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|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
[
"Pleistocene",
"followed by",
"Holocene"
] | Etymology
Charles Lyell introduced the term "Pleistocene" in 1839 to describe strata in Sicily that had at least 70% of their molluscan fauna still living today. This distinguished it from the older Pliocene Epoch, which Lyell had originally thought to be the youngest fossil rock layer. He constructed the name "Pleistocene" ("most new" or "newest") from the Greek πλεῖστος (pleīstos, "most") and καινός (kainós (latinized as cænus), "new"); this contrasts with the immediately preceding Pliocene ("newer", from πλείων (pleíōn, "more") and kainós) and the immediately subsequent Holocene ("wholly new" or "entirely new", from ὅλος (hólos, "whole") and kainós) epoch, which extends to the present time. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Pleistocene",
"follows",
"Pliocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Pleistocene",
"different from",
"plasticine"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Pleistocene",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Pleistocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 13 |
|
[
"Ladinian",
"followed by",
"Carnian"
] | The Ladinian is a stage and age in the Middle Triassic series or epoch. It spans the time between 242 Ma and ~237 Ma (million years ago). The Ladinian was preceded by the Anisian and succeeded by the Carnian (part of the Upper or Late Triassic).The Ladinian is coeval with the Falangian regional stage used in China.Stratigraphic definitions
The Ladinian was established by Austrian geologist Alexander Bittner in 1892. Its name comes from the Ladin people that live in the Italian Alps (in the Dolomites, then part of Austria-Hungary).
The base of the Ladinian Stage is defined as the place in the stratigraphic record where the ammonite species Eoprotrachyceras curionii first appears or the first appearance of the conodont Budurovignathus praehungaricus. The global reference profile for the base (the GSSP) is at an outcrop in the river bed of the Caffaro river at Bagolino, in the province of Brescia, northern Italy. The top of the Ladinian (the base of the Carnian) is at the first appearance of ammonite species Daxatina canadensis.
The Ladinian is sometimes subdivided into two subages or substages, the Fassanian (early or lower) and the Longobardian (late or upper). The Ladinian contains four ammonite biozones, which are evenly distributed among the two substages: | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Ladinian",
"follows",
"Anisian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Ladinian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Ladinian"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Induan",
"significant event",
"Permian-Triassic extinction event"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Induan",
"follows",
"Changhsingian"
] | The Induan is the first age of the Early Triassic epoch in the geologic timescale, or the lowest stage of the Lower Triassic series in chronostratigraphy. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 251.2 Ma (million years ago). The Induan is sometimes divided into the Griesbachian and the Dienerian subages or substages. The Induan is preceded by the Changhsingian (latest Permian) and is followed by the Olenekian.
The Induan is roughly coeval with the regional Feixianguanian Stage of China. | null | null | null | null | 3 |
[
"Induan",
"followed by",
"Olenekian"
] | The Induan is the first age of the Early Triassic epoch in the geologic timescale, or the lowest stage of the Lower Triassic series in chronostratigraphy. It spans the time between 251.9 Ma and 251.2 Ma (million years ago). The Induan is sometimes divided into the Griesbachian and the Dienerian subages or substages. The Induan is preceded by the Changhsingian (latest Permian) and is followed by the Olenekian.
The Induan is roughly coeval with the regional Feixianguanian Stage of China.Geology
Stratigraphy
The Triassic is the first period of the Mesozoic era. It is subdivided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Triassic series, which are further subdivided into stages. The Induan is the first stage of the Lower Triassic, from 251.9 million to 251.2 million years ago, spanning the first 700,000 years after the Permian–Triassic extinction event.Stages can be defined globally or regionally. For global stratigraphic correlation, the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS) ratifies global stages based on a Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP) from a single formation (a stratotype) identifying the lower boundary of the stage. The GSSP for the Induan is defined as the bottom of Bed 27c of the Meishan Section, China, 31°4′47.28″N 119°42′20.9″E, with the appearance of the conodont Hindeodus parvus as its primary marker (biostratigraphy), and minimum zones (negative anomalies) of 13C and 18O (corresponding to the extinction event) as its secondary marker. Bed 27c comprises a medium-bedded section of limestone, overlain by clay and a medium-bedded section of dolomitic, argillaceous calcimicrite. Calcimicrite is a type of limestone that contains more micrite than allochem, and the diameter of any particle measures less than 20 microns.The Induan is succeeded by the Olenekian, whose GSSP is defined at the bottom of Bed A-2 of the Mikin Formation near Mud village, Spiti, India, with the appearance of the conodont Neospathodus waageni and a 13C peak. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Induan",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Induan"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Carnian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Carnian"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Carnian",
"follows",
"Ladinian"
] | The Carnian (less commonly, Karnian) is the lowermost stage of the Upper Triassic Series (or earliest age of the Late Triassic Epoch). It lasted from 237 to 227 million years ago (Ma). The Carnian is preceded by the Ladinian and is followed by the Norian. Its boundaries are not characterized by major extinctions or biotic turnovers, but a climatic event (known as the Carnian pluvial episode characterized by substantial rainfall) occurred during the Carnian and seems to be associated with important extinctions or biotic radiations. Another extinction occurred at the Carnian-Norian boundary, ending the Carnian age. | null | null | null | null | 7 |
[
"Carnian",
"followed by",
"Norian"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Greenlandian",
"follows",
"Late Pleistocene"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Greenlandian",
"followed by",
"Northgrippian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)",
"followed by",
"Old Kingdom of Egypt"
] | The Early Dynastic Period, also known as Archaic Period or the Thinite Period (from Thinis, the hometown of its rulers), is the era of ancient Egypt that immediately follows the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt in c. 3150 BC. It is generally taken to include the First Dynasty and the Second Dynasty, lasting from the end of the archaeological culture of Naqada III until c. 2686 BC, or the beginning of the Old Kingdom. With the First Dynasty, the Egyptian capital moved from Thinis to Memphis, with the unified land being ruled by an Egyptian god-king. In the south, Abydos remained the major centre of ancient Egyptian religion; the hallmarks of ancient Egyptian civilization, such as Egyptian art, Egyptian architecture, and many aspects of Egyptian religion, took shape during the Early Dynastic Period.
Before the unification of Egypt, the land was settled with autonomous villages. With the early dynasties, and for much of Egypt's history thereafter, the country came to be known as "The Two Lands" (referencing Upper and Lower Egypt). The pharaohs established a national administration and appointed royal governors, and buildings of the central government were typically open-air temples constructed of wood or sandstone. The earliest Egyptian hieroglyphs appear just before this period, though little is known of the spoken language that they represent. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)",
"follows",
"Prehistoric Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Egypt)",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Early Dynastic Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Olenekian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Olenekian"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Olenekian",
"follows",
"Induan"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Olenekian",
"followed by",
"Anisian"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Early Triassic",
"followed by",
"Middle Triassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Early Triassic",
"follows",
"Lopingian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Early Triassic",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Early Triassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Predynastic Egypt",
"followed by",
"Ancient Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Predynastic Egypt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Predynastic Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Uruk period",
"follows",
"Ubaid period"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Uruk period",
"followed by",
"Jemdet Nasr period"
] | Jemdet Nasr period
This phase of "Late Uruk" is followed by another phase (level III of Eanna) in which the Uruk civilization declined and a number of distinct local cultures developed throughout the Near East. This is generally known as the Jemdet Nasr period, after the archaeological site of that name. Its exact nature is highly debated, and it is difficult to clearly distinguish its traits from those of the Uruk culture, so some scholars refer to it as the "Final Uruk" period instead. It lasted from around 3000 to 2900 BC.Alternative chronology
In 2001, a new chronology was proposed by the members of a colloquium at Santa Fe, based on recent excavations, especially at sites outside Mesopotamia. They consider the Uruk period to be the "Late Chalcolithic" (LC). Their LC 1 corresponds to the end of the Ubaid period and ends around 4200 BC, with the beginning of LC 2, which is the first phase of the Uruk period. They divide "Old Uruk" into two phases, with the dividing line placed around 4000 BC. Around 3800 BC, LC 3 begins, which corresponds to the "Middle Uruk" phase and continues until around 3400 BC, when it is succeeded by LC 4. It rapidly transitions to LC 5 (Late Uruk), which continues until 3000 BC.Some other chronological proposals have also been put forward, such as by the ARCANE team (Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East).Although the chronology of the Uruk period is full of uncertainties, it is generally agreed to have a rough span of a thousand years covering the period from 4000 to 3000 BC and to be divided into several phases: an initial urbanisation and elaboration of Urukian cultural traits marks the transition from the end of the Ubaid period (Old Uruk), then a period of expansion (Middle Uruk), with a peak during which the characteristic traits of the 'Uruk civilization' are definitively established (Late Uruk), and then a retreat of Urukian influence and increase in cultural diversity in the Near East along with a decline of the 'centre'.
Some researchers have attempted to explain this final stage as the arrival of new populations of Semitic origin (the future Akkadians), but there is no conclusive proof of this. In Lower Mesopotamia, the researchers identify this as the Jemdet Nasr period, which sees a shift to more concentrated habitation, undoubtedly accompanied by a reorganisation of power; in southwestern Iran, it is the Proto-Elamite period; Niniveh V in Upper Mesopotamia (which follows the Gawra culture); the "Scarlet Ware" culture in Diyala. In Lower Mesopotamia, the Early Dynastic Period begins around the start of the 3rd millennium BC, during which this region again exerts considerable influence over its neighbours.The function of these buildings, which are unparalleled in their size and the fact that they are gathered in monumental groups, is debated. The excavators of the site wanted to see them as 'temples', influenced by the fact that in the historic period, the Eanna was the area dedicated to the goddess Inanna and the other sector was dedicated to the god An. This conformed to the theory of the 'temple-city' which was in vogue during the inter-war period. It is possible that this is actually a place of power formed by a complex of buildings of different forms (palatial residences, administrative spaces, palace chapels), desired by the dominant power in the city, whose nature is still unclear. In any case, it was necessary to invest considerable effort to construct these buildings, which shows the capacities of the elites of this period. Uruk is also the site of the most important discoveries of early writing tablets, in levels IV and III, in a context where they had been disposed of, which means that the context in which they were created is not known to us. Uruk III, which corresponds to the Jemdet Nasr period, sees a complete reorganisation of the Eanna quarter, in which the buildings on the site were razed and replaced by a grand terrace, which ignores the earlier buildings. In their foundations, a deposit which is probably of a cultic nature (the Sammelfund) was found, containing some major artistic works of the period (large cultic vase, cylinder seals, etc.). | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Uruk period",
"followed by",
"Early Dynastic period"
] | Alternative chronology
In 2001, a new chronology was proposed by the members of a colloquium at Santa Fe, based on recent excavations, especially at sites outside Mesopotamia. They consider the Uruk period to be the "Late Chalcolithic" (LC). Their LC 1 corresponds to the end of the Ubaid period and ends around 4200 BC, with the beginning of LC 2, which is the first phase of the Uruk period. They divide "Old Uruk" into two phases, with the dividing line placed around 4000 BC. Around 3800 BC, LC 3 begins, which corresponds to the "Middle Uruk" phase and continues until around 3400 BC, when it is succeeded by LC 4. It rapidly transitions to LC 5 (Late Uruk), which continues until 3000 BC.Some other chronological proposals have also been put forward, such as by the ARCANE team (Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East).Although the chronology of the Uruk period is full of uncertainties, it is generally agreed to have a rough span of a thousand years covering the period from 4000 to 3000 BC and to be divided into several phases: an initial urbanisation and elaboration of Urukian cultural traits marks the transition from the end of the Ubaid period (Old Uruk), then a period of expansion (Middle Uruk), with a peak during which the characteristic traits of the 'Uruk civilization' are definitively established (Late Uruk), and then a retreat of Urukian influence and increase in cultural diversity in the Near East along with a decline of the 'centre'.
Some researchers have attempted to explain this final stage as the arrival of new populations of Semitic origin (the future Akkadians), but there is no conclusive proof of this. In Lower Mesopotamia, the researchers identify this as the Jemdet Nasr period, which sees a shift to more concentrated habitation, undoubtedly accompanied by a reorganisation of power; in southwestern Iran, it is the Proto-Elamite period; Niniveh V in Upper Mesopotamia (which follows the Gawra culture); the "Scarlet Ware" culture in Diyala. In Lower Mesopotamia, the Early Dynastic Period begins around the start of the 3rd millennium BC, during which this region again exerts considerable influence over its neighbours. | null | null | null | null | 9 |
[
"Uruk period",
"followed by",
"Proto-Elamite period"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Uruk period",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Uruk Period"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Uruk period",
"followed by",
"Ninevite V"
] | null | null | null | null | 13 |
|
[
"Middle Triassic",
"followed by",
"Late Triassic"
] | In the geologic timescale, the Middle Triassic is the second of three epochs of the Triassic period or the middle of three series in which the Triassic system is divided in chronostratigraphy. The Middle Triassic spans the time between 247.2 Ma and 237 Ma (million years ago). It is preceded by the Early Triassic Epoch and followed by the Late Triassic Epoch. The Middle Triassic is divided into the Anisian and Ladinian ages or stages.
Formerly the middle series in the Triassic was also known as Muschelkalk. This name is now only used for a specific unit of rock strata with approximately Middle Triassic age, found in western Europe. | null | null | null | null | 6 |
[
"Middle Triassic",
"follows",
"Early Triassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Middle Triassic",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Middle Triassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Mammoth",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Mammoths"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Mammoth",
"different from",
"Mamut"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)",
"followed by",
"Akkad period"
] | Early Dynastic kingdoms and rulers
The Early Dynastic period is preceded by the Uruk period (c. 4000—3100 BCE) and the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100 – c. 2900 BCE). The Early Dynastic period is followed by the rise of the Akkadian Empire. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)",
"follows",
"Jemdet Nasr period"
] | Early Dynastic kingdoms and rulers
The Early Dynastic period is preceded by the Uruk period (c. 4000—3100 BCE) and the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100 – c. 2900 BCE). The Early Dynastic period is followed by the rise of the Akkadian Empire. | null | null | null | null | 2 |
[
"Early Dynastic Period (Mesopotamia)",
"follows",
"Uruk period"
] | Early Dynastic kingdoms and rulers
The Early Dynastic period is preceded by the Uruk period (c. 4000—3100 BCE) and the Jemdet Nasr period (c. 3100 – c. 2900 BCE). The Early Dynastic period is followed by the rise of the Akkadian Empire. | null | null | null | null | 9 |
[
"Early Cretaceous",
"followed by",
"Late Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Early Cretaceous",
"follows",
"Late Jurassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Early Cretaceous",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Early Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"follows",
"Globular Amphora culture"
] | Independent development
In favour of the view that the culture developed independently was the fact that Corded Ware coincides considerably with the earlier north-central European Funnelbeaker culture (TRB). According to Gimbutas, the Corded Ware culture was preceded by the Globular Amphora culture (3400–2800 BC), which she regarded to be an Indo-European culture. The Globular Amphora culture stretched from central Europe to the Baltic sea, and emerged from the Funnelbeaker culture.According to controversial radiocarbon dates, Corded Ware ceramic forms in single graves develop earlier in the area that is now Poland than in western and southern Central Europe. The earliest radiocarbon dates for Corded Ware indeed come from Kujawy and Lesser Poland in central and southern Poland and point to the period around 3000 BC.
However, subsequent review has challenged this perspective, instead pointing out that the wide variation in dating of the Corded Ware, especially the dating of the culture's beginning, is based on individual outlier graves, is not particularly in line with other archaeological data and runs afoul of plateaus in the radiocarbon calibration curve; in the one case where the dating can be clarified with dendrochronology, in Switzerland, Corded Ware is found for only a short period from 2750 BC to 2400 BC.
Furthermore, because the short period in Switzerland seems to represent examples of artifacts from all the major sub-periods of the Corded Ware culture elsewhere, some researchers conclude that Corded Ware appeared more or less simultaneously throughout North Central Europe approximately in the early 29th century BC (around 2900 BC), in a number of "centers" which subsequently formed their own local networks.: 297 Carbon-14 dating of the remaining central European regions shows that Corded Ware appeared after 2880 BC. According to this theory, it spread to the Lüneburg Heath and then further to the North European Plain, Rhineland, Switzerland, Scandinavia, the Baltic region and Russia to Moscow, where the culture met with the pastoralists considered indigenous to the steppes. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"follows",
"Yamnaya culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"followed by",
"Andronovo culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"followed by",
"Bell beaker culture"
] | Graves
Burial occurred in flat graves or below small tumuli in a flexed position; on the continent males lay on their right side, females on the left, with the faces of both oriented to the south. However, in Sweden and also parts of northern Poland the graves were oriented north-south, men lay on their left side and women on the right side - both facing east. Originally, there was probably a wooden construction, since the graves are often positioned in a line. This is in contrast with practices in Denmark where the dead were buried below small mounds with a vertical stratigraphy: the oldest below the ground, the second above this grave, and occasionally even a third burial above those. Other types of burials are the niche-graves of Poland. Grave goods for men typically included a stone battle axe. Pottery in the shape of beakers and other types are the most common burial gifts, generally speaking. These were often decorated with cord, sometimes with incisions and other types of impressions. Other grave goods also included wagons and sacrificed animals.
The approximately contemporary Beaker culture had similar burial traditions, and together they covered most of Western and Central Europe. The Beaker culture originated around 2800 BC in the Iberian Peninsula and subsequently extended into Central Europe, where it partly coexisted with the Corded Ware region.
In April 2011, it was reported that an untypical Corded Ware burial had been discovered in a suburb of Prague. The remains, believed to be male, were orientated in the same way as women's burials and were not accompanied by any gender-specific grave goods. Based on this, and the importance usually attached to funeral rites by people from this period, the archaeologists suggested that this was unlikely to be accidental, and conclude that it was likely that this individual "was a man with a different sexual orientation, homosexual or transsexual", while media reports heralded the discovery of the world's first "gay caveman". Archaeologists and biological anthropologists criticised media coverage as sensationalist. "If this burial represents a transgendered [sic] individual (as well it could), that doesn't necessarily mean the person had a 'different sexual orientation' and certainly doesn't mean that he would have considered himself (or that his culture would have considered him) 'homosexual,'" anthropologist Kristina Killgrove commented. Other items of criticism were that someone buried in the Copper Age was not a "caveman" and that identifying the sex of skeletal remains is difficult and inexact. Turek notes that there are several examples of Corded Ware graves containing older biological males with typically female grave goods and body orientation. He suggests that "aged men may have decided to 'retire' as women for symbolic and practical reasons." A detailed account of the burial has not yet appeared in
scientific literature. | null | null | null | null | 5 |
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"follows",
"Baden culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"follows",
"Funnelbeaker culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Corded Ware culture",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Corded Ware culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Keros-Syros culture",
"follows",
"Grotta-Pelos culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Keros-Syros culture",
"followed by",
"Kastri culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Renaissance of Sumer",
"said to be the same as",
"Ur III period"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Renaissance of Sumer",
"different from",
"Third Dynasty of Ur"
] | The Renaissance of Sumer is a period of the history of Mesopotamia that includes the years between the fall of the Akkadian Empire and the period of the Amorite dynasties of Isin and Larsa—both with governments of Semitic origin—between the centuries 22nd B.C. and 21st B.C. Within this stage the years of the so-called "Third Dynasty of Ur" or "Ur III" stand out, because of the new hegemony that would embrace all Mesopotamia, this time with the city of Ur at the head. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Old Kingdom of Egypt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Old Kingdom of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Old Kingdom of Egypt",
"follows",
"Early Dynastic Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Old Kingdom of Egypt",
"followed by",
"First Intermediate Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Grotta-Pelos culture",
"followed by",
"Keros-Syros culture"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"followed by",
"Phoenician alphabet"
] | Proto-Sinaitic (also referred to as Proto-Canaanite when found in Canaan, or Early Alphabetic) is found in a small corpus of c. 40 inscriptions and fragments, the vast majority from Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai Peninsula, dating to the Middle Bronze Age. They are considered the earliest trace of alphabetic writing and the common ancestor of both the Ancient South Arabian script and the Phoenician alphabet, which led to many modern alphabets including the Greek alphabet. According to common theory, Canaanites or Hyksos who spoke a Semitic language repurposed Egyptian hieroglyphs to construct a different script.The earliest Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions are mostly dated to between the mid-19th (early date) and the mid-16th (late date) century BC.Proto-Canaanite
Synonym for Proto-Sinaitic
Proto-Canaanite, also referred to as Proto-Canaan, Old Canaanite, or Canaanite, is the name given to the Proto-Sinaitic script (c. 16th century BC), when found in Canaan. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"followed by",
"Aramaic alphabet"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"follows",
"Egyptian hieroglyphs"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"followed by",
"Paleo-Hebrew alphabet"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Proto-Sinaitic script"
] | null | null | null | null | 7 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"followed by",
"Moabite Script"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"has use",
"Northwest Semitic"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Proto-Sinaitic script",
"based on",
"Egyptian hieroglyphs"
] | Proto-Sinaitic (also referred to as Proto-Canaanite when found in Canaan, or Early Alphabetic) is found in a small corpus of c. 40 inscriptions and fragments, the vast majority from Serabit el-Khadim in the Sinai Peninsula, dating to the Middle Bronze Age. They are considered the earliest trace of alphabetic writing and the common ancestor of both the Ancient South Arabian script and the Phoenician alphabet, which led to many modern alphabets including the Greek alphabet. According to common theory, Canaanites or Hyksos who spoke a Semitic language repurposed Egyptian hieroglyphs to construct a different script.The earliest Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions are mostly dated to between the mid-19th (early date) and the mid-16th (late date) century BC.History
The letters of the earliest script used for Semitic languages were derived from Egyptian hieroglyphs. In the 19th century, the theory of Egyptian origin competed alongside other theories that the Phoenician script developed from Akkadian cuneiform, Cretan hieroglyphs, the Cypriot syllabary, and Anatolian hieroglyphs. Then the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions were studied by Alan Gardiner who identified the word bʿlt "Lady" occurring several times in inscriptions, and also attempted to decipher other words. In the 1950s and 1960s, William Albright published interpretations of Proto-Sinaitic as the key to show the derivation of the Canaanite alphabet from hieratic.According to the "alphabet theory", the early Semitic proto-alphabet reflected in the Proto-Sinaitic inscriptions would have given rise to both the Ancient South Arabian script and the Proto-Canaanite alphabet by the time of the Late Bronze Age collapse (1200–1150 BC).For example, the hieroglyph for pr "house" (a rectangle partially open along one side, "O1" in Gardiner's sign list) was adopted to write Semitic /b/, after the first consonant of baytu, the Semitic word for "house".A transitional stage between Proto-Canaanite and Old Phoenician (1000–800 BC) has been proposed by authors such as Werner Pichler as the origin of the Libyco-Berber script used among Ancient Libyans (i.e. Proto-Berbers) – citing common similarities to both Proto-Canaanite proper and its early North Arabian descendants. | null | null | null | null | 11 |
[
"Northgrippian",
"followed by",
"Meghalayan"
] | In the geologic time scale, the Northgrippian is the middle one of three ages or stages of the Holocene Epoch or Series. It was officially ratified by the International Commission on Stratigraphy in June 2018 along with the earlier Greenlandian and later Meghalayan ages/stages. The age takes its name from the North Greenland Ice Core Project (NorthGRIP). The age began 8,276 BP (6326 BCE or 3854 HE), near the 8.2-kiloyear event, and goes up to the start of the Meghalayan, which began 4,200 BP (2250 BCE or 7750 HE), near the 4.2-kiloyear event. | null | null | null | null | 0 |
[
"Northgrippian",
"follows",
"Greenlandian"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Indus Valley Civilisation",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Indus Valley civilisation"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Jurassic",
"followed by",
"Cretaceous"
] | null | null | null | null | 1 |
|
[
"Jurassic",
"different from",
"Jura"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Jurassic",
"follows",
"Triassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Jurassic",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Jurassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Jurassic",
"different from",
"Jurassic"
] | null | null | null | null | 16 |
|
[
"Seima-Turbino phenomenon",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Seima-Turbino phenomenon"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Cenomanian",
"follows",
"Albian"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Cenomanian",
"followed by",
"Turonian"
] | The Cenomanian is, in the ICS' geological timescale, the oldest or earliest age of the Late Cretaceous Epoch or the lowest stage of the Upper Cretaceous Series. An age is a unit of geochronology; it is a unit of time; the stage is a unit in the stratigraphic column deposited during the corresponding age. Both age and stage bear the same name.
As a unit of geologic time measure, the Cenomanian Age spans the time between 100.5 and 93.9 million years ago (Mya). In the geologic timescale, it is preceded by the Albian and is followed by the Turonian. The Upper Cenomanian starts around at 95 Mya.The Cenomanian is coeval with the Woodbinian of the regional timescale of the Gulf of Mexico and the early part of the Eaglefordian of the regional timescale of the East Coast of the United States.
At the end of the Cenomanian, an anoxic event took place, called the Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event or the "Bonarelli event", that is associated with a minor extinction event for marine species. | null | null | null | null | 6 |
[
"Cenomanian",
"significant event",
"Cenomanian-Turonian boundary event"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Cenomanian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Cenomanian"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Second Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"followed by",
"New Kingdom of Egypt"
] | Reunification
At the end of the Second Intermediate period, the 18th Dynasty came to power in Egypt. The first king of the Eighteenth Dynasty, Ahmose, completed expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and consolidated his rule over the land. With that, Ahmose ushered in a new period of prosperity in Egypt, the New Kingdom.References
Bibliography
Von Beckerath, Jürgen. "Untersuchungen zur politischen Geschichte der zweiten Zwischenzeit in Ägypten," Ägyptologische Forschungen, Heft 23. Glückstadt, 1965.
Gardiner, Sir Alan. Egypt of the Pharaohs. Oxford, 1964, 1961.
Hayes, William C. "Egypt: From the Death of Ammenemes III to Seqenenre II." Chapter 2, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
James, T.G.H. "Egypt: From the Expulsion of the Hyksos to Amenophis I." Chapter 8, Volume II of The Cambridge Ancient History. Revised Edition, 1965.
Kitchen, Kenneth A., "Further Notes on New Kingdom Chronology and History," Chronique d'Égypte, 63 (1968), pp. 313–324.
Oren, Eliezer D. The Hyksos: New Historical and Archaeological Perspectives Philadelphia, 1997.
Ryholt, Kim. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 B.C., Museum Tuscalanum Press, 1997. ISBN 87-7289-421-0
Van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven, 1966. | null | null | null | null | 1 |
[
"Second Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"follows",
"Middle Kingdom of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Second Intermediate Period of Egypt",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Second Intermediate Period of Egypt"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Coniacian",
"different from",
"cognac"
] | null | null | null | null | 0 |
|
[
"Coniacian",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Coniacian"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Coniacian",
"follows",
"Turonian"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Coniacian",
"followed by",
"Santonian"
] | Stratigraphic definitions
The Coniacian is named after the city of Cognac in the French region of Saintonge. It was first defined by French geologist Henri Coquand in 1857.
The base of the Coniacian Stage is at the first appearance of the inoceramid bivalve species Cremnoceramus deformis erectus. The official reference profile for the base (a GSSP) is located in Salzgitter-Salder, Lower Saxony, Germany.
The top of the Coniacian (the base of the Santonian Stage) is defined by the appearance of the inoceramid bivalve Cladoceramus undulatoplicatus.
The Coniacian overlaps the regional Emscherian Stage of Germany, which is roughly coeval with the Coniacian and Santonian Stages. In magnetostratigraphy, the Coniacian is part of magnetic chronozone C34, the so-called Cretaceous Magnetic Quiet Zone, a relatively long period with normal polarity. | null | null | null | null | 7 |
[
"Cycladic culture",
"topic's main category",
"Category:Cycladic civilization"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Geometric art",
"follows",
"protogeometric art"
] | null | null | null | null | 4 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem (1099)"
] | null | null | null | null | 2 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem (1244)"
] | null | null | null | null | 3 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jebus"
] | 587 BC
The Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle (BM 21946), published in 1956, indicates that Nebuchadnezzar captured Jerusalem the first time putting an end to the reign of Jehoaichin, on 2 Adar (16 March) 597 BC, in Nebuchadnezzar's seventh year. Jeremiah 52:28–29 gives the relative periods for the end of the two sieges as Nebuchadnezzar's seventh and eighteenth years, respectively. (The same events are described at 2 Kings 24:12 and 2 Kings 25:8 as occurring in Nebuchadnezzar's eighth and nineteenth years, including his accession year.) Identification of Nebuchadnezzar's eighteenth year for the end of the siege places the event in the summer of 587 BC, which is consistent with all three relevant biblical sources—Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and 2 Kings. | null | null | null | null | 4 |
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem (1834)"
] | null | null | null | null | 5 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC)"
] | null | null | null | null | 6 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 8 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 9 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 10 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Siege of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 11 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Assyrian Siege of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 12 |
|
[
"Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)",
"different from",
"Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem"
] | null | null | null | null | 13 |
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