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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)"
] | null | null | null | null | 14 |
|
[
"First Sacred War",
"participant",
"Cirrha"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"First Sacred War",
"participant",
"Sicyon"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"First Sacred War",
"participant",
"Delphic amphictyony"
] | The First Sacred War, or Cirraean War, was fought between the Amphictyonic League of Delphi and the city of Kirrha. At the beginning of the 6th century BC the Pylaeo-Delphic Amphictyony, controlled by the Thessalians, attempted to take hold of the Sacred Land (or Kirrhaean Plain) of Apollo, resulting in this war. The conflict arose due to Kirrha's frequent robbery and mistreatment of pilgrims going to Delphi and their encroachments upon Delphic land. The war, which culminated with the defeat and destruction of Kirrha, is notable for the use of chemical warfare at the Siege of Kirrha, in the form of hellebore being used to poison the city's water supply. The war's end was marked by the organization of the first Pythian Games. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"New Kingdom of Egypt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:New Kingdom of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"New Kingdom of Egypt",
"follows",
"Second Intermediate Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"New Kingdom of Egypt",
"followed by",
"Third Intermediate Period of Egypt"
] | The New Kingdom, also referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in ancient Egyptian history between the sixteenth century BC and the eleventh century BC, covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and Twentieth dynasties of Egypt. Radiocarbon dating places the beginning of the New Kingdom between 1570 BC and 1544 BC.
The New Kingdom followed the Second Intermediate Period and was succeeded by the Third Intermediate Period. It was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked the peak of its power.The concept of a "New Kingdom" as one of three "golden ages" was coined in 1845 by German Egyptologist Baron von Bunsen, and its definition would evolve significantly throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The later part of this period, under the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties (1292–1069 BC), is also known as the Ramesside period. It is named after the eleven pharaohs who took the name Ramesses, after Ramesses I, the founder of the Nineteenth Dynasty.Possibly as a result of the foreign rule of the Hyksos during the Second Intermediate Period, the New Kingdom saw Egypt expand in the Levant, and during this time Egypt attained its greatest territorial extent. Similarly, in response to seventeenth-century BC attacks / raids during the Second Intermediate Period by the Kushites, the rulers of the New Kingdom felt compelled to expand far south into Nubia and to hold wide territories in the Near East. | null | null | null | null | 7 |
[
"Greek Dark Ages",
"follows",
"Mycenaean Greece"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Greek Dark Ages",
"followed by",
"Archaic Greece"
] | Continuity thesis
Some scholars have argued against the concept of a Greek Dark Age, on grounds that the former lack of archaeological evidence in a period that was mute in its lack of inscriptions (thus "dark") is an accident of discovery rather than a fact of history. As James Whitley has put it, "The Dark Age of Greece is our conception. It is a conception strongly coloured by our knowledge of the two literate civilisations that preceded and succeeded it: the bureaucratic, palace-centred world of Mycenaean Greece and the chaotic and creative Archaic age of Hellenic civilisation." | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Greek Dark Ages",
"different from",
"Dark Ages"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"MUL.APIN",
"main subject",
"astronomy"
] | MUL.APIN (𒀯𒀳) is the conventional title given to a Babylonian compendium that deals with many diverse aspects of Babylonian astronomy and astrology.
It is in the tradition of earlier star catalogues, the so-called Three Stars Each lists, but represents an expanded version based on more accurate observation, likely compiled around 1000 BCE.
The text lists the names of 66 stars and constellations and further gives a number of indications, such as rising, setting and culmination dates, that help to map out the basic structure of the Babylonian star map.
The text is preserved in a 7th-century BCE copy on a pair of tablets, named for their incipit, corresponding to the first constellation of the year, MULAPIN "The Plough", identified with stars in the area of the modern constellations of Cassiopeia, Andromeda and Triangulum according to the compilation of suggestions by Gössmann and Kurtik. Recently, it has been suggested to identify with Cassiopeia only. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Maastrichtian",
"significant event",
"Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event"
] | The Maastrichtian ( ) is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the latest age (uppermost stage) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series, the Cretaceous Period or System, and of the Mesozoic Era or Erathem. It spanned the interval from 72.1 to 66 million years ago. The Maastrichtian was preceded by the Campanian and succeeded by the Danian (part of the Paleogene and Paleocene).The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event) occurred at the end of this age. In this mass extinction, many commonly recognized groups such as non-avian dinosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, as well as many other lesser-known groups, died out. The cause of the extinction is most commonly linked to an asteroid about 10 to 15 kilometres (6.2 to 9.3 mi) wide colliding with Earth, ending the Cretaceous. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Maastrichtian",
"follows",
"Campanian"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Maastrichtian",
"followed by",
"Danian"
] | The Maastrichtian ( ) is, in the ICS geologic timescale, the latest age (uppermost stage) of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or Upper Cretaceous Series, the Cretaceous Period or System, and of the Mesozoic Era or Erathem. It spanned the interval from 72.1 to 66 million years ago. The Maastrichtian was preceded by the Campanian and succeeded by the Danian (part of the Paleogene and Paleocene).The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event (formerly known as the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event) occurred at the end of this age. In this mass extinction, many commonly recognized groups such as non-avian dinosaurs, plesiosaurs and mosasaurs, as well as many other lesser-known groups, died out. The cause of the extinction is most commonly linked to an asteroid about 10 to 15 kilometres (6.2 to 9.3 mi) wide colliding with Earth, ending the Cretaceous. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Maastrichtian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Maastrichtian"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Ypresian",
"significant event",
"Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum"
] | Events
The Ypresian Age begins during the throes of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM). The Fur Formation in Denmark, the Messel shales in Germany, the Oise amber of France and Cambay amber of India are of this age. The Eocene Okanagan Highlands are an uplands subtropical to temperate series of lakes from the Ypresian.The Ypresian is also marked by another warming event called the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum (EECO). The EECO is the longest sustained warming event in the cenozoic record; it lasted about 2–3 million years between 53 and 50 Ma. The interval is characterized by low oxygen 18 isotopes, high levels of atmospheric pCO2, and low meridional thermal gradients. Biodiversity has been reported to have been significantly impacted by the conditions prevalent during the EECO. For instance, there were biotic turnovers among marine producers such as calcerous nannofossil among others etc. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Ypresian",
"significant event",
"Eocene Thermal Maximum 2"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Ypresian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Ypresian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Ypresian",
"follows",
"Thanetian"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Ypresian",
"followed by",
"Lutetian"
] | In the geologic timescale the Ypresian is the oldest age or lowest stratigraphic stage of the Eocene. It spans the time between 56 and 47.8 Ma, is preceded by the Thanetian Age (part of the Paleocene) and is followed by the Eocene Lutetian Age. The Ypresian is consistent with the lower Eocene. | null | null | null | null | 9 |
[
"Danian",
"significant event",
"Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event"
] | The Danian is the oldest age or lowest stage of the Paleocene Epoch or Series, of the Paleogene Period or System, and of the Cenozoic Era or Erathem. The beginning of the Danian (and the end of the preceding Maastrichtian) is at the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event 66 Ma. The age ended 61.6 Ma, being followed by the Selandian. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Danian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Danian"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Danian",
"followed by",
"Selandian"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Danian",
"follows",
"Maastrichtian"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Danian",
"different from",
"Dan"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"First Messenian War",
"participant",
"Sparta"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"First Messenian War",
"participant",
"Messenia"
] | Cause
Immediate provocation
A generation later "the mutual hatred of the Lakonians and Messenians came to a head." The immediate provocation was an incident of cattle theft. Polychares of Messenia, an athlete and Olympic victor, leased some grazing land from Euaiphnos the Spartan, who promptly sold the cattle to some merchants, claiming pirates had stolen them. As he was making excuses to Polychares a herdsman of the latter, having escaped from the merchants, intervened to acquaint his master with the real facts. Apologizing Euaiphnos asked Polychares to let his son go with him to obtain the money from the sale, but once over the Spartan border he murdered the son. Polychares petitioned the Spartan magistrates for justice. Despairing of it he began to murder such Spartans as he could catch at random. The Spartans demanded extradition of Polychares. The Messenian magistrates insisted on an exchange for Euaiphnos.
At this point the incident exploded into violence at the national level. The Spartans sent a delegation to petition the kings of Messenia, nominally Heraclids. Androcles was for extradition, Antiochus against. The whole history of Spartan-Messenian relations was reviewed, including the assassination of Teleclus 25 years earlier and the discussion became so heated that weapons were drawn. The parties of the two kings assaulted each other and Androcles was killed. Antiochus told the Spartans he would submit the case to the courts at Argos (Dorian) and Athens (Achaean). Antiochus died a few months later and his son, Euphaes, succeeded him. The law case seems to have vanished. Shortly after a Spartan army under both kings of Sparta launched an invasion of Messenia. | null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Cretaceous",
"follows",
"Jurassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Cretaceous",
"followed by",
"Paleogene"
] | The Cretaceous (IPA: krih-TAY-shəs) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire Phanerozoic. The name is derived from the Latin creta, "chalk", which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide.
The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites, and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land. The world was ice- free, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of mammals and birds appeared. During the Early Cretaceous, flowering plants appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of plants across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups.
The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, a large mass extinction in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, died out. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Cretaceous",
"significant event",
"Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event"
] | The Cretaceous (IPA: krih-TAY-shəs) is a geological period that lasted from about 145 to 66 million years ago (Mya). It is the third and final period of the Mesozoic Era, as well as the longest. At around 79 million years, it is the longest geological period of the entire Phanerozoic. The name is derived from the Latin creta, "chalk", which is abundant in the latter half of the period. It is usually abbreviated K, for its German translation Kreide.
The Cretaceous was a period with a relatively warm climate, resulting in high eustatic sea levels that created numerous shallow inland seas. These oceans and seas were populated with now-extinct marine reptiles, ammonites, and rudists, while dinosaurs continued to dominate on land. The world was ice- free, and forests extended to the poles. During this time, new groups of mammals and birds appeared. During the Early Cretaceous, flowering plants appeared and began to rapidly diversify, becoming the dominant group of plants across the Earth by the end of the Cretaceous, coincident with the decline and extinction of previously widespread gymnosperm groups.
The Cretaceous (along with the Mesozoic) ended with the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event, a large mass extinction in which many groups, including non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, and large marine reptiles, died out. The end of the Cretaceous is defined by the abrupt Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–Pg boundary), a geologic signature associated with the mass extinction that lies between the Mesozoic and Cenozoic Eras. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Cretaceous",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 15 |
|
[
"Cretaceous",
"different from",
"Kridt"
] | null | null | null | null | 18 |
|
[
"Paleocene",
"different from",
"Paleogene"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Paleocene",
"followed by",
"Eocene"
] | The Paleocene, (IPA: PAL-ee-ə-seen, -ee-oh-, PAY-lee-) or Palaeocene, is a geological epoch that lasted from about 66 to 56 million years ago (mya). It is the first epoch of the Paleogene Period in the modern Cenozoic Era. The name is a combination of the Ancient Greek παλαιός palaiós meaning "old" and the Eocene Epoch (which succeeds the Paleocene), translating to "the old part of the Eocene".
The epoch is bracketed by two major events in Earth's history. The K–Pg extinction event, brought on by an asteroid impact (Chicxulub impact) and possibly volcanism (Deccan Traps), marked the beginning of the Paleocene and killed off 75% of species, most famously the non-avian dinosaurs. The end of the epoch was marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM), which was a major climatic event wherein about 2,500–4,500 gigatons of carbon were released into the atmosphere and ocean systems, causing a spike in global temperatures and ocean acidification.
In the Paleocene, the continents of the Northern Hemisphere were still connected via some land bridges; and South America, Antarctica, and Australia had not completely separated yet. The Rocky Mountains were being uplifted, the Americas had not yet joined, the Indian Plate had begun its collision with Asia, and the North Atlantic Igneous Province was forming in the third-largest magmatic event of the last 150 million years. In the oceans, the thermohaline circulation probably was much different from what it is today, with downwellings occurring in the North Pacific rather than the North Atlantic, and water density mainly being controlled by salinity rather than temperature.
The K–Pg extinction event caused a floral and faunal turnover of species, with previously abundant species being replaced by previously uncommon ones. In the Paleocene, with a global average temperature of about 24–25 °C (75–77 °F), compared to 14 °C (57 °F) in more recent times, the Earth had a greenhouse climate without permanent ice sheets at the poles, like the preceding Mesozoic. As such, there were forests worldwide—including at the poles—but they had low species richness in regards to plant life, and were populated by mainly small creatures that were rapidly evolving to take advantage of the recently emptied Earth. Though some animals attained great size, most remained rather small. The forests grew quite dense in the general absence of large herbivores. Mammals proliferated in the Paleocene, and the earliest placental and marsupial mammals are recorded from this time, but most Paleocene taxa have ambiguous affinities. In the seas, ray-finned fish rose to dominate open ocean and recovering reef ecosystems.Geology
Boundaries
The Paleocene Epoch is the 10 million year time interval directly after the K–Pg extinction event, which ended the Cretaceous Period and the Mesozoic Era, and initiated the Cenozoic Era and the Paleogene Period. It is divided into three ages: the Danian spanning 66 to 61.6 million years ago (mya), the Selandian spanning 61.6 to 59.2 mya, and the Thanetian spanning 59.2 to 56 mya. It is succeeded by the Eocene.The K–Pg boundary is clearly defined in the fossil record in numerous places around the world by a high-iridium band, as well as discontinuities with fossil flora and fauna. It is generally thought that a 10 to 15 km (6 to 9 mi) wide asteroid impact, forming the Chicxulub Crater in the Yucatán Peninsula in the Gulf of Mexico, and Deccan Trap volcanism caused a cataclysmic event at the boundary resulting in the extinction of 75% of all species.The Paleocene ended with the Paleocene–Eocene thermal maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic foraminifera–planktonic species which are used as bioindicators of the health of a marine ecosystem—one of the largest in the Cenozoic. This event happened around 55.8 mya, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Paleocene",
"follows",
"Late Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Paleocene",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Paleocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Late Cretaceous",
"followed by",
"Palaeocene"
] | Cretaceous–Paleogene mass extinction discovery
The Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically short period of time, approximately 66 million years ago (Ma). It is widely known as the K–T extinction event and is associated with a geological signature, usually a thin band dated to that time and found in various parts of the world, known as the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary (K–T boundary). K is the traditional abbreviation for the Cretaceous Period derived from the German name Kreidezeit, and T is the abbreviation for the Tertiary Period (a historical term for the period of time now covered by the Paleogene and Neogene periods). The event marks the end of the Mesozoic Era and the beginning of the Cenozoic Era. "Tertiary" being no longer recognized as a formal time or rock unit by the International Commission on Stratigraphy, the K-T event is now called the Cretaceous—Paleogene (or K-Pg) extinction event by many researchers. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Late Cretaceous",
"follows",
"Early Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Late Cretaceous",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Late Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 13 |
|
[
"Thanetian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Thanetian"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Thanetian",
"follows",
"Selandian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Thanetian",
"followed by",
"Ypresian"
] | The Thanetian is, in the ICS Geologic timescale, the latest age or uppermost stratigraphic stage of the Paleocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between 59.2 and 56 Ma. The Thanetian is preceded by the Selandian Age and followed by the Ypresian Age (part of the Eocene). The Thanetian is sometimes referred to as the Late Paleocene.Stratigraphic definition
The Thanetian was established by Swiss geologist Eugène Renevier in 1873. The Thanetian is named after the Thanet Formation, the oldest Cenozoic deposit of the London Basin, which was first identified in the area of Kent (southern England) known as the Isle of Thanet.
The base of the Thanetian Stage is laid at the base of magnetic chronozone C26n. The references profile (Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point) is in the Zumaia section (43° 18'N, 2° 16'W) at the beach of Itzurun, Pais Vasco, northern Spain. Fossils of the unicellular planktonic marine coccolithophore Areoligeria gippingensis make their first appearance at the base of the Thanetian, and help define its lowest stratigraphic boundary.
The top of the Thanetian Stage (the base of the Ypresian) is defined at a strong negative anomaly in δ13C values at the global thermal maximum at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary.
The Thanetian Stage is coeval the lower Neustrian European land mammal age (it spans the Mammal Paleogene zone 6 and part of zones 1 through 5.), the upper Tiffanian and Clarkforkian North American land mammal ages, the Riochican and part of the Itaboraian South American land mammal ages and the upper Nongshanian and Gashatan Asian land mammal ages. The Thanetian is contemporary with the middle Wangerripian regional stage of Australia and the upper Ynezian regional stage of California. It overlaps the obsolete regional stages Landenian and Heersian of Belgium. | null | null | null | null | 6 |
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Cyprus"
] | Spread of the revolt
The Athenians now ended their alliance with the Ionians, since the Persians had proved to be anything but the easy prey that Aristagoras had described. However, the Ionians remained committed to their rebellion and the Persians did not seem to follow up their victory at Ephesus. Presumably these ad hoc forces were not equipped to lay siege to any of the cities. Despite the defeat at Ephesus, the revolt actually spread further. The Ionians sent men to the Hellespont and Propontis and captured Byzantium and the other nearby cities. They also persuaded the Carians to join the rebellion. Furthermore, seeing the spread of the rebellion, the kingdoms of Cyprus also revolted against Persian rule without any outside persuasion.Cyprus
In Cyprus, all the kingdoms had revolted except that of Amathus. The leader of the Cypriot revolt was Onesilus, brother of the king of Salamis, Gorgus. Gorgus did not want to revolt, so Onesilus locked his brother out of the city and made himself king. Gorgus went over to the Persians, and Onesilus persuaded the other Cypriots, apart from the Amathusians, to revolt. He then settled down to besiege Amathus.The following year (497 BC), Onesilus (still besieging Amathus), heard that a Persian force under Artybius had been dispatched to Cyprus. Onesilus thus sent messengers to Ionia, asking them to send reinforcements, which they did, "in great force". A Persian army eventually arrived in Cyprus, supported by a Phoenician fleet. The Ionians opted to fight at sea and defeated the Phoenicians. In the simultaneous land battle outside Salamis, the Cypriots gained an initial advantage, killing Artybius. However, the defection of two contingents to the Persians crippled their cause, they were routed and Onesilus and Aristocyprus, king of Soli, were both killed. The revolt in Cyprus was thus crushed and the Ionians sailed home. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Athens"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Doric hexapolis"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Ionian Revolt"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Achaemenid Empire"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Ionia"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Eretria"
] | Sardis
In the spring of 498 BC, an Athenian force of twenty triremes, accompanied by five from Eretria, set sail for Ionia. They joined up with the main Ionian force near Ephesus. Declining to personally lead the force, Aristagoras appointed his brother Charopinus and another Milesian, Hermophantus, as generals.This force was then guided by the Ephesians through the mountains to Sardis, Artaphernes's satrapal capital. The Greeks caught the Persians unaware, and were able to capture the lower city. However, Artaphernes still held the citadel with a significant force of men. The lower city then caught on fire, Herodotus suggests accidentally, which quickly spread. The Persians in the citadel, being surrounded by a burning city, emerged into the market-place of Sardis, where they fought with the Greeks, forcing them back. The Greeks, demoralised, then retreated from the city, and began to make their way back to Ephesus.Herodotus reports that when Darius heard of the burning of Sardis, he swore vengeance upon the Athenians (after asking who they indeed were), and tasked a servant with reminding him three times each day of his vow: "Master, remember the Athenians". | null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Caria"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Ionian Revolt",
"participant",
"Aeolis"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Cypriot syllabary",
"based on",
"Linear A"
] | The Cypriot or Cypriote syllabary is a syllabic script used in Iron Age Cyprus, in the 4th century BCE and is descended from the Cypro-Minoan syllabary, in turn, a variant or derivative of Linear A. Most texts using the script are in the Arcadocypriot dialect of Greek, but also one bilingual (Greek and non-Greek Amathusea) inscription was found in Amathus.Enkomi
The earliest dated inscription from Cyprus was discovered at Enkomi in 1955. It was a part of a thick clay tablet with only three lines of writing. Epigraphers immediately saw a resemblance. Because the date of the fragment was found to be around 1500 BCE, considerably earlier than Linear B, linguists determined that the Cypriot syllabary was derived from Linear A and not Linear B. Several other fragments of clay tablets were also found in Enkomi. They date to a later period, around the late 13th or 12th century BCE. The script found on these tablets has considerably evolved and the signs have become simple patterns of lines. Linguists named this new script as Cypro-Minoan syllabary. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Cypriot syllabary",
"based on",
"Cypro-Minoan"
] | The Cypriot or Cypriote syllabary is a syllabic script used in Iron Age Cyprus, in the 4th century BCE and is descended from the Cypro-Minoan syllabary, in turn, a variant or derivative of Linear A. Most texts using the script are in the Arcadocypriot dialect of Greek, but also one bilingual (Greek and non-Greek Amathusea) inscription was found in Amathus.Enkomi
The earliest dated inscription from Cyprus was discovered at Enkomi in 1955. It was a part of a thick clay tablet with only three lines of writing. Epigraphers immediately saw a resemblance. Because the date of the fragment was found to be around 1500 BCE, considerably earlier than Linear B, linguists determined that the Cypriot syllabary was derived from Linear A and not Linear B. Several other fragments of clay tablets were also found in Enkomi. They date to a later period, around the late 13th or 12th century BCE. The script found on these tablets has considerably evolved and the signs have become simple patterns of lines. Linguists named this new script as Cypro-Minoan syllabary. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Overthrow of the Roman monarchy",
"follows",
"Second Roman Kingdom"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Overthrow of the Roman monarchy",
"followed by",
"Early Roman Republic"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Bartonian",
"followed by",
"Priabonian"
] | The Bartonian is, in the ICS's geologic time scale, a stage or age in the middle Eocene Epoch or Series. The Bartonian Age spans the time between 41.2 and 37.71 Ma. It is preceded by the Lutetian and is followed by the Priabonian Age.Stratigraphic definition
The Bartonian Stage was introduced by Swiss stratigrapher Karl Mayer-Eymar in 1857. The name derives from the coastal village Barton-on-Sea (part of New Milton) in southern England. The Barton Group, a lithostratigraphic unit from the south English Hampshire Basin, is of Bartonian age. The distinction between group and stage was made in the second part of the 20th century, when stratigraphers saw the need to distinguish between litho- and chronostratigraphy.The base of the Bartonian is at the first appearance of the calcareous nanoplankton species Reticulofenestra reticulata. In 2009, an official reference profile (GSSP) for the base of the Bartonian had not yet been established.The top of the Bartonian Stage (the base of the Priabonian) is at the first appearance of calcareous nanoplankton species Chiasmolithus oamaruensis (which forms the base of nanoplankton biozone NP18).The Bartonian Stage overlaps part of the upper Robiacian European Land Mammal Mega Zone (it spans the Mammal Paleogene zone 16), the upper Uintan and Duchesnean North American Land Mammal Ages, part of the Divisaderan South American Land Mammal Age and is coeval with the Sharamururian Asian Land Mammal Age.The Auversian regional stage of France is coeval with the Bartonian and is therefore no longer used. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Bartonian",
"follows",
"Lutetian"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Bartonian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Bartonian"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Lutetian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Lutetian"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Lutetian",
"followed by",
"Bartonian"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Lutetian",
"follows",
"Ypresian"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Kalinga War",
"participant",
"Ashoka"
] | Background
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.The reasons for invading Kalinga were to bring peace and for power. Kalinga was a prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. The northern part of Kalinga was known as the Utkala (Uttar: North, Kal: Kalinga), they were the first from the region to use a navy and traveled offshore to southeast Asia for trade. For that reason, Kalinga was able to develop several ports and a skilled navy. The culture of Kalinga was a blend of forest tribal and Brahminism co-existing peacefully.Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire who ruled over the region from their capital in Magadha until their fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga but had been repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering and annexing Kalinga to the vast Maurya Empire as soon as he securely established himself as the king of Magadha. Some scholars argue that Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Mauryas. It could interrupt communications between Mauryan capital Pataliputra and possessions in the central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for trade in the Bay of Bengal. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Kalinga War",
"participant",
"Maurya Empire"
] | Background
According to political scientist Sudama Misra, the Kalinga janapada originally comprised the area covered by the Puri and Ganjam districts.The reasons for invading Kalinga were to bring peace and for power. Kalinga was a prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. The northern part of Kalinga was known as the Utkala (Uttar: North, Kal: Kalinga), they were the first from the region to use a navy and traveled offshore to southeast Asia for trade. For that reason, Kalinga was able to develop several ports and a skilled navy. The culture of Kalinga was a blend of forest tribal and Brahminism co-existing peacefully.Kalinga was under the rule of the Nanda Empire who ruled over the region from their capital in Magadha until their fall in 321 BCE. Ashoka's grandfather Chandragupta Maurya had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga but had been repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering and annexing Kalinga to the vast Maurya Empire as soon as he securely established himself as the king of Magadha. Some scholars argue that Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Mauryas. It could interrupt communications between Mauryan capital Pataliputra and possessions in the central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for trade in the Bay of Bengal. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Kalinga War",
"participant",
"Kalinga"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Mercenary War",
"participant",
"mercenary"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Mercenary War",
"participant",
"Ancient Carthage"
] | The Mercenary War, also known as the Truceless War, was a mutiny by troops that were employed by Carthage at the end of the First Punic War (264–241 BC), supported by uprisings of African settlements revolting against Carthaginian control. It lasted from 241 to late 238 or early 237 BC and ended with Carthage suppressing both the mutiny and the revolt.
The war began in 241 BC as a dispute over the payment of wages owed to 20,000 foreign soldiers who had fought for Carthage in Sicily during the First Punic War. When a compromise seemed to have been reached, the army erupted into full-scale mutiny under the leadership of Spendius and Matho. 70,000 Africans from Carthage's oppressed dependent territories flocked to join them, bringing supplies and finance. War-weary Carthage fared poorly in the initial engagements of the war, especially under the generalship of Hanno. Hamilcar Barca, a veteran of the campaigns in Sicily (and father of Hannibal Barca), was given joint command of the army in 240 BC; and supreme command in 239 BC. He campaigned successfully, initially demonstrating leniency in an attempt to woo the rebels over. To prevent this, in 240 BC Spendius and Autaritus tortured 700 Carthaginian prisoners to death (including Gisco), after which the war was pursued with great brutality on both sides.
By early 237 BC, after numerous setbacks, the rebels were defeated and their cities brought back under Carthaginian rule. An expedition was prepared to reoccupy Sardinia, where mutinous soldiers had slaughtered all Carthaginians. However, Rome declared that this would be an act of war and occupied both Sardinia and Corsica, in contravention of the recent peace treaty. This has been considered to be the single greatest cause of war with Carthage breaking out again in 218 BC in the Second Punic War. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Mercenary War",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Mercenary War"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"First Punic War",
"followed by",
"Second Punic War"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"First Punic War",
"participant",
"list of tyrants of Syracuse"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"First Punic War",
"participant",
"Ancient Rome"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"First Punic War",
"participant",
"Ancient Carthage"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"First Punic War",
"topic's main category",
"Category:First Punic War"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Jōmon period",
"followed by",
"Yayoi period"
] | The Japanese chestnut, Castanea crenata, becomes essential, not only as a nut bearing tree, but also because it was extremely durable in wet conditions and became the most used timber for building houses during the Late Jōmon phase.During the Final Jōmon period, a slow shift was taking place in western Japan: steadily increasing contact with the Korean Peninsula eventually led to the establishment of Korean-type settlements in western Kyushu, beginning around 900 BC. The settlers brought with them new technologies such as wet rice farming and bronze and iron metallurgy, as well as new pottery styles similar to those of the Mumun pottery period. The settlements of these new arrivals seem to have coexisted with those of the Jōmon and Yayoi for around a thousand years.Outside Hokkaido, the Final Jōmon is succeeded by a new farming culture, the Yayoi (c. 300 BC – AD 300), named after an archaeological site near Tokyo.Within Hokkaido, the Jōmon is succeeded by the Okhotsk culture and Zoku-Jōmon (post-Jōmon) or Epi-Jōmon culture, which later replaced or merged with the Satsumon culture around the 7th century. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Jōmon period",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Jōmon period"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Jōmon period",
"follows",
"Japanese Paleolithic"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Jōmon period",
"followed by",
"Epi-Jōmon period"
] | Outside Hokkaido, the Final Jōmon is succeeded by a new farming culture, the Yayoi (c. 300 BC – AD 300), named after an archaeological site near Tokyo.Within Hokkaido, the Jōmon is succeeded by the Okhotsk culture and Zoku-Jōmon (post-Jōmon) or Epi-Jōmon culture, which later replaced or merged with the Satsumon culture around the 7th century. | null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Chavín culture",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Chavin culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Priabonian",
"followed by",
"Rupelian"
] | The Priabonian is, in the ICS's geologic timescale, the latest age or the upper stage of the Eocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between 37.71 and 33.9 Ma. The Priabonian is preceded by the Bartonian and is followed by the Rupelian, the lowest stage of the Oligocene.Stratigraphic definition
The Priabonian Stage was introduced in scientific literature by Ernest Munier-Chalmas and Albert de Lapparent in 1893. The stage is named after the small hamlet of Priabona in the community of Monte di Malo, in the Veneto region of northern Italy.
The base of the Priabonian Stage is at the first appearance of calcareous nannoplankton species Chiasmolithus oamaruensis (which forms the base of nanoplankton biozone NP18). An official GSSP was ratified in 2020, and was placed in the Alano di Piave section in Alano di Piave, Belluno, Italy.The top of the Priabonian Stage (the base of the Rupelian Stage and Oligocene Series) is at the extinction of foram genus Hantkenina.
Sometimes local rock strata cannot be correlated in sufficient detail with the ICS timescale, and stratigraphers often use regional timescales as alternatives to the ICS timescale. The Priabonian overlaps for example the upper Johannian and lowers Aldingan stages of the Australian timescale or the upper Nanzian and lower Refugian stages of the Californian timescale. Other regional stages which are more or less coeval with the Priabonian include the Jacksonian of the southeastern US and Runangan of New Zealand.
In biostratigraphy, the Priabonian Stage is coeval with the Chadronian North American Land Mammal Age, the Headonian European Land Mammal Mega Zone (in more detail: with the Mammal Paleogene zones 17A through 20), parts of the Barrancan and Mustersan South American Land Mammal Ages and the Ulangochuian and Ergilian Asian Land Mammal Ages. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Priabonian",
"follows",
"Bartonian"
] | The Priabonian is, in the ICS's geologic timescale, the latest age or the upper stage of the Eocene Epoch or Series. It spans the time between 37.71 and 33.9 Ma. The Priabonian is preceded by the Bartonian and is followed by the Rupelian, the lowest stage of the Oligocene. | null | null | null | null | 6 |
[
"Priabonian",
"said to be the same as",
"Ludien"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Priabonian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Priabonian"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Eocene",
"follows",
"Palaeocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Eocene",
"significant event",
"Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum"
] | Geology
Boundaries
The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house. The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic foraminifera–single-celled species which are used as bioindicators of the health of a marine ecosystem—one of the largest in the Cenozoic. This event happened around 55.8 mya, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the EECO, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event called the middle Eocene climatic optimum (MECO). Lasting for about 400, 000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform 4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records. The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.
The end of the Eocene was also marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, also known as the Grande Coupure.Climate
The Eocene Epoch contained a wide variety of different climate conditions that includes the warmest climate in the Cenozoic Era, and arguably the warmest time interval since the Permian-Triassic mass extinction and Early Triassic, and ends in an icehouse climate. The evolution of the Eocene climate began with warming after the end of the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) at 56 Ma to a maximum during the Eocene Optimum at around 49 Ma. Recent study show elevation-dependent temperature changes during the Eocene hothouse. During this period of time, little to no ice was present on Earth with a smaller difference in temperature from the equator to the poles. Because of this the maximum sea level was 150 meters higher than current levels. Following the maximum was a descent into an icehouse climate from the Eocene Optimum to the Eocene-Oligocene transition at 34 Ma. During this decrease, ice began to reappear at the poles, and the Eocene-Oligocene transition is the period of time where the Antarctic ice sheet began to rapidly expand. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Eocene",
"followed by",
"Oligocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Eocene",
"significant event",
"Eocene Thermal Maximum 2"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Eocene",
"significant event",
"Eocene–Oligocene extinction event"
] | Geology
Boundaries
The Eocene is a dynamic epoch that represents global climatic transitions between two climatic extremes, transitioning from the hot house to the cold house. The beginning of the Eocene is marked by the Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a short period of intense warming and ocean acidification brought about by the release of carbon en masse into the atmosphere and ocean systems, which led to a mass extinction of 30–50% of benthic foraminifera–single-celled species which are used as bioindicators of the health of a marine ecosystem—one of the largest in the Cenozoic. This event happened around 55.8 mya, and was one of the most significant periods of global change during the Cenozoic.The middle Eocene was characterized by the shift towards a cooler climate at the end of the EECO, around 47.8 Ma, which was briefly interrupted by another warming event called the middle Eocene climatic optimum (MECO). Lasting for about 400, 000 years, the MECO was responsible for a globally uniform 4° to 6°C warming of both the surface and deep oceans, as inferred from foraminiferal stable oxygen isotope records. The resumption of a long-term gradual cooling trend resulted in a glacial maximum at the late Eocene/early Oligocene boundary.
The end of the Eocene was also marked by the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event, also known as the Grande Coupure. | null | null | null | null | 13 |
[
"Eocene",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Eocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 14 |
|
[
"Second Sacred War",
"participant",
"Sparta"
] | The Second Sacred War was the Spartan defeat of Phocians at Delphi and the restoration of Delphian self-control.
In 458 or 457 BC, Phocians captured three towns in the Spartan metropolis of Doris. A Spartan army marched on Doris, defeated the Phocians, and restored Dorian rule. On their way back to Peloponnese, Athenians attacked the Spartan army but were repelled, and the Spartans returned home. After the Five Years Truce, Sparta embarked on a campaign of truncating "Athens' imperialistic ambitions in Central Greece".The Second Sacred War (Ancient Greek: ἱερὸς πόλεμος) was a conflict over the occupation of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi: Spartans quickly removed the Athenian-backed Phocians and returned stewardship to the Delphians. After the Spartans left, however, an Athenian army—led by Pericles—took the city and re-installed Phocian rule.Accepting the writings of Philochorus, a group of historians led by Karl Julius Beloch, Benjamin Dean Meritt, Theodore Wade-Gery, and Malcolm Francis McGregor argued that the Spartan ejection of the Phocians occurred in 449 BC, and that the Athenians re-installed them in 447 BC. They were opposed by historians led by Arnold Wycombe Gomme and Felix Jacoby who, rejecting Philochorus' chronology, assert that both marches on Delphi happened in 448 BC.This Sacred War and the Third were the only two to be referred to as such in classical antiquity. As of 1997, there was no extant evidence that these changes in Delphian governance had any effect on pilgrims to Pythia. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Second Sacred War",
"participant",
"Delphi"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Second Sacred War",
"participant",
"Classical Athens"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Second Sacred War",
"participant",
"Phocis"
] | The Second Sacred War was the Spartan defeat of Phocians at Delphi and the restoration of Delphian self-control.
In 458 or 457 BC, Phocians captured three towns in the Spartan metropolis of Doris. A Spartan army marched on Doris, defeated the Phocians, and restored Dorian rule. On their way back to Peloponnese, Athenians attacked the Spartan army but were repelled, and the Spartans returned home. After the Five Years Truce, Sparta embarked on a campaign of truncating "Athens' imperialistic ambitions in Central Greece".The Second Sacred War (Ancient Greek: ἱερὸς πόλεμος) was a conflict over the occupation of the Temple of Apollo at Delphi: Spartans quickly removed the Athenian-backed Phocians and returned stewardship to the Delphians. After the Spartans left, however, an Athenian army—led by Pericles—took the city and re-installed Phocian rule.Accepting the writings of Philochorus, a group of historians led by Karl Julius Beloch, Benjamin Dean Meritt, Theodore Wade-Gery, and Malcolm Francis McGregor argued that the Spartan ejection of the Phocians occurred in 449 BC, and that the Athenians re-installed them in 447 BC. They were opposed by historians led by Arnold Wycombe Gomme and Felix Jacoby who, rejecting Philochorus' chronology, assert that both marches on Delphi happened in 448 BC.This Sacred War and the Third were the only two to be referred to as such in classical antiquity. As of 1997, there was no extant evidence that these changes in Delphian governance had any effect on pilgrims to Pythia. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Selandian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Selandian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Selandian",
"follows",
"Danian"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Selandian",
"followed by",
"Thanetian"
] | The Selandian is a stage in the Paleocene. It spans the time between 61.6 and 59.2 Ma. It is preceded by the Danian and followed by the Thanetian. Sometimes the Paleocene is subdivided in subepochs, in which the Selandian forms the "middle Paleocene". | null | null | null | null | 8 |
[
"Aquitanian (stage)",
"follows",
"Chattian"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Aquitanian (stage)",
"followed by",
"Burdigalian"
] | The Aquitanian is, in the ICS' geologic timescale, the oldest age or lowest stage in the Miocene. It spans the time between 23.03 ± 0.05 Ma and 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma (million years ago) during the Early Miocene. It was a dry, cooling period. The Aquitanian succeeds the Chattian (the youngest age of the Oligocene) and precedes the Burdigalian.
The Aquitanian Age overlaps with the Harrisonian, Agenian, Pareora, Landon, Otaian, and Waitakian Ages from various regional timescales. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Burdigalian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Burdigalian"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Burdigalian",
"followed by",
"Langhian"
] | The Burdigalian is, in the geologic timescale, an age or stage in the early Miocene. It spans the time between 20.43 ± 0.05 Ma and 15.97 ± 0.05 Ma (million years ago). Preceded by the Aquitanian, the Burdigalian was the first and longest warming period of the Miocene and is succeeded by the Langhian. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Burdigalian",
"follows",
"Aquitanian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Samian War",
"participant",
"Samos"
] | The Samian War (440–439 BC) was an Ancient Greek military conflict between Athens and Samos. The war was initiated by Athens's intervention in a dispute between Samos and Miletus. When the Samians refused to break off their attacks on Miletus as ordered, the Athenians easily drove out the oligarchic government of Samos and installed a garrison in the city, but the oligarchs soon returned, with Persian support.
A larger Athenian fleet was dispatched to suppress this agitation. This fleet initially defeated the Samians and blockaded the city, but Pericles, in command, was then forced to lead a substantial portion of the fleet away upon learning that the Persian fleet was approaching from the south. Although the Persians turned back before the two fleets met, the absence of most of the Athenian fleet allowed the Samians to drive off the remaining blockaders and, for two weeks, control the sea around their island; upon Pericles's return, however, the Athenians again blockaded and besieged Samos; the city surrendered nine months later. Under the terms of the surrender, the Samians tore down their walls, gave up hostages, surrendered their fleet, and agreed to pay Athens a war indemnity over the next 26 years.
During the course of the war, the Samians had apparently appealed to Sparta for assistance; the Spartans were initially inclined to grant this request, and were prevented from doing so primarily by Corinth's unwillingness to participate in a war against Athens at the time. In 433 BC, when Corcyra requested Athenian assistance against Corinth, the Corinthians would remind the Athenians of the good will they had shown at this time.Prelude and dispute
In 440 BC, Samos was at war with Miletus about Priene, an ancient city of Ionia on the foot-hills of Mycale. Worsted in the war, the Milesians came to Athens with loud complaints against the Samians. Miletus was militarily weak, having been compelled to disarm and pay tribute after rebelling from Athens twice, once in the 450s and again in 446 BC; Samos, meanwhile, was one of only three remaining fully independent states in the Delian League. The Athenians, for reasons that scholars continue to disagree over—some believe that the Athenians were influenced by a desire to protect the Milesian democracy against the Samian oligarchs, while others believe that they were concerned for the credibility of their rule if they failed to protect a state that they themselves had disarmed—intervened on behalf of Miletus. A fleet of forty triremes commanded by Pericles was dispatched to Samos; Pericles established a democracy, and then, after taking 100 hostages to the island of Lemnos and leaving a garrison at Samos, returned home. This had all been achieved with remarkable ease, and this, in comparison with the stiff resistance that the Samians put up later, suggests that they had not expected such a harsh response from the Athenians. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
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