successful, multi-cultural empire was the Persian Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC), then the most extensive, comprehending Egypt, Greece, Western Asia (the Middle East), Central Asia, and India. Classical Antiquity The Roman Empire was the most extensive Western empire until the early modern period. The Roman Empire under Trajan in AD 117. Prior to the Roman Empire the kingdom of Macedonia, under Alexander the Great, became an empire that spanned from Greece to India. After Alexander's death, his empire fractured into four, discrete kingdoms ruled by the Diadochi, which, despite being independent, are denoted as the "Hellenistic Empire", given the Greek influence. In the East, the term Persian Empire denotes the imperial states established at different historical periods of pre–Islamic and post–Islamic Persia. And in the Far East, various Celestial Empires arose periodically in China between periods of civil war and foreign conquests. The Han Empire was one of the worlds largest Empires in Antiquity, and one of Chinas most long lived dynasties. Middle Ages Map showing the extent of the Almoravid empire, c. AD 1100. The expansion of the Arab Empire under the Umayyads The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous empire Conquests of the Ottoman Empire For centuries, in the West, “empire” was exclusively applied to States that considered themselves the heirs and successors of the Roman Empire, e.g. the Byzantine Empire, the German Holy Roman Empire, the Russian Empire, yet, said states were not always technically — geographic, political, military — empires. To legitimise their imperium, these states directly claimed the title of Empire from Rome. The sacrum Romanum imperium (800–1806), claimed to have exclusively comprehended Christian German principalities, was only nominally a discrete imperial state. The Holy Roman Empire was not always centrally-governed, as it had neither core nor peripheral territories, was not multi-ethnic, and was not governed by a central, politico-military élite — hence, Voltaire’s remark that the Holy Roman Empire “was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire” is accurate to the degree that it ignores German rule over Italian, French, Provençal, Polish, Flemish, Dutch, and Bohemian populations, and the efforts of the eighth-century Holy Roman Emperors (i.e. the Ottonians) to establish central control; thus, Voltaire’s “. . . nor an empire” observation applies to its late period. In 1204, after the Fourth Crusade sacked Constantinople, the crusaders established a Latin Empire (1204–1261) in that city, while the defeated Byzantine Empire’s descendants established two, smaller, short-lived empires in Asia Minor: the Empire of Nicaea (1204–1261) and the Empire of Trebizond (1204–1461). In the event, the Muslim Ottoman Empire (ca.1300–1918), conquered most of that region by 1453. Moreover, Eastern Orthodox imperialism was not re-established until the coronation, in 1682, of Peter the Great as Emperor of Russia. Like-wise, with the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire, in 1806, during the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), the Austrian Empire (1804-1867), emerged reconstituted as the Empire of Austria–Hungary (1867–1918), having “inherited” the imperium of Central and Western Europe from the losers of said wars. The Mongol Empire, under Genghis Khan in the thirteenth century, was forged as the largest contiguous empire in the world. Genghis Khan's grandson, Kublai Khan, was proclaimed emperor, and established his imperial capital at Beijing; however, in his reign, the empire became fractured into four, discrete khanates. Colonial empires The imperial world of 1910. The discovery of the New World (the Americas and Australasia) in the 15th century, proved opportune for European countries to launch colonial imperialism like that of the Romans and the Carthaginians. In the Old World, colonial imperialism was attempted, effected, and established upon the Canary Islands and Ireland, wherein, the conquered lands and peoples became de jure subordinates of the empire, rather than de facto imperial territory and subjects. In the event, such subjugation elicited “client-state” resentment that the empire unwisely ignored, leading to the collapse of the European colonial imperial system in the late-nineteenth century and the early- and mid-twentieth century. An inherent problem of European colonial imperialism was the matter of the arbitrary territorial boundaries of the colonies. For administrative expediency, discrete colonies were established solely by convenient geography — while ignoring the sometimes extreme cultural differences among the conquered populace(s); effective in the short-term control of the subject peoples, but politically, militarily, and economically ineffective in the imperial long-term. For the British Empire, this occurred with the populaces of the colony of “India” — the Indian sub-continent — who, on partition and independence, in 1947, divided themselves by culture and religion, not geography, and established the modern countries of India and Pakistan (the geographically-distant states of West Pakistan and East Pakistan), which later, respectively, became Pakistan (The Islamic Republic of Pakistan), in 1947, and Bangladesh (The People’s Republic of Bangladesh), in 1971. Moreover, in Africa, said arbitrary imperial borders remain, and define the contemporary countries, because the African Union’s explicit policy is their preservation in avoiding political instability and concomitant war. Modern period The Spanish–Portuguese Empire in the Iberian Union (1580–1640) period; Spanish Empire (red), Portuguese Empire (blue). In time, most monarchies, usually kingdoms, styled themselves as having greater size, scope, and power than the territorial, politico-military, and economic facts allowed; despite that, they assumed the title of “Emperor” (or its corresponding translation: Tsar, Emperador, Kaiser, et cetera) and re-named their states as “The Empire of . . . ”. For example, in 1056, King Ferdinand I of León, proclaimed himself “Emperor of Hispania”, and began the Reconquista (718–1492) of the Iberian peninsula from the Muslims; another, mediæval example is Bulgaria. In the 19th century, the French emperors Napoleon I and Napoleon III (See: Second Mexican Empire [1864–1867]) each attempted establishing a Western imperial hegemony based in France; and the German Empire (1871–1918), another “heir to the Holy Roman Empire” arose in 1871. In consequence, the Europeans began applying the conceptual political structure of “empire” to non-European monarchies, such as the Manchu Dynasty and the Mughal Empire, and then to past polities, leading, eventually, to the looser denotations applicable to any political structure (monarchic or not) meeting the criteria of imperium; thus, the empire synonyms: tsardom, realm, reich, and raj. Empires accrete to different types of states, although, they traditionally originated as powerful monarchies ruled by an hereditary (sometimes self-appointed) emperor, nevertheless, the Athenian Empire, the Roman Empire, and the British Empire developed under elective auspices, while the Brazilian Empire declared itself an empire born of a Portuguese colony in 1822, and France has twice transited from being the French Republic to being the French Empire; whilst nominally a republic, France remained an overseas empire; to date, it governs a territorial, colonial empire (French Guyana, Martinique, Réunion, French Polynesia, New Caledonia) and an hegemony in Francophone Africa (Chad, Rwanda, et cetera). In 1920, the British Empire was the largest empire in history. Historically, empires resulted from military conquest, with the conqueror incorporating the vanquished states to its political union; yet, a strong state could establish imperial hegemony with minimal militarism. The victim-state’s inability to militarily resist, and its knowledge of that inability, usually suffices to convince it to negotiate for annexation, rather than conquest, to the empire. For example, the bequest of Pergamon, by Attalus III, to the Roman Empire, in antiquity, and, the Unification of Germany as the empire accreted to the Prussian metropole, whose military action was less a military conquest of the German states, than their political divorce from the Austrian Empire. Having convinced them of its military prowess — and having excluded the Austrians — Prussia dictated the terms of imperial membership to the nominally independent German states joining what initially was a revamped customs union; thus, via Prussian hegemony, the German states mostly retained the trappings of sovereignty, and the hegemon empire avoided a protracted war of conquest and consolidation. In sub-continental Asia, the Sikh Empire (1799–1846) was established in the Punjab, by the Maharaja Ranjit Singh, after the Sikhs defeated the Afghan Empire; it comprised the territory from Kabul to Delhi. The Sikh Empire collapsed at Ranjit Singh’s death, when — despite the Sikhs having opportunity of capturing the local colony of the British Empire — Tej Singh and Lal singh betrayed their army to the British in 1846. Politically, it was typical for either a monarchy, or an oligarchy, rooted in the original, core territory of the empire, to continue dominating said union of states. Usually, such government was maintained via control of a natural resource vital to the colonial subjects, usually, water; such régimes were denominated “hydraulic empires”. Moreover, pace Edward Gibbon, the empire’s introduction of a common religion amenable to every subject populace, also strengthened the imperial political structure, as occurred with the adoption of Christianity under Constantine I. In time, an empire metamorphoses to another form of polity; thus, the Bernese Empire of conquest ceased existing when its conquered territories were (culturally) incorporated, either to the Canton of Bern or to other cantons of the Swiss Confederation. To wit, the Holy Roman Empire, a German re-constitution of the Roman Empire, metamorphosed into various political structures (i.e. Federalism), and, eventually, under Habsburg rule, re-constituted itself as the Austrian Empire — an empire of much different politics and vaster extension. After the Second World War (1939–1945) the British Empire, evolved into a loose, multi-national Commonwealth of Nations; while the French Colonial empire metamorphosed to a Francophone commonwealth; and the Soviet Empire became the Commonwealth of Independent States. An autocratic empire can progress to being a republic, usually with a coup d’etat (e.g. Brazil in 1889; the Central African Empire in 1979); or it can become a republic with its imperial dominions reduced to a core territory (e.g. Weimar Germany, 1918–1919 and the Ottoman Empire, 1918–1923). The dissolution of the Austro–Hungarian Empire, in 1918, is an example of a multi-ethnic superstate devolving to its constituent states: the republics, kingdoms, and provinces of Austria, Hungary, Transylvania, Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Czechoslovakia, Ruthenia, Galicia, et al. Empire from 1945 to the present Etymology and semantics; Contemporaneously, the concept of Empire is politically valid, yet, is losing semantic cohesion; for example, Japan, the world’s sole empire, is a constitutional monarchy, with an heterogeneous population that is 97 per cent ethnic Japanese and a land mass smaller than that of other modern nations. George Hicks, Japan’s hidden apartheid: the Korean minority and the Japanese, (Aldershot, England; Brookfield, VT: Ashgate, 1998), 3. Moreover, given the disfavour against absolute monarchy and the absence of any government with explicitly imperial policies, the term empire might become a linguistic anachronism; nonetheless, as political science, the military command of Imperium evolved to the political structure of Empire, which evolved into hegemonic Imperialism — its theoretical denotations and connotations of global capitalism as imperialism derive from Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), Vladimir Lenin’s study of cultural and economic hegemony. Communist Empire; the USSR (1922–1991) met the imperium criteria, was governed by a ruling group, not an hereditary emperor (cf. Soviet Empire), yet never identified itself as such; nevertheless, its anti-Communist, ideologic opponents, most notably the US President Ronald Reagan and the UK Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, named it The Evil Empire, tacitly contrasting it with The Good Empire of the democratic West. Academically, the USSR was denominated imperial, given its likeness to empires past and its ideologic appeal to the poor peoples of Eurasia. . Capitalist Empire; identifying the USA’s American Empire, by its international behavior, is controversial in that country. To wit, Stuart Creighton Miller posits that the public’s self-styled “sense of innocence” about Realpolitik (cf. American Exceptionalism) impairs popular recognition of US imperial conduct, because it governs via surrogates — domestically-weak, right-wing governments that collapse without US support. Johnson, Chalmers, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire (2000), pp.72–9 To wit, G.W. Bush Administration Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld having said: “We don’t seek empires. We’re not imperialistic; we never have been” — directly contradicts Thomas Jefferson, in the 1780s, awaiting the fall of the Spanish empire: “. . . till our population can be sufficiently advanced to gain it from them peice by peice [sic]”. LaFeber, Walter, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (1993) 2nd edition, p.19 In turn, historian Sidney Lens confirms Jefferson, noting that, from its British imperial independence, the US has used every means to dominate other nations. . Historically imperial countries — China, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Russia, Spain — whose body politic comprises violent and peaceful political separatist groups, whether or not State action controlling their activities is legitimate law-enforcement or imperial repression remains debated. Unlike an empire, modern multi-ethnic states are federations (e.g. Belgium) and commonwealth unions (e.g. the UK) whose democratic political systems share governing power at the federal, provincial, and state jurisdictions. European Empire redux; in the post–Cold War era, since the European Union began, in 1993, as a west European trade bloc, it established its own currency, the Euro, in 1999, established discrete military forces, and exercised its hegemony in eastern Europe and in Asia, behaviour which the political scientist, Jan Zielonka, posits as imperial, because it coerces its neighbour countries to adopt its European economic, legal, and political structures. The Age of Nation Empires as the Order of the World in the twenty-first century; in his book review of Empire (2000), by Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri, Mehmet Akif Okur posits that, since the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks in the US, the international relations determining the world’s balance of power (political, economic, military) have been altered by the intellectual (political science) trends that perceive the contemporary world’s order via the re-territorrialisation of political space, the re-emergence of classical imperialist practices (the “inside” vs. “outside” duality, cf. the Other), the deliberate weakening of international organisations, the restructured international economy, economic nationalism, the expanded arming of most countries, the proliferation of nuclear-weapon capabilities, and the politics of identity emphasizing a State’s subjective perception of its place in the world, as a nation and as a civilisation. These changes constitute the “Age of Nation Empires”; as imperial usage, nation-empire denotes the return of geopolitical power from global power blocs to regional power blocs (i.e. centred upon a “regional power” State [China, Russia, US, et al.]), and regional multi-state power alliances (i.e. Europe, Latin America, South East Asia), thus nation-empire regionalism claims sovereignty over their respective (regional) political (social, economic, ideologic), cultural, and military spheres. For the Okur's thesis about "nation empires", look at this article : Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61-93 http://www.sam.gov.tr/perceptions/volume12/winter/winter-004-PERCEPTION(mehmetakifokur)%5B4%5D.pdf Timeline of European emperors The chart below shows a timeline of the European states claiming the imperial title. Dynastic changes are marked with a white line. See also List of empires List of largest empires List of extinct countries, empires, etc. Global empire Imperialism Colonialism Democratic empire Linguistic imperialism References Bibliography Gilpin, Robert War and Change in World Politics pp.110–116 Written for the United Nations Research Institute on Development, UNRISD, Geneva. External links Historical maps of civilizations and empires Index of Colonies and Possessions Mehmet Akif Okur, Rethinking Empire After 9/11: Towards A New Ontological Image of World Order, Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs, Volume XII, Winter 2007, pp.61-93 }||}}group |list = }} {{Lifetime|{ | Empire |@lemmatized maximum:1 territorial:8 extent:2 egypt:3 xvth:1 century:12 bc:5 empire:159 latin:4 imperium:7 politically:5 geographically:3 extensive:6 group:8 state:41 people:6 ethnic:8 unite:1 rule:7 either:6 monarch:1 emperor:13 empress:1 oligarchy:2 geopolitically:1 term:6 denote:6 different:4 territorially:1 extreme:2 strong:3 end:2 spanish:7 c:6 british:10 weak:2 holy:9 roman:20 medieval:1 early:7 modern:6 form:2 byzantine:3 direct:4 continuation:1 final:1 existence:1 city:4 etymologically:1 political:25 usage:3 centrally:3 control:11 nation:13 looser:2 quotidian:1 vernacular:1 large:6 scale:2 business:1 enterprise:1 e:15 transnational:1 corporation:1 organisation:2 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7,284 | Mexican_tetra | The Mexican tetra or Blind Cave Fish (Astyanax mexicanus) is a freshwater fish of the characin family (family Characidae) of order Characiformes. The type species of its genus, it is native to the Nearctic ecozone, originating in the lower Rio Grande and the Neueces and Pecos Rivers in Texas as well as the central and eastern parts of Mexico. Growing to a maximum overall length of 12 cm (4.7 in), the Mexican tetra is of typical characin shape, with unremarkable, drab coloration. Its blind cave form, however, is notable for having no eyes and being albino, that is, completely devoid of pigmentation; it has a pinkish-white color to its body. This fish, especially the blind variant, is reasonably popular among . A. mexicanus is a peaceful species that spends most of its time in the mid-level of the water above the rocky and sandy bottoms of pools and backwaters of creeks and rivers of its native environment. Coming from a subtropical climate, it prefers water with 6.0–7.8 pH, a hardness of up to 30 dGH, and a temperature range of 20 to 25 °C (68 to 77 °F). In the winter it migrates to warmer waters. Its natural diet consists of crustaceans, insects, and annelids, although in captivity it is omnivorous. The Mexican tetra has been treated as a subspecies of A. fasciatus, the banded tetra, but this is not widely accepted. Blind cave form Mexican Tetra in Blind Cave Fish form A. mexicanus is famous for its blind cave form, which is known by such names as blind cave tetra, blind tetra, and blind cavefish. Some thirty distinct populations of Mexican tetras live in deep caves and have lost the power of sight and even their eyes. These fish can still, however, find their way around by means of their lateral lines, which are highly sensitive to fluctuating water pressure. The eyed and eyeless forms of A. mexicanus, being members of the same species, are closely related and can interbreed. Astyanax jordani, however, is another blind cave fish, independently and recently evolved from the sighted surface form, which is sometimes confused with the cave form of A. mexicanus. However, when born, the cave dwelling form of A. mexicanus has eyes. As they grow older, skin just grows over them and the eyes degenerate completely, because there is no need for sight in the pitch-black world of a cave. In the aquarium A. mexicanus only grows to a length of 12 cm (4.7 in) in the recommended minimum of 30 US gallons. The blind cave tetra is a fairly hardy species. They are not picky on food, as they will eat anything from standard flakes to sinking carnivore pellets. Their lack of sight does not hinder their ability to get any and all food before it hits the bottom. They prefer subdued lighting with a rocky substrate, like gravel. It is recommended that the tank mimic their natural environment, so artificial or natural rock is highly appreciated. They become semi-aggressive as they age but are by nature, schooling fish, and a group of at least three is a good idea. However, it isn't imperative, as they can be kept as a single specimen. As stated earlier, they can get to their food rather swiftly, even more so than fish with the ability to see, so they aren't really good for a community, but one is OK for a semi-aggressive community. They are also incredibly fast, so catching them with the net is a chore in itself while conducting maintenance. Evolution research The surface and cave forms of the Mexican tetra have proven popular subjects for scientists studying evolution. A recent study suggests that there are at least two distinct genetic lineages among the blind populations, arguing that these represent a case of convergent evolution. One theory to the cave fish's evolution says that because of its dark habitat, the fish embryo saves energy it would normally use to develop eyes to develop other body parts, and this developmental choice would eventually dominate the population. This is called economical adaptation. However, studies have shown that blind cave fish embryos begin to grow eyes during development but then something actively stops this process and flesh grows over the partially grown eyes. Another theory is that some Mexican tetra randomly don't develop eyes (which is represented by broken genes in the fish's genome), and this lack of eyes spreads to the rest of the population despite having no advantage or disadvantage. This is called the neutral theory. In one experiment studying eye development, University of Maryland scientists transplanted lenses from the eyes of sighted surface-form embryos into blind cave-form embryos, and vice versa. In the cave form, lens development begins within the first 24 hours of embryonic development, but quickly aborts, the lens cells dying; most of the rest of the eye structures never develop. Researchers found that the lens seemed to control the development of the rest of the eye, as the surface-form tetras which received cave-form lenses failed to develop eyes, while cave-form tetras which received surface-form lenses grew eyes with pupils, corneas, and irises. (It is not clear whether they possessed sight, however.) Blind cave tetras and creationism The blind form of the Mexican tetra is different from the surface-dwelling form in a number of ways, including having unpigmented skin, having a better olfactory sense by having taste buds all over its head, and by being able to store four times more energy as fat allowing it to deal with irregular food supplies more effectively. Helfman G., Collette B., & Facey D.: The Diversity of Fishes, Blackwell Publishing, p 315, 1997, ISBN 0-86542-256-7 However, it is the lack of eyes that has been at the centre of discussion of the Mexican cave tetras among creationists. Darwin said of sightless fish - Modern genetics has made clear that the lack of use does not, in itself, necessitate a feature's disappearance. In this context, the positive genetic benefits have to be considered, i.e., what advantages are obtained by cave-dwelling tetras by losing their eyes? Possible explanations include: not developing eyes allows the individual more energy for growth and reproduction there remains less chance of accidental damage and infection, since the previously useless and exposed organ is sealed with a flap of protective skin Among some creationists the cave tetra is seen as evidence against evolution. One argument claims that this is an instance of "devolution" -- showing an evolutionary trend of decreasing complexity. But evolution is a non-directional process, and while increased complexity is a common, there is no reason why evolution cannot tend towards simplicity if that makes an organism better suited to its environment. Dawkins, R.: Climbing Mount Improbable, W. W. Norton & Co, 1997, ISBN 0393316823 See also List of freshwater aquarium fish species References | Mexican_tetra |@lemmatized mexican:9 tetra:18 blind:16 cave:23 fish:15 astyanax:2 mexicanus:7 freshwater:2 characin:2 family:2 characidae:1 order:1 characiformes:1 type:1 specie:5 genus:1 native:2 nearctic:1 ecozone:1 originate:1 low:1 rio:1 grande:1 neueces:1 pecos:1 river:2 texas:1 well:2 central:1 eastern:1 part:2 mexico:1 grow:6 maximum:1 overall:1 length:2 cm:2 typical:1 shape:1 unremarkable:1 drab:1 coloration:1 form:18 however:8 notable:1 eye:18 albino:1 completely:2 devoid:1 pigmentation:1 pinkish:1 white:1 color:1 body:2 especially:1 variant:1 reasonably:1 popular:2 among:4 peaceful:1 spend:1 time:2 mid:1 level:1 water:4 rocky:2 sandy:1 bottom:2 pool:1 backwater:1 creek:1 environment:3 come:1 subtropical:1 climate:1 prefer:2 ph:1 hardness:1 dgh:1 temperature:1 range:1 c:1 f:1 winter:1 migrate:1 warmer:1 natural:3 diet:1 consists:1 crustacean:1 insect:1 annelid:1 although:1 captivity:1 omnivorous:1 treat:1 subspecies:1 fasciatus:1 banded:1 widely:1 accept:1 famous:1 know:1 name:1 cavefish:1 thirty:1 distinct:2 population:4 live:1 deep:1 lose:2 power:1 sight:4 even:2 still:1 find:2 way:2 around:1 mean:1 lateral:1 line:1 highly:2 sensitive:1 fluctuate:1 pressure:1 eyed:1 eyeless:1 member:1 closely:1 related:1 interbreed:1 jordani:1 another:2 independently:1 recently:1 evolve:1 sighted:2 surface:6 sometimes:1 confuse:1 bear:1 dwell:3 old:1 skin:3 degenerate:1 need:1 pitch:1 black:1 world:1 aquarium:2 recommended:1 minimum:1 u:1 gallon:1 fairly:1 hardy:1 picky:1 food:4 eat:1 anything:1 standard:1 flake:1 sink:1 carnivore:1 pellet:1 lack:4 hinder:1 ability:2 get:2 hit:1 subdue:1 light:1 substrate:1 like:1 gravel:1 recommend:1 tank:1 mimic:1 artificial:1 rock:1 appreciate:1 become:1 semi:2 aggressive:2 age:1 nature:1 school:1 group:1 least:2 three:1 good:3 idea:1 imperative:1 keep:1 single:1 specimen:1 state:1 earlier:1 rather:1 swiftly:1 see:3 really:1 community:2 one:4 ok:1 also:2 incredibly:1 fast:1 catch:1 net:1 chore:1 conduct:1 maintenance:1 evolution:7 research:1 prove:1 subject:1 scientist:2 study:4 recent:1 suggest:1 two:1 genetic:2 lineage:1 argue:1 represent:2 case:1 convergent:1 theory:3 say:2 dark:1 habitat:1 embryo:4 save:1 energy:3 would:2 normally:1 use:2 develop:6 developmental:1 choice:1 eventually:1 dominate:1 call:2 economical:1 adaptation:1 show:2 begin:2 development:5 something:1 actively:1 stop:1 process:2 flesh:1 grows:1 partially:1 grown:1 randomly:1 broken:1 gene:1 genome:1 spread:1 rest:3 despite:1 advantage:2 disadvantage:1 neutral:1 experiment:1 university:1 maryland:1 transplant:1 lens:4 vice:1 versa:1 within:1 first:1 hour:1 embryonic:1 quickly:1 abort:1 cell:1 die:1 structure:1 never:1 researcher:1 seem:1 control:1 receive:2 lenses:2 fail:1 pupil:1 cornea:1 iris:1 clear:2 whether:1 possess:1 creationism:1 different:1 number:1 include:2 unpigmented:1 olfactory:1 sense:1 taste:1 bud:1 head:1 able:1 store:1 four:1 fat:1 allow:2 deal:1 irregular:1 supply:1 effectively:1 helfman:1 g:1 collette:1 b:1 facey:1 diversity:1 blackwell:1 publishing:1 p:1 isbn:2 centre:1 discussion:1 creationists:2 darwin:1 sightless:1 modern:1 genetics:1 make:2 necessitate:1 feature:1 disappearance:1 context:1 positive:1 benefit:1 consider:1 e:1 obtain:1 possible:1 explanation:1 individual:1 growth:1 reproduction:1 remain:1 less:1 chance:1 accidental:1 damage:1 infection:1 since:1 previously:1 useless:1 exposed:1 organ:1 seal:1 flap:1 protective:1 evidence:1 argument:1 claim:1 instance:1 devolution:1 evolutionary:1 trend:1 decrease:1 complexity:2 non:1 directional:1 increase:1 common:1 reason:1 cannot:1 tend:1 towards:1 simplicity:1 organism:1 suit:1 dawkins:1 r:1 climb:1 mount:1 improbable:1 w:2 norton:1 co:1 list:1 reference:1 |@bigram mexican_tetra:8 tetra_blind:4 freshwater_fish:1 rio_grande:1 subtropical_climate:1 cave_tetra:5 closely_related:1 convergent_evolution:1 advantage_disadvantage:1 vice_versa:1 blackwell_publishing:1 w_norton:1 freshwater_aquarium:1 aquarium_fish:1 |
7,285 | London_Borough_of_Croydon | The London Borough of Croydon () is a London borough in South London, England and is part of Outer London. It covers an area of and is the largest London borough by population. It is the southernmost borough of London. The borough is now one of London's leading business, financial and cultural centres, and its influence in entertainment and the arts contribute to its status as a major metropolitan centre. At its centre is the historic town of Croydon from which the borough takes its name. Croydon is mentioned in the Domesday Book, and from a small market town has expanded into one of the most populous areas on the fringe of London. Central Croydon is the civic centre of the borough and houses the largest office and retail centre in the south east of England outside Central London. Croydon Council and its predecessor Croydon Corporation unsuccessfully applied for city status in 1954, 2000 and 2002. The area is currently going through a large regeneration project called Croydon Vision 2020 which is predicted to attract more businesses and tourists to the area as well as backing Croydon's bid to become London's Third City. Since 2003 Croydon has been certified as a Fairtrade borough by the Fairtrade Foundation. It was the first London Borough to have Fairtrade status which is awarded on certain criteria. History The London Borough of Croydon was formed in 1965 from the Coulsdon and Purley Urban District and the County Borough of Croydon. It is now governed by a cabinet-style council created in 2001. The name Croydon comes from Crogdene or Croindone, named by the Saxons in the 8th century when they settled here, although the area had been inhabited since prehistoric times. It is thought to derive from the Anglo-Saxon croeas deanas, meaning "the valley of the crocuses", indicating that, like Saffron Walden in Essex, it was a centre for the collection of saffron. Another opinion holds that the name derives from the Old French croie dune, meaning "chalk hill", since Croydon stands at the northern edge of the chalk hills called the North Downs. By the time of the Norman invasion Croydon had a church, a mill and around 365 inhabitants as recorded in the Domesday Book. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Archbishop Lanfranc lived at Croydon Palace which still stands. Visitors included Thomas Beckett (another Archbishop), and royal figures such as King Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I. Croydon carried on through the ages as a prosperous market town, they produced charcoal, tanned leather, and ventured into brewing. Croydon was served by the Surrey Iron Railway, the first public railway (horse drawn) in the world, in 1803, and by the London to Brighton rail link in the mid-1800s, helping it to become the largest town in Surrey. In the 1900s Croydon became known for industries such as metal working, car manufacture and its aerodrome, Croydon Airport. The aerodrome became the largest in London and the main terminal for international air freight into the capital. Starting out during World War I as an airfield for protection against Zeppelins, and developing into one of the great airports of the world during the 1920s and 1930s, it welcomed the world's pioneer aviators in its heyday. British Airways used the airport for a short period of time after redirecting from Northolt Aerodrome, and Croydon was the operating base for Imperial Airways. As aviation technology progressed, however, and aircraft became larger and more numerous, it was recognized in 1952 that the airport would be too small to cope with the ever-increasing volume of air traffic. The last scheduled flight departed on 30 September 1959. It was superseded as the main airport by both London Heathrow and London Gatwick Airport. The air terminal, now known as Airport House, has been restored and has a hotel and museum in it. It was partly due to the airport that Croydon suffered heavy bomb damage during World War II . In the late 1950s and through the 1960s the council commercialized the centre of Croydon with massive development of office blocks and the Whitgift Centre which was formerly the biggest in town shopping centre in Europe. The centre was officially opened in October 1970 by the Duchess of Kent. The original Whitgift School there had moved to Haling Park, South Croydon in the 1930s; the replacement school on the site, Whitgift Middle School, now the Trinity School of John Whitgift, moved to Shirley Park in the 1960s when the buildings were demolished. The present borough council unsuccessfully applied for city status in 2000 and again in 2002. If it had been successful it would have been the third local authority in Greater London to hold that status along with the City of London and the City of Westminster. At present the London Borough of Croydon is the second most populous Local government district of England without city status, Kirklees being the first. It is said that there applications were turned down due to a lack of a cathedral in the borough, a historic recommendation for cities. Croydon is currently going through a vigorous regeneration plan, called Croydon Vision 2020. This will change the urban planning of Central Croydon completely. Its main aims are to make Croydon London's Third City and the hub of retail, business, culture and living in South London and South East England. The plan was showcased in a series of events called Croydon Expo. It was aimed at business and residents in the London Borough of Croydon to demonstrate the £3.5bn development projects the Council wishes to see in Croydon in the next ten years. There have also been exhibitions for regional districts of Croydon, including Waddon, South Norwood and Woodside, Purley, New Addington and Coulsdon. Examples of upcoming architecture featured in the expo can easily be found to the centre of the borough in the form of the Croydon Gateway site and the Cherry Orchard Road Towers. Governance The governance of the borough is by Croydon Council, which is responsible for the administration of Croydon. Croydon shares its London Assembly member with neighboring Sutton. It is a safe Conservative seat with the south of Croydon and parts of Sutton traditionally voting towards the Conservatives. The current Assembly Member is Steve O'Connell who was elected to the assembly in 2008 with a majority of 43%. Croydon is part of the London constituency in the European Parliament. Between 1979 and 1984 it formed part of the London South constituency, followed by London South and Surrey East between 1984 and 1999 before the adoption of proportional representation. Politics of Croydon Council The council consists of 70 councillors elected in 24 wards. From 1994 to 2006 the Labour Party controlled the council. Thirty-seven Labour and 31 Conservative councillors were elected in the 2002 elections, plus a lone Liberal Democrat, bolstered by a subsequent defection of a councillor who had originally been elected as a Conservative, defected to Labour, went back to the Conservatives and spent some time as an independent. At the 2006 local elections the Conservatives regained control of the council after gaining 12 seats, taking ten seats from Labour in Addiscombe, Waddon and Norwood and the single Liberal Democrat seat in Coulsdon. They had seen 6% swings from Labour to Conservative in the two previous by-elections, each won by the incumbent party. Since the 2006 elections, a by-election in February 2007 saw a large swing back to Labour from the Conservatives. Since the election, a Labour councillor has joined the Conservatives while a Conservative councillor has become an independent. Cllr Jonathan Driver, who became Mayor in 2008, died unexpectedly at the close of the year, causing a by-election in highly marginal Waddon. The composition of the council is 42 Conservatives, 26 Labour, 1 independent, 1 vacancy and no Liberal Democrats. The next election is due to take place in May 2010 along with all the other councils in London. The controlling majority group in the borough is the Conservative Party. From February 2005 until May 2006 the Leader of Croydon Council was Labour Co-operative Councillor Tony Newman, succeeding Hugh Malyan. Mike Fisher, Conservative group leader since May 2005, was named as Council Leader following the Conservative victory. Croydon is a cabinet-style council, and the Leader heads a ten-person cabinet, its members responsible for areas such as education or planning. There is a Shadow Cabinet drawn from the principal opposition party. A backbench cross-party scrutiny and overview committee is in place to hold the executive cabinet to account. The borough is covered by three parliamentary constituencies for the Westminster Parliament, these are Croydon North, Croydon Central and Croydon South. There are 24 wards which represent Croydon Council. Civic History Croydon Council's Taberner House offices For much of its history, Croydon Council was controlled by the Conservative Party or conservative-leaning independents. Former Croydon councillors include current MP Andrew Pelling, former MPs Vivian Bendall, David Congdon, Geraint Davies and Reg Prentice, London Assembly member Valerie Shawcross, Lord Bowness, John Donaldson, Baron Donaldson of Lymington (Master of the Rolls) and H.T. Muggeridge, MP and father of Malcolm Muggeridge. The first Mayor of the newly created County Borough was Jabez Balfour, later a disgraced Member of Parliament. Former Conservative Director of Campaigning, Gavin Barwell, has been a Croydon councillor since 1998 and will contest the Croydon Central seat for the Conservatives aiming to replace independent Conservative Andrew Pelling at the next general election. Some 10,000 people work directly or indirectly for the council, in its main offices in Taberner House or in its schools, care homes, housing offices or work depots. The council is generally well-regarded, having made important improvements in education and social services. However, there have been concerns over benefits, leisure services and waste collection. Although the council has one of London's lower rates of council tax, there are inevitable claims that it is too high and that resources are wasted. The Mayor of Croydon for 2008-09 was Councillor Jonathan Driver until his unexpected death in December 2008. The Leader is Cllr Mike Fisher and the Deputy Leaders are Cllr Tim Pollard and Cllr Dudley Mead. The Chief Executive since 7 July 2007 has been Jon Rouse. Government buildings Croydon Town Hall on Katharine Street in Central Croydon houses the committee rooms, the mayor's and other councillors' offices, electoral services and the arts and heritage services. Croydon's Victorian Town Hall The present Town Hall is Croydon's third. The first town hall is thought to have been built in either 1566 or 1609. The second was built in 1808 to serve the growing town but was demolished after the present town hall was erected in 1895. The present town hall was designed by local architect Charles Henman and was officially opened by the Prince and Princess of Wales on 19 May 1896. It was constructed in red brick, sourced from Wrotham in Kent, with Portland stone dressings and green Westmoreland slates for the roof. It also housed the court and most central council employees. Parts, including the former court rooms, have been converted into the Museum of Croydon and exhibition galleries. The original public library is now a cinema, part of the Croydon Clocktower. The Braithwaite Hall is used for events and performances. The town hall was renovated in the mid-1990s and the imposing central staircase, long closed to the public and kept for councillors only, was re-opened in 1994. The civic complex, meanwhile, was substantially added to, with buildings across Mint Walk and the 19-floor Taberner House to house the rapidly expanding corporation's employees. Ruskin House is the headquarters of Croydon's Labour, Trade Union and Co-operative movements and is itself a co-operative with shareholders from organisations across the three movements. In the nineteenth century, Croydon was a bustling commercial centre of London. It was said that, at the turn of the twentieth century, approximately £10,000 was spent in Croydon's taverns and inns every week. For the early labour movement, then, it was natural to meet in the town's public houses, in this environment. However, the temperance movement was equally strong, and Georgina King Lewis, a keen member of the Croydon United Temperance Council, took it upon herself to establish a dry centre for the labour movement. The first Ruskin House was highly successful, and there has been two more since. This text was taken, with permission, from Ruskin House: A History, M. Tiedemann & E. Daisley. For more information see here The current house was officially opened in 1967 by the then Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson. Today, Ruskin House continues to serve as the headquarters of the Trade Union, Labour and Co-operative movements in Croydon, hosting a range of meetings and being the base for several labour movement groups. Office tenants include the headquarters of the Communist Party of Britain and Croydon Labour Party. Geraint Davies, the MP for Croydon Central, had offices in the building, until he was defeated by Andrew Pelling and is now the Labour representative standing for Swansea West in Wales. Taberner House was built between 1964 and 1967, designed by architect H. Thornley, with Allan Holt and Hugh Lea as borough engineers. Although the council had needed extra space since the 1920s, it was only with the imminent creation of the London Borough of Croydon that action was taken. The building is in classic 1960s style, praised at the time but subsequently much derided. It has its elegant upper slab block narrowing towards both ends, a formal device which has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower in Milan. It was named after Ernest Taberner OBE, Town Clerk from 1937 to 1963. Taberner House houses most of the council's central employees and its 'one-stop shop' is the main location for the public to access information and services, particularly with respect to housing. Geography and climate The borough is in the deep south of London, with the M25 orbital motorway stretching to the south of it, between Croydon and Tandridge. In the north and east of Croydon the authority mainly borders the London Borough of Bromley and in the north west the boroughs of Lambeth and Southwark. The boroughs of Sutton and Merton are located directly to the west. It is at the head of the River Wandle, just to the north of a significant gap in the North Downs. It lies south of London, and the earliest settlement may have been a Roman staging post on the London-Portslade road, although conclusive evidence has not yet been found. The main town centre houses a great variety of well-known stores on North End and two shopping centres. It was pedestrianised in 1989 to attract people back to the town centre. Another shopping centre called Park Place, is planned to be built by 2012. Cityscape North End shopping street after the pedestrianization of the road The CR postcode area covers most of the south and centre of the London Borough of Croydon while the other parts in the north are covered by SW and SE postcodes include the areas of South Norwood and Selhurst, Upper Norwood, West Norwood, and Norbury and Streatham. Districts in the London Borough of Croydon include Addington, a small village to the east of Croydon which until 2000 was poorly linked to the rest of the borough as it was without any railway or light rail stations with only a few patchy bus services to rely on. Addiscombe is a town just northeast of the centre of Croydon, and is popular with commuters to Central London due to its close proximity to the busy East Croydon station. Ashburton, to the northeast of Croydon, is mostly home to residential houses and flats, being named after Ashburton House, one of the three big houses in the Addiscombe area. Broad Green is a small district, centred on a large green with many homes and local shops in West Croydon. Coombe is an area, just east of Croydon, which has barely been urbanised and has retained its collection of large houses fairly intact. Coulsdon, southwest of Central Croydon, which has retained a good mix of traditional high street shops as well as a large number of restaurants for its size. Croydon is the principal area of the borough, Crystal Palace is an area north of Croydon, which is shared with the London Boroughs of Lambeth, Southwark, Lewisham and Bromley. Fairfield, just northeast of Croydon, holds the Fairfield Halls and the village of Forestdale, to the east of Croydon's main area, commenced work in the late 1960s and completed in the mid-70s to create a larger town on what was previously open ground. Hamsey Green is a place on the plateau of the North Downs, south of Croydon. Kenley, again south of the centre, lie within the London Green Belt and features a landscape dominated by green space. New Addington, to the east, is a large local authority estate surrounded by open countryside and golf courses. Norbury, to the northwest, is a suburb with a large ethnic population. Norwood New Town is a part of the Norwood triangle, to the north of Croydon. Monks Orchard is a small district made up of large houses and open space in the northeast of the borough. Pollards Hill is a residential district with houses on roads, which are lined with pollarded lime trees, stretching to Norbury. Purley, to the south, is a main town whose name derives from "pirlea", which means 'Peartree lea'. Sanderstead, to the south, is a village mainly on high ground at the edge of suburban development in Greater London. Selhurst is a town, to the north of Croydon, which holds the nationally known school, The BRIT School. Selsdon is a suburb which was developed during the inter-war period in the 1920s and 1930s, and is remarkable for its many Art Deco houses, to the southwest of Croydon Centre. Shirley, is to the east of Croydon, and holds Shirley Windmill. South Croydon, to the south of Croydon, is a locality which holds local landmarks such as The Swan and Sugarloaf public house and independent Whitgift School part of the Whitgift Foundation. South Norwood, to the north, is in common with West Norwood and Upper Norwood, named after a contraction of Great North Wood and has a population of around 14,590. Thornton Heath is a town, to the northwest of Croydon, which holds Croydon's principal hospital Mayday. Upper Norwood is, west to Croydon, on a mainly elevated area of the borough. Waddon is a residential area, mainly based on the Purley Way retail area, to the west of the borough. West Croydon is west of Croydon and Woodside is located to the northeast of the borough, with streets based around Woodside Green, a small sized area of green land. And finally Whyteleafe is a town, right to the edge of Croydon with some areas in the Surrey district of Tandridge. Croydon is a gateway to the south from Central London, and therefore has a number of major roads running through it. Purley Way on the A23 road was built to by-pass Croydon town centre on which the A23 once did, is one of the busiest roads in the borough, and has been the site of several major retail developments including one of only 17 IKEA stores in the United Kingdom. It carries on to Brighton Road which is the main route running towards the south from Croydon to Purley and continues on the A23. The centre of Croydon is very congested, and the urban planning has since become out of date and quite inadequate, due to the expansion of Croydon's main shopping area and office blocks. Wellesley Road, is a dual carriageway that cuts through the centre of the town, and makes it hard to interchange between the civic centre's two railway stations. Croydon Vision 2020 includes a plan for a more pedestrian-friendly replacement. It has also been named as one of the worst roads for cyclists in the area. Construction of the Croydon Underpass beneath the junction of George Street and Wellesley Road/Park Lane during the early Sixties started, with the main aim to prevent traffic congestion on Park Lane, situated above the underpass. The Croydon Flyover on the other hand is situated near the underpass and next to Taberner House. It mainly leads traffic on to Duppas Hill, towards Purley Way with the intention for easy links with Sutton and Kingston upon Thames further afield. The major junction on the flyover is for Old Town, which is also a large three-lane road. Topography and climate Croydon covers an area of 86.52 km², the 256th largest district in England. Croydon's physical features consist of many hills and rivers that are spread out across the borough and into the North Downs, Surrey and the rest of South London. Addington Hills is a major floodplain in London for the Thames Valley and is recognised as a significant obstacle to the growth of London from its origins as a port on the north side of the river, to a large circular city. The Great North Wood is a former natural oak forest that covered the Sydenham Ridge and the southern reaches of the River Effra and its tributaries. The most notable tree, called Vicar's Oak, marked the boundary of four ancient parishes; Lambeth, Camberwell, Croydon and Bromley. John Aubrey John Aubrey Natural History and Antiquities of the County of Surrey, 1718, vol. 2, p. 33, referred to this "ancient remarkable tree" in the past tense as early as 1718, but according to JB Wilson, J.B. Wilson & H.A. Wilson The Story of Norwood ISBN 0951538411 the Vicar's Oak survived until 1825. The River Wandle is also a major tributary of the River Thames, where it stretches to Wandsworth and Putney for 9 miles (14 km) from its main source in Waddon. Croydon has a temperate climate in common with most areas of Great Britain, it is similar to that of Greenwich in Inner London: its Koppen climate classification is Cfb. WorldClimate (Temperature data) Its mean annual temperature of 9.6 °C is similar to that experienced throughout the Weald, and slightly cooler than nearby areas such as the Sussex coast and Central London. Rainfall is considerably below England's average (1971–2000) level of 838 mm, and every month is drier overall than the England average. The nearest weather station is at Gatwick Airport. (Rainfall data) (Pressure data) Temperature and rainfall: 1961–1990 averages. Pressure averages: 1971–1988 averages.Derived from the Global Historical Climatology Network (version 1). See Template:Climate of Croydon and Gatwick for more. Architecture The skyline of Croydon has significantly changed over the past 50 years. High rise buildings, mainly office blocks, now dominate the skyline. The most notable of these buildings include Croydon Council's headquarters Taberner House, which has been compared to the famous Pirelli Tower of Milan, and the Nestlé Tower, the UK headquarters of Nestlé In recent years, the development of tall buildings, such as the approved Croydon Vocational Tower and Wellesley Square, has been encouraged in the London Plan, which will lead to the erection of new skyscrapers over the next few years as London goes through a high-rise boom. No.1 Croydon, formerly the NLA Tower, Britain's 88th tallest tower, close to East Croydon station, is an example of 1970s architecture. The tower has been nicknamed the 50p building, as it resembles many 50p pieces in a pile. Lunar House is another high-rise building. Like other government office buildings on Wellesley Road, such as Apollo House, the name of the building was inspired by the US moon landings (In the Croydon suburb of New Addington there is a public house, built during the same period, called The Man on the Moon). A new generation of buildings are being considered by the council as part of Croydon Vision 2020, so that the borough doesn't lose its title of having the "largest office space in the south east", excluding Central London. Projects such as Wellesley Square, which will be a mix of residential and retail with an eye-catching colour design and 100 George Street a proposed modern office block are incorporated in this vision. Notable events that have happened to Croydon's skyline include the Millennium project to create the largest single urban lighting project ever. It was created for the buildings of Croydon to illuminate them for the third millennium. Not only did this project give new lighting to the buildings, but it provided an opportunity to project onto them images and words, mixing art and poetry with coloured light, and also displaying public information after dark. Apart from increasing night time activity in Croydon and thereby reducing the fear of crime, it helped to promote the sustainable use of older buildings by displaying them in a more positive way. Demography According to the 2001 census, Croydon has a population of around 269,100. In 2005 this was recorded to have risen up to 342,700, making Croydon the ninth most populous local authority in England out of 354 boroughs. 159,111 were males, with 171,476 females. In 2001 the number of people per hectare in Croydon was 38.21, in London 45.62, and in England 3.77. The mean age of the residents of Croydon was 33.75 and 233,748 out of 330,587 residents described their health as 'good'. White is the majority ethnicity with over 72%, compared to 92% in England as a whole. Black or Black British was the second-largest ethnicity, over 13%; 11.3% is South Asian. The most common householder type were owner occupied with only a small percentage rented. Many new housing schemes and developments are currently taking place in Croydon, such as The Exchange and Bridge House, IYLO, Wellesley Square and Altitude 25. The Metropolitan Police recorded a 10% fall in the number of crimes committed in Croydon, better than the rate which crime in London as a whole is falling, in 2006. Croydon has had the highest fall in the number of cases of violence against the person in South London, and is one of the top 10 safest local authorities in London. According to Your Croydon (a local community magazine) this is due to a stronger partnership struck between Croydon Council and the police. In 2007, overall crime figures across the borough saw decrease of 5%, with the number of incidents decreasing from 32,506 in 2006 to 30,862 in 2007. Croydon has five police stations. Croydon police station is on Park Lane in the centre of the town near the Fairfield Halls; South Norwood police station is a newly refurbished building just of the High Street; Norbury police station is on London Road; Kenley station is on Godstone Road; and New Addington police station is on Addington Village road. Population change The table below details the population change since 1901, including the percentage change since the last available census data. Although the London Borough of Croydon has existed as a London borough since 1963, figures have been generated by combining data from the towns, villages, and civil parishes that would later be constituent parts of the authority. Population growth in Croydon since 1901 Year 1901 1911 1921 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 Population 141,918 185,914 221,692 264,358 281,273 299,271 316,084 333,942 316,296 319,218 330,688 Population change – +43,996 +35,778 +42,666 +16,915 +17,998 +16,813 +17,858 −17,646 +2,922 +11,470Source: A Vision of Britain through Time Economy Labour Profile Data is taken from the ONS annual business inquiry employee analysis and refers to 2005 Total employee jobs128,800Full-time91,10070.7%Part-time37,70029.3%Manufacturing5,4004.2%Construction6,3004.9%Services117,00090.9%Distribution, hotels & restaurants30,50023.7%Transport & communications6,9005.4%Finance, IT, other business activities33,80026.2%Public admin, education & health38,90030.2%Other services6,9005.3%Tourism-related9,1007.1% The main employment sectors of the Borough is retail and enterprise which is mainly based in Central Croydon. Major employers are well-known companies, who hold stores or offices in the town. Purley Way is a major employer of people, looking for jobs as sales assistants, sales consultants and store managerial jobs. IKEA Croydon, when it was built in 1992, brought many non-skilled jobs to Croydon. The store, which is a total size of 23,000 m², took over the former site of Croydon Power station, which had led to the unemployment of many skilled workers. In May 2006, the extension of the IKEA made it the fifth biggest employer in Croydon, and includes the extension of the showroom, market hall and self-serve areas. Other big employers around Purley is the large Tesco Extra store in Purley, along with other stores in Purley Way which include, Sainsbury's, B&Q, Comet, Vue and Toys "R" Us along with many others. Croydon town centre is also a major retail centre, and home to many High Street and department stores as well as designer boutiques. The main town centre shopping areas are on the North End precinct, Whitgift Centre, Centrale and the St George's Walk. Department stores in Croydon town centre include House of Fraser, Marks and Spencer, Allders, Debenhams and T.K. Maxx. Croydon's main market is Surrey Street Market, which has a royal charter dating back to 1276. Shopping areas outside the city centre include the Valley Park retail park, Croydon Colonnades, Croydon Fiveways, and the Waddon Goods Park. In a 2005 survey on spending potential, Croydon came 21st (second in London behind the West End which came out first) with £909 million while the next London retail centre, Kingston upon Thames came 24th with £864 million. In a 2004 survey on the top retail destinations, Croydon was 27th. In 2007, Croydon leapt up the annual business growth league table, with a 14% rise in new firms trading in the borough after 125 new companies started up, increasing the number from 900 to 1,025, enabling the town, which has also won the Enterprising Britain Award and "the most enterprising borough in London" award, to jump from 31 to 14 in the table. Tramlink created many jobs when it opened in 2000, not only drivers but engineers as well. Many of the people involved came from Croydon, which was the original hub of the system. Retail stores inside both Centrale and the Whitgift Centre as well as on North End employee people regularly and create many jobs, especially at Christmas. As well as the new building of Park Place, which will create yet more jobs, so will the regeneration of Croydon, called Croydon Vision 2020, highlighted in the Croydon Expo which includes the Croydon Gateway, Wellesley Square, Central One plus much more. Direct Line House in Central Croydon are occupied by the Direct Line insurance firm Croydon is a major office area in the south east of England, being the largest outside of Central London. Many powerful companies based in Europe and worldwide have European or British headquarters in the town. American International Group (AIG), the sponsors of Manchester United F.C. has its European headquarters in East Croydon in No.1 Croydon formerly the NLA Tower (50p building), shared with Liberata, Pegasus and the Institute of Public Finance. AIG is the sixth-largest company in the world according to the 2007 Forbes Global 2000 list. The Swiss company Nestlé has its UK headquarters in Croydon in the Nestlé Tower, on the site of the proposed Park Place shopping centre, so the offices may be modernised and re-newed causing the company to relocate for a while. Real Digital International has developed a purpose built factory on Purley Way equipped with the most sophisticated production equipment and technical solutions. ntl:Telewest now Virgin Media has offices at Communications House, from the Telewest side when it was known as Croydon Cable. The Home Office UK Border Agency has its headquarters in Lunar House in Central Croydon. In 1981, Superdrug opened a 11,148 m² (120,000 ft²) distribution centre and office complex at Beddington Lane. The head office of international engineering and management consultant Mott MacDonald is located in St Anne House on Wellesley Road. BT has large offices in Prospect East in Central Croydon. The Royal Bank of Scotland also has large offices in Purley, south of Croydon. Direct Line also has an office opposite Taberner House. Other companies with headquarters in Croydon include Lloyds TSB, Merrill Lynch and Balfour Beatty. Ann Summers used to have its headquarters in the borough but has moved to the Wopses Lodge Roundabout in Tandridge. Landmarks There are a large number of attractions and places of interest all across the borough of Croydon, ranging from historic sites in the north and south to modern towers in the centre. Shirley Windmill Croydon Airport was once London's main airport, but closed on 30 September 1959 due to the expansion of London and the need of more room at the airport which was impossible to provide, so Heathrow International Airport took over as London's main airport. It is now disused and is a tourist attraction. The Croydon Clocktower arts venue was opened by Queen Elizabeth II in 1994. It includes the David Lean Cinema (built in memory of David Lean), the Museum of Croydon and Croydon Central Library. The Museum of Croydon (formerly known as Croydon Lifetimes Museum) highlights Croydon in the past and the present and currently features high-profile exhibitions including the Riesco Collection, The Art of Dr Seuss and the Whatever the Weather gallery. Shirley Windmill is a working windmill and one of the few surviving large windmills in Surrey, built in 1854. It is Grade II listed and received a £218,100 grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund. Addington Palace is an 18th century mansion in Addington which was originally built as Addington Place in the 16th century. The palace became the official second residence of six Archbishops, five of whom are buried in St Mary's Church and churchyard nearby. North End is the main pedestrianised shopping road in Croydon, having Centrale to one side and the Whitgift Centre to the other. The Warehouse Theatre is a popular theatre for mostly young performers and is due to get a face-lift on the Croydon Gateway site. The Nestlé Tower is the UK headquarters of Nestlé and is one of the tallest towers in England, which is due to be re-fitted during the Park Place development. The Fairfield Halls is a well known concert hall and exhibition centre, opened in 1962. It is frequently used for BBC recordings and was formerly the home of ITV's World of Sport. It includes the Ashcroft Theatre and the Arnhem Gallery. Croydon Palace was the summer residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury for over 500 years and included regular visitors such as Henry III and Queen Elizabeth I. It is thought to have been built around 960. Croydon Cemetery is a large cemetery and crematorium west of Croydon and is most famous for the gravestone of Derek Bentley, who was wrongly hanged in 1953. Mitcham Common is an area of common land partly shared with the boroughs of Sutton and Merton. Almost 500,000 years ago, Mitcham Common formed part of the river bed of the River Thames. The BRIT School is a performing Arts & Technology school, owned by the BRIT Trust (known for the BRIT Awards Music Ceremony). Famous former students include Kellie Shirley, Amy Winehouse, Leona Lewis, Kate Nash, Dane Bowers, Katie Melua and Lyndon David-Hall. Grants is an entertainment venue in the centre of Croydon which includes a Vue cinema and the Tiger Tiger nightclub. Taberner House houses the main offices of Croydon Council, and was built between 1964 and 1967. It has been compared to the Pirelli Tower in Milan. Surrey Street Market has a Royal Charter dating back to 1276 linking it to the Archbishop of Canterbury. The market is regularly used as a location for TV, film and advertising. Beanos, a collectors' record store that has been in Croydon for over three decades, was once the largest second-hand record shop in Europe. Plummer, Robert: Record collectors' shop faces the music, BBC News, 20 December 2006. The Parish Church of St John the Baptist is a large church dating from the 15th century. It was largely destroyed by fire in 1867 and rebuilt by Sir George Gilbert Scott. It is the burial place of six Archbishops of Canterbury with monuments to Archbishops Sheldon and Whitgift. BedZED, Beddington Zero Energy Development, is on the outskirts of the borough. Transport There are two main interchanges for all public transport modes (national and local rail, tram, and local buses) at West Croydon and East Croydon station. National and international travel Croydon is linked into the national motorway network via the M23 and M25 orbital motorway. The M25 skirts the south of the borough, linking Croydon with other parts London and the surrounding counties; the M23 branches from the M25 close to Coulsdon, linking the town with the South Coast, Crawley, Reigate, and London Gatwick Airport. The A23 connects the borough with the motorways. The A23 is the major trunk road through Croydon, linking it with Central London, East Sussex, Horsham, and Littlehaven. The old London to Brighton road, passes through the west of the borough on Purley Way, bypassing the commercial centre of Croydon which it once did. East Croydon station The Brighton Main Line railway route south from Croydon links the town to Sussex, Surrey, and Kent and to Central London to the north: providing direct services to Hastings, Southampton, Brighton, Portsmouth, Gatwick Airport, Bedford and Luton. Also running through Croydon is the N/S cross-country line which links Manchester and Reading directly with South London, the Southeast, and the South Coast. The main station for all these services is East Croydon station in the centre of the town centre. East Croydon station is the largest and busiest station in Croydon, third busiest in London, excluding Travelcard Zone 1. The station at West Croydon serves all trains travelling west except the fastest. There are also more regional stations scattered around the borough. Passenger rail services through Croydon are provided by Southern, Southeastern, First Capital Connect and CrossCountry. A pilot scheme launched by the Strategic Rail Authority, Transport for London and three train operators is designed to encourage more passengers to travel off-peak. In full partnership with the South London Boroughs which includes Croydon, SWELTRAC, SELTRANS and the transport users group, the scheme promotes the advantages of off-peak travel following improvements to safety, travel connections and upgrading of station facilities. The Thameslink Programme (formerly known as Thameslink 2000), is a £3.5 billion major project to expand the Thameslink network from 51 to 172 stations spreading northwards to Bedford, Peterborough, Cambridge and King's Lynn and southwards to Guildford, Eastbourne, Horsham, Hove to Littlehampton, East Grinstead, Ashford and Dartford. The project includes the lengthening of platforms, station remodelling, new railway infrastructure (e.g. viaduct) and additional rolling stock. When implemented, First Capital Connect services would call at other stations in the borough including Purley and Norwood Junction. The closest international airport to Croydon is London Gatwick Airport, which is located from the city centre. The airport opened on August 1930 as an aerodrome and is a major international operational base for British Airways, EasyJet and Virgin Atlantic. It currently handles around 35 million passengers a year making it London's second largest airport and the second busiest airport in the United Kingdom after Heathrow. Croydon Airport opened on 29 March 1920 but, due in part to its short runway and the expanding Gatwick Airport close by the final passenger scheduled flight departed on 30 September 1959. It used to be the operating base for Imperial Airways and was served by British Airways. London Heathrow Airport, London City Airport and London Luton Airport all lie within a two hours' drive of the city. Luton Airport is connected to Croydon by a direct train every hour. Local travel The A23 and A22 roads are the major trunk roads through Croydon. These both run north-south, connecting to each other in Purley. The A22 connects Croydon, its starting point, to East Grinstead, Tunbridge Wells, Uckfield, and Eastbourne. Other major roads generally radiate spoke-like from the city centre. Wellesley Road is an urban motorway which cuts through the middle of the central business district was constructed in the 1960s and includes an underpass, which allows traffic to avoid going into the town centre. The hilly topography of Croydon and the lack of underground services in that part of South London is a reason for the extensive suburban and inter-urban railway network. Croydon is in the commuter belt to London as part of suburbia. There are several busy local rail routes running along the borough's towns, connecting it with London Bridge and London Victoria. These local routes mainly run on the Brighton Main Line and Sutton & Mole Valley Lines. As well as the main stations of East Croydon and West Croydon, there are several suburban stations at Norwood Junction, Purley, Coulsdon South and Kenley and more. Tramlink at Addington Interchange The light rail system Tramlink (Operated by Tramtrack Croydon, a wholly owned subsidy of Transport for London), opened in 2000, serves the borough and surrounding areas. Its network consists of three lines, from Elmers End to West Croydon, from Beckenham to West Croydon, and from New Addington to Wimbledon, with all three lines running via the Croydon loop on which it is centred on. It has been highly successful, environmentally-friendly and a reliable light rail system carrying around 22 million passengers a year. It is also the only tram system in London but there is another light rail system in the Docklands. It serves Mitcham, Woodside, Addiscombe and the Purley Way retail and industrial area amongst others. An extension to Crystal Palace is currently being developed by Transport for London with the support of the council and the South London Partnership. This would improve public transport access to Upper Norwood and Crystal Palace Park and help to stimulate regeneration across the wider area. The extension could be in service by 2013. Other possible extensions include Sutton, a new park and ride close to the M25, Coulsdon, Purley, Kingston Upon Thames, Tolworth, Tooting, Brixton for an interchange with the proposed Cross River Tram, Bromley and Lewisham for an interchange with the Docklands Light Railway. A sizeable bus infrastructure which is part of the London Buses network operates from a main hub at West Croydon station. The bus station at West Croydon is undergoing a major re-development to make it more modern and future-proof. There are also plans to create a new bus terminal at Park Place if the shopping centre is built. Addington Interchange is a regional bus terminal in Addington Village which has an interchange between route three and bus services in the remote area. Arriva London, part of Arriva, is one of the largest bus operators to serve Croydon along with Metrobus, Selkent, and National Express London. Recent developments have seen East London Bus Group taking over Stagecoach bus services in London. Unlike other places in the country, London's transport infrastructure is regulated and therefore is not subject to price wars between different companies with TfL setting a standard price for bus services which is currently set at 90p with an Oyster card. Services include buses to Central London, Purley Way, Bromley, Lewisham and a number of other civic centres in the south. London Buses route X26, the longest route in London, provides services to Heathrow Airport via Richmond and Sutton. Although hilly, Croydon is compact and has few major trunk roads running through it. It is on one of the Connect2 schemes which are part of the National Cycle Network route running around Croydon. The North Downs, an area of outstanding natural beauty popular with both on- and off-road cyclists, is so close to Croydon that part of the park lies within the borough boundary, and there are routes into the park almost from the civic centre. Construction of the first phase of the East London Line Extension to West Croydon is now under way north of the Thames. This project will improve Croydon's public transport connections to central and inner East London. It will also provide the main impetus for building a modern public transport interchange at West Croydon station linking tram, bus and rail. The East London Line Extension will be a major contribution to London's transport infrastructure in time for the Olympic and Paralympic Games to be held in the capital in 2012. Two stations in Croydon, Norwood Junction and West Croydon, will be connected to London Underground services. Currently Croydon is one of only five London Boroughs not to have at least one London Underground station within its boundaries, and the closest tube station is apparently Morden tube station, 139 minutes away to the west. Public services Cane Hill Home Office policing in Croydon is provided by the Metropolitan Police. The force's Croydon arm have their head offices for policing on Park Lane next to the Fairfield Halls and Croydon College in central Croydon. Public transport is co-ordinated by Transport for London. Statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the London Fire Brigade, which has five stations in Croydon. The Mayday University Hospital, built on a site in Thornton Heath at the west of Croydon's boundaries with Merton, is a large NHS hospital administrated by Mayday Healthcare NHS Trust. Former names of the hospital include the Croydon Union Infirmary from 1885 to 1923 and the Mayday Road Hospital from 1923 to around 1930. It is a District General Hospital with a 24-hour accident and emergency department. NHS Direct has a regional centre based at the hospital. The NHS Trust also provides services at Purley War Memorial Hospital, in Purley. Croydon General Hospital was on London Road but services transferred to Mayday, as the size of this hospital was insufficient to cope with the growing population of the borough. Sickle Cell and Thalassaemia Centre and the Emergency Minor Treatment Centre are other smaller hospitals operated by the Mayday in the borough. Cane Hill was a psychiatric hospital in Coulsdon. Waste management is co-ordinated by the local authority. Unlike other waste disposal authorities in Greater London, Croydon's rubbish is collected independently and isn't part of a waste authority unit. Locally produced inert waste for disposal is sent to landfill in the south of Croydon. There have recently been calls by the ODPM to bring waste management powers to the Greater London Authority, giving it a waste function. The Mayor of London has made repeated attempts to bring the different waste authorities together, to form a single waste authority in London. This has faced significant opposition from existing authorities. However, it has had significant support from all other sectors and the surrounding regions managing most of London's waste. Croydon has the joint best recycling rate in London, at 36%. Croydon's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is EDF Energy Networks; there are no power stations in the borough. Thames Water manages Croydon's drinking and waste water; water supplies being sourced from several local reservoirs, including Beckton and King George VI. Before 1971, Croydon Corporation was responsible for water treatment in the borough. London Fire Brigade The borough of Croydon is 86.52kmsq, populating approximately 340,000 people. There are five fire stations within the borough; Addington (two pumping appliances), Croydon (two pumping appliances, incident response unit, fire rescue unit and a USAR appliance), Norbury (two pumping appliances), Purley (one pumping appliance) and Woodside (one pumping appliance). Purley has the largest station ground, but dealt with the fewest incidents during 2006/07. The borough of Croydon has the most schools in London; 156. The fire stations, as part of the Community Fire Safety scheme, visited 49 schools in 2006/2007. Education Croydon College's main buildings in Central Croydon. Overall, Croydon was ranked 92nd out of the all the Local Education Authorities – and 21st in Greater London – in National Curriculum assessment performance in 2007. In 2007, the Croydon LEA was ranked 81st out of 149 in the country – and 21st in Greater London – based on the percentage of pupils attaining at least 5 A*–C grades at GCSE including maths and English (37.8% compared with the national average of 46.7%). In 2007, Old Palace School of John Whitgift was the most successful school in Croydon at GCSE with 100% of the pupils gaining five or more GCSEs at A*–C grade including maths and English. The most successful public sector school was Coloma Convent Girls' School. The borough compared with the other London boroughs has the highest amount of schools in it, due to the fact that 26% of its population are under 20 years old. They include primary schools (95), secondary schools (21) and four further education establishments. Croydon College has its main building in Central Croydon, it is a high rise building. John Ruskin College is one of the other colleges in the borough, located in Addington and Coulsdon College in Coulsdon. South Norwood has been the home of Spurgeon's College, a world-famous Baptist theological college, since 1923; Spurgeon's is located on South Norwood Hill and currently has some 1000 students. The London Borough of Croydon is the local education authority for the borough. Below is a table which shows the results of the GCSE Examination Performance in Croydon schools in 2007. SchoolA*-C Pass Rate Coloma Convent Girls' School86% Harris City Technology College80% Tenison's School69% Riddlesdown High School63% St. Joseph's College63% St. Andrews C of E High School57% BRIT School53% Shirley High School53% Virgo Fidelis Convent Senior School53% Woodcote High School52% Norbury Manor High School for Girls52% Edenham High School41% St. Mary's R C High School39% Westwood Language College for Girls36% Thomas More Catholic School35% The Archbishop Lanfranc School35% Coulsdon High School32% Addington High School27% Selhurst High School for Boys27% Selsdon High School23% Ashburton Community School21% Haling Manor High School18% Average for London Borough of Croydon44.4% Average for England46.8% The table shows the percentage of students gaining five A* to C grades, including English and Maths, for state schools in the London Borough of Croydon. The table does not include independent schools which are located in the borough. Source: Department for Children, Schools and Families Libraries One of the local Libraries in Croydon The borough of Croydon has 14 libraries, a joint library and a mobile library. Many of the libraries where built a long time ago and therefore have become outdated, so the council started updating a few including Ashburton Library which moved from its former spot into the state-of-the-art Ashburton Learning Village complex which is on the former site of the old 'A Block' of Ashburton Community School which is now situated inside the centre. The library is now on 1 floor. This is what the council wanted to roll out around the borough but due to the cost of this one, it was decided that doing this would cost to much. South Norwood Library, New Addington Library, Shirley Library, Thornton Heath Library, Selsdon Library, Sanderstead Library, Purley Library, Coulsdon Library and Bradmore Green Library are examples of older council libraries. The main library is Croydon Central Library which holds many references, newspaper archives and a tourist information point (one of three in South East London). Upper Norwood Library is a joint library with the London Borough of Lambeth. This means that both councils fund the library and its resources, but even though Lambeth have nearly doubled their funding for the library in the past several years Croydon has kept it the same, doubting the future of the library. Religion 2001 Census CroydonLondonChristian215,1244,176,175Buddhist1,57954,297Hindu16,781291,977Muslim17,642607,083Sikh1,310104,230Atheist (No Religion)48,6151,130,616Other Religions2,830186,347 The predominant religion of the borough is Christianity. According to the United Kingdom Census 2001, the borough has over 215,124 Christians, mainly Protestants. This is the largest religious following in the borough and has many more believers than the next religion, Islam. There are just 17,642 Muslim followers in the borough, a small portion of the more than 600,000 Muslims in London as a whole. Over 48,615 Croydon residents are atheists or non-religious. There are more than 35 churches in the borough, with Croydon Parish Church being the main one. This church was founded in Saxon times, since there is a record of "a priest of Croydon" in 960, although the first record of a church building is in the Domesday Book (1086). In its final medieval form, the church was mainly a Perpendicular-style structure, but this was severely damaged by fire in 1867, following which only the tower, south porch and outer walls remained. Under the direction of Sir George Gilbert Scott the church was rebuilt, incorporating the remains and essentially following the design of the medieval building, and was reconsecrated in 1870. It still contains several important monuments and fittings saved from the old church. Croydon is going through a large re-generation plan and part of that plan is to add a Cultural Quarter to the centre of Croydon. This includes the Bridge House and The Exchange developments which are plans for loft style urban living to the centre of town. Croydon has strong religious links, from a royal charter for Surrey Street Market dating back to 1276, to Croydon Palace which was the summer residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury for over 500 years. With visitors such as Henry III and Queen Elizabeth I. The Bishop of Croydon is a position as a suffragan Bishop in the Anglican Diocese of Southwark. The current bishop is Rt Rev Nicholas (Nick) Baines. A list of the Bishops of the Episcopal Area of Croydon include: TenureIncumbentNotes<small>1937 to 1942William Louis Anderson<small>(1892-1972)<small>1942 to 1947Maurice Harland<small>(1896-1986)<small>1947 to 1956Cuthbert Killick Norman Bardsley<small> (1907-1991)<small>1956 to 1977John Taylor Hughes<small><small>(1908-2001)<small><small>1977 to 1985Stuart Snell<small>(died 1988)<small>1985 to 2002Wilfred Wood<small>(b. 1936)<small> <small>2003 to presentNicholas Baines<small>(b. 1957)<small> Sport and leisure The borough has been criticized in the past for not having enough leisure facilities, maintaining the position of Croydon as a three star borough. At the moment only three leisure centres are open for public use and two of these are expected to be closed down in the near future, with plans for only one of them to be re-built. Thornton Heath's ageing sports centre was recently knocked down, and replaced by a newer more modern leisure centre. South Norwood Leisure Centre was closed down in early 2006 so that it could be knocked completely down and re-designed from scratch like Thornton Heath, which would cost around £10 million. South Norwood Country Park In May 2006 the Conservative Party became in charge of Croydon and decided that doing this would cost too much money, so they came up with another idea of just re-furbishing the centre, although this decision did not come without controversy. Purley Pool is to close soon, but a new "super-pool" is planned in Coulsdon. The aging New Addington Leisure Centre is also set to close but is to be re-built. A new leisure centre is also going to be built on the A23, southern end of Purley Way in Waddon. Sport Croydon, currently is the commercial arm for leisure in the borough and the logo is seen somewhere in each of the centres. Fusion currently provides leisure services for the council which previously used Parkwood Leisure which itself provides services for nearby Lewisham. Football teams include Crystal Palace F.C., which plays at Selhurst Park, in the Coca-Cola Championship. Coulsdon United F.C. (formerly Coulsdon Town F.C. before the merge with Salfords F.C.) are a team that currently play in the Combined Counties League Division One. Croydon Athletic F.C., whose local nickname is The Rams, is a football club based in Thornton Heath's Keith Tuckey Stadium and play in the Isthmian League Division One South, with Croydon F.C. who play at Croydon Sports Arena and Holmesdale, who were founded in South Norwood but currently playing on Oakley Road in Bromley, currently in the Kent League. Non-football teams that play in Croydon are Streatham-Croydon RFC, a historic rugby union club in Thornton Heath who play at Frant Road, as well as South London Storm Rugby League Club, based at Streatham's ground, who compete in the Rugby League Conference. The London Olympians are an American Football team that play in Division 1 South in the British American Football League. Croydon has over 120 parks and open spaces, ranging from the Selsdon Wood Nature Reserve to many recreation grounds and sports fields scattered throughout the Borough. Culture Fairfield Halls in Central Croydon is the main theatre of the borough Croydon aims to become one of the hearts of culture in London and the South East of England. This has been proved with the dedication the council has shown to projects such as the proposed Croydon Arena. Although, despite the aim, it has also cut funding to the Warehouse Theatre. In 2005, Croydon Council drew up a Public Art Strategy, with a vision that is accessible and enhances people's enjoyment of their surroundings. The public art strategy delivered a new event called Croydon's Summer Festival hosted in Lloyd Park. The festival consits of two days of events. The first is called Croydon's World Party which is a free one day event with three stages featuring world, jazz and dance music from the UK and internationally. The final days event is the Croydon Mela, a day of music with a mix of traditional Asian culture and east meets western club beats across four stages as well as dozens of food stalls and a funfair. It has attracted crowds of over 50,000 people. The stratergy also created a creative industries hub in Old Town, ensure public art is included in developments such as College Green and Croydon Gateway and investigate the possibility of gallery space in the Cultural Quarter. The Warehouse Theare is a professional producing theatre opened in 1977 with one hundred seats based in an oak-beamed former cement Victorian warehouse. It has been acclaimed for its commitment to new writing, including its annual International Playwriting Festival, in partnership with the Extra Candoni Festival of Udine in Italy and Theatro Ena in Cyprus. Youth theatre is also important, with the resident Croydon Young Peoples' Theatre and including an annual collaboration with the Croydon-based Brit School. It is on the Gateway site which is going through a regeneration project. Stanhope's plan for the site is to include a 200 seat theatre custom-designed by Foster + Partners in their Ruskin Square development surrounded by a large new park. This will be paid for in full by Stanhope at a cost approaching £5 million. The Board of the Warehouse Theatre believes that this is the best option for securing a fully funded, workable and unique building. Arrowcroft's proposal is for an Arena-led scheme which initially didn't include the theatre. But this was changed to incorporate a replacement theatre as part of a condition of planning. It is proposed that it occupies one of the leisure units behind the Arena facing onto the plaza with a children's playground in front. The plan is to build a 200 seat theatre inside the leisure unit. The biggest problem with this scheme is that it would be built in one phase and requires the theatre to vacate the current theatre before the development begins. The theatre would then be without a home for a period of three years or more and would need a temporary location and additional funding to make this possible. The theatre will be launching its largest fundraising appeal in its 30 year history over the Autumn of 2008 to help it launch itself into the new building. Fundraising will be required for finishing touches to the new building, technical equipment, launch programme and a host of other vital expenditure to ensure the Warehouse Theatre is launched into its new future on a firm footing. Fairfield Halls, Arnhem Gallery and the Ashcroft Theatre show productions that are held throughout the year such as drama, ballet, opera and pantomimes and can be converted to show films. It also contains the Arnhem Gallery civic hall and an art gallery. Other cultural activities, including shopping and exhibitions, are Surrey Street Market which is mainly a meat and vegetables market near the main shopping environment of Croydon. The market has a Royal Charter dating back to 1276. Airport House is a newly refurbished conference and exhibition centre inside part of Croydon Airport. The Whitgift Centre, the current main shopping centre in the borough is also one of the largest in-town shopping centres in the whole of Europe. Centrale, a new shopping centre that houses many more familiar names, as well as Croydon's House of Fraser. North End, the main shopping street, which holds both centres. Park Place, a shopping centre that is planned to be built in Central Croydon by Minerva. Croydon Arena is a proposed arena for the Gateway site which if built will feature more commercial exhibitions and sport events next to East Croydon station. Media One of the Crystal Palace television masts There are three local newspapers which operate within the borough, each with considerable history in the area. The Croydon Advertiser began life in 1869, Newspaper History at Ash Rare Books, accessed 2006-08-14 and is the third-highest selling paid-for weekly newspaper in London. Newspaper Society London circulation tables, July-December 2005 accessed 2006-08-09 The Advertiser is also Croydon's major paid-for weekly paper and is on sale every Friday in five geographical editions: Croydon; Sutton & Epsom; Coulsdon & Purley; New Addington; and Caterham. Trinity Mirror Southern series description accessed 2006-08-09 The paper converted from a broadsheet to a compact (tabloid) format on 31 March 2006. It was bought by Northcliffe Media which is part of the Daily Mail and General Trust group on 6 July 2007. In 2008 it was given a new website as part of the This is network of brands across the United Kingdom. The Croydon Post is a free newspaper available across the borough and is operated by the Advertiser group. The circulation of the newspaper is notably more than the main title published by the Advertiser Group. The Croydon Guardian is another local weekly paper, which is paid for at newsagents but free at Croydon Council libraries and via deliveries. The newspaper is published every Wednesday. The paper is owned by regional newspaper publisher Newsquest Media Group and is inside the South London arm. It is one of the best circulated local newspapers in London and has the highest circulation in Croydon with around one thousand more copies distributed than The Post. The borough is served by the London regional versions of BBC and ITV coverage, from either the Crystal Palace or Croydon transmitters. Capital Radio began broadcasting on October 1973 from Euston Tower, North London. The station, now owned by Global Radio, broadcasts as 95.8 Capital FM from Leicester Square in Central London. The group also has a sister station on the medium wave frequency, known as Classic Gold Digital 1521. Local BBC radio is provided by BBC London 94.9. Large radio stations picked up by transmitters around Croydon are Kiss 100 and Magic 105.4 FM from Bauer Radio, Choice FM and Heart 106.2 from Global Radio, Virgin Radio from SMG and 102.2 Smooth Radio from Guardian Media Group. Town twinning FlagCountry Town Area Netherlands Arnhem Gelderland Guyana - South America Ukraine Prypiat Kiev Oblast The London Borough of Croydon is twinned with the municipality of Arnhem which is located in the east of the Netherlands. The city of Arnhem is one of the 10 largest cities in the Netherlands. They have been twinned since 1946 after both towns had suffered extensive bomb damage during the recently ended war. There is also a Guyanese link supported by the council. See also List of people associated with the London Borough of Croydon UK postcodes — a note of why and how postcodes CR0 and CR9 differ from the others. 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7,286 | Documentary_film | Documentary film is a broad category of visual expression that is based on the attempt, in one fashion or another, to "document" reality. Although "documentary film" originally referred to movies shot on film stock, it has subsequently expanded to include video and digital productions that can be either direct-to-video or made for a television series. Documentary, as it applies here, works to identify a "filmmaking practice, a cinematic tradition, and mode of audience reception" that is continually evolving and is without clear boundaries. Nichols, Bill. 'Foreword', in Barry Keith Grant and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.) Documenting The Documentary: Close Readings of Documentary Film and Video. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 1997 Defining documentary The word documentary was first applied to films of this nature in a review of Robert Flaherty's film Moana (1926), published in the New York Sun on 8 February 1926 and written by "The Moviegoer", a pen name for documentarian John Grierson. In the 1930s, Grierson further argues in his essay First Principles of Documentary that Moana had "documentary value." Grierson's principles of documentary were that cinema's potential for observing life could be exploited in a new art form; that the "original" actor and "original" scene are better guides than their fiction counterparts to interpreting the modern world; and that materials "thus taken from the raw" can be more real than the acted article. In this regard, Grierson's views align with Vertov's contempt for dramatic fiction as "bourgeois excess", though with considerably more subtlety. Grierson's definition of documentary as "creative treatment of actuality" has gained some acceptance, though it presents philosophical questions about documentaries containing stagings and reenactments. In his essays, Dziga Vertov argued for presenting "life as it is" (that is, life filmed surreptitiously) and "life caught unawares" (life provoked or surprised by the camera). Pare Lorentz defines a documentary film as "a factual film which is dramatic." Pare Lorentz Film Library - FDR and Film Others further state that a documentary stands out from the other types of non-fiction films for providing an opinion, and a specific message, along with the facts it presents. Documentary Practice is the complex process of creating documentary projects. It refers to what people do with media devices, content, form, and production strategies in order to address the creative, ethical, and conceptual problems and choices that arise as they make documentaries. History Pre-1900 The filmmaker John Grierson used the term documentary in 1926 to refer to any nonfiction film medium, including travelogues and instructional films. The earliest "moving pictures" were, by definition, documentaries. They were single-shot moments captured on film: a train entering a station, a boat docking, or factory workers leaving work. Early film (pre-1900) was dominated by the novelty of showing an event. These short films were called "actuality" films. (The term "documentary" was not coined until 1926.) Very little storytelling took place before the turn of the century, due mostly to technological limitations, namely, that movie cameras could hold only very small amounts of film. Thus, many of the first films, such as those made by Auguste and Louis Lumière, are a minute or less in length, 1900-1920 Travelogue films were very popular in the early part of the 20th century. Some were known as "scenics". Scenics were among the most popular sort of films at the time. Miriam Hansen, Babel and Babylon: Spectatorship in American Silent Film, 2005. An important early film to move beyond the concept of the scenic was In the Land of the Head Hunters (1914), which embraced primitivism and exoticism in a staged story presented as truthful re-enactments of the life of Native Americans. Early color motion picture processes such as Kinemacolor and Prizmacolor used travelogues to promote the new color process. (In contrast, Technicolor concentrated primarily on getting their process adopted by Hollywood studios for fictional feature films.) Also during this period Frank Hurley's documentary film, South (1919), about the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, was released. It documented the failed Antarctic expedition led by Ernest Shackleton in 1914. 1920s Romanticism Nanook of the North poster. With Robert J. Flaherty's Nanook of the North in 1922, documentary film embraced romanticism; Flaherty went on to film a number of heavily staged romantic films, usually showing how his subjects would have lived 100 years earlier and not how they lived right then. For instance, in Nanook of the North Flaherty did not allow his subjects to shoot a walrus with a nearby shotgun, but had them use a harpoon instead. Some of Flaherty's staging, such as building a roofless igloo for interior shots, was done to accommodate the filming technology of the time. Paramount Pictures tried to repeat the success of Flaherty's Nanook and Moana with two romanticized documentaries, Grass (1925) and Chang (1927), both directed by Merian Cooper and Ernest Schoedsack. The city symphony The continental, or realist, tradition focused on humans within human-made environments, and included the so-called "city symphony" films such as Walter Ruttmann's Berlin, Symphony of a City (of which Grierson noted in an article Grierson, John. 'First Principles of Documentary', in Kevin Macdonald & Mark Cousins (eds.) Imagining Reality: The Faber Book of Documentary. London: Faber and Faber, 1996 that Berlin represented what a documentary should not be), Alberto Cavalcanti's Rien Que les Heures, and Dziga Vertov's Man with the Movie Camera. These films tend to feature people as products of their environment, and lean towards the avant-garde. Kino-Pravda Dziga Vertov was central to the Soviet Kino-Pravda (literally, "cinema truth") newsreel series of the 1920s. Vertov believed the camera — with its varied lenses, shot-counter shot editing, time-lapse, ability to slow motion, stop motion and fast-motion — could render reality more accurately than the human eye, and made a film philosophy out of it. Newsreel tradition The newsreel tradition is important in documentary film; newsreels were also sometimes staged but were usually re-enactments of events that had already happened, not attempts to steer events as they were in the process of happening. For instance, much of the battle footage from the early 20th century was staged; the cameramen would usually arrive on site after a major battle and re-enact scenes to film them. 1920s-1940s The propagandist tradition consists of films made with the explicit purpose of persuading an audience of a point. One of the most notorious propaganda films is Leni Riefenstahl's film Triumph of the Will (1935). Leftist filmmakers Joris Ivens and Henri Storck directed Borinage (1931) about the Belgian coal mining region. Luis Buñuel directed a "surrealist" documentary Las Hurdes (1933). Pare Lorentz's The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) and The River (1938) and Willard Van Dyke's The City (1939) are notable New Deal productions, each presenting complex combinations of social and ecological awareness, government propaganda, and leftist viewpoints. Frank Capra's Why We Fight (1942-1944) series was a newsreel series in the United States, commissioned by the government to convince the U.S. public that it was time to go to war. Constance Bennett and her husband Henri de la Falaise produced two feature length documentaries, Legong: Dance of the Virgins (1935) filmed in Bali, and Kilou the Killer Tiger (1936) filmed in Indochina. In Canada the Film Board, set up by John Grierson, was created for the same propaganda reasons. It also created newsreels that were seen by their national governments as legitimate counter-propaganda to the psychological warfare of Nazi Germany (orchestrated by Joseph Goebbels). In Britain, a number of different filmmakers came together under John Grierson. They became known as the Documentary Film Movement. Grierson, Alberto Cavalcanti, Harry Watt, Basil Wright, and Humphrey Jennings amongst others succeeded in blending propaganda, information, and education with a more poetic aesthetic approach to documentary. Examples of their work include Drifters (John Grierson), Song of Ceylon (Basil Wright), Fires Were Started and A Diary for Timothy (Humphrey Jennings). Their work involved poets such as W. H. Auden, composers such as Benjamin Britten, and writers such as J. B. Priestley. Among the most well known films of the movement are Night Mail and Coal Face. 1950s-1970s Cinéma-vérité Cinéma vérité (or the closely related direct cinema) was dependent on some technical advances in order to exist: light, quiet and reliable cameras, and portable sync sound. Cinéma vérité and similar documentary traditions can thus be seen, in a broader perspective, as a reaction against studio-based film production constraints. Shooting on location, with smaller crews, would also happen in the French New Wave, the filmmakers taking advantage of advances in technology allowing smaller, handheld cameras and synchronized sound to film events on location as they unfolded. Although the terms are sometimes used interchangeably, there are important differences between cinéma vérité (Jean Rouch) and the North American "Direct Cinema" (or more accurately "Cinéma direct", pioneered among others by French Canadian Michel Brault, Pierre Perrault, Americans Robert Drew, Richard Leacock, Frederick Wiseman and Albert and David Maysles). The directors of the movement take different viewpoints on their degree of involvement with their subjects. Kopple and Pennebaker, for instance, choose non-involvement (or at least no overt involvement), and Perrault, Rouch, Koenig, and Kroitor favor direct involvement or even provocation when they deem it necessary. The films Primary and Crisis: Behind a Presidential Commitment (both produced by Robert Drew), Harlan County, USA (directed by Barbara Kopple), Dont Look Back (D. A. Pennebaker), Lonely Boy (Wolf Koenig and Roman Kroitor), Chronicle of a Summer (Jean Rouch) and Golden Gloves (Gilles Groulx) Golden Gloves - ONF - Collection http://www.nfb.ca/trouverunfilm/player.php?v=h&lg=fr&vitesse=200&url=http://cmm.onf.ca/extraits/e541_ec.ram are all frequently deemed cinéma vérité films. The fundamentals of the style include following a person during a crisis with a moving, often handheld, camera to capture more personal reactions. There are no sit-down interviews, and the shooting ratio (the amount of film shot to the finished product) is very high, often reaching 80 to one. From there, editors find and sculpt the work into a film. The editors of the movement — such as Werner Nold, Charlotte Zwerin, Muffie Myers, Susan Froemke, and Ellen Hovde — are often overlooked, but their input to the films was so vital that they were often given co-director credits. Famous cinéma vérité/direct cinema films include Les Raquetteurs Les raquetteurs - NFB - Collection , Showman, Salesman, The Children Were Watching, Primary, Behind a Presidential Crisis, and Grey Gardens. Political weapons In the 1960s and 1970s, documentary film was often conceived as a political weapon against neocolonialism and capitalism in general, especially in Latin America, but also in a changing Quebec society. La Hora de los hornos (The Hour of the Furnaces, from 1968), directed by Octavio Getino and Fernando E. Solanas, influenced a whole generation of filmmakers. Modern documentaries One of 150 DV cameras used by Iraqis to film themselves and create the 2004 film Voices of Iraq. Box office analysts have noted that this film genre has become increasingly successful in theatrical release with films such as Super Size Me, March of the Penguins, and An Inconvenient Truth among the most prominent examples. Compared to dramatic narrative films, documentaries typically have far lower budgets which makes them attractive to film companies because even a limited theatrical release can be highly profitable. The nature of documentary films has changed in the past 20 years from the cinema verité tradition. Landmark films such as The Thin Blue Line by Errol Morris incorporated stylized re-enactments, and Michael Moore's Roger & Me placed far more interpretive control with the director. Indeed, the commercial success of these documentaries may derive from this narrative shift in the documentary form, leading some critics to question whether such films can truly be called documentaries; critics sometimes refer to these works as "mondo films" or "docu-ganda." However, directorial manipulation of documentary subjects has been noted since the work of Flaherty, and may be endemic to the form. The recent success of the documentary genre, and the advent of DVDs, has made documentaries financially viable even without a cinema release. Yet funding for documentary film production remains elusive, and within the past decade the largest exhibition opportunities have emerged from within the broadcast market, making filmmakers beholden to the tastes and influences of the broadcasters who have become their largest funding source. Indiewire, "FESTIVALS: Post-Sundance 2001; Docs Still Face Financing and Distribution Challenges". February 8, 2001. Modern documentaries have some overlap with television forms, with the development of "reality television" that occasionally verges on the documentary but more often veers to the fictional or staged. The making-of documentary shows how a movie or a computer game was produced. Usually made for promotional purposes, it is closer to an advertisement than a classic documentary. Modern lightweight digital video cameras and computer-based editing have greatly aided documentary makers, as has the dramatic drop in equipment prices. The first film to take full advantage of this change was Martin Kunert and Eric Manes' Voices of Iraq, where 150 DV cameras were sent to Iraq during the war and passed out to Iraqis to record themselves. Documentaries without words From 1982 the Qatsi trilogy and the simillar Baraka has been popular from unique experimental film stlye that used documentaries. The visual tone poems contain neither dialogue nor a vocalized narration: its tone is set by the juxtaposition of images and music. As the Koyaanisqatsi consists primarily of slow motion and time-lapse photography of cities and many natural landscapes across the United States and Baraka tries capture the great pulse of humanity as it flocks and swarms in daily activity and religious ceremonies. The familiar british Bodysong made 2003 and won a British Independent Film Award for "Best British Documentary". Notable the Genesis too, showing animal and plant life in states of expansion, decay, lovemaking, and death - but it is sorthly narrated. Other documentary forms Compilation films Compilation films were pioneered in 1927 by Esfir Schub with The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty. More recent examples include Point of Order (1964), directed by Emile de Antonio about the McCarthy hearings and The Atomic Cafe which is made entirely out of found footage that various agencies of the U.S. government made about the safety of nuclear radiation (e.g., telling troops at one point that it's safe to be irradiated as long as they keep their eyes and mouths shut). Similarly, The Last Cigarette combines the testimony of various tobacco company executives before the U.S. Congress with archival propaganda extolling the virtues of smoking. See also Visual anthropology Ethnographic film Docufiction Ethnofiction Docudrama Mockumentary Mondo film Nature documentary Travel documentary Political Cinema Reality film Women's Cinema Documentary Practice Animated documentary Lists of directors and producers of documentaries List of motion picture-related topics List of documentaries Documentary film festivals Documentary Film Awards Academy Award for Documentary Feature Joris Ivens Award: most prestigious International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam (IDFA) award (named after Joris Ivens) Doc Mogul award: most prestigious Hot Docs award Grand Prize Visions du Réel: most prestigious Visions du réel award Golden Dove award: most prestigious International Leipzig Festival for Documentary and Animated Film award Channel 4 Sheffield Pitch Spanish Prix Jean Vigo awarded to the best director at the Punto de Vista Documentary International Film Festival of Navarra Notes and references Sources and bibliography Aitken, Ian (ed.). Encyclopedia of the Documentary Film. New York: Routledge, 2005. ISBN 1579584454. Barnouw, Erik. Documentary: A History of the Non-Fiction Film, 2nd rev. ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 0195078985. Still a useful introduction. Bernard, Sheila Curran. Documentary Storytelling, 2nd ed.: Making Stronger and More Dramatic Nonfiction Films. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2007. Bernard, Sheila Curran and Kenn Rabin. Archival Storytelling: A Filmmakers Guide to Finding, Using, and Licensing Third-Party Visuals and Music. Burlington, MA: Focal Press, 2008. Burton, Julianne (ed.). The Social Documentary in Latin America. Pittsburgh, Penn.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1990. ISBN 0822936216. Dawson, Jonathan. "Dziga Vertov". Ellis, Jack C., and Betsy A. McLane. "A New History of Documentary Film". New York: Continuum International, 2005. ISBN 0826417507, ISBN 0826417515. Goldsmith, David A. The Documentary Makers: Interviews with 15 of the Best in the Business. Hove, East Sussex: RotoVision, 2003. ISBN 2880467306. Leach, Jim, and Jeannette Sloniowski (eds.). Candid Eyes: Essays on Canadian Documentaries. Toronto; Buffalo: University of Toronto Press, 2003. ISBN 0802047327, ISBN 0802082998. Nichols, Bill. Introduction to Documentary, Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 2001. ISBN 0253339545, ISBN 0253214696. Nichols, Bill. Representing Reality: Issues and Concepts in Documentary. Bloomington, Ind.: Indiana University Press, 1991. ISBN 0253340608, ISBN 0253206812. Nornes, Markus. Forest of Pressure: Ogawa Shinsuke and Postwar Japanese Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2007. ISBN 0816649073, ISBN 0816649081. Nornes, Markus. Japanese Documentary Film: The Meiji Era through Hiroshima. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003. ISBN 0816640459, ISBN 0816640467. Rotha, Paul, Documentary diary; An Informal History of the British Documentary Film, 1928-1939. New York: Hill and Wang, 1973. ISBN 0809039338. Saunders, Dave. Direct Cinema: Observational Documentary and the Politics of the Sixties. London: Wallflower Press, 2007. ISBN 1905674163, ISBN 1905674155. Walker, Janet, and Diane Waldeman (eds.). Feminism and Documentary. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999. ISBN 0816630062, ISBN 0816630070. Documentary – reading list ethnographic film Fatimah Tobing Rony. The Third Eye: Race, Cinema and Ethnographic Spectacle. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1996. ISBN 9780822318408. Ginsburg, Faye, Abu-Lughod, Lila and Brian Larkin eds. Media Worlds: Anthropology on New Terrain. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2002. ISBN 9780520232310. Grimshaw, Anna. The Ethnographer’s Eye: Ways of Seeing in Modern Anthropology. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 9780521773102. Recommended Text (books out of print) MacDougall, David. Transcultural Cinema. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998. ISBN 9780691012346. Brigard, Emilie de, "The History of ethnographic film", in: Paul Hockings (Ed.), Principles of Visual Anthropology, Berlin, New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995, pp. 13–43. Devereaux, Leslie, "Cultures, Disciplines, Cinemas", in: Leslie Devereaux & Roger Hillman (Eds.), Fields of Vision. Essays in Film Studies, Visual Anthropology and Photography, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995, pp. 329–339. Heider, Karl G., Ethnographic Film, Austin: University of Texas Press, 1994. Heusch, Luc de, Cinéma et Sciences Sociales, Paris: Unesco, 1962. ``Jameson, Frederic, As Marcas do Visível, Rio de Janeiro: Graal, 1995 Jordan, Pierre-L., Premier Contact-Premier Regard, Marseille: Musées de Marseille. Images en Manoeuvres Editions, 1992. Leroi-Gourhan, André, 1948 - "Cinéma et Sciences Humaines. Le Film Ethnologique Existe-t-il?", in: Revue de Géographie Humaine et d'Ethnologie, n. 3, Paris, pp. 42–50. Mac Dougall, David, "Whose Story Is It?", - in: Peter I. Crawford &, Jan K. Simonsen (Eds.), Ethnographic Film Aesthetics and Narrative Traditions. Aarhus, Intervention Press, 1992, pp. 25–42. Sadoul, George, Histoire Générale du Cinéma. Vol. 1, L'Invention du Cinéma 1832-1897, Paris: Denöel, 1977, pp. 73–110. Sorlin, Pierre, Sociologie du Cinéma, Paris: Aubier Montaigne, 1977, pp. 7–74. Warren, Charles, "Introduction, with a Brief History of Nonfiction Film", in: Charles Warren (Ed.), Beyond Document. Essays on Nonfiction Film, Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1996, pp. 1–22. Xavier, Ismail, "Cinema: Revelação e Engano", in: Adauto Novaes (Ed.) O Olhar, São Paulo: Companhia das Letras, 1993, pp. 367–384. External links Documentary Classics - Videography of essential documentary films via UC Berkeley Media Resources Center The Documentary Filmmakers Group, UK's largest documentary organisation Documentary Films .Net: news, reviews, and filmmaker resources International Documentary Association | Documentary_film |@lemmatized documentary:85 film:92 broad:2 category:1 visual:5 expression:1 base:3 attempt:2 one:5 fashion:1 another:1 document:4 reality:6 although:2 originally:1 refer:4 movie:4 shoot:3 stock:1 subsequently:1 expand:1 include:7 video:4 digital:2 production:5 either:1 direct:13 make:14 television:3 series:4 apply:2 work:7 identify:1 filmmaking:1 practice:3 cinematic:1 tradition:8 mode:1 audience:2 reception:1 continually:1 evolve:1 without:3 clear:1 boundary:1 nichols:3 bill:3 foreword:1 barry:1 keith:1 grant:1 jeannette:2 sloniowski:2 eds:5 close:1 reading:1 detroit:1 wayne:1 state:5 university:16 press:20 define:2 word:2 first:5 nature:3 review:2 robert:4 flaherty:7 moana:3 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7,287 | Computation | Computation is a general term for any type of information processing. This includes phenomena ranging from human thinking to calculations with a more narrow meaning. Computation is a process following a well-defined model that is understood and can be expressed in an algorithm, protocol, network topology, etc. Computation is also a major subject matter of computer science: it investigates what can or cannot be done in a computational manner. Classes of computation Computation can be classified by at least three orthogonal criteria: digital vs analog, sequential vs parallel vs concurrent, batch vs interactive. In practice, digital computation is often used to simulate natural processes (for example, Evolutionary computation), including those that are more naturally described by analog models of computation (for example, Artificial neural network). In this situation, it is important to distinguish between the mechanism of computation and the simulated model. Computations as a physical phenomenon A computation can be seen as a purely physical phenomenon occurring inside a closed physical system called a computer. Examples of such physical systems include digital computers, quantum computers, DNA computers, molecular computers, analog computers or wetware computers. This point of view is the one adopted by the branch of theoretical physics called the physics of computation. An even more radical point of view is the postulate of digital physics that the evolution of the universe itself is a computation - Pancomputationalism. Mathematical models of computation In the theory of computation, a diversity of mathematical models of computers and their software have been developed. Typical mathematical models of computers are the following: State models including Turing Machine, Push-down automaton, Finite state automaton, and PRAM Functional models including lambda calculus Logical models including logic programming Concurrent models including Actor model and process calculi History The word computation has an archaic meaning (from its Latin etymological roots), but the word has come back in use with the arising of a new scientific discipline: computer science. See also Computing Physical information Real computation Reversible computation Theory of computation Hypercomputation Pancomputationalism | Computation |@lemmatized computation:19 general:1 term:1 type:1 information:2 processing:1 include:7 phenomena:1 range:1 human:1 think:1 calculation:1 narrow:1 meaning:2 process:3 follow:1 well:1 define:1 model:11 understood:1 express:1 algorithm:1 protocol:1 network:2 topology:1 etc:1 also:2 major:1 subject:1 matter:1 computer:11 science:2 investigate:1 cannot:1 computational:1 manner:1 class:1 classify:1 least:1 three:1 orthogonal:1 criterion:1 digital:4 v:4 analog:3 sequential:1 parallel:1 concurrent:2 batch:1 interactive:1 practice:1 often:1 use:2 simulate:1 natural:1 example:3 evolutionary:1 naturally:1 describe:1 artificial:1 neural:1 situation:1 important:1 distinguish:1 mechanism:1 simulated:1 physical:5 phenomenon:2 see:2 purely:1 occur:1 inside:1 closed:1 system:2 call:2 quantum:1 dna:1 molecular:1 wetware:1 point:2 view:2 one:1 adopt:1 branch:1 theoretical:1 physic:3 even:1 radical:1 postulate:1 evolution:1 universe:1 pancomputationalism:2 mathematical:3 theory:2 diversity:1 software:1 develop:1 typical:1 following:1 state:2 turing:1 machine:1 push:1 automaton:2 finite:1 pram:1 functional:1 lambda:1 calculus:2 logical:1 logic:1 programming:1 actor:1 history:1 word:2 archaic:1 latin:1 etymological:1 root:1 come:1 back:1 arising:1 new:1 scientific:1 discipline:1 compute:1 real:1 reversible:1 hypercomputation:1 |@bigram artificial_neural:1 neural_network:1 turing_machine:1 lambda_calculus:1 |
7,288 | Celebrity | Singer Mariah Carey and actor Robert De Niro are international celebrities for their respective work. A celebrity (or simply as celeb) is a widely-recognized or notable person who commands a high degree of public and media attention. The word stems from the Latin verb "celebrare" but one may not become a celebrity unless public and mass media interest is piqued. There are degrees of celebrity status which vary based on an individual's region or field of notoriety. While someone might be a celebrity to some people, to others he may be completely unknown. A global celebrity on the other hand is someone who is known by most people or is a mainstream celebrity. Such a celebrity is also known as either a household name or superstar. For example, Virgin Director Richard Branson was notable as a CEO, but he did not become a global celebrity until he attempted to circumnavigate the globe in a hot air balloon and generate publicity for himself. Another high profile categorisation of celebrity status is the A-list, based on the marketability of celebrities. Generally speaking, a celebrity is someone who seeks media attention and most frequently has an extroverted personality. The desire to be notable is implied by some to be a part of Western culture and more specifically the American Dream as a measure of success. A celebrity that shys away from the public eye or keeps a very separate private life is called a reluctant celebrity. At the other end of the spectrum, a celebrity that seeks out publicity for him- or herself is often called a media tart, whereas one that uses his or her private life as a vehicle for enhanced celebrity status, sometimes desperately, is referred to as a media whore. Examples of this are fake or planned relationships, reality television appearances, celebrity nudity and in extreme cases, scandal or celebrity sex tapes. There are a wide range of ways people can become celebrities, from their profession, appearances in the mass media, beauty or even by complete accident or infamy. Instant celebrity is the term that is used when someone becomes a celebrity in very short period of time. In some places, someone that somehow achieves a small amount of transient fame through hype or mass media, is stereotyped as a B-grade celebrity. Often the stereotype extends to someone that falls short of mainstream or persistent fame but seeks to extend or exploit it. In the 20th Century, the insatiable public fascination for celebrities and appetite for celebrity gossip has seen the rise of the gossip columnist, tabloid, paparazzi and celebrity blogging. Central Celebrities The rise of international celebrities in acting and popular music is due in large part to the massive scope and scale of the media industries, enabling celebrities to be viewed more often and in more places. Regional or cultural celebrities Each culture and region has its own independent celebrity system, with a hierarchy of popular film, television, and sports stars. Celebrities who are very popular might be unknown abroad, except with culturally-related groups, such as within a diaspora. In some cases, a country-level celebrity might command some attention outside their native country, but not to the degree that they can be considered a global celebrity. For example, singer Lara Fabian is widely-known in the French-speaking world, but only had a couple of Billboard hits in the U.S., whereas singer Celine Dion is well-known in both communities. Subnational entities or regions, or cultural communities (linguistic, ethnic, religious) also have their own 'celebrity systems', especially in linguistically or culturally-distinct regions such as Quebec (a French-speaking province in Canada) and Wales (a constituent country of the UK). Regional radio personalities, newscasters, politicians or community leaders can be considered as local or regional celebrities. A local celebrity can be more of a household name than a national celebrity and may often experience the same type of attention from the public as a national celebrity albeit in the confines of their particular region. For example, while journalist Lin Sue Cooney is a well known television reporter in Arizona, she is little known outside the Southwestern US. In a smaller country, linguistic or cultural community, a figure will be less likely to gain a broader celebrity. Shakira and Daddy Yankee were known largely in the Spanish-speaking world before becoming popular in English-speaking communities, by performing English language songs. Similarly, Spanish actors Penélope Cruz, Antonio Banderas, Elsa Pataki, and Javier Bardem, Paz Vega and Xoel Pamos who were country-level celebrities in their native Spain, were able to become global celebrities only after they became Hollywood actors in English-speaking films. Another example of celebrity can be merely cultural or unique to a particular diaspora. Tehran Ghasri has a highly celebrated Iranian television program accessible by Iranian satellite. His program is mostly in farsi restricting by nature most of his viewers to be of Iranian, Afghan, Turkish, Armenian, Assyrian or Kurdish descent. His celebrity is acclaimed in the diaspora of farsi speaking people spread through out the world, including the United States, Canada, Europe and Iran. While visibility of the show is worldwide understanding is limited to farsi speaking people. His recognition is mainly cultural or in this case restricted to those of a particular lingual identity. Therefore his celebrity maybe deemed worldwide it only reflects a small fraction of people. Sarah Palin who was once a celebrity almost strictly in Alaska has gained international fame, after being thrust onto the world's stage as a candidate for Vice President of the United States. English-speaking media commentators and journalists will sometimes refer to celebrities as A-List, B-List, C-List, D-List or Z-List. These informal rankings indicate a placing within the hierarchy. However, due to differing levels of celebrity in different regions, it is difficult to place people within one bracket. A Nicaraguan actor might be a B-list action film actor in the US, but be an A-list star in the Czech Republic. An objective method of placing celebrities from any country into categories from A-List to H-List based on their number of Google hits has been proposed E. Schulman, "Measuring Fame Quantitatively. III. What Does it Take to Make the 'A' List?,"Annals of Improbable Research Vol. 12, No. 1 (2006), 11. , but while this method is quantitative, it only works for individuals with distinctive names, e.g., Jason Mewes, not Kevin Smith. Niche Market Celebrities Just as one may become a regional or cultural celebrity, one may also become a celebrity in their niche market and have limited fame apart from it. While Lisa Leslie is a WNBA player who has transcended her niche and has gained recognition even among those who do not follow women's basketball, a player such as Janeth Arcain is less likely to be well known among those who do not follow the WNBA. Deitrick Haddon may be a popular gospel singer and considered a celebrity among gospel music fans however he may not be well known among those that do not listen to gospel music. American comic book creators are, for the most part, unknown outside of fandom as most popular American comics are still identified by their owning company such as Marvel Comics or DC Comics, instead of with a particular writer or artist. Stan Lee (best known as co-creator of the classic Marvel superheroes) is mostly known to comic book fans and while in recent years, he has become more well known, many outside fandom are still unsure of exactly who he is, other than being a spokesperson. One may argue that all celebrities are niche market celebrities, some niches are simply much bigger than others and many celebrities gain fame apart from their niche market as well. A good example can be seen among the numerous professional athletes that are well known even among people who do not follow sport. Professions that can make someone a celebrity Gisele Bündchen, international supermodel Some professional activities, by the nature of being high-paid, highly exposed, and difficult to get into, are likely to confer celebrity status. For example, movie stars and television actors with lead roles on prominently scheduled shows are likely to become celebrities. High-ranking politicians, national television reporters, daytime television show hosts, supermodels MODELS.com's Icons - 5-1 , successful athletes and chart-topping musicians are also likely to become celebrities. A few humanitarian leaders such as Mother Teresa have even achieved fame because of their charitable work. Some people have achieved fame online and thus are Internet celebrities. While some film and theatre directors, producers, fashion designers, artists, authors, trial lawyers, journalists and dancers have achieved celebrity status, in general they are less notable than actors of equal professional importance to the business. Individuals with their own television show (or sections of television shows) often become a celebrity, even when their profession would not normally lead to celebrity status: this can include doctors, chefs, gardeners, and conservationists on shows like Trading Spaces and The Crocodile Hunter. However, fame based on one program may often prove short-lived after a programme is discontinued. In areas of the world where the relevant programme is not being broadcast, a such person is very likely not to be known. In order to reserve themselves the possibility to have a private life, some local celebrities prefer to live in a part of the world where they are rather unknown; thus, an entertainer who is well known in the German-speaking world could chose to live his private life in the U.S. and fly into Germany to perform his shows (as Thomas Gottschalk actually does), and on the other hand, a U.S. celebrity could decide to privately live in Europe, such as Hollywood actor and producer Kai Wong. Ensuing political career Celebrity may offer advantage in attaining high-ranked political offices that are elected among the public. This offers a lateral entrance, in contrast to the general no need climb over the sealadder of starting at minor positions and then gradually ascend. Page 82: Celebrity Politicians Elections American style. By James Reichley. Contributor James Reichley. Published by Brookings Institution Press, 1987. ISBN 0815773811, 9780815773818. 291 pages Actors have a considerable benefit from their celebrity, and to a less degree sports celebrities. In contrast, businessman-celebrity doesn't give much advantage. Celebrity families Another example of celebrity is a family that has notable ancestors or is known nationally (or internationally) for their wealth and/or influence. An example would be the Hilton, Richie, and Kardashian families. Celebrity as a mass media phenomenon In the 1970s, academics began analyzing the phenomenon of celebrity and stardom. According to Sofia Johansson the "canonical texts on stardom" include articles by Boorstin (1971), Alberoni (1972) and Dyer (1979) which examined the "representations of stars and on aspects of the Hollywood star system." Johansson notes "more recent analyses within media and cultural studies (e.g. Gamson 1994; Marshall 1997; Giles 2000; Turner, Marshall and Bonner 2000; Rojek 2001; Turner 2004) have instead dealt with the idea of a pervasive, contemporary, ‘celebrity culture’." In Bob Greene’s article “The new stardom that doesn't require paying any dues,” he argues for “most of man's history...people of talent would work to create something--something written, something painted, something sculpted, something acted out--and it would be passed on to audiences.” With the rise of reality TV shows, Greene points out audiences have been turned into the creators. He argues the “alleged stars of the reality shows "Survivor" and "Big Brother,"have become famous not for doing, but merely for being.” B. Greene, " The new stardom that doesn't require paying any dues,"Jewish World Review, September 14, 2000. Greene says “You simply have to be present, in the right place at the right time.” Whereas “...public[ly famous] people were once defined as such based upon the fact their remarkable skills had brought them to the attention of the public,” Greene states with reality TV, “one can become a public person just by being a person, in public.” "Celebrities often have fame comparable to royalty," claimed notable author Micha Frydman. As a result, there is a strong public curiosity about their private affairs. Celebrities may be resented for their accolades, and the public may have a love/hate relationship with celebrities. Due to the high visibility of celebrities' private lives, their successes and shortcomings are often made very public. Celebrities are alternately portrayed as glowing examples of perfection, when they garner awards, or as decadent or immoral if they become associated with a scandal. When seen in a positive light, celebrities are frequently portrayed as possessing skills and abilities beyond average people; for example, celebrity actors are routinely celebrated for acquiring new skills necessary for filming a role within a very brief period of time, and to a level that amazes the professionals who train them. Similarly, celebrities with very little formal education can be portrayed as experts on complicated issues. Tabloid magazines and talk TV shows bestow a great deal of attention on celebrities. To stay in the public eye and make money, more celebrities are participating in business ventures such as celebrity-branded items including books, clothing lines, perfume, and household items. Fame in the 20th century Clive James, the Australian writer, broadcaster and performer, wrote a book on the phenomenon of fame in the 20th century (Fame in the 20th Century). He contends true fame was almost unknown before the 20th century, because of lack of global mass media, and the first true media celebrity was Charles Lindbergh, initially because of his aviation feats and later because of the tragic kidnapping and murder of his son. James points out celebrity eventually became distinctly different from fame, resulting in the phenomenon of people who are famous for being famous. He cites Elizabeth Taylor as an early example, whose private life made her more of a celebrity than her film career had. He also contends fame sometimes backfires on those who seek it by depriving them of their privacy for life, a point illustrated by the rise of the paparazzi and their fanatic desire for pictures and personal stories about celebrities. He argues achieving great fame requires frequently reinventing yourself, as exhibited by Michael Jackson, Madonna, and the most recent, Rihanna. The death of a celebrity does not necessarily lead to the disappearance of fame, in fact the opposite may happen, as in the cases of certain luminaties of the stage, and the world of music such as American singer Elvis Presley. The whole concept of 'celebrity' and the obsessive interest caused by certain media publications such as 'chat mags' and daily paper gossip columnists, has reduced the notion of celebrity to being anyone who has been on the television, or involved in a third rate reality TV program. Celebrity clothing lines have also been a rising trend over the last few years. There are many ways a celebrity can increase their net worth,Will Smith tops the list at becoming the most "bankable" Forbes Celebrity Ranking celebrity. Due to the rapid and widespread growth of computer usage, internet celebrities, like Perez Hilton, Tila Tequila, and Jeffree Star, have also become increasingly popular. References See also Sell Out Celebrity Worship Syndrome Superstar (celebrity) All-star Celebrity branding Q Score Farce Glamour List of celebrities List of television presenters External links Feature article on the psychology of celebrity obsession, "Divine Trash", from Cosmos science magazine Celebrity Sports Famous Athletes | Celebrity |@lemmatized singer:5 mariah:1 carey:1 actor:10 robert:1 de:1 niro:1 international:4 celebrity:103 respective:1 work:4 simply:3 celeb:1 widely:2 recognize:1 notable:6 person:4 command:2 high:6 degree:4 public:14 medium:14 attention:6 word:1 stem:1 latin:1 verb:1 celebrare:1 one:8 may:13 become:19 unless:1 mass:5 interest:2 pique:1 status:6 vary:1 base:5 individual:3 region:6 field:1 notoriety:1 someone:7 might:4 people:13 others:2 completely:1 unknown:5 global:5 hand:2 know:15 mainstream:2 also:8 either:1 household:3 name:3 superstar:2 example:12 virgin:1 director:2 richard:1 branson:1 ceo:1 attempt:1 circumnavigate:1 globe:1 hot:1 air:1 balloon:1 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7,289 | Politics_of_Libya | Politics of Libya takes place in a framework of a dual government structure in Libya. The "revolutionary sector" comprises Revolutionary Leader Muammar al-Gaddafi, the Revolutionary Committees, and the remaining members of the 12-person Revolutionary Command Council, which was established in 1969. The historical revolutionary leadership is not elected and cannot be voted out of office, as they are in power by virtue of their involvement in the revolution. The revolutionary sector dictates the decision-making power of the second sector, the "Jamahiriya Sector". Making up the legislative branch of government, this sector comprises Local People's Congresses in each of the 1,500 urban wards, 32 Sha’biyat People’s Congresses for the regions, and the National General People's Congress. These legislative bodies are represented by corresponding executive bodies (Local People's Committees, Sha'biyat People's Committees and the National General People’s Committee/Cabinet). Libya's political system is theoretically based on the political philosophy in Muammar al-Gaddafi's Green Book, which combines socialist and Islamic theories and rejects parliamentary democracy and political parties. In reality, Qadhafi exercises near total control over the government. Colonel Qadhafi in power For the first 7 years following the revolution, Colonel Qadhafi and 12 fellow army officers, the Revolutionary Command Council, began a complete overhaul of Libya's political system, society, and economy. On 3 March 1977, Qadhafi convened a General People's Congress (GPC) to proclaim the establishment of "people's power," change the country's name to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, and to vest, theoretically, primary authority in the GPC. Today, the official name of the country of Libya is Al Jumahiriyah al Arabiyah al Libiyah ash Shabiyah al Ishtirakiyah al Uzma. Qadhafi remained the de facto chief of state and secretary general of the GPC until 1980, when he gave up his office. He continues to control all aspects of the Libyan Government through direct appeals to the masses, a pervasive security apparatus, and powerful revolutionary committees. Although he holds no formal office, Qadhafi exercises absolute power with the assistance of a small group of trusted advisers, who include relatives from his home base in the Surt region, which lies between the rival provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica. After the revolution, Qadhafi took increasing control of the government, but he also attempted to achieve greater popular participation in local government. In 1973, he announced the start of a "cultural revolution" in schools, businesses, industries, and public institutions to oversee administration of those organizations in the public interest. The March 1977 establishment of "people's power" —with mandatory popular participation in the selection of representatives to the GPC— was the culmination of this process. In the 1980s, competition grew between the official Libyan Government and military hierarchies and the revolutionary committees. An abortive coup attempt in May 1984 apparently mounted by Libyan exiles with internal support, led to a short-lived reign of terror in which thousands were imprisoned and interrogated. An unknown number were executed. Qadhafi used the revolutionary committees to search out alleged internal opponents following the coup attempt, thereby accelerating the rise of more radical elements inside the Libyan power hierarchy. In 1988, faced with rising public dissatisfaction with shortages in consumer goods and setbacks in Libya's war with Chad, Qadhafi began to curb the power of the revolutionary committees and to institute some domestic reforms. The regime released many political prisoners and eased restrictions on foreign travel by Libyans. Private businesses were again permitted to operate. In the late 1980s, Qadhafi began to pursue an anti-Fundamentalist Islamic policy domestically, viewing fundamentalism as a potential rallying point for opponents of the regime. Ministerial positions and military commanders are frequently shuffled or placed under temporary house arrest to diffuse potential threats to Qadhafi's authority. Despite these measures, internal dissent continues. Qadhafi's security forces launched a preemptive strike at alleged coup plotters in the military and among the Warfallah tribe in October 1993. Widespread arrests and government reshufflings followed, accompanied by public "confessions" from regime opponents and allegations of torture and executions. The military, once Qadhafi's strongest supporters, became a potential threat in the 1990s. In 1993, following a failed coup attempt that implicated senior military officers, Qadhafi began to purge the military periodically, eliminating potential rivals and inserting his own loyal followers in their place. Government administration |Revolutionary Leader |Muammar al-Gaddafi | |1 September 1969 |- |Head of state |Miftah Muhammed K'eba | |3 March 2008 |- |Secretary-General of the General People's Committee |Baghdadi Mahmudi | |March 2006 |} Every four years the membership of the Local People's Congresses elects by acclamation both their own leadership and secretaries for the People’s Committees, sometimes after many debates and a critical vote. The leadership of the Local People’s Congress represents the local congress at the People’s Congress of the next level and has an imperative mandate. The members of the National General People's Congress elect the members of the National General People’s Committee (the Cabinet) by acclamation at their annual meeting. The most recent meeting, which took place in Sirt from 8 January-12 January 2005, was the 29th annual. While there is discussion regarding who will run for executive offices, only those approved by the revolutionary leadership are actually elected. The government administration is effective as long as it operates within the directives of the revolutionary leadership. The revolutionary leadership has absolute veto power despite the constitutionally established people's democracy and alleged rule of the people. The government controls both state-run and semi-autonomous media, and any articles critical of current policies have been requested and intentionally placed by the revolutionary leadership itself, for example, as a means of initiating reforms. In cases involving a violation of "these taboos", the private press, like The Tripoli Post, has been censored. Legislative branch The General People's Congress (Mu'tammar al-sha'ab al 'âmm) consists out of circa 2700 representatives of the Basis People's Congresses. The GPC is the legislative forum that interacts with the General People's Committee, whose members are secretaries of Libyan ministries. It serves as the intermediary between the masses and the leadership and is composed of the secretariats of some 600 local "basic popular congresses." The GPC secretariat and the cabinet secretaries are appointed by the GPC secretary general and confirmed by the annual GPC congress. These cabinet secretaries are responsible for the routine operation of their ministries. Political parties and elections Political parties were banned by the Prohibition of Party Politics Act Number 71 of 1972. According to the Association Act of 1971, the establishment of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) is allowed. As they are required to conform to the goals of the revolution, however, the number of NGOs in Libya is small in comparison with neighboring countries. Unions do not exist as such. However, the numerous professional associations are integrated into the state structure as a third pillar, along with the People’s Congresses and Committees, though they do not have the right to strike. Professional associations send delegates to the General People's Congress, where they have a representative mandate. The General People's Congress (Mu'tammar al-sha'ab al 'âmm) consists out of circa 2700 representatives of the Basis People's Congresses. Judicial system The Libyan court system consists of four levels: summary courts, which try petty offenses, the courts of first instance, which try more serious crimes; the courts of appeals, and the Supreme Court, which is the final appellate level. The GPC appoints justices to the Supreme Court. Special "revolutionary courts" and military courts operate outside the court system to try political offenses and crimes against the state. Libya's justice system is nominally based on Sharia law. International organization participation Libya is a member of ABEDA, AfDB, AFESD, AL, AMF, AMU, AU, CAEU, ECA, FAO, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, ICAO, IDA, IDB, IFAD, IFC, IFRCS, ILO, IMF, IMO, Inmarsat, Intelsat, Interpol, IOC, ISO, ITU, MONUC, NAM, OAPEC, OIC, OPEC, PCA, UN, UNCTAD, UNESCO, UNIDO, UPU, WCO, WFTU, WHO, WIPO, WMO, WToO and UNHABITAT. External links Adam Carr's Election Archive The National Front for the Salvation of Libya (NFSL) Opposition to the Gaddafi regime Qaddafi Plays Quietly, But He's Still in the Game," The New York Times, March 17, 1991. | Politics_of_Libya |@lemmatized politics:2 libya:10 take:3 place:5 framework:1 dual:1 government:11 structure:2 revolutionary:17 sector:5 comprise:2 leader:2 muammar:3 al:13 gaddafi:4 committee:13 remain:2 member:5 person:1 command:2 council:2 establish:2 historical:1 leadership:8 elect:4 cannot:1 vote:2 office:4 power:9 virtue:1 involvement:1 revolution:5 dictate:1 decision:1 make:2 second:1 jamahiriya:2 legislative:4 branch:2 local:7 people:26 congress:17 urban:1 ward:1 sha:4 biyat:2 region:2 national:5 general:13 body:2 represent:2 correspond:1 executive:2 cabinet:4 political:8 system:6 theoretically:2 base:3 philosophy:1 green:1 book:1 combine:1 socialist:2 islamic:2 theory:1 reject:1 parliamentary:1 democracy:2 party:4 reality:1 qadhafi:14 exercise:2 near:1 total:1 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7,290 | Horace_Engdahl | Horace Oscar Axel Engdahl (born December 30, 1948) is a Swedish literary historian and critic. He has been the permanent secretary of the Swedish Academy since 1999, a run that will end in June 2009 when historian Peter Englund takes the gavel. Biography Engdahl was born in Karlskrona, Blekinge. He earned his B.A. in 1970 http://www.svenskaakademien.se/web/Horace_Engdahl_1.aspx at Stockholm University; he earned his doctoral degree (fil. dr.) in 1987, with a study on Swedish romanticism, but had meanwhile been active as a literary critic, translator and journal editor, and was one of the introducers of the continental tradition of literary scholarship in Sweden. He is currently adjunct professor of Scandinavian literature at the University of Aarhus in Denmark. He speaks Swedish, English, German, French and Russian fluently. On October 16, 1997, Engdahl became a member of the Swedish Academy, elected to seat number 17 vacated by the death of Johannes Edfelt; on June 1, 1999, he succeeded Sture Allén as the Academy's permanent secretary, i.e. its executive member and spokesperson. As such, he has the annual task of announcing the recipient of the Nobel prize in literature to the public. On December 20, 2008 it was announced that Engdahl after ten years will step down as the Academy's permanent secretary on June 1, 2009. He is married to Ebba Witt-Brattström, professor of literature at Södertörn University outside Stockholm. Together they have three sons. Controversy Engdahl announces Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio winning the Nobel Prize for Literature on October 9, 2008. In October 2008, Engdahl told the Associated Press that the United States is "too insular and ignorant to challenge Europe as the center of the literary world" and does not really "participate in the big dialogue of literature." http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5gn-_m0gOLDlyXymX2CJHcV5HexsgD93H8F3G3 His comments generated controversy across the Atlantic, with the head of the U.S. National Book Foundation offering to send him a reading list. Engdahl was reported "very surprised" that the American reaction was "so violent". He did not think that what he said was "that derogatory or sensational" and conceded his comments may have been "perhaps a bit too generalizing". References External links Presentation at the official website of the Swedish Academy | Horace_Engdahl |@lemmatized horace:1 oscar:1 axel:1 engdahl:7 born:1 december:2 swedish:6 literary:4 historian:2 critic:2 permanent:3 secretary:3 academy:5 since:1 run:1 end:1 june:3 peter:1 englund:1 take:1 gavel:1 biography:1 bear:1 karlskrona:1 blekinge:1 earn:2 b:1 http:2 www:1 svenskaakademien:1 se:1 web:1 aspx:1 stockholm:2 university:3 doctoral:1 degree:1 fil:1 dr:1 study:1 romanticism:1 meanwhile:1 active:1 translator:1 journal:1 editor:1 one:1 introducers:1 continental:1 tradition:1 scholarship:1 sweden:1 currently:1 adjunct:1 professor:2 scandinavian:1 literature:5 aarhus:1 denmark:1 speak:1 english:1 german:1 french:1 russian:1 fluently:1 october:3 become:1 member:2 elect:1 seat:1 number:1 vacate:1 death:1 johannes:1 edfelt:1 succeed:1 sture:1 allén:1 e:1 executive:1 spokesperson:1 annual:1 task:1 announce:2 recipient:1 nobel:2 prize:2 public:1 ten:1 year:1 step:1 marry:1 ebba:1 witt:1 brattström:1 södertörn:1 outside:1 together:1 three:1 son:1 controversy:2 announces:1 jean:1 marie:1 gustave:1 le:1 clézio:1 win:1 tell:1 associated:1 press:1 united:1 state:1 insular:1 ignorant:1 challenge:1 europe:1 center:1 world:1 really:1 participate:1 big:1 dialogue:1 ap:1 google:1 com:1 article:1 comment:2 generate:1 across:1 atlantic:1 head:1 u:1 national:1 book:1 foundation:1 offering:1 send:1 reading:1 list:1 report:1 surprised:1 american:1 reaction:1 violent:1 think:1 say:1 derogatory:1 sensational:1 concede:1 may:1 perhaps:1 bit:1 generalize:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 presentation:1 official:1 website:1 |@bigram http_www:1 doctoral_degree:1 adjunct_professor:1 aarhus_denmark:1 nobel_prize:2 ap_google:1 external_link:1 |
7,291 | Frédéric_Bastiat | Claude Frédéric Bastiat (June 30, 1801 December 24, 1850) was a French classical liberal theorist, political economist, and member of the French assembly. Biography Bastiat was born in Bayonne, Aquitaine, France. When he was nine years old, he was orphaned and became a ward of his father's parents. At age seventeen he left school to become more involved with his family's business as an exporter. Economist Thomas DiLorenzo suggests that this family business experience was crucial to Bastiat's later work because it allowed young Frédéric to acquire first-hand knowledge of some of the effects of trade regulations on the market. DiLorenzo, Thomas. "Frederic Bastiat (1801-1850): Between the French and Marginalist Revolutions." Mises.org. Sheldon Richman notes that "he came of age during the Napoleonic wars, with their extensive government intervention in economic affairs." Richman, Sheldon. "Frédéric Bastiat: An Annotated Bibliography." The Library of Economics and Liberty. 2000. When Bastiat was twenty-five, his grandfather and benefactor died, leaving the young man the family estate and providing him with the means to further his own theoretical inquiries. His areas of intellectual interest were diverse, including "philosophy, history, politics, religion, travel, poetry, political economy, [and] biography." His public career as an economist began only in 1844, and was cut short by his untimely death in 1850. Bastiat had contracted tuberculosis, probably during his tours throughout France to promote his ideas, and that illness eventually prevented him from making further speeches (particularly at the legislative assembly to which he was elected in 1848 and 1849) and took his life. Bastiat died in Rome on December 24, 1850. Works Bastiat was the author of many works on economics and political economy, generally characterized by their clear organization, forceful argumentation, and acerbic wit. Among his better known works is Economic Sophisms, which contains many strongly-worded attacks on statist policies. Bastiat wrote it while living in England to advise the shapers of the French Republic on pitfalls to avoid. Contained within Economic Sophisms is the famous satirical parable known as the "Candlemakers' petition" which presents itself as a demand from the candlemakers' guild to the French government, asking the government to block out the Sun to prevent its unfair competition with their products. He also facetiously "advocated" the cutting off of everyone's right hand, based on the assumptions that more work means more wealth and more difficulty means more work. Much like Jonathan Swift's A Modest Proposal or Benjamin Franklin's anti-slavery works, Bastiat's argument cleverly highlights basic flaws in protectionism by demonstrating its absurdity through logical extremes. Bastiat's most famous work, however, is undoubtedly The Law, originally published as a pamphlet in 1850. It defines, through development, a just system of laws and then demonstrates how such law facilitates a free society. Bastiat also famously engaged in a debate with Pierre-Joseph Proudhon about the legitimacy of interest between 1849 and 1850. Views Bastiat asserted that the only purpose of government is to defend the right of an individual to life, liberty, and property. Bastiat, Frédéric. The Law. Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2007. From this definition, Bastiat concluded that the law cannot defend life, liberty and property if it promotes socialist policies inherently opposed to these very things. In this way, he says, the law is perverted and turned against the thing it is supposed to defend. His position on the coercive and non-free market aspects of later schools such as Marxism or libertarian socialists would have to be inferred based upon his writings. Because of his stress on the role of consumer demand in initiating economic progress, Bastiat has been described by Mark Thornton, Thomas DiLorenzo, and other economists as a forerunner of the Austrian School. In his Economic Harmonies, Bastiat states that, We cannot doubt that self-interest is the mainspring of human nature. It must be clearly understood that this word is used here to designate a universal, incontestable fact, resulting from the nature of man, and not an adverse judgment, as would be the word selfishness. Thornton posits that Bastiat, through taking this position on the motivations of human action, demonstrates a pronounced "Austrian flavor." Thornton, Mark. "Frédéric Bastiat as an Austrian Economist." Mises.org. One of Bastiat's most important contributions to the field of economics was his admonition to the effect that good economic decisions can only be made by taking into account the "full picture." That is, economic truths should be arrived at by observing not only the immediate consequences that is, benefits or liabilities of an economic decision, but also by examining the long-term consequences. Additionally, one must examine the decision's effect not only on a single group of people (say candlemakers) or a single industry (say candles), but on all people and all industries in the society as a whole. As Bastiat famously put it, an economist must take into account both "What is Seen and What is Not Seen." Bastiat's "rule" was later expounded and developed by Henry Hazlitt in his work Economics in One Lesson, in which Hazlitt borrowed Bastiat's trenchant "Broken Window Fallacy" and went on to demonstrate how it applies to a wide variety of economic falsehoods. Negative railroad A famous section of Economic Sophisms concerns the way that tariffs are inherently counterproductive. Bastiat posits a theoretical railway between Spain and France that is built in order to reduce the costs of trade between the two countries. This is achieved, of course, by making goods move to and from the two nations faster and more easily. Bastiat demonstrates that this situation benefits both countries' consumers because it reduces the cost of shipping goods, and therefore reduces the price at market for those goods. However, each country's producers begin to rail at their governments because the other country's producers can now provide certain goods to the domestic market at reduced price. Domestic producers of these goods are afraid of being out-competed by the newly viable industry from the other country. So, these domestic producers demand that tariffs be enacted to artificially raise the cost of the foreign goods back to their pre-railroad levels, so that they can continue to compete. Bastiat raises two significant points here: Even if the producers in a society are benefited by these tariffs (which, Bastiat claims, they are not), the consumers in that society are clearly hurt by the tariffs, as they are now unable to secure the goods they want at the low price which they should be able to secure them. The tariffs completely negate any gains made by the railroad and therefore make it essentially pointless. To further demonstrate his points, Bastiat suggests that, rather than enacting tariffs, the government should simply destroy the railroad anywhere that foreign goods can outcompete local goods. Since this would be just about everywhere, he goes on to suggest that that government should simply build a broken or "negative" railroad right from the start, and not waste time with tariffs and rail building. This is an example of Bastiat's consummate skill with the reductio ad absurdum rhetorical technique. Indeed, one can take Bastiat's argument even farther and see that, by examining everything from the perspective of the producer: society would be "best" if we were regressed to a cave-man state where supply of goods was at maximum scarcity. Then people would have to work as hard as possible for as little as possible and never have to fear outside competition. In short, the thrust of Bastiat's negative railroad hinges on two major points: All economic decisions should be made with the consumer in mind (this is the central theme of Bastiat's economic ideology). Tariffs serve no purpose but to negate the gains provided to society by technology, labor, ingenuity, determination and progress. An important corollary to these conclusions is that the power which consumers wield with any governing body, while theoretically tremendous, is extremely diffuse in application. Producers, on the other hand, while not as powerful on the whole as the sum total of consumers, have the ability to consolidate their power in ways that make it much more attractive for governing bodies to service their needs. Thus, while consumers could theoretically shut down an entire industry (or government) by refusing to buy/sell/do something, the likelihood of the great mass of people organizing in this way for any reason whatever is so infinitesimal as to be practically impossible. Producers, on the other hand, are able to threaten or cajole the government with shutting down a single industry, with reductions in political and financial contributions to the government agents who make certain decisions, etc. It is for this reason that governments are much more likely to pander to the desires of producers than to those of consumers, and it is for this reason, Bastiat concludes, that governments are inherently adversarial to the interests of the people as a whole. Indeed, they are even adversarial, in some way, to the interests of the producers themselves, as the producers of one good or service are still consumers of all the other goods and services. Bastiat's Tomb As stated, Bastiat died in Rome on December 24, 1850. He is buried at San Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. He declared on his deathbed that his friend Gustave de Molinari (publisher of Bastiat's 1850 book The Law) was his spiritual heir. Bastiat in English translation 1869 (1849). Capital and Interest. Translator unknown. The following titles were originally published by the Foundation for Economic Education in Irvington-on-Hudson, NY, and are made available online by The Library of Economics and Liberty. 1996 (1845). Economic Sophisms, trans. and ed. by Arthur Goddard, with introduction by Henry Hazlitt. 1995 (1848). Selected Essays on Political Economy, trans. by Seymour Cain; George B. de Huszar, ed., with introduction by Friedrich Hayek. 1995 (1850). The Law, trans. by Seymour Cain, with introduction by George B. de Huszar. 1998 (1850). The Law, trans. by Dean Russell, with introduction by Walter E. Williams and foreword by Sheldon Richman. 1996 (1850). Economic Harmonies, trans. by W. Hayden Boyers; George B. de Huszar, ed., with introduction by Dean Russell. See also Physiocrats List of liberal theorists Hippolyte Castille Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, Baron de Laune References Bastiat's Legacy in Economics by Jorg Guido Hulsmann Frederic Bastiat's Views on the Nature of Money by Mark Thornton Frédéric Bastiat: Two Hundred Years On by Joseph R. Stromberg How English-speaking economists have neglected Bastiat by Joseph Salerno External links Bastiat.org publishes and indexes information about Bastiat. 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7,292 | Carl_Rogers | Carl Rogers (January 8, 1902 – February 4, 1987) was an influential American psychologist and among the founders of the Humanistic approach to psychology. Rogers is widely considered to be one of the founding fathers of psychotherapy research and was honored for his pioneering research with the Award for Distinguished Scientific Contributions by the American Psychological Association in 1956. The Person-centered approach, his own unique approach to understanding personality and human relationships, found wide application in various domains such as psychotherapy and counseling (Client-centered therapy), education (Student-centered learning), organizations, and other group settings. For his professional work he was bestowed the Award for Distinguished Professional Contributions to Psychology by the APA in 1972. Towards the end of his life Carl Rogers was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize for his work with national intergroup conflict in South Africa and Northern Ireland. On January 28, 1987 Carl Rogers was nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize by congressman Jim Bates. http://www.nrogers.com/carlrogersevents.html In an empirical study by Haggbloom et al. (2002) using six criteria such as citations and recognition, Rogers was found to be the sixth most eminent psychologist of the 20th Century and among clinicians, second only to Sigmund Freud. Haggbloom, S.J. et al. (2002). The 100 Most Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century. Review of General Psychology. Vol. 6, No. 2, 139–15. Haggbloom et al. combined 3 quantitative variables: citations in professional journals, citations in textbooks, and nominations in a survey given to members of the Association for Psychological Science, with 3 qualitative variables (converted to quantitative scores): National Academy of Science (NAS) membership, American Psychological Association (APA) President and/or recipient of the APA Distinguished Scientific Contributions Award, and surname used as an eponym. Then the list was rank ordered. Biography Carl Ransom Rogers was born on January 8, 1902, in Oak Park, Illinois, a Chicago suburb. His father Walter Rogers was a civil engineer and his mother, Susan Siaw, was a housewife and devout Christian. Carl was the fourth of their six children. Rogers was quite a prodigy and could read well before kindergarten. Following an education in a strict religious vicarage of Jimpley and ethical environment as an altar boy, he became a rather isolated, independent and disciplined person, and acquired a knowledge and an appreciation for the scientific method in a practical world. His first career choice was agriculture, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, followed by History then religion. At age 20, following his 1922 trip to Peking, China, for an international Christian conference, he started to doubt his religious convictions. To help him clarify his career choice, he attended a seminar entitled Why am I entering the Ministry?, after which he decided to change his career. After two years he left the seminary to attend Teachers College, Columbia University, obtaining an MA in 1928 and a PhD in 1931. While completing his doctoral work, he engaged in child study. In 1930, Rogers served as director of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children in Rochester, New York. From 1935 to 1940 he lectured at the University of Rochester and wrote The Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child (1939), based on his experience in working with troubled children. In 1940 he became professor of clinical psychology at Ohio State University, where he wrote his second book, "Counseling and Psychotherapy" in 1942. In it, Rogers suggested that the client, by establishing a relationship with an understanding, accepting therapist, can resolve difficulties and gain the insight necessary to restructure their life. In 1945, he was invited to set up a counseling center at the University of Chicago. While a professor of psychology at the University of Chicago (1945–57), Rogers helped to establish a counseling centre connected with the university and there conducted studies to determine the effectiveness of his methods. His findings and theories appeared in Client-Centered Therapy (1951) and Psychotherapy and Personality Change (1954). One of his graduate students at the University of Chicago, Thomas Gordon, established the Parent Effectiveness Training (P.E.T.) movement. In 1956, Rogers became the first President of the American Academy of Psychotherapists American Academy of Psychotherapists History of the Academy . He taught psychology at the University of Wisconsin, Madison (1957–63), during which time he wrote one of his best-known books, On Becoming a Person (1961). Rogers continued teaching at University of Wisconsin until 1963, he became a resident at the new Center for Studies of the Person in La Jolla. Rogers left the WBSI to help found the Center for Studies of the Person in 1968. His later books include Carl Rogers on Personal Power (1977) and Freedom to Learn for the 80’s (1983). He remained a resident of La Jolla for the rest of his life, doing therapy, giving speeches and writing until his sudden death in 1987. In 1987, Rogers suffered a fall that resulted in a fractured pelvis. He had a successful operation, but his heart failed the next night and he died a few days later. Rogers' last years were devoted to applying his theories in areas of national social conflict, and he traveled worldwide to accomplish this. In Belfast, Northern Ireland, he brought together influential Protestants and Catholics; in South Africa, blacks and whites, in the United States, consumers and providers in the health field. His last trip, at age 85, was to the Soviet Union, where he lectured and facilitated intensive experiential workshops fostering communication and creativity. He was astonished at the numbers of Russians who knew of his work. Together with his daughter, Natalie Rogers, between 1975 and 1980, Rogers conducted a series of residential programs in the US, Europe, and Japan, the Person-Centered Approach Workshops, which focused on cross-cultural communications, personal growth, self-empowerment, social change. Theory The theory of Carl Rogers is considered to be humanistic and phenomenological Dagmar Pescitelli, An Analysis of Carl Rogers' Theory of Personality . His theory is based directly on the "phenomenal field" personality theory of Combs and Snygg (1949) Combs, Arthur W. and Snygg, Donald (1949), Individual Behavior: A New Frame of Reference for Psychology. New York, Harper & Brothers. Article on Snygg and Combs' "Phenomenal Field" Theory . Rogers' elaboration of his own theory is extensive. He wrote 16 books and many more journal articles describing it. Nineteen Propositions His theory (as of 1951) was based on nineteen propositions : All individuals (organisms) exist in a continually changing world of experience (phenomenal field) of which they are the centre. The organism reacts to the field as it is experienced and perceived. This perceptual field is "reality" for the individual. The organism reacts as an organized whole to this phenomenal field. A portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the self. As a result of interaction with the environment, and particularly as a result of evaluational interaction with others, the structure of the self is formed - an organised, fluid but consistent conceptual pattern of perceptions of characteristics and relationships of the "I" or the "me", together with values attached to these concepts. The organism has one basic tendency and striving - to actualize, maintain and enhance the experiencing organism. The best vantage point for understanding behaviour is from the internal frame of reference of the individual. Behavior is basically the goal directed attempt of the organism to satisfy its needs as experienced, in the field as perceived. Emotion accompanies, and in general facilitates, such goal directed behaviour, the kind of emotion being related to the perceived significance of the behaviour for the maintenance and enhancement of the organism. Values experienced directly by the organism, and in some instances are values introjected or taken over from others, but perceived in distorted fashion, as if they had been experienced directly. As experiences occur in the life of the individual, they are either, a) symbolized, perceived and organized into some relation to the self, b) ignored because there is no perceived relationship to the self structure, c) denied symbolization or given distorted symbolization because the experience is inconsistent with the structure of the self. Most of the ways of behaving that are adopted by the organism are those that are consistent with the concept of self. In some instances, behaviour may be brought about by organic experiences and needs which have not been symbolized. Such behaviour may be inconsistent with the structure of the self but in such instances the behaviour is not "owned" by the individual. Psychological adjustment exists when the concept of the self is such that all the sensory and visceral experiences of the organism are, or may be, assimilated on a symbolic level into a consistent relationship with the concept of self. Psychological maladjustment exists when the organism denies awareness of significant sensory and visceral experiences, which consequently are not symbolized and organized into the gestalt of the self structure. When this situation exists, there is a basic or potential psychological tension. Any experience which is inconsistent with the organization of the structure of the self may be perceived as a threat, and the more of these perceptions there are, the more rigidly the self structure is organized to maintain itself. Under certain conditions, involving primarily complete absence of threat to the self structure, experiences which are inconsistent with it may be perceived and examined, and the structure of self revised to assimilate and include such experiences. When the individual perceives and accepts into one consistent and integrated system all his sensory and visceral experiences, then he is necessarily more understanding of others and is more accepting of others as separate individuals. As the individual perceives and accepts into his self structure more of his organic experiences, he finds that he is replacing his present value system - based extensively on introjections which have been distortedly symbolized - with a continuing organismic valuing process. Additionally, Rogers is known for practicing "unconditional positive regard," which is defined as accepting a person "without negative judgment of .... [a person's] basic worth." Barry, P. (2002). Mental Health and Mental Illness. (7th ed.) New York: Lippincott. Development of the Personality With regard to development, he described principles rather than stages. The main issue is the development of a self concept and the progress from an undifferentiated self to being fully differentiated. In the development of the self concept he saw conditional and unconditional positive regard as key. Those raised in an environment of unconditional positive regard have the opportunity to fully actualize themselves. Those raised in an environment of conditional positive regard only feel worthy if they match conditions (what Rogers describes as conditions of worth) that have been laid down by others. The Fully Functioning Person Optimal development, as referred to in proposition 14, results in a certain process rather than static state. He describes this as the good life where the organism continually aims to fulfill their full potential. He listed characteristics of a fully functioning person (Rogers 1961 ): A growing openness to experience – they move away from defensiveness and have no need for subception (a perceptual defense that involves unconsciously applying strategies to prevent a troubling stimulus from entering consciousness). An increasingly existential lifestyle – living each moment fully – not distorting the moment to fit personality or self concept but allowing personality and self concept to emanate from the experience. This results in excitement, daring, adaptability, tolerance, spontaneity, and a lack of rigidity and suggests a foundation of trust. "To open one's spirit to what is going on now, and discover in that present process whatever structure it appears to have"(Rogers 1961) Increasing organismic trust – they trust their own judgment and their ability to choose behaviour that is appropriate for each moment. They do not rely on existing codes and social norms but trust that as they are open to experiences they will be able to trust their own sense of right and wrong. Freedom of choice – not being shackled by the restrictions that influence an incongruent individual, they are able to make a wider range of choices more fluently. They believe that they play a role in determining their own behaviour and so feel responsible for their own behaviour. Creativity – it follows that they will feel more free to be creative. They will also be more creative in the way they adapt to their own circumstances without feeling a need to conform. Reliability and constructiveness – they can be trusted to act constructively. An individual who is open to all their needs will be able to maintain a balance between them. Even aggressive needs will be matched and balanced by intrinsic goodness in congruent individuals. A rich full life – he describes the life of the fully functioning individual as rich, full and exciting and suggests that they experience joy and pain, love and heartbreak, fear and courage more intensely. Rogers' description of the good life: Incongruity The aspect of one's being that is founded in the actualizing tendency, follows organismic valuing, needs and receives positive regard and self-regard, Rogers calls the "real self". It is the "you" that, if all goes well, you will become. On the other hand, to the extent that our society is out of sync with the actualizing tendency, and we are forced to live with conditions of worth that are out of step with organismic valuing, and receive only conditional positive regard and self-regard, we develop instead an "ideal self". By ideal, Rogers is suggesting something not real, something that is always out of our reach, the standard we cannot meet. This gap between the real self and the ideal self, the "I am" and the "I should" is called incongruity. Psychopathology Rogers describes the concepts of congruence and incongruence as important ideas in his theory. In proposition #6 he refers to the actualising tendency. The drive to become what one can be, to realise one's potential. At the same time he recognises the need for positive regard. In a fully congruent person realising their potential is not at the expense of experiencing positive regard. They are able to lead lives that are authentic and genuine. Incongruent individuals, in their pursuit of positive regard, live lives that include falseness and do not realise their potential. Conditions put on them by those around them make it necessary for them to forego their genuine, authentic lives to meet with the approval of others. They live lives that are not true to themselves, to who they are on the inside. He suggests that the incongruent individual who is always on the defensive and cannot be open to all experiences is not functioning ideally and may even be malfunctioning. They work hard at maintaining/protecting their self concept. Because their lives are not authentic this is a difficult task and they are under constant threat. They deploy defense mechanisms to achieve this. He describes two mechanisms: distortion and denial. Distortion occurs when the individual perceives a threat to their self concept. They distort the perception until it fits their self concept. Denial follows the same process except instead of distorting they deny the threat exists. This defensive behavior reduces the consciousness of the threat but not the threat itself. And so, as the threats mount, the work of protecting the self concept becomes more difficult and the individual more defensive and rigid in their self structure. If the incongruence is immoderate this process may lead the individual to a state that would typically be described as neurotic (although Rogers himself preferred to avoid labels)(Hjelle & Jiegler 1981 ). Their functioning becomes precarious and psychologically vulnerable. If the situation worsens it is possible that the defenses cease to function altogether and the individual becomes aware of the incongruence of their situation. Their personality becomes disorganised and bizarre, irrational behaviour, associated with earlier denied aspects of self, may erupt uncontrollably. Applications Rogers originally developed his theory to be the foundation for a system of therapy. He initially called this "non-directive therapy" but later replaced the term "non-directive" with the term "client-centred" and then later used the term "person-centred". The first empirical evidence of the effectiveness of the client-centered approach was published in 1941 at the Ohio State University by Elias Porter, using the recordings of therapeutic sessions between Carl Rogers and his clients. Porter, E.H. (1941) The development and evaluation of a measure of counseling interview procedure. Ph. D. Dissertation, Ohio State University. , Porter used Rogers' transcripts to devise a system to measure the degree of directiveness or non-directiveness a counselor employed. Kirschenbaum, Howard (1979). On Becoming Carl Rogers. pp. 206-207. The attitude and orientation of the counselor were demonstrated to be instrumental in the decisions made by the client. Porter, E.H. (1950) An Introduction to Therapeutic Counseling. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Rogers, Carl. (1951). Client-Centered Therapy. p. 64 Even before the publication of Client-Centered Therapy in 1951, he believed that the principles he was describing could be applied in a variety of contexts and not just in the therapy situation. As a result he started to use the term person-centered approach later in his life to describe his overall theory. Person-centered therapy is the application of the person-centered approach to the therapy situation. Other applications include a theory of personality, interpersonal relations, education, nursing, cross-cultural relations and other "helping" professions and situations. In 1970, Richard Young, Alton Becker, and Kenneth Pike published Rhetoric: Discovery and Change, a widely influential college writing textbook that used a Rogerian approach to communication to revise the traditional Aristotelian framework for rhetoric. The application to education has a large robust research tradition similar to that of therapy. Rogers described the approach to education in Client-Centered Therapy and wrote Freedom to Learn devoted exclusively to the subject in 1969. Freedom to Learn was revised two times. The new Learner-Centered Model is similar in many regards to this classical person-centered approach to education. The application to cross-cultural relations has involved workshops in highly stressful situations and global locations including conflicts and challenges in South Africa, Central America, and Ireland. This work resulted in a Nobel Peace Prize nomination for Rogers. References Selected works By Carl Rogers Rogers, Carl. (1939). Clinical Treatment of the Problem Child. Rogers, Carl. (1942). Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice. Rogers, Carl. (1951). Client-centered Therapy: Its Current Practice, Implications and Theory. London: Constable. ISBN 1-84119-840-4. Excerpts Rogers, Carl. (1959). A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships as Developed in the Client-centered Framework. In (ed.) S. Koch, Psychology: A Study of a Science. Vol. 3: Formulations of the Person and the Social Context. New York: McGraw Hill. Rogers, Carl. (1961). On Becoming a Person: A Therapist's View of Psychotherapy. London: Constable. ISBN 1-84529-057-7. Rogers, Carl. (1969). Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become. (1st ed.) Columbus, Ohio: Charles Merill. Excerpts Rogers, Carl. (1970). On Encounter Groups. New York: Harper and Row. Rogers, Carl. (1977). On Personal Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact. Rogers, Carl. (1980). A Way of Being. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Further reading Farber, Barry A. The psychotherapy of Carl Rogers: cases and commentary (Guilford Press 1998). Thorne, Brian. Carl Rogers - Key Figures in Counselling and Psychotherapy series (Sage publications, 1992). External links Carl Rogers (Encyclopaedia Brittanica 220 online). nrogers.com - Rogers' Biography Bibliography of Rogers' Work Personality Theories - Carl Rogers Carl Rogers page at Mythos & Logos Analysis of Carl Rogers theory of personality http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/rogers.htm Luca Corchia, La teoria della personalità di Carl R. Rogers, in Il Trimestrale. 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7,293 | John_Quincy_Adams | John Quincy Adams (July 11, 1767 – February 23, 1848) was an American diplomat and politician who served as the sixth President of the United States from March 4, 1825 to March 4, 1829. He was a member of the Federalist, Democratic-Republican, National Republican, and later Anti-Masonic and Whig parties. Adams was the son of the second President John Adams and his wife Abigail Adams, the name "Quincy" having come from Abigail's maternal grandfather, Colonel John Quincy, after whom Quincy, Massachusetts is also named. He was a diplomat, involved in many international negotiations, and helped formulate the Monroe Doctrine as Secretary of State. As president he proposed a program of modernization and educational advancement, but was stymied by Congress. Adams lost his 1828 bid for re-election to Andrew Jackson. Adams was elected a U.S. Representative from Massachusetts after leaving office, the only president ever to do so, serving for the last 17 years of his life. In the House he became a leading opponent of the Slave Power and argued that if a civil war ever broke out the president could abolish slavery by using his war powers, which Abraham Lincoln partially did during the American Civil War in the 1863 Emancipation Proclamation. Early life Adams was born to John Adams, Jr. and Abigail Adams in what is now Quincy, Massachusetts (then the "north precinct" of Braintree, Quincy later separated and was named after John Quincy, just as John Quincy Adams had been). The John Quincy Adams birthplace is now part of Adams National Historical Park and open to the public. It is near Abigail Adams Cairn, marking the site from which Adams witnessed the Battle of Bunker Hill at age seven. In 1779 Adams began a diary that he kept until just before his death in 1848. The text of his 50-volume diary (plus a supplemental volume) at the Massachusetts Historical Society can be found at Adams first learned of the Declaration of Independence from the letters his father wrote his mother from the Second Continental Congress in Philadelphia. Much of Adams' youth was spent accompanying his father overseas. John Adams served as an American envoy to France from 1778 until 1779 and to the Netherlands from 1780 until 1782, and the younger Adams accompanied his father on these journeys. Adams acquired an education at institutions such as Leiden University. For nearly three years, at the age of 14, he accompanied Francis Dana as a secretary on a mission to St. Petersburg, Russia, to obtain recognition of the new United States. He spent time in Finland, Sweden, and Denmark and, in 1804, published a travel report of Silesia. John Quincy Adams: Letters on Silesia: Written During a Tour Through that Country in the Years 1800,1801 During these years overseas, Adams gained a mastery of French and Dutch and a familiarity with German and other European languages. He entered Harvard College and graduated in 1788. (Adams House at Harvard College is named in honor of Adams and his father.) He apprenticed as a lawyer with Theophilus Parsons in Newburyport, Massachusetts, from 1787 to 1789. He was admitted to the bar in 1791 and began practicing law in Boston. Early political career Louisa Catherine AdamsGeorge Washington appointed Adams minister to the Netherlands (at the age of 26) in 1794 and to Portugal in 1796. He then was promoted to the Berlin Legation. When the elder Adams became president, he appointed his son in 1797 as Minister to Prussia at Washington's urging. There Adams signed the renewal of the very liberal Prussian-American Treaty of Amity and Commerce after negotiations with Prussian Foreign Minister Count Karl-Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein. He served at that post until 1801 and, serving abroad, he married Louisa Catherine Johnson, the daughter of an American merchant, in a ceremony at the church of All Hallows-by-the-Tower, London. Adams remains the only president to have a foreign-born First Lady. The Massachusetts General Court elected Adams as a Federalist to the U.S. Senate soon after, and he served from March 4, 1803, until 1808, when he broke with the Federalist Party. Adams, as a Senator, had supported the Louisiana Purchase and Jefferson's Embargo Act, actions which made him very unpopular with Massachusetts Federalists. The Federalist-controlled Massachusetts Legislature chose a replacement for Adams on June 3, 1808, several months early. On June 8, Adams broke with the Federalists, resigned his Senate seat, and became a Democrat-Republican. NPS bio of JQA New President James Madison appointed Adams as the first ever United States Minister to Russia in 1809. Three years later Adams, still in Russia, reported back to the United States the news of Napoleon's invasion of Russia in 1812 and his disastrous retreat. In 1814, Adams was recalled from Russia to serve as chief negotiator of the U.S. commission for the Treaty of Ghent, which ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain. Finally, he was sent to be minister to the Court of St. James's (Britain) from 1815 until 1817. NPS bio of JQA Secretary of State Adams served as Secretary of State in the Cabinet of President James Monroe from 1817 until 1825, a tenure during which he was instrumental in the acquisition of Florida. Typically, his views concurred with those espoused by Monroe. As Secretary of State, he negotiated the Adams-Onís Treaty and wrote the Monroe Doctrine, which warned European nations against meddling in the affairs of the Western Hemisphere. Adams' interpretation of neutrality was so strict that he refused to cooperate with Great Britain in suppressing the slave trade. On Independence Day 1821, in response to those who advocated American support for Latin America's independence movement from Spain, Francis Sempa essay Adams gave a speech in which he said that American policy was moral support for but not armed intervention on behalf of independence movements, stating that America "goes not abroad in search of monsters to destroy." Adams speech July 4, 1821 1824–25 presidential election Adams ran against four other candidates in the presidential election of 1824: Speaker of the House Henry Clay of Kentucky, Secretary of the Treasury William H. Crawford of Georgia, U.S. Senator Andrew Jackson of Tennessee, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun of South Carolina. After Crawford suffered an incapacitating stroke, there was no clear favorite. In the election, no candidate had a majority of the electoral votes (or of the popular votes), although Jackson had been the winner of a plurality of both. Under the terms of the Twelfth Amendment, the presidential election was thrown to the House of Representatives to vote on the top three candidates: Jackson, Adams, and Crawford. Clay had come in fourth place and thus was ineligible, but he retained incredible power as Speaker of the House. Crawford was inviable due to the stroke. Clay's personal dislike for Jackson and the similarity of his American System to Adams' position on tariffs and internal improvements caused him to throw his support to Adams, who was elected by the House on February 9, 1825, on the first ballot. Adams' victory shocked Jackson, who had gained the plurality of the electoral and popular votes and fully expected to be elected president. When Adams appointed Clay as Secretary of State—the position that Adams and his three predecessors had held before becoming President—Jacksonian Democrats were outraged, and claimed that Adams and Clay had struck a "corrupt bargain." This contention shadowed over Adams' term and greatly contributed to Adams' loss to Jackson four years later, in the 1828 election. Presidency 1825–1829 Adams served as the sixth President of the United States from March 4, 1825, to March 3, 1829. He took the oath of office on a book of laws, instead of the more traditional Bible, in order to preserve the separation of church and state. Domestic policies During his term, he worked on developing the American System, consisting of a high tariff to support internal improvements such as road-building, and a national bank to encourage productive enterprise and form a national currency. In his first annual message to Congress, Adams presented an ambitious program for modernization that included roads, canals, a national university, an astronomical observatory, and other initiatives. The support for his proposals was limited, even from his own party. His critics accused him of unseemly arrogance because of his narrow victory. Most of his initiatives were opposed in Congress by Jackson's supporters, who remained outraged over the 1824 election. Nonetheless, some of his proposals were adopted, specifically the extension of the Cumberland Road into Ohio with surveys for its continuation west to St. Louis; the beginning of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, the construction of the Delaware and Chesapeake Canal and the Portland to Louisville Canal around the falls of the Ohio; the connection of the Great Lakes to the Ohio River system in Ohio and Indiana; and the enlargement and rebuilding of the Dismal Swamp Canal in North Carolina. One of the issues which divided the administration was protective tariffs. Henry Clay was a supporter, but Adams´ Vice President John C. Calhoun was an opponent. The position of Adams was unknown, because his constituency was divided. After Adams lost control of Congress in 1827, the situation became more complicated. By signing into law the Tariff of 1828 (also known as the Tariff of Abominations), extremely unpopular in the South, he limited his chances to achieve more during his presidency. Chesapeake and Ohio Canal at Swain's Lock. Adams and Clay set up a new party, the National Republican Party, but it never took root in the states. In the elections of 1827, Adams and his supporters lost control of Congress. New York Senator Martin Van Buren, a future president and follower of Jackson, became one of the leaders of the senate. Much of Adams' political difficulties were due to his refusal, on principle, to replace members of his administration who supported Jackson (on the grounds that no one should be removed from office except for incompetence). For example, his Postmaster General, John McLean, continued in office through the Adams administration, despite the fact that he was using his powers of patronage to curry favor with Jacksonites. (In contrast, Andrew Jackson's administration was the start of the spoils system.) Another blow to Adams' presidency was his generous policy toward Native Americans. Settlers on the frontier, who were constantly seeking to move westward, cried for a more expansionist policy. When the federal government tried to assert authority on behalf of the Cherokees, the governor of Georgia took up arms. It was a sign of nullification that foreshadowed the secession of the Southern states during the Civil War. Adams defended his domestic agenda as continuing Monroe's policies. In contrast, Andrew Jackson and Martin Van Buren instigated the policy of Indian removal to the west (i.e. the Trail of Tears). Foreign policies Adams is regarded as one of the greatest diplomats in American history, and during his tenure as Secretary of State he was one of the designers of the Monroe Doctrine. On July 4, 1821, he gave an address to Congress: ...But she goes not abroad, in search of monsters to destroy. She is the well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all. She is the champion and vindicator only of her own. Miller Center for Public Affairs, University of Virginia During his term as president, however, Adams achieved little of consequence in foreign affairs. A reason for this was the opposition he faced in Congress, where his rivals prevented him from succeeding. Among the few diplomatic achievements of his administration were treaties of reciprocity with a number of nations, including Denmark, Mexico, the Hanseatic League, the Scandinavian countries, Prussia and Austria. However, thanks to the successes of Adams' diplomacy during his previous eight years as Secretary of State, most of the foreign policy issues he would have faced had been resolved by the time he became President. Administration and Cabinet Presidential Dollar of John Quincy Adams Judicial appointments Supreme Court Robert Trimble – June 16, 1826 – August 25, 1828 Other courts Adams was able to make eleven other appointments, all to United States district courts. States admitted to the Union None Departure from office John Quincy Adams left office on March 4, 1829 after losing the election of 1828 to Andrew Jackson. Adams did not attend the inauguration of his successor, Andrew Jackson, who had openly snubbed him by refusing to pay the traditional "courtesy call" to the outgoing President during the weeks before his own inauguration. He was one of only three Presidents who chose not to attend their respective successor's inauguration, the others were his father and Andrew Johnson. Election of 1828 After the inauguration of Adams in 1825, Jackson resigned from his senate seat. For four years he worked hard, with help from his supporters in Congress, to defeat Adams in the Presidential election of 1828. The campaign was very much a personal one. As was the tradition of the day and age in American presidential politics, neither candidate personally campaigned, but their political followers organized many campaign events. Both candidates were rhetorically attacked in the press. This reached a low point when the press accused Jackson's wife Rachel of bigamy. She died a few weeks after the elections. Jackson said he would forgive those who insulted him, but he would never forgive the ones who attacked his wife. Adams lost the election by a decisive margin, 178-83 in the Electoral College. He won exactly the same states that his father had won in the election of 1800: the New England states, New Jersey, and Delaware. Jackson won everything else except for New York, which gave 16 of its electoral votes to Adams, and Maryland, which cast 6 of its votes for Adams. Congressman Adams, from a Daguerreotype taken in 1848 by Southworth & Hawes shortly before his death. Congressman Adams did not retire after leaving office. Instead he ran for and was elected to the House of Representatives in the 1830 elections as a National Republican. He was the first president to serve in Congress after his term of office, and one of only two former presidents to do so; Andrew Johnson later served in the Senate. He was elected to eight terms, serving as a Representative for 17 years, from 1831 until his death. Through redistricting Adams represented three districts in succession: Massachusetts's 11th congressional district (1831-1833), 12th congressional district (1833-1837), and 8th congressional district (1837-1843), serving from the 22nd to the 30th Congresses. He became a Whig in 1834. In Congress, he was chairman of the Committee on Manufactures (23rd, 24th, 25th, 26th, 28th and 29th), the Committee on Indian Affairs (for the 27th Congress) and the Committee on Foreign Affairs (also for the 27th Congress). He became an important antislavery voice in the Congress. During the years 1836-37 Adams presented many petitions for the abolition of slavery and the slave trade in the District of Columbia and elsewhere to Congress. The Gag rule prevented discussion of slavery from 1836 to 1844, but he frequently managed to evade it by parliamentary skill. United First Parish Church In 1834 he unsuccessfully ran as the Anti-Masonic candidate for Governor of Massachusetts, losing to John Davis. Adams then continued his legal career. In 1841, he had the case of a lifetime, representing the defendants in United States v. The Amistad Africans in the Supreme Court of the United States. He successfully argued that the Africans, who had seized control of a Spanish ship on which they were being transported illegally as slaves, should not be extradited or deported to Cuba (still under Spanish control) but should be considered free. Under Andrew Jackson's successor Martin Van Buren, the United States Department of Justice argued the Africans should be deported for having mutinied and killed officers on the ship. Adams won their freedom, with the chance to stay in the United States or return to Africa. Adams made the argument on the grounds that the U.S. had prohibited the international slave trade, although it allowed internal slavery. He never billed for his services in the Amistad case. Miller, William Lee, pg 402 Although there is no indication that the two were close, Adams met Abraham Lincoln during the latter's sole term as a member of the House of Representatives, from 1847 until Adams' death. Thus, it has been suggested that Adams is the only major figure in American history who knew both the Founding Fathers and Abraham Lincoln. Death and burial On the February 21, 1848, the House of Representatives was discussing the matter of honoring US Army officers who served in the Mexican-American War. Adams firmly opposed this idea, so when the rest of the house erupted into 'ayes', he cried out, 'No!' At that precise moment, Adams collapsed, having suffered a massive cerebral hemorrhage. Two days later, on February 23, he died with his wife and son at his side in the Speaker's Room inside the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. His last words were reported to have been, "This is the last of Earth. I am content." His interment was in the family burial ground in Quincy at the First Unitarian Church. After his wife's death, his son had him reinterred with his wife in a family crypt in the United First Parish Church across the street. His parents are also interred there and both tombs can be viewed. Family Tombs of Presidents John Adams (left) and John Quincy Adams (right) and their wives, in a family crypt beneath the United First Parish Church. John Quincy Adams and Louisa Catherine (Johnson) Adams had three sons and a daughter. Louisa was born in 1811 but died in 1812 while the family was in Russia. They named their first son George Washington Adams (1801-1829) after the first president. Both George and their second son, John (1803-1834), led troubled lives and died in early adulthood. Shepherd, Jack, Cannibals of the Heart: A Personal Biography of Louisa Catherine and John Quincy Adams, New York, McGraw-Hill 1980 (George committed suicide and John was expelled from Harvard prior to his 1823 graduation.) Adams' youngest son, Charles Francis Adams (who named his own son John Quincy), also pursued a career in diplomacy and politics. In 1870 Charles Francis built the first memorial presidential library in the United States, to honor his father. The Stone Library includes over 14,000 books written in twelve languages. The library is located in the "Old House" at Adams National Historical Park in Quincy, Massachusetts. The actress Mary Kay Adams is a descendant of John Quincy Adams. John Adams and John Quincy Adams were the first father and son to each serve as president (the others being George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush). In addition, each Adams served only one term as President. See also Adams political family Adams-Onís Treaty Mount Quincy Adams Treaty of Ghent Mendi Bible U.S. presidential election, 1820 U.S. presidential election, 1824 U.S. presidential election, 1828 List of United States political appointments that crossed party lines Notes References Fulltext in Swetswise, Ingenta and Ebsco. Louisa Adams was with JQA in St. Petersburg almost the entire time. While not officially a diplomat, Louisa Adams did serve an invaluable role as wife-of-diplomat, becoming a favorite of the tsar and making up for her husband's utter lack of charm. She was an indispensable part of the American mission. Bathroom Readers' Institute. Uncle John's Ahh-Inspiring Bathroom Reader. Information on death of Adams. ISBN 1-57145-873-5. Bemis, Samuel Flagg. John Quincy Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign Policy. vol 1 (1949), John Quincy Adams and the Union (1956), vol 2. Pulitzer prize biography. Fulltext in Project Muse. Adams role in antislavery petitions debate 1835-44. Holt, Michael F. The Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party: Jacksonian Politics and the Onset of the Civil War. 1999. Lewis, James E., Jr. John Quincy Adams: Policymaker for the Union. Scholarly Resources, 2001. 164 pp. Fulltext online at Ebsco Shows that both men considered splitting the country as a solution. Nagel, Paul C. John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, a Private Life (1999) Fulltext online at Jstor and Ebsco. He tried and failed to create a national observatory. Fulltext online at Swetswise and Ebsco. Adams adapted classical republican ideals of public oratory to America, viewing the multilevel political structure as ripe for "the renaissance of Demosthenic eloquence." Adams's Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory (1810) looks at the fate of ancient oratory, the necessity of liberty for it to flourish, and its importance as a unifying element for a new nation of diverse cultures and beliefs. Just as civic eloquence failed to gain popularity in Britain, in the United States interest faded in the second decade of the 18th century as the "public spheres of heated oratory" disappeared in favor of the private sphere. Shows how the classical tradition in general, and Ciceronian rhetoric in particular, influenced his political career and his response to public issues. Adams remained inspired by classical rhetorical ideals long after the neo-classicalism and deferential politics of the founding generation had been eclipsed by the commercial ethos and mass democracy of the Jacksonian Era. Many of Adams's idiosyncratic positions were rooted in his abiding devotion to the Ciceronian ideal of the citizen-orator "speaking well" to promote the welfare of the polis. Primary sources Butterfield, L. H. et al., eds., The Adams Papers (1961- ). Multivolume letterpress edition of all letters to and from major members of the Adams family, plus their diaries; still incomplete. Adams, John Quincy, Lectures on Rhetoric and Oratory, 1810 (facsimile ed., 1997, Scholars' Facsimiles & Reprints, ISSN 9780820115078). External links Official NPS website: Adams National Historical Park White House Biography John Quincy Adams Biography and Fact File Biography of John Quincy Adams Biography of John Quincy Adams by Appleton's and Stanley L. Klos Inaugural Address State of the Union Addresses: 1825, 1826, 1827, 1828 July 4, 1821 Independence Day Speech Medical and Health history of John Quincy Adams Armigerous American Presidents Series The Jubilee of the Constitution: A Discourse Dermot MacMorrogh,: or, The conquest of Ireland. An historical tale of the twelfth century. In four cantos./ By John Quincy Adams Essay on John Quincy Adams and essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs Poems of religion and society.: With notices of his life and character by John Davis and T. H. Benton Encyclopedia Britannica: Adams, John Quincy Collection of John Quincy Adams Letters Nagel, Paul. Descent from Glory: Four Generations of the John Adams Family. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999. Adams, John Quincy. Life in a New England Town, 1787, 1788: Diary of John Quincy Adams. Published in 1903. Diary of J.Q.Adams while he apprenticed as a lawyer in Newburyport, Massachusetts under Theophilus Parsons. 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7,294 | New_Year | Sydney leads the world in one of the first major New Year celebrations each year. A New Year's celebration in London The New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations. Anthony Aveni, "Happy New Year! But Why Now?" in The Book of the Year: A Brief History of Our Seasonal Holidays (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), 11-28. Western new year In countries which use the Gregorian calendar, New Year is celebrated on January 1, the date that is considered the most festive. Traditionally, the Roman calendar began the first day of March. However, it was in January (the eleventh month) when the consuls of ancient Rome assumed the government. Julius Caesar, in 47 BC, changed the system, creating the Julian calendar. It was modified in the time of Marco Antonio consul in 44 BC, again by the emperor Augustus Caesar in 8 BC and finally by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582, which brought the calendar to its present day form. This year begins on January 1. Subsequently, this day was marked with a religious significance during the Middle Ages and later centuries. With the expansion of Western culture to the rest of the world during the twentieth century, the January 1 date became universal in nature, even in countries with their own New Year celebrations (e.g., China). At present, the celebration of New Year is a major celebration worldwide. Many large-scale events are held in major cities around the world New Year's Eve (New Year's Eve for the December 31), being accompanied by the largest fireworks events. The largest events in the world are : Valparaíso, Chile Madeira (Funchal - Portugal) Sydney, Australia Hong Kong, China London, England, New York, United States Berlin, Germany Rio de Janeiro, Brazil São Paulo, Brazil Edinburgh, Scotland, Sydney launched over 80,000 fireworks at midnight, and had more than one and a half million attendees; it was also the most-watched event on television worldwide last year. In Valparaiso upwards of two million visitors witnessed the largest fireworks in a natural setting; a total of more than 21 kilometers of fireworks on the bay, from the commercial port city of Valparaiso to Concon, Chile, all in 25 minutes of entertainment. In New York, the celebration is focused around a big crystal ball that descends in the ten second countdown in Times Square, and last year was also the party with the largest number of attendees - more than three million people. Edinburgh plays host to one of the world's largest Hogmanay events. Celebrations last for four days and attracts visitors from around the globe to take part in the street parties, and attend concerts. In the culture of Latin America there are a variety of traditions and superstitions for these dates as omens for the coming year. January still remains a symbol of New Year's celebration. The New Year feast is closely related to the celebration of Christmas Eve, Christmas and Hannukah. Due to the closeness between all these events, much of the world sees the last week of the year as the beginning of the holiday period, either in winter (in the Northern Hemisphere) or summer (in the Southern Hemisphere). According to the Christian tradition, on January 1 coincides with the circumcision of Christ (eight days after birth), when the name of Jesus (Luke (II: 21)). In Jewish tradition, honey is used to symbolize a sweet new year—Rosh Hashana. At the traditional meal for that holiday, apple slices are dipped in honey and eaten with blessings recited for a good, sweet new year. Some Rosh Hashana greetings show honey and an apple, symbolizing the feast. In some congregations, small straws of honey are given out to usher in the new year. Rosh Hashanah: Prayers, Shofars, Apples, Honey and Pomegranates Modern new year celebrations New York Times Square New year celebrations in 2006. Taipei 101 New Year's fireworks in Taipei, Taiwan in 2008. The most common modern dates of celebration are listed below, ordered and grouped by their appearance relative to the conventional Western calendar. Many cities across the world celebrate the New Year. The celebrations usually include a firework's display, and other festivities. London, for example, has a major fireworks display along the River Thames, followed by a parade on New Year's Day. The Gregorian calendar is now used by many countries as the official calendar. This has meant that celebrations for the New Year have become much larger than before. Some countries even consider 1 January to be a national holiday. January Baby New Year 1905 chases old 1904 into the history books in this cartoon by John T. McCutcheon 1 January: The first official day of the year in the Gregorian calendar used by most countries. Eight of the twelve biggest Eastern Orthodox Churches which have adopted the Revised Julian calendar - Bulgaria, Cyprus, Egypt, Greece, Romania, Syria and Turkey - also celebrate 1 January as the New Year. The Tamil Nadu Tamil New Year (Declaration Bill 2008) was introduced in the House by the Tamil Nadu DMK Government on January 29, 2008. Bill on new Tamil New Year Day is passed unanimously According to the statement of objects and reasons of the Tamil Nadu Tamil New Year (Declaration) Act 2008, the Governor in his address to the House had announced that in view of the consensus amongst some Tamil scholars that the first day of the month of Thai is the first day of the Tamil year, the Government had decided to declare the first day of Thai as the Tamil Nadu Tamil New Year Day. This legislative enactment of the DMK government was not without controversy. It abolished the Tamil calendar for purportedly secular reasons and reaffirmed the use of the Tiruvalluvar era created in the 20th century as the official calendar. The order abolishes the use of traditional Tamil Years in the 60 year cycle. It proposes that January 14 of every year be celebrated as Tamil New Year in addition to the famous harvest/farmer festival Pongal http://www.dailypioneer.com/30420/DMKs-bogus-Tamil-New-Year.html . But the said resolution has been met with resistance. India E-news http://www.sinhalaya.com/news/english/wmview.php?ArtID=15122 http://www.bloggernews.net/115107 and has been challenged in court Law altering Tamil new year day challenged | Sindh Today http://www.bombaynews.net/story/405674 http://newstodaynet.com/newsindex.php?id=14848%20&%20section=6 .The opposition AIADMK and MDMK in Tamil Nadu condemned the decision of the DMK Government in that state and urged their supporters to continue celebrating the traditional date in mid-April http://news.webindia123.com/news/articles/India/20080412/930922.html . Tamils in Sri Lanka and in other diaspora communities worldwide continue to observe the new year in mid-April. as they are outside of the jurisdiction of the Tamil Nadu State of India. http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=99&artid=25309 http://www.tamilnet.com/art.html?catid=99&artid=25298 . In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the civil New Year falls on Gregorian 14 January (1 January in the Julian calendar). Many in the countries where Eastern Orthodoxy predominates celebrate both the Gregorian and Julian New Year holidays, with the Gregorian day celebrated as a civic holiday, and the Julian date as the "Old New Year", a religious holiday. The orthodox churches of Georgia, Jerusalem, Russia, the Republic of Macedonia and Serbia still use the Julian Calendar. The Chinese New Year, also known as the Lunar New Year, occurs every year on the new moon of the first lunar month, about four to eight weeks before spring (Lichun). The exact date can fall anytime between 21 January and 21 February (inclusive) of the Gregorian Calendar. Traditionally, years were marked by one of twelve Earthly Branches, represented by an animal, and one of ten Heavenly Stems, which correspond to the five elements. This combination cycles every 60 years. It is the most important Chinese celebration of the year. The Vietnamese New Year is the Tết Nguyên Đán which is for most times the same day as the Chinese New Year. The Tibetan New Year is Losar and falls from January through March. March Nava (new) Varsha (year) is celebrated in India in various regions in March-April. Hola Mohalla, New Year's Day in the Sikh Nanakshahi calendar is on 14 March. The Iranian New Year, called Nowruz, is the day containing the exact moment of the vernal equinox, which usually occurs on the 20th or 21st of March, commencing the start of the spring season. The Zoroastrian New Year coincides with the Iranian New Year of Nowruz, and is celebrated by the Parsis in India and by Zoroastrians and Persians across the world. In the Bahá'í calendar, the new year occurs on the vernal equinox on 21 March, and is called Naw-Rúz. The Iranian tradition was also passed on to Central Asian countries, including Kazakhs, Uzbeks and Uighurs, and there is known as Nauryz. It is usually celebrated on 22 March. The Balinese New Year, based on the Saka Calendar (Balinese-Javanese Calendar), is called Nyepi, and it falls on Bali's Lunar New Year (March 26 in 2009). It is a day of silence, fasting, and meditation: observed from 6 a.m. until 6 a.m. the next morning, Nyepi is a day reserved for self-reflection and as such, anything that might interfere with that purpose is restricted. Although Nyepi is a primarily Hindu holiday, non-Hindu residents of Bali observe the day of silence as well, out of respect for their fellow citizens. Even tourists are not exempt; although free to do as they wish inside their hotels, no one is allowed onto the beaches or streets, and the only airport in Bali remains closed for the entire day. The only exceptions granted are for emergency vehicles carrying those with life-threatening conditions and women about to give birth. The Telugu New Year generally falls in the months of March or April. The people of Andhra Pradesh, India celebrate the advent of Lunar year this day. This day is celebrated across entire Andhra Pradesh as UGADI(Meaning the Start of a new Year.).The first month is Chaitra Masam. Masam means month. Kashmiri Calendar, Navreh (New Year): 5083 Saptarshi/2064 Vikrami/2007-08 AD, 19 March. Gudi Padwa is celebrated as the first day of the Hindu year by the people of Maharashtra, India. This day falls in March or April and coincides with Ugadi. (see: Deccan) The Kannada New Year or Ugadi is celebrated by the people of Karnataka, India as the beginning of a new year according to the Hindu Calendar. The first month of the new Year is Chaitra. Sindhi festival of Cheti Chand is celebrated on the same day as Ugadi/Gudi Padwa to mark the celebration of the Sindhi New Year. The Thelemic new year on 20 March is usually celebrated with an invocation to Ra-Hoor-Khuit, commemorating the beginning of the New Aeon in 1904. It also marks the start of the twenty-two day Thelemic holy season, which ends at the third day of the writing of The Book of the Law. This date is also known as The Feast of the Supreme Ritual. There are some that believe the Thelemic New Year falls on either 19,20,21 March, depending on the Vernal Equinox, this is The Feast for the Equinox of the Gods which is held on the Vernal Equinox of each year to commemorate the founding of Thelema in 1904. In 1904 the Vernal Equinox was on a 21st and it was the day after Aleister Crowley ended his Horus Invocation that brought on the new Æon and thelemic New Year. April The Assyrian New Year, called Rish Nissanu, occurs on the first day of April. Mid-April (Northern Spring) The new year of many South and Southeast Asian calendars falls between 13 and 15 April, marking the beginning of Spring. Punjabi/Sikh New Year (Vaisakhi) is celebrated on the 1st of Vaisākh (13-14 April) in Punjab. Nepali New Year is celebrated on the 1st of Baisakh Baisākh (12-15 April) in Nepal. Assamese New Year (Rongali Bihu or Bohag Bihu) is celebrated on 14-15 April in the Indian state of Assam. Bengali New Year ( Pôhela Boishakh or Bangla Nôbobôrsho) is celebrated on the 1st of Boishakh (14-15 April) in Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal. Oriya New Year (Vishuva Sankranti) is celebrated on 14 April in the Indian state of Orissa. Sinhalese New Year is celebrated with the harvest festival (in the month of Bak) when the sun moves from the Meena Rashiya (House of Pisces) to the Mesha Rashiya (House of Aries). Sri Lankans begin celebrating their National New Year "Aluth Avurudhu" in Sinhala and "Puththandu (புத்தாண்டு)" in Tamil. However, unlike the usual practice where the new year begins at midnight, the National New Year begins at the time determined by the astrologers. Not only the beginning of the new year but the conclusion of the old year is also specified by the astrologers. And unlike the customary ending and beginning of new year, there is a period of a few hours in between the conclusion of the Old Year and the commencement of the New Year, which is called the "nona gathe" (neutral period). During this time one is expected to keep off from all types of work and engage solely in religious activities. It will fall on April 13 for the year 2009. Tamil New Year (Puthandu) is celebrated in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, on the first of Chithrai (சித்திரை). In the temple city of Madurai, the Chithrai Thiruvizha is celebrated in the Meenakshi Temple. A huge exhibition is also held, called Chithrai Porutkaatchi. In some parts of Southern Tamil Nadu, it is also called Chithrai Vishu. The day is marked with a feast in Hindu homes and the entrance to the houses are decorated elaborately with kolams. While the holiday generally falls on 13 or 14 April, this may no longer be the case (officially at least) in Tamil Nadu in the future, as a bill declaring the first day of the Tamil month 'Thai' (January 14) as the new Tamil New Year day was unanimously passed in the Tamil Nadu State Assembly. Malayali New Year (Vishu) is celebrated in the South Indian state of Kerala. In some parts of Karnataka, the new year may be celebrated in mid-April, although it is most commonly celebrated on the day of Gudi Padwa, the Maharashtrian new year. The Water Festival is the form of similar new year celebrations taking place in many Southeast Asian countries, on the day of the full moon of the 11th month on the lunisolar calendar each year. The date of the festival was originally set by astrological calculation, but it is now fixed to 13-15 of April. Traditionally people gently sprinkled water on one another as a sign of respect, but as the new year falls during the hottest month in Southeast Asia, many people end up dousing strangers and passersby in vehicles in boisterous celebration. The festival has many different names specific to each country, in Myanmar it is known as Thingyan (), Songkran () in Thailand, Pi Mai Lao (Lao:ປີໃໝ່ Songkan) in Laos, and Chaul Chnam Thmey ( ) in Cambodia. It is also the traditional new year of the Dai peoples of Yunnan Province, China. Religious activities in the tradition of Theravada Buddhism are also carried out, a tradition which all of these cultures share. Northern fall Rosh Hashanah (Hebrew for 'head of the year') is a holiday commemorating the culmination of the seven days of Creation, and marking God's yearly renewal of His world. The day has elements of festivity and introspection, as God is traditionally believed to be assessing His creation and determining the fate of all men and creatures for the coming year. In the Coptic Orthodox Church, the New Year, called Neyrouz, coincides with 11 September in the Gregorian calendar between 1900 and 2099, with the exception of the year before Gregorian leap years, when Neyrouz occurs on 12 September). The Coptic year 1723 began in September 2005. The Ethiopian Orthodox New Year, called Enkutatash, falls on the same date as Neyrouz; the Ethiopian calendar year 1999 thus began on 11 September 2006. The Marwari New Year is celebrated on the day of the festival of Diwali The Gujarati New Year is usually celebrated the day after the festival of Diwali (which occurs in mid-fall - either October or November, depending on the Lunar calendar). The Gujarati New Year is synonymous with sud ekam of the Kartik month - the first day of the first month of Gujarati lunar calendar. Most other Hindus celebrate the New Year in early spring, but the Gujarati farming community celebrates the New Year after Diwali to mark the beginning of a new fiscal year. Some neo-pagans celebrate Samhain (a festival of the ancient Celts, held around 1 November) as a New Year's Day representing the new cycle of the Wheel of the Year, although they do not use a different calendar that starts on this day. The now deceased Murador Aboriginal tribe of Western Australia celebrates New Years on what is known on present day calendars to be the 30th of October. A time of reconciliation and celebration of friendship, the Murador tribe were have said to place great importance on the past as well as the year that was coming Aboriginal Tribes of Australia. Their Terrain, Environmental Controls, Distribution, Limits, and Proper Names Published 1974 page 27 Variable The Islamic New Year occurs on 1 Muharram. Since the Muslim calendar is based on 12 lunar months amounting to about 354 days, the Muslim New Year occurs about eleven days earlier each year in relation to the Gregorian calendar, with two Muslim New Years falling in Gregorian year 2008. Christian liturgical year Since the 17th century, the Roman Catholic ecclesiastic year has started on the first day of Advent, the Sunday nearest to St. Andrew's Day (30 November). According to the Latin Rite of the Catholic Church, the liturgical year begins at 4:00 p.m. on the Saturday preceding the fourth Sunday prior to 25 December. The same liturgical calendar is followed by churches descended from it, including the Anglican and Lutheran Churches. The Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar begins on 1 September — proceeding annually from the celebration of Jesus' birth in the winter (Christmas), through his death and resurrection in the spring (Pascha / Easter), to his Ascension and the Assumption of his mother (Dormition of the Theotokos / Virgin Mary) in the summer. Historical Christian new year dates The ancient Roman calendar started the year on 1 March, which is still reflected in the names of some months which derive from Latin: September (seven), October (eight), November (nine), December (ten). The year used in dates during the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire was the consular year, which began on the day when consuls first entered office — probably 1 May before 222 BC, 15 March from 222 BC to 154 BC, but this event was moved to 1 January in 153 BC. Roman Dates: Eponymonous Years In 45 BC, Julius Caesar introduced the Julian calendar, which continued to use 1 January as the first day of the new year. In the Middle Ages in Europe a number of significant feast days in the ecclesiastical calendar of the Roman Catholic Church came to be used as the beginning of the Julian year: In Christmas Style dating the new year started on 25 December. This was used in Germany and England until the thirteenth century, and in Spain from the fourteenth to the sixteenth century. In Annunciation Style dating the new year started on 25 March, the feast of the Annunciation. This was used in many parts of Europe in the Middle Ages, and was the style introduced by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525. Annunciation Style continued to be used officially in the Kingdom of Great Britain until 1 January 1752, except Scotland which changed to Circumcision Style dating on 1 January 1600. The rest of Great Britain changed to Circumcision Style on the 1 January preceding the conversion in Great Britain from the Julian calendar to the Gregorian calendar on 3/14 September 1752. The UK tax year still starts on 6 April which is 25 March + 12 days, eleven for the conversion from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar plus a dropped leap day in 1900. In Easter Style dating, the new year started on Easter Saturday (or sometimes on Good Friday). This was used in France from the eleventh to the sixteenth century. A disadvantage of this system was that because Easter was a movable feast the same date could occur twice in a year; the two occurrences were distinguished as "before Easter" and "after Easter". In Circumcision Style dating, the new year started on 1 January, the Feast of the Circumcision of Christ. Adoption of 1 January It took quite a long time before 1 January again became the universal or standard start of the civil year. The years of adoption of 1 January as the new year are as follows - Country Start year Mike Spathaky Old Style and New Style Dates and the change to the Gregorian Calendar: A summary for genealogists The Change of New Year's Day Venice 1522 Sweden 1529 Holy Roman Empire (Germany) 1544 Spain, Portugal 1556 Prussia, Denmark Denmark named 1 January as the New Year in the early 14th century according to R.W. Bauer (Calender for Aarene fra 601 til 2200, 1868/1993 ISBN 87-7423-083-2) although the number of the year did not begin on 1 January until 1559. and Norway 1559 France 1564 Southern Netherlands Per decree of 16 June 1575. Hermann Grotefend, "Osteranfang" (Easter beginning), Zeitrechnung de Deutschen Mittelalters und der Neuzeit (Chronology of the German Middle Ages and modern times) (1891-1898) 1576 Lorraine 1579 Dutch Republic 1583 Scotland 1600 Russia 1700 Tuscany 1721 Britain, Ireland and British Empire except Scotland 1752 Thailand 1941 1 March was the first day of the numbered year in the Republic of Venice until its destruction in 1797, and in Russia from 988 until 1492 (AM 7000). 1 September was used in Russia from 1492 until the adoption of the Christian era in 1700 via a December 1699 decree of Tsar Peter I (previously, Russia had counted years since the creation of the world—Anno Mundi). Autumnal equinox day (usually 22 September) was "New Year's Day" in the French Republican Calendar, which was in use from 1793 to 1805. This was primidi Vendémiaire, the first day of the first month. Time zones Because of the division of the globe into time zones, the new year moves progressively around the globe as the start of the day ushers in the New Year. The first time zone to usher in the New Year is just west of the International Date Line. At that time the time zone to the east of the Date Line is 23 hours behind, still in the previous day. The central Pacific Ocean island nation of Kiribati claims that its easternmost landmass, uninhabited Caroline Island, is the first to usher in the New Year. See also Chinese New Year Diwali Hogmanay Islamic New Year Japanese New Year Korean New Year Nowruz Tamil New Year Thai New Year Vietnamese New Year Sinhala and Tamil New Year References be-x-old:Новы год | New_Year |@lemmatized sydney:3 lead:1 world:10 one:9 first:23 major:4 new:125 year:166 celebration:21 london:3 event:8 happen:1 culture:5 celebrate:35 end:5 beginning:8 next:2 measure:1 yearly:2 calendar:41 anthony:1 aveni:1 happy:1 book:3 brief:1 history:2 seasonal:1 holiday:10 oxford:2 university:1 press:1 western:4 country:10 use:17 gregorian:14 january:28 date:20 consider:2 festive:1 traditionally:4 roman:8 begin:13 day:59 march:19 however:2 eleventh:2 month:16 consul:3 ancient:3 rome:1 assume:1 government:5 julius:2 caesar:3 bc:8 change:5 system:2 create:2 julian:10 modify:1 time:14 marco:1 antonio:1 emperor:1 augustus:1 finally:1 pope:1 gregory:1 xiii:1 bring:2 present:3 form:2 subsequently:1 mark:8 religious:4 significance:1 middle:4 age:4 late:1 century:8 expansion:1 rest:2 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7,295 | Bede | Bede (), also Saint Bede, the Venerable Bede, or (from Latin) Beda (; 672/673–May 26, 735), was a monk at the Northumbrian monastery of Saint Peter at Monkwearmouth, today part of Sunderland, England, and of its companion monastery, Saint Paul's, in modern Jarrow (see Wearmouth-Jarrow), both in the Kingdom of Northumbria. He is well known as an author and scholar, and his most famous work, Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum (The Ecclesiastical History of the English People) gained him the title "The Father of English History". In 1899, Bede was made a Doctor of the Church by Leo XIII, a position of theological significance; he is the only native of Great Britain to achieve this designation (Anselm of Canterbury, also a Doctor of the Church, was originally from Italy). Life Almost everything that is known of Bede's life is contained in the last chapter of his Historia Ecclesiastica, a history of the church in England. It was completed in about 731, Brooks "From British to English Christianity" Conversion and Colonization p. 5 and Bede implies that he was then in his fifty-ninth year, which would give a likely birth date of about 672–673. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, p. xix. Campbell "Bede" Oxford Dictionary of National Biography A minor source of information is the letter by his disciple Cuthbert which relates Bede's death. Cuthbert is probably the same person as the later abbot of Wearmouth-Jarrow, but this is not entirely sure. Bede, in the Historia, gives his birthplace as "on the lands of this monastery". Bede, Ecclesiastical History, V.24, p. 329. He is referring to the twinned monasteries of Wearmouth and Jarrow, near modern-day Sunderland and Newcastle, respectively; both have been claimed as his birthplace, and there is also a tradition that he was born at Monkton, two miles from the monastery at Jarrow. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. xix–xx. Bede says nothing of his origins, but his connections with men of noble ancestry suggest that his own family was well-to-do. Bede's first abbot was Benedict Biscop, and the names "Biscop" and "Beda" both appear in a king list of the kings of Lindsey from around 800, further suggesting that Bede came from a noble family. His name is uncommon, only occurring twice in the Liber Vitae of Durham Cathedral, one of which is assumed to be the writer. There is also a Bieda who is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the year 501, but these are the only mentions in manuscripts of the name. Swanton Anglo-Saxon Chronicle pp. 14-15 The name probably derives from the Old English bēd, or prayer, and if it was the name given Bede at birth, probably meant that his family had planned on his entering the clergy from birth. At the age of seven, he was sent to the monastery of Wearmouth by his family to be educated by Benedict Biscop and later by Ceolfrith. Bede does not say whether it was already intended at that point that he would be a monk. It was fairly common in Ireland at this time for young boys, particularly those of noble birth, to be fostered out; the practice was also likely to have been common among the Germanic peoples in England. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, p. xx. Wearmouth's sister monastery at Jarrow was founded by Ceolfrith in 682, and Bede probably transferred to Jarrow with Ceolfrith that year. Four years later, in 686, plague broke out at Jarrow. The Life of Ceolfrith, written in about 710, records that only two surviving monks were capable of singing "with antiphons"; one was Ceolfrith, and the other a young boy of 14, thought by most historians to have been Bede. When Bede was about 17 years old, Adomnan, the abbot of Iona Abbey, visited Wearmouth and Jarrow. Bede would probably have met the abbot during this visit, and it may have been Adomnan who sparked Bede's interest in the Easter dating controversy. In about 692, in Bede's nineteenth year, Bede was ordained a deacon by his diocesan bishop, John, who was bishop of Hexham. The canonical age for the ordination of a deacon was 25; Bede's early ordination may mean that his abilities were considered exceptional, but it is also possible that the minimum age requirement was often disregarded. There may have been minor orders ranking below a deacon; but there is no record of whether Bede held any of these offices. In Bede's thirtieth year (about 702) Bede became a priest, with the ordination again performed by Bishop John. In about 701 Bede wrote his first works, the De Arte Metrica and De Schematibus et Tropis; both were intended for use in the classroom. He continued to write for the rest of his life, eventually completing over 60 books, most of which have survived. Not all of his output can be easily dated, and Bede may have worked on some texts over a period of many years. His last surviving work is a letter to Ecgbert of York, a former student, written in 734. A sixth century manuscript of Acts that is believed to have been used by Bede is still extant. Bede may also have worked on one of the Latin bibles that were copied at Jarrow, one of which is now held by the Laurentian Library. A few pages from another copy are held by the British Museum. Bede was a teacher as well as a writer; he enjoyed music, and was said to be accomplished as a singer and as a reciter of poetry in the vernacular. In 708, a number of monks at Hexham accused Bede of heresy, because his work De Temporibus offered a different chronology of the Six Ages of the world theory than the one commonly accepted by theologians. The accusation occurred in front of the bishop of Hexham of the time, Wilfrid, who was present at a feast when some drunken monks made the accusation. Wilfrid did not respond to the accusation, but a monk present relayed the episode to Bede, who replied within a few days to the monk, writing a letter setting forth his defence and asking that the letter be read to Wilfrid also. Bede had another brush with Wilfrid, for the historian himself says that he met with Wilfrid, sometime between 706 and 709, and discussed Æthelthryth, the abbess of Ely. Wilfrid had been present at the exhumation of her body in 695, and Bede questioned the bishop about the exact circumstances of the body and asked for more details of her life, as Wilfrid had been her advisor. Goffart Narrators p. 322 Bede's tomb in Durham Cathedral In 733, Bede traveled to York, to visit Ecgbert, who was then bishop of York. The see of York was elevated to an archbishopric in 735, and it is likely that Bede and Ecgbert discussed the proposal for the elevation during his visit. Bede also traveled to the monastery of Lindisfarne, and at some point visited the otherwise unknown monastery of a monk named Wicthed, a visit that is mentioned in a letter to that monk. Because of his widespread correspondence with others throughout the British Isles, and due to the fact that many of the letters imply that Bede had met his correspondents, it is likely that Bede traveled to some other places, although nothing further about timing or locations can be guessed. Bede hoped to visit Ecgbert again in 734, but was too ill to make the journey. He died on 26 May 735 and was buried at Jarrow. Cuthbert's letter is mainly concerned with relating the last days of Bede, and mainly has interest for two things, one that Bede was still struggling to complete works right before his death, and two, the relating of a poem that Bede composed on his deathbed. Bede's remains may have been transferred to Durham Cathedral in the 11th century; his tomb there was looted in 1541, but the contents were probably reinterred in the Galilee chapel at the cathedral. One further oddity in his writings is that in one of his works, the Commentary on the Seven Catholic Epistles, he writes in a manner that gives the impression he was married. The section in question is the only one in that work that is written in first-person view, where Bede says: "Prayers are hindered by the conjugal duty because as often as I perform what is due to my wife I am not able to pray." Quoted in Ward Venerable Bede p. 57 Another passage, in the Commentary on Luke, also mentions a wife in the first person, where Bede writes "Formerly I possessed a wife in the lustful passion of desire and now I possess her in honourable sanctification and true love of Christ." The historian Benedicta Ward argues that these passages are Bede employing a rhetorical device, Ward Venerable Bede p. 57 but another historian, N. J. Higham, offers no explanation for the passages. Works His works show that he commanded all the learning of his time. It is believed that his library at Wearmouth-Jarrow had between 300-500 books, making it one of the largest in England. It is clear that Biscop made strenuous efforts to collect books during his extensive travels. Bede wrote scientific, historical and theological works, reflecting the range of his writings from music and metrics to exegetical Scripture commentaries. He knew patristic literature, as well as Pliny the Elder, Virgil, Lucretius, Ovid, Horace and other classical writers. He knew some Greek and Hebrew. His Latin is generally clear, but his Biblical commentaries are more technical. Bede's scriptural commentaries employed the allegorical method of interpretation Holder (trans.), Bede: On the Tabernacle, (Liverpool: Liverpool Univ. Pr., 1994), pp. xvii-xx. and his history includes accounts of miracles, which to modern historians has seemed at odds with his critical approach to the materials in his history. Modern studies have shown the important role such concepts played in the world-view of Early Medieval scholars. McClure and Collins, The Ecclesiastical History, pp. xviii-xix. He dedicated his work on the Apocalypse and the De Temporum Ratione to the successor of Ceolfrid as abbot, Hwaetbert. Modern historians have completed many studies of Bede's works. His life and work were celebrated a series of annual lectures at Jarrow between 1935 and 1973, the 1200 year anniversary of his death and 1300 year anniversary of his birth, respectively. The historian Walter Goffart says of Bede that he "holds a privileged and unrivaled place among first historians of Christian Europe". Goffart Narrators p. 236 Although Bede is mainly studied as a historian now, in his time his works on grammar, chronology, and biblical studies were as important as his historical and hagiographical works. The non-historical works contributed greatly to the Carolingian renaissance. Goffart Narrators pp. 242-243 Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum Bede's best-known work is the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum, or An Ecclesiastical History of the English People. Completed in about 731, the first of the five books begins with some geographical background, and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Caesar's invasion in 55 B.C. A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain, including the martyrdom of St Alban, is followed by the story of Augustine's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to the Anglo-Saxons. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelize Northumbria. These ended in disaster when Penda, the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632. The setback was temporary, and the third book recounts the growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald of Northumbria and Oswy. The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby, traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury, and recounts Wilfrid's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex. The fifth book brings the story up to Bede's day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia, and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf, king of Northumbria. Bede, "Preface", Historia Ecclesiastica, p. 41. The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested the earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility. Sources The monastery at Jarrow had an excellent library. Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from the continent, and in Bede's day the monastery was a renowned centre of learning. Cramp, "Monkwearmouth (or Wearmouth) and Jarrow", pp. 325–326. For the period prior to Augustine's arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Orosius, Eutropius, Pliny, and Solinus. He used Constantius's Life of Germanus as a source for Germanus's visits to Britain. Bede's account of the invasion of the Anglo-Saxons is drawn largely from Gildas's De Excidio Britanniae. Lapidge, "Gildas", p. 204. Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Eddius Stephanus's Life of Wilfrid, and anonymous Lives of Gregory the Great and Cuthbert. He also drew on Josephus's Antiquities, and the works of Cassiodorus, Mayvaert "Bede" Speculum p. 831 and there was a copy of the Liber Pontificalis in Bede's monastery. Meyvaert "Bede" Speculum p. 843 Bede also had correspondents who supplied him with material. Albinus, the abbot of the monastery in Canterbury, provided much information about the church in Kent, and with the assistance of Nothhelm, at that time a priest in London, obtained copies of Gregory the Great's correspondence from Rome relating to Augustine's mission. Keynes, "Nothhelm", pp. 335 336. Almost all of Bede's information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters. Bede acknowledged his correspondents in the preface to the Historia Ecclesiastica; Bede, Historia Ecclesiastica, Preface, p. 42. he was in contact with Daniel, the Bishop of Winchester, for information about the history of the church in Wessex, and also wrote to the monastery at Lastingham for information about Cedd and Chad. Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, and Bishop Cynibert for information about Lindsey. The historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the Historia on three works, using them as the framework around which the three main sections of the work were structured. For the early part of the work, up until the Gregorian mission, Goffart feels that Bede used Gildas's De excidio. The second section, detailing the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury was framed on the anonymous Life of Gregory the Great written at Whitby. The last section, detailing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart feels were modeled on Stephen of Ripon's Life of Wilfrid. Goffart Narrators pp. 296-307 Most of Bede's informants for information after Augustine's mission came from the eastern part of Britain, leaving significant gaps in the knowledge of the western areas, which were those areas likely to have a native Briton presence. Brooks "From British to English Christianity" Conversion and Colonization pp. 12-14 Models Bede's stylistic models included some of the same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history. His introduction imitates the work of Orosius. and his title is an echo of Eusebius's Historia Ecclesiastica. Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the Acts of the Apostles as the model for the overall work: where Eusebius used the Acts as the theme for his description of the development of the church, Bede made it the model for his history of the Anglo-Saxon church. Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative, as Eusebius had done. Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times. For example, he almost always uses the terms "Australes" and "Occidentales" for the South and West Saxons respectively, but in a passage in the first book he uses "Meridiani" and "Occidui" instead, as perhaps his informant had done. At the end of the work, Bede added a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours' earlier History of the Franks. Bede's work as a hagiographer, and his detailed attention to dating, were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica. His interest in computus, the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of the controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date. Themes One of the important themes of the Historia Ecclesiastica is that in the conversion of the British Isles to Christianity, it had all been the work of Irish and Italian missionaries, with no efforts being made by the native Britons. This theme was developed from Gildas' work, which denounced the sins of the native rulers during the invasions, with the elaboration by Bede that the invasion and settlement of the British Isles by the Angles and Saxons was God's punishment for the lack of missionary effort and the refusal to accept the Roman date for celebrating Easter. Although Bede discusses the history of Christianity in Roman Britain, significantly he utterly ignores the missionary work of Saint Patrick. Brooks "From British to English Christianity" Conversion and Colonization pp. 4-7 He writes approvingly of Aidan and Columba, who came from Ireland as missionaries to the Picts and Northumbrians, but disapproved of the failure of the Welsh to evangelize the invading Anglo-Saxons. Bede was a partisan of Rome, regarding Gregory the Great, rather than Augustine, as the true apostle of the English. Likewise, in his treatment of the conversion of the invaders, any native involvement is minimized, such as when discussing Chad of Mercia's first consecration, when Bede mentions that two British bishops took part in the consecration, thus invalidating it. No information on who or where these two bishops came from is presented. Also important is Bede's view of the conversion process as an upper-class phenomenon, with little discussion of any missionary efforts among the non-noble or royal population. Brooks "From British to English Christianity" Conversion and Colonization pp. 7-10 Another view, taken by historian D.H. Farmer, is that the theme of the work is "the progression from diversity to unity". According to Farmer, Bede took this idea from Gregory the Great, and illustrates it in his work by showing how Christianity brought together the native and invading races into one church. Farmer cites Bede's intense interest in the schism over the correct date for Easter as support for this argument, and also cites the lengthy description of the Synod of Whitby, which Farmer regards as "the dramatic centre-piece of the whole work." The historian Alan Thacker wrote in 1983 that Bede's works should be seen as advocating a monastic rather than secular ministry, and Thacker argues that Bede's treatment of St Cuthbert is meant to make Cuthbert a role-model for the role of the clergy advocated by Gregory the Great. The historian Walter Goffart says of the Historia that many modern historians find it a "tale of origins framed dynamically as the Providence-guided advance of a people from heathendom to Christianity; a cast of saints rather than rude warriors; a mastery of historical technique incomparable for its time; beauty of form and diction; and, not least, an author whose qualities of life and spirit set a model of dedicated schoalrship." Goffart Narrators p. 235 Goffart also feels that a major theme of the Historia is concerned with local, Northumbrian concerns, and that Bede treated matters outside Northumbria as secondary concerns to his main concern with northern history. Goffart Narrators p. 240 Goffart sees the writing of the Historia as motivated by a political struggle in Northumbria between a party devoted to Wilfrid, and those opposed to Wilfrid's policies. Goffart Narrators p. 326 Much of the "current" history in the Historia is concerned with Wilfrid, who was an bishop in Northumbria and whose stormy career is documented not only in Bede's works, but in a Life of Wilfrid. A theme in Bede's treatment of Wilfrid is the need to minimize the conflict between Wilfrid and Theodore of Tarsus, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who was involved in many of Wilfrid's difficulties. Chadwick "Theodore" Archbishop Theodore pp. 92-93 The Historia Ecclesiastica includes many accounts of miracles and visions. These were de rigueur in medieval religious narrative, but Bede appears to have avoided relating the more extraordinary tales; and, remarkably, he makes almost no claims for miraculous events at his own monastery. There is no doubt that Bede did believe in miracles, but the ones he does include are often stories of healing, or of events that could plausibly be explained naturally. The miracles served the purpose of setting an example to the reader, and Bede explicitly states that his goal is to teach morality through history, saying "If history records good things of good men, the thoughtful reader is encouraged to imitate what is good; if it records evil of wicked men, the devout reader is encouraged to avoid all that is sinful and perverse." Omissions and bias Bede apparently had no informant at any of the main Mercian religious houses. Yorke, Kings and Kingdoms, p. 100. His information about Mercia came from Lastingham, in Northumbria, and from Lindsey, a province on the borders of Northumbria and Mercia. As a result there are noticeable gaps in his coverage of Mercian church history, such as his omission of the division of the huge Mercian diocese by Theodore in the late 7th century. His sympathies were with Northumbria; Bede viewed Mercia under King Penda in the 7th century as an aggressive pagan force, responsible for the death of the Christian king Edwin of Northumbria. Mercia was a rising power when Bede wrote the Historia Ecclesiastica, and Bede's regional bias is apparent. There were clearly gaps in Bede's knowledge, but Bede also says little on some topics that he must have been familiar with. For example, although Bede recounts Wilfrid's missionary activities, he does not give a full account of his conflict with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury, or his ambition and aristocratic lifestyle. Only the existence of other sources such as the Life of Wilfrid make it clear what Bede discreetly avoids saying. The omissions are not restricted to Wilfrid; Bede makes no mention at all of Boniface, though it is unlikely he knew little of him; and the final book contains less information about the church in his own day than could be expected. A possible explanation for Bede's discretion may be found in his comment that one should not make public accusations against church figures, no matter what their sins; Bede may have found little good to say about the church in his day and hence preferred to keep silent. It is clear that he did have fault to find; his letter to Ecgberht contains several criticisms of the church. The Historia Ecclesiastica has more to say about episcopal events than it does about the monasteries of England. Bede does shed some light on monastic affairs; in particular he comments in book V that many Northumbrians are laying aside their arms and entering monasteries "rather than study the arts of war. What the result of this will be the future will show." Bede, HE, V.23 This veiled comment, another example of Bede's discretion in commenting on current affairs, could be interpreted as ominous given Bede's more specific criticism of quasi-monasteries in his letter to Ecgberht, written three years later. Bede's account of life at the court of the Anglo-Saxon kings includes little of the violence that Gregory of Tours mentions as a frequent occurrence at the Frankish court. It is possible that the courts were as different as their descriptions makes them appear but it is more likely that Bede omitted some of the violent reality. Bede states that he wrote the work as an instruction for rulers, in order that "the thoughtful listener is spurred on to imitate the good". Quoted in It also was no part of Bede's purpose to describe the kings who did not convert to Christianity in the Historia. Anno Domini Bede's use of something similar to the anno Domini era, created by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in 525, throughout Historia Ecclesiastica was very influential in causing that era to be adopted thereafter in Western Europe. Specifically, he used anno ab incarnatione Domini (in the year from the incarnation of the Lord) or anno incarnationis dominicae (in the year of the incarnation of the Lord). He never abbreviated the term like the modern AD. Unlike the modern assumption that anno Domini was from the birth of Christ, Bede explicitly refers to his incarnation or conception, traditionally on 25 March. Within this work, he was also the first writer to use a term similar to the English before Christ. In book I chapter 2 he used ante incarnationis dominicae tempus (before the time of the incarnation of the Lord). However, the latter was not very influential—only this isolated use was repeated by other writers during the rest of the Middle Ages. The first extensive use of 'BC' (hundreds of times) occurred in Fasciculus Temporum by Werner Rolevinck in 1474, alongside years of the world (anno mundi). Continuation of Bede Some early manuscripts contain additional annalistic entries that extend past the date of completion of the Historia Ecclesiastica, with the latest entry dated 766. Whitelock, English Historical Documents, p. 259–260. No manuscripts earlier than the twelfth-century contain these entries, except for the entries for 731 through 734, which do occur in earlier manuscripts. Much of the material replicates what is found in Simeon of Durham's chronicle; the remaining material is thought to derive from northern chronicles from the 8th century. The Historia was translated into Old English sometime in the 9th century in southern Britain, and this translation has traditionally been held to have been done by King Alfred of England, but scholarship now has cast doubt on this tradition. Although Alfred may not have personally made the translation, it probably was connected with the promotion of learning that Alfred fostered. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, composed around this time, drew heavily on the Historia, which formed the chronological framework of the early parts of the Chronicle. Assessment The Historia Ecclesiastica was copied often in the Middle Ages, and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive. About half of those are located on the European continent, rather than on the British Isles. Most of the 8th and 9th century texts of Bede's Historia come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire. This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work, of which another 100 or so survive. It was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482, probably at Strasbourg, France. Wright Companion to Bede pp. 4-5 Modern historians have studied the Historia extensively, and a number of editions have been produced. For many years, early Anglo-Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the Historia, but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did. The belief that the Historia was the culmination of Bede's works, the aim of all his scholarship, a belief current among historians in the past, is no longer accepted by most scholars. Goffart Narrators pp. 238-9 The Historia Ecclesiastica has given Bede a high reputation, but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history. His focus on the history of the organization of the English church, and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out, led him to exclude the secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church. Besides the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, the medieval writers William of Malmesbury, Henry of Huntingdon, and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations. Early modern writers, such as Polydore Virgil and Matthew Parker, the Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury, also utilized the Historia, and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion. Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede's accounts. One historian, Charlotte Behr, feels that the Historia's account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should not be considered to relate what actually happened, but rather relates myths that were current in Kent during Bede's time. Behr "Origins of Kingship" Early Medieval Europe pp. 25-52 Printing history The first printed copy of the Historia Ecclesiastica appeared from the press of Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg, probably between 1475 and 1480. A defect in the text allows the identification of the manuscript Eggestein used; it subsequently appeared in a catalogue of the Vienna Dominicans of 1513. Eggestein had also printed an edition of Rufinus's translation of Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History, and the two works were reprinted, bound as a single volume, on 14 March 1500 by Georg Husner, also of Strasbourg. Another reprint appeared on 7 December 1506, from Heinrich Gran and S. Ryman at Haguenau. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. lxx–lxxiii. A Paris edition appeared in 1544, Colgrave gives the sources for this as Pierre Chifflet, who produced an edition of Bede in 1681; Colgrave comments that he himself has not seen this edition. See Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, p. lxxi, n. 1. and in 1550 John de Grave produced an edition at Antwerp. Two reprints of this edition appeared, in 1566 and 1601. In 1563, Johann Herwagen included it in volume III of his eight-volume Opera Omnia, and this was in turn reprinted in 1612 and 1688. Michael Sonnius produced an edition in Paris in 1587, including the Historia Ecclesiastica in a collection of other historical works; and in 1587 Johann Commelin included it in a similar compilation, printed at Heidelberg. The first English edition did not appear until 1592 and was printed by R.Oliff and first sold by R.Yardly and P.Short. In 1643,Abraham Whelock produced an edition with the Old English text and the Latin text in parallel columns. All of the above editions were based on the c-text. The first edition to use the m-type manuscripts was printed by Pierre Chifflet in 1681, using a descendant of the Moore MS. In 1722, John Smith obtained the Moore MS., and also having access to two copies in the Cotton Library was able to print a very high quality edition. Subsequently the most notable edition was that of Charles Plummer, whose 1896 Venerabilis Bedae Opera Historica, with a full commentary, has been a foundation-stone for all subsequent scholarship. Colgrave comments that his omission of manuscript L "does not impair the value of his text, which can fairly be described as final. The width of his interests and the accuracy of his learning must be the envy of any successor". D.H. Farmer, in the Penguin Bede, says that "like all previous editions of Bede's Ecclesiastical History this one depends on the pioneer work of Charles Plummer". See Colgrave & Mynor, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, p. lxxiii, and Other historical works A page from a copy of Bede's Lives of St. Cuthbert, showing King Athelstan presenting the work to the saint. This manuscript was given to St. Cuthbert's shrine in 934. Cannon Oxford Illustrated History pp. 42-43 Chronicles As Chapter 66 of his On the Reckoning of Time, in 725 Bede wrote the Greater Chronicle (chronica maiora), which sometimes circulated as a separate work. For recent events the Chronicle, like his Ecclesiastical History, relied upon Gildas, upon a version of the Liber pontificalis current at least to the papacy of Pope Sergius I (687-701), and other sources. For earlier events he drew on Eusebius's Chronikoi Kanones. The dating of events in the Chronicle is inconsistent with his other works, using the era of creation, the anno mundi. Wallis (trans.), The Reckoning of Time, pp. lxvii-lxxi, 157-237, 353-66 Lives His other historical works included lives of the abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow, as well as verse and prose lives of Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne, an adaptation of Paulinus of Nola's Life of St Felix, and a translation of the Greek Passion of St Anastasius. He also created a listing of saints, the Martyrology. Goffart Narrators pp. 245-246 Theological works In his own time, Bede was as well known for his biblical commentaries and exegetical, as well as other theological works. The majority of his writings were of this type, and covered the Old Testament and the New Testament. Most survived the Middle Ages, but a few were lost. It was for his theological writings that he earned the title of Doctor Anglorum, and why he was made a saint. Ward "Bede the Theologian" The Medieval Theologians pp. 57-64 Bede was not an innovative religious thinker. He made no original writings or thoughts on the beliefs of the church, instead working to synthesize and transmit the learning from his predecessors. In order to do this, he learned Greek, and attempted to learn Hebrew. He spent time reading and rereading both the Old and the New Testaments. He mentions that he studied from a text of Jerome's Vulgate, which itself was from the Hebrew text. He also studied both the Latin and the Greek Fathers of the Church. In the monastic library at Jarrow were a number of books by theologians, including works by Basil, Cassian, John Chrysostom, Isidore of Seville, Origen, Gregory of Nazianzus, Augustine of Hippo, Jerome, Pope Gregory I and Ambrose of Milan. He used these, in conjunction with the Biblical texts themselves, to write his commentaries and other theological works. He also used lesser known writers, such as Fulgentius, Julian of Eclanum, Tyconius, and Prosperius. Bede was the first to refer to Jerome, Augustine, Pope Gregory and Ambrose as the four Latin Fathers of the Church. Ward Venerable Bede p. 44 It is clear from Bede's own comments that he felt his job was to explain to his students and readers the theology and thoughts of the Church Fathers. Mayvaert "Bede" Speculum p. 827 Bede also wrote homilies, works written to explain theology used in worship services. Bede wrote homilies not only on the major Christian festivals such as Advent, Lent or Easter, but on other subjects such as anniversaries of significant events. Both types of Bede's theological works circulated widely in the Middle Ages. A number of his biblical commentaries were incorporated into the Glossa Ordinaria, an 11th century collection of biblical commentaries. Some of Bede's homilies were collected by Paul the Deacon, and they were used in that form in the Monastic Office. Saint Boniface used Bede's homilies in his missionary efforts on the continent. Works on the Old Testament The works dealing with the Old Testament included Commentary on Samuel, Ward Venerable Bede p. 67 Commentary on Genesis, Ward Venerable Bede p. 68 Commentaries on Ezra and Nehemiah, On the Temple, On the Tabernacle, Ward Venerable Bede p. 72 Commentaries on Tobit, Commentaries on Proverbs, Commentaries on the Song of Songs, Commentaries on the Canticle of Habakkuk, Ward Venerable Bede p. 74 The works on Ezra, the Tabernacle and the Temple were especially influenced by Gregory the Great's writings. Works on the New Testament Bede's works included Commentary on Revelation, Ward Venerable Bede p. 51 Commentary on the Catholic Epistles, Ward Venerable Bede p. 56 Commentary on Acts, Reconsideration on the Books of Acts, Ward Venerable Bede pp. 58-59 On the Gospel of Mark, On the Gospel of Luke, and Homilies on the Gospels. Ward Venerable Bede p. 60 Works on chronology and the dating of Easter De temporibus, or On Time, written in about 703, provides an introduction to the principles of Easter computus. This was based on parts of Isidore of Seville's Etymologies, and Bede also include a chronology of the world which was derived from Eusebius, with some revisions based on Jerome's translation of the bible. In about 723, Bede wrote a longer work on the same subject, On the Reckoning of Time, which was popular throughout the Middle Ages. He also wrote several shorter letters and essays discussing specific aspects of computus. On the Reckoning of Time (De temporum ratione) included an introduction to the traditional ancient and medieval view of the cosmos, including an explanation of how the spherical earth influenced the changing length of daylight, of how the seasonal motion of the Sun and Moon influenced the changing appearance of the New Moon at evening twilight, and a quantitative relation between the changes of the Tides at a given place and the daily motion of the moon. Wallis (trans.), The Reckoning of Time, pp. 82-85, 307-312 Since the focus of his book was calculation, Bede gave instructions for computing the date of Easter and the related time of the Easter Full Moon, for calculating the motion of the Sun and Moon through the zodiac, and for many other calculations related to the calendar. He gives some information about the months of the Anglo-Saxon calendar in chapter XV. Wallis (trans.), The Reckoning of Time 15, pp. 53-4, 285-7; see also Any codex of Bede's Easter cycle is normally found together with a codex of his "De Temporum Ratione". For calendric purposes, Bede made a new calculation of the age of the world since the creation, which he dated as 3952 BC. Due to his innovations in computing the age of the world, he was accused of heresy at the table of Bishop Wilfred, his chronology being contrary to accepted calculations. Once informed of the accusations of these "lewd rustics," Bede refuted them in his Letter to Plegwin. Wallis (trans.),, The Reckoning of Time, pp. xxx, 405-415 His works were so influential that late in the ninth century Notker the Stammerer, a monk of the Monastery of St. Gall in Switzerland, wrote that "God, the orderer of natures, who raised the Sun from the East on the fourth day of Creation, in the sixth day of the world has made Bede rise from the West as a new Sun to illuminate the whole Earth". Wallis (trans.), The Reckoning of Time, p. lxxxv Educational works Bede wrote some works designed to help teach grammar in the abbey school. One of these was his De arte metrica, a discussion of the composition of Latin verse, drawing on previous grammarians work. It was based on Donatus' De pedibus and Servius' De finalibus, and used examples from Christian poets as well as Virgil. It became a standard text for the teaching of Latin verse during the next few centuries. Bede dedicated this work to Cuthbert, apparently a student, for he is named "beloved son" in the dedication, and Bede says "I have labored to educate you in divine letters and ecclesiastical statutes" Another textbook of Bede's is the De orthographia, a work on orthography, designed to help a medieval reader of Latin with unfamiliar abbreviations and words from classical Latin works. Although it could serve as a textbook, it appears to have been mainly intended as a reference work. The exact date of composition for both of these works is unknown. Another educational work is De schematibus et tropis sacrae scripturae, which discusses the Bible's use of rhetoric. Bede was familiar with pagan authors such as Virgil, but it was not considered appropriate to teach grammar from such texts, and in De schematibus ... Bede argues for the superiority of Christian texts. Colgrave gives the example of Desiderius of Vienne, who was reprimanded by Gregory the Great for using "heathen" authors in his teaching. Similarly, his text on poetic metre uses only Christian poetry for examples. Vernacular poetry According to his disciple Cuthbert, Bede was also doctus in nostris carminibus ("learned in our songs"). Cuthbert's letter on Bede's death, the Epistola Cuthberti de obitu Bedae, moreover, commonly is understood to indicate that Bede also composed a five line vernacular poem known to modern scholars as Bede’s Death Song And he used to repeat that sentence from St. Paul “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God,” and many other verses of Scripture, urging us thereby to awake from the slumber of the soul by thinking in good time of our last hour. And in our own language,—for he was familiar with English poetry,—speaking of the soul’s dread departure from the body: Facing that enforced journey, no man can be More prudent than he has good call to be, If he consider, before his going hence, What for his spirit of good hap or of evil After his day of death shall be determined. Fore ðæm nedfere nænig wiorðe ðonc snottora ðon him ðearf siæ to ymbhycgenne ær his hinionge hwæt his gastæ godes oððe yfles æfter deað dæge doemed wiorðe.: Colgrave and Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. 580-3 As Opland notes, however, it is not entirely clear that Cuthbert is attributing this text to Bede: most manuscripts of the letter do not use a finite verb to describe Bede's presentation of the song, and the theme was relatively common in Old English and Anglo-Latin literature. The fact that Cuthbert's description places the performance of the Old English poem in the context of a series of quoted passages from Sacred Scripture, indeed, might be taken as evidence simply that Bede also cited analogous vernacular texts. Opland, Anglo-Saxon Oral Poetry, pp. 140-141 On the other hand, the inclusion of the Old English text of the poem in Cuthbert’s Latin letter, the observation that Bede "was learned in our song," and the fact that Bede composed a Latin poem on the same subject all point to the possibility of his having written it. By citing the poem directly, Cuthbert seems to imply that its particular wording was somehow important, either since it was a vernacular poem endorsed by a scholar who evidently frowned upon secular entertainment McCready, Miracles and the Venerable Bede, pp. 14-19 or because it is a direct quotation of Bede’s last original composition. See Jeff Opland, Anglo-Saxon Oral Poetry, pp. 140-141 for a discussion Other works He wrote several major works, including De natura rerum, or On the Nature of Things, modeled in part after the work of the same title by Isidore of Seville. Manuscript tradition Manuscripts of the Historia Ecclesiastica fall generally into two groups, known to historians as the "c-type" and the "m-type". Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. xl–xli. Charles Plummer, in his 1896 edition of Bede, identified six characteristic differences between the two manuscript types. For example, the c-type manuscripts omit one of the miracles attributed to St Oswald in book IV, chapter 14, and the c-type also includes the years 733 and 734 in the chronological summary at the end of the work, whereas the m-type manuscripts stop with the year 731. Plummer thought that this meant the m-type was definitely earlier than the c-type, but this has been disputed by Bertram Colgrave in his 1969 edition of the text. Colgrave points out that the addition of a couple of annals is a simple alteration for a copyist to make at any point in the manuscript history; he also notes that the omission of one of Oswald's miracles is not the mistake of a copyist, and strongly implies that the m-type is a later revision. Some genealogical relationships can be discerned among the numerous manuscripts that have survived. The earliest manuscripts used to establish the c-text and m-text are as follows. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. xli–xlv. The letters under the "Version" column are identifying letters used by historians to refer to these manuscripts. Version Type Location ManuscriptK c-text Kassel, Landesbibliothek 4° MS. theol. 2C c-text London, British Museum Cotton Tiberius C. IIO c-text Oxford, Bodleian Library Hatton 43 (4106)n/a c-text Zürich, Zentralbibliothek Rh. 95M m-text Cambridge, University Library Kk. 5. 16L m-text Saint Petersburg, Public Library Lat. Q. v. I. 18U m-text Wolfenbüttel, Herzog-August Bibliothek Weissenburg 34E m-text Würzburg, Universitätsbibliothek M. p. th. f. 118N m-text Namur, Public Library Fonds de la ville 11 Relationships between the manuscripts The relationships between some of the early manuscripts of the Historia Ecclesiastica With few exceptions, Continental copies of the Historia Ecclesiastica are of the m-type, while English copies are of the c-type. Among the c-texts, manuscript K only includes books IV and V, but C and O are complete. O is a later text than C but is independent of it and so the two are a valuable check on correctness. They are thought to have both derived from an earlier manuscript, marked "c2" in the diagram, which does not survive. A comparison of K and c2 yields an accurate understanding of the original c-text, but for the first three books, which are not in K, it is sometimes impossible to know if a variant reading in C and O represents the original state of the c-text, or is a variation only found in c2. One long chapter, book I chapter 27, is also found in another manuscript, Rh. 95 at the Zürich Zentralbibliothek; this is another witness to the c-text and appears to be independent of c2, and so is useful as a further cross-check on the c-text. The m-text depends largely on manuscripts M and L, which are very early copies, made not long after Bede's death. Both seem likely to have been taken from the original, though this is not certain. Three further manuscripts, U, E and N, are all apparently the descendants of a Northumbrian manuscript that does not survive but which went to the continent in the late eighth century. These three are all early manuscripts, but are less useful than might be thought, since L and M are themselves so close to the original. The text of both the m-type and c-type seems to have been extremely accurately copied. Taking a consensus text from the earliest manuscripts, Bertram Colgrave counted 32 places where there was an apparent error of some kind. However, 26 of these are to be found within a transcription from an earlier source, and it is apparent by checking independent copies of those sources that in such cases Bede copied the mistake faithfully into his own text. Colgrave & Mynors, Bede's Ecclesiastical History, pp. xxxix–xl. History of the manuscripts K appears to have been written in Northumbria in the late 8th century. Only books IV and V survive; the others were probably lost during the Middle Ages. The manuscript bears a 15th century pressmark of the Abbey of Fulda. C was written in the south of England in the second half of the 8th century. Plummer argued that it was from Durham, but this is dismissed by Colgrave. The manuscript contains glosses in Old English that were added in the south during the 9th century. O dates to the early 11th century, and has subsequent corrections many of which are from the 12th century. L, also known as the St Petersburg Bede, was copied by four scribes no later than 747. The scribes were probably at either Wearmouth or Jarrow Abbey. M was written in Northumbria in 737 or shortly thereafter. The manuscript was owned at one time by John Moore, the Bishop of Ely, and as a result it is known as the Moore MS. Moore's collection was purchased by King George I and given to Cambridge University in 1715, where it still resides. U dates to the late 8th century, and is thought to be a copy, made on the continent, of an earlier Northumbrian manuscript ("c2" in the diagram above). It has been at Weissenburg since the end of the Middle Ages. E dates from the middle third of the 9th century. In 800, a list was made of books at Würzburg cathedral; the list includes one Historia Anglorum and E may be a copy of that manuscript. Subsequently E is known to have been in the possession of the Ebrach Abbey. N was copied in the 9th century by several scribes; at one point it was owned by St Hubert in the Ardennes. Manuscripts written before AD 900 include: Corbie MS, Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris St. Gall Monastery Library Copies are sparse throughout the 10th century and for much of the 11th century. The greatest number of copies of Bede's work was made in the 12th century, but there was a significant revival of interest in the 14th and 15th centuries. Many of the copies are of English provenance, but also surprisingly many are Continental. Laistne and King, A Hand-List of Bede Manuscripts (1943). Bede's collected works were published in Patrologia Latina vols. 90-95, but this edition was "bad on a monumental scale, and included more spuria than any previous edition". Thomson, The American Journal of Philology (1944) Palatine Library: De natura rerum {CPL 1343} [685]/1 De tabernaculo {CPL 1345} [245]/1 Commentarius in Parabolas Salomonis {CPL 1351} [759]/1 In Marci evangelium expositio {CPL 1355} [247]/1 In Lucae evangelium expositio {CPL 1356} [242], 1ra-157va. excerpts [50], passim Super epistolas catholicas expositio {CPL 1362} [246], 1r-80r. [947], 92r-99r {RB 1639: Beda abbrev.}. excerpt (prologue to 2.Ioh.) [1], 8ra Homilies {CPL 1367} [50], passim; [563], passim. Hom. I 3 [193], 258ra-vb (exc.); hom. I 8 [193], 166ra-vb (exc.); hom. I 9 [193], 164rb-165ra (exc.); hom. I 12 [193], 177va-179ra; hom. I 15 [193], 174ra-175vb Liber hymnorum {CPL 1372} Hymnus 1 [809]/4 De schematibus et tropis {CPL 1567} [345]/1 (exc.) De temporibus liber {CPL 2318} [685]/2 De temporum ratione {CPL 2320} [685]/3 Veneration There is no evidence for cult being paid to Bede in England in the 8th century. One reason for this may be that he died on the feast day of Augustine of Canterbury. Later, when he was venerated in England, he was either commemorated after Augustine on 26 May, or his feast was moved to 27 May. However, he was venerated outside England, mainly through the efforts of Saint Boniface and Alcuin, both of whom promoted the cult on the Continent. Boniface wrote repeatedly back to England during his missionary efforts, requesting copies of Bede's theological works. Alcuin, who was taught at the school set up in York by Bede's pupil Egbert, praised Bede as an example for monks to follow and was instrumental in disseminating Bede's works to all of Alcuin's friends. Ward Venerable Bede pp. 136-138 Bede's cult became prominent in England during the 10th century revival of monasticism, and by the 14th century had spread to many of the cathedrals of England. Wulfstan, Bishop of Worcester (c. 1008-1095) was a particular devotee of Bede's, dedicating a church to him in 1062, which was Wulfstan's first undertaking after his consecration as bishop. Ward Venerable Bede p. 139 His body was stolen from Jarrow and transferred to Durham Cathedral around 1020, where it was placed in the same tomb with Saint Cuthbert of Lindisfarne. Later they were moved to a shrine in Galilee Chapel at Durham Cathedral in 1370. The shrine was destroyed during the English Reformation, but the bones were reburied in the chapel. In 1831 the bones were dug up and then reburied in a new tomb, which is still there. Wright Companion to Bede p. 4 caption of the picture. Other relics were claimed by York, Glastonbury and Fulda. His scholarship and importance to Catholicism were recognised in 1899 when he was declared a Doctor of the Church, and was declared a sanctus in 1935. He is the only Englishman named a Doctor of the Church. He is also the only Englishman in Dante's Paradise (Paradiso X.130), mentioned among theologians and doctors of the church in the same canto as Isidore of Seville and the Scot Richard of St. Victor. His feast day was included in the General Roman Calendar in 1899, for celebration on May 27 rather than on his date of death, May 26, which was then the feast day of Pope Saint Gregory VII; however, the 1969 calendar reforms allowed Bede's feast day to move to its proper day. He is venerated in both the Anglican and Roman Catholic Church, with a feast day of 25 May. Bede became known as Venerable Bede (Lat.: Beda Venerabilis) by the ninth century, Wright Companion to Bede p. 3 but this was not linked to consideration for sainthood by the Roman Catholic Church. According to a legend the epithet was miraculously supplied by angels, thus completing his unfinished epitaph. Catholic Encyclopedia It is first utilized in connection with Bede in the 9th century, where Bede was grouped with others who were called "venerable" at two ecclesiastical councils held at Aix in 816 and 836. Paul the Deacon then referred to him as venerable consistently. By the 11th and 12th century, it had become commonplace. However, there are no descriptions of Bede by that term right after his death. See also List of works by Bede List of manuscripts of Bede's Historia Ecclesiastica Bede's World Museum in Jarrow Notes References Sources Primary sources Secondary sources External links Ecclesiastical History of the English People, Books 1-5, L.C. Jane's 1903 Temple Classics translation. From the Internet Medieval Sourcebook. Bede's Ecclesiastical History and the Continuation of Bede (pdf), at CCEL, edited & translated by A.M. Sellar. 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7,296 | Eugene,_Oregon | Eugene () is the second largest city in the U.S. State of Oregon and the county seat of Lane County. It is located at the south end of the Willamette Valley, at the confluence of the McKenzie and Willamette rivers, about 50 miles (86 km) east of the Oregon Coast. According to the official 2008 population figures Eugene is the second largest city in the state of Oregon, with an estimated population of 154,620, and center of the third largest metropolitan population. Eugene has long been the state's second largest city after Portland, but was briefly overtaken by Salem in terms of population, between 2005 to 2007. Eugene has since overtaken Salem as Oregon's second largest city. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon. The city is also noted for its natural beauty, activist political leanings, alternative lifestyles, recreational opportunities (especially bicycling, rafting, and kayaking), and focus on the arts. Eugene's motto is "The World's Greatest City of the Arts and Outdoors." It is also referred to as "Track Town, USA," the "Emerald City" and "The People's Republic of Eugene." The Nike corporation had its beginnings in Eugene. History and community History Eugene is named after its founder, Eugene Franklin Skinner. In 1846, Skinner erected the first cabin in the area. It was used as a trading post and was registered as an official post office on January 8, 1850. At this time the location was known as Skinner's Mudhole. Skinner founded Eugene in 1862 and later ran a ferry service across the Willamette River where the Ferry Street Bridge now stands. The first major educational institution in the area was Columbia College. It was founded a few years earlier than the University of Oregon. It fell victim to two major fires in four years, and after the second fire the college decided not to rebuild again. The part of south Eugene known as College Hill was the former location of Columbia College. There is no college there today. The town raised the initial funding to start a public university, which later became the University of Oregon, with the hope of turning the small town into a cultural center of learning. In 1872, the Legislative Assembly passed a bill creating the University of Oregon as a state institution. Eugene bested the nearby town of Albany in the competition for the state university. In 1873, community member J. H. D. Henderson donated the hilltop land for the campus, overlooking the city. The University first opened in 1876 with the regents electing the first faculty, and naming John Wesley Johnson as president. The first students registered on October 16, 1876. The first building was completed in 1877; it was named Deady Hall in honor of the first Board of Regents President and community leader Judge Matthew P. Deady.) The University of Oregon has been a leader in diversity since its very beginning. Its inaugural class included two Japanese students. Willamette Street circa 1920 Eugene is the home of Oregon's largest publicly owned water and power utility, the Eugene Water and Electric Board (EWEB). EWEB got its start in the first decade of the 20th century, after a typhoid epidemic was traced to the groundwater supply. The city of Eugene condemned the private utility and began treating river water (first the Willamette; later the McKenzie) for domestic use. EWEB got into the electric business when power was needed for the water pumps. Excess electricity was used for street lighting. Community Eugene is perhaps most noted for its "community inventiveness." Many U.S. trends in community development originated here. The University of Oregon's participatory planning process, known as The Oregon Experiment, was the result of student protests in the early 1970s. The book of the same name is a major document in modern enlightenment thinking in planning and architectural circles. The process, still used by the University in modified form, was created by Christopher Alexander, whose works also directly inspired the creation of the Wiki. Some of the research for the book A Pattern Language, which inspired the Design Patterns movement and Extreme Programming, was done by Alexander in Eugene. Not coincidentally, those engineering movements also had origins here. A Pattern Language is the best-selling book on architecture and planning of all time. Eugene was the birthplace of the earliest incarnation of a psychoeducational model now known as Health Realization, which has received accolades for its contributions to community mental health in low income communities around the United States. Started by Roger C. Mills and George Pransky working under a National Institute of Mental Health grant through the University of Oregon, Health Realization arose from these psychologists' attempts (beginning circa 1976) to turn the teachings of Sydney Banks, into a new psychology focusing on what makes mentally healthy people healthy. In the 1970s, Eugene was packed with cooperative and community projects. It still has small natural food stores in many neighborhoods, some of the oldest student cooperatives in the country, and alternative schools have been part of the school district since 1971. The old Grower's Market, downtown near the Amtrak depot, is the only food cooperative in the U.S. with no employees. It is possible to see Eugene's trend-setting non-profit tendencies in much newer projects, such as the Tango Center and the Center for Appropriate Transport. In 2006, an initiative began to create a tenant-run development process for Downtown Eugene. Anarchism During the late 1990s and early 2000s Eugene contained a community of anarchists situated in the Whiteaker neighborhood of west Eugene. This community gained international notoriety in 1999, due to its perceived role in the riots at the WTO Conference in Seattle that year. Following those protests, then-mayor Jim Torrey described the city as "the anarchist capital of the United States." The Eugene anarchist movement grew out of the treesits and forest defense camps of the 1990s and soon began staging demonstrations and riots in Eugene, notably during a Reclaim the Streets event on June 18, 1999, when protesters blocked downtown streets and smashed the windows of three stores. Some rioters threw stones and bottles at police. The primitivist author John Zerzan, known for being a confidant of the Unabomber, lives in Eugene. Some of the anarchist activity could be said to have had its start in a "mud people's" protest. On that day, the participants noticed two blocks of trees, in a parking lot near the downtown area, were slated for removal the following Sunday. The ensuing "treesit" protest on June 1, 1997 was reported widely, as it lasted several hours before the crowd became violent and the police responded with copious amounts of pepper spray. A lawsuit by protesters against police response to that protest was settled five years later. Anarchist activity in Eugene has declined in the public sphere since September 11, 2001, but the ongoing trials of accused eco-terrorists continue to keep Eugene in the same spotlight. Geography and climate Geography According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 40.6 square miles (105.0 km²). 40.5 square miles (104.9 km²) of it is land and 0.1 km² (0.04 sq mi or 0.10%) of it is water. Eugene is located at an elevation of 426 feet. To the north of downtown is Skinner Butte. The Coburg Hills is to the northeast of Eugene. Spencer Butte is a prominent landmark south of the city. Mount Pisgah is southeast of Eugene and includes Mount Pisgah Arboretum and Howard Buford Recreation Area, a Lane County Park. The Willamette and McKenzie rivers run through Eugene and neighboring city, Springfield. Another important stream is Amazon Creek, whose headwaters are near Spencer Butte. The creek discharges into Fern Ridge Reservoir west of the city. Neighborhoods Eugene has 21 neighborhood associations: Bethel Amazon Cal Young Churchill Crest Drive Downtown Fairmount Far WestFriendly Harlow Industrial Corridor Jefferson Westside Laurel Hill Valley River Road Santa Clara Irving is part of Santa ClaraSouth University Southeast Trainsong West Eugene West University Whiteaker Climate Like the rest of the Willamette Valley, Eugene lies in the Marine west coast climate zone, with some characteristics of the Mediterranean climate. Temperatures are mild year round, with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Spring and fall are also moist seasons, with light rain falling for long periods of time. Winter snowfall does occur, but it is sporadic and rarely accumulates in large amounts. Eugene's average annual temperature is 52.1 °F (11.2 °C); its annual rainfall is 50.9 inches (1293 mm). Eugene is actually slightly colder on average than Portland, despite being located about 100 miles (approx. 160 km) south and having only a marginally higher elevation. Eugene's average July low temperature is 52.7 °F (11.5 °C), while Portland's average July low is 56.5 °F (13.6 °C). Average winter temperatures (and summer high temperatures) are similar for the two cities. This disparity may be largely caused by Portland's urban heat island, where the combination of black pavement and urban energy use can actually raise the temperature. A lesser heat island may also exist in the immediate downtown of Eugene. Demographics As of the census of 2000, there were 137,893 people, 58,110 households, and 31,321 families residing in the city of Eugene. As of July 1, 2003, the U.S. Census Bureau estimated Eugene's population to be 142,185. The city's population is expected to grow to 228,400 by 2017. The population density was 3,403.2 people per square mile (1,313.9/km²). There were 61,444 housing units at an average density of 1,516.4/sq mi (585.5/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 88.15% White, 3.57% Asian, 1.25% Black or African American, 0.93% Native American, 0.21% Pacific Islander, 2.18% from other races, and 3.72% from two or more races. 4.96% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. There were 58,110 households, of which 25.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.6% were married couples living together, 9.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.1% were non-families. 31.7% of all households were made up of individuals and 9.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.27 and the average family size was 2.87. In the city, the population was spread out with 20.3% under the age of 18, 17.3% from 18 to 24, 28.5% from 25 to 44, 21.8% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 94.0 males. The median income for a household in the city was $35,850, and the median income for a family was $48,527. Males had a median income of $35,549 versus $26,721 for females. The per capita income for the city was $21,315. About 8.7% of families and 17.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 14.8% of those under age 18 and 7.1% of those age 65 or over. Economy The largest employers are the University of Oregon, local government, and Sacred Heart Medical Center. Eugene's largest industries are wood products manufacturing and recreational vehicle manufacturing. Corporate headquarters for the employee-owned Bi-Mart corporation and family-owned Market of Choice are located in Eugene. The Monaco Coach Corporation and Marathon Coach have their headquarters in nearby Coburg, Oregon. Hynix Semiconductor America announced on July 23, 2008 that it will close its large semiconductor plant in west Eugene. Emporium Department Stores, which was founded in North Bend, Oregon, had its headquarters in Eugene, but closed all stores in 2002. Organically Grown Company, the largest distributor of organic fruits and vegetables in the northwest, started in Eugene in 1978 as a non-profit co-op for organic farmers. Several local food processors, many of whom manufacture certified organic products, are nationally successful. These companies include Golden Temple (Yogi Tea), Mountain Rose Herbs, The Merry Hempsters, Surata Tofu, Toby's Tofu, Emerald Valley Kitchen, Turtle Mountain Foods (Soy Delicious Ice Cream) and Springfield Creamery (Nancy's Yogurt). Several locally-developed small businesses have formed a coalition called Unique Eugene, Unique Eugene which coordinates advertising and promotion, and shares its pool of customers. Many multinational businesses were launched in Eugene. Some of the most famous include Nike, Taco Time, Aldus Software (now part of Adobe Systems) and Broderbund Software. Arts and culture Eugene has a significant population of people in pursuit of alternative ideas, and a large, though aging, hippie population. There is also a significant population of outdoor enthusiasts and young retirees from California, the Northeast and elsewhere. Beginning in the 1960s, the countercultural ideas and viewpoints espoused by Ken Kesey became established as the seminal elements of the vibrant social tapestry that continue to define Eugene. The Merry Prankster, as Kesey was known, has arguably left the most indelible imprint of any cultural icon in his hometown. He is best known as the author of One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest and as the male protagonist in Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Annual cultural events The annual non-profit Oregon Country Fair, which takes place in nearby Veneta, is one of the largest volunteer events in the U.S. The Public Interest Environmental Law Conference, an annual gathering of environmental advocates from around the world, happens in Eugene. It is similar in nature to the World Social Forum. The annual Eugene Celebration is a three-day block party that takes place in the downtown area. The SLUG (Society for the Legitimization of the Ubiquitous Gastropod) Queen coronation happens the month prior to the celebration at the coronation contest and ceremony. The SLUG Queen is the reigning monarch of the celebration festivities and the unofficial ambassador of Eugene. The annual coronation process takes place in August and is a little like a formal pageant but with a campy spin. The new SLUG Queen presides over the parade at the Eugene Celebration in September. New queen gets a slug of r-e-s-p-e-c-t The Lane County Fair and Asian Celebration are two annual events taking place at the Lane County Fairgrounds. Eugene's Saturday Market, founded in 1970 and open every Saturday from April through November http://www.eugenesaturdaymarket.org/ , was the first "Saturday Market" in the United States. The History of the Original Saturday Market All vendors must create or grow all of their own products. The Oregon Bach Festival is a major international festival. How Eugene turned into Bach Mecca It is hosted by the University of Oregon. http://bachfest.uoregon.edu The Oregon Festival of American Music, or OFAM is held annually in the early summer. Eugene's Mount Pisgah Arboretum, which resides at the base of Mount Pisgah, holds an annual Mushroom Festival and Plant Sale and an annual Wildflower Show. The KLCC Microbrew Festival is held annually at the Lane County Fairgrounds. It provides participants with an introduction to a large range of microbrewery and craft beers which play an important role in Pacific Northwest culture and the economy. Museums and other points of interest Conger Street Clock museum Eugene museums include the University of Oregon's Jordan Schnitzer Museum of Art and Museum of Natural and Cultural History, the Oregon Air and Space Museum, Conger Street Clock Museum, Lane County Historical Museum, Maude Kerns Art Museum, Shelton McMurphey House, and the Science Factory Children's Museum & Planetarium. The Eugene Public Library Libraries The largest library in Oregon is the University of Oregon's Knight Library, with collections totaling more than 3 million volumes and over 100,000 audio and video items. The Eugene Public Library City of Eugene Public Library home page moved into a new, larger building downtown in 2002. The four-story library is an increase from to . Performing arts The Hult Center for the Performing Arts Eugene is home to numerous cultural organizations, including the Eugene Symphony, the Eugene Ballet, the Eugene Opera, the Eugene Concert Choir, the Northwest Christian University Community Choir, the Oregon Mozart Players, the Oregon Bach Festival, the Oregon Children's Choir, the Eugene Youth Symphony, Ballet Fantastique and Oregon Festival of American Music. Principal performing arts venues include the Hult Center for the Performing Arts, The John G. Shedd Institute for the Arts ("The Shedd"), Beall Concert Hall and the Erb Memorial Union ballroom on the University of Oregon campus, the McDonald Theatre, and W.O.W. Hall. A number of live theater groups are based in Eugene, including Lord Leebrick Theatre, The Very Little Theatre, Actors Cabaret, LCC Theatre, and University Theatre. University Theatre Each has its own performance venue. In addition, Eugene is home to the Bijou Art Cinemas, an independent movie theater. Bijou Art Cinemas Eugene music Because of its status as a college town, Eugene has been home to many musicians and bands, ranging from mainstream garage rock, to hip hop, folk and heavy metal. Eugene also has a growing reggae and street-performing bluegrass and jug band scene. Multi-genre act the Cherry Poppin' Daddies became a prominent figure in Eugene's music scene and became the house band at Eugene's W.O.W. Hall. In the late 1990s, their contributions to the swing revival movement propelled them to national stardom. Dick Hyman, noted jazz pianist and musical director for many of Woody Allen's films, designs and hosts the annual Now Hear This! jazz festival at the Oregon Festival of American Music (OFAM). OFAM and the Hult Center routinely draw major jazz talent for concerts. Eugene is also home to a large Zimbabwean music community. Kutsinhira Cultural Arts Center, which is "dedicated to the music and people of Zimbabwe," is based in Eugene. Social dance Downtown Eugene has three major dedicated partner-dance venues. The largest is The Tango Center, a collectively-run non-profit dedicated to Argentine Tango, which also hosts the ELLA Swing Dance Club. A free swing dance calendar for Eugene, OR can be found at EugeneSwing.com. Studio B is the oldest of the group, hosting Ballroom, Salsa, and Argentine Tango events and classes. Staver Dancesport, the newest facility, hosts Ballroom and Salsa, in a street-level dance hall like the Tango Center's. The University of Oregon and Lane Community College teach a full range of partner dancing classes as well as hosting the Oregon Ballroom Dance Club and student-run Swing and Argentine Tango events. Approximately 10 other venues in town host partner-dances. The oldest social dance group in town is the Eugene Folklore Society, which currently hosts Contra and Zydeco dances at various venues. Visual arts Eugene's visual arts community is supported by over 20 private art galleries and several organizations, including Maude Kerns Art Center, Maude Kerns Art Center Lane Arts Council, Lane Arts Council DIVA (the Downtown Initiative for the Visual Arts), the Hult Center's Jacobs Gallery, Jacobs Gallery and the Eugene Glass School. The Karin Clarke Gallery has been featuring master painters of Oregon since 2002 Annual visual arts events include the Mayor's Art Show and Art and the Vineyard. Art and the Vineyard Religion The Reconstructionist Temple Beth Israel is Eugene's largest Jewish congregation. Synagogue website. It was also, for many decades, Eugene's only synagogue, Zuckerman (2003), p. 87. Reichman (2007). until Orthodox members broke away in 1992 and formed "Congregation Ahavas Torah". Zuckerman (2003), pp. 91-93. About Us, Congregation Ahavas Torah website. Sports Club Sport Founded League Venue <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Oregon Ducks Football, Basketball, Track and Field, Softball, Volleyball, Golf, Tennis, Baseball, Ultimate, Lacrosse, Hockey, Soccer, Baseball 1876 National Collegiate Athletic Association: Pacific Ten Conference Autzen Stadium, McArthur Court, PK Park, Hayward Field <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Northwest Christian University Beacons Basketball, Cross Country, Distance Track, Golf, Soccer, Volleyball 1895 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, Cascade Collegiate Conference Morse Event Center <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Eugene Emeralds Baseball 1955 Northwest League Civic Stadium <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Eugene Gentlemen Rugby 1973 Pacific Northwest Rugby Football Union <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Eugene Chargers Basketball 2006 International Basketball League Morse Event Center <tr bgcolor="#ffffff'> Eugene Generals Hockey 2005 Junior A Tier III-League Hockey: Northern Pacific Hockey League Lane County Ice Center </table> Most of Eugene's interest in sports surrounds the Oregon Ducks, part of the Pacific 10 Conference (Pac 10). American football is especially popular, with intense rivalries between the Ducks and both the Oregon State University Beavers and the University of Washington Huskies. Autzen Stadium is home to Duck football, with a seating capacity of 59,000. It is often considered one of the toughest places to play in all of college football: "Autzen's 59,000 strong make the Big House [Michigan] collectively sound like a pathetic whimper. It's louder than 'The Swamp' at Florida, 'The Shoe' in Columbus and 'Death Valley' at Louisiana State. Autzen Stadium is where great teams go to die." — Michigan Daily, September 2003. For nearly 40 years, Eugene has been the "Track Capital of the World." Oregon's most famous track icon is the late world-class distance runner Steve Prefontaine, who was killed in a car crash in 1975. "Pre" has become a legendary figure among Eugene runners for his guts and lack of fear in races. Eugene's excellent jogging trails include Pre's Trail in Alton Baker Park, Rexius Trail, the Adidas Oregon Trail, and the Ridgeline Trail. Jogging was introduced to the U.S. through Eugene, brought from New Zealand by Bill Bowerman, who wrote the best-selling book "Jogging", and coached the champion University of Oregon track and cross country teams. During Bowerman's tenure, his "Men of Oregon" won 24 individual NCAA titles, including titles in 15 out of the 19 events contested. During Bowerman's 24 years at Oregon, his track teams finished in the top ten at the NCAA championships 16 times, including four team titles (1962,'64,'65,'70), and two second-place trophies. His teams also posted a dual meet record of 114-20. Bowerman also invented the waffle sole for running shoes in Eugene (legend has it that he made the first soles with his wife's waffle iron), and with U of O alumnus Phil Knight founded shoe giant Nike, Inc. The Nike Store in Eugene includes a museum of this slice of track history. Eugene's miles of running trails, through its unusually large park system, are the most extensive in the US. The city has dozens of running clubs. The climate is cool and temperate, good both for jogging and record-setting. Eugene is home to the University of Oregon's Hayward Field track, which hosts numerous collegiate and amateur track and field meets throughout the year, most notably the Prefontaine Classic. Hayward Field was host to the 2004 AAU Junior Olympic Games, the 2006 Pacific 10 track and field championships, and the 1972, 1976, 1980, and 2008 US Olympic track and field trials, and will host the latter again in 2012. Eugene is also home to the Eugene Emeralds, a short-season Class A minor-league baseball team. The "Ems" play their home games in 71-year-old Civic Stadium, once the home of Eugene high-school football. The Eugene Generals are a tier III Junior A amateur hockey club, playing its home games at Lane County Ice on the Fairgrounds. The Nationwide Tour's golfing event Oregon Classic takes place at Shadow Hills Country Club, just north of Eugene. The event has been played every year since 1998, except in 2001 when it was slated to begin the day after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Oregon Classic alumni have well over 100 wins on the PGA Tour. The $450,000 dollar purse and attendance make it the second largest-sporting event in Eugene behind Duck football. The top 20 players from the Nationwide Tour are promoted to the PGA Tour for the following year. Parks and recreation Hendricks Park, situated upon a knoll to the east of downtown, is known for its rhododendron garden and nearby memorial to Steve Prefontaine, known as Pre's Rock, where the legendary University of Oregon runner was killed in an auto accident. Alton Baker Park, next to the Willamette River, contains Pre's Trail. Also located next to the Willamette is the Owen Memorial Rose Garden, which is home to more than 4,500 roses of over 400 varieties , and the 150-year-old Black Tartarian Cherry tree , an Oregon Heritage Tree. The city of Eugene maintains an urban forest. The University of Oregon campus is an arboretum, with over 500 species of trees. The city operates and maintains scenic hiking trails that pass through and across the ridges of a cluster of hills in the southern portion of the city, on the fringe of residential neighborhoods. Some trails allow biking and others are for hikers and runners only. The nearest ski resort, Willamette Pass, is one hour from Eugene by car. On the way, along Oregon Route 58, are several reservoirs and lakes, the Oakridge mountain bike trails, hot springs, and waterfalls within Willamette National Forest. Eugene residents also frequent Hoodoo and Mount Bachelor ski resorts. The Three Sisters Wilderness, the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area and Smith Rock are just a short drive away. Government In 1944, Eugene adopted a council-manager form of government, replacing the day-to-day management of city affairs by the part-time mayor and volunteer city council with a full-time professional city manager. The subsequent history of Eugene city government has largely been one of the dynamics—often contentious—between the city manager, the mayor and city council. Ten people have held the city manager position. These include Deane Seeger (1945-49), Oren King (1949-53), Robert Finlayson (1953-59), Hugh McKinley (1959-75), Charles Henry (1975-80), Mike Gleason (1981-96), Vicki Elmer (1996-98), Jim Johnson (1998-2002), Dennis Taylor (2002-2007), Angel Jones (2007-2008) and Jon Ruiz (2008-present). Recent mayors include Edwin Cone (1958-69), Les Anderson (1969-77) Gus Keller (1977-84), Brian Obie (1985-88), Jeff Miller (1989-92), Ruth Bascom (1993-96), Jim Torrey (1997-2004) and Kitty Piercy (2005-present). Eugene City Council Mayor: Kitty Piercy Ward 1 - George Brown Ward 2 - Betty Taylor Ward 3 - Alan Zelenka Ward 4 - George Poling Ward 5 - Mike Clark Ward 6 - Jennifer Solomon Ward 7 - Andrea Ortiz Ward 8 - Chris Pryor City Manager: Jon Ruiz (April 14, 2008) Education Johnson Hall, University of Oregon Eugene is home to the University of Oregon. Other institutions of higher learning include Northwest Christian University, Lane Community College, Eugene Bible College, Gutenberg College, and Pacific University's Eugene Campus. The Eugene School District include four full-service high schools. Churchill (1966) serves the southwest portion of Eugene, as well as rural areas south and west of the city. North Eugene (1957) serves the River Road and Santa Clara neighborhoods north of Eugene proper. Sheldon High (1963) students come from the Coburg Road area north of downtown Eugene, as well as the city of Coburg and the rural area in between. South Eugene (1901), formerly Eugene High, is the district's oldest high school. It serves the city south and east of the downtown area and the University of Oregon. Magnet schools and alternative education are also key elements of the Eugene School District. The district has many private and alternative schools, including The Little French School, The Little French School which is a pre-kindergarten through kindergarten program that provides immersion in a second language, the Eugene Waldorf School, Eugene Waldorf School an anthroposophical kindergarten through eighth grade school. Within the school district, there are also several elementary schools that immerse the students in a foreign language for half of the day: Buena Vista Spanish immersion, Yujin Gakuen Japanese immersion, and Charlemagne French immersion. Bethel School District serves children in the Bethel neighborhood on the northwest edge of Eugene. The district's full-service high school is Willamette High School (1949). Other alternative schools in Eugene include three Montessori schools : Eugene Montessori, Far Horizon Montessori, and Ridgeline Montessori Public Charter School. The curriculum of the Network Charter School, in downtown Eugene, is drawn from an alliance of local businesses and non-profits. Network Charter School Wellsprings Friends School, founded in 1994 by members of the Eugene Friends Meeting, educates 60 students in grades 9-12. Wellsprings Friends School Media The largest newspaper serving the area is The Register-Guard, a daily newspaper with a circulation of about 70,000, published independently by the Baker family of Eugene. Other newspapers serving the area include the Eugene Weekly, the Oregon Daily Emerald, the student-run independent newspaper at the University of Oregon;The Torch, the student-run newspaper at Lane Community College, and The Mishpat, the student-run newspaper at Northwest Christian University. Eugene Magazine, Lane County's Lifestyle Quarterly and Eugene Living, Sustainable Home and Garden magazine also serves the area. Local television stations include KMTR (NBC), KVAL (CBS), KLSR-TV (FOX), KEVU, KEZI (ABC), KEPB (PBS), and KTVC (independent). The local NPR affiliates are KOPB, and KLCC. Radio station KRVM-AM also carries some NPR programming and is an affiliate of Jefferson Public Radio, based at Southern Oregon University. The Pacifica Radio affiliate (airing Democracy Now! and FreeSpeech Radio News) is the University of Oregon student-run radio station, KWVA. Additionally, the community supports two other radio stations: KWAX (classical) and KRVM (alternative). Eugene has the distinction of having the most radio stations per capita of any other metropolitan area in the country, with 28 FM and AM stations serving approximately 300,000 people. Infrastructure Transportation LTD's Eugene Station. Lane Transit District (LTD), a public transportation agency formed in 1970, covers 240 square miles (620 km²) of Lane County, including Creswell, Cottage Grove, Junction City and Veneta. Operating more than 90 buses during peak hours, LTD carries riders on 3.7 million trips every year. LTD's Eugene Station, downtown, covers nearly a city block, and is easily the busiest public plaza outside of the University. LTD recently opened a Bus Rapid Transit line between Eugene and Springfield, much of which runs in its own lane. The Emerald Express, as it is called, started running in January 2007. Cycling is popular in Eugene. Summertime events and festivals frequently have bike parking "corrals" that many times are filled to capacity by three hundred or more bikes. Many people commute to work by bicycle every month of the year. Numerous bike shops provide the finest rain gear products, running lights and everything a biker needs to ride and stay comfortable in heavy rain. Bike trails take commuting and recreational bikers along the Willamette River past a scenic rose garden, along Amazon Creek, through the downtown, and through the University of Oregon campus. The 1908 Amtrak depot downtown was restored in 2004; it is the southern terminus for two daily runs of the Amtrak Cascades, and a stop along the route in each direction for the daily Coast Starlight. Air traffic is served by the Eugene Airport, also known as Mahlon Sweet Field, which is the fifth largest airport in the Northwest. Highways traveling within and through Eugene include: Interstate 5: Interstate 5 forms much of the eastern city limit, acting as an effective, though unofficial boundary between Eugene and Springfield. To the north, I-5 leads to the Willamette Valley and Portland. To the south, I-5 leads to Roseburg, Medford, and the southwestern portion of the state. In full, Interstate 5 continues north to the Canadian Border at Blaine, Washington and Vancouver, British Columbia and extends south to the Mexican border at Tijuana and San Diego. Interstate 105/Oregon Route 126: Oregon Route 126 is routed along the Eugene-Springfield Highway, a limited-access freeway. The Eugene portion of this highway begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 and ends two miles (3 km) west at a freeway terminus. This portion of Oregon Route 126 is also signed Interstate 105, a spur route of Interstate 5. Oregon Route 126 continues west, a portion shared with Oregon Route 99, and continues west to Florence. Eastward, Oregon Route 126 crosses the Cascades and leads to central and eastern Oregon. Belt Line Highway: Beltline Road is a limited-access freeway which runs along the northern and western edges of incorporated Eugene. Delta Highway: The Delta Highway forms a connector of less than 2 miles (3 km) between Interstate 105 and Beltline Highway. Oregon Route 99: Oregon Route 99 forks off Interstate 5 south of Eugene, and forms a major surface artery in Eugene. It continues north into the Willamette valley, parallel to I-5. It is sometimes called the "scenic route" since it has a great view of the Coast Range and also stretches through many scenic farmlands of the Willamette Valley. Utilities Much of Eugene's water and electric service is provided by the Eugene Water and Electric Board (EWEB). Healthcare The Eugene area is home to three hospitals: McKenzie-Willamette Medical Center and Sacred Heart Medical Center at RiverBend in Springfield, and Sacred Heart Medical Center University District, in Eugene. The two Sacred Heart facilities are owned by PeaceHealth. Notable people from Eugene Athletes Danny Ainge, North Eugene High School (1977), NBA player, coach and team executive, Major League Baseball player Jon Anderson, Olympian, 1973 Boston Marathon winner Gregory Byrne, Athletics Director at Mississippi State University Todd Christensen, Sheldon High School (1974), Los Angeles Raiders NFL tight end Mary Decker, Olympian Bill Dellinger, Olympian Tim Euhus, Churchill High School, NFL tight end Dan Fouts, University of Oregon (1970-72), San Diego Chargers (NFL) quarterback, inducted into the NFL Hall of Fame Joey Harrington, University of Oregon (1998-2001), NFL quarterback Luke Jackson, University of Oregon, NBA player Nate Jaqua, South Eugene High School (2000), Seattle Sounders striker Jordan Kent, Churchill High School, University of Oregon football, basketball and track star, son of UO coach Ernie Kent, wide receiver for the Seattle Seahawks (NFL) Matt LaBounty, Oregon, 49ers, Packers, and Seahawks NFL Defensive End Casey Martin, professional golfer, University of Oregon golf coach Bill McChesney, University of Oregon distance runner, 1980 Olympic team member Quintin Mikell, Willamette High School, Philadelphia Eagles (NFL) defensive back Chris Miller, Sheldon High School (1983), University of Oregon (1983-86), NFL quarterback Kenny Moore, North Eugene High School (1962), University of Oregon (1963-66), runner, Olympic marathoner, sportswriter (Sports Illustrated), screenwriter (Without Limits), author (Bowerman and the Men of Oregon), actor in track movie Personal Best Haloti Ngata, University of Oregon (2006), Baltimore Ravens (NFL) defensive tackle Steve Prefontaine, University of Oregon (1973), Olympic runner Jeff Quinney, 2000 United States amateur golf champion, now active PGA player Ahmad Rashād (formerly Bobby Moore), University of Oregon football player (1969-71), NFL receiver, NBC sportscaster Dathan Ritzenhein, distance runner, 2008 USA men's Olympic Marathon Team Marla Runyan, distance runner Alberto Salazar, distance runner, marathoner Kailee Wong, North Eugene High School, NFL linebacker Others Ken Kesey statue in downtown Eugene Astronaut Stanley G. Love Herbert W. Armstrong, evangelist and author Brandon Beemer, actor Frank Black, musician, Pixies singer and guitarist Tracy Bonham, musician Richard Brautigan, author Isaac Brock, musician, Modest Mouse, Ugly Casanova John Brombaugh, pipe organ builder Edgar Buchanan, dentist, actor Amit Goswami, physicist, author Tim Hardin, musician Howard Hesseman, actor Nina Kiriki Hoffman, author Terri Irwin, American naturalist and wife of Crocodile Hunter Steve Irwin Christopher Judge, actor ("Stargate SG-1"), as Doug Judge, football star at the University of Oregon in the mid-1980s Kelly Keagy, musician (drummer for Night Ranger) Mat Kearney, musician Maude Kerns, artist Ken Kesey, author Damon Knight, author Phil Knight, co-founder of Nike, Inc. Eugene Lazowski, Polish physician, saved 8,000 people by creating a fake typhus epidemic in World War II Fake Epidemic Saves a Village from Nazis Chicago's 'Schindler' who saved 8,000 Jews from Nazis dies Grace Llewellyn, author The Teenage Liberation Handbook Mickey Loomis, Willamatte High School alumnus; general manager, New Orleans Saints, National Football League Stanley G. Love, astronaut Shawn McDonald, musician Wayne Morse, U.S. Senator Austin O'Brien, actor, costarred with Arnold Schwarzenegger in Last Action Hero as well as appearing in many other films and TV shows Jerry Oltion, author, astronomer, and inventor Steve Perry, songwriter, Cherry Poppin' Daddies singer Rock and Roll Soldiers, band Curtis Salgado, Willamette High School alumnus (1971), blues musician Rebecca Schaeffer, actress in My Sister Sam Paul Martin Simon, U.S. Senator from Illinois. David Ogden Stiers, actor on the television series M*A*S*H, was in the first graduating class of North Eugene High School (1960) Eric A. Stillwell, screenwriter and producer Corin Tucker, musician, Sleater-Kinney John Varley, science fiction author Ray Vukcevich, fantasy and literary author Caitlin Wachs, actress Bob Welch, author, columnist for Eugene Register-Guard Kate Wilhelm, author Mason Williams, musician, writer Paul Wright, musician Anthony Wynn, author Bryce Zabel, Hollywood writer/producer, recent chairman Academy of Television Arts & Sciences John Zerzan, anarcho-primitivist writer, philosopher, activist History of filmmaking in Eugene The Eugene area has been been used as a filming location for several Hollywood films, most famously for 1978's National Lampoon's Animal House, which was also filmed in nearby Cottage Grove. John Belushi had the idea for the film The Blues Brothers during filming of Animal House when he happened to meet Curtis Salgado at what was then the Eugene Hotel. Getting Straight, starring Elliott Gould and Candice Bergen, was filmed at Lane Community College in 1969. As the campus was still under construction at the time, the "occupation scenes" were easier to shoot. The "Chicken Salad on Toast" scene in the 1970 Jack Nicholson movie Five Easy Pieces was filmed at the Denny's restaurant at the southern I-5 freeway interchange near Glenwood. Nicholson directed the 1971 film Drive, He Said in Eugene. How to Beat the High Co$t of Living, starring Jane Curtin, Jessica Lange and Susan St. James, was filmed in Eugene in the fall of 1979. Locations included Valley River Center, Skinner Butte, the Willamette River and River Road Hardware. Several track and field movies have used Eugene as a setting and/or a filming location. Personal Best, starring Mariel Hemingway, was filmed in Eugene in 1982. The film centered on a group of women who are trying to qualify for the Olympic track and field team. Two track and field movies about the life of Steve Prefontaine, Prefontaine and Without Limits were released within a year of each other in 1997-1998. Movie Smackdown: "Without Limits -vs- Prefontaine Kenny Moore, Eugene-trained Olympic runner and co-star in Prefontaine, co-wrote the screenplay for Without Limits. Prefontaine was filmed in Washington because the Without Limits production bought out Hayward Field for the summer to prevent its competition from shooting there. Kenny Moore also wrote a biography of Bill Bowerman, played in Without Limits by Donald Sutherland. Stealing Time, a 2003 independent film, was partially filmed in Eugene. When the film premiered in June 2001 at the Seattle International Film Festival, it was titled Rennie's Landing after a popular bar near the University of Oregon campus. The title was changed for its DVD release. Zerophilia was filmed in Eugene in 2006. Sister cities Eugene has four sister cities: Kathmandu, Nepal Irkutsk, Russia Kakegawa, Japan Jinju, South Korea References External links City of Eugene Convention and Visitors Association of Lane County, Oregon | Eugene,_Oregon |@lemmatized eugene:170 second:8 large:23 city:44 u:12 state:14 oregon:82 county:12 seat:2 lane:19 locate:5 south:12 end:5 willamette:20 valley:9 confluence:1 mckenzie:4 river:11 mile:9 km:4 east:3 coast:4 accord:2 official:2 population:13 figure:3 estimated:1 center:22 third:1 metropolitan:2 long:2 portland:5 briefly:1 overtake:2 salem:2 term:1 since:7 home:17 university:55 also:25 note:2 natural:3 beauty:1 activist:2 political:1 leaning:1 alternative:7 lifestyle:2 recreational:3 opportunity:1 especially:2 bicycle:2 rafting:1 kayak:1 focus:2 art:25 motto:1 world:6 great:3 outdoors:1 refer:1 track:17 town:7 usa:2 emerald:6 people:12 republic:1 nike:5 corporation:3 beginning:1 history:7 community:19 name:4 founder:2 franklin:1 skinner:6 erect:1 first:12 cabin:1 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7,297 | Elegiac_couplet | Elegiac couplets are a poetic form used by Greek lyric poets for a variety of themes usually of smaller scale than those of epic poetry. The ancient Romans frequently used elegiac couplets in love poetry, as in Ovid's Amores. As with heroic couplets, the couplets are usually self-contained and express a complete idea. Elegiac couplets consist of alternating lines of dactylic hexameter and pentameter: two dactyls followed by a long syllable, a caesura, then two more dactyls followed by a long syllable. The following is a graphic representation of its scansion. Note that - is a long syllable, u a short syllable, and U either one long or two shorts: - U | - U | - U | - U | - u u | - - - U | - U | - || - u u | - u u | - The form was felt by the ancients to contrast the rising action of the first verse with a falling quality in the second. The sentiment is summarized by a line from Ovid's Amores I.1.27 Sex mihi surgat opus numeris, in quinque residat - "Let my work surge in six feet, quiet down in five." The effect is further illustrated by the following English example written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge: In the Hexameter rises the fountain's silvery column, In the pentameter aye falling in melody back. Greek origins The elegiac couplet is presumed to be the oldest Greek form of epodic poetry (a form where a later verse is sung in response or comment to a previous one). Scholars theorize the form was originally used in Ionian dirges, with the name "elegy" derived from the Greek ε, λεγε ε, λεγε - "Woe, cry woe, cry!" Hence, the form was used initially for funeral songs, typically with a flute as accompaniment. Archilochus expanded use of the form to treat other themes, such as war, travel, or homespun philosophy. Between Archilochus and other imitators, the verse form became a common poetic vehicle for conveying any strong emotion. At the end of the 7th century BCE, Mimnermus of Colophon struck on the innovation of using the verse for erotic poetry. He composed several elegies celebrating his love for the flute girl Nanno, and though fragmentary today his poetry was clearly influential in the later Roman development of the form. Propertius, to cite one example, notes Plus in amore valet Mimnermi versus Homero - "The verse of Mimnermus is stronger in love than Homer". The form continued to be popular throughout the Greek period and treated a number of different themes. Popular leaders were writers of elegy--Solon the lawgiver of Athens composed on political and ethical subjects--and even Plato and Aristotle dabbled with the meter. By the Hellenic period, the Alexandrian school made elegy its favorite and most highly developed form. They preferred the briefer style associated with elegy in contrast to the lengthier epic forms, and made it the singular medium for short epigrams. The founder of this school was Philitas of Cos. He was eclipsed only by the school's most admired exponent, Callimachus; their learned character and intricate art would have a heavy influence on the Romans. Roman Elegy Like all Greek forms, elegy was adapted by the Romans for their own literature. The fragments of Ennius contain a few couplets, and scattered verses attributed to Roman public figures like Cicero and Julius Caesar also survive. But it is the elegists of the mid-to-late first century BCE who are most commonly associated with the distinctive Roman form of the elegiac couplet. Catullus, the first of these, is an invaluable link between the Alexandrine school and the subsequent elegies of Tibullus and Propertius a generation later. His collection, for example, shows a familiarity with the usual Alexandrine style of terse epigram and a wealth of mythological learning, while his 66th poem is a direct translation of Callimachus' Coma Berenices. Arguably the most famous elegiac couplet in Latin is his two-line 85th poem Odi et Amo: Odi et amo. quare id faciam, fortasse requiris? nescio, sed fieri sentio et excrucior. Cornelius Gallus is another important statesman/writer of this period, one who was generally regarded by the ancients as the greatest of the elegists. Other than a few scant lines, all of his work has been lost. Elegy in the Augustan Age The form reached its zenith with the collections of Tibullus, Propertius, and several collections of Ovid (the Amores, Heroides, Tristia, and Epistulae ex Ponto). The vogue of elegy during this time is seen in the so-called 3rd and 4th book of Tibullus. Many poems in these books were clearly not written by Tibullus but by others, perhaps part of a circle under Tibullus' patron Mesalla. Notable in this collection are the poems of Sulpicia, the only surviving Latin literature written by a woman. Through these poets--and in comparison with the earlier Catullus--it is possible to trace specific characteristics and evolutionary patterns in the Roman form of the verse: The Roman authors often write about their own love affairs. In contrast to their Greek originals, these poets are characters in his own stories, and write about love in a highly subjective way. The form began to be applied to new themes beyond the traditional love, loss, and other "strong emotion" verse. Propertius uses it to relate aetiological or "origin" myths such as the origins of Rome (IV.1) and the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine Hill (IV.6). Ovid's Heroides--though at first glance fictitious love letters--are described by Ovid himself as a new literary form, and can be read as character studies of famous heroines from mythology. There is also Ovid's Fasti, a lengthy elegiac poem on the first six months of the Roman calendar. The Romans adopted the Alexandrine habit of concealing the name of their beloved in the poem with a pseudonym. Catullus' vexing Lesbia is notorious as the pseudonym of the teasing Clodia. But as the form developed, this habit becomes more artificial; Tibullus' Delia and Propertius' Cynthia, while likely real people, lack something of the specificity seen in Lesbia, while Ovid's Corinna is often considered a mere literary device. The poets become extremely careful in forming the distinctive pentameter line of their verses. Examples: A trend toward the clear separation of the pentameter halves. Catullus, for example, allows an elision across the caesura in 18 cases, a rare flaw in the later poets (Ovid, for example, never does this). The pentameter begins to show a semi-regular "leonine" rhyme between the two halves of the verse, e.g. Tib. I.1-2, where the culti ending the first half of the pentameter rhymes with the soli closing the verse: Divitias alius fulvo sibi congerat auro Et teneat culti iugera multa soli, While Catullus shows this rhyme in about 1 in 5 couplets, the later elegists use it more frequently. Propertius II.34, for example, has the rhyme in nearly half its pentameters. Rhyming between adjacent lines and even in the two halves of the hexameter is also observed, more than would be expected by chance alone. Unlike Catullus, later poets show a definite trend toward ending the pentameter with a two-syllable word. Propertius is especially interesting; in his first two books, he ignores this rule about as frequently as Catullus and Tibullus, but in the last two books endings other than a disyllabic word are very rare. Ovid has no exceptions to the disyllable in his Amores, and only a few proper names occur as polysyllabic endings in his later work. The hexameter follows the usual rhetorical trends of the dactylic hexameter in this age. If anything, the elegists are even more interested in verbal effects like alliteration and assonance. Post-Augustan writers Although no classical poet wrote collections of love elegies after Ovid, the verse retained its popularity as a vehicle for popular albeit occasional poetry. Elegiac verses appear, for example, in Petronius' Satyricon, and Martial's Epigrams uses it for many witty stand-alone couplets and for longer pieces. The trend continues through the remainder of the empire; short elegies appear in Apuleius's story Psyche and Cupid and the minor writings of Ausonius. Medieval elegy After the fall of the empire, one writer who produced elegaic verse was Maximianus. Various Christian writers also adopted the form; Venantius Fortunatus wrote some of his hymns in the meter, while later Alcuin and the Venerable Bede dabbled in the verse. The form also remained popular among the educated classes for gravestone epitaphs; many such epitaphs can be found in European cathedrals. De tribus puellis is an example of a Latin fabliau, a genre of comedy which employed elegiac couplets in imitation of Ovid. The medieval theorist John of Garland wrote that "all comedy is elegy, but the reverse is not true." Medieval Latin had a developed comedic genre known as elegiac comedy. Sometimes narrative, sometimes dramatic, it deviated from ancient practice because, as Ian Thompson writes, "no ancient drama would ever have been written in elegiacs." Renaissance and modern period With the Renaissance, more skilled writers interested in the revival of Roman culture took on the form in a way which attempted to recapture the spirit of the Augustan writers. The Dutch Latinist Johannes Secundus, for example, included Catullus-inspired love elegies in his Liber Basiorum, while the English poet John Milton wrote several lengthy elegies throughout his career. This trend continued down through the Recent Latin writers, whose close study of their Augustan counterparts reflects their general attempts to apply the cultural and literary forms of the ancient world to contemporary themes. References External links Reading Latin Verse Aloud: Metre and Scansion What is Elegy? | Elegiac_couplet |@lemmatized elegiac:10 couplet:12 poetic:2 form:24 use:9 greek:7 lyric:1 poet:7 variety:1 theme:5 usually:2 small:1 scale:1 epic:2 poetry:6 ancient:6 roman:12 frequently:3 love:9 ovid:11 amores:4 heroic:1 self:1 contain:2 express:1 complete:1 idea:1 consist:1 alternate:1 line:6 dactylic:2 hexameter:5 pentameter:8 two:9 dactyl:2 follow:3 long:5 syllable:5 caesura:2 following:2 graphic:1 representation:1 scansion:2 note:2 u:14 short:4 either:1 one:5 felt:1 contrast:3 rise:2 action:1 first:7 verse:16 fall:3 quality:1 second:1 sentiment:1 summarize:1 sex:1 mihi:1 surgat:1 opus:1 numeris:1 quinque:1 residat:1 let:1 work:3 surge:1 six:2 foot:1 quiet:1 five:1 effect:2 far:1 illustrate:1 english:2 example:10 write:10 samuel:1 taylor:1 coleridge:1 fountain:1 silvery:1 column:1 aye:1 melody:1 back:1 origins:1 presume:1 old:1 epodic:1 late:6 sing:1 response:1 comment:1 previous:1 scholars:1 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7,298 | Daugava_River | Daugava sunset in Riga. Daugava in Riga summer. The Swedish army bombarding the fortress of Daugavgriva at the Daugava's estuary in Latvia. The Daugava or Western Dvina (, , , ; , , , ) is a river rising in the Valdai Hills, Russia, flowing through Russia, Belarus, and Latvia, draining into the Gulf of Riga in Latvia, an arm of the Baltic Sea. The total length of the river is . It is connected by a canal with Berezina and Dnieper rivers. It is not to be confused with Northern Dvina. There are three hydroelectric dams on the Daugava River - Rīgas HES just upstream from Riga or 35 km from the mouth of the river, Ķegums HPP another 35 km further up or 70 km from the mouth, and Pļaviņas HPP another 37 km upstream or 107 km from the mouth. A fourth one, Daugavpils HES, has been planned but has always faced strong criticism. Belarus currently plans to build several hydroelectric dams on the Belarusian part of Daugava. Ecological catastrophe of 2007 In late March 2007, a pipe for diesel fuel transport, located in Belarus and belonging to the Russian company Zapad-Transnefte-produkt () failed, ejecting more than 100 tons of diesel fuel into the Daugava River. Currently more than 100 kilometres of Daugava's basin located in Latvia is covered in petroleum hydrocarbons. http://www.am.gov.lv/en/news/press-releases/2007/april/04-2/ Cities by Daugava Daugavpils, Latvia Jēkabpils, Latvia Aizkraukle, Latvia Ogre, Latvia Salaspils, Latvia Riga, Latvia Velizh, Russia Vitebsk, Belarus Polatsk, Belarus with some Dvina stones strewn in the vicinity Main tributaries Aiviekste Pałata Kasplya Mezha Dysna References External links River Daugava Basin Daugava Hydropower Plants in Latvia be-x-old:Дзьвіна | Daugava_River |@lemmatized daugava:11 sunset:1 riga:5 summer:1 swedish:1 army:1 bombard:1 fortress:1 daugavgriva:1 estuary:1 latvia:11 western:1 dvina:3 river:7 rising:1 valdai:1 hill:1 russia:3 flow:1 belarus:5 drain:1 gulf:1 arm:1 baltic:1 sea:1 total:1 length:1 connect:1 canal:1 berezina:1 dnieper:1 confuse:1 northern:1 three:1 hydroelectric:2 dam:2 rīgas:1 upstream:2 km:5 mouth:3 ķegums:1 hpp:2 another:2 far:1 pļaviņas:1 fourth:1 one:1 daugavpils:2 plan:2 always:1 face:1 strong:1 criticism:1 currently:2 build:1 several:1 belarusian:1 part:1 ecological:1 catastrophe:1 late:1 march:1 pipe:1 diesel:2 fuel:2 transport:1 locate:2 belonging:1 russian:1 company:1 zapad:1 transnefte:1 produkt:1 fail:1 eject:1 ton:1 kilometre:1 basin:2 cover:1 petroleum:1 hydrocarbon:1 http:1 www:1 gov:1 lv:1 en:1 news:1 press:1 release:1 april:1 city:1 jēkabpils:1 aizkraukle:1 ogre:1 salaspils:1 velizh:1 vitebsk:1 polatsk:1 stone:1 strewn:1 vicinity:1 main:1 tributary:1 aiviekste:1 pałata:1 kasplya:1 mezha:1 dysna:1 reference:1 external:1 link:1 hydropower:1 plant:1 x:1 old:1 дзьвіна:1 |@bigram gulf_riga:1 riga_latvia:2 baltic_sea:1 dnieper_river:1 hydroelectric_dam:2 http_www:1 external_link:1 |
7,299 | Aachen | (French, and, historically, English: Aix-la-Chapelle, Ripuarian: Oche, Dutch: Aken) is a historic spa city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It was a favoured residence of Charlemagne, and the place of coronation of the medieval Kings of Germany. It is the westernmost city of Germany, located along its borders with Belgium and the Netherlands, 65 km west of Cologne. Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p11. History Middle Age-style architecture can be found in Aachen. A quarry on the Lousberg which was first used in Neolithic times attests to the long occupation of the site of Aachen. No larger settlements, however, have been found to have existed in this remote rural area, distant at least 15 km from the nearest road even in Roman times, up to the early medieval period when the place is mentioned as a king's mansion for the first time, not long before Charlemagne became ruler of the Franks. Since Roman times, the hot springs at Aachen have been channeled into baths. There are currently two places to "take the waters", at the Carolus Thermen complex and the bathhouse in Burtscheid http://www.bad-aachen.de/Deutsch/gebiete.htm Spa districts in Aachen (German) . There is some documentary proof that the Romans named the hot sulphur springs of Aachen Aquis-Granum, and indeed to this day the city is known in Spanish as Aquisgrán. The name Granus has lately been identified as that of a Celtic deity. In French-speaking areas of the former Empire the word aquis evolved into the modern Aix. Middle Ages Construction of Aix-la-Chapelle, by Jean Fouquet. After Roman times, Einhard mentions that in 765–6 Pippin the Younger spent both Christmas and Easter at Aquis villa (""), Pépin le Bref, Annales d'Éginhard which must have been sufficiently equipped to support the royal household for several months. In the year of his coronation as King of Franks, 768, Charlemagne came to spend Christmas at Aachen for the first time. He went on to remain there in a mansion which he may have extended, although there is no source attesting any significant building activity at Aachen in his time apart from the building of the Palatine Chapel in Aachen (since 1929, cathedral) and the palatial presentation halls. Charlemagne spent most winters between 792 and his death in 814 in Aachen, which became the focus of his court and the political center of his empire. After his death, the king was buried in the church which he had built; his original tomb has been lost, while his alleged remains are preserved in the shrine where he was reburied after being declared a saint; his saintliness, however, was never very widely acknowledged outside the bishopric of Liège where he may still be venerated "by tradition". In 936, Otto I was crowned king of the kingdom in the collegiate church built by Charlemagne. Over the next 500 years, most kings of Germany destined to reign over the Holy Roman Empire were crowned "King of the Germans" in Aachen. The last king to be crowned here was Ferdinand I in 1531. During the Middle Ages, Aachen remained a city of regional importance, due to its proximity to Flanders, achieving a modest position in the trade in woollen cloths, favoured by imperial privilege. The city remained a Free Imperial City, subject to the Emperor only, but was politically far too weak to influence the policies of any of its neighbors. The only dominion it held was that over the neighboring tiny territory of Burtscheid, which was ruled by a Benedictine abbess and forced to accept that all of its traffic must pass through the "Aachener Reich". Even in the late 18th century, the Abbess of Burtscheid was prevented from building a road linking her territory to the neighbouring estates of the duke of Jülich; the city of Aachen even deployed its handful of soldiers to chase away the road-diggers. From the early 16th century, Aachen declined in importance. In 1656, a great fire devastated Aachen. "Aachen". (2006). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 9, 2006, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online. It still remained a place of historical myth and became newly attractive as a spa by the middle of the 17th century, not so much because of the effects of its hot springs on the health of its visitors but since Aachen was then — and remained well into the 19th century — one of the centres of high-level prostitution in Europe. Traces of this hidden agenda of the city's history can be found in the 18th century guidebooks to Aachen as well as to other spas; the main indication for visiting patients, ironically, was syphilis; only by the end of the 19th century had rheuma become the most important object of cures at Aachen and Burtscheid. This explains why Aachen was chosen as site of several important congresses and peace treaties: the first congress of Aachen (often referred to as Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle in English) in 1668, leading to the First Treaty of Aachen in the same year which ended the War of Devolution. The second congress ended with the second treaty in 1748, finishing the War of the Austrian Succession. The third congress took place in 1818 to decide the fate of occupied Napoleonic France. 18th century By the middle of the 18th century, industrialization had swept away most of the city's medieval rules of production and commerce, although the entirely corrupt remains of the city's mediæval constitution were kept in place (compare the famous remarks of Georg Forster in his Ansichten vom Niederrhein) until 1801, when Aachen became the "chef-lieu du département de la Roer" in Napoléon's First French Empire. In 1815 after the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Prussia took over and the city became one of its most socially and politically backward centres until the end of the 19th century. Administered within the Rhine Province, by 1880 the population was 80,000. Starting in 1840, the railway from Cologne to Belgium passed through Aachen. The city suffered extreme overcrowding and deplorable sanitary conditions up to 1875 when the mediæval fortifications were finally abandoned as a limit to building operations and new, less miserable quarters were built towards the eastern part of the city where drainage of waste liquids was easiest. In the 19th century and up to the 1930s, the city was important for the production of railway locomotives and carriages, iron, pins, needles, buttons, tobacco, woollen goods, and silk goods. 20th century Aachen was destroyed partially — and in some parts completely — during World War II, mostly by bombing by American artillery fire and through deliberate destruction wrought by the Waffen SS division employed to keep Aachen out of allied hands as long as possible. Damaged buildings include the mediæval churches of St. Foillan, St. Paul and St. Nicholas, as well as the Rathaus (city hall), although the Aachen Cathedral was largely unscathed. The city was taken by the Allies with only 4000 inhabitants who had disobeyed Nazi evacuation orders, on October 21 1944, the first German city to be captured. Its first Allied-appointed mayor, Franz Oppenhoff, was murdered by an SS commando unit. While the kings' palace no longer exists, the church built by Charlemagne is still the main attraction of the city Cathedral of Aachen . In addition to holding the remains of its founder, it became the burial place of his successor Otto III. The cathedral of Aachen has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is here that in 1944, just after having crossed the German border, an American Army Chaplain held the first Jewish service in Germany since the beginning of World War II. This service was broadcast live on NBC. Main sights Aachen city hall Aachen Cathedral Tree-lined boulevard in Aachen German–Dutch–Belgian border as seen from the town area The Aachen Cathedral was erected on the orders of Charlemagne in 786 AD and was on completion the largest dome north of the Alps. On his death Charlemagne's remains were interred in the cathedral and can be seen there to this date. The cathedral was extended several times in later ages, turning it into a curious and unique mixture of building styles. The 14th-century city hall lies between two central places, the Markt (market place) and the Katschhof (between city hall and cathedral). The coronation hall is on the first floor of the building. Inside you can find five frescoes by the Aachen artist Alfre Rethel which show legendary scenes from the life of Charlemagne, as well as Charlemagne's signature. The Grashaus, a late medieval house at the Markt, is one of the oldest non-religious buildings in downtown Aachen. It hosts the city archive. The Grashaus was the former city hall before the present building took over this function. The Elisenbrunnen is one of the most famous sights of Aachen. It is a neoclassical hall covering one of the cities famous fountains. It is just a minute away from the cathedral. Just a few steps in southeastern direction lies the 19th century theatre. Also well known and well worth seeing are the two remaining city gates, the Ponttor, one half mile northwest of the cathedral, and the Kleinmarschiertor, close to the central railway station. There are also a few parts of both medieval city walls left, most of them integrated in more recent buildings, some others visible. There are even five towers left, some of which are used for housing. There are many other places and objects worth seeing, for example a notable number of churches and monasteries, a few remarkable 17th- and 18th-century buildings in the particular Baroque style typical of the region, a collection of statues and monuments, park areas, cemeteries, amongst others. The area's industrial history is reflected in dozens of 19th- and early 20th-century manufacturing sites in the city. Economy Ford Research Center, Aachen. Aachen has a large number of spin-offs from the university's IT-technology department and is a major centre of IT development in Germany. Due to the low level of investment in cross-border railway projects, the city has preserved a slot within the Thalys high-speed train network which uses existing tracks on its last 70 km from Belgium to Cologne. The airport that serves Aachen, Maastricht Aachen Airport, is located about 40 km away on Dutch territory, close to the town of Beek. Aachen was the administrative centre for the coal-mining industries in neighbouring places to the northeast; it never played any role in brown coal mining, however, neither in administrative or industrial terms. Products manufactured in or around Aachen include electronics, chemicals, plastics, textiles, glass, cosmetics, and needles and pins. Its most important source of revenue, the textile industries, have been dead for almost half a century now. Robert Browning's poem "How they brought the good news from Ghent to Aix" refers to Aachen, but not to any historical fact. Transport Aachen's central station, the Hauptbahnhof, was constructed in 1841 at the Cologne-Aachen railway line and replaced in 1905, moving it significantly towards the city center. It is connected to railway lines to Cologne, Mönchengladbach and Liège as well as Heerlen, Alsdorf, Stolberg and Eschweiler via small regional railway lines. ICE high speed trains from Brussels via Cologne to Frankfurt am Main and Thalys trains from Paris to Cologne stop in Aachen Hauptbahnhof. Four RE lines and one RB line connect Aachen with the Ruhrgebiet, Mönchengladbach, Liège, Düsseldorf and the Siegerland. The euregiobahn, a regional train system, reaches several minor cities in the Aachen region. There are four smaller station in Aachen: Aachen West, Aachen-Schanz, Aachen-Rothe Erde and Eilendorf. Only slower trains stop there, but especially Aachen-West has developed enormous importance due to the expanding RWTH Aachen university. Aachen is connected to the Autobahn A4 (West-East), A44 (North-South) and A544 (a smaller motorway from the A4 to the Europaplatz near the city center). Due to the enormous amount of traffic at the Aachen road interchange, there is often serious traffic accumulation, which is why there are plans to expand the interchange in the next years. The next airports are Düsseldorf International Airport (80 km), Cologne Bonn Airport (90 km) and Maastricht Aachen Airport (40 km). Sports The annual CHIO (short for the French Concours Hippique International Officiel) is the biggest equestrian meeting of the world and among horsemen considered to be as prestigious for equitation as the tournament of Wimbledon for tennis. Aachen was also the host of the 2006 FEI World Equestrian Games. The local football team Alemannia Aachen had a short spell in Germany's first division, after its promotion in 2006. However, the team could not sustain its status and is now back in the second division. Their stadium is called Tivoli. Awards Since 1950, a committee of Aachen citizens annually awards the Karlspreis (German for ‘Charlemagne Award’) to personalities of outstanding service to the unification of Europe. The International Charlemagne Prize of Aachen was awarded in the year 2000 to the President of the United States, Bill Clinton, for his special personal contribution to cooperation with the states of Europe, for the preservation of peace, freedom, democracy and human rights in Europe, and for his support of the enlargement of the European Union. In 2003 the medal was awarded to Valéry Giscard d'Estaing. In 2004, Pope John Paul II's efforts to unite Europe were honoured with an ‘Extraordinary Charlemagne Medal’, which was awarded for the first time ever. Miscellaneous In the Carolus Thermen named for Charlemagne, the formal cascade gives the water sufficient chance to cool. For 600 years, from 936 to 1531, the Aachen Cathedral was the church of coronation for 30 German kings and 12 queens. Aachen is also famous for its carnival (Karneval, Fasching), in which Families dress in costumes, and children are the happiest on that day. Photo by Aymx In 1372, Aachen became the first coin-minting city in the world to regularly place an Anno Domini date on a general circulation coin, a groschen. It is written MCCCLXXII. None with this date are known to be in existence any longer. The earliest date for which an Aachen coin is still existent is dated 1373. King Ethelwulf of Wessex, father of Alfred the Great was born in Aachen. Mies van der Rohe, one of the founders of modern architecture and a member of the Bauhaus during its period in Dessau was born in Aachen as well. Aachen has the hottest springs of Central Europe with water temperatures of 74°C(165°F). The water contains a considerable percentage of common salt and other sodium salts and sulphur. In 1850 Paul Julius Reuter founded the Reuters News Agency in Aachen which transferred messages between Brussels and Aachen using carrier pigeons. The local speciality of Aachen is an originally stonehard type of sweet bread, baked in large flat loaves, called Aachener Printen. Unlike gingerbread (), which is sweetened with honey, Printen are sweetened with sugar. Today, a soft version is sold under the same name which follows an entirely different recipe. Aachen is at the western end of the Benrath line that divides High German to the south from the rest of the West Germanic speech area to the north. Education The main building of RWTH Aachen University Typical Aachen street with early 20th century Gründerzeit houses RWTH Aachen University, (often known only as RWTH Aachen), established as Polytechnicum in 1870, is a centre of technological research of worldwide importance, especially for electrical and mechanical engineering, computer sciences and physics. The university clinics attached to the RWTH, the Klinikum Aachen, is the biggest single-building hospital in Europe. Over time, a host of software and computer industries have developed around the university. It also maintains a botanical garden (the Botanischer Garten Aachen). FH Aachen, Aachen University of Applied Sciences (AcUAS) was founded in 1971. The AcUAS not only offers a classic engineering education in professions like Mechatronics, Construction Engineering, Mechanical Engineering or Electrical Engineering, but in an intensive dialogue with commerce, politics and professional practice new and application-oriented programs have been and are continually developed, which exceed today’s requirements by far. Internationality is also underlined by the range of academic courses on offer: German and international students are educated in more than 20 international or foreign-oriented programs and can acquire German as well as international degrees (Bachelor/Master) or Doppeldiplome (double degrees). The fraction of foreign students meanwhile amounts to more than 21%. The German Army's Technical School (Technische Schule des Heeres und Fachschule des Heeres für Technik) is also situated in Aachen. Sister cities Reims, France; since 1967. Halifax, United Kingdom; since 1979. Toledo, Spain; since 1985. Ningbo, China; since 1986. Naumburg, Germany; since 1988. Arlington County, Virginia, United States; since 1993. Cape Town, South Africa; since 1999. Kostroma, Russia; since 2005. Rosh HaAyin, Israel; since 2007. Name in different languages Aachen is known in different languages by different names (see also Names of European cities in different languages). Language Name Pronunciation in IPA German Aachen Local dialect Oche Albanian Ahen Arabic, Persian آخن Bulgarian Аахен/Ахен Catalan Aquisgrà Chinese (Simplified) 亚琛 (PY: yà chēn) Chinese (Traditional, Taiwan form) 亞亨 (PY: yà hēng) Chinese (Traditional, HK form) 亞琛 (JP: aa3 sam1) Czech Cáchy Dutch Aken French Aix-la-Chapelle Georgian აახენი Greek, Ancient Ἀκυΐσγρανον Greek, Modern Άαχεν Hebrew אאכן Italian Aquisgrana Japanese アーヘン Korean 아헨 Latin Aquīsgrānum Latvian Āhene Limburgish Aoke Lithuanian Achenas Luxembourgish Oochen Polish Akwizgran Portuguese Aquisgrão, Aquisgrana , Russian Аахен/Ахен Serbian Ahen/Ахен Spanish Aquisgrán Thai อาเคิน Turkish Ahen Walloon Åxhe Yiddish אכען See also: Aachen dialect See also Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle Aachen (district) List of mayors of Aachen Aachener Notes External links City of Aachen (partly available in English) ASEAG (public bus transport) (in German) RWTH Aachen University (in German and English) Fachhochschule Aachen (Aachen University of Applied Sciences) Google Earth placemark with official image overlays Panorama pictures of landmarks and places of interest Einhard's Annals: first mention of Aquis villa, 765 Aachen Zoo at Zoo-Infos.de (in English) Article on Aachen's historic buildings Map of the Aachen Area in 1789 | Aachen |@lemmatized french:5 historically:1 english:5 aix:7 la:6 chapelle:5 ripuarian:1 oche:2 dutch:4 aken:2 historic:2 spa:4 city:35 north:4 rhine:2 westphalia:1 germany:8 favoured:1 residence:1 charlemagne:14 place:13 coronation:4 medieval:5 king:11 westernmost:1 locate:2 along:1 border:4 belgium:3 netherlands:1 km:7 west:5 cologne:8 bridgwater:1 w:1 beatrice:1 aldrich:1 columbia:2 viking:1 desk:1 encyclopedia:1 university:10 history:3 middle:5 age:4 style:3 architecture:2 find:4 aachen:93 quarry:1 lousberg:1 first:14 use:4 neolithic:1 time:10 attest:2 long:4 occupation:1 site:4 large:4 settlement:1 however:4 exist:3 remote:1 rural:1 area:7 distant:1 least:1 near:2 road:4 even:4 roman:5 early:5 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