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A lack of platelet progenitor cells (megakaryocytes) in the bone marrow leads to a reduced production and release of blood platelets into the blood stream. This deficiency can occur in isolation (like in the Congenital Amegakaryocytic Thrombocytopenia = CAMT) or in association with additional aberrations, esp. upon the skeleton. If the radius bones of both forearms are missing (and both thumbs are present), the syndrome is referred to as Thrombocytopenia-absent-radii (TAR)-syndrome. It is a very rare disorder (1-2 cases in a million births). Children with TAR-syndrome have a very low platelet count, particularly during the first two years of life and often present with a variety of very small punctual bleedings (petechiae). Later, despite platelet counts rising, patients remain thrombocytopenic and have a tendency to bleed more often or for a longer period of time.
The genetic cause for TAR syndrome is still very poorly understood. Recently, we could detect a loss of a small portion of the DNA (genetic material) on a chromosome in all of 30 patients with TAR syndrome analyzed (microdeletion). As some of the unaffected parents carry this deletion too, there must be an additional factor to coin the complete feature of TAR syndrome. Several months ago we identified two small changes in the sequence of the DNA within the microdeletion that only occur in patients with TAR-syndrome. My group is currently working to better understand how the combination of microdeletion and the small DNA changes can cause TAR-syndrome.
One focus of our laboratory is to identify and further characterize the genetic and molecular mechanisms that provoke the lack of platelets in patients affected with TAR syndrome. | <urn:uuid:98dda97a-f630-46a8-a45e-e39b9a437c02> | CC-MAIN-2022-49 | https://www.schulze-lab.de/en/tar-syndrome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-49/segments/1669446711150.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20221207053157-20221207083157-00684.warc.gz | en | 0.932752 | 395 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Skin color has been the greatest divider in the history of mankind with wars fought, slaves tortured and communities stigmatised because of difference in skin tones. However, things have changed and we have become more acceptable to people of different appearance than others. In fact, there seems to be a reversal of trends. While in many countries people still wish to have fair skin, those with white skin are going crazy over tanning to make their skin appear darker because they feel that it is much sexier.
They are spending hours basking in the sun or sitting in the artificial chambers of ultraviolet (UV) radiations even though their grandparents always thought dark skin is associated with lower class. However, various research studies have shown that skin tanning causes cancer. Read on to know how.
Tanning is actually your skin’s response to UV radiation. The melanocytes cells in the skin produce pigment melanin, which darkens the cells of the outer skin as a defence against further damage from UV radiation which is called tanning in common terminology.
However, this protection mechanism can also lead to skin cancer. When the UV rays damage DNA of the outer skin cells, body rushes certain enzymes to do the repairing job but since not every repair is perfect, the leftover DNA damage results in mutations and hence skin cancer.
It’s not that sun rays are always bad for you. In fact, moderate exposure is essential because it triggers the production of vitamin D in your body. Vitamin D has been found beneficial in reducing the risk of many forms of cancers, diabetes, and other diseases but natural food sources of this vitamin are limited. In comparison, just 20 minutes exposure to sunlight can help you maintain the optimal levels.
However, try to restrict this exposure to early morning because the wavelength of sunshine at early hours is most effective. On the other hand, avoid the sun between 11 am and 3 pm because during this time the sunlight is strongest and hence can cause skin burn and tanning, both of which have been linked to development of skin cancer.[ad#co-1]
The ultraviolet radiations from sunlight are of different wavelengths are divided into UVA, UVB and UVC. UVC is mostly absorbed by the ozone layer and hence is not deemed a threat while UVB is considered to be the most dangerous of all wavelengths.
UVA is present uniformly throughout the day and throughout the year while the amount of UVB in sunlight varies by season, location and time of the day.
There was doubt about the effect of UVA till some time back as many thought it was not harmful but according to recent studies the wavelength penetrates deeper causing greater genetic damage to the skin cells than UVB and hence being equally if not more carcinogenic. Moreover, sunscreens are more effective in blocking UVB than UVA which can only be barred to some extent by clothing.
Saloon owners have been selling their tanning machines by claiming that the artificial exposure is safer than outdoor tanning because they use UVA rays in a controlled manner. However, as the new studies have shown these machines are as much responsible for causing skin cancer as traditional sunbathing.
The message is simple: Skin tanning causes cancer so better avoid it. Your natural skin color is as good as any other.
Most skin cancers affect the body parts which are frequently exposed to the sun, including head, face, hands, neck, forearms, shoulders, back, chests of men, tips of the ears and lower legs of women.
Caucasians are more likely to get skin cancer because they have light skin which means less melanin to protect against harmful sun radiations. Those with a dark complexion have more melanin in their skin which acts as a sun blocker. Hence, a white skinned man will fall to skin cancer in lesser time than an Asian or an African. Even among fair skinned, those who get sunburns easily are at greater risk. Having a history of skin cancer in the family, having several moles, freckles or birthmarks on the body and being out in the sun a lot during childhood are some other risk factors. | <urn:uuid:6d32ba9f-1569-4acd-b6d1-d75e35f1c55e> | CC-MAIN-2019-39 | https://www.thebrightesthub.com/is-skin-tanning-cancerous/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-39/segments/1568514576047.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20190923043830-20190923065830-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.967647 | 841 | 3.015625 | 3 |
In an article published today in the journal PLOS ONE, researchers at Cornell University's Laboratory of Ornithology report that in some environments, songbirds exhibit inconsistency in their songs which may be caused by non-lethal levels of contaminants that persist in the sediments of the Hudson River region.
The research reported in "The Effect of Polychlorinated Biphenyls on the Song of Two Passerine Species," was funded by New York Sea Grant, a joint program of the State University of New York, Cornell University and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
Lead author Dr. Sara DeLeon, working with principal investigator Dr. Timothy J. DeVoogd and co-investigator Dr. Andre A. Dhondt, studied songbirds that nest along the Hudson River valley, a region with legacy levels of PCBs as a result of decades of electronics manufacturing upriver. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are synthetic chemical pollutants with demonstrated detrimental toxic and developmental effects on humans and wildlife.
"Dr. DeLeon's work would have brought a smile to the face of Rachel Carson," said William Wise, Interim Director of New York Sea Grant. "This type of dedicated field research can tease out the impact of organic contaminants in the environment on creatures that are known to all of us. Sara and colleagues are drawing the connections between contaminant, animal behavior and, ultimately, a population's health."
Songbirds feed their young PCB-contaminated aquatic insects as their main food source. Some birds continue eating insects throughout life, thus increasing PCB ingestion if they live in contaminated areas. The research team non-lethally investigated total PCB loads, congener specific PCB profiles, and songs of black-capped chickadees (Poecile atricapillus) and song sparrows (Melospiza melodia) along a historical PCB gradient at the Hudson River in New York State.
Key among the team's findings is that song disruption is tied to specific types of PCBs -- there are 209 variations, differentiated by the positioning and number of chlorine atoms. DeLeon tested 41 of these variations to isolate their effects.
According to the authors, "Our results indicate that black-capped chickadees and song sparrows have higher total blood PCBs in regions with higher historic PCB contamination. The two bird species varied substantially in their congener-specific PCB profiles; within sites, song sparrows showed a significantly higher proportion of lower chlorinated PCBs, while black-capped chickadees had higher proportions of highly chlorinated PCBs." Analysis of blood samples from black-capped chickadees showed greater variability in song with a change in the "glissando" ratio of the first note of their two-note song, "fee-bee, fee-bee." Song sparrows, with much longer songs, also showed 'high performance trills' that may be the result of other types of PCB molecules that are less toxic. In areas of PCB pollution, the species-specific identity signal in black-capped chickadee song varied significantly, while variation in song sparrow trill performance was best predicted by the mono-ortho PCB load.
"Thus, PCBs may affect song production, an important component of communication in birds," the authors report. In conclusion, "The ramifications of changes in song quality for bird populations may extend the toxic effects of environmental PCB pollution."
Nordica Holochuck, New York Sea Grant's Hudson Estuary specialist said, "This research is of great interest to stakeholders in the Hudson Valley as the effects of PCBs, even non-lethal ones, continue to be discovered."
"Effects of PCBs are extremely complicated," says co-author André Dhondt, director of Bird Population Studies at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology. "What this demonstrates is that most previous PCB studies may not give us the whole picture because they did not look at the specific type of PCB involved but just measured overall levels. What Sara did was not easy. She found effects on the song and wanted to do more than just document that there was an effect, but to isolate what was causing it."
"Contaminants last a long time and are pervasive," says DeLeon. "We have to take that into account when we study species in these disturbed environments and be aware of how environmental changes are affecting them." Coauthors include Rayko Halitschke, Ralph S. Hames, André Kessler, DeVoogd and Dhondt.
Cite This Page: | <urn:uuid:40b9d587-e125-4904-b528-eb0bfa1f1e43> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130918175547.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701153323.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193913-00038-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.951567 | 936 | 2.71875 | 3 |
Provides leadership, technical assistance, and professional development to schools and community-based organizations in the implementation of specific federal grant programs authorized through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and amended by the "No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001" (PL 107-110).
Certain programs serve general populations, while others are designed to serve children, youth, and families with specific educational needs, such as disadvantaged, neglected and delinquent, migrant, homeless, and non-English speaking children.
The Bureau is also responsible for implementing school reform.
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Mary E. Earick, Ph.D
Acrobat Reader format. You can download a free reader from Adobe.
Microsoft Word format. You can download a free reader from Microsoft | <urn:uuid:8c80e18c-6a81-4e50-85bd-bdd411312302> | CC-MAIN-2014-41 | http://education.nh.gov/instruction/integrated/index.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-41/segments/1410657124771.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20140914011204-00108-ip-10-196-40-205.us-west-1.compute.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.847631 | 223 | 2.71875 | 3 |
The eye is attracted to bright colour and the ear to loud noise, and this is no less true in the writing of history than in the workings of nature. Accordingly, most recent detailed work analysing the transformation of higher education in 19th-century England has concentrated on the period after 1850 or 1860 when the ancient universities conspicuously joined the modern world. The trends are more to our liking, or at least we understand them better. The steep climb in matriculations, the diversification of the curriculum, the creation of professional schools, the spread of extra-mural education, the establishment of women’s colleges and the linkages (or lack of them) between the university and industrial sectors have gone into the making of the 20th century. However, the tendency to emphasise the relevance of the Second Industrial Revolution to our own time has led to a certain imbalance in the writing of university history, leaving the earlier decades to the biographer or the historian of religious movements. ‘Common room history’ is what often springs to mind when pre-Victorian or early Victorian Oxbridge is revisited. The general reader, desirous of knowing what part higher education played in the creation of Victorian England, is usually left with the textbook conclusion that the two senior universities remained in a sound Hanoverian slumber until the century was more than half over. Only occasionally, and then by prodigious effort, did the dons rouse themselves to denounce all attempts at academic reform. The reader’s attention is correspondingly drawn off to other areas of English society where higher education appeared to be responsive and innovative: to the London University, or to the new medical schools and civic universities.
If this is still the popular view of Oxbridge in the early 19th century, it is also true that a relief expedition has been hacking through textbook surveys for several decades. Robert Butts and Walter Cannon have called attention to the scientific and philosophical contributions of the ‘Cambridge Network’ – men like William Whewell, Adam Sedgwick, Charles Babbage, George Airy, John Herschel and John Henslow. Some half-dozen pieces on the Cambridge Apostles, not the oldest but certainly the longest-lived of student secret societies, have made readers familiar with a whole generation of Cantabridgians, of which Connop Thirlwall, Frederic Denison Maurice, Alfred Tennyson and John Sterling are the most famous. Professor John Roach and his collaborators in Volume III of the Victoria County History of Cambridgeshire have pulled together much new information on Cambridge and its constituent colleges, and the remarkable books by D.A. Winstanley (even if they were written in the style of diplomatic rather than university history) certainly pointed out how much effort at self-reform went on in the early Victorian period. Work on Oxford networks has brought out the importance of the Oriel College Noetics, of which Thomas Arnold was the principal luminary. Other writings have dealt with student movements and the revival of classics, mathematics and theology. Perpetual interest in Oxford and Cambridge continually unearths new personalities, events and changes, revealing the ‘hidden curricula’ and the other private arrangements for teaching and learning that existed in the unreformed universities. Even the old-fashioned college histories, maligned as house history, contain suggestive hints and surprises.
Dr Martha Garland’s new book rides gracefully on some of the scholarship of the last twenty years. Although she has been busy in Cambridge archives and the ‘Cam Collection’, her book is largely deuteronomic. It is not adventuresome and not original, but a ‘second telling’ of information and ideas now in the public domain, a well-arranged, helpful and readable summary of the efforts of a group of Cambridge dons and professors to restructure the undergraduate curriculum, revise the examination system, Germanise the intellectual life (but not the institutional structure) and improve the religious character of the University. Her protagonists are the Cambridge Network and some of the Apostles, and she has located a number of unpublished letters which interestingly point out differences and disputes: most notably, a fascinating letter of 1841 from Julius Hare to Whewell on self-development in education (incidentally, as a tutor Hare left much to be desired). She relates the familiar story of the constitutional bottlenecks preventing reform of the fellowship and scholarship systems and the overhaul of collegiate government – concern over the Anglican monopoly and the problem of college livings – and she has good discussions of the importance of Cambridge mathematics and the internal reaction to utilitarianism, palaeo and neo.
She identifies the developing Broad Church position of Cambridge, the desire to replace dogma and Tory ideology with a liberal-leaning scholarship. The thread that ties the argument together is the ‘ideal of a liberal education’ of the book’s subtitle. This is not explicitly laid out to begin with, but is kept distantly in sight until the final chapters, where its distinctive elements are pulled together: a belief in the unity of all knowledge made possible by a view of the world as design and underwritten by the theories of faculty psychology and mental training (which for a short while, it should be added, received help from pseudo-scientific fads like phrenology), the whole to be used for the moral guidance of undergraduates. Dr Garland does not really place this ideal in its prior historical context by discussing the centuries-old cortegiano basis of liberal education, except to note (as Robert Robson once noted) that the dons were more interested in renovating old ideals than in establishing completely new ones. Her final chapter sketches out the collapse of the ideal of unified knowledge in the face of Darwin’s challenge and its replacement by academic specialism. The conceptual spine of her argument, therefore, resembles the one of D.L. LeMahieu’s 1976 book on William Paley.
This is more or less an essay in the history of ideas. It is limited in scope and in the range of questions put to the materials. While Dr Garland does not presuppose the autonomy of knowledge, in the sense that thought occurs outside precise social contexts, she is also not very interested in developing an explanatory matrix for the essentially Burkean outlook of Cambridge dons who ‘felt that the University must improve itself to prevent its being revolutionised from outside ... they saw much that was good in the “old ways”.’ She does mention the effect of what may be called the beginnings of press criticism and the growing influence of the Nonconformists, who were effectively if not legally barred from attendance at Oxford and Cambridge, the attraction of Bible criticism and the paramount importance of the earth sciences (was interest in them really ‘spurred by industry’, as nearly suggested in a roundabout way?), but none of the connections between Cambridge and the world outside are intricately related to the account she gives of liberal education as the unity of knowledge.
In all fairness, ‘cause’ is never easily demonstrable in history, and in education precedent is frequently more important than pressure. To some extent, the direction that ideas take is unpredictable, even perverse. It would indeed be foolhardy to locate the specific origins of Cambridge educational ideas in, let us say, changes in social structure or to see them as responses to market demand. In general, articulation between the university and society is a Sisyphean labour. There is always a nasty fact that keeps rolling back to frustrate the enterprise. Yet in the case of Oxbridge in the early 19th century there are developments that suggest one kind of sociology of knowledge, imperfect as it must be, and fill in some of the social and institutional details which help to explain the slow turn-around in Cambridge’s intellectual reputation.
In the writing of university history we sometimes forget how many problems are ‘imported’ into a university through its students. Accordingly, where students come from – social origins may be less useful in this regard than cultural influences – is a subject worthy of systematic investigation. Even the great and ageless Whewell, intellectual giant and college despot, symbol of Cambridge conservatism but probably a Peelite politically, was once a student, and mirabile dictu was in the chair at the Cambridge Union when university authorities raided the meeting in 1817! He and others of the Cambridge Network had grown up in the period of the French Revolution and were also of an age to be influenced, positively or negatively, by the romantic rebellion, which not only produced a Cambridge interest in Kant and German literature, but helped to shape a new youth subculture. Here were internal challenges arguably more important for Cambridge’s early 19th-century history than the criticisms of the Edinburgh Review, or the occasional question raised in the Houses of Parliament, or even Nonconformist anger. The development of a child-centred family, of which at present we have only hints, rising matriculations in the first two decades of the century, for which we cannot yet account, a student body composed of young adults rather than immature teenagers, the significance of which remains to be elaborated, and a system of awarding fellowships that put pedagogical influence into the hands of neophyte teachers, leaving the gerontocracy in charge of college governance but not young minds, are characteristics of the unreformed period that underlay even if they did not exactly cause the changing ideas about education that scholars have been noticing in the Oxford and Cambridge environments. To this we may add, especially from about 1840 to 1860, the first effects of the public school revival which indirectly – perhaps even directly – revitalised the collegiate federal structure of Cambridge just at the time when the Scottish or German professorial model was being pressed upon the universities in order to elevate their intellectual tone. Very likely this internal pressure, the pressure of dealing on a daily basis in a residential setting with young persons attracted to a world of competing ideas and political changes, underscored the necessity to strengthen the coherence and discipline of undergraduate education. Hence another reason why a theory of knowledge that stressed design was so appealing, and why the dons steadfastly maintained that the purpose of undergraduate education was not discovery and innovation, not the advancement of knowledge, but the dissemination of what was already known. Dr Garland believes the generation of Whewell succeeded in their aims. Later Victorian reformers were unhappy with what they found in Cambridge, especially the Mathematical Tripos, which they called a sphinx guarding the route to the city of learning. By then, however, events had overtaken Cambridge to create the state of permanent dissatisfaction with higher education that continues to the present day. | <urn:uuid:e089e58e-756f-4ec9-a210-6a1ef38aeb27> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v03/n04/sheldon-rothblatt/redesigning-cambridge | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400209999.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200923050545-20200923080545-00523.warc.gz | en | 0.955006 | 2,183 | 2.71875 | 3 |
YOUR correspondent Mr. Paul (Letters, August 21) is woefully misinformed about history.
The Palestinians originated before the building of the pyramids and have their origins in the Natufians long before that.
Palestine was commonly known in biblical times: Joel 3:4 King James Version (KJV) 4 – “Yea, and what have ye to do with me, O Tyre, and Zidon, and all the coasts of Palestine? Will ye render me a recompense?”
But the irony of Mr. Paul’s fiction is that the origins of all the present problems are encapsulated in Herzl’s vision of a Jewish state in Palestine: “Zionism seeks to secure for the Jewish people a publicly recognized, legally secured homeland in Palestine.” (1897). The original in Herzl’s own hand in German clearly says Palestine (Herzl was Hungarian).
The people of Palestine are by definition Palestinians, and Herzl had no doubt of their existence. It was indeed created as Israel in 1948, one of the newest nations on earth, whereas Palestine is one of the oldest. And the current land of Israel is built on 52 per cent of former Palestinian land (under the British Mandate and UN auspices).
So the irony is that if there were no Palestinians there would be no Israelis.
And of course the Palestinians are native to the Middle East whereas most modern “Israelis” are of eastern European origin. Netanyahu’s father was Polish, and so was the founder of Israel in 1948, David Ben Gurion.
H Finlayson, Emeritus Professor of History Tudor Court, Ipswich. | <urn:uuid:920398f0-dfa8-4723-aca0-2ec5d08f4ac9> | CC-MAIN-2015-48 | http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/features/readersletters/11429490.Misinformed/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-48/segments/1448398447913.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20151124205407-00331-ip-10-71-132-137.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953129 | 351 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Two Minute Silence
Each year at the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month, we observe a Two Minute Silence. Armistice Day on 11 November marks the end of the First World War and is a day to remember and honour those who have paid the price for our freedom.
Legion Branches around the country participate in local Remembrance services on Remembrance Sunday, 11th November 2018.
The Silence in the Square event is not taking place in 2017-18. The next event will be held on Armistice Day 2019.
WHY THE ACT OF REMEMBRANCE MATTERS
Great Britain still believes strongly in remembering those who fought not only in World Wars, but the more than 12,000 British Servicemen and women killed or injured since 1945.
The Royal British Legion supports silences observed during both Remembrance Sunday services and on 11 November, Armistice Day, itself. The act of Remembrance rightly has a place in - and impact on - our lives, no matter which day of the week it might fall upon.
How to observe the Two Minute Silence
The Royal British Legion recommends that the Two Minute Silence is observed in the following order:
- At 11am, the Last Post is played
- The exhortation is then read (see below)
- The Two Minute Silence then begins
- The end of the silence is signalled by playing the Reveille
"They shall grow not old, as we that are left grow old,
Age shall not weary them, nor the years condemn.
At the going down of the sun, and in the morning
We will remember them."
Response: "We will remember them."
To assist in organising your own act of Remembrance, download our Two Minute Silence mp3 file. It includes the Last Post at the beginning and Reveille to end the silence. Or you can view the video version below. | <urn:uuid:7684f818-209f-4666-b3a5-4a13f07b4ee9> | CC-MAIN-2019-35 | https://admin.britishlegion.org.uk/remembrance/how-we-remember/two-minute-silence/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027321160.93/warc/CC-MAIN-20190824152236-20190824174236-00265.warc.gz | en | 0.920715 | 396 | 2.734375 | 3 |
How Labour Governs. Vere Gordon Childe 1923
THE remarks of the A.W.U. delegates, with which we concluded the last chapter, are symptomatic of the change which had come over the outlook of industrialists since the beginning of the century. To understand this change it will be necessary to go back several years; for the roots of the revolt against politicalism go back as far as 1907. The movement of thought in this period is not continuous, but oscillatory, varying with the political and economic circumstances of the time. Its beginnings may be associated with the realisation that the increases of wage secured by Arbitration Court awards were being neutralised by the rapid increase of prices from 1908 onward. But at this time militancy was checked by the prospect of the return of Labour Governments in the chief industrial States from which, so far untried, great things were expected, and by the disastrous results of experiments in direct action under hostile Ministries which recalled the lessons of the 'nineties.
Secondly, when a spell of Labour Governments had failed to bring any relief to the workers, but real wages continued to fall, a more marked drift to the Left manifested itself in the movement for big amalgamations on industrial lines led by the A.W.U. This tendency took on a third and accentuated phase when the popular idols of labour deserted to the enemy and Labour was left hopelessly defeated on the political field. This phase culminated in the Big Strike of 1917, and, in the light of the lesson then received, passed into a fourth when the industrial leaders came out with a definitely revolutionary programme under the banner of the One Big Union.
But as the original inspiration of political action had come from Europe, so the new industrial movement is traceable to American influences. These were the propaganda of the Industrial Workers of the World. It was this body which once more revived the doctrines of revolutionary Socialism on the industrial field which the small bodies of orthodox Socialists, who had split off from the Labour Party, had failed to keep alive on the political field. Now it is convenient to distinguish three periods in this propaganda:
Firstly, a rather academic advocacy of industrial unionism through the medium of I.W.W. Clubs and the S.L.P., guided rather by the principles of Detroit than the more extreme doctrines of Chicago.
Secondly, there came a time when the phraseology at least of these industrial unionists was taken up by recognised leaders of Australian unionism in the furtherance of amalgamations and the creation of industrial as opposed to craft unions.
Thirdly, the Chicago I.W.W. established locals in Australia and conducted an intensive campaign throughout the continent, paying no respect whatever to the established shibboleths of the politicians. This period ended with the formal dissolution of the organisation under the Unlawful Associations Act of 1916.
These three periods correspond very approximately to the first three phases of the revolt of the unionists against the domination of the politicians, but of course these phases and periods must not be taken as separated by any hard-and-fast lines. They melt insensibly into one another and frequently overlap. Nor again must too much stress be laid on their parallelism with economic changes. It is probable, that despite the statistical fall in real wages, the general level of comfort and prosperity enjoyed by the workers as a whole rose steadily throughout the whole period during which they were moving to the Left. On the other hand, it is important to keep in mind the change in the character of the workers included in the unions which came about during the epoch. This change was the organisation of the nomadic unskilled or semi-skilled workers who roam about the country districts of a new land. Now, it was just this class that the I.W.W. had been founded to organise in America, and this circumstance partly accounts for the changed outlook of the industrial movement.
The channel through which the new doctrines of industrial unionism first reached the Australian proletariat was the Socialist Labour Party, which as a socialist body dated back to the nineties, and had little practical influence. Still it was from it that the I.W.W. doctrine began to permeate the Australian unions. The leaders of the S.L.P. were among the founders of the I.W.W. in 1905. Two years later I.W.W. clubs began to spring up in Australia under the auspices of the S.L.P., but preaching industrial unionism. Among the coal-miners around Newcastle and in Melbourne these preachings had an appreciable influence. There were two points in the I.W.W. creed which were seized upon by the Australian unionist – the futility of craft unionism which divided the workers up into small sections, each out for their own hands and regardless of their mates; and the denunciation of palliatives such as wages boards and arbitration courts.
The I.W.W., even before the Chicago split, had regarded it as the aim of unionism to fight the master class. The union must be a fighting machine and nothing else. They regarded benefit funds and such like adjuncts as cumbersome and useless paraphernalia which only hindered the onward march of the toilers. Craft or sectional unionism they looked upon as organised scabbery and nothing less. The ideal union would be such that “all its members in any one industry, or in all industries if necessary, can cease work whenever a strike or lock-out is on in any one department thereof, thus making an injury to one an injury to all.” The class struggle formed the cardinal point in their creed, and it could only be ended by the workers uniting politically and industrially to take and hold what they produce. To this triumphant culmination of the struggle palliatives were only a hindrance. The diversion of working-class energies into political channels for the attainment of such was therefore deplored as a waste of time. Arbitration Courts, which served at best to maintain the status quo and offered no ultimate hope of emancipation, checked the creative militancy of the proletariat and consequently hindered progress.
The circumstances of the period predisposed the toilers minds to a receptive attitude towards these teachings. The legal delays of the Arbitration Court procedure and the frequent defeats of the workers, even when they had at length obtained a good award, on appeals to the higher courts caused many to look for better results from the old direct method The failure of the Labour Parties to gain tangible results, despite all their concessions to the middle classes, after fifteen years induced a feeling of pessimism with regard to reformist tactics. On the other hand, the older unionists, who remembered the dark days of the 'nineties and were able to recognise the positive advances gained under arbitration in comparison therewith, looked askance at the direct actionist propaganda of the I.W.W. The craft unionists, too, saw their hard-won privileges imperilled by the plan of industrial unionism; the officials of small sectional unions feared that it threatened their jobs; and above all the influential politicians deprecated revolutionary theories that would make vote-catching more difficult.
It was not, therefore, to be expected that the I.W.W. would get much countenance from the official leaders of Labour as represented on urban trades councils or at union congresses. In 1907 the Sydney Labour Council refused to hear Scott Bennett lecture on industrial unionism. One delegate said: “Those men can be heard any day, abusing trade unionism, the Labour Party, and the Council. Their object is to wipe out trade unionism and substitute their own ideas.” 1 Melbourne Trades Hall Council, however, proved more open-minded in the following year. The Executive was asked to report on a motion:
“That in view of the fact that Arbitration Courts and Wages Boards have failed to give the protection to the workers that they so much desire, the Trades Hall Council be requested to consider the advisability of organising on the lines of the I.W.W.”
The Executive brought in an exhaustive and reasoned report. They denied that Arbitration Courts and Wages Boards had failed to give “protection and relief to sweated and other workers.” On the contrary, they had “created conditions that could not have existed otherwise.” “The true ideal of the workers is not possible under Capitalism, and therefore they are bound to use that machinery which secures the best results for the time being, recognising that each step upward is a foothold not previously gained. Arbitration Courts are but aids, not finalities, in the march of industrial progress.” After enumerating the achievements of unionism the report continues: “The constitution of the I.W.W. is but another phase of the unionist movement. The distinctive badge of craftism is merged in the greater humanity.” To attain success the forces of labour should be knit into one great organisation. “When the millions of unionists are disciplined, undivided, and mobile towards achieving their ends, craftism will have ceased and brotherhood will be paramount. That this is possible your Executive is assured.” But owing to the difference in condition on the two sides of the Pacific, the Executive did not agree that the constitution of the I.W.W. was applicable in globo to Australian problems. They contented themselves with recommending a conference of the unions for the modest aim of creating a central fighting fund.
In Easter of the same year a Trade Union Congress was held in N.S.W., and thereat the following resolution was moved on behalf of the Newcastle Labour Council:
“That whereas it has been demonstrated that our present system of craft unionism is hopelessly impotent to prevent the exactions of concentrated capital; and whereas the position of the workers is year by year becoming more insecure; and whereas it is absolutely necessary that the workers should be organised industrially in order to cope successfully with combinations of capitalists, be it therefore resolved that this meeting adopts the constitution and preamble of the I.W.W. as follows”: (here follows the preamble of that body as originally adopted in 1905).
In support of his thesis the mover pointed to the success of a recent coal strike in Newcastle, which he attributed to the fact that the union was organised industrially. Another delegate declared that craft unionism had outlived its usefulness. Individual unions were beaten almost every time. Palliatives had failed. The exploitation of the labour of women and children showed an alarming increase. Effie (Coal Trimmers) declared straight out that political action had failed, but Harry Holland (Tailoresses) declared that the motion did not mean the abandonment of political action. (As a matter of fact the first I.W.W. preamble expressly states that “the toilers must come together on the political as well as on the industrial field,” but adds later, “without affiliation with any political party” – probably, however, referring simply to Republicans or Democrats, as the more syndicalist preamble of 1908 expressly omits the word “political.” ) The supposed syndicalism of the I.W.W. was the chief objection advanced against it. Nulty, of the Barrier A.M.A., afterwards a red-hot centre of industrial unionism, asked: “After so many years of hard work, do you propose to knock the political Labour Party on the head? To adopt the preamble would kill it. Its principles originated in America which is fifty years behind the times as far as the Labour Party is concerned. It is the objective of the Socialists who are always trying to divide the ranks of labour.” W. G. Spence, M.H.R., President of the A.W.U, spoke in a similar strain. If they liked, the unionists could elect a Labour Government, and if they joined together as they should they could get what they wanted. The I.W.W. preamble meant strikes and nothing but strikes, and in some cases to take possession. But when they took possession, what then? They must capture the law-making machine. Division would only please the capitalists who were getting alarmed at the progress of Labour in politics. Morrish, an ex-Socialist, also contrasted Australian and American conditions. In the U.S.A., he pointed out, there was no Political Labour Party. On the other hand, E. J. Kavanagh, Secretary of the Labour Council, maintained that there were only two known ways of closer organisation-by federation or by a labour council. He recommended the unions to affiliate with his Council. The I.W.W. proposition was in the end turned down by a two to one majority, and a resolution carried in its place in favour of a Federation of Labour. Nevertheless, the I.W.W. idea was still working. In July the coal-miners in N.S.W. and Victoria federated. Previously there had been three separate federations in N.S.W. – the Northern on the Newcastle-Maitland field, the Western with its headquarters at Lithgow, and the Southern on the Illawarra coast. Each of these worked under separate awards or agreements, so that low wages under a two-years'-old award in one district could be used as an argument for keeping down wages in another. Again, during a strike on the northern field industry might be kept going by coal from Lithgow or Illawarra. The Federation would be a far more formidable fighting machine, and that is what its founder, Bowling, intended it to be; for he was a professed adherent of the I.W.W. The Tram Strike in Sydney is further evidence of the effect of I.W.W. propaganda. At least Holman attributed the strike to the intrigue of an I.W.W. section who wanted to compass the fall of the Labour Party.
Next year there was quite a body of opinion filled with the idea of a general strike, and the I.W.W. influence in the northern miners' lodges was unmistakable. The Broken Hill miners were on strike or locked out that year, and their leaders had been arrested for sedition and committed for trial. Now Wade transferred the scene of the trial from the Barrier to Albury. The unionists regarded this action as evidence of an intention on the part of the Ministry to secure a conviction by hook or by crook, and the northern miners desired to resort to direct action to prevent a perversion of justice. At the Trade Union Congress, which opened in Sydney a few days before the trial, Peter Bowling secured the suspension of the standing orders to protest against the change of venue. Having carried the protest, Congress went into camera to consider a further motion of Bowling's that in the event of a conviction all Labour bodies should be asked to cease work until a fresh trial in fairer circumstances was granted. In supporting this motion for a general strike, Biggers (Northern Coal Miners) said that the men in prison looked not to the Parliamentary Labour Party, but to the industrial organisations. They wanted One Big Union. However, Congress would have nothing to do with the general strike. Later on, at the same gathering, Bowling made a bitter attack on the Labour Party. That Party, he said, exercised a deadly influence. The legislation they aimed at would create small farmers and middle-class capitalists - the biggest obstacles that were known. Members of the Labour Party dare not come out on the platform as advocates of the cause of Labour. In the Tram Strike they had led the union men to turn traitors. Their policy was always peace at any price. The P.L.L. started out as a socialist movement and then went back and back. Until the workers were organised industrially, they could not have a true reflex in Parliament. To the substantive motion in favour of closer unity between the industrial and political movements he moved as an amendment:
“That at the present stage of industrial unionism, it is undesirable for it to be asked to take part in any political movement that exists to-day.”
This amendment was not seconded, the Chairman ruling that in the principal motion political movement did not necessarily mean the P.L.L.
But the feeling in favour of direct action which was growing up soon found expression in a great upheaval in the coal-mining industry. The opposition of the industrial unionists to arbitration was seconded by the northern colliery proprietors who had fought the Industrial Disputes Act in every conceivable way. Even justice Heydon had complained of their determined obstruction.1 A number of unionists had been victimised, and the best places were, it is alleged, given to blacklegs. So to settle these and other grievances the Northern Colliery Employees' Federation decided on a strike on November 7th. The decision took the public by surprise, but the plans of the men had been well laid. There were two mines on the field whose owners were not in the association or “vend” with the remaining proprietors. The Federation had arranged for the continued working of these two mines on a co-operative basis, the miners sharing in the enhanced price to be created by the shortage and using their earnings for the support of their striking comrades. An agent, probably of the miners, is supposed to have made a contract with one of the “vend” proprietors for 670 tons of coal on November 3rd, and subsequently resold this coal during the strike at 50s. a ton, thus earning a substantial profit on the transaction.
On November 10th only the two co-operative mines were working, the supplies available were strictly limited, and the men seemed in an invincible position. On Tuesday a conference was held between the miners and the waterside workers, led by Hughes, to complete the hold-up. On the same day the Premier, Wade, proposed a conference between the parties, the men returning to work in the interval. That proposition the miners immediately rejected. The proprietors treated similarly a subsequent proposition for a conference without resumption of work. Then Wade began to show the direct actionists what political action could do. First the railways were instructed to refuse to haul coal except for locomotive purposes. That made it impossible to realise on the coal cut from the two co-operative pits and cut off the strikers' source of revenue. On the 30th the Government commandeered all coal at grass in the State at a fair average value – i.e., without taking into account the increment in value due to the shortage created by the strike. So the miners' clever plan for providing themselves with the sinews of war was effectually checkmated. At the same time industries were closing down and throwing men out of work owing to the lack of fuel. The use of gas and electricity was rigorously restricted. Moreover Bowling and two fellow officers of the Federation were arrested for conspiring to cause a strike contrary to the provisions of the Industrial Disputes Act.
The last-named event brought to a head division, which had long been brewing, in the strike congress of miners and transport workers which was sitting. Hughes, in view of the near approach of the Federal elections, was working for peace and was doing his best to keep the watersiders and other unions from direct participation. Bowling, on the other hand, wanted a general strike. On December 12th these quarrels came to a head. Hughes said some bitter things of Bowling, and thereupon the miners walked out of the congress and announced that they would continue the fight on their own.
Wade seized the opportunity to take exemplary action. On December 16th he secured the suspension of the standing orders, to allow of the passage through both Houses of Parliament in a single sitting of a Bill to amend the Industrial Disputes Act. The Coercion Act, as this hurried amendment was called, was indeed a remarkable piece of legislation. Strikes or lock-outs in connection with the production or distribution of a necessary commodity – i.e., water, coal, gas, or any article of food necessary to human life, were placed in a special category. Any meeting to instigate, aid, control, or maintain such a strike was declared unlawful. Participation in such a meeting exposed one to a penalty of twelve months' imprisonment. (This clause was clearly directed against the strike congress.) The police were authorised to break into any building where they suspected that such an unlawful meeting was in progress. Furthermore, for instigating or supporting an illegal strike or lock-out a penalty of twelve months' imprisonment might be imposed. The administration of these clauses would be in the jurisdiction of the Industrial Court, and under the principal Act no appeal from its findings or sentences lay to any higher court. Hence the accused under this section was deprived of the right of trial by jury-there was no jury in the Industrial Court – and might be sentenced to a long term of imprisonment without the right of appeal to the verdict of his peers. This wonderful measure was passed through the Assembly by the aid of a liberal use of the closure. Labour members were thus deprived of the chance of supporting Mr. Bowling, and had to content themselves with marching out of the Chamber in protest.
As soon as the Bill became law, the strike leaders were again arrested, and this time bail was refused. So they had to stay in gaol till they were sentenced to eighteen months each. Under these circumstances the strike gradually collapsed. The political action of the employing class had proved more effective than the industrial action of the workers. The politicians, led by Hughes, scored a distinct victory over the I.W.W. in the defeat of the workers. The debacle damped the enthusiasm of the direct actionists and encouraged unionists to concentrate once again on capturing the Legislature. Thus the Coal Strike marks the close of our first phase of revolt as far as the southern States are concerned.
It was not till Labour Governments had begun to demonstrate their incompetence to fulfil their own promises that the I.W.W. again began to spread. And when it did, it was a new I.W.W. – an Australian branch chartered straight from the extremist section at Chicago. But before dealing with that phase we must describe the events that had been taking place in Queensland. | <urn:uuid:cb20b7d3-c2be-44d1-b9f2-3bd29af9611d> | CC-MAIN-2016-22 | https://www.marxists.org/archive/childe/how-labor-governs/ch08.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-22/segments/1464051165777.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160524005245-00064-ip-10-185-217-139.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.976981 | 4,613 | 2.609375 | 3 |
The history of English libel law
The precursors to libel law were developed in the ecclesiastical courts as a lightly-sanctioned criminal offence (punishable by penance). The first clear example of a civil libel statute appeared in the Statute of Westminster in 1275. No distinction between libel and slander was made until hundreds of years later, which is unsurprising since the law was passed long before the invention of the printing press.
Libel claims did not become actionable in common law until the 16th century, at which point three types of false accusations were actionable:
- Falsely accusing someone of a crime;
- Falsely accusing someone of professional or vocational incompetence; and
- Falsely accusing someone of having a particular disease, especially an STD.
By the 17th century, the volume of litigation began to increase, due in part to a dramatic increase in the number of allegations of defamation against the sexual reputations of female litigants. Currently, libel law throughout much of the Commonwealth and beyond is ultimately based on English common law.
The Defamation Act of 1996
The Defamation Act of 1996 specified three elements of a libel claim:
- The defendant must have communicated a false statement of fact (not mere opinion);
- The statement must have identified or referred to the plaintiff;
- The statement must have been published.
Several defences are available, the most important of which is known as “justification”—the defence that the statement was true, which will defeat almost any libel claim.
The Defamation Act of 2013
The Defamation Act of 2013 significantly transformed the libel law of England and Wales in a manner that grants far more latitude to the press. Indeed, at least one study concluded that it resulted in a 27% decrease in libel lawsuits between 2013 and 2015. Some of its major reforms include:
Libel tourism (“forum shopping”): in former years, litigants from overseas commonly brought libel claims in domestic courts, even with only a minimal presence in the UK, because it was easier to win libel lawsuits in the UK than in their home countries. US defamation law, for example, is notorious for the difficulty that litigants face in proving their case against a defendant. Under the Defamation Act of 2013, however, a litigant from outside the EU must prove that the UK is the most appropriate jurisdiction in order to bring suit there under the Defamation Act. It remains to be seen how Brexit will affect the application of the law to EU litigants in the future.
The “serious harm” test: the new law requires litigants to prove that the allegedly libellous statement caused, or was likely to cause, “serious harm” to their reputation. This provision is designed to discourage frivolous litigation and is likely to see its greatest effect in discouraging libel lawsuits against little-known online publications.
The right of a business to sue for libel has been restricted. A business may only sue for libel if it has suffered, or is likely to suffer, a “serious financial loss” as a result of the libel.
All libel cases will be heard by judges rather than juries unless the appropriate court issues an order for a jury trial.
Expanded privilege against libel liability: The UK has a long-standing tradition of “privilege” under libel law. Under the privilege doctrine, someone protected by a privilege cannot be sued for communicating what would otherwise be considered libellous content.
Under the new law, libel privileges have been expanded to include:
(i) Most material contained in scientific papers, conferences and publications;
(ii) Website owners, for the content of comments, as long as they observe a “report and remove” policy (re-moderation is not required to avoid libel liability).
(iii) Articles based on information that was provided by public companies;
(iv) Articles based on information that was provided at press conferences;
(v) Reports of government proceedings from anywhere in the world; and
(vi) Reports of international government conferences and international court proceedings.
A public interest defence has been added, whereby the defendant can prevail by proving that the allegedly libellous statement concerned a matter of public interest, and the defendant reasonably believed that it was in the public interest to publish the statement.
The statute of limitations for web-based publications has been shortened to one year after first online publication, instead of the previous standard of one year after the most recent view or download.
The Defamation Act of 2013 is a significant advancement of freedom of the press because it clarifies previously murky areas of libel law. When journalists are unsure about the rules, they tend to err on the side of caution, resulting in significant self-censorship. In other words, it’s not what you’re reading that matters the most—it’s what you’re not reading.
The fear has always been that the courts will chip away at the legislation through creative interpretation of its provisions. This appeared to be happening in the case Lachaux vs Independent Print and another, in which the Court of Appeal ruled that damage to a plaintiff’s reputation could be imputed rather than proven. Fortunately, however, this potentially dangerous precedent was overruled by the Supreme Court in June 2019.
Legal threats facing UK journalists
Despite the great leap forward that the Defamation Act of 2013 represents, more is needed to keep journalists safe from legal harassment. Following is a description of only a few of the many legal dangers and annoyances faced by journalists and publishers in the UK.
The Burden of Proof problem
In the UK, the burden of proof in a libel case is on the defendant. In other words, it is not up to the plaintiff to prove that the statement in question is false—it is up to the defendant to prove that the statement is true. It is often difficult to prove the truth of a statement one way or the other—and when neither side submits convincing evidence, the party with the burden of proof loses. This one aspect of UK libel law likely causes more self-censorship than any other.
A significant barometer of publishers’ persistent willingness to self-censor is revealed in attitudes towards the publication of the Scientology tell-all book and film Going Clear. The Church of Scientology was able to intimidate publishers out of publishing the book in the UK, while the film received only low-key screenings in a few theatres.
The fact that this self-censorship occurred after the Defamation Act of 2013 came into force illustrates that more needs to be done to protect press freedom in the UK. Some of this may have to be done by the press itself, however, if the UK refuses to reform libel law to reverse the burden of proof.
Strategic Litigation Against Public Participation (SLAPP) lawsuits are designed not for the purpose of victory, but to intimidate and harass the defendant by costing him time and money, in the hopes of shutting down the investigation or discussion of a matter of public concern. SLAPP lawsuits are usually launched by special interests that will benefit from shutting down debate. In the UK they are often aimed at journalists by using libel laws as an excuse.
There are no objective means of determining whether or not a given lawsuit constitutes a SLAPP lawsuit, because identifying a lawsuit as a SLAPP lawsuit requires inferring the motives of the plaintiff. Nevertheless, below are some examples of journalists and authors who fought defamation lawsuits that were widely perceived as SLAPP lawsuits:
Maltese Journalist Daphne Caruana Galizia, who was a defendant in 42 separate libel lawsuits (most of them in the UK) at the time that she was murdered in 2017;
British journalist Carole Cadwalladr, who is being sued by Brexit campaigner Aaron Banks for her coverage of the Cambridge Analytica scandal;
American author Rachel Ehrenfeld was sued in England by Saudi billionaire Sheikh Khalid Bin Mahfouz after she published the book Funding Evil: How Terrorism is Financed—and How to Stop It.
Although many US states have passed anti-SLAPP legislation that seems to have been at least partially effective, there is not likely to be a way of ending them entirely.
The 5th Money Laundering Directive
The 5th Anti-Money Laundering Directive (5AMLD) will go into effect in January 2020. Although this new law is directed at money laundering rather than free speech or defamation, critics fear its potential impact on UK libel law.
Under 5AMLD, journalists and researchers who wish to access the new register of beneficiaries of foreign trusts that own property in the UK, will have to present evidence of wrongdoing before they are allowed access. The main fear is that presenting evidence of money laundering could trigger an investigation that could drag on for years before access is finally granted, thereby hobbling investigative reporting. This state of affairs, in turn, could embolden money launderers.
Of course, since 5AMLD is an EU law, Brexit throws its future into uncertainty. The majority view is that 5ALD will go into effect in the UK for at least a while—but after that, all bets are off. A no-deal Brexit would render the situation even more uncertain. This could be seen as a window of opportunity, however, because UK journalists may have the opportunity to influence the course of events between now and the time the issue is finally resolved.
Resistance is growing to restrictive libel-based laws that inhibit journalistic freedom. That resistance is not limited to the media—it exists even within the legal system itself, and at some very high levels. Several top-level UK prosecutors have exhibited very protective attitudes to journalists who violate the law in the course of performing their duties.
One of the most prominent examples is Keir Starmer, former director of public prosecutions (DPP), who spearheaded the drafting of prosecutorial guidelines to protect journalists who break certain laws in the public interest. The courage this took must have been contagious because the same principle was incorporated into the “public interest” defence against libel contained in the Defamation Act of 2013.
Reform from within the profession
In many cases, a journalist will base a story on facts that he knows to be true, but which he is not certain he can prove in court with admissible evidence. In other cases, a journalist or a small publisher may lack the financial resources to defend against SLAPP lawsuits filed by wealthy special interests.
Much of this risk could be mitigated by the formation of an industry-wide fund to support beleaguered journalists. Ultimately, however, it may come down to intestinal fortitude. Journalists are simply going to have to act boldly and risk subjecting themselves to liability, just as they often risk their lives reporting from war-torn areas. Perhaps the trade of journalism needs to be re-conceptualised to render courage just as much of a qualification as it is for a soldier. | <urn:uuid:1d2faf42-2293-4049-925c-0bb75cf889fb> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | https://www.allaboutlaw.co.uk/commercial-awareness/legal-spotlight/libel-law-past-present-and-future- | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400213006.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20200924002749-20200924032749-00681.warc.gz | en | 0.967287 | 2,250 | 3.75 | 4 |
What is a carbon footprint?
A carbon footprint is the total amount of greenhouse gases (including carbon dioxide and methane) that are generated by our actions.
The average carbon footprint for a person in the United States is 16 tons, one of the highest rates in the world. Globally, the average carbon footprint is closer to 4 tons. To have the best chance of avoiding a 2℃ rise in global temperatures, the average global carbon footprint per year needs to drop to under 2 tons by 2050.
Lowering individual carbon footprints from 16 tons to 2 tons doesn’t happen overnight! By making small changes to our actions, like eating less meat, taking fewer connecting flights and line drying our clothes, we can start making a big difference.
Carbon Footprint Calculator
Protect Nature with a Donation
Do your part to create a more sustainable future for our planet. Donate today and you’ll be a member, funding urgent direct conservation and advocacy. The power to protect and restore nature—now and for the next generation— is in your hands. | <urn:uuid:4bc07c20-48c1-413b-87e6-43a86b9fe445> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.nature.org/en-us/get-involved/how-to-help/carbon-footprint-calculator/?vu=r.v_travel | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104597905.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20220705174927-20220705204927-00303.warc.gz | en | 0.914823 | 218 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Cycling on the rise during COVID-19 pandemic
Category: research Video duration: Cycling on the rise during COVID-19 pandemic
Ralph Buehler, professor and chair of the Urban Affairs and Planning department in the School of Public and International Affairs, discusses how cycling has increased globally in relation to the COVID-19 pandemic.
COVID has had a big impact on how people get around. We've seen increases in bicycling. A couple of indicators for that. One is an increase in sales of bicycles. We also see that in increased bicycling volumes measured by bike counters. So these are machines that count bicycles that go by a certain spot in the city. And we see increases in the number of people going, going by those. And of course we see in many cities an increase in bikeway infrastructure. I think it's, it's beneficial for the transport system in the long run because we get people to ride more bikes, be more physically active and if we think about the space use of a bike compared to say, driving alone in your car to work, it's much more space efficient so it can help fight traffic congestion, it can help fight local air pollution. There's very little pollution coming out of bikes. Entire blocks have been closed off to cars and the old parking spaces are now used for outdoor seating, for restaurants. And in the middle you have pedestrians walking around and we'll see how these "pandemic experiments" will, will stay and will translate in the post-pandemic world. And some of them may stick because people like them. So they may demand them and some of them can really help solve other problems we have. | <urn:uuid:8780dc59-cfa0-49b7-9e07-685e2ab80231> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://vtx.vt.edu/videos/k/2020/11/1_8doiphya.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046155458.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20210805063730-20210805093730-00291.warc.gz | en | 0.974014 | 346 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Giving to charity is an age-old tradition that can be found in any culture. Community members have distributed resources without expecting to be reimbursed for thousands of years. The incentive comes from the improvement of the entire community. Currently, millions of groups are working to address challenges such as poverty, food insecurity, and poor healthcare. What are the benefits of donating? The following are ten reasons:
There are advantages to mental wellness.
Giving has been shown to improve a person’s mental health in studies. Giving in any form, including volunteering your time or making a monetary donation, triggers the release of “feel-good” hormones in the brain. Serotonin, dopamine, and oxytocin are among them. While These substances are necessary for optimum mental wellness.
There are certain physical health advantages.
Donating is also good for your mental health. Generosity has been related in research to physical health benefits including lower blood pressure. One study found that persons aged 55 and over who volunteered were 44 percent less likely to die over the course of five years than those who did not volunteer, even after controlling for age, general health, and exercise. Because stress has been connected to a number of health issues, the ability of generosity to relieve stress has both mental and physical benefits.
Donations help to spread awareness.
Donations are used by nonprofit organizations for a variety of purposes, including expanding their reach. They can sponsor social media campaigns and fundraising events, allowing them to bring attention to the topics they care about. Large donation milestones can also draw media attention and provide the learning disability charity with a larger platform. By donating, a person contributes to the dissemination of useful information.
Donations also aid in the development of long-term solutions.
While many people donate at times of need, donations throughout the year are as significant. This is because many organizations concentrate on long-term solutions that address the underlying causes of problems such as poverty. Healthcare and education programs, according to experts, are critical. Giving to groups that are devoted to long-term solutions helps communities become self-sufficient.
Even tiny contributions make a difference.
Celebrities frequently make significant donations to charities, but it’s the small ones that add up. According to a Giving USA report from 2015, the average family donated slightly over $2,000 over the course of the year. Although this may appear to be a large sum, it is the average, implying that many homes gave less. Smaller gifts are frequently made on a monthly basis.
It is contagious to donate.
Generosity, according to research, has a compounding effect. People who were given money were three times more inclined to give money to others later in life, according to a 2010 study. Donating can become a social norm since humans are social beings. Tell your friends and family why you’re donating to a cause. They might be inspired to give as well. | <urn:uuid:67793978-7ad9-4eda-ae56-3256ef98d677> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | https://www.ideaswebservices.com/reasons-on-why-you-should-donate-to-a-charity/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104675818.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20220706151618-20220706181618-00557.warc.gz | en | 0.971937 | 599 | 2.9375 | 3 |
What was life like during the Dark Ages? The Dark Ages were a period of great misery for some and great happiness for others. Read the following articles to have a basic understanding of the time:
Medieval Health - Health during the Middle Ages was a major concern - a quasi-disaster. This article contains information about common diseases, medieval doctors and more.
Medieval Life - Life was not like commonly portrayed in the movies. It was terrible for the majority of the medieval population. Plagues, famine, diseases, enemies and a lack of law and order were few of the causes.
Law and Order of the Middle Ages - This article explains how law worked in the Middle Ages. Ordeals are also explained because they were vital to medieval law and order.
Medieval Food - The medieval world was a very hungry one. What one ate depended almost entirely on the social class. While the lord had access to meat, peasants could barely find bread for their tables.
Medieval Chivalry - Chivalry was the way of the knight and was widely used from the High Middle Ages onwards as a way of discipline and courtly love.
Famines of the Middle Ages - Famine was a constant threat during the Middle Ages. Population slowly declined despite the best efforts of the powerful nations such as England to improve nutrition.
Women During the Middle Ages - Information about women during the Middle Ages as well as a list of the most important women of the Medieval Times.
Feudalism - The description of Feudalism, it's causes and how it reached its inevitable decline beginning from the early Late Middle Ages. | <urn:uuid:fd8178d0-c34f-49e8-9555-6308fa6a46c3> | CC-MAIN-2015-27 | http://www.medievality.com/life.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-27/segments/1435375098808.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20150627031818-00108-ip-10-179-60-89.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.980222 | 329 | 3.171875 | 3 |
A format for Statement of Profit and Loss is prescribed for the first time, where revenue from Operations and Other Income is shown separately and Expenses on business operations are shown on the basis of nature and not function.
Revenue from Operations means revenue earned from its business operations.
For a manufacturing or trading company these are:
1. Sale of Products;
2. Sale of Services; and
3. Other Operating Revenues
For a finance company it is
3. Profit from sale of shares; and
4. Income from Other Financial Services.
Other Income means revenue that is not revenue from operations.
This is classified into:
1. Interest income (in case of a company other than finance company);
2. Dividend income;
3. Net gain/loss on sale of investments; and
4. Other non-operating income.
Expenses are shown under the following heads:
Cost of Materials Consumed: It relates to manufacturing companies.
Purchase of stock-in-trade: It relates to trading companies.
Changes in inventories: of finished goods, Work-in-progress and stock-in-trade.
The above three components of Statement of Profit and Loss determines the cost of goods sold, manufactured and traded.
Employees benefit expenses: Salary and Wages, Leave Encashment, Staff Welfare expenses, Retirement Benefits etc.
Finance Cost Interest expense whether on Long – term borrowings or short – term borrowings.
Depreciation and Amortization expenses
Debit Balance (Loss) in Statement of Profit and Loss
If there is loss in the Statement of Profit and Loss, it will be shown under Reserves and Surplus as a negative amount.
Preliminary Expenses (including Deferred Revenue Expenditure)
Preliminary expenses would be written off in the year in which they are incurred. The expenditure on preliminary expenses shall not be carried forward in the balance sheet to be written off in subsequent accounting periods.
Loss on issue of Debentures
In the absence of information, it is better to write off and not to amortise this in the same year.
Share issue expenses
There are two views to deal with writing off Share Issue expenses and other costs:
1.They should be written off in the same manner as preliminary expenses.
2.ICAI suggests that the companies can write it off in 3 to 5 years.
The Form specified in Part II of Schedule-VI of the Companies Act, 1956 is as follows:
Modified for Board Examination
Name of the Company………………….
Statement of Profit and Loss for the year ended:………in `………………
|Particulars||Note No.||Previous Year(`)||Current Year(`)|
|1.Revenue from Operations|
|2. Other Income|
|3.Total revenue (1+2)|
1.Cost of Materials Consumed
2.Purchases of Stock-in-Trade
3.Changes in inventories of Finished Goods, Work-in-Progress and Stock-in-Trade
4.Employees Benefits Expenses
6.Depreciation and Amortization Expenses
|Profit before Tax(3 – 4)|
If provision for tax is given ,the format may be extended accordingly.
Subtract provision for tax then show Profit after Tax.
(Since, the site is non-profit, professional touch is lacking. Please! bear with us) | <urn:uuid:ee9a3038-1cf9-48bb-8b96-bfc53529bd53> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://commerceatease.com/statement-of-profit-and-loss/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986649035.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20191014025508-20191014052508-00053.warc.gz | en | 0.910492 | 722 | 3.046875 | 3 |
During the nineteenth century, British society was making rapid advancements in science and technology. While the men became materially productive, women were expected to be the fulcrums of society's changes. As one means of adjusting to these changes, many women focused on supernaturalism and spirituality. In Victorian Ghosts in the Noontide, Vanessa D. Dickerson analyzes women's spirituality in a materialistic age by examining the supernatural fiction of Charlotte and Emily Brontë, Elizabeth Gaskell, and George Eliot and provides interpretive readings of familiar texts like Jane Eyre and Wuthering Heights. Other works by lesser-known authors are also examined.Technological advances eliminated many of the jobs women were accustomed to doing. This left women looking for their place in society. A sense of "in-betweenness" developed in these women who were now expected to attend not only to the physical but also to the moral and spiritual needs of the family. As an answer to this "in-betweenness" some channeled their power toward the art of writing. Because people in the mid-1800s were so thoroughly engaged in scientific thought and advancements, supernatural folklore and spirituality were disreputable ideas for anyone, especially women, to explore. Ghosts and spirits were tied to old-wives' tales, superstitions, and legends. However, by focusing on these concepts and using fiction as an outlet, women were able to make great strides in being seen and heard. The art of writing functioned as an exploration of their spiritualism in which women discovered expression, freedom, and power.This perceptive, well-written book will add a new dimension to our understanding of women's supernatural writings of the Victorian era. Scholars of Victorian literature, women's studies, and popular culture will benefit from its insights.
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Rent Victorian Ghosts in the Noontide 1st edition today, or search our site for other textbooks by Vanessa D. Dickerson. Every textbook comes with a 21-day "Any Reason" guarantee. Published by University of Missouri.
Need help ASAP? We have you covered with 24/7 instant online tutoring. Connect with one of our tutors now. | <urn:uuid:cf424a80-3009-46aa-bd40-1b60b3308c6c> | CC-MAIN-2016-26 | http://www.chegg.com/textbooks/victorian-ghosts-in-the-noontide-1st-edition-9780826210814-0826210813 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00184-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.975428 | 439 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Right at the end of the extremely dry period we had this summer I decided to do a little experiment: I started taking a photo of the patch of grass in my street in Manchester, in the North West of England, every couple of days. I study the effects of drought on ecosystems (see my previous posts about the effects of drought belowground here and here) and I thought it would be nice to show how the grass in my street would bounce back after the rain had started.
Only… it didn’t. The rain did not come as intensely as I expected, and the grass did not bounce back as quickly as I expected. The first (top left) photo was taken on the 12thof July, the last (bottom right) on the 20thof August. And still you can see bare soil and brown patches! This patch of grass would look a lot lusher and greener during a normal Manchester summer.
But, more importantly, while aboveground plant growth seems mostly recovered, the composition of the community has changed (which you can’t see in these photos), and as I’ve shown in my research, this might continue to affect belowground communities and the processes they perform.
Of course, this little patch of grass in Manchester is not that important for the functioning of our ecosystems. But it is a nice illustration of the impacts of an extremely dry summer on grassland and how long it takes for these fast-growing plants to regain their biomass! | <urn:uuid:5aaa02c3-7665-47ec-89f8-2eaf233a62c6> | CC-MAIN-2020-50 | https://franciskadevries.wordpress.com/2018/09/05/an-extremely-dry-summer-in-manchester/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-50/segments/1606141189030.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20201126230216-20201127020216-00008.warc.gz | en | 0.972938 | 303 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Before the current prescription medications were developed, asthma was largely treated with asthma medication such as Epinephrine and Ephedrine.
These were the effective medicines once for the asthma treatment and these can be still bought over-the-counter from many pharmacies.
Both Epinephrine and ephedrine acts by relaxing the smooth muscles of the airways and thereby opening up the airways and allowing air to flow in and out of the lungs more easily.
But these drugs are not nearly as strong as prescription drugs and are suitable for mild asthma that exhibits asthma symptoms once or twice in a week.
If you are experiencing the symptoms often and the regular dose of epinephrine and ephedrine has little or no effect, then it is suggested that you seek a proper medical attention.
Epinephrine is an over-the-counter asthma medication available in a variety of concentrations which can be taken with an inhaler or a solution with saline through a nebulizer.
Before using this type of asthma medication, it is important to read the ingredients carefully as these medications often contain preservatives to which you may be allergic. It means you trigger a serious asthma attack while trying to treat mild symptoms with this asthma medication.
If the treatment with epinephrine is successful, you begin to feel relief in five minutes. But, if you are using the epinephrine over time and with repeated inhalations, the effect of epinephrine to treat your symptoms will become progressively less.
Ephedrine is an over-the-counter asthma medication taken as a tablet or capsule and it acts slower than epinephrine. Usually it takes about twenty to sixty minutes to get relief. When you are using for the first time, it can cause irritation so it may not be suitable if you have moderate symptoms.
If you are using this asthma medication over time, it no longer works and medical advice is needed.
Ephedrine is absorbed into the body and there is a much chance of reactions than epinephrine. The side effects of ephedrine asthma medication include
- Rapid heart beat
Both epinephrine and ephedrine interact with drugs that are being taken for other medical conditions, so if you are thinking of using this asthma medication, consult the doctor before doing it.
You should not use epinephrine and ephedrine asthma medication if thick mucus or sputum develops and a persistent or chronic cough occurs with asthma. These may be the signs of lung infection and require a medical attention. If these drugs do not relieve your symptoms within ten to sixty minutes or if your symptoms worsen, medical attention is needed immediately.
Over-the-counter medications Epinephrine and ephedrine are used under the guidance of a physician. You should switch to prescription asthma medication if: if your asthma is moderate or severe, if you are using regular doses of epinephrine and ephedrine to relieve from symptoms, if your asthma attacks occur once or more per week and if your asthma events occur at night. | <urn:uuid:2c0d3aeb-c8d2-4012-841c-8f4f7cba8a24> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://www.allergyasthmazone.com/asthma-treatment/over-the-counter-asthma-medication-are-they-effective/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046154127.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20210731234924-20210801024924-00576.warc.gz | en | 0.938568 | 611 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Niebuhr was the son of a Hanoverian farmer. He was self-educated. He travelled throughout the Middle East including Arabia, Persia (Iran), Syria and India. He was the only surviving member of a Danish/German team after the others died from illness and malaria. He wrote at least two books on his trips to the region which were later translated in to English and published in two volumes in the 1790s. Later editions were published around 1825.
Niebuhr’s maps of the region including Sinus Persicus, made about 1765 of the Persian Gulf is considered one of the most accurate of his time and was used for nearly 100 years.
Other websites[change | change source]
- Travels in Arabia is an old book from 1892 that talks about Carsten Neibuhr's travels | <urn:uuid:dd8b29eb-61f8-4376-9477-b4ad13ce10e3> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carsten_Niebuhr | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578613603.65/warc/CC-MAIN-20190423194825-20190423220825-00293.warc.gz | en | 0.991694 | 174 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Influence of nozzle parameters on spray pattern and droplet characteristics for a two-fluid nozzle
In this study, a two-fluid nozzle, as, e.g., used in fluidized-bed or spray drying applications, is comprehensively characterized regarding the spray pattern and droplet size. To analyze the spray cone, the spray cone angle and the radial mass distribution of the nozzle were measured at varied liquid flow rate, spray air pressure, liquid insert bore diameter, and air cap position. Additionally, droplet size distributions were recorded at different spray settings. In general, the overall spray cone and single droplets are significantly influenced by the spray parameters, especially the spray air pressure, as well as the nozzle geometry. | <urn:uuid:7f314134-11c3-4d73-bade-4989a7895b51> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://tore.tuhh.de/handle/11420/14461 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510334.9/warc/CC-MAIN-20230927235044-20230928025044-00797.warc.gz | en | 0.853174 | 199 | 2.53125 | 3 |
What role for natural gas in the transition towards a low-carbon economy?
The present study explores the potential role of natural gas in achieving carbon neutrality by 2050, a milestone for the achievement of the Paris Agreement signed in 2015.
The place of natural gas in contemporary energy and economic systems has grown steadily over the past four decades, in parallel with the development of international trade in this energy commodity. Long considered an unwanted by-product of oil, natural gas has seen its use, as a fuel and/or feedstock, extend to activities as varied as the generation of electricity (40% of current use) and heat, the production of steel, cement, hydrogen and chemicals, being used also in transportation, and so on.
Among all primary energy sources, natural gas enjoys a special status. While being a fossil fuel, it emits respectively 30% and 45% less CO2 than oil and coal upon combustion. Natural gas being rightfully perceived as “the least harmful fossil energy” from a climate perspective accounts for the often advanced vision of a “transition fuel”, but also the controversies that its production, transport and use give rise to from the point of view of the invariable horizon of transition policies, namely carbon neutrality by 2050.
The purpose of this document is twofold:
(1) By providing an in-depth analysis of the underlying value chain, the current uses and environmental externalities of natural gas, it aims to clarify the role this molecule can play to support the transition toward a zero-carbon economy;
(2) It also aims to determine the future role of existing natural gas infrastructures in such a zero-carbon economy, particularly in light of the current emergence of low-carbon gases such as biomethane and green hydrogen. | <urn:uuid:f6295a7c-f1fa-496b-bc9a-0653fcf5c593> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://gsh.cib.natixis.com/our-center-of-expertise/articles/what-role-for-natural-gas-in-the-transition-towards-a-low-carbon-economy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500983.76/warc/CC-MAIN-20230208222635-20230209012635-00785.warc.gz | en | 0.933271 | 363 | 3.09375 | 3 |
bebars , old, cairo, egypt ,azhar
Overview and HistoryEgypt has over one hundred pyramids, and the most famous are the ones just outside Cairo at Giza. Here's a look at the pyramids of Kheops and Khafren and... don't tell anybody... The Sphinx. Cairo is the largest city in Africa and the capital of Egypt. It is also known as "Paris on the Nile", "the City of a Thousand Minarets" and "the Triumphant City".Cairo was originally settled in Paleolithic times. Around 3100 B.C. the legendary God-King Menes of the Dynastic Period united Upper and Lower Egypt and made his capital at Memphis, which is located only fifteen miles south of modern Cairo. Memphis was the religious center of On, or Heliopolis by the Greeks, the city of the Sun.Persia invaded Egypt in 525 B.C. and built a strategic fort north of Memphis, calling it Babylon-on-the-Nile. The Persians used Babylon as their base until Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. During the Greek period Babylon was not very important, but when Rome took over it regained strategic use.The Roman general Trajan repaired the canal which allowed ships passage between the Red Sea and the Nile, passing through Babylon. The city grew in size and became a prominent center of the Christian religion, taking on a Coptic influence. The Coptic church, however, diverged from the main Christian church and left Babylon an easy target for invading Muslim Arabs. They arrived en masse and drove out the Roman army.In 640 A.D. the Arab commander 'Amr ibn al-As moved the capital of Egypt away from Alexandria and re-established it at Fustat, the "city of Tents." Fustat was the original Muslim capital of Egypt and the location of its first Mosque. Since ancient times the location of Egypt has made it a major trade route between Europe, Africa and Asia. The city of Fustat thus grew from a military encampment into a thriving port city known around the world for its markets offering spices, fabric and perfume.The Fatimid leader Jawhar built a new city near Fustat in 969 A.D. It was called al-Mansuriyah, but the name was later changed to al-Qahirah, or, Cairo. When the Fatimids became the rulers of Egypt, they began a dynasty which would last two centuries, with Cairo as its capital. The Fatamid Dynasty ended in 1169 A.D. and was followed by the Ayyubid period.After evicting eighteen thousand of the Fatimid family, a strong new leader named Saladin re-created Cairo with a new vision. In contrast to the private palaces and gardens of the Fatimids, Saladin favored one strong city wall around Cairo, with no closed doors inside it. He refused personal wealth and instead designed a city for the people without royal enclaves, where a common religion bonded all together under the rule of a single monarch.Cairo continued to grow under the Ayyubid rule until its sultans became too weak to stay in power. From the middle of the thirteenth century until the beginning of the Ottoman Turk period in 1517, Cairo was controlled by Mameluke soldiers with a military succession no longer tied to a bloodline. This lasted until the middle of the sixteenth century. Next came the Ottoman Turks.During the Ottoman Empire's control of Egypt, Cairo was sending its fruits and grain to Istanbul rather than Europe. Rivalries between Mameluke governors were stoked up by the Ottoman Sultan, in order to keep Egypt divided and weakened.The people of Cairo, however, kept their own language and identity during Turkish rule. After enough heavy taxation and corruption from the Turkish government the Egyptians revolted. They succeeded in ridding themselves of the Turks in 1796, but unfortunately Napoleon was already on his way with an army of 40,000 veteran soldiers.The French won Cairo in a very bloody battle and occupied the city for three years. Although this is a relatively short period of time, their influence was tremendous. After 1801 Cairo returned to Turkish rule, then occupation by the British. Modernization of Cairo is credited to Mehemet Ali, "the father of modern Egypt", who ruled for almost fifty years. Egypt finally won independence in 1922.Getting ThereCairo International Airport is now one of the fastest growing airports in the Middle East. It has a new 9km road that links it to the ring road around the city. The airport is reachable by taxi, limousine and bus, and a new airport metro line is in the works.TransportationGetting around Cairo requires that you be comfortable in heavy traffic and among lots of crowds of people. The metro is the most efficient way to cross the city quickly. Taxis are abundant, as well as minibus and regular buses, but the bus system demands a working level of Arabic language. The tram system in Cairo dates back to 1896, making it one of the oldest in the world.People and CultureThere's a joke that says the main occupation for people in Cairo is giving incorrect directions. People are very friendly and accommodating in general, but a person who TRIES to give you directions may feel they are doing the right thing, even if they don't technically know where you are going. Many streets in Cairo are unlabeled or even unnamed, and one can easily get lost in a very short distance. Drivers honk and swerve but will still smile and wave to a person they have nearly collided into.Coffee shops are like the social centers in this swirling city of traffic and lights. They're called "ahwas" and by day or night they are the gathering places for locals to mingle and relax. A reminder for westerners: muslim countries do not serve alcohol and women should dress more conservatively when visiting.Things to do, RecommendationsAs the world's leading tourist site since longer than anyone can remember, it's pretty obvious that sight-seeing is on the agenda in Cairo. Pyramids of Giza, the Sphinx, the cemeteries of ancient Pharaohs and the statue of Ramses II are a few spots you may have heard of.Cairo is also filled with museums, cinemas, clubs, restaurants and everything else an international trading city boasts. As always, it's nice to go up to the top of something tall like the Cairo Tower (185 meters) and take a few pictures. Enjoy!Text by Steve Smith. | <urn:uuid:cd762d4b-a554-47a9-89a3-dca6fb96ee43> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://www.360cities.net/image/bebars-cairo | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860111868.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161511-00116-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.969209 | 1,354 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Painting of Weissenburg in 1902
|Namesake:||Town of Weissenburg|
|Builder:||AG Vulcan Stettin|
|Laid down:||May 1890|
|Launched:||14 December 1891|
|Commissioned:||14 October 1894|
|Fate:||Sold to the Ottoman Empire|
|Acquired:||12 September 1910|
|Fate:||Scrapped in 1957|
|Class and type:||Brandenburg-class battleship|
|Displacement:||10,670 t (10,500 long tons)|
|Length:||115.7 m (379 ft 7 in)|
|Beam:||19.5 m (64 ft 0 in)|
|Draft:||7.9 m (25 ft 11 in)|
|Installed power:||10,000 PS (9,860 ihp; 7,350 kW)|
|Propulsion:||2-shaft triple expansion engines|
|Speed:||16.9 knots (31.3 km/h; 19.4 mph)|
|Range:||4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km; 4,900 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph)|
SMS Weissenburg[a] was one of the first ocean-going battleships[b] of the Imperial German Navy. She was the third pre-dreadnought of the Brandenburg class, along with her sister ships Brandenburg, Wörth, and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm. She was laid down in 1890 in the AG Vulcan dockyard in Stettin, launched in 1891, and completed in 1894. The Brandenburg-class battleships were unique for their era in that they carried six large-caliber guns in three twin turrets, as opposed to four guns in two turrets, as was the standard in other navies. The British Royal Navy derisively referred to the ships as "whalers".
Weissenburg saw limited active duty during her service career with the German fleet. She, along with her three sisters, saw one major overseas deployment, to China in 1900–01, during the Boxer Rebellion. The ship underwent a major modernization in 1902–1904. In 1910, Weissenburg was sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Turgut Reis, after the famous 16th century Turkish admiral Turgut Reis. The ship saw heavy service during the Balkan Wars, primarily providing artillery support to Ottoman ground forces and taking part in two naval engagements with the Greek navy in December 1912 and January 1913. She was largely inactive during World War I, due in part to her slow speed. In 1924, Turgut Reis was used as a school ship, before eventually being scrapped in the mid-1950s.
Weissenburg was 115.7 m (379 ft 7 in) long overall, had a beam of 19.5 m (64 ft 0 in) which was increased to 19.74 m (64 ft 9 in) with the addition of torpedo nets, and had a draft of 7.6 m (24 ft 11 in) forward and 7.9 m (25 ft 11 in) aft. The ship displaced 10,013 t (9,855 long tons) at its designed weight, and up to 10,670 t (10,500 long tons) at full combat load. She was equipped with two sets of 3-cylinder triple-expansion steam engines that provided 10,228 metric horsepower (10,088 ihp; 7,523 kW) and a top speed of 16.9 knots (31.3 km/h; 19.4 mph); steam was provided by twelve coal-fired, transverse cylindrical water-tube boilers. Weissenburg had a cruising range of 4,300 nautical miles (8,000 km; 4,900 mi) at 10 knots (19 km/h; 12 mph). Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men.
The ship was unusual for its time in that it possessed a broadside of six heavy guns in three twin gun turrets, rather than the four guns typical of contemporary battleships. The forward and after turrets carried 28 cm (11 inch) SK L/40 guns,[c] while the amidships turret mounted a pair of 28 cm (11 inch) with shorter L/35 barrels. Her secondary armament consisted of eight 10.5 cm (4.1 in) SK L/35 quick-firing guns mounted in casemates and eight 8.8 cm (3.45 in) SK L/30 quick-firing guns, also casemate mounted. Weissenburg's armament system was rounded out with six 45 cm torpedo tubes, all in above-water swivel mounts. Although the main battery was heavier than other capital ships of the period, the secondary armament was considered weak in comparison to other battleships. Weissenburg was protected with nickel-steel Krupp armor, a new type of stronger steel. Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters (15.7 in) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces. The deck was 60 mm (2.4 in) thick. The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm (11.8 in) thick armor.
Weissenburg was the third of four ships of the Brandenburg class. She was ordered as battleship C, and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1890 under construction number 199. She was the third ship of the class to be launched, which she was on 30 June 1891. She was commissioned into the German fleet on 29 April 1894, the same day as her sister Brandenburg. Upon her commissioning, Weissenburg was assigned to the I Division of the I Battle Squadron alongside her three sisters. The I Division was accompanied by the four older Sachsen-class armored frigates in the II Division, though by the time the four Brandenburgs returned from China by 1901–2, the Sachsens were replaced by the new Kaiser Friedrich III-class battleships.
The first major operation in which Weissenburg took part occurred in 1900, when the I Division was deployed to China to assist in the suppression of the Boxer Rebellion. The expeditionary force consisted of the four Brandenburgs, six cruisers, 10 supply ships, three torpedo boats, and six regiments of marines, under the command of Marshal Alfred von Waldersee. Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan, which he saw as unnecessary and costly. Although the naval force arrived in China after the siege of Peking had already been lifted, the task force suppressed local uprisings around Kiaochow. In the end, the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks.
In 1902, following the return from China, Weissenburg entered the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Wilhelmshaven for a significant reconstruction. After she emerged from her refit in 1904, the ship rejoined the active fleet. However, she and her sisters were rapidly made obsolete by the launch of HMS Dreadnought in 1906. As a result, their service careers with the German navy were limited. On 12 September 1910, Weissenburg and Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm, the more advanced ships of the class, were sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin, respectively (after the famous 16th-century Ottoman admirals, Turgut Reis and Hayreddin Barbarossa). A year later, in September 1911, when Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire. Turgut Reis, along with Barbaros Hayreddin and the obsolete central battery ironclad Mesûdiye had been on a summer training cruise since July, and so were prepared for the conflict. Despite this, the ships spent the war in harbor.
The Balkan League declared war on the Ottoman Empire in October 1912. In the First Balkan War Turgut Reis, as with most ships of the Ottoman fleet, were in a state of disrepair. During the war, Turgut Reis conducted gunnery training along with the other capital ships of the Ottoman navy, escorted troop convoys, and bombarded coastal installations. On 17 November 1912, Turgut Reis supported the Ottoman III Corps by bombarding the attacking Bulgarian forces. The ship was aided by artillery observers ashore. The battleship's gunnery was largely ineffective, though it provided a morale boost for the besieged Ottoman army dug in at Çatalca. By 17:00, the Bulgarian infantry had largely been forced back to their starting positions, in part due to the psychological effect of the battleships' bombardment.
Late in 1912, the Ottoman fleet attacked the Greek navy, in an attempt to disrupt the naval blockade surrounding the Dardanelles. Two engagements took place, the Naval Battle of Elli on 16 December 1912, followed by the Naval Battle of Lemnos on 18 January 1913. The first action was supported by Ottoman coastal batteries; both Greek and Ottoman forces suffered minor damage during the engagement, but the Ottomans were unable to break through the Greek fleet and retired back into the Dardanelles. The Ottoman fleet, which included Turgut Reis, her sister Barbaros Hayreddin—the flagship of the fleet—two outdated ironclad battleships, nine destroyers and six torpedo boats, sortied from the Dardanelles at 9:30. The smaller ships remained at the mouth of the straits while the battleships sailed north, while remaining near to the coast. The Greek flotilla, which included the armored cruiser Georgios Averof and three Hydra-class battleships, had been sailing from the island of Imbros to the patrol line outside the straits. When the Ottomans were sighted, the Greeks altered course to the northeast, in order to block the advance of their opponents. The Ottoman ships opened fire first, at 9:50, from a range of about 15,000 yards; the Greeks returned fire ten minutes later, by which time the range had decreased significantly to 8,500 yards. At 10:04, the Ottoman ships completed a 16-point turn, which reversed their course, and steamed for the safety of the straits in a disorganized withdrawal. Within an hour, the routed Ottoman ships had withdrawn into the Dardanelles.
The Naval Battle of Lemnos resulted from an Ottoman plan to lure the faster Georgios Averof away from the Dardanelles. The protected cruiser Hamidiye evaded the Greek blockade and broke out into the Aegean Sea; the assumption was that the Greeks would dispatch Georgios Averof to hunt down Hamidiye. Despite the threat to Greek lines of communication posed by the cruiser, the Greek commander refused to detach Georgios Averof from its position. However, presuming that the plan had worked, Turgut Reis, Barbaros Hayreddin, and other units of the Ottoman fleet departed the Dardanelles on the morning of 18 January, and sailed towards the island of Lemnos. Georgios Averof appeared approximately 12 miles from Lemnos; when the powerful Greek ship was spotted, the Ottomans turned to retreat. Georgios Averof's superior speed allowed the ship to close the distance between her and the fleeing Ottoman ships. A long range artillery duel that lasted for two hours began at around 11:25; towards the end of the engagement, Georgios Averof closed to within 5,000 yards and scored several hits on the fleeing Ottoman ships. Between Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin, the ships fired some 800 rounds, mostly of their main battery 28 cm guns but without success. During the battle, barbettes on both Turgut Reis and her sister were disabled by gunfire, and both ships caught fire.
On 8 February 1913, the Ottoman navy supported an amphibious assault at Şarköy. Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin, along with two small cruisers provided artillery support to the right flank of the invading force once it went ashore. The ships were positioned about a kilometer off shore; Turgut Reis was the second ship in the line, behind her sister Barbaros Hayreddin. The Bulgarian army resisted fiercely, which ultimately forced the Ottoman army to retreat, though the withdrawal was successful in large part due to the gunfire support from Turgut Reis and the rest of the fleet. During the battle, Turgut Reis fired 225 rounds from her 10.5 cm guns and 202 shells from her 8.8 cm guns.
In March 1913, the ship returned to the Black Sea to resume support of the Çatalca garrison, which was under renewed attacks by the Bulgarian army. On 26 March, the barrage of 28 and 10.5 cm shells fired by Turgut Reis and Barbaros Hayreddin assisted in the repelling of advance of the 2nd Brigade of the Bulgarian 1st Infantry Division. On 30 March, the left wing of the Ottoman line turned to pursue the retreating Bulgarians. Their advance was supported by both field artillery and the heavy guns of Turgut Reis and the other warships positioned off the coast; the assault gained the Ottomans about 1,500 meters by nightfall. In response, the Bulgarians brought the 1st Brigade to the front, which beat the Ottoman advance back to its starting position.
World War I
In the summer of 1914, when World War I broke out in Europe, the Ottomans initially remained neutral. In early November, the actions of the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben, which had been transferred to the Ottoman navy and renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm, resulted in declarations of war by Russia, France, and Great Britain. Between 1914–15, some of Turgut Reis's guns were removed and employed as coastal guns to shore up the defenses protecting the Dardanelles. On 19 January 1918, Yavûz and the light cruiser SMS Breslau, which had also been transferred to Ottoman service under the name Midilli, sailed from the Dardanelles to attack several British monitors stationed outside. The ships quickly sank HMS Raglan and HMS M28 before turning back to the safety of the Dardanelles. While en route, Midilli struck five mines and sank, while Yavûz hit three mines and began to list to port. The ship's captain gave an incorrect order to the helmsman, which caused the ship to run aground. Yavûz remained there for almost a week, until Turgut Reis arrived on the scene on 25 January; the old battleship took Yavûz under tow and managed to free her from the sandbank by that afternoon.
Turgut Reis was removed from active service after the end of World War I. By 1924, the ship was transferred to the role of a training ship. At the time, she retained only two of her originally six 28 cm guns. Turgut Reis was converted into a hulk and stationed in the Dardanelles until 1938. She remained afloat until she was finally broken up for scrap, between 1956–57.
- "SMS" stands for "Seiner Majestät Schiff", or "His Majesty's Ship" in German.
- At the time, the German navy referred to the ship as a "ship of the line" (Linienschiff in German), instead of "battleship" (Schlachtschiff).
- In Imperial German Navy gun nomenclature, "SK" (Schnelladekanone) denotes that the gun is quick firing, while the L/40 denotes the length of the gun. In this case, the L/40 gun is 40 caliber, meaning that the gun barrel is 40 times as long as it is in diameter.
- Hore, p. 66.
- Gröner, p. 13.
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- Gardiner & Gray, p. 141.
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- Herwig, p. 103.
- Gröner, p. 14.
- Erickson, p. 131.
- Sondhaus, p. 218.
- Hall, p. 36.
- Erickson, p. 133.
- Hall, pp. 64–65.
- Fotakis, p. 50.
- Gardiner & Gray, p. 390.
- Erickson, p. 264.
- Erickson, p. 270.
- Erickson, p. 288.
- Erickson, p. 289.
- Staff, p. 19.
- Bennett, p. 47.
- Bennett, Geoffrey (2005). Naval Battles of the First World War. London: Pen & Sword Military Classics. ISBN 978-1-84415-300-8.
- Erickson, Edward J. (2003). Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-275-97888-4.
- Fotakis, Zisis (2005). Greek Naval Strategy and Policy, 1910–1919. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-35014-3.
- Gardiner, Robert; Chesneau, Roger; Kolesnik, Eugene M., eds. (1979). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships: 1860–1905. London: Conway Maritime Press. ISBN 978-0-85177-133-5.
- Gardiner, Robert; Gray, Randal, eds. (1985). Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships, 1906–1921. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-907-8.
- Gröner, Erich (1990). German Warships: 1815–1945. Annapolis: Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-0-87021-790-6.
- Hall, Richard C. (2000). The Balkan Wars, 1912–1913: Prelude to the First World War. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-22946-3.
- Herwig, Holger (1998) . "Luxury" Fleet: The Imperial German Navy 1888–1918. Amherst: Humanity Books. ISBN 978-1-57392-286-9.
- Hore, Peter (2006). The Ironclads. London: Southwater Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84476-299-6.
- Sondhaus, Lawrence (2001). Naval Warfare, 1815–1914. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-21478-0.
- Staff, Gary (2006). German Battlecruisers: 1914–1918. Oxford: Osprey Books. ISBN 978-1-84603-009-3. | <urn:uuid:a5160de6-335a-486a-9a86-304c418e3772> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SMS_Weissenburg | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501170286.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104610-00254-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.938236 | 3,980 | 2.703125 | 3 |
“19 greek street proveS that sustainable design doesn’t have to mean a sacrifice of style”
Wallpaper* City Guide London
The benefit of Uniquely Early Design by Marc Peridis
You may be familiar with the theory of ‘diffusion of innovations’. It was developed by Everett Rogers in 1968 to explain how, why, and at what rate new ideas and technology spread through cultures. In simple terms, it’s a scientific and mathematical answer to questions like, “Why the hell would someone queue for 14 days in freezing rain to buy the new iPhone on the first day, when they can waltz in and buy it off the shelf the following week?”. The answer is easy: they want to be the first. So what is so great, or so important, about being first? Sure, there is always that superficial ego-boost attached to telling people, “I had it first!” but the mileage in this reasoning is pretty limited. The real benefits actually have a much bigger scope by comparison.
The leading minority
According to Rogers’ theory (depicted in the chart above), innovations must be widely adopted in order to self-sustain. The categories of adopters are: innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards. The early majority and late majority (representing 68% of the population) won’t be inclined to try anything new until someone (namely an ‘early adopter’) has tried it first. Therefore, without those first 16%, the cycle wouldn’t exist and advancement would be impossible. Innovators and early adopters believe in challenging the status quo, and by doing so they enable ideas that shape our industry in important ways.
The design industry experienced an unprecedented leap in the 20th century. Through the Bauhaus and in Modernism, people dared to innovate, even at the risk of facing total failure. We tend to forget the struggles endured by designers such as Ray and Charles Eames, who sneaked materials into their LA apartment late at night to produce the world’s first moulded-plywood chair in the mid-1940s. Or what about Verner Panton? We all know him as the man who designed the first injection-moulded chair produced by Vitra in 1968, but hardly anyone speaks about the fact that Mies van der Rohe had experimented with injection moulding much earlier, in the 1930s. This invention, which is commonplace today, was initially met with doubt and rejection and, as such, took 30 years to emerge. However, with persistence, a giant leap forward in chair-making was achieved.
Today, innovation carries a critical social responsibility: preparing the world for future generations through responsible, resourceful and sustainable practices. By 2030, it’s estimated the world’s middle class will number five billion people (from the current two billion), in a world where resources are already scarce. By 2040, the entire Amazon will be wiped out, taking with it 19% of the world’s oxygen and 25% of the 3000 plants from which cancer treatments are derived. Innovation is no longer a nice ‘to do’ but a ‘must do’.
In 2012, I launched 19 greek street as a space for experimentation and advancement in design. Now it is home to nine eclectic design collections that are sustainable, finely crafted and aesthetically pleasing. While our concept has been extremely well received, I am still surprised at how resistant many people are to change.
I appreciate that some of the methods we represent appear a little far-fetched. For instance, creating a design (Mathias Bengtsson’s Growth Chair) using a sophisticated bio-mimicry process by which a seed is planted in a computer-generated 3D environment is not ordinary. But let’s not forget that there was a time where simple processes such as injection moulding seemed ridiculous and improbable.
Where do you stand?
You don’t have to share 19 greek street’s philosophy to be a good designer, but when faced with a choice between ‘traditional methods’ and ‘pushing the boundaries’, I urge you to re-evaluate your stance with regard to the aforementioned ‘diffusion of innovations’. When you opt for the status quo, you are implying that design has reached its full potential. Choosing experimentation means you are choosing to be part of a progressive minority, and a leader of important change in the world. | <urn:uuid:75ff2d17-8039-4e15-9461-c489fabdcce3> | CC-MAIN-2015-48 | http://www.19greekstreet.com/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-48/segments/1448398468233.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20151124205428-00164-ip-10-71-132-137.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.953904 | 947 | 2.859375 | 3 |
Each of them extends your soul in the other direction, so that it can grow and expand.
Which kind of soul do you think you belong to?
Primary trait of a Servant is to care about the common good. Servants try to make the world better by doing everything in their power to help people ease their suffering. They are always looking for those who need a hand of salvation.
However, Servants can often be abused because of their great generosity. People forget that Servants are also people who have their own personal needs. On the other hand, they can be very manipulative.
They can be found in medical areas or public services, such as social workers or politicians.
If you think you are a Servant, don’t overdo it in trying to solve every problem.
Servants make up 30% of the population.
Master is a creative person who is capable of expressing their thoughts.
They enjoy being original and productive.
Masters feel the primary drive to create something, anything. Their creations can range from handicrafts to pieces of poetry or scientific theories. Although Masters flourish in art, their creativity can be focused on anything.
Masters are responsible for all super gadgets, stunning artwork, and advances in technology.
They constitute 22% of the population and can be seen as artists, engineers, architects, mechanics, and others who show significant skills.
According to their name, Warriors are active types. They like to overcome challenges in order to achieve their goals and dreams.
They enjoy hard work and find pleasure in being rewarded for it. They have unbreakable spirit and can withstand punishment.
Warriors usually have strong, muscular bodies that are ready for a fight, whether physical or idealistic. They often have low voice tone and appear to be down to earth and firm.
Sometimes they can be cruel and show temper and attitudes that others consider frightening.
Warriors make up 17% of the population. They are athletes, soldiers, and sales people.
Students are curious by nature. They enjoy learning to get as more knowledge as possible. Because of this feature, they never have a problem in the academic world.
They can be relaxed by nature, but they are considered very thoughtful and adventurous in their intellectual endeavors. Students can go very far to gain knowledge of a topic, even personally sacrifice for knowledge.
Students don’t like a public display of emotions and avoid conflicts. Their cold look is the biggest indicator of their role. Others may consider them arrogant or too analytical.
They like to share their knowledge with others.
We see them in 13% of the population. They are present in the field of science, mathematics and research. Most of them are specialists in some areas or teachers.
Wise men are usually charming people. They entertain people with their charisma that attracts almost everyone. They like to be in public and express themselves through art, music and dance.
When a wise man smiles, his eyes have contagious playfulness. They are usually witty in their observations and rarely miss the opportunity to make a joke.
Wise men are skillful assimilators of wisdom, with a desire to understand the world around them and then share it with others. They are not always original thinkers; they prefer to take ideas from others and give them their personal impression.
They can be arrogant when they don’t get proper attention and resort to dramatic tendencies in social circles.
10% of the population are these friendly and entertaining people. Wise men are natural performers and they are great actors, singers and teachers. They are good at improvising.
Priests raise people. They enjoy the role of motivators and they like to channel their inner strength in order to help others succeed.
They try to raise awareness and improve the world. Priests easily attract attention, either through their strikingly good looks or their fiery sermons. However, they are inclined to have an overly big ego.
Priests are naturally compassionate, charismatic, and attract the community, even if they are not religious.
They bring inspiration and recognize the endless potential that people possess. They inspire their followers to make positive changes in their lives.
These compassionate and caring people make up 7% of the population. Most of them are public motivators, trainers and spiritual teachers.
Kings are born leaders. They have a strong personality and are considered reliable, commanding individuals, who take care that things are done in a timely and almost perfect manner.
A key thing to identifying this kind of soul is to look for a facial expression that looks concentrated, focused and confident. King's eyes are usually focused, fixed and firm in their directness.
Kings are so encouraged by the mastery that they rarely reject a task or a new skill while they don’t master it completely. They are perfectionists and demand rigorous standards from others too.
They are good at solving problems. Their instinct for perfection makes them controlling, angry, and even merciless, from time to time. They can see a wider picture and are great in delegating jobs to the right people.
They make up 1% of the population. Most of them have a position in government and politics, as well as in higher echelons of bureaucratic hierarchy because of their dependence on mastery and perfectionism. Not all of them are kings at the throne, but many often rise to leading positions in their chosen profession. | <urn:uuid:85c52b11-d6ae-4134-8609-ae75d2475846> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | http://horoscope-daily-free.net/node/979 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578721441.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20190425114058-20190425140058-00368.warc.gz | en | 0.97235 | 1,103 | 2.734375 | 3 |
By Matt Williams
Planet 9 cannot hide forever, and new research has narrowed the range of possible locations further! In January of 2016, astronomers Mike Brown and Konstantin Batygin published the first evidence that there might be another planet in our Solar System. Known as “Planet 9” (“Planet X” to some), this hypothetical body was believed to orbit at an extreme distance from our Sun, as evidenced by the orbits of certain extreme Kuiper Belt Objects (eKBOs).
Since that time, multiple studied have been produced that have attempted to place constraints on Planet 9’s location. The latest studyonce again comes from Brown and Batygin, who conducted an analytical assessment of all the processes that have indicated the presence of Planet 9 so far. Taken together, these indications show that the existence of this body is not only likely, but also essential to the Solar System as we know it.
The study, titled “Dynamical Evolution Induced by Planet Nine“, recently appeared online and has been accepted for publication in The Astronomical Journal. Whereas previous studies have pointed to the behavior of various populations of KBOs as proof of Planet 9, Brown and Batygin sought to provide a coherent theoretical description of the dynamical mechanisms responsible for these effects.
In the end, they concluded that it would be more difficult to imagine a Solar System without a Planet 9 than with one. As Konstantin Batygin explained in a recent NASA press statement:
“There are now five different lines of observational evidence pointing to the existence of Planet Nine. If you were to remove this explanation and imagine Planet Nine does not exist, then you generate more problems than you solve. All of a sudden, you have five different puzzles, and you must come up with five different theories to explain them.”
In 2016, Brown and Batygin described the first three lines of observational evidence for Planet 9. These include six extreme Kuiper Belt Objects which follow highly elliptical paths around the Sun, which are indicative of an unseen mechanism affecting their orbit. Second is the fact that the orbits of these bodies are all tilted the same way – about 30° “downward” to the plane of the Kuiper Belt.
The third hint came in the form of computer simulations that included Planet 9 as part of the Solar System. Based to these simulations, it was apparent that more objects should be tilted with respect to the Solar plane, on the order of about 90 degrees. Thanks to their research, Brown and Batygin found five such objects that happened to fit this orbital pattern, and suspected that more existed.
Since the publication of the original paper, two more indications have emerged for the existence of Planet 9. Another involved the unexplained orbits of more Kuiper Belt Objects which were found to be orbiting in the opposite direction from everything else in the Solar System. This was a telltale indication that a relatively close body with a powerful gravitational force was affecting their orbits.
And then there was the argument presented in a second paper by the team – which was led by Elizabeth Bailey, Batygin’s graduate student. This study argued that Planet 9 was responsible for tilting the orbits of the Solar planets over the past 4.5 billion years. This not only provided additional evidence for Planet 9, but also answered a long standing mystery in astrophysics – why the planets are tilted 6 degrees relative to the Sun’s equator.
As Batygin indicated, all of this adds up to a solid case for the existence of a yet-to-discovered massive planet in the outer Solar System:
“No other model can explain the weirdness of these high-inclination orbits. It turns out that Planet Nine provides a natural avenue for their generation. These things have been twisted out of the solar system plane with help from Planet Nine and then scattered inward by Neptune.”
Recent studies have also shed some light on how and where Planet 9 originated. Whereas some suggested that the planet moved to the edge of the Solar System after forming closer to the Sun, others have suggested that it might be an exoplanet that was captured early in the Solar System’s history. At present, the favored theory appears to be that it formed closer to the Sun and migrated outward over time.
Granted, there is not yet a scientific consensus when it comes to Planet 9 and other astronomers have offered other possible explanations for the evidence cited by Batygin and Brown. For instance, a recent analysis based on the Outer Solar System Origins Survey – which discovered more than 800 new Trans-Neptunian Objects (TNOs) – suggests that the evidence could also be consistent with a random distribution of such objects.
In the meantime, all that remains is to find direct evidence of the planet. At present, Batygin and Brown are attempting to do just that, using the Subaru Telescope at the Mauna Kea Observatory in Hawaii. The detection of this planet will not only settle the matter of whether or not it even exists, it will also help resolve a mystery that emerged in recent years thanks to the discovery of thousands of extra-solar planets.
In short, thanks to the discovery of 3,529 confirmed exoplanets in 2,633 solar systems, astronomers have noticed that statistically, the most likely types of planets are “Super-Earths” and “mini-Neptunes” – i.e. planets that are more massive than Earth but not more than about 10 Earth masses. If Planet 9 is confirmed to exist, which is estimated to have 10 times the Mass of Earth, then it could explain this discrepancy.
If you enjoy our selection of content please consider following Universal-Sci on social media: | <urn:uuid:3236674a-eccf-4fff-9968-235aeb472350> | CC-MAIN-2018-34 | https://www.universal-sci.com/headlines/2017/10/8/new-clues-emerge-for-the-existence-of-planet-9 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-34/segments/1534221216475.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20180820140847-20180820160847-00605.warc.gz | en | 0.950231 | 1,187 | 3.953125 | 4 |
You might wonder, ‘who could need such a long list of foods with vitamin D, and why?’ Can’t blame you. Others might ask that same question and also find it extensive. Perhaps that’s why so many have this nutritional deficiency.
Surprisingly, many people, even those that live on a sunny beach, have a deficiency. Despite warmly tanned skin, they are shocked to learn they aren’t receiving enough.
What’s even more curious is that I wasn’t alone. It was shocking to learn that nearly half of the population is also deficient in vitamin D!
If you suspect or already know you’re in the same boat as that population, consider adding a few foods to boost your vitamin D level. Don’t worry; there are plenty of options to choose from! You won’t have to revamp your diet to address this deficiency.
31 FOODS THAT FUEL YOUR BODY WITH VITAMIN D
Each day, children and adults should aim for 600 IU, or international units. Interestingly enough, very few foods are naturally packed with vitamin D. The good news for seafood lovers is that fatty fish can provide you with some of the highest vitamin D levels.
Swordfish, in particular, is packed full of the ‘happy vitamin.’ You can get over 560 IU of your daily vitamin D from just one serving.
That means that just a single vitamin D-packed portion would come just shy of fulfilling your daily value!
It is critical to ensure you get your daily dose of the ‘sunshine vitamin.’ You can avoid typical vitamin D deficiency symptoms like backaches, depression, and chronic fatigue. Allowing your body to stay deficient in D vitamins for too long can lead to more serious ailments like high blood pressure and diabetes!
Including yogurt fortified with vitamin D as a regular part of your diet can fuel you with up to 71 IU of your daily dosage. Don’t worry about trying to find fortified yogurt. In today’s world, you must search hard to find unfortified yogurt.
The reason behind this is a good one. As time passes, more and more children and adults are proving to have a deficiency in this essential vitamin. One way to address this is through fortifying affordable foods that are widely eaten.
Let’s not forget–this stuff is also an excellent source of calcium.
3. Egg Yolks
It’s important to note that not everyone can easily absorb vitamins D2 and D3 through natural sunlight. For those with a darker complexion, the melanin in their skin can negatively impact the absorption rate of D vitamins.
Did you know they don’t see sunlight in parts of Alaska for over two months? It’s a wonder that the entire state isn’t deficient when they are void of sunshine for over 60 days a year!
If you’re concerned about your absorption level, you may consider adding eggs to your breakfast a few days a week. A single egg contains about 33 IU of your daily goal. Starting the day with a couple of eggs and a bowl of oatmeal sounds like the perfect way to start the day.
4. Portobello Mushrooms
Mushrooms are a curious source of the ‘sunshine vitamin,’ considering they grow in the dark. As it turns out, when grown naturally, most mushrooms provide an insignificant amount of vitamin D2 and D3. However, the moment they are exposed to UV light, they become packed with these vitamins.
Portabella mushrooms are a breed of fungus that can also provide you with a bit of vitamin D4. All in all, a cup of these tasty morsels packs a whopping 634 IU. That exceeds the recommended allowance all by itself!
5. Cod Liver Oil
Living in Alaska and having more melanin aren’t the only factors that can cause you to be deficient in D vitamins. Those living with liver and kidney diseases, Crohn’s disease, or osteoporosis are also at a higher risk of being inadequate.
Many add cod liver oil to their regimen for other health benefits like reduced inflammation and stronger bones. But did you realize that cod liver oil is also a great source of your D vitamins? A single teaspoon is loaded with 427 IU.
6. Cow’s Milk
Unfortunately, infants are another group who struggles to absorb the proper amount of the ‘sunshine vitamin.’ This is even truer if the mother lacks this essential nutrient, as she provides sustenance. Fortunately, a fortified formula can help if this becomes an issue.
Once the child is old enough, fortified milk becomes one of their primary sources of D vitamins. Do you remember learning that most yogurts are fortified?
That is true with nearly every dairy product in several countries. This ensures that children and adults can quickly and cheaply receive the necessary calcium and vitamins. Each cup of milk holds approximately 100 IU with this measure in place.
Recall that there aren’t many foods that are rich in D vitamins. While oysters possess some of this vitamin, they are pretty low on how much they provide.
Still, people add them on occasion from time to time for a bit of variety. Oysters are particularly beneficial to those looking for a boost in zinc. After all, they are the number one source of this mineral.
The funny thing about oysters is that their shell carries more of vitamins. Many supplements that address calcium and vitamin D deficiencies contain the oyster shell.
8. Pacific Mackerel
Not only is pacific mackerel delicious, but it also has over 340 IU of your daily ‘happy vitamins.’ In addition to having one of the highest IU, it’s also an excellent source of omega-three fatty acids.
Research shows that omega-three fatty acids greatly benefit heart health and reduce inflammation.
9. Orange Juice
Some people falsely believe it would be impossible for a vegan to reach their daily intake of D vitamins. However, that isn’t the case with UV technology and fortification processes.
Remember that, unlike dairy products, not all orange juice is fortified. If you choose a fortified juice, you can get about 100 IU daily dose this way.
Salmon is another one of those foods with multiple health benefits. Because of its omega 3’s, when included as a regular part of the diet, it’s proven beneficial in relieving asthma symptoms.
It’s just a bonus that it’s a great source of D vitamins, providing between 205 and 385 IU, dependent upon the variety.
11. Beef Liver
A serving of liver can provide you with approximately 40 IU, so it falls a bit low on the scale of foods rich in D vitamins. However, that’s still enough to make an impact.
Aside from providing D vitamins, it’s also a good source of protein, iron, zinc, copper, and vitamins A and B12.
It is already widely known that the composition of lean pork is very similar to red meat. Studies are currently underway to determine just how similar they are. Researchers have found evidence to suggest that occasionally eating lean pork can improve cardiovascular issues.
Lean cuts of pork can also assist you in reaching your daily intake of D vitamins. Depending on the cut, you could consume up to 60 IU when eating this flavorful meat.
Tuna is one of the tastiest and most commonly eaten D vitamin-rich food. Considering the 60 IU, you can find in a single can of tuna. It’s no wonder so many people love it! Fresh albacore tuna is even denser in vitamins, providing around 100 IU.
If that weren’t enough motivation to eat more tuna, consider how vital it is to maintain proper brain function. DHA is a fatty acid found only in breast milk and certain fish, like tuna.
When eating fish, you mustn’t overindulge. Some fish contain high levels of mercury, and yellowfin tuna certainly falls into this category.
Fatty fish is essential in your diet, but you want to monitor how much mercury you ingest. Switch it up occasionally and choose a fish with lower mercury levels.
Margarine is yet another fortified food. It’s such an essential source of D vitamins for children that it has become one of the leading sources in the United Kingdom.
Just one teaspoon delivers about 30 IU. Try cooking dinner with margarine or adding a bit to your toast to finish the day off.
15. Soy Milk
Fortified soy milk can be a terrific alternative for those with milk allergies or prefer not to eat animal products. Soy milk is the only plant-based milk comparable to cow’s milk in regards to key vitamins and nutrients.
Thanks to fortification, soy milk can provide you with the same protein, calcium, and D vitamins as cow’s milk.
16. Ice Cream
Okay, so maybe ice cream is more of a sweet treat than a substantial source of D vitamins. But you don’t have to feel guilty about giving in to your sweet tooth occasionally.
Since it’s made of fortified dairy products, even this sweet dessert will give you 1% of your daily intake. There’s a silver lining, after all, albeit it is a skinny one.
By now, you’re well aware that varying types of fish are packed with omega 3s and D vitamins. Sardines are no exception to the rule. Whether you have them on a pizza or out of a can, you can absorb an impressive 144 IU when eating this food.
Did you know that regularly including fatty fish in your diet can considerably decrease your risk for diseases like cancer and Alzheimer’s?
18. Maitake Mushrooms
Here’s a fun fact for you: maitake mushrooms are a superfood. Sure, every cup is packed with 780 IU of D vitamins, but that fails compared to its superpower.
These mushrooms are so powerful that they can help fight off a viral infection. Oh, did I mention that they’ve also been shown to decrease the activity in cancer cells?!
19. Almond Milk
Almond milk is a good alternative if you’re trying to overcome this deficiency but still mindful of your fat and carbohydrate intake. It’s also low in calories. So, the only actual downside is that it doesn’t have nearly as much protein as cow’s milk.
Even the level of D vitamins is comparable, weighing in at 85 IU per cup.
What a surprise, yet another fatty fish has made it into the lineup. Is it any wonder when you know that fish makes up the largest category of foods with vitamin D?
Just a single serving of Atlantic herring can provide you with 200 IU of your daily value. Stopping by the fish market this weekend is sounding like a better and better idea.
21. Chanterelle Mushrooms
Regarding mushrooms, chanterelle mushrooms fall pretty low on the totem pole. However, with over 100 IU of D vitamins to offer, they are certain qualifiers amongst foods with vitamin D.
What makes them even more worthy of being added to your diet is that they possess significant healing and anti-inflammatory characteristics.
Sturgeon is a white meat fish known to be a delicacy in several countries worldwide. It’s most famous for its caviar, or its eggs.
When eating the meat of this fish, you can expect to consume just over 430 IU of D vitamins per serving. Even the caviar contains 70 IU.
Roe is slightly higher in D vitamins than caviar, weighing in at 145 IU per serving. Fish roe has additional benefits, particularly for those who have noticed crow’s feet starting to creep up. You may have guessed by now that fish roe is praised for its anti-aging and antioxidant characterizations.
24. Soy Yogurt
Soy yogurt is an ideal dairy-free alternative, as it’s also low in fat. However, it has more in common with regular yogurt than you may expect. It still has all of your essential amino acids and probiotics.
In addition, it has the same amount of ‘sunshine vitamins’ as the regular version–a great way to overcome a deficiency.
Like a handful of other fish, Trout can provide up to 200 IU of your daily dose of D vitamins. Not to mention, it’s high in protein and low in carbs. It’s also a far less fatty fish than a few others mentioned here.
26. White Mushrooms
White mushrooms are unique in that both sun exposure and UV exposure will cause their amount of vitamin D to jump significantly. When these mushrooms grow in the dark, they only contain 7 IU, but that skyrockets to 1200 IU when exposed to light!
Halibut and trout are very similar in their nutritional makeup. They are both low in fat, and you’ll notice there are no carbohydrates found when eating halibut. However, halibut has slightly fewer D vitamins, at only 144 IU.
28. Cheddar Cheese
Cheddar cheese may not be the first thing that comes to mind when considering foods with vitamin D. Justifiably, a single slice of cheddar cheese will only provide you with 7 IU.
However, it’s important to remember that D vitamins are not the only vitamins or minerals you want to keep in mind. While cheddar cheese doesn’t rank exceptionally high in this field, it ranks highly in calcium-rich foods.
Whether it is through cheese or fish, you want to keep a variety in your meals. If you overeat cheddar cheese or certain types of fish, you would consume too much fat.
29. Fortified Breakfast Cereal
What’s more convenient, first thing in the morning, than pouring a bowl of cereal? I can’t think of many things with a shorter kitchen preparation time.
Next time you’re picking up cereal, consider choosing oat bran that’s fortified with vitamin D. Key things you want to look for are “whole grains” and “low sugar content.”
Remember that checking the nutritional label when browsing any fortified goods is essential. Just because it’s high in specific vitamins and minerals doesn’t mean it isn’t packed full of excess sugars and fats!
30. Goat Milk
Goat milk is another option that is available for individuals with milk allergies. Over recent years, its popularity has increased partially due to its wide popularity in Mediterranean countries.
However, the driving reason behind this rise in popularity is that dairy products made from goat milk are affordable. There have also been a rising number of people with allergies to cow’s milk who may not react to goat milk.
Aside from containing the same D vitamins as cow’s milk, goat milk is also a good source of protein, calcium, and potassium. After learning all of that, it’s a bonus to find that it also has significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory attributes.
31. Swiss Cheese
A serving of Swiss cheese has slightly fewer D vitamins than cheddar cheese, with only 6 IU. While you can get a small amount of your daily intake from swiss cheese, your vitamin K level will greatly benefit you when eating this snack.
There are three types of swiss cheeses that have varying levels of Vitamin K12. At 433 ng/g, Emmenthal has the most significant amount. Alternatively, Gruyere will only provide you with just over 60 ng.
Final Thoughts on Adding Vitamin D to Your Diet
With over 40% of the world’s population with a vitamin D deficiency, the time to be more intentional with our eating has arrived.
If you have children, ensuring they consume the proper amount of D vitamins is crucial. Since children have a skeleton that has not yet developed, a vitamin D deficiency could cause a bone disorder called rickets.
Fortunately, it is easier now than ever to find foods with vitamin D. There once was a time, not too long ago, where fish was the primary source.
Now, through fortification processes, regulations, and UV photosynthesis, there are more options than we could have ever imagined.
Along with children, vegans and vegetarians struggled to meet their daily intake of the ‘happy vitamin.’ Products like fortified soy, almond milk, and fortified breakfast cereals can address this common deficiency.
If you, like many in our population, face a variety of food allergies, there’s hope for you too. With supplements being made of various products ranging from certain mushrooms to oyster shells, there’s an avenue available for us all to avoid a vitamin D deficiency. | <urn:uuid:6c99ab55-381a-4228-8a11-52d7e0cbc16d> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.powerofpositivity.com/31-foods-fuel-vitamin-d/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100135.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20231129173017-20231129203017-00751.warc.gz | en | 0.948224 | 3,515 | 2.515625 | 3 |
History of the Down Syndrome Program
How It Began—1965-1971
Val Dmitriev, Instructor, Workshop in Special Education, summer, early 1970’s.
(This is a personal history of the Down Syndrome Program told in the first person. This part of the history, before I, Pat Oelwein, joined the program, is based on Dr. Valentine Dmitriev’s personal story from her book, “Tears & Triumphs.” To keep with the informality, I will often refer to her as Val, a very endearing name to me.)
The Down Syndrome Program has its roots in behavior modification--roots that go to B. F. Skinner himself. Dr. Sidney W. Bijou, a professor of psychology on sabbatical from the University of Washington (UW), studied under Skinner at Harvard University. When he returned to the UW, the psychology department as well as the special education department took a new direction—the principles of behavior became the basis on which methodologies, interventions, and treatments were developed. Valentine Dmitriev, the instigator and first coordinator of the Down Syndrome Program, was a student and protégée of Dr. Bijou.
Val Dmitriev took her first graduate course at Rainier School at Buckley. It was an inspiring behavioral-oriented course taught by Dr. Barbara Etzel in conjunction with the University of Washington’s Institute of Child Development, of which Dr. Bijou was director. While in graduate school, Val became the teacher of the preschool class for typical 3-year-old children at Developmental Psychology Lab (DPL), one of three divisions of the institute. In the preschool classroom, she worked under the supervision of Florence Harris. For outside special projects with children who had developmental delays and challenging behaviors, Dr. Bijou was her mentor.
The Fircrest experience
In the summer of 1967 Val accepted an assignment to develop a pilot educational program for forty residents at Fircrest, a state school for children and adults with disabilities. With two experienced teachers and an audiologist on her staff, she met the challenge and succeeded in developing an effective program that was continued at the school for a number of years.
Although the Fircrest program was a success, when Val returned to her job at the DPL, she could not dispel the feeling of dismay that had tinged her sense of achievement with the Pilot Program. It was troubling that the very skills which she and her team had taught the Fircrest students, who were nine to fifteen years old, were the same skills that were acquired by non-disabled children within the first three years of life. She came to the realization that it was inhumane to allow such delays to occur and began to plot a plan to systematically intervene with infants by teaching them basic sequential developmental skills that emerge in normal babies when provided with a nurturing and enriching environment. But where would she find these babies? Developmental delays during the first months were difficult to detect, and if detected, these babies could be just ‘late bloomers’. At the time, the collective thought among medical and educational professionals was that maturation would eventually overcome delays—developmental gains would be attributed to maturation rather than intervention.
Down syndrome—for early intervention research
Back at her job at the DPL, Val pondered these problems and decided to focus on infants with Down syndrome, a group that could be recognized at birth and verified by a blood test. The incidence at the time was one in 640 live births, and Down syndrome occurred in all races and at all socioeconomic levels. Her experience with students who had Down syndrome at Fircrest had caused her to doubt the validity of the traditional pessimistic view of these children and the classification that put them in the ‘trainable only’ category. She speculated that the myths and attitudes about this population were based on hearsay, misinformation, and observations of children in institutions who had been deprived of nurturing families in home environments, adequate medical care, appropriate educational opportunities—and from any form of a normalized life.
Dennis—love at first sight
Dennis Holton in preschool.
As the possibilities of these intriguing ideas were racing through her mind, Val was in no hurry, thinking that she could ‘bide her time’ while fully formulating her plan. But fate has a way of intervening—Dennis came into her life and put her on a rapid path that carried her and her ideas farther than she ever dreamed possible.
The moment Val spotted seven-month-old Dennis in an infant carrier on his mother’s back, with both his legs in hip-high casts, she felt an overwhelming urgency and approached his mother, who had come to pick up her older son who attended the preschool for four-year-old children. His mother listened intensely as Val told of her untried plans and reassured her with her knowledge of and background in child development. Dennis’s mother eased the carrier off her shoulders, lifted Dennis out and said, “Here he is.”
Thus was the beginning of Val Dmitriev’s pilot program for infants with Down syndrome. She worked with Dennis four days a week for twenty minutes each time his mother came to pick up his brother. Dennis loved the homemade apple butter that his mother brought to the sessions. Reinforced by this treat, Dennis became an eager pupil. In a rapid sequence he learned to reach and grasp toys, mastering progressively more difficult tasks. Four months later, the casts that corrected his clubfeet were removed, and Dennis learned to crawl, stand, bear weight, pull up to stand and to take his first steps, holding on to furniture. His accomplishments were documented in the movie,
The Operant Conditioning of a Down’s Syndrome Infant.
Experimental Education Unit—a new home
Dr. Alice Hayden, Director, Model Preschool Center, EEU
Impressed with Dennis’s progress, his pediatrician, who was head of pediatrics for the local HMO, told his staff to refer all babies with Down syndrome to Val Dmitriev at the DPL. By the end of 1969, Val had more babies than she could schedule around her DPL classroom responsibilities, and with infants on the waiting list and some becoming toddlers, she and Florence Harris agreed—it was time for Val and her infants to move on.
The Experimental Education Unit (EEU, currently one of three units of the Norris & Dorothy Haring Center for Applied Research & Training in Education), the education component of the Child Development and Retardation Center (currently Center on Human Development and Disability), was the place for innovative education programs using the empirical method. Dr. Alice Hayden, director of the Model Preschool Center in the EEU, and Dr. Norris Haring, director of EEU, were most interested in Val’s project—word had traveled fast.
The Down Syndrome Preschool
Val Dmitriev joined the EEU academic staff in 1970. She was given an office but not a classroom. Her responsibilities consisted of conducting workshops, serving as a resource teacher and consulting with Head Start and special education teachers. She continued seeing infants, whenever she could schedule them and wherever she could find space. Dr. Hayden had given her a vague promise of a classroom for her project, but Val was unaware that Hayden and Haring had submitted her proposal to Handicapped Children’s Early Education Programs (HCEEP). Val was very pleasantly surprised when she was told that her project had received federal funding. Her dream of a preschool for children with Down syndrome came true. January 1971 was the official start of the Down Syndrome Program with 11 children. This program is now celebrating its 40th anniversary.
Workshop in Special Education
Val working with Scott.
In the summer of 1971, I attended a three-week course,
Workshop in Special Education 496. Valentine Dmitriev, the instructor, was also the coordinator of the Down Syndrome Program. Our ‘lab’ was the demonstration classroom for preschool children with Down syndrome. Enthralled with what I was learning and observing, I became very excited about the methodology—empirical method using the principles of behavior developed by Skinner—and the impact the application of these principles was having on the children I observed. It was truly remarkable! They were exceeding all previous expectations! With these remarkable tools, anything seemed possible!
Val Dmitriev assessing Kim, as she entered the first class in 1971.
Just as Val had been inspired by Dr. Etzel’s course at Rainier School, I, in turn, was inspired by Val’s presentation. I still have the textbook from the workshop,
The Analysis of Human Operant Behavior. This book, in addition to the training I had, provided me with the principles of behavior that have been so valuable in my work as well as in my personal life.
The principles of behavior developed by B. F. Skinner provide powerful tools for teaching positive behaviors. It was through teaching pigeons to perform specific behaviors that Skinner developed these principles. As the story goes, when Skinner was in the military he had a boring office job. As a diversion from boredom, he started feeding peanuts to the pigeons that flew to his office windowsill. Just feeding pigeons became boring as well, so he started teaching them ‘tricks’ using the peanuts to reward the pigeons for each successive behavior that led to the completion of the tricks. He later took his experiments with pigeons to the laboratory, expanded on his research, identified the principles that he discovered, and demonstrated the many applications of the systematic application of these principles to human beings.
Val with Jeff and B.J..
It was a film that Val Dmitriev showed in her workshop, demonstrating how these behavioral principles were used to teach a pigeon to ‘read’ the words ‘turn’ and ‘peck’ that I found most inspiring. If you can teach pigeons to read, though it was limited to two words, just imagine what you could teach children with Down syndrome! | <urn:uuid:9fbd796f-9157-4583-b786-0963d48e2f40> | CC-MAIN-2014-42 | http://www.anewera4ds.org/beginnings.php | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-42/segments/1414637900160.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20141030025820-00103-ip-10-16-133-185.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.982322 | 2,085 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Network environments are growing increasingly hostile. Freedoms of speech, religion, and press are being diminished. The right to privacy is challenged globally on multiple fronts. For these and other reasons, you may find it valuable to add an extra layer of security and privacy to your Internet connection.
This is typically done using VPNs, SSH tunnels, or just regular ol’ HTTP proxies. However, they each have their problems:
- VPN: When used primarily for anonymized/proxied browsing, VPNs are less than ideal. VPN traffic is fairly obvious on the wire, especially with deep packet inspection, which is why governments are able to block (most) VPNs if they try to. VPN providers often advertise anonymity and protection while running sketchy operations that log your activity or don’t properly secure your traffic. To make matters worse, setting up your own VPN correctly can be difficult. Conflicting, incompatible protocols sometimes require installing extra software depending on the VPN you connect to.
- SSH tunnel: SSH is available on most Linux machines (and Macs), but like VPNs, SSH traffic is pretty easy to identify — mostly because it runs on port 22. Running services on a different port is not always an option because of firewall restrictions. Even if you multiplex multiple protocols on the same port, SSH traffic looks different from HTTPS. Also, SSH is known for being unreliable when the network drops out (“broken pipe” anyone?), and slow every other time. But at least SSH tunnels are much simpler to create than setting up a VPN.
- HTTP proxy: The obvious requirement here is for HTTPS at the very least, but unless you properly automate a Let’s Encrypt certificate, you have to go to some work to maintain the HTTPS server. Pretty much all HTTP proxies these days do not support HTTP/2, and it’s pretty easy to tell (from the client-side) if a server is acting as a forward proxy. I should not even have to mention that trusting random HTTP proxies on the Internet isn’t a great idea.
This article will show you how to secure your Internet connection in a way that overcomes these weaknesses. You will learn how to set up the Caddy web server as a secure forward proxy using the http.forwardproxy plugin, which has these advantages:
- HTTPS enabled by default. All certificate maintenance is automated. It just works!
- Full-duplex HTTP/2. This proxy speaks HTTP/2 both ways, which gives you faster page load times.
- End-to-end encryption. For sites that use HTTPS, your connection to the origin is E2E encrypted. Even the proxy server cannot decrypt your connection between your computer and the origin site. Once the HTTPS tunnel is established with the proxy, it simply shuttles bytes in a two-way stream. Underlying TLS connections remain intact. (Even a nefarious proxy can’t read the content of your underlying HTTPS traffic, but you should still only use proxies you trust. There’s more to traffic than its contents.)
- Probe resistance (experimental). This feature hides the proxy behavior of the server from everyone except to those who already know how to access it and are authorized to use it. Only a secret link specified by you (the server operator) exposes the authentication prompt.
- Innocuous traffic patterns. Since this proxy is not a VPN or SSH tunnel, it blends in better with the rest of HTTPS traffic.
- Standard ports. Where VPN ports and SSH port 22 are blocked by firewalls, port 443 is almost always allowed because accessing the Web is so standard for most use cases. (But you can still customize the port.)
- Hides your IP address. With just one line of config, this proxy will not add the user’s IP to the HTTP “Forwarded” header. (Note that there are ways around this out of the proxy’s control, like WebRTC in browsers.)
- Access controls. You can specify users and passwords to restrict access to the proxy, as well as a port whitelist for the proxy.
- Easy to set up! Best of all, this proxy is easy to get running and hard to get wrong because of sane defaults and automatic HTTPS. Caddy is designed to be easy to use to reduce the potential error surface of misconfigurations.
In particular, we’re interested in exploring how helpful this software software could be in circumventing censorship. It definitely needs more careful vetting (read on) but we hope people will try it out in low-or-no-risk scenarios.
This plugin was developed by Sergey Frolov while interning at Google and the source is available on GitHub.
I make no guarantees; use this tutorial and the server software at your own risk. There are a number of edge cases that ultimately depend on your client and your threat model; see especially the warning in the client configuration section below.
This technique is still fairly new. We want to make it even safer. So we do not recommend using it in high-risk situations. If you find a way to improve it, though, please contribute your feedback, issues, and pull requests!
Setting up the Server
First, you’ll need a machine that is accessible with a public IP address. Home servers can work if you forward the port(s) properly. You can also rent a cloud instance from any reputable cloud provider for a few dollars per month. Once you have such a machine, here’s what to do:
Install Caddy; this is as easy as extracting the archive and putting the binary in your PATH, or using the one-line auto-installer script shown at the bottom of the download page after you select the plugins you want.
Make a file called
Caddyfile that looks like this:
basicauth user pass
You must replace:
example.comwith the actual domain name pointed at your machine
/path/to/your/sitewith the actual path to the root of your site (or an empty or decoy folder if you have no site)
user passwith a username and password of your choice (otherwise anyone could use your server!)
secret.localhostwith a custom, secret hostname to enable probe resistance; strongly recommended to end with “.localhost”
caddy in the same folder as your Caddyfile. After a few seconds, your probe-resistant, IP-hiding, full-duplex, HTTP/2 proxy will be running with a fully-managed TLS certificate from Let’s Encrypt!
The default port is 443 (the HTTPS port) unless you specify otherwise. Read more about the Caddyfile if you want to customize further.
Setting up the Client
Now how do you use your proxy server? With a client, of course!
There are several ways to do this. For example, if you want to secure your web browsing in Chrome, you can use an extension like Proxy SwitchyOmega to configure the connection. Firefox has some network options built into its settings. You can also configure your entire OS or mobile phone to use the proxy for all applications (except those that are specifically configured to not use your OS’ proxy settings). However, we found only Chrome+SwitchyOmega to be reliable, which we explain below.
** WARNING! A weakness in any part of the proxy configuration could leak information. Even if your proxy server is secure, your client may not be. Clients which do not honor the proxy settings for all network traffic could put you at risk. This includes major browsers and operating systems. For example, browsers don’t put WebRTC requests through the proxy (by design, sigh). One way to mitigate this risk somewhat is to use a VM that tunnels all traffic across a virtual NIC. This is obviously more involved, so act according to your threat model. If you just need basic public Internet cafe privacy to check your email, maybe the VM is overkill. That’s up to you.
Chrome + SwitchyOmega
This was the most reliable and simple client configuration I tried.
Install SwitchyOmega. It comes with an example proxy profile (on the left) which you can modify, or you can create a new one. In the table, select “HTTPS” for the “Protocol” field and type in your domain name and the port:
Click the lock icon by the port and enter your username and password:
After save your credentials, click the green “Apply Changes” button to the left:
You can turn on the proxy by clicking it from your menu:
Congrats! Now all your Chrome connections are proxied securely through your server.
Like Chrome, Firefox also has a SwitchyOmega extension. I would suggest using extension first, since you are likely to have more success than with Firefox’s built-in network settings. The instructions are nearly the same as above.
Using Firefox’s built-in network configuration settings, I was not able to get this working in Firefox (on macOS 10.12.6) for a server with
probe_resistance enabled. It appears to be a bug in Firefox. Firefox hangs when loading the page, for several minutes — and spins the CPU at 100%. Even after closing the application, my computer ran sluggish for almost a day until I found the firefox process still running in the background still using 100% of my CPU. Other than using the SwitchyOmega extension, there are two other workarounds on Mac: Use Chrome, or disable probe resistance.
To change Firefox’s built-in network configuration, go to Menu -> Preferences:
Then Network Proxy, and click “Settings…”:
Here you have a few options. You can “Use system proxy settings” which should use your operating system’s proxy settings. You can specify a “Manual proxy configuration” where you enter the hostname and port your proxy is listening on (EDIT: As noted in a comment, this will not utilize TLS-to-proxy. So don’t do this, use the PAC file instead — next sentence). Or, if you use the
serve_pac server setting, you can specify its URL:
Save your settings, and you should be good to go. Maybe. Good luck!
macOS (and/or Safari)
This will change the proxy settings for the entire system. Make sure this is really what you want to do instead of using the proxy only with your web browser!
Unfortunately, I was not able to successfully get macOS’ system-wide proxy configurations to work reliably, even with probe resistance / authentication turned off. I’ve also been told that some previous version(s) of macOS (or OS X) could even kernel panic when using a TLS proxy. (But I was able to get Firefox and Chrome using the proxy successfully, as described above.)
If you want to experiment with getting system-wide proxy config working, open System Preferences and go to Network. Choose your active network interface on the left and click the “Advanced” button in the lower-right. Click the “Proxies” tab. I tried both the “Automatic Proxy Configuration” (where you give the .pac file URL) and the “Secure Web Proxy (HTTPS)” options. Both had different but equally disappointing levels of support in various applications.
Linux (Ubuntu 16.04 Desktop)
Good news! Setting Linux’s system-wide proxy settings worked fairly well in my testing.
Open Network preferences and select “Network Proxy”. Choose “Automatic” for the Method, and type the configuration URL of the .pac file. (You’ll have to enable
serve_pac on your server configuration inside the
forwardproxy directive; choose a secret URL to serve the file on, so it doesn’t defeat your probe resistance). If you don’t want to use a .pac file, you can choose “Manual” for the Method and enter your hostname and port (443 probably) — use it for all protocols.
Since there isn’t a way to configure the system proxy to send credentials, you need to use your secret link to authenticate. Only the secret link will prompt the browser to enter credentials. You may have to do that every time you re-open your browser.
So open your web browser (maybe double-check its network configuration if you’re not sure) and go to your secret link. Enter your credentials, and you’re good to go!
This method works for WiFi networks. I haven’t looked into how to set a proxy for the cell network. It requires using a .pac file. If you haven’t already, enable the
serve_pac option within the
forwardproxy directive. For probe resistance, I recommend specifying a secret URL to serve it on, rather than the default
Go to your WiFi settings and long-tap on the current network. Choose “Modify Network”:
Under Proxy, choose “Proxy Auto-Config” and type the URL to your .pac file:
Save settings. With probe resistance enabled, you’ll have to navigate to your secret link in your browser to expose the authentication prompt. Then you should be good to go. Remember: this doesn’t apply to the cell network.
**IMPORTANT NOTE** While this can work on Windows, apparently Windows does not support TLS-to-proxy, meaning your transmissions to your proxy server will not be properly secured. If you want this fixed, you should raise a stink with Microsoft. I don’t have a Windows machine to confirm this, so in the meantime, use another solution.
These instructions are for Windows 7, but the same basic idea works in more recent versions of Windows. I’m borrowing these instructions from Sergey’s blog (with permission) because I don’t have Windows:
Control Panel → Network and Internet → Internet Options → Connections → LAN settings → Check “Use a proxy server…” and paste your “https://yourserver.com” in Address and “443” in port. Don’t lose “https://” in Address, Windows likes to remove it when you open LAN settings window again.
Caddy’s http.forwardproxy plugin is a promising alternative to using VPNs or SSH tunnels for certain tasks and for certain threat models. We hope this technology will help provide greater access to the Web to more people because of its unique properties and ease of use. However, client support for TLS-to-proxy must improve and become more reliable and predictable. We hope that client support for secure proxying will improve and become more robust in the future. | <urn:uuid:86bcfd7c-0455-4453-aa12-0e5a9a51e991> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://medium.com/@mattholt/private-browsing-without-a-vpn-e91027552700 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243991801.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20210515100825-20210515130825-00288.warc.gz | en | 0.896762 | 3,108 | 2.625 | 3 |
Wednesday, Sept. 11, 2019, is the 18th anniversary of 9/11, which occurred on a Tuesday, Sept. 11, 2001.
A most horrific day in U.S. history, when 2,977 people lost their lives.
The first horrific tragedy happened at 8:46 a.m. (EST), which was the North Twin Tower.
The second horrific tragedy happened at 9:03 a.m. (EST).
The third horrific tragedy was at 9:37 a.m. (EST), hitting the Pentagon.
The fourth horrific tragedy happened at 10:03 a.m. (EST), which was flight 93, a United Airlines plane, which crashed in an empty field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania.
At this time it was “evident that the U.S. was undergoing a series of deadly terrorist attacks.”
These attacks led to the Afghanistan war fighting terrorism, which has been the longest war in U.S. history, 18 years and counting.
To all Americans, this “day in infamy” should not be forgotten, and we should rise up to say “never again.” | <urn:uuid:b8a1110f-deeb-4085-b9e5-79b941bd367b> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://signalscv.com/2019/09/lois-eisenberg-never-forget/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046153531.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20210728060744-20210728090744-00479.warc.gz | en | 0.959051 | 243 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Spinal injury treatment trials move to humans
A trial using stem cells to treat spinal injury is to begin after promising results in animals.
Patients with spinal cord injuries will be the first humans to receive cells derived from embryonic stem cells as the first ever clinical trial received the go-ahead from the US Food and Drug Administration after promising results in rat studies. The trial will involve patients who are paralysed from the chest down, and hopes to ‘mend’ their spines by injecting injury sites with stem cells to restore connections and repair damage.
This is a direct consequence of previous research with these cells involving rats. The promising results obtained showed that after treatment with the cells, mobility was improved in rats with spinal injuries. The treated rats could walk better, and post-mortems showed that the injected cells had multiplied in the injury site and restored lost connections. The hope now is that the same will happen in people.
See related article in AnimalResearch.info | <urn:uuid:25adde14-7755-4a7c-aef1-93cf42b3ab54> | CC-MAIN-2017-04 | http://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/research-medical-benefits/spinal-injury-treatment-trials-move-to-humans/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560279923.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095119-00437-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966024 | 197 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Sherry Robertson and Margo Mountjoy
The syndrome of relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) is a clinical entity characterized by low energy availability, which can negatively affect the health and performance of both male and female athletes. The underlying mechanism of RED-S is an inadequacy of dietary energy to support optimal health and performance. This syndrome refers to impaired physiological function, including metabolic rate, menstrual function, bone health, immunity, protein synthesis, and cardiovascular health, with psychological consequences that can either precede (through restrictive dietary habits) or result from RED-S. The term RED-S extends beyond the condition termed the “Female Athlete Triad.” Formerly known as synchronized swimming, artistic swimming is an Olympic sport requiring a high level of fitness as well as technical skill and artistry. The risk of RED-S is high in artistic swimming as it is an aesthetic, judged sport with an emphasis on a lean physique. RED-S is of significant concern in the sport of artistic swimming because of the potential negative effects on physical and mental health as well as consequences on athletic performance. This paper reviews health and performance consequences associated with low energy availability resulting in RED-S in artistic swimming. Medical and nutritional considerations specific to artistic swimming are reviewed, and methods to help detect and manage RED-S are discussed. Prevention and management of RED-S in this athlete population should be a priority for coaches, and the sport medicine professionals working with artistic swimming athletes should utilize the RED-S CAT, a Clinical Assessment Tool for screening and managing RED-S.
Sherry Robertson, Dan Benardot, and Margo Mountjoy
The sport of synchronized swimming is unique, because it combines speed, power, and endurance with precise synchronized movements and high-risk acrobatic maneuvers. Athletes must train and compete while spending a great amount of time underwater, upside down, and without the luxury of easily available oxygen. This review assesses the scientific evidence with respect to the physiological demands, energy expenditure, and body composition in these athletes. The role of appropriate energy requirements and guidelines for carbohydrate, protein, fat, and micronutrients for elite synchronized swimmers are reviewed. Because of the aesthetic nature of the sport, which prioritizes leanness, the risks of energy and macronutrient deficiencies are of significant concern. Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport and disordered eating/eating disorders are also of concern for these female athletes. An approach to the healthy management of body composition in synchronized swimming is outlined. Synchronized swimmers should be encouraged to consume a well-balanced diet with sufficient energy to meet demands and to time the intake of carbohydrate, protein, and fat to optimize performance and body composition. Micronutrients of concern for this female athlete population include iron, calcium, and vitamin D. This article reviews the physiological demands of synchronized swimming and makes nutritional recommendations for recovery, training, and competition to help optimize athletic performance and to reduce risks for weight-related medical issues that are of particular concern for elite synchronized swimmers.
Anna K. Melin, Ida A. Heikura, Adam Tenforde, and Margo Mountjoy
The reported prevalence of low energy availability (LEA) in female and male track and field athletes is between 18% and 58% with the highest prevalence among athletes in endurance and jump events. In male athletes, LEA may result in reduced testosterone levels and libido along with impaired training capacity. In female track and field athletes, functional hypothalamic amenorrhea as consequence of LEA has been reported among 60% of elite middle- and long-distance athletes and 23% among elite sprinters. Health concerns with functional hypothalamic amenorrhea include impaired bone health, elevated risk for bone stress injury, and cardiovascular disease. Furthermore, LEA negatively affects recovery, muscle mass, neuromuscular function, and increases the risk of injuries and illness that may affect performance negatively. LEA in track and field athletes may occur due to intentional alterations in body mass or body composition, appetite changes, time constraints, or disordered eating behavior. Long-term LEA causes metabolic and physiological adaptations to prevent further weight loss, and athletes may therefore be weight stable yet have impaired physiological function secondary to LEA. Achieving or maintaining a lower body mass or fat levels through long-term LEA may therefore result in impaired health and performance as proposed in the Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport model. Preventive educational programs and screening to identify athletes with LEA are important for early intervention to prevent long-term secondary health consequences. Treatment for athletes is primarily to increase energy availability and often requires a team approach including a sport physician, sports dietitian, physiologist, and psychologist.
Megan A. Kuikman, Margo Mountjoy, Trent Stellingwerff, and Jamie F. Burr
Relative energy deficiency in sport (RED-S) can result in negative health and performance outcomes in both male and female athletes. The underlying etiology of RED-S is low energy availability (LEA), which occurs when there is insufficient dietary energy intake to meet exercise energy expenditure, corrected for fat-free mass, leaving inadequate energy available to ensure homeostasis and adequate energy turnover (optimize normal bodily functions to positively impact health), but also optimizing recovery, training adaptations, and performance. As such, treatment of RED-S involves increasing energy intake and/or decreasing exercise energy expenditure to address the underlying LEA. Clinically, however, the time burden and methodological errors associated with the quantification of energy intake, exercise energy expenditure, and fat-free mass to assess energy availability in free-living conditions make it difficult for the practitioner to implement in everyday practice. Furthermore, interpretation is complicated by the lack of validated energy availability thresholds, which can result in compromised health and performance outcomes in male and female athletes across various stages of maturation, ethnic races, and different types of sports. This narrative review focuses on pragmatic nonpharmacological strategies in the treatment of RED-S, featuring factors such as low carbohydrate availability, within-day prolonged periods of LEA, insufficient intake of bone-building nutrients, lack of mechanical bone stress, and/or psychogenic stress. This includes the implementation of strategies that address exacerbating factors of LEA, as well as novel treatment methods and underlying mechanisms of action, while highlighting areas of further research.
Megan A. Kuikman, Margo Mountjoy, Trent Stellingwerff, and Jamie F. Burr
Erik Sesbreno, Gary Slater, Margo Mountjoy, and Stuart D.R. Galloway
The monitoring of body composition is common in sports given the association with performance. Surface anthropometry is often preferred when monitoring changes for its convenience, practicality, and portability. However, anthropometry does not provide valid estimates of absolute lean tissue in elite athletes. The aim of this investigation was to develop anthropometric models for estimating fat-free mass (FFM) and skeletal muscle mass (SMM) using an accepted reference physique assessment technique. Sixty-four athletes across 18 sports underwent surface anthropometry and dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) assessment. Anthropometric models for estimating FFM and SMM were developed using forward selection multiple linear regression analysis and contrasted against previously developed equations. Most anthropometric models under review performed poorly compared with DXA. However, models derived from athletic populations such as the Withers equation demonstrated a stronger correlation with DXA estimates of FFM (r = .98). Equations that incorporated skinfolds with limb girths were more effective at explaining the variance in DXA estimates of lean tissue (Sesbreno FFM [R 2 = .94] and Lee SMM [R 2 = .94] models). The Sesbreno equation could be useful for estimating absolute indices of lean tissue across a range of physiques if an accepted option like DXA is inaccessible. Future work should explore the validity of the Sesbreno model across a broader range of physiques common to athletic populations.
David B. Pyne, Evert A. Verhagen, and Margo Mountjoy
In this review, we outline key principles for prevention of injury and illness in aquatic sports, detail the epidemiology of injury and illness in aquatic athletes at major international competitions and in training, and examine the relevant scientific evidence on nutrients for reducing the risk of illness and injury. Aquatic athletes are encouraged to consume a well-planned diet with sufficient calories, macronutrients (particularly carbohydrate and protein), and micronutrients (particularly iron, zinc, and vitamins A, D, E, B6, and B12) to maintain health and performance. Ingesting carbohydrate via sports drinks, gels, or sports foods during prolonged training sessions is beneficial in maintaining energy availability. Studies of foods or supplements containing plant polyphenols and selected strains of probiotic species are promising, but further research is required. In terms of injury, intake of vitamin D, protein, and total caloric intake, in combination with treatment and resistance training, promotes recovery back to full health and training.
Margo L. Mountjoy, Louise M. Burke, Trent Stellingwerff, and Jorunn Sundgot-Borgen
Jennifer Sygo, Alexandra M. Coates, Erik Sesbreno, Margo L. Mountjoy, and Jamie F. Burr
Low energy availability (LEA), and subsequent relative energy deficiency in sport, has been observed in endurance, aesthetic, and team sport athletes, with limited data on prevalence in athletes in short-burst activities such as sprinting. We examined prevalence of signs and symptoms of LEA in elite female sprinters at the start of the training season (PRE), and at the end of a 5-month indoor training period (POST). Four of 13 female sprinters (31%) presented at PRE testing with at least one primary (amenorrhea, low bone mineral density, low follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, or estradiol, resting metabolic rate ≤29 kcal/kg fat-free mass, Low Energy Availability in Females Questionnaire score ≥8) and one secondary indicator of LEA (fasting blood glucose <4 mmol/L, free triiodothyronine <3.5 pmol/L, ferritin <25 μg/L, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol >3.0 mmol/L, fasting insulin <20 pmol/L, low insulin-like growth factor-1, systolic blood pressure <90 mmHg, and/or diastolic blood pressure <60 mmHg). At POST, seven out of 13 athletes (54%) presented with at least one primary and one secondary indicator of LEA, three of whom had also presented with indicators of LEA at PRE. Five out of 13 (39%) athletes had previous stress fracture history, though this was not associated with current indicators of LEA (PRE: r = .52, p = .07; POST: r = −.07, p = .82). In conclusion, elite female sprinters may present with signs and symptoms of LEA, even after off-season rest. Medical and coaching staff should be aware of the signs and symptoms of LEA and relative energy deficiency in sport and should include appropriate screening and intervention strategies when working with sprinters. | <urn:uuid:a9e15982-79b8-46d7-94b1-7d7ccd3640f9> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://journals.humankinetics.com/search?f_0=author&q_0=Margo+Mountjoy | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487586390.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20210612193058-20210612223058-00464.warc.gz | en | 0.926703 | 2,329 | 2.828125 | 3 |
ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL INCLUSIONFinding solutions that work for all and empower the most vulnerable
This parallel session will focus on the following 3 themes:
- What is Inclusion? (10 January, 12:00 – 13:00)
- What role do small- and medium-sized enterprises play in promoting inclusion? (10 January, 15:30 – 16:30)
- What policies can support economic empowerment of women and youth? (11 January, 12:00 – 13:00)
In the Rio+20 Outcome Document the international community recognized that people are at the centre of sustainable development, calling for a world that is just, equitable and inclusive, and committing to work to promote sustained and inclusive economic growth, social development and environmental protection and thereby to benefit all. In the transition to inclusive green economy, particular attention must be paid to impacts, especially to poor and vulnerable groups. Another approach is to achieve green economy by ensuring a fair and just transition for those who will be negatively affected such as women and youth. Policy makers, academics, activists, and development partners are indeed interested in understanding what inclusion means and how it can be addressed in a world that is in the throes of formidable transitions. The world still does not provide definitive answers; it offers a broader understanding and a framework to help advance the agenda of social and economic inclusion.
Session 1 on “What is Inclusion?” will seek a better understanding of the concept inclusion in the social and economic dimension. It aims to improve knowledge of inclusion relating to green economy approaches and instruments geared towards low-carbon development at the international and country level.
Session 2 on “What role do small- and medium-sized enterprises play in promoting inclusion?” explores the positive role of MSMEs in job creation and entrepreneurship. Entrepreneurs/ top executives of start-ups and MSMEs in the clean tech sector will share perspectives respectively from enterprises and workers side, highlighting specific challenges and opportunities, experiences to date and solutions going forward.
Session 3 on “What policies can support economic empowerment of women and youth?” will examine the nature and scale of expected and ongoing structural transformations at sector level targeting the marginalized, women and youth. In addition, it will identify policy instruments that could ensure gender equality and women’s empowerment. | <urn:uuid:69e4d803-4d51-4832-9903-08df3f3e5c3f> | CC-MAIN-2019-43 | https://page2019.itcilo.org/economic-and-social-inclusion/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-43/segments/1570986684854.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20191018204336-20191018231836-00305.warc.gz | en | 0.926855 | 476 | 2.640625 | 3 |
... >> Computer Science >> Programming Languages >> Infix Notation
Highest Rated Sign
Nobody has posted a sign yet.
Definition: putting the operator between the operands is a convention known as infix notation.
Source: Reges & Stepp, 2007
Example: Example sentence for context: "3.5 + 8.2 : operand + operand. The operator between the operands is the infix notation." | <urn:uuid:34d6e62a-512f-4dd1-85f6-6d609b9785f4> | CC-MAIN-2021-39 | https://aslstem.cs.washington.edu/topics/view/207 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-39/segments/1631780057033.33/warc/CC-MAIN-20210920070754-20210920100754-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.878487 | 89 | 3.015625 | 3 |
Chinese bronze coin from the Han Dynasty
Money is basically an agreement between people. It is an agreement that this much of something (usually some kind of metal gold, silver, or bronze) will be worth this much bread, and this much cheese, and this many slaves. People also used paper as money, or cocoa beans, or cowrie shells. Anything small, not too heavy, and fairly rare will work.
Coins with guarantees were invented around 650 BC. This kind of coin is marked with a promise by somebody (often a government) that this coin is worth what it says it is worth. So you don't have to weigh each coin before you accept it (if you trust that government). The first coins of this kind were from Lydia, in West Asia. They were used to pay mercenary soldiers. But many people preferred to keep on using mainly credit for trading instead.
A Lydian gold coin
Greek coin from Corinth
When governments began to require people to pay their taxes in money, gradually metal coins became common all over Europe, Asia, and Africa ( except for central Africa and South Africa). In South America, the Aztec empire collected taxes in cocoa beans, in the same way, starting about 1400 AD.
The governments that minted these coins figured out that if they didn't have enough money, they could mix the gold with more silver to make it go further, or mix the silver with more bronze. That way they could make more coins with the same amount of metal, and have more money to pay their soldiers with. The Romans did this in the 200s AD.
Roman silver coins from the 200s AD
But of course people soon figured out that these coins weren't really worth what the government said they were worth, and then they didn't want to take those coins in stores. Or they demanded more coins, so it would be the same amount of gold or silver as before.
BILL OF RIGHTS
WHAT IS BC OR AD?
To find out more about money, check out these books from Amazon.com or from your library:
Eyewitness: Money, by Joe Cribb (2000). Not the best in the series, but still a good introduction to exchange systems for kids.
The History of Money: From Sandstone to Cyberspace, by Jack Weatherford (1998). Great on what money is, and how it has changed over time - some conclusions are controversial. | <urn:uuid:a8a751a7-9294-4e84-b1f6-41dd47febd7b> | CC-MAIN-2013-20 | http://www.historyforkids.org/learn/economy/money.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-20/segments/1368711515185/warc/CC-MAIN-20130516133835-00052-ip-10-60-113-184.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.960723 | 496 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
What is PBIS?
- PBIS is a research-based approach that focuses on creating positive environments that are more conducive to learning.
- PBIS uses proactive strategies to support pro-social behaviors.
- PBIS provides a continuum of supports, including rewards and consequences, in all environments.
- PBIS provides consistent routines, language and expectations.
What does PBIS look like at Pointers Run?
Grade Level PBIS | <urn:uuid:53946950-83da-4db0-b7ea-6943d225e493> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | http://pres.hcpss.org/about/positive-behavior-interventions-and-supports-pbis | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496670987.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20191121204227-20191121232227-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.901948 | 102 | 3.703125 | 4 |
John Playfair – Portrait by Henry Raeburn
|Born||10 March 1748
|Died||20 July 1819
He is perhaps best known for his book Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth (1802), which summarised the work of James Hutton. It was through this book that Hutton's principle of uniformitarianism first reached a wide audience. The idea was later taken up by Charles Lyell and Charles Darwin. Playfair is also remembered for his proposal of an alternative to Euclid's parallel postulate.
Works[change | change source]
- 1802: Illustrations of the Huttonian theory of the Earth.
- Dissertation on the progress of Mathematical and Physical Science since the revival of learning in Europe in the Encyclopædia Britannica (Supplement to fourth, fifth and sixth editions). | <urn:uuid:09300443-6505-4f25-a263-7e7108d8c6e7> | CC-MAIN-2016-36 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Playfair | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-36/segments/1471982953863.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160823200913-00275-ip-10-153-172-175.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.943803 | 179 | 3.640625 | 4 |
Outcomes At Work
Application of outcome measures in employment settings has shown that the outcomes that assist people to find, secure and sustain a meaningful employment do not differ significantly from those used to measure success in other life areas. Since outcomes function by providing a framework for understanding the person, addressing the full range of issues that may be important to people is essential to ensuring that work supports compliment other activities in the person's life. Although supports provided by the employment organization may be limited to the work setting, the knowledge of the person in all areas enables staff to ensure that the person's work situation is compatible with other activities and priorities for the person.
Ensuring the person is successfully integrated into the work environment is the primary objective of employment support, but, the performance of activities at work that contribute to task and productivity is only one part of the work experience. The application of generic outcome measures to work emphasizes the view that work is a means to an end. People work to achieve individual outcomes. Work is not an end in itself. Traditional work preparation and work opportunities for people with disabilities have often treated work itself as the outcome. When work is viewed as the outcome, active engagement in any work activity can be judged as adequate. However, when providers of service look beyond work tasks to the direct and indirect outcomes that people expect from work, success and quality in employment service is defined by responsiveness to individual need.
The focus on outcomes challenges the employment service organization to look beyond professional practice and program guidelines. Whereas in the past, employment programs were designed according to professional criteria, an outcome approach dictates that professional expertise be used to facilitate the attainment of individual outcomes. Program design focused on models developed by professionals - work hardening, work activity, sheltered workshop, on the job training - reflects generalizations about the needs of people who would use them. People sought entry into the program that best approximated their needs. Programs accepted people into available "slots" instead of designing services around the needs of each person served.
In contrast, an outcome or person-centered approach replaces the program approach with one that is based on the discovery of specific outcomes that people expect from work and employment services. Rather than placing people in available openings or slots, organizations design supports and services that meet expectations of people seeking services. General resources such as assessment, therapies, and group learning and support activities are accessed as needed by the person served instead of routinely required as a part of program participation. More important, organizations recognize that the measure of quality is not the delivery of a service or support, but the results that service or supports produce for each person.
|< Previous Article||Next Article > | <urn:uuid:4a1ca4d8-dfde-47bf-b702-bf7e53ae02e0> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://c-q-l.org/the-cql-difference/personal-outcome-measures/pom-blog/pom-blog-page-1/outcomes-at-work | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195526536.46/warc/CC-MAIN-20190720153215-20190720175215-00119.warc.gz | en | 0.964481 | 535 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The tap size chart provides a list of standard size taps, specifying the diameter and thread spacing, for fractional, metric, and screw sizes. The decimal equivalents of the diameters are shown in both English and Metric units. Fractional sizes are listed in inches, while metric sizes are listed in millimeters following the letter “M”. A screw size number corresponds to a diameter which is larger for a higher screw size. The thread spacing, which may be coarse or fine, is listed after the diameter. In the fractional and screw size systems, the thread count is used, measured in threads per inch. The metric system uses the thread pitch, which is the distance between threads, measured in millimeters. For each thread count, the equivalent thread pitch is provided and for metric taps, the approximate thread count is shown based on the pitch. Lastly, the recommended tap drill size is provided for each standard tap size. This size drill bit should be used for drilling the initial hole that will then be tapped. | <urn:uuid:7ed90d03-55de-4897-8040-8afe552df7ce> | CC-MAIN-2019-09 | https://upmold.com/tap-size-drilling-chart/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-09/segments/1550247495147.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20190220150139-20190220172139-00044.warc.gz | en | 0.923788 | 207 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Fly ash is a fine powder that is a byproduct of burning pulverized coal in electric generation power plants. Fly ash is a pozzolan, a substance containing aluminous and siliceous material that forms cement in the presence of water. When mixed with lime and water, fly ash forms a compound similar to Portland cement.
Fly ash can be used as prime material in many cement-based products, such as poured concrete, concrete block, and brick. One of the most common uses of fly ash is in Portland cement concrete pavement or PCC pavement. Road construction projects using PCC can use a great deal of concrete, and substituting fly ash provides significant economic benefits. | <urn:uuid:7ab855df-4cd3-48ea-8c5e-4ccc3be4e81c> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://www.netzsch-grinding.com/ko/%EA%B4%91%EB%AC%BC-%EA%B4%91%EC%97%85-%EC%82%B0%EC%97%85/industrial-minerals/flyash/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320303356.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20220121101528-20220121131528-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.923464 | 139 | 3.359375 | 3 |
Foundation Apprenticeships are one of the most recent innovations in how young people can learn, gain experience and ultimately prepare for the future while they are still at school.
Aberdeenshire Council has taken an innovative approach to the roll-out of these courses by upskilling teachers and enabling pupils to attend classes at school as well as gaining valuable work experience throughout their school year. Foundation Apprenticeships are highly valued by universities and colleges, and recognised as being equivalent to an A or B at Higher level.
Instead of sitting an exam, students are required to achieve milestones throughout the year in order to gain the qualification. Work experience is often the most valued aspect of any CV and a vital component to this qualification is the work experience included. This will send students out into the world of work fully prepared and with the skills necessary to preform effectively in a work environment.
Creative and Digital Media student Steven Pert said: “This work experience is amazing to have and is sought-after by employers. It has given me knowledge of the workplace that others may not have benefited from, saving employers time with helping me to hit the ground running in the future.”
We are now offering 11 Foundation Apprenticeship subjects:
- Business Skills
- Civil Engineering
- Creative and Digital Media
- Food and Drink Technologies
- Hardware and System Support
- Scientific Technologies
- Social Services Children and Young People
- Social Services and Healthcare
- Software Development
You can register your interest in studying for a Foundation Apprenticeship on the national apprenticeships website: www.apprenticeships.scot/foundation or speak with your guidance teacher to find out more. These options will also be highlighted as part of the process of young people choosing their subjects at school.
Follow these links to find out more:
- Gain a parent’s perspective
- Find out what a teacher has to say
- Find out how Foundation Apprenticeships could benefit your business
We are continually looking for local businesses who may be keen to support our Foundation Apprentices with placements, which are often just half a day a week. If you would like to find out more, please email [email protected] | <urn:uuid:19fd60b2-ab8a-4fc7-a719-cb15f277779f> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://dywaberdeenshire.org/foundation-apprenticeships/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233511000.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20231002132844-20231002162844-00339.warc.gz | en | 0.954637 | 472 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Banana is one of the most popular fruit in the world and it is believed that 100 billion bananas are consumed over the year. About 159 nations in the world grow bananas producing 105 million tones of fruit each year. Banana is known for its mineral-rich traits, and globally it is traded more than any other fruit.
The history of bananas begins in South-East Asia. It was brought to the west by Arabs during the 327 B.C while it moved from Asia Minor to Africa before it finally spread to the New World to the Caribbean.
Bananas were cultivated since ancient times. Sailors carried the banana to the Canary Islands and the West Indies and finally found its way to North America by the Spanish missionary Friar Tomas de Berlanga.
At present, banana cultivation takes place in most tropical regions and is also widely consumed in these regions. Banana is recognized for its flavorful taste and is popular due to its availability throughout the year. Among many varieties in banana, cavendish or dessert bananas are mostly consumed around the world.
This fruit is rich in dietary fiber and has a high carbohydrate content (22 percent). It is also rich in manganese, vitamins B6 and C, and potassium. Due to its high nutritional traits, banana is majorly exported from Ecuador, Honduras, Panama, and Costa Rica to rest of the world. North America remains the major consumer of banana fruit. It is widely grown in Asia including India and Sri Lanka.
Besides all the benefits of this delicious superfood, banana is prone to various diseases as well.
- Fusarium or the Panama Disease
Fusarium or the Panama Disease hits the banana crop at large and it was carried through the soil. Fusarium soil fungus enters the banana plant through the roots and uses water to travel into the leaves and the trunk. It restricts the flow of water and nutrients to cause wilting.
- Tropical race 4 or TR4
Discovered in 1993, TR4 is a reinvigorated strain of Panama disease that destroyed Cavendish banana in Southeast Asian countries including India and Australia. This banana variety is highly sensitive towards TR4. Building genetic resistance can only save this variety by developing the appropriate defense mechanism using technological innovations.
- Black Sigatoka
The 1920’s banana crop was hit by Sigatosa- an air-borne fungus that ruined the banana crop at large. Black Sigatoka was first discovered in 1964 around Fiji. It is a fungal leaf spot disease that affects all major banana cultivars. Intensive spraying was used to keep the disease at bay but now the fungus has developed resistance to spray treatment. In this scenario, scientists are considering gene editing to overcome this disease.
- Banana bunchy top virus
Banana bunchy top virus (BBTD) disease affects the leaves by making them shorter and stunted in the form of a bunch at the apex of the plant. It makes a plant infertile and stops producing any fruit. This virus hails transmission from aphid Pentalonia nigronervosa and is widespread in the Philippines, South-East Asia, Asian Taiwan, and parts of Africa.
- Banana bacterial wilt
This is a bacterial disease caused by Xanthomonas campestris pv. Musacearum and it was first observed in Uganda in 2001, affecting all banana cultivars. Banana crop cultivated in Central and East African regions is highly affected by this bacterial disease.
Africa has taken keen steps for managing banana diseases and protecting the banana crop through various ongoing research in the region. A recent study by the scientists from the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) in Nairobi validates that advances in the gene-editing application CRISPR can improve banana cultivars. The new CRISPR/Cas9- editing system developed by the IITA enables disease resistance in the banana crop.
This study aims to fill the yield gap in staple crops for improving food production. Agricultural productivity can get an optimum boost through the CRISPR application. IITA researchers are focusing on developing disease resistance variety through the new CRISPR/Cas9- editing system to combat the banana Xanthomonas wilt (BXW) disease. It is affecting banana production in East and Central Africa. IITA researchers claim that knocking down MusaDMR6 in bananas enhances resistance to BXW.
This is certainly a major advancement and a laudable effort from the researchers at IITA that has put gene editing as a promising technology to breed sustainable varieties. | <urn:uuid:84cddf79-9686-4ff9-8b6e-65002ebebad4> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://fsii.in/banana-an-introduction-to-history-popularity-threats-and-research/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662543264.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20220522001016-20220522031016-00219.warc.gz | en | 0.940722 | 928 | 3.390625 | 3 |
Conjunctions – Definition and Concept
A conjunction is a part of speech that connects two or more nouns, pronouns, phrases, coordinate clauses, main clauses and subordinate clauses, etc.
- You have to be fast and agile to survive the Yo-yo endurance test. (Adjective)
- Theatricality and deception are powerful agents to the uninitiated. (nouns)
- As far as your future in this firm is considered, you’re done. (coordinate clauses)
- After he finished his work, he left for home. (main + subordinate clause)
In this article, we study the different types of conjunctions and their usage.
At the end of the article, the reader will be able to:
- Identify and classify the conjunctions into different types
- Understand the placement of a conjunction
- Understand the idea of conjunctive adverbs and distinguish them from conjunctions
Types of Conjunctions
A conjunction is basically of three main types. We study them as follows.
Coordinate Conjunctions link nouns, pronouns, adjectives, coordinate clauses, and other parts of speech. These joiners are used with all kinds of phrases, clauses, and parts of speech that are similar or the same in terms of grammar.
Consider the following examples:
- You’ve to be swift but inconspicuous while retrieving the folder. (two adjectives)
- The manager and the client got into a heated argument. (two nouns)
- You can finish your homework now or begin early tomorrow. (two phrases)
- He was late for the meeting yet he was welcomed in gladly. (two coordinate clauses)
In each of the examples above, the conjunctions join equivalent parts of speech, phrases or clauses. In the first example, the conjunction but joins two adjectives, in the second example the conjunction and joins two nouns, in the third example the conjunction or joins two verb phrases and in the last example the conjunction yet joins two independent clauses. Since the independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction, they’re called coordinate clauses.
But, and, or, for, yet, so and nor are the basic examples of coordinating conjunctions used in the English language.
Subordinate Conjunctions are used to link clauses which are not equivalent. They’re used to join a subordinating clause with a main clause to add meaning to the sentence. Different words in the English language can work as a subordinating conjunction. We study them here in the following examples.
- Although you finished first, you’re disqualified from the competition.
- You’re disqualified from the competition because you failed the dope test.
- We verified whether he took any type of muscle stimulant.
- No matter how you put it, failure of the dope test prompts immediate disqualification.
- They have to wait until we set up an enquiry committee to appeal against the ban.
- The player was unsure how the steroids entered his bloodstream.
In each of the examples above, the subordinate clause (in italics) is linked to the main clause using the conjunction. It is called a subordinate clause because it is dependent on the main clause for either literal or contextual meaning. Thus the two clauses are not equivalent.
Correlative conjunctions are a special kind of coordinate conjunctions. They do the same job as coordinate conjunctions, which is to link nouns, pronouns, adjectives, coordinate clauses, etc., and are also called two-word conjunctions.
Let us look at a few examples:
- We have to determine whether this student needs the full course or the crash course.
- Both the manager and the client refused to take the blame.
- They were neither at the attic nor at the basement.
- The resistance not only staged the coup but also killed the monarch.
- You either walk in there or stay here until we come back.
Such conjunctions are basically coordinate conjunctions, but we learn them separately. The different correlative conjunctions used are ‘whether…or’, ‘either…or’, ‘neither…nor’, ‘not only…but also’, ‘both…and’ and ‘so…as’.
While conjunctions can be simply identified using their basic definition, we’ve another part of speech that operates just like a conjunction but is not one. We learn that word class here.
When an adverb to a verb of a clause is used to join that clause to another clause, we call those adverbs as conjunctive adverbs. Let us look at a few examples:
- You’ve received multiple negative points, therefore you’ll serve detention today.
- She needs a doctor right now, otherwise she won’t survive.
- The pigeons got through the mesh; in addition they uprooted my fresh saplings.
- He started earlier than usual; however he couldn’t complete the assignment.
- The wickets kept falling at one end, on the other hand he scored boundaries like a piece of cake.
In the above examples, the words in boldface not only join the clauses, but also describe the verbs in the other clause. These words or phrases are primarily adverbs, performing the job of conjunctions. Hence they are called as conjunctive adverbs. On the other hand, conjunctions simply link words and phrases.
Hence the basic study of conjunctions is simply understanding their identification and usage. | <urn:uuid:ddd18f0d-ccc9-498c-a49a-4d65d1ef0801> | CC-MAIN-2023-06 | https://smartenglishnotes.com/2022/12/23/conjunctions-meaning-and-types/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-06/segments/1674764500140.36/warc/CC-MAIN-20230204142302-20230204172302-00797.warc.gz | en | 0.933314 | 1,184 | 4.25 | 4 |
Want to Study Woodworking Tips? Learn On.
Want to Study Woodworking Suggestions? Read On.
You don’t should be a genius to work with wood. The very fact is that every one you need to be able to do is carry a hammer and measure precisely, together with having a superb imagination. In fact, your skills need to enhance, and the ideas below will enable you to to do exactly that.
All the time make security first with a woodworking undertaking. All the time buy the required safety tools to avoid harm. Every Final Tip We offer On Woodworking Is Prime Notch are on instruments for a superb cause and will never be eliminated. You do not need to begin in your workshop and end in a hospital bed.
Before you apply a stain, check it on an area that is hidden or a piece of wood scrap. This can prevent surprises if the shade of the stain is completely different after it has been utilized. Completely different woods can have an effect on stains otherwise. Sometimes wildly completely different. Testing first is the perfect technique to know what something will look like.
Even in case you have been doing woodworking for some time you might want to contemplate taking a category. There are see go of lessons available, so you need to be able to find one which teaches you something and is difficult. There isn’t too much that you could know about woodworking.
Try utilizing duct tape to create a stage spot. If http://www.cafemom.com/search/index.php?keyword=wood+working have used your desk saw on a base that is mobile, you have to be in a position to easily pull it in and out. To actually end it up, discover a level spot on your ground. This also helps you saw boards with out obstruction. Mark your wheel positions utilizing duct tape that’s brightly coloured, and then roll the saw to that very same flat spot each time it is advisable saw.
Add a bit more spring to your hand grip. Typically Beginning Your personal Woodworking Enterprise At Dwelling ‘ll want to make the most of a clamp and you solely have one hand obtainable. They are very difficult to open with just one hand. You can make it simpler though. Use two hands to put your clamps onto a chunk of scrap wood. This makes it doable to use them with just one hand when it’s essential to.
If you find that there is rust on any of your woodworking instruments there’s a fairly straightforward answer. As lengthy because the rust is just on floor, all you could do is use a pumice stone on the spot. Be sure you scrub gently, as being too rough can result in you damaging the instrument itself.
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Take table furniture factory https://mbswood.com when first beginning out with woodworking. It is quite a lot of fun to study, but woodworking can also be pretty harmful when you get too sticky too quickly. Even when you feel like you understand the fundamentals, keep training them. And all the time the place security gear. You’re a lot better off.
Wear gloves if you end up doing your woodworking tasks. A natural part of woodworking is the risk of getting splinters and other injuries from the wooden. If you find it tough to work effectively with the gloves you must shop for a pair that doesn’t hinder your performance so that you just may be protected.
If dust and dirt get into the holes of a brad or nail gun while they aren’t in use, this may cause them to wear out more shortly. It’s a good suggestion to plug the air inlet holes up with one thing to stop anything from getting in there.
Never permit someone to look at if you are woodworking without wearing the same gear that you’re wearing. Being wherever near the instruments is a hazard, even when they aren’t utilizing them. Wood or components of the instrument may fly into the air and strike them simply as they could you.
In the event you do woodworking at house, create a nicely-lit, organized space in your house or storage to serve as your workshop or pastime space. Protecting your tools and provides in one place and nicely-organized retains you safer, extra productive and enjoying the time spent working in your initiatives. That is vital whether or not you have a large or small workshop, so arrange the space with both lighting and organization at the highest of your workshop to-do record.
Are you aware that totally different colored tin snips make different sorts of cuts? Tin snips with red handles are used for making left hand turns. solid oak furniture manufacturers handled tin snips are used for making proper hand turns. Lastly, yellow dealt with tin snips are used for straight strains and gradual curves.
Once you grasp the fundamentals of woodworking, the following pointers can show you how to get to the following stage of talent. Amazing Woodworking Advice To Get You Began In the Passion may open you up to new tasks you never thought you can be ready to perform. The extra you observe, the higher you’ll turn out to be, so continue to take pleasure in this pastime as usually as potential. | <urn:uuid:e1c7699e-c69b-43fe-acf1-8f3265d0e6c3> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://mybigideas.info/want-to-study-woodworking-tips-learn-on/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347435987.85/warc/CC-MAIN-20200603175139-20200603205139-00063.warc.gz | en | 0.945329 | 1,134 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Major and minor scales are music’s Yin and Yang. Major scales convey a happy, cheerful mood, while minor scales are naturally darker and more sombre in character. These two opposites provide broad, contrasting brushstrokes with which composers can paint their tunes with the desired mood.
We're going to take you on a trip to the darker side, exploring how to construct and use the most fundamental type of minor scale - the natural minor scale - and its more inscrutable cousin, the harmonic minor scale. The third variation, the melodic minor scale, we'll cover at a later date.
There are two main methods for forming minor scales: the ‘definitive’ method and the ‘derivative’ method. The definitive method gives us a simple formula based on the pattern of intervals between the notes in the scale: T-S-T-T-S-T-T (where T is a whole tone and S is a semitone). Once you know the pattern, you can apply it to any note to construct a minor scale with that note as the root (or tonic). It’s the same method as that used for working out major scales, just with different intervals.
The derivative method, meanwhile, is a way of converting any major scale into its minor equivalent simply by moving particular notes to different pitches. Once you’ve got the natural minor scale under your belt, the harmonic minor scale is only ever a step away.
Check out the video above to see and hear what the minor scale is all about. | <urn:uuid:cee8ed8c-a8c2-4adc-b90f-724379178f26> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | https://www.musicradar.com/how-to/the-easy-guide-to-music-theory-understanding-minor-scales | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320301863.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20220120130236-20220120160236-00677.warc.gz | en | 0.931918 | 325 | 4.0625 | 4 |
Down syndrome (DS) is caused by the presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21. Children with Down syndrome have a severe delay in cognitive abilities, physical growth, and often exhibit unique facial and physical characteristics. Language skills are greatly impacted and children with DS commonly have a speech delay as well as difficulty understanding and expressing speech. Early intervention and individualized speech therapy can help target speech errors, increase intelligibility, and encourage literacy skills.
It is recommended that all women who are pregnant be screened for Down syndrome. Many non-invasive prenatal screenings can test to see if the developing fetus is disposed to DS. Down syndrome can also be diagnosed at birth after checking the child for abnormalities.
Down syndrome characteristics fall into physical and mental categories. Physical symptoms include: a smaller than normal growth rate, low muscle tone, a flattened nose and broad head, and a chin that is smaller than normal. Mentally, children with DS may suffer from: intellectual disabilities, such as a lower IQ, fine motor skill delay due to low muscle tone, and speech delay.
DS causes delay in vocalization and language acquisition causing some children to not start speaking until 24-36 months. The speech delay and associated problems generally stem from poor muscle tone (called “hypotonia”) in the area around the mouth making it hard to pronounce the sounds correctly. Hypotonia also leads to feeding and swallowing problems. Children with DS are often born with narrow Eustachian tubes in the middle ear, which can make fluid build-up. This may affect a child’s ability to hear clearly, leading to language processing problems and delayed ability to understand spoken language.
There is no known cure for a person with Down syndrome. There are ways to alleviate symptoms and give high quality of life, such as early childhood intervention, treating medical symptoms, and proper education or vocational training.
For speech problems, working from an early age with a speech language pathologist is the best way to help train proper speech. If the child suffers from poor auditory processing, undergoing surgery to insert ear tubes or using a hearing aid can greatly aid a child’s understanding of sounds and language. Speech therapists may use collections of tools (like Picture Exchange Communication System) or sign language to help aid the process of communication.
Tactile prompts have been used to encourage children with articulation disorders to improve fluency and speech production. Speech Buddies have sometimes been shown to help children with Down syndrome and are being evaluated further.
Speech Buddies Connect and Speech Buddies Games allow users to communicate with other users on the platform. We define users as “speech-language pathologists,” or “speech therapists,” and “parents.” The intention of Speech Buddies Connect is to allow parents looking for speech therapy services for their children to contact and communicate with licensed Speech-Language Pathologists who provide speech services. Speech Buddies Games allows students to practice online exercises that can help improve their speech and articulation. Speech Buddies Games can be used by Students, Parents, and Speech-Language Pathologists. | <urn:uuid:6f7ece90-2dd2-408a-a557-6f0c511024b4> | CC-MAIN-2015-18 | http://www.speechbuddy.com/parents/speech-disorder-education/down-syndrome | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-18/segments/1429246638571.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20150417045718-00076-ip-10-235-10-82.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.947473 | 630 | 4.15625 | 4 |
- Posted June 1, 2009 by
This iReport is part of an assignment:
Say it Loud, I’m African, Black, American and Proud
Let me ask a question: “If an orange fall from a tree, roll into the ocean, wash ashore on another continent and cause a tree to grow, would that tree bear apples?” Of course not-- it will bear oranges. Likewise the Africans who long ago “washed ashore” in America, have bore African children every since. From day one when Africans were enslaved and brought to American, they have did everything they could, under the circumstances to not only retain their (our) African culture, make progress in face of overwhelming odds, and we (African-Americans) if you will, have played a major role in the liberation of the black nations in Africa by putting pressure on the U.S. and other governments. I will even go so far as to say that every other minority in America (white women, Hispanics, Asian, Arabs, Africans, etc) have benefited greatly from the suffering and successes of African-Americans in our struggle for freedom. So, especially if you are an African coming to the U.S., part of the respect you get from whites is because of what African-Americans have already done. Although it may be an attempt to divide you from African-American (remember the cause of the massacre in Rwanda?) Imagine coming here from an African country 50 or 60 years ago, you would have been treated just like any other African American. Furthermore, the techniques, slogans, and songs we African-Americans used in our 60’s struggle have been employed by many in their struggle. For example, when Chinese students rose in Tineniman (spelling?) Square, as I observed footage, I seen the song title “We Shall Overcome” on a board carried by a student.
People like Racy (see Black Skin in America, Not Good), and unfortunately some of our African brothers and sisters, and some African-Americans, just have no idea of how brutal the slavery experience was (hanging was the least brutal) and they don’t realize that when Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation, in 1863, that did not end the oppressive conditions which Africans in America suffered. I’m only 53 years old and I’m from Mississippi and I can still remember the “White Only” signs and all the other awful conditions African-Americans suffered. If you really want to get down to it, real opportunity for the masses of African-Americans didn’t start until after the Civil Right Movement in the 1960’s and the Voting Right Act was passed, I think in the 70’s. Likewise, most Africans countries began to see liberation in the 1960’s, in part because of what African-Americans did here, even while waging our own battle. I also admit and I’m thankful that Africans in Africa, through the United Nations, put as much pressure on the U.S. to assist African-Americans in gaining their freedoms. But keep in mind the Pan-African Movement started with African-Americans. I don’t say this to give all credit for the Pan-African movement to African-Americans, but only to point out to Africans that you have much to thank African-Americans for, just as we have much to thank Africans in the Motherland for.
All of those things Racy say of African-Americans, these things are said about all Africans by those who would have the world believe we are a lazy people. But if African-Americans were so lazy and worthless as many think, then how do you explain that—in face of overwhelming odds and hardships—we have manage to come so far, even helping create the conditions for Obama to be in the White House. You can only get a real appreciation for what African-Americans have done, if you only knew where we have come from. When I say where we come from, I’m talking about the moment Africans were kidnaps, put in the holes of ships, “seasoned” in the islands and then shipped to North or South America as slaves for more brutal treatment. But in spite of all our problems we never forgot our brothers and sisters in Africa. It was African-Americans putting pressure on Washington DC, through among other things such as the Sullivan Principles, to put pressure on South African to abolish Apartheid. We have been politically active in nearly every struggle—including Darfur for African liberation—while handling our own problems. On the culture side an African-American created Kwanzaa which has roots in Africa and is celebrated by some in Africa, America, and other places.
I submit to you the whole world, especially the worlds of people of color (i.e. including untouchables) have been made much better—in terms of how they are treated by America—and white (not just European) people—because of the struggle of African-Americans to defeat white supremacy the world over. For sure America is much better off, even for whites, because of the struggles of African-Americans. But for this we are sometime branded trouble makers. But no, we are not trouble makers, we are problem identifiers and solvers. We have vocally pointed out to America its short comings and made demands and recommendations that would make America serve all of her citizen. As we Blacks sometimes say, we are the conscious of America when it comes to social, human and civil right issues. And since America is a superpower and has much influence in the world, then others should thank African-Americans for what we have done to make this country more fair not only to us, but for everyone, especially other people of color in the world, which is probably three quarters of the world population.
Yes, many African-Americans and others too, after having tried so long, after having been turned down for job after job, after being the victim of every imaginable game in economics, politics, educations, and religion. After all this many African-Americans have just given up and turn to drugs and crimes (these are the African-Americans who get much air time especially in foreign countries) . What do you expect when you steer and hem a people up in ghettos and other red-lined urban areas and deny them basic services, and prevent them from doing for themselves (remember Tulsa, Oklahoma: Black Wall Street). Then send in the police to harass and hold the people in a virtue prison. What you get is people with all sort of social and psychological problems.
But I say that in spite of the entire obstacle we have faced since day 1 of slavery, we indeed have nearly over come. In spite of all that others say about us African-Americans, (mostly out of jealousy, envy and ignorance) there’s no people on earth who have underwent the depth of depravation that we have suffered, yet have rose to the level we have to make all the positive contribution to this country and the world. It was once said that the Black man is the most copied man on the planet. I’ll tell you people have been studying us—Africans—for centuries and using what they find to better their situation, while suppressing us.
But the bottom line for Africans and African-Americans is we are in the same boat—HELLO!—together. | <urn:uuid:41210435-288b-4a7c-98a4-d66b6f0b5c1d> | CC-MAIN-2016-07 | http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-265793 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-07/segments/1454701162903.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160205193922-00282-ip-10-236-182-209.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964978 | 1,524 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Kephale in translation
The Greek word kephale had no such corresponding meaning of "leader" or "chief." Over the last two years I have seriously considered every example which has been cited as an occurrence of kephale meaning "authority over" or "leader" prior to Paul's epistles. Other than the translation of the highly irregular case of Jephthah, I have not seen one other instance of kephale being used in translation or original Greek writing as the "leader" or "chief." This was contrary to my expectations.
So the Greek word means head in the sense of the physical head, but the meaning of "leader" attached to the word "head" is a product of interpretation. It is one of several possible candidates for the meaning of kephale.
Other interpretations of kephale, are "beginning" and "first principle." Possibly both sides in the comp egal debate promote a meaning of "head" that is an interpretation of the word, rather than a referential meaning of the word. It is equally suspect to promote "leader" as to promote "source." Personally, I find some support for "first principle" (and therefore, possibly "source") and no support for "leader" so far. But someone may yet offer me support for "leader." I don't discount this.
However, I think we agree, technically, those who propose any meaning other than physical head, and therefore of one flesh with, and in perfect sympathy with, promote an interpretation. Here are some examples of the suspect translation of kephale.
- In a marriage relationship, there is authority from Christ to husband, and from husband to wife. The authority of Christ is the authority of God. Message
Now I want you to know that Christ is the head over all men, and a man is the head over a woman. But God is the head over Christ. CEV
But I want you to understand that Christ is supreme over every man, the husband is supreme over his wife, and God is supreme over Christ. Good News
It is a tricky thing to find a conversation about men and women that is not infused with the notion that the man is the leader or servant leader. And yet, women throughout scripture and throughout the history of the church have acted on their own moral judgement and God's calling without a male leader. We must not commit to a meaning for a word that denies the scriptures as well as moral and ethical realities.
We must accept that the complementarian egalitarian divide exists on the level of interpretation. Some, like myself, will choose egalitarianism, that is the equal authority of women, as necessary to personal safety and offering the possibility of a relationship of loving interdependence. It is, for me, a moral and ethical choice, a necessary choice between two interpretations demonstrated to derive from scripture, ultimately a choice to neither harm nor self-harm. | <urn:uuid:7ab0a47a-ebfa-46d3-86a6-06775a484f17> | CC-MAIN-2016-18 | http://englishbibles.blogspot.com/2008/06/kephale-in-translation.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-18/segments/1461860121418.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20160428161521-00183-ip-10-239-7-51.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.96419 | 598 | 2.546875 | 3 |
- The Facts:Jack Scudder’s investigation into X-points could provide a correlation to why ancient sites from the past where established on the earth’s ley line system.
- Reflect On:Examine how modern physics and our understanding of the cosmos may be outdated and consider how knowledgeable ancient civilizations were of the laws of the universe.
In 2012, NASA funded the research of Jack Scudder, from the University of Iowa, who studied a phenomenon unlike no other. He found that when the magnetic field of the Earth connected to the magnetic field of the Sun, a portal between time/space was created between them. Time-space is, “what we will experience if we are able to pierce the veil, 3 dimensions of time (past, present, and future) of wherever you are, which is the 1 dimension of space (yourself). To make an example of this imagine an apple. The outside of the apple is the infinite universe which is space/time. The inside of the apple is time/space which is a continuous loop that can be traveled.”- Jeff Delano.
Scudder termed these phenomenon ‘X-points’. After Scudder’s theory was examined by NASA, they flew a robotic spacecraft into one of these magnetic points which revealed that the X-point had the potential to transport objects directly into the Sun’s atmosphere. The distance from the Earth to the Sun is measured as one astronomical unit (AU) or 93 million miles away. This discovery was ground breaking because it questioned our understanding of known physics and opened the door to understanding the relationship between time and space. Even though we may not fully grasp the concept yet, it can serve as a stepping stone to better understand how our universe operates on a scale once thought to intangible.
Observations by NASA’s THEMIS spacecraft and Europe’s Cluster probes suggest that these magnetic portals open and close dozens of times each day. They’re typically located a few tens of thousands of kilometers from Earth where the geomagnetic field meets the onrushing solar wind. Most portals are small and short-lived; others are yawning, vast, and sustained. Tons of energetic particles can flow through the openings, heating Earth’s upper atmosphere, sparking geomagnetic storms, and igniting bright polar auroras. (NASA)
Deeper research into the X-point phenomena has proven to be challenging to study because they are unstable, largely invisible, and their behavior is unpredictable at this point. With this in mind, it has been perceived that ancient sites around the planet could have served, and still act as X points that transcend time and space. Could it have been possible that these X points on the Earth’s surface were used thousands of years ago by ancient civilizations? Let’s dive in.
There are many ancient traditions that describe locations around the world where one can travel from one place in the world to another. Many cultures also refer to an energy grid system that encompasses the Earth. In ancient Chinese text, they are known as dragon lines. In South America, the shaman’s referred to them as spirit lines. The ancient Aboriginals of Australia called them dream lines. Scudder would describe these as X-points but researchers like Freddy Silva would refer to them as star gates.
Sites such as Gobekli Tepe, Machu Picchu, Giza and Stonehenge are tied to the ancient portal hypothesis because they were built on top of what would be reported as an Earth grid system, which is linked to the larger electromagnetic web of the cosmos.
Freddy Silva, a best-selling author, and a leading researcher of ancient civilizations looked into the man who pioneered the term ley lines, Alfred Watkins. Watkins’ work in ley lines could be indirectly describing what Shrduder would later call X-points. Silva explains the origins of ley line research on his website Invisible Temple. “
In the 1920s, while photographing landmarks in Herefordshire, Alfred Watkins noticed how ancient sites, churches (built over such sites), sacred mounds, old pilgrim routes and standing stones were aligned in perfectly straight lines. He called them ley lines.
He went on to say, “in essence, Watkins re-discovered old esoteric knowledge which had maintained that temples and oracles all across the Earth were not placed haphazardly but according to certain — and since forgotten — geodetic laws.”
It is this exact reason why researchers believe these sites were established where they lie; to tap into the inter-dimensional highway of the universe. These sites could serve as the catalyst to a new renaissance of enlightenment for humanity that would revolutionize our understanding of the cosmos. | <urn:uuid:92e2ad21-5f1d-465f-b9d5-5a455a9b674e> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.polytrendy.com/nasa-s-discovery-of-magnetic-portals-that-open-close-every-day-may-connect-to-ancient-esoteric-knowledge/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882572021.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20220814083156-20220814113156-00748.warc.gz | en | 0.965509 | 983 | 3.5 | 4 |
What's in a Name
Halley didn't discover Comet Halley.
There were sightings of the comet over two thousand years ago, and comets weren't routinely named for their discoverers until the 20th century. So you might wonder what Halley did to get it named after him.
Edmond Halley (1656-1742) used Isaac Newton's new physics plus records of previous comet sightings. From this he worked out that several known comets were, in fact, the same one. With this data, he predicted its return in 1758. Although hedidn't live to see the sensation caused by the comet's being spotted on Christmas Day 1758, he did get it named for him.
Bode's Law was neither Bode's nor a law. It was a formula to work out the distances of the planets from the Sun. When German astronomer Johann Bode (1747-1826) first published this relationship, he forgot to mention that it had been done six years earlier by Johann Titius. (It is sometimes called the Titius-Bode Law.)
The formula works surprisingly well. The discovery of Uranus supported it, and it predicted a planet where the Asteroid Belt was eventually found. Bode didn't live to see Neptune defiantly break the law in 1846. It was found at a distance much closer than that given by the formula.
The favor of those in power was helpful, and naming celestial discoveries for them was more impressive than dedicating books.
Galileo, the Medicis, and Marius
Jupiter's four largest moons are known as the Galilean moons after Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). He discovered them early in January 1610 and published his findings. Galileo called them the Medicea Sidera (Medici Stars), numbering them I-IV. The Medicis were a wealthy and powerful family that ruled Florence.
However, Galileo's discovery was disputed by German astronomer Simon Marius (1573-1624). He claimed to have seen the moons first, and proposed names for them from Roman mythology. Although the moons collectively bear Galileo's name, individual names for them were adopted in the mid 19th century — the ones that Marius had proposed.
A planet named George
When William Herschel discovered Uranus in 1781, he named it Georgium Sidus (George's star) after King George III of England, who later supported Herschel's astronomical work. If the king had had a Facebook page, William would certainly have clicked "LIKE". However, the king was short of fans elsewhere, particularly in France and America. Johann Bode suggested the name Uranus, after the father of Saturn in Roman mythology. This name was finally adopted, though the Herschels stubbornly continued to refer to it as “the Georgian planet”.
The What? Belt
The Kuiper Belt is located between 30 and 55 astronomical units (AU) to the Sun. (An AU is the distance from the Earth and The Sun.) It's similar to the Asteroid Belt, but bigger and colder. And the numerous small objects that comprise it are icy bodies, not rocky ones.
It's not clear how the belt got named after Dutch-American astronomer Gerard Kuiper (1905-1973). Although he had said there might once have been such a belt, he also said that it didn't exist anymore. In the decades following the discovery of Pluto in 1930, there were various people who proposed such a belt, including Irish astronomer Kenneth Edgeworth (1880-1972). It's sometimes called the Edgeworth-Kuiper belt, but this ignores the work of many others who contributed to understanding it.
It's somewhat ironic that with all the people who were serious about this belt, it was named after someone who didn't think it existed anymore.
The Leavitt Law
One person made a major discovery that wasn't named for her or anyone else. It defines an important relationship that enables astronomers to determine very large distances in space.
Henrietta Swan Leavitt (1868-1921) had been hired by Harvard Observatory as a computer (someone who did measurements and calculations in pre-electronic days). Yet she devised the international standard for determining the magnitudes of stars in photographs, and discovered over a thousand variable stars, half of those known in her lifetime.
In studying the variable stars, Leavitt discovered that one type pulsates in a regular way, with the period of the pulsation depending on the star's actual luminosity, not its apparent brightness seen from Earth. Since light gets dimmer in a predictable way as the distance increases, if you know how bright a star is, you can work out the distance to it by comparing the actual brightness with its apparent brightness. This discovery got called the “period-luminosity relation”.
In an attempt to remedy this historical negligence, in 2009 the American Astronomical Society officially agreed to encourage the use of the Leavitt Law to describe the relation, and It has become fairly common in recent years.
(1) IAU Central Bureau, “IAU Comet-naming Guidelines”, http://www.cbat.eps.harvard.edu/cometnameg.html
(2) International Comet Quarterly, “What is improper about the term ‘Kuiper belt’?” http://www.icq.eps.harvard.edu/kb.html
You Should Also Read:
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Content copyright © 2018 by Mona Evans. All rights reserved.
This content was written by Mona Evans. If you wish to use this content in any manner, you need written permission. Contact Mona Evans for details. | <urn:uuid:3fea4253-9560-4615-98f3-adbe225c309e> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | http://www.bellaonline.com/articles/art23216.asp | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578759182.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20190426033614-20190426055614-00098.warc.gz | en | 0.965575 | 1,213 | 3.953125 | 4 |
[§5-7.5] "Aloha Spirit". (a) "Aloha Spirit" is the coordination of mind and heart within each person. It brings each person to the self. Each person must think and emote good feelings to others. In the contemplation and presence of the life force, "Aloha", the following unuhi laula loa may be used:
"Akahai", meaning kindness to be expressed with tenderness;
"Lokahi", meaning unity, to be expressed with harmony;
"Oluolu", meaning agreeable, to be expressed with pleasantness;
"Haahaa", meaning humility, to be expressed with modesty;
"Ahonui", meaning patience, to be expressed with perseverance.
These are traits of character that express the charm, warmth and sincerity of Hawaii's people. It was the working philosophy of native Hawaiians and was presented as a gift to the people of Hawaii. "Aloha" is more than a word of greeting or farewell or a salutation. "Aloha" means mutual regard and affection and extends warmth in caring with no obligation in return. "Aloha" is the essence of relationships in which each person is important to every other person for collective existence. "Aloha" means to hear what is not said, to see what cannot be seen and to know the unknowable.
(b) In exercising their power on behalf of the people and in fulfillment of their responsibilities, obligations and service to the people, the legislature, governor, lieutenant governor, executive officers of each department, the chief justice, associate justices, and judges of the appellate, circuit, and district courts may contemplate and reside with the life force and give consideration to the "Aloha Spirit". [L 1986, c 202, §1] | <urn:uuid:730f41e0-a483-49d5-a0c9-8b64127b9977> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://kiheicanoeclub.com/content.aspx?page_id=5&club_id=375541&item_id=50261 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662531762.30/warc/CC-MAIN-20220520061824-20220520091824-00581.warc.gz | en | 0.95802 | 371 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Thursday 28th March, 7.30pm
Dr. Tana Joseph
Light is not the only thing that carries information about the Universe and its contents. Particles, like neutrinos and cosmic rays, can also be used to study stars and galaxies in more detail, and two years ago, gravitational waves were detected for the first time. These waves allow us to learn about objects that would be invisible to other astronomical methods, for example merging black holes. Even debris from our own Solar System, like meteorites, can give us insight into how stars and planets form. Combining the information obtained from detection of light, particles, space rocks and gravitational waves in order to learn more about how the Universe works is called multi-messenger astronomy.
Tana Joseph is a Royal Society Newton International Fellow in the Jodrell Bank Centre for Astrophysics at the University of Manchester. Her area of research is black holes and neutron stars outside our Galaxy. She completed her PhD at the University of Southampton in 2013. In addition to her research, Tana is very passionate about science communication with the public.
10% discount available for Annual Pass Holders
Pre-lecture dining – SOLD OUT
Join us in the Planet Pavilion Cafe for pre-lecture dining.
Chicken breast, root vegetable dauphinoise, tender stem broccoli, confit shallot jus £14.50
Honey glazed beef rib pastry parcel, potato purée & cavolo nero £15.50
Potato terrine, wild mushroom, roasted cauliflower & hazelnut £10.50
Vanilla panna cotta, rhubarb & ginger £6.25
Banana brioche, organic chocolate ganache, coconut mousse, dark rum £6.25
Selection of cheese & biscuits, grapes & chutney £6.95
You can order your menu options while booking your event tickets (by using the Book Tickets button below). | <urn:uuid:e820c9eb-a405-48f7-985b-76e17d0e160d> | CC-MAIN-2019-47 | http://www.jodrellbank.net/events/lovell-lecture-dr-tana-joseph/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-47/segments/1573496670448.67/warc/CC-MAIN-20191120033221-20191120061221-00484.warc.gz | en | 0.869972 | 402 | 2.625 | 3 |
Tomah students learn first hand where their food comes from
Students at Lemonweir Elementary School in Tomah got a better idea of where their food comes from on Tuesday.
They got to meet a local dairy farmer and get a hands-on farming experience.
They learned how to milk a cow using rubber udders, and they learned how to make butter and even got to taste it at the end.
There was also a bean bag toss and trivia wheel. "I'm excited to be here and meet with these kids and really connect them with their food and where it comes from. It's not everyday that they get to go out to a farm or have a farmer come out there to the school and experience these different things that are happening on the farm," said Jake Wedeberg.
Wedeberg is part of a group called Generation Organic or "Gen O."It's a group of young Organic Valley farmers aged 18 to 35 who represent the next generation of sustainable agriculture leaders and who believe in the power of organic to change the world.
They frequently put together programming like the teach-ins like the one in Tomah.
Copyright 2013 by WKBT News8000. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed. | <urn:uuid:ab395f9c-d364-4925-8d99-b2405e8b0e73> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.news8000.com/news/tomah-students-learn-first-hand-where-their-food-comes-from/22579214?view=print | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394011239452/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305092039-00099-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.964612 | 259 | 3.28125 | 3 |
Coyotes are native to many areas of Southern California. According to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife website, they are fearful of humans, by nature. Many communities struggle with effective strategies for keeping coyotes away from human and pet populations.
Coyotes are considered "wildlife" by the State of California, and are afforded some protection under the law. Animal Control agencies are not permitted to relocate coyotes. Aggressive coyotes may be reported to the California Department of Fish and Wildlife, South Coast Region at (858) 467- 4201 or to La Habra Animal Control (562) 383-4352. It should be noted that action usually is not taken by the Department of Fish and Wildlife for non-threatening coyote "sightings". A brochure, developed by the Department of Fish and Wildlife, is available online. The brochure provides precautionary tips for coexisting with coyotes. View the Department of Fish and Wildlife Coyote Brochure (PDF).
To report coyote sightings and activity, the city encourages residents to call (562) 383- 4357. This phone number allows residents an opportunity to leave a recorded message and report information any time of the day or night. Messages are checked regularly by animal control department personnel. However, if an animal is injured, sick or dead, please call La Habra Animal Control at (562) 383-4352.
Residents may also wish to provide information regarding their sightings to the Coyote Cacher. The Coyote Cacher is part of a research project with the University of California Cooperative Extension that aims to collect more information on coyote conflicts in California. The information provided will help inform researchers of trends in coyote conflicts. If you wish to participate in this endeavor, please follow this link, Coyote Catcher website , to answer some questions. | <urn:uuid:90185f45-5b2f-4c51-aab6-e9ffebe58909> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | http://www.lahabraca.gov/242/Coyote-Education | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178381230.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20210307231028-20210308021028-00419.warc.gz | en | 0.902348 | 374 | 2.765625 | 3 |
The world we live in is full of amazing new discoveries and nuances. There are creatures on this planet that have yet to be seen by human eyes. Some of which live in impossible conditions, like the tube worms living in hydrothermal vents deep in the ocean or the glass frog secluded within the rain forest of the amazon. We also live in a world of wondrous innovation and scientific discoveries. Man, has always had a curiosity to learn about life and how it evolved. These curiosities lead to scientists unlocking the mysteries of the human genome.
This new knowledge has been at the forefront of many useful medical interventions and targeted treatments. However, learning more information about how genes work has spearheaded other scientific work. In 1994, Scientists began transferring genes from one species to another in an effort to create food that could sit on store shelves for a longer period of time. We are now in a situation where chemical companies are producing the food that we eat. These companies routinely take genes from bacteria or other organisms and place them into foods in order to create a crop that is resistant to pesticides. This is what is commonly referred to as GMO’s (genetically modified organisms), GE crops (genetically engineered crops), or GM foods (genetically modified foods).
Some may think this is great, now farmer’s do not have to worry about pests eating all of their profits. But did anyone ever stop to think of the other implications of this practice? How do we know that these foods are safe to eat? The only answer provided by scientists and proponents of these crops is that there is no proof of harm. Which isn’t exactly the same as saying they are safe. What impact will these foods have on the human genome? If we are indeed what we eat, then how will these foods modify us? How will the addition of these foods affect the ecosystem? How do the introductions of these crops effect the farming community? It is strange to think that such a small change in how the worlds food is grown can have such an enormous impact on life as we know it.
GM foods have entered our food supply with such an incredible swiftness, that the public was not properly informed about what had happened. Furthermore, until recently there was no way to know if the food you are eating contains GMO’s. As the public became more aware and wary of GM foods, protests and demands for disclosure began. This lead to state senators proposing the so called “dark act”, which protects companies from being required to label foods that contain GMO ingredients. You can read more about that here: http://www.justlabelit.org/dark-act. Some food companies have chosen to voluntarily label their products due to consumer demands and protests. The chemical companies that produce these GM seeds are fighting against mandates that require the labeling of their product as genetically modified. There are still many questions about what kind of effect GMO’s will have on the population and its food supply. When asked if GM foods are harmful, the only answer given is that there is no proof that they cause harm. This is not the same as saying that they are not harmful or that they are in fact safe.
Scientists in favor of GMO’s argue that their process is no different than the practice of selective breeding done by farmers for decades. However, farmer’s engagement in selective breeding involved combining different types of the same plant life i.e. two types of tomatoes that have the flavor or color desired. This is entirely different than combining bacteria with corn that makes it produce a insecticide in its core. When it comes to GMO’s don’t we have the right to know what we are eating and what the long-term effects of eating it will be? Monsanto is one of the largest producers of GM seeds, they also happen to produce Round Up. They call there brand of seeds “Round Up Ready seeds”. Shall we let companies that produce pesticides also produce the food we eat? I’ll let you decide.
Lantham, J., I used to work as a scientist with GMO’s -now I’m having second thoughts about the risks., AlterNet, retrieved from http://www.alternet.org/food/i-used-work-scientist-gmos-now-im-having-serious-second on 11/16.2016
Lupi, R., Denery-Papini, S., Rogniaux, H., Lafiandra, D., Rizzi, C., De Carli, M., & … Larré, C. (2013). How much does transgenesis affect wheat allergenicity?: Assessment in two GM lines over-expressing endogenous genes. Journal Of Proteomics, 80281-291. doi:10.1016/j.jprot.2013.01.028 http://library.neit.edu:2216/ehost/detail/detail?vid=26&sid=0150818f-4b18-4182-8549-007a26cd35d5%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=86396459&db=a9h
Marschall, L. A. (2005). Mendel in the Kitchen: A Scientist’s View of Genetically Modified Foods. 114(2), 67-70. http://library.neit.edu:2216/ehost/detail/detail?vid=11&sid=0150818f-4b18-4182-8549-007a26cd35d5%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=16269377&db=lfh
Meghani, Z. (2014). Risk Assessment of Genetically Modified Food and Neoliberalism: An Argument for Democratizing the Regulatory Review Protocol of the Food and Drug Administration. Journal Of Agricultural & Environmental Ethics, 27(6), 967-989. doi:10.1007/s10806-014-9511-1, http://library.neit.edu:2216/ehost/detail/detail?vid=4&sid=0150818f-4b18-4182-8549-007a26cd35d5%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=99710895&db=bth
Motavalli, P. m., Kremer, R. J., Fang, M., & Means, N. E. (2004). Impact of Genetically Modified Crops and Their Management on Soil Microbially Mediated Plant Nutrient Transformations. Journal Of Environmental Quality, retrieved from http://dzumenvis.nic.in/Microbes%20and%20Soil%20Fertility/pdf/Impact%20of%20Genetically%20Modified%20Crops.pdf on 11/14/2016.
Pelletier, D. L. (2005). Science, law, and politics in FDA’s genetically engineered foods policy: scientific concerns and uncertainties. Nutrition Reviews, 63(6 Pt 1), 210-223. http://library.neit.edu:2216/ehost/detail/detail?vid=15&sid=0150818f-4b18-4182-8549-007a26cd35d5%40sessionmgr4010&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=16028565&db=cmedm
PETHERAM, J. (1999, April 29). Genetic concerns in future food. Nelson Mail, The. p. 11. http://library.neit.edu:2216/ehost/detail/detail?sid=0150818f-4b18-4182-8549-007a26cd35d5%40sessionmgr4010&vid=21&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=NEM990429-JPPANDP29-0041&db=n5h | <urn:uuid:fe8a3c81-7636-4c04-b62b-f450f1c9bdbf> | CC-MAIN-2018-39 | https://onlineedu.neit.edu/blog/2016/11/17/are-gmos-really-good-for-you/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-39/segments/1537267160853.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20180925004528-20180925024928-00121.warc.gz | en | 0.901791 | 1,799 | 3.25 | 3 |
When someone mentions philanthropy, for many people it conjures images of wealthy families endowing universities or bestowing large checks for evening gown-worthy events. Less normalized is the idea that giving time or resources in the name of doing good is a part of everyday life for many people around the world. In fact, a 2020 British study found that about 30 percent of respondents had ambivalent or negative views of philanthropists, and less than half actually trusted that philanthropists would “do what is right with their donations.”
Indeed, headlines have enhanced the perception that philanthropy is both the domain of the super-rich (think Bill Gates and Warren Buffett) and a veil of benevolence over corporate wrongdoing — a virtuous Band-Aid to cover an ugly wound.
The reality, however, couldn’t be further from the truth. True philanthropy takes different forms: There’s financial giving, which depends on lower-figure giving as well as those headline-worthy big checks (more on that later). Donated resources aren’t just limited to money — plenty of people donate material possessions and physical spaces in the name of philanthropy. There’s also philanthropy that relies on donations of time and skills to animal shelters and organizations like Habitat for Humanity. Indeed, the number of ways to get involved are myriad, but even so, in the last two years, philanthropy has taken a punch.
Jane Wales, the vice president of the Aspen Institute, says that the pandemic has shifted what philanthropy looks like on a broad scale. According to research by the Lilly Foundation, 20 million families stopped giving, and there’s been a commensurate decrease in volunteering. Wales believes that the financial upheaval of the pandemic may be to blame. “It could be due to financial insecurity; it could be due to the global financial crisis [or seeing] retirement savings shrink,” she says. “But there was no return to giving when the market bounced back. And there is no ready explanation for the drop-off in volunteering.”
Wales hypothesizes that the pandemic led people to turn inward and that, perhaps, the need for more work to make up for the financial deficit caused a lack of time for volunteerism. Yes, there was a massive surge in racial-equality donations after George Floyd’s death, but while the importance of that support can’t be stated enough, the share of those donations going toward social justice fell from 51 percent of total donation volume in June 2020 to just 5 percent in December. As a report noted, it’s a trend “that we see repeated all too often when a problem is no longer perceived as acute by the news cycle.”
Those stats can be disheartening, but Wales offers some hope, stating that the philanthropy of the pandemic may have become more localized and community-driven, in which case data doesn’t always account for smaller acts of support and less-documented activities. “The pandemic meant a reduction in formal volunteering but an increase in spontaneous organizations and groups,” she says.
A survey conducted by Stanford University that studied patterns of giving and volunteering bears this out. It found that people were not just supporting nonprofits but offering what Wales calls “acts of generosity.” She says, “This would be like taking in family members in need.” Those more personal philanthropic acts are not traditionally accounted for, which means that new measurements are needed to really gauge our behaviors.
So, what does philanthropy look like? And what should it look like?
Hahrie Han, a professor of political science at Johns Hopkins University and the director of its SNF Agora Institute, says that we need to overcome the belief that philanthropy is “unreachable.” She says, “We think of it as only valuable if it’s large. Small-donor opportunities can be helpful as well.” She points to churches, nonprofits, and community groups as frequent beneficiaries of lower-scale giving. “That’s a big part of how a lot of people contribute to their community,” she says. “A lot of grassroots organizations have extremely small budgets, from faith institutions to neighborhood clubs. People making what we think of as small donations can make a difference in their budget — even something like $100 for a train ticket to bring in a speaker. Little amounts don’t get headlines, [but] Americans, in general, are generous in giving both time and resources.”
Han also emphasizes that physical service actually offers benefits beyond paying bills. “Working in the community garden is more important than the money to hire a professional gardener,” she says. “It demonstrates the social bond and [builds] community, consequently going beyond the task at hand [and creating] a sense of common purpose.”
One of the challenges, then, is making sure that the communities most in need get those benefits. “It doesn’t always go to the neediest communities, which are most disconnected from the social network,” Han observes. That means taking a close look at how philanthropic resources get distributed. “Sometimes you have to put trust in communities, empower them to make choices about directing resources,” she says. “I’m always most interested in organizations grounded in people. I’d love to be able to call the executive director and ask when was the last time they directly interacted with those they service. Can they answer [the question] ‘Who are my people?’”
How can we make philanthropy part of our lives?
Nathan Dietz, a senior researcher at the University of Maryland’s Do Good Institute, which seeks to educate college students on how to make effective change, maintains that part of the shift in philanthropy comes from changing time lines for young people. “Young adults are less likely to achieve traditional markers,” he says, referencing employment, home buying, and childbearing. “Giving and volunteering among young adults declined with [these] milestones.” One likely reason is student debt. “It’s hard for young people to connect to the community if they need to spend more time at work and have less time to build and establish connections,” he says.
However, Dietz also points to the less-documented aspects of giving that actually increased during the pandemic as a sign of hopefulness. “If you’re helping somebody, that’s philanthropic behavior. What is philanthropy besides giving your resources?” he asks, even while acknowledging that it’s hard to quantify and gather data on this kind of assistance.
Dietz cites raising awareness through organizations like GivingTuesday in order to help promote the idea of smaller-scale philanthropy. Timed to coincide with Thanksgiving and the usual start of holiday shopping, GivingTuesday aims to remind people of the importance of giving to the greater good as well as to those on our individual lists. “If we’re focusing on spending money, why not give to others?” Dietz asks. He also references GivingTuesday CEO Asha Curran for her idea that the impulse of being generous is something we should try to cultivate; in fact, the organization’s site now promotes #GivingEveryTuesday, weekly opportunities for contributing, which reinforces that need exists year-round, not just on the holidays.
Addressing the ongoing needs for philanthropy takes many forms. Some people create giving opportunities in lieu of gifts for events like birthdays, graduations, and anniversaries through social-media sites like Facebook or making individual donations to organizations with personal meaning, such as donations to a hospital where a loved one was treated. Another option to contribute, as outlined by the charitable site Giving What We Can, is seeking out funds that function like an investment fund to distribute donations where they are most helpful. Some of these include Effective Altruism Funds, GiveWell, and Founders Pledge. No matter how giving occurs, checking an organization’s record of use — how much goes to overhead versus service — can decrease concerns about allocation. Sites like Charity Navigator and GuideStar are good resources for background research.
What can we do?
So, you’re ready to get involved but don’t know where to start? Here are some tried-and-true tips to start your philanthropic journey. Remember that no amount of time or donation is too small — it’s all about taking that first step and sticking to it.
- Donations are always appreciated but not always possible. Recognize that even a small amount, however, is helpful, especially for smaller, community-based organizations.
- Consider what talents you can offer to local groups, such as graphic design, facility repairs, and social-media maintenance. Then research, strategize, and come up with a plan for both the short- and long-term for how you can implement your knowledge and expertise into already established goals.
- Speaking of social media, follow accounts that promote worthy causes and offer information on how to make donations and support your communities. Charity: Water advocates for clean drinking water worldwide, Change.org raises awareness for everything from world crises to LGBTQ issues, and Pencils of Promise seeks to equalize education for children around the world.
- Explore possible philanthropic workplace benefits. Many companies now match charitable donations or offer paid volunteer days. Check with your place of employment to see if your company offers these benefits, and if it doesn’t, consider initiating the process to make it part of company policy.
- Find time to support efforts that promote your values. Weeding in a park, shelving books at a library, and working at a polling place on an election day are a few ways to make a difference with a couple of hours of service.
- Don’t forget random acts of kindness: paying for someone’s parking meter, picking up litter in a local park, holding the door open for someone. These small moments add up when it comes to spreading an attitude of giving and compassion.
Madeleine Deliee writes, teaches, and parents in the Washington, D.C. area. She's written for Playboy, CNN, The Washington Post, SyFy Wire, and many other unrelated outlets. She sometimes tweets about mostly geeky stuff at @MMDeliee.
Get Shondaland directly in your inbox: SUBSCRIBE TODAY | <urn:uuid:7a172461-5976-4353-92a8-ca393352f372> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.shondaland.com/act/a39505924/why-philanthropy-is-no-longer-just-for-the-rich/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662546071.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20220522190453-20220522220453-00324.warc.gz | en | 0.957695 | 2,187 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Tom Mason and Jeremy Cusack, post-doctoral researchers from Stirling University’s Conservation Science Department, were on Islay last week to begin their study into Greylag geese.
The pilot study would like to see seven Greylag geese tagged with GPS devices that relay the bird’s position in near-real-time to an ‘Animal Tracker’ app developed by the Max Planck Institute of Ornithology in Germany.
Stirling University has a strong legacy of conservation (and, actually, archeological) research on Islay, and collaborates with Scottish Natural Heritage [SNH], through sharing data and looking at trends.
Tom provides some more context, “With the Barnacle geese, the numbers have exploded, from 20,000 twenty years ago to 45-50,000 today. These are the focus of the SNH Islay Goose Management scheme.
There is also now the potential for conflict with the Greylag population, so the plan is to tag a few to find out where they are coming from and going to. Ultimately, says Tom: “Using information about goose ecology, we’ll try and identify ways that we can improve how they get managed.”
He continues, “We would like to help manage any conflict between different stakeholders, farmers, conservationists, and Government organisations.” | <urn:uuid:07e4de49-f859-4b43-95c7-dba11bd60968> | CC-MAIN-2021-31 | https://www.bruichladdich.com/terroir-a-sense-of-place/research-islays-greylag-geese/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-31/segments/1627046152156.49/warc/CC-MAIN-20210726215020-20210727005020-00620.warc.gz | en | 0.939715 | 284 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Starts May 14th – May 20th
National Sun Awareness Week is designed to highlight the dangers of over-exposure to the sun and promote safe behaviour.
Studies show that More than one in three (35%) Brits have been sunburnt in the last year while in the UK, and of those 28 per cent were sunburnt three or more times, according to a survey carried out by the British Association of Dermatologists.
Brits are even more likely to be sunburnt abroad, with almost half of people who have been abroad in the last twelve months getting sunburnt whilst away.
This high rate of sunburn is even though 88 per cent of Brits believe that sun awareness messaging is relevant to their skin type.
So what can you do to keep Sun Safe?
- Spend time in the shade during the sunniest part of the day (11am -3pm)
- When it is not possible to stay out of the sun, keeping yourself well covered, with a hat, T-shirt, and sunglasses.
- Apply sunscreen liberally to exposed areas of skin. Re-apply every two hours and straight after swimming or towelling to maintain protection.
It may seem like a chore and another thing to add to the ‘to-do’ list and an annoying extra step in your skincare routine to introduce an SPF however, most of your favourite products and brands have great products that contain SPF which will help keep you protected. Here are some of our top picks –
- Dermalogica AGE Smart Dynamic Skin Recovery SPF50
- Dermalogica Protection 50 Sport SPF50
- Dermalogica Total Eye Care SPF 15
- Elemis Pro Collagen Marine Cream SPF30
- Medik8 Hydr8 B5 Hand Cream SPF 25
- Medik8 Physical Sunscreen SPF30
- Decleor Hydra Floral SPF 30 Anti Pollution Hydrating Fluid
- Decleor Protective Hydrating Milk for Body SPF 30
Don’t forget we should be wearing sunscreen all year round and protecting our whole bodies.
Not only does an SPF protect against UV rays it also has other great skin benefits such as;
- Anti-ageing properties, sun ages the sun so by applying your SPF it will stop premature ageing
- The sun can make dark spots/ pigmentation worse so by applying SPF it will stop these from darkening and help protect them.
- SPF shields against pollution as it acts as a protective film on the skins surface against pollution particles.
Do you need any more reasons to by using SPF? Keep yourself safe and protected. | <urn:uuid:5ca80354-a6b2-46c0-a40d-6f1ff310ac01> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://www.beautyflash.co.uk/bfblog/sun-awareness-week-2018/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347439928.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20200604094848-20200604124848-00155.warc.gz | en | 0.934098 | 561 | 2.546875 | 3 |
- Moving Day in Literature -
The most famous piece of literature involving Moving Day took place in a form of letters from the New Englander Major Jack Downing, the pen name of Seba Smith, who came to live in New York. Moving Day takes him by surprise and in the end, as he writes to his aunt Kaziah, “it has used me up worse than building forty rods of stone wall, or chopping down ten acres of trees.” In the rest of his letters, Jack recounts the difficulty that he has had in finding an apartment for a decent price and then, how he had to cope with a vociferous tenant who moved into his apartment before the May first deadline, raining havoc on Jack’s things.
Seba Smith, May-Day in New York or House-Hunting And Moving, New York: Burgess, Stringer and Company, 1845.
For some, Moving Day was better than for others as this poem attests. One bright spot of being a bachelor was that at the very least, one day a year, on Moving Day all married men would envy the bachelors due to their ease in moving.
Moving Day was looked on not only as a necessary occurrence but as part of life itself. Life consisted in moving from one place to another and to do so required a certain amount of courage. New Yorkers were so courageous that they repeated the process year after year. While some might have been lucky or unlucky, depending on how you look at it, living in one house for their entire lives, everyone was united in the fact that they would have to make the same journey in the end of their life, which is what the last part of this poem is referring to.
As the 20th century progressed, more and more people were forced to remain in their domiciles not because of a lack of desire to move, but because of an increasing housing shortage and poverty. | <urn:uuid:964587d5-397e-46d0-ae08-15373eed87cb> | CC-MAIN-2014-10 | http://www.baruch.cuny.edu/library/alumni/online_exhibits/digital/2007/moving_day/page005.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-10/segments/1394010450813/warc/CC-MAIN-20140305090730-00059-ip-10-183-142-35.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.986613 | 394 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Most YouTube videos relating to climate change prevention oppose scientific consensus and hijack technical terms to appear credible, says study.
Using YouTube to learn about climate science will expose you to video content that mostly opposes worldwide scientific consensus.
That’s the finding of a new study published in Frontiers in Communication, which also reveals that some scientific terms, such as geoengineering, have been ‘hijacked’ by conspiracy theorists so that searches provide entirely non-scientific video content. Scientists could counteract this by forming alliances with influential YouTubers, politicians and those in popular culture, to ensure scientifically accurate video content reaches the widest possible audience.
‘Searching YouTube for climate science and climate engineering-related terms finds fewer than half of the videos represent mainstream scientific views,’ says study author Dr Joachim Allgaier, Senior Researcher at the RWTH Aachen University. ‘It’s alarming to find that the majority of videos propagate conspiracy theories about climate science and technology.’
Nearly 2 billion logged-in users – half the world online – visit YouTube every month, and research has shown that users see it as a platform for learning about science, health and technology.
Allgaier wanted to know if the information YouTube users found, when searching for scientific information on climate change and climate modification, represented scientifically accurate views.
‘So far, research has focused on the most-watched videos, checking their scientific accuracy, but this doesn’t tell us what an average internet user will find, as the results are influenced by previous search and watch histories,’ reports Allgaier. ‘To combat this, I used the anonymisation tool TOR to avoid personalisation of the results.’
Employing 10 climate change-related search terms, Allgaier analysed 200 videos about climate change and climate modification topics. He found that the majority of these videos opposed the worldwide scientific consensus, as detailed by the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Most videos propagated the so-called ‘chemtrails’ conspiracy theory, which is a belief that the condensation trails of aeroplanes are purposefully enriched with harmful substances to modify the weather, control human populations, or for biological or chemical warfare. Scientists have clearly shown there is no evidence for such a large-scale secret atmospheric spraying programme.
Geoengineering has been hijacked
Alarmingly, Allgaier found that the conspiracy theorists have ‘hijacked’ some relatively recent scientific terms by using them to describe their worldview of a global conspiracy. In fact, ‘chemtrailers’, as they are known, explicitly advise their followers to use scientific terms in their content, so that they are not immediately identified as conspiracy theorists.
‘Within the scientific community, “geoengineering” describes technology with the potential to deal with the serious consequences of climate change, if we don’t manage to reduce greenhouse gases successfully. For example, greenhouse gas removal, solar radiation management or massive forestation to absorb carbon dioxide,” explains Allgaier. “However, people searching for ‘geoengineering’ or ‘climate modification’ on YouTube won’t find any information on these topics in the way they are discussed by scientists and engineers. Instead, searching for these terms results in videos that leave users exposed to entirely non-scientific video content.’
Allgaier also questions YouTube search algorithms – does its business model direct traffic towards videos of dubious scientific content? He found some of the conspiracy videos being monetised by the users via adverts or the sale of merchandise with conspiracy-theory motives.
‘The way YouTube search algorithms work is not very transparent. We should be aware this powerful artificial intelligence is already making decisions for us, for example, if you choose to use “autoplay”. I think YouTube should take responsibility to ensure its users will find high-quality information if they search for scientific and biomedical terms, instead of being exposed to doubtful conspiracy videos,’ argues Allgaier.
Scientists and YouTubers unite!
To counter the non-scientific content on YouTube, Allgaier, who recently spoke at the World Conference of Science Journalists about his work, suggests scientists and science communicators should take YouTube seriously as a platform for sharing scientific information.
‘YouTube has an enormous reach as an information channel, and some of the popular science YouTubers are doing an excellent job at communicating complex subjects and reaching new audiences. Scientists could form alliances with science communicators, politicians and those in popular culture in order to reach out to the widest-possible audience. They should speak out publicly about their research and be transparent in order to keep established trustful relationships with citizens and society.’ | <urn:uuid:79d72dfc-f70b-444b-a64f-cd7cdd543a71> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.hobbsonlinenews.net/youtube-climate/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882571234.82/warc/CC-MAIN-20220811042804-20220811072804-00137.warc.gz | en | 0.914554 | 990 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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Linguistics Research Guide
Research guide for courses and research projects in linguistics.
An encyclopedic reference work cataloging all of the world’s 6,909 known living languages.
NOTE: When downloading a guide for a language, you will be asked to agree to the license terms. If you agree and click through, Ethnologue will place your “order” before your download will start. Ethnologue manages their downloads for Institutional licenses in this manner and you won’t be charged due to the university's institutional subscription.
142 world maps and numerous regional maps - all in colour - display the geographical distribution of features of pronunciation and grammar, such as number of vowels, tone systems, gender, plurals, tense, word order, and body part terminology. | <urn:uuid:33f00fe3-a21e-424a-be2f-3724478dbe2c> | CC-MAIN-2021-10 | https://libguides.tulane.edu/c.php?g=182866&p=1203390 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-10/segments/1614178357984.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20210226205107-20210226235107-00256.warc.gz | en | 0.8477 | 213 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Parallel Strong'sHolman Christian Standard BibleHe made skillfully designed devices in Jerusalem to shoot arrows and catapult large stones for use on the towers and on the corners. So his fame spread even to distant places , for he was marvelously helped until he became strong.
New American Standard BibleIn Jerusalem he made engines [of war] invented by skillful men to be on the towers and on the corners for the purpose of shooting arrows and great stones. Hence his fame spread afar, for he was marvelously helped until he [was] strong.
King James BibleAnd he made in Jerusalem engines, invented by cunning men, to be on the towers and upon the bulwarks, to shoot arrows and great stones withal. And his name spread far abroad; for he was marvellously helped, till he was strong.
Parallel VersesInternational Standard Version
He also had various siege engines built by skilled designers and placed them on the towers and on the corner ramparts that could fire arrows and very large stones. His reputation spread far and wide, and he was marvelously assisted until he grew very strong.
American Standard Version
And he made in Jerusalem engines, invented by skilful men, to be on the towers and upon the battlements, wherewith to shoot arrows and great stones. And his name spread far abroad; for he was marvellously helped, till he was strong.
Young's Literal Translation
And he maketh in Jerusalem inventions -- a device of an inventor -- to be on the towers, and on the corners, to shoot with arrows and with great stones, and his name goeth out unto a distance, for he hath been wonderfully helped till that he hath been strong.
Links2 Chronicles 26:15
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• 2 Chronicles 26:15 German Bible | <urn:uuid:4dfa0236-cb0c-4058-99d6-575086b23d9f> | CC-MAIN-2019-30 | https://www.biblehub.com/interlinear/2_chronicles/26-15.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-30/segments/1563195527458.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20190722010436-20190722032436-00548.warc.gz | en | 0.942157 | 460 | 2.65625 | 3 |
The purpose of this paper is to develop the logic of unit construction in school music education based on the concept of the generating of music and the theory of reconstruction of experience by J. Dewey. The concept of the generating of music is based on Dewey's theory of reconstruction of experience, which is considered as the purpose of education. The method for reconstruction of experience is "inquiry". The process of inquiry is the transformation from an uncertain situation to a certain situation. This transformation is accomplished by the cycle of "immediate experience-reflective experience-new immediate experience". This cycle works in every unit of thinking and can be conceptualized as the process of learning. The aesthetic inquiry, including musical inquiry, has the same structure as general inquiry even though musical inquiry has its own characteristics due to its unique material. Therefore, the cycle can be applied to both music inquiry and music learning process. By using the cycle as the framework of unit construction in school music learning, three elements for unit construction have been found: experience of inquiry, reflection of inquiry, and evaluation of inquiry. From this logic, "immediate experience-reflective experience-new immediate experience" is presented as a model of unit construction based on the concept of the generating of music.
The purpose of this paper is to review lessons of traditional Japanese music from the viewpoint of "meaning generation", as analyzed in a lesson of a song, "Monouri-uta". First, a theory of lesson structure, i.e., how lessons of traditional Japanese music based on the principle of meaning generation should be, is formulated based on Dewey's theory. Next, a lesson on traditional Japanese music structured on the above theory has been carried out in a 6th grade music class for the song "Monouri-uta" and the phases of meaning generation in the musical experience has been analyzed. The following conclusions on the lesson structure of traditional Japanese Music based on the principle of meaning generation has been found: 1) The setting for learning should be where adequate mutual interaction can occur with traditional Japanese music styles or traditional Japanese sounds. Children will thus be able to proactively gain command of traditional Japanese musical idioms such as "Aino-te" and "Rhythm with gradual acceleration". 2) The setting should be where one can feel and discriminate the qualities generated in traditional Japanese music. To this end, learning should occur during involvement with others.
The purpose of this paper is to show the process of how students construct their extracurricular music activities. Students at school play or listen to music not only in classrooms but also at after school club activities. Using ethnography as the method, this paper will focus on high school students in popular (band) music clubs and find out how they construct their music activities. The followings are the points that have been shown in this paper. 1) When students construct and maintain their music activities at a popular music club, two contexts operate, "self-achievement of music goals" and "achievement of human relationships". Music club activities can be classified into four sections from the crossing of these two axes. 2) "Achievement of human relationships" is the key to construct and maintain music activities. It was difficult to continue playing music when concentrating on one's self-achievement. In order to construct and maintain the music activity, it was essential for students to make good relationship with other members. 3) When constructing and maintaining music activity, girls attach importance to constructing human relationships whereas boys have strong need for achievement in playing music and becoming more skillful, Girls also tend to play music not only for improving their skills but use music as a way to build relationship with others. 4) The result suggests that group formation would be a major key for successful music activities in school music education. We should not ignore the fact that human relationship plays an important role when actually constructing and maintaining music activity. In other words, forming groups of individual acting separately would not work. Group formation should be based on each individual's meaningful choice and each individual should be able to attach meaning to the group itself. Successful human relationship is the key for construction and maintaining music activities.
This study attempts to review the meaning and methods of experiencing another culture's arts by viewing the learning of music in relation to its cultural aspects (climate, everyday life, history). First, the meaning of experiencing other cultural arts has been clarified based on J. Dewey's Art Experience Theory. Next, a music class at a junior high school in Japan on the Korean folk play, Ganggangsulrae, planned and conducted by the researcher, has been analyzed. Students understood that Ganggangsulrae is closely related to the life of people living in the region and that it expresses those peoples' emotions. If we have what J. Dewey says "the attitudes basic in other forms of experience", the narrow-minded accommodations of other cultures will be a thing of the past. Additionally, having an attitude and awareness of comparing arts of one's own culture with that of other cultures will serve to re-discover one's own culture and thus broaden and deepen personal experiences.
This study aims to reveal the development process of children's musical expression generated from where systematic environmental configurations are made based on simple musical expression observed in children's play. Three stages of children's expression process have been derived by investigating "fertility of expression": 1) expression being generated from inspiring experiences, 2) the empathy of the inspiring experiences developing into activities of musical expression, and 3) the expression being devised by the enriched inner world. Instruction plan for four-year-old class in a public kindergarten has been made in order for children to develop activities by relating seasonal play, musical expression and creative expression. Environmental configurations from children's play have been observed, and the development of expression activities has been analyzed from the viewpoint of the relationship between inner and outer worlds. The following conclusions are derived: 1) In the first stage, by the teacher conveying a musical appearance generated from inspiring experience to other children, the appearance develops to be a musical expression. 2) In the second stage, setting a situation by the teacher for children to look back on their play produces positive communication between children, which becomes the basis of responsible musical expression. 3) In the third stage, when the teacher picks up and introduces utterances about ingenious expression, children develop their own musical expression. As these three stages are in order, fertile musical expression activity can be developed by giving systematic environmental configurations based on children's situation during their play.
The purpose of this paper is to verify the method of successfully incorporating the aspect of culture in the unit construction and to verify its effectiveness. The following three results have become clear by analyzing music lessons of appraising at the second grade of an elementary school. (1) If the information on the aspect of culture is given when children are perceiving/feeling the structure of music, the connection between the two is easier for the children to understand. (2) Providing the information on the aspect of culture that relates to the structure of music is effective in studying music. (3) Grasping the connection between perceiving/feeling the structure of music and the information on the aspect of culture enables children to move toward a deeper understanding of the music. These results made clear that incorporating the information on the aspect of culture in the situation when children are perceiving/feeling the structure of music is effective in music study. | <urn:uuid:add6b5d7-0cbb-4983-99cf-8cc52ebdeee9> | CC-MAIN-2017-43 | https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/browse/ssmep/16/0/_contents/-char/ja/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-43/segments/1508187825464.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20171022203758-20171022223758-00400.warc.gz | en | 0.961547 | 1,509 | 3.6875 | 4 |
Workshop: evaluating information
On this page you will find resources for the workshop activity 'evaluating information'.
The activity below is designed to help you evaluate web-based resources for use in your classroom. In it, you are asked to evaluate the content and style of the information on some Internet sites and then compare your evaluations with those of others.
What to do
Your task is to evaluate two of the sites on the 'Links' page (on a topic that interests you) using the attached pro-forma which you can download as a Word document. (My suggestion for use is that you open it on your machine, fill it in on-line and then print). You should then be prepared to discuss both your evaluations and how the evaluation form might be adapted to make it more valuable in evaluating science-specific sites.
Further information on evaluating resources
For on-line tutorials on evaluating web pages you could go to a number of sites, including those by Mantex and the Social Science Information Gateway. While these are not science-specific they do set out sensible questions to ask of a site.
Colorado University has produced a useful introduction to a typography of web pages. This considers the different purposes (e.g. advocacy, informational) for which web pages are written and provides a guide to recognising these. This could be very useful were your students to be searching the net for information on topical issues - e.g. the environment or .
Commercial and other | <urn:uuid:bf23c0b4-5165-4037-ab52-ea2aa5a9ca58> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://tim-brosnan.net/Slovenia/evaluating.htm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386163038079/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204131718-00024-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.912801 | 301 | 3.109375 | 3 |
Edible seaweed (also known as sea vegetables or ocean vegetables) are an unexpected powerhouse of nutrients. Generally, edible seaweed is a great source of fiber, calcium, potassium, iron, and iodine. Depending on the variety, it can also be a valuable source of vitamins and minerals such as, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin K, copper, zinc, manganese, magnesium and selenium. But did you know that certain types of sea vegetables can also provide an alternative cure for cancer?
What Makes Seaweed an Anti-Cancer Food?
Certain types of edible seaweed have an anti-carcinogenic property. Among them are the brown seaweeds such as the kelps and wracks. The anti-carcinogen constituent of these brown sea vegetables is called fucoidan. This natural compound can also be found in other varieties of sea vegetables such as the limu, wakame, kombu, and mozuku. About 4% of the dry weight of seaweed contains fucoidan.
A group of Japanese researchers at the Biomedical Research Laboratories discovered that fucoidan induced anti-tumor activity in mice when they introduced it to their animal models. The researchers observed that this seaweed extract effectively activated a process of natural cell death, referred to as apoptosis, among leukemia, lymphoma, stomach and colorectal tumor cells. But that’s not all… fucoidan has also been found to build up the immune system and regulate the body’s cholesterol levels.
Another study further confirmed that the extract from brown seaweeds help fight cancer. Based on the study of the Hashemite University in Jordan at the AACR Dead Sea International Conference on Advances in Cancer Research, the fucoidan extract contributes to apoptosis or programmed cell death. Cancer cells had either shrunk or were completely destroyed.
Kombu and wakame are regarded as rich sources of fucoidan enzymes. These types of sea vegetables are abundant in Okinawa, Japan. The residents of Okinawa made the record of having the lowest cancer mortality rate because of the tradition of eating uncooked kombu wherein the fucoidan enzymes are concentrated. Although other Japanese cook their kombu, Japan has lower breast cancer rates compared to western countries. This is possibly due to the consumption of fucoidan-rich seaweeds.
Kombu and wakame also have the capacity to make cancer cells self-destruct. In a Japanese research trial, when the laboratory technicians administered the fucoidan enzyme to a petri dish containing cancer cells, the results were complete destruction of all cancer cells within three days. The researchers concluded that the cancer cells were destroyed by the fucoidan enzymes.
Are you fond of eating seaweed? Or maybe you’re never tried it. Aside from being an anti-cancer fighting food, these nutritional benefits may persuade you to become an advocate of eating ocean vegetables:
- Seaweed has an alkalizing effect. Our modern lifestyle has greatly affected your diet. Much of what is eaten today is acidic in nature and that’s definitely not beneficial for your health. In order to help restore your body’s pH level, you need to eat more alkaline foods such as seaweed.
- Seaweed may be better than milk. Seaweed is ten times richer in calcium than your favorite milk! And it is eight times better than eating beef.
- Seaweed help purify our blood. The chemical composition of these ocean vegetables is similar to that of your blood plasma; hence, eating seaweed is a great way to keep your blood free from toxins.
- Seaweed is rich in chlorophyll, especially the green seaweed. Chlorophyll is the green pigment coloration that makes sea vegetables green. Chlorophyll is a natural and powerful detoxifying agent that helps eliminate toxins and other waste pollutants from your body.
- Seaweed can help you achieve a shaped body. Since seaweed is naturally rich in iodine, it helps your thyroid gland to maintain a healthy metabolism which is needed in regulating your body weight. Eating ocean vegetables can help you lose weight because it breaks the chemical bonds of fat cells.
- Seaweed can support you in stressful times. Seaweed contains magnesium, pantothenic acid, and riboflavin which are necessary for producing enough energy to face the stressful and tough day ahead.
5 Ways to Add Ocean Veggies in Your Menu
If you want to benefit from this super food, you can prepare ocean vegetables in many different ways. You can create healthy and delicious meals with sea veggies using the following suggested menus:
- Do you love to have eggs or omelets for breakfast? Add a new flavor to your breakfast dish by sprinkling diced seaweed such as nori on top.
- Blend sea vegetables in your soup. For a more unique texture in your soup, you can mix some carefully sliced or powdered seaweed. If you’ll be preparing either a cioppino soup or clam chowder, a sprinkling of seaweed will do the trick.
- Create crunchy seaweed chips. If you want a snack that’s low in calories but with lots of fiber, crunchy sea vegetable chips will be perfect for you. It’s MUCH healthier than a bag of potato chips.
- Create a classic seaweed salad. You may slice cucumbers and green onions along with your healthy ocean veggies. Mix them together with a rice-wine vinegar, a bit of soy sauce, and sesame oil. You may also add ginger paste for extra flavor.
- Make a seaweed sushi roll. If you want to have a taste of the eastern sushi with dried nori, you may reinvent the sushi recipes to match your taste buds.
Want to stay abreast of new ways to stay healthy? Be notified each week when cutting-edge articles are added by clicking here. You’ll be glad you did. | <urn:uuid:c76803d7-57bf-4597-b068-6d8a91fa3e97> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://thetruthaboutcancer.com/can-seaweed-prevent-cancer-2/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347432521.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20200603081823-20200603111823-00270.warc.gz | en | 0.937286 | 1,246 | 3.34375 | 3 |
The month of May is celebrated annually in the United States as Asian American and Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander Heritage Month. (The exact title varies, but the sentiment remains constant.) The reason this particular month was chosen was largely to commemorate two especially significant events: the arrival of the first Japanese immigrant to the United States (a shipwrecked 14-year-old boy named Manjiro) on May 7, 1843; and the completion of the Transcontinental Railroad (constructed primarily by Chinese migrant workers) on May 10, 1869.
The Law Library of Congress has made available a comprehensive inventory of relevant public laws, presidential proclamations, and congressional resolutions that trace the evolution of this annual observance from a week-long celebration in 1979 to the current month-long celebration.
During the month of May and beyond, we invite you to explore the many government information resources at the Eagle Commons Library and online that celebrate the significant role Asian/Pacific Americans have played in the creation of a dynamic and pluralistic American society with their contributions to the sciences, arts, industry, government and commerce. These are a few of our favorites:
This collaborative Web portal highlights a sample of the plethora of digital and physical holdings related to Asian/Pacific heritage available from the following agencies:
- The Library of Congress
- National Archives and Records Administration
- National Endowment for the Humanities
- National Gallery of Art
- National Park Service
- Smithsonian Institution
- United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
The site includes virtual exhibits and collections; a huge library of ready-to-use educational resources such as lesson plans, student activities, collection guides, and research aids; selected audio and video resources; and selected images from the various participating agencies. Join these federal agencies in paying tribute to the generations of Asian and Pacific Islanders who have enriched America’s history and are instrumental in its future success.
On December 15, 1900, Robert W. Wilcox—son of a New England sea captain and a Native-Hawaiian mother—took the oath of office as the first Delegate to the U.S. House of Representatives from the Territory of Hawaii. Wilcox was the first Asian Pacific American (APA) member of Congress, as well as the first member of Congress to represent a constituency outside the continental United States. During the next century, another 59 individuals of Asian or Pacific Islander ancestry followed Delegate Wilcox into the Capitol to become members of the U.S. Congress. Dalip Singh Saund, an immigrant from India who was in office from 1957 to 1963 and who is pictured on the cover of this publication, was the first Asian American, the first Indian American, and the first member of a non-Abrahamic faith to be elected to the U.S. Congress.
Fourth in the Women and Minorities in Congress series (previous volumes have profiled women, Black Americans, and Hispanic Americans in Congress), this publication is the most comprehensive history available on the Asian and Pacific Islander Americans who have served in Congress. This detailed, richly-illustrated work provides a biographical profile of each member and tells the story of how Asian and Pacific Islanders moved from a position of almost complete exclusion and marginalization to an increasing influence at the center of American government.
You can find several healthy and easy-to-make recipes for Asian-style dishes on the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s MyPlate.gov website. For example, the “Five Happiness Fried Noodles” recipe featured in the photo above combines carrots, bamboo shoots, mushrooms, bean sprouts, and green onions with fried noodles and a simple sauce. The recipe originally appeared on the California Department of Social Services EatFresh.org website and was funded by the USDA’s Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP). The USDA and their partners have adapted recipes from many cuisines around the world to create well-balanced dishes that incorporate a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, low-fat dairy, and lean protein foods.
In October 2009, a two-day symposium was held in the Smithsonian American Art Museum in Washington, DC. to discuss the complicated interactions between American and Asian artists and visual traditions from the eighteenth century to the present. Presentations by both senior and emerging scholars and curators explored cultural interactions in a variety of “contact zones” ranging from the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of the United States to venues of artistic production in India, China, Japan, the Philippines, and Vietnam.
This document, published by Smithsonian Institution Scholarly Press in 2012, contains the symposium proceedings, along with an introduction by symposium organizer, Cynthia Mills, and two essays by co-organizers, Lee Glazer and Amelia Goerlitz, on the Smithsonian’s research resources relating to East-West exchange. A webcast of the symposium is also available for viewing on the Smithsonian American Art Museum Symposium Playlist.
FACT SHEET: President Biden Announces Additional Actions to Respond to Anti-Asian Violence, Xenophobia and Bias (March 30, 2021)
In response to the recent increase in acts of violence, harrassment, and xenophobia directed against the Asian American and Pacific Islander communities in the United States—especially against Asian women and girls—President Biden announced the following steps were being taken to advance safety, inclusion, and belonging for all Asian American, Native Hawaiian, and Pacific Islander communities:
- Reinstating and reinvigorating the White House Initiative on Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, with initial focus on anti-Asian bias and violence
- Funding to support AAPI survivors of domestic violence and sexual assault
- Establishing a COVID-19 Equity Task Force committee on addressing and ending xenophobia against Asian Americans
- Establishing of a Department of Justice cross-agency initiative to address anti-Asian violence
- Launching a new virtual bookshelf of federally-funded projects that explore and celebrate Asian Americans’ contributions to the United States
- Providing National Science Foundation funding for critical research in how to prevent and address bias and xenophobia against Asian American communities
These actions build on the President’s Memorandum Condemning and Combating Racism, Xenophobia, and Intolerance Against Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders in the United States, which he issued during his first week in office last January.
Would You Like to Know More?
Article by Bobby Griffith.
Detail of Hawaiian Fisherman (woodcut, color)
Charles William Bartlett, artist, 1920
Library of Congress: http://www.loc.gov/item/92512980/
Asian and Pacific Islander Americans in Congress, 1900–2017 (cover image):
Dalip Singh Saund, posthumous portrait by Jon R. Friedman, 2007
Collection of the U.S. House of Representatives: https://history.house.gov/Collection/Detail/29982
More about the artist and the portrait: https://jonrfriedman.com/Portraits/Public%20Commissions/Dalip%20Singh%20Saund/
Five Happiness Fried Noodles
East–West Interchanges in American Art: A Tumultuous Relationship (cover image):
Detail of Black Stone and Red Pebble (color woodcut on paper)
Seong Moy, artist, ca. 1970s
Smithsonian American Art Museum
Gift of Ruth and Jacob Kainen, 1989.77.9, © 1970s, Seong Moy
Standing in Solidarity Against Hate Crimes in Columbus, OH (March 20, 2021)
Photo by Paul Becker, distributed under a CC-BY 2.0 license | <urn:uuid:c2915a73-3c00-4e31-a687-fea421fc86d1> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://blogs.library.unt.edu/sycamore-stacks/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487658814.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20210620054240-20210620084240-00156.warc.gz | en | 0.921032 | 1,586 | 3.140625 | 3 |
* New introductions commissioned from today's top writers and scholars
* Biographies of the authors
* Chronologies of contemporary historical, biographical, and cultural events
* Footnotes and endnotes
* Selective discussions of imitations, parodies, poems, books, plays, paintings, operas, statuary, and films inspired by the work
* Comments by other famous authors
* Study questions to challenge the reader's viewpoints and expectations
* Bibliographies for further reading
* Indices & Glossaries, when appropriate
All editions are beautifully designed and are printed to superior specifications; some include illustrations of historical interest. Barnes & Noble Classics pulls together a constellation of influences—biographical, historical, and literary—to enrich each reader's understanding of these enduring works.
One of the most haunting stories ever written, Joseph Conrad’s Heart of Darkness follows Marlow, a riverboat captain, on a voyage into the African Congo at the height of European colonialism. Astounded by the brutal depravity he witnesses, Marlow becomes obsessed with meeting Kurtz, a famously idealistic and able man stationed farther along the river. What he finally discovers, however, is a horror beyond imagining. Heart of Darkness is widely regarded as a masterpiece for its vivid study of human nature and the greed and ruthlessness of imperialism.
This collection also includes three of Conrad’s finest short stories: “Youth,” the author’s largely autobiographical tale of a young man’s ill-fated sea voyage, in which Marlow makes his first appearance, “The Secret Sharer,” and “Amy Forster.”
Features a map of the Congo Free State.
A. Michael Matin is a professor in the English Department of Warren Wilson College in Asheville, North Carolina. He has published articles on various twentieth-century British and postcolonial writers.
About the Author
Joseph Conrad (1857-1924) grew up amid political unrest in Russian-occupied Poland. After twenty years at sea with the French and British merchant navies, he settled in England in 1894. Over the next three decades he revolutionized the English novel with books such as Typhoon, Nostromo, The Secret Agent, and especially Heart of Darkness, his best-known and most influential work.
Date of Birth:December 3, 1857
Date of Death:August 3, 1924
Place of Birth:Berdiczew, Podolia, Russia
Place of Death:Bishopsbourne, Kent, England
Education:Tutored in Switzerland. Self-taught in classical literature. Attended maritime school in Marseilles, France
Read an Excerpt
From A. Michael Matin's Introduction to Heart of Darkness and Selected Short Fiction
Heart of Darkness (1899) is one of the most broadly influential works in the history of British literature. The novella’s diverse attributes—its rich symbolism, intricate plotting, evocative prose, penetrating psychological insights, broad allusiveness, moral significance, metaphysical suggestiveness—have earned for it the admiration of literary scholars and critics, high school and college teachers, and general readers alike. Further, its impact can be gauged not only by the frequency with which it is read, taught, and written about, but also by its cultural fertility. It has heavily influenced works ranging from T. S. Eliot’s landmark poem The Waste Land (1922), the manuscript of which has as its original epigraph a passage from the book that concludes with the last words of Conrad’s antihero Kurtz, to Barbara Kingsolver’s novel The Poisonwood Bible (1998), which updates the tale to the years shortly before and after independence, when the Belgian Congo became the nation that is known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Nor has its artistic influence been limited to literature; to cite only the most famous instance, it served as the basis for Francis Ford Coppola’s film Apocalypse Now (1979), which transposes the story, in both place and time, to Vietnam and Cambodia during the American-Vietnamese War and recasts Kurtz as a renegade American colonel. Its various homages aside, in its original form Heart of Darkness has for several generations influenced the literary and moral outlook of innumerable readers. Yet while the text is widely recognized as an indictment of the greed and ruthlessness that generally drove European imperialism in Africa, most readers are unfamiliar with the fact that the setting is the event in imperial history so uniquely horrific in its sheer scale of suffering and death that it has been termed the African Holocaust. As Conrad himself would characterize the situation in the Congo nearly a quarter of a century after his novella was published, it was “the vilest scramble for loot that ever disfigured the history of human conscience” (“Geography and Some Explorers,” p. 17).
Set during the era of heightened competition for imperial territories that historians have termed the New Imperialism, Heart of Darkness is loosely based on Conrad’s experiences and observations during a six-month stint, in 1890, in the Congo as an employee of a Belgian company, the Société Anonyme Belge pour le Commerce du Haut-Congo. This was five years after the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference, a meeting of representatives of the European powers to establish the terms according to which much of the continent of Africa would be divided among them. During this meeting, King Leopold II of Belgium, skillfully playing the jealousies and fears of rival powers off one another, astonishingly managed to secure as his own personal property over 900,000 square miles of central Africa—that is, a territory roughly seventy-five times the size of the diminutive country he ruled. Under humanitarian pretenses, Leopold’s agents, who had begun the process of conquest several years earlier, effectively turned the so-called Congo Free State into an enormous forced labor camp for the extraction of ivory and, later, after the worldwide rubber boom in the early 1890s following the popularization of the pneumatic tire, rubber. In addition to outright murders, the slave labor conditions led to many deaths from starvation and disease as well as a steeply declining birth rate. Even during an era in which most Europeans viewed imperialism as legitimate, the appalling circumstances of Leopold’s Congo (it would officially become a Belgian colony in 1908, and Leopold would die the following year never having so much as visited the territory) led to international outrage. Conservative demographic estimates place the region’s depopulation toll between 1880 and 1920 at 10 million people—that is, half of the total population—with the worst of the carnage occurring between 1890 and 1910. Not much was known outside Africa about the conditions of Leopold’s rule when Conrad was there, but in the several years before he began writing Heart of Darkness, in 1898, it became an international scandal, and regular reports appeared in the British and European press denouncing the abuses. Even before the publicity and protests, however (which would peak several years after the novella’s publication), Conrad had seen enough on his own to be thoroughly disgusted. | <urn:uuid:a5155c06-1377-4b79-9b1f-9e3111c0c5dd> | CC-MAIN-2021-17 | https://valsec.barnesandnoble.com/w/heart-of-darkness-and-selected-short-fiction-joseph-conrad/1100223911;jsessionid=810AFD9BFC182680E2129B6EF16D4972.prodny_store01-va08?ean=9781593081232 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-17/segments/1618039560245.87/warc/CC-MAIN-20210422013104-20210422043104-00205.warc.gz | en | 0.951777 | 1,485 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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From the book "The Book of Ulster Surnames," by Robert Bell, 1988, pp. 116-7:&&&&&&LAFFERTY (also Laverty)&&&&&&Lafferty is an exclusively Ulster name and in 1900 was found only counties Donegal, Cerry and Tyrone. It stems mainly from O'Lafferty or O'Laverty, Gaelic O Laithbheartaigh. Both names derive from the Gaelic for "bright ruler" and are Ulster forms of the Connacht name O'Flaverty or O'Flaherty. (The "F" in Ulster was often aspirated or silent, thus O'Flynn becomes in Ulster O'Lynn.)&&&&&&The O'Laffertys were a Donegal sept, the chief of which was Lord of Aileach, famous for the great stone fortress, the Grianan of Aileach, at the head of Lough Swilly. The first to bear the surname was Murchadh Ua Flaithbheartaigh, also known as Murchadh Gluin Ilair, "of the eagle knee," King of Tyrone, died 972. One of the chiefs, Macraith O'Laverty, died in 1197, was described by the Four Masters as the "Tanist of Tyrone" a short time before the chieftancy of Tyrone passed to the O'Neills. The O'Laffertys were driven from Donegal in the thirteenth century and settled near Ardstraw in Co. Tyrone, their base perhaps marked by the townland of Lislafferty. Monsignor James O'Laverty, 1828-1906, a noted historian and author of the five-volume "Historical Account of the Diocese of Down and Connor," was of this sept. He was born at Carraban, Co. Down.&&&&&&[my comment: Ardstraw, County Tyrone is located just to the west of NewtownStewart. NewtownStewart is on the highway north of Omagh.]&&&&&&Laverty is also an exclusively Ulster name but is found mainly in Co. Antrim. Most of this name will be originally MacLavertys, a sept of Clan Donald, hereditary "speakers," or heralds, of the Lords of the Isles. The Clan Donald claim that the name was originally Fear Labhairt an Righ, "the king's speaker" but Black states that the name was actually MacFhlaithbheartaich and was thus etymologically similar to the Irish O'Flaverty or O'Lafferty. The MacLavertys claim to be originally a Kintyre branch of the MacDonalds. They were later based on Islay, at the court of the Lord of the Isles. The name became common too on Arran. In the mid-nineteenth century the Antrim Lavertys were found almost exclusively in the barony of Upper Dunluce. **** From the book "The Surnames of Scotland," by George F. Black, 1946, p. 535:&&&&&&MACLAVERTY, MACLAFFERTY, MACLARDIE, MACLARDY, MACLARY, MACLEVERTY, MACCHACHARTY (this last a Galwegian spelling). The authors of "The Clan Donald" tell us in grandiloquent language that "The progenitor of the family from whom they take their name was known as 'Fear Labhairt an Righ,' or the King's Speaker, who received this distinction from the circumstance of his being employed by the King of Isles as special ambassador to hostile tribes at feud with that potentate . . The office" they add, "appears to have become hereditary in the family" ("Clan Donald," III, p. 550). The proper Gaelic form of the name is, of course, MacFhlaithbheartaich" (with omission of "Fh" due to aspiration), 'son of the dominion bearing' or 'ruler.' The name is the same as the common Irish "Flaithbheartach," now Flaherty, a name which occurs frequently in the "Annual of the Four Masters" and elsewhere. As an adjective modern Irish "flaithbheartach" has the meaning of generous, hospitable ("Dinneen! "). Flaithbertach princeps (superior) Duinchaillden died in 872 (AU.), and Flaithbheartach ua Flaithbheartaigh was slain in 1133, a not uncommon ending for Gaels in the Middle Ages. The authors of "The Clan Donald" also state, without offering any proof of their assertion, that the Maclavertys "are descended from the Family of the Isles (i.e. the Macdonalds), and had their original habitat in Kintyre. They broke out early from the main stem, and claim descent from the founder of the Monastery of Saddell." The earliest of the name however in Scottish record is John M'Claffirdy, who filled the subordinate position of tenant under the Douglases in the lands of Mikilbrekauch in the barony of Buittle, 1376 (RHM., I, p. lx). John Macgillecrist Maklafferdich was one of those included in the remission granted Sir John Campbell of Cawdor and others in 1524 for the burning of the lands of Colonsay and the murder of Lachlan Maclean of Dowart in Edinburgh ("Cawdor," p. 147). Gilcrist Malaverty held the lands of Langulchulchoich in Bute, 1540 (RSS., II, 3704). Alexander McLartych of Gartcharran is recorded in 1609 ("Poltalloch Writs," p. 135), Archibald M'Clartie was one of M'Nachtane's soldiers shipped at Lochkerran in 1627 ("Archaeologia Scotica," III, p. 254), Dowgall McLairtie held a six-shilling land in Islay, 1686 ("Bk. Islay," p. 518), Donald Roy M'Clorty is in Lergihony, parish of Craignish, 1686 ("Argyll"), and Angus M'Clairtick of Garcharran, parish of Craignish, is in record, 1693 ("Argyll Inv."). Alexander M'Laertike is in record in Dunnamuke, 1672 (HP., II, p. 207), John M'Laertich was a merchant in Kilchoan, 1713; and Mrs. MacClarty has been immortalized in Mrs. Hamilton's "The Cottagers of Glenburnie," first published in 1808. The Maclartys gave name to Eilean Mhic Labhartaich or MacLarty's Island (opposite Gartcharran) and to Sgeir Dubh Mhic Labhartaich or MacLarty's Black Rock (MacDougall, "Craignish tales," p. 39). McClairty 1684, McLartie 1655.&&&&&& **** From the book "The Surnames of Ireland," by Edward MacLysaght, 1964, p. 190: (O) Laverty, Lafferty "O Laithbheartaigh." Though racially distinct, etymologically this is the same as O'Flaverty, the initial F in the case of the Ulster sept being aspirated. The Four Masters describe the chief as 'the Tanish of Tyrone'. IF MIF Map Donegal and Tyrone.&&&&&&From the book "Irish Names and Surnames," collected and edited with explanatory and historical notes, by Rev. Patrick Woulfe, published by Irish Gen. Foundation, Box 7575, Kansas City, MO 64116, USA. Page 580.&&&&&&[Note: I do not have the fonts for the Gaelic alphabet; hence, I will do the best that I can with the symbols.]&&&&&&O Laitbeartais - I - O Laffertie, O Laghertie, O Laherty. O'Lafferty, O'Laverty, Lafferty, Laverty, Laherty; 'des. Of Flaitbeartst'; a var, if O Flaitbeartaig, owing to the aspiration of the initial F; the name of a distinguished family of the Cinel Eoghain in Ulster, where it is still common, especially in Tyrone, Derry, Antrim and Donegal.&&&&&& **** From the book "The Surnames of Derry," by Brian Mitchell, 1992, p. 76:&&&&&&Lafferty (10) Irish. This County Donegal sept was also known by the name Laverty (See Laverty). Their chiefs were Lords of Aileach before they were driven from their homeland in the 13th centru and settled near Ardstraw in County Tyrone. p. 77 Laverty (5) Scots Gaelic. A sept of Clan Donald who were hereditary heralds to the Lords of the Isles. Originating in Kintyre they were ater based on Islay. Laverty can also be another form of Lafferty (See Lafferty). Lavery (6) Irish. This sept, who took their name from their 11th century chief, originated in Moira, County Down. The Laverys formed into three branches known by the titles White, Red and Strong. The name was also anglicised to Lowry (See Lowry). **** From the book "The Surnames of Ireland," by Edward MacLysaght, 1964, p. 190: (O) Laverty, Lafferty "O Laithbheartaigh." Though racially distinct, etymologically this is the same as O'Flaverty, the initial F in the case of the Ulster sept being aspirated. The Four Masters describe the chief as 'the Tanish of Tyrone'. IF MIF Map Donegal and Tyrone. **** From the book "Supplement to Irish Families," by Edward MacLysaght, 1964, p. 161: (o) LAVERTY (IF 146)&&&&&&Variants of Laverty are Lafferty and Laherty, the Irish form of which is O Laithbheartaigh (in modernized spelling O Laifeartaigh). Both O'Lafferty and O'Laherty occur in the Elizabethan Fiants relating to Co. Donegal.&&&&&& () () () () ()&&&&&&From: [email protected] To: [email protected]&&&&&&February 21, 1738/39 meant that Susanna would have been born on February 21, 1739 on the calendar as we know it today.&&&&&&Here is an explanation of the double dates in case anyone does not know about double dates:&&&&&&The practice of double dating resulted from the switch from the Julian to the Gregorian Calendar. The Julian Calendar declared March 25 as the first of the year, and a solar year to be 365 days and 6 hours long. In 1582, Pop Gergory XIII determined that the Julian Calendar was off by 11 minutes and 14 seconds. The new Gregorian Calendar resolved the discrepancy and declared January 1 as the first of the year. Not all countries accepted this calendar at the same time. In fact, England and the American colonies didn't accept it until 1752. Before that date, the government observed March 25 as the first of the year, but most of the year, but most of the population observed January 1 as the first of the year. So, many people included both years when writing dates falling between January 1 and March 25, as in the following examples.&&&&&&Julian or Old Style Gregorian or New Style Double Dates Dec. 25, 1718.........Dec. 25, 1718............Dec. 25, 1718 Jan. 01, 1718.........Jan. 01, 1719............Jan. 01, 1718/19 Feb. 02, 1718.........Feb. 02, 1719............Feb. 02, 1718/19&&&&&&-------------------------------------------------------------------------&&&End of LAFFERTY-D Digest V98 Issue #16 &&&***********************************************************************
Submitter: Dan Malone
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Copyright 1996-2001, All rights reserved, AccessGenealogy.com | <urn:uuid:93488fcb-6f64-42e5-a028-3fbd13217eff> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://www.genealogy.com/forum/surnames/topics/mclarty/222/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189802.18/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00206-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942305 | 2,740 | 2.84375 | 3 |
For many women, the early 20th century ushered in a new period of possibilities for life and work outside the home and changes to the traditional roles of wife and mother. While employment opportunities were still limited to a few fields such as school teacher, secretary, and nurse, many women fought to make their lives outside domestic life rich and fulfilling. Archival collections are full of stories of such women and the Copper Country is no different. To honor the many unique and fascinating women of the Copper Country during Women’s History Month, our blog post today highlights one amazing woman from Rockland, Michigan: Ellen Carlson.
Ellen Carlson was born in Rockland, Michigan around 1901 to Swedish parents, Gustave and Anna, who immigrated to the Upper Peninsula in 1899. Her father worked for the copper mine in Rockland until his death in 1915 following a mining accident. Ellen’s mother, Anna, was left to raise her daughter and son, Hugo, by herself. She ensured that her children received a good education and the children attended school in Rockland, with Ellen graduating in 1918. However, Ellen’s early aspirations for higher learning at the Marquette Normal School were cut short due to the outbreak of the Spanish Influenza. Though she never received a formal degree, Carlson attended classes at Wayne State, University of Michigan’s Rackham School, and the Milwaukee State Teachers College and became a school teacher, initially teaching in a four-room school in Victoria. She moved back to Rockland for a period of time before moving to Marquette in 1922 to finish her teaching studies, but continued to move back and forth between the U.P. and downstate, teaching again in Rockland, Montrose, Flint, Ferndale and Taylor. In 1965, after 46 years of teaching, Carlson retired and returned to her family’s home in Rockland where she lived until her passing in 1988.
For many, there is a certain stereotype associated with the concept of an unmarried, rural school teacher in the early 20th century. However, a glimpse into the the personal correspondence of a woman like Ellen reveals a vibrant personal and social life, as well as a woman who was undeterred in her quest in fulfilling her lifelong aspirations. The Ellen Carlson Correspondence (MS-416) collection held at the Michigan Tech Archives is a rich resource for anyone interested in the personal lives of women in the Copper Country. The collection primarily contains correspondence Carlson kept with friends, students, and family members throughout her life and provides a unique perspective on the life of women in the Copper Country.
Some of the earliest correspondence in the collection dates from around 1918 when Ellen was just a young woman starting her teaching education. Nearly a decade worth of letters from a likely high school beau then living in Chicago shows a young woman in love, but one torn between that love and a dedication to her studies. Sadly, the romance fizzled out during May and June of 1926 based on the letters from Chicago. We can only speculate that the relationship had a deep impact on her as she never did marry.
Ellen clearly maintained a wide social circle of friends, especially with those within the Rockland area. An article printed in the local paper sometime between 1976 and her passing in Rockland in 1988 attests to her vibrant social life and the importance that women played within the community. Noted within the article, fellow community members described her as having “a host of friends, young and old” and that she was “very sociable — has a houseful of company all summer long.” One comment from a friend regarding the amount of birthday cards she routinely received is apparent in her correspondence collection. Among the regular correspondence and photographs, Ellen maintained several scrapbooks worth of birthday and holiday cards that she received or collected overtime, presenting a very interesting and delightful resource for people interested in period greeting cards.
According to the article, Ellen was a lifelong and active member of the Methodist church and an accomplished pianist, serving as the district organist for the Order of the Eastern Star since 1920, which is evident from the correspondence and ephemera tucked into her collection. Among her other passions was regional history. She and fellow local, Mary Jeffs Regan, co-founded the Rockland Museum and donated material to the collection over the years. Ellen, according to the article printed later in her life, was also a reader, crossword puzzle enthusiast, and enjoyed playing cards.
While the collection is primarily composed of correspondence, Ellen maintained journals, especially later in life, which can be found in the collection. Also included are scrapbooks, postcard albums, and photographs, many of them documenting the lives of her friends and family members that were dear to her.
The Ellen Carlson Correspondence collection reveals a woman many can relate to; one driven to follow their passions and affinity for one’s roots. It provides a glimpse into the impact a singular person can have within a community and a rich resource for those looking into the lives of everyday women in the Copper Country. This extensive collection is just waiting for further exploration and insight from researchers. If you are interested in viewing this collection, visit the Michigan Tech Archives! The department is open for regular research hours, 10 a.m. to 5 p.m., Monday-Friday, no appointment necessary. You may also contact us directly at (906) 487-2505 or by email at [email protected]. | <urn:uuid:1aa43f25-106a-428b-b883-abf5e93f13fd> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://blogs.mtu.edu/archives/2018/03/16/ellen-carlson-copper-country-woman/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573540.20/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819005802-20220819035802-00342.warc.gz | en | 0.97582 | 1,113 | 2.78125 | 3 |
In recent years, seagulls have been moving further inland and becoming an increasing problem for both home and business owners across the country. Like pigeons, seagulls can be a nuisance in regards to the mess created and damage to property. A worrying trend with seagulls is that they are becoming an aggressive pest. Cases of seagulls attacking people is now more frequently reported, driven by their greed for more readily available food.
Often referred to as ‘Seagulls’, Herring Gulls are large birds, measuring about 55cm from bill to tail with a wingspan of about 85cm. Breeding pairs start nest building in May. Nests can be quite large and if made of material accumulated over several years, very heavy. Eggs are laid from early May onwards, usually two or three. The eggs take about three weeks to hatch so the first chicks generally emerge at the beginning of June.
Chicks take three or four years to reach maturity and breed. The life expectancy of a seagull which reaches maturity is about 20 years.
Seagulls tend to nest in colonies and once roof nesting birds gain a foothold other seagulls nest on adjacent buildings. If left unchecked, a colony starts to develop.
Problems include noise, mess and damage to property including blocking of flue and gutters through nesting.
• Noise, caused by calling gulls and by their heavy footsteps
• Mess, caused by their droppings
• Damage to property, caused by gulls picking at roofing materials and by nests that can block gutters or hold moisture against the building structure.
Methods for controlling Seagulls involve controlling food sources and proofing of buildings.
• Bird Free Gel
• Post & Wires
• Bird of Prey
• Avi Shock | <urn:uuid:0565be89-0bbb-4709-bec4-8ca9b7c8a26c> | CC-MAIN-2017-34 | http://shieldpestcontrol.co.uk/pest-control-services/bird-proofing/seagull/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-34/segments/1502886116921.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20170822221214-20170823001214-00065.warc.gz | en | 0.961242 | 377 | 3 | 3 |
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia - View original article
Blood transfusion is generally the process of receiving blood products into one's circulation intravenously. Transfusions are used for various medical conditions to replace lost components of the blood. Early transfusions used whole blood, but modern medical practice commonly uses only components of the blood, such as red blood cells, white blood cells, plasma, clotting factors, and platelets.
Units of packed red blood cells are typically only recommended when either a patient's hemoglobin level falls below 10g/dL or hematocrit falls below 30%; recently, this 'trigger' level has been decreased to 7-8g/dL, as a more restrictive strategy has been shown to have better patient outcomes. This is in part due to the increasing evidence that there are cases where patients have worse outcomes when transfused. One may consider transfusion for people with symptoms of cardiovascular disease such as chest pain or shortness of breath. Globally around 85 million units of red blood cells are transfused in a given year. In cases where patients have low levels of hemoglobin but are cardiovascularly stable, parenteral iron is increasingly a preferred option based on both efficacy and safety. Other blood products are given where appropriate, such as clotting deficiencies.
When a patient's own blood is salvaged and reinfused during a surgery (e.g. using a cell salvage machine such as a Cell Saver), this can be considered a form of autotransfusion (and thus a form of transfusion) even though no "blood product" is actually created. Before this was possible, autotransfusion had referred only to pre-donating one's own blood autologously, which still occurs as well.
Before a blood transfusion is given, there are many steps taken to ensure quality of the blood products, compatibility, and safety to the recipient.
Blood transfusions typically use sources of blood: one's own (autologous transfusion), or someone else's (allogeneic or homologous transfusion). The latter is much more common than the former. Using another's blood must first start with donation of blood. Blood is most commonly donated as whole blood intravenously and collecting it with an anticoagulant. In developed countries, donations are usually anonymous to the recipient, but products in a blood bank are always individually traceable through the whole cycle of donation, testing, separation into components, storage, and administration to the recipient. This enables management and investigation of any suspected transfusion related disease transmission or transfusion reaction. In developing countries the donor is sometimes specifically recruited by or for the recipient, typically a family member, and the donation occurs immediately before the transfusion.
|The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. (June 2011)|
Donated blood is usually subjected to processing after it is collected, to make it suitable for use in specific patient populations. Collected blood is then separated into blood components by centrifugation: red blood cells, plasma, platelets, albumin protein, clotting factor concentrates, cryoprecipitate, fibrinogen concentrate, and immunoglobulins (antibodies). Red cells, plasma and platelets can also be donated individually via a more complex process called apheresis.
Before a recipient receives a transfusion, compatibility testing between donor and recipient blood must be done. The first step before a transfusion is given is to Type and Screen the recipient's blood. Typing of recipient's blood determines the ABO and Rh status. The sample is then Screened for any alloantibodies that may react with donor blood. It takes about 45 minutes to complete (depending on the method used). The blood bank scientist also checks for special requirements of the patient (e.g. need for washed, irradiated or CMV negative blood) and the history of the patient to see if they have a previously identified antibodies and any other serological anomalies;.
A positive screen warrants an antibody panel/investigation to determine if it is clinically significant. An antibody panel consists of commercially prepared group O red cell suspensions from donors that have been phenotyped for antigens that correspond to commonly encountered and clinically significant alloantibodies. Donor cells may have homozygous (e.g. K+k-), heterozygous (K+k+) expression or no expression of various antigens (K-k-). The phenotypes of all the donor cells being tested are shown in a chart. The patient's serum is tested against the various donor cells. Based on the reactions of the patient's serum against the donor cells, a pattern will emerge to confirm the presence of one or more antibodies. Not all antibodies are clinically significant (i.e. cause transfusion reactions, HDN, etc.). Once the patient has developed a clinically significant antibody it is vital that the patient receive antigen-negative red blood cells to prevent future transfusion reactions. A direct antiglobulin test (Coombs test) is also performed as part of the antibody investigation.
If there is no antibody present, an immediate spin crossmatch or computer assisted crossmatch is performed where the recipient serum and donor rbc are incubated. In the immediate spin method, two drops of patient serum are tested against a drop of 3-5% suspension of donor cells in a test tube and spun in a serofuge. Agglutination or hemolysis (i.e., positive Coombs test) in the test tube is a positive reaction and the unit should not be transfused.
If an antibody is suspected, potential donor units must first be screened for the corresponding antigen by phenotyping them. Antigen negative units are then tested against the patient plasma using an antiglobulin/indirect crossmatch technique at 37 degrees Celsius to enhance reactivity and make the test easier to read.
In urgent cases where crossmatching cannot be completed, and the risk of dropping hemoglobin outweighs the risk transfusing uncrossmatched blood, O-negative blood is used, followed by crossmatch as soon as possible. O-negative is also used for children and women of childbearing age. It is preferable for the laboratory to obtain a pre-transfusion sample in these cases so a type and screen can be performed to determine the actual blood group of the patient and to check for alloantibodies.
To ensure the safety of blood transfusion to pediatric patients, hospitals are taking additional precaution to avoid infection and prefer to use specially tested pediatric blood units that are guaranteed negative for Cytomegalovirus. Most guidelines recommend the provision of CMV-negative blood components and not simply leukoreduced components for newborns or low birthweight infants in whom the immune system is not fully developed. These specific requirements place additional restrictions on blood donors who can donate for neonatal use. vnv Neonatal transfusions typically fall into one of two categories:
A massive transfusion protocol is typically defined as when it is anticipated that more than ten units of packed red blood cells will be needed. Typically higher ratios of fresh frozen plasma and platelets are given relative to packed red blood cells.
In the United States, blood transfusions were performed nearly 3 million times during hospitalizations in 2011, making it the most common procedure performed. The rate of hospitalizations with a blood transfusion nearly doubled from 1997, from a rate of 40 stays to 95 stays per 10,000 population. It was the most common procedure performed for patients 45 years of age and older in 2011, and among the top five most common for patients between the ages of 1 and 44 years.
In the same way that the safety of pharmaceutical products are overseen by pharmacovigalence, the safety of blood and blood products are overseen by Haemovigilance. This is defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as a system "...to identify and prevent occurrence or recurrence of transfusion related unwanted events, to increase the safety, efficacy and efficiency of blood transfusion, covering all activities of the transfusion chain from donor to recipient." The system should include monitoring, identification, reporting, investigation and analysis of adverse events near-misses and reactions related to transfusion and manufacturing. In the UK this data is collected by a charity called SHOT (Serious Hazards Of Transfusion).
Transfusions of blood products are associated with several complications, many of which can be grouped as immunological or infectious. There is also increasing focus (and controversy) on complications arising directly or indirectly from potential quality degradation during storage. Overall, adverse events from transfusions in the US account for about $17 Billion - and in effect add more to the cost of each transfusion than acquisition and procedure costs combined. While some complication risks depend on patient status or specific transfusion quantity involved, a baseline risk of complications simply increases in direct proportion to the frequency and volume of transfusion.
On rare occasion, blood products are contaminated with bacteria. This can result in life-threatening infection, also known as transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection. The risk of severe bacterial infection is estimated, as of 2002, at about 1 in 50,000 platelet transfusions, and 1 in 500,000 red blood cell transfusions. It is important to note that blood product contamination, while rare, is still more common than actual infection. The reason platelets are more often contaminated than other blood products is that they are stored at room temperature for short periods of time. Contamination is also more common with longer duration of storage, especially when exceeding 5 days. Sources of contaminants include the donor's blood, donor's skin, phlebotomist's skin, and from containers. Contaminating organisms vary greatly, and include skin flora, gut flora, or environmental organisms. There are many strategies in place at blood donation centers and laboratories to reduce the risk of contamination. A definite diagnosis of transfusion-transmitted bacterial infection includes the identification of a positive culture in the recipient (without an alternative diagnosis) as well as the identification of the same organism in the donor blood.
Since the advent of HIV testing of donor blood in the 1980s, the transmission of HIV during transfusion has dropped dramatically. Prior testing of donor blood only included testing for antibodies to HIV. However, due to latent infection (the "window period" in which an individual is infectious, but has not had time to develop antibodies), many cases of HIV seropositive blood were missed. The development of a nucleic acid test for the HIV-1 RNA has dramatically lowered the rate of donor blood seropositivity to about 1 in 3 million units. As transmittance of HIV does not necessarily mean HIV infection, the latter could still occur, at an even lower rate.
The transmission of hepatitis C via transfusion currently stands at a rate of about 1 in 2 million units. As with HIV, this low rate has been attributed to the ability to screen for both antibodies as well as viral RNA nucleic acid testing in donor blood.
Other rare transmissible infections include hepatitis B, syphilis, Chagas disease, cytomegalovirus infections (in immunocompromised recipients), HTLV, and Babesia.
Transfusion inefficacy or insufficient efficacy of a given unit(s) of blood product, while not itself a "complication" per se, can nonetheless indirectly lead to complications - in addition to causing a transfusion to fully or partly fail to achieve its clinical purpose. This can be especially significant for certain patient groups such as critical-care or neonatals.
For red blood cells (RBC), by far the most commonly transfused product, poor transfusion efficacy can result from units damaged by the so-called storage lesion - a range of biochemical and biomechanical changes that occur during storage. With red cells, this can decrease viability and ability for tissue oxygenation. Although some of the biochemical changes are reversible after the blood is transfused, the biomechanical changes are less so, and rejuvenation products are not yet able to adequately reverse this phenomenon. There has been increasing controversy about whether a given product unit's age is a factor in transfusion efficacy, specifically about whether "older" blood directly or indirectly increases risks of complications. Studies have not been consistent on answering this question, with some showing that older blood is indeed less effective but with others showing no such difference; these developments are being closely followed by hospital blood bankers - who are the physicians, typically pathologists, who collect and manage inventories of tranfusable blood units.
Certain regulatory measures are in place to minimize RBC storage lesion - including a maximum shelf life (currently 42 days), a maximum auto-hemolysis threshold (currently 1% in the US, 0.8% in Europe), and a minimum level of post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo (currently 75% after 24 hours). However, all of these criteria are applied in a universal manner that does not account for differences among units of product. For example, testing for the post-transfusion RBC survival in vivo is done on a sample of healthy volunteers, and then compliance is presumed for all RBC units based on universal (GMP) processing standards (of course, RBC survival by itself does not guarantee efficacy, but it is a necessary prerequisite for cell function, and hence serves as a regulatory proxy). Opinions vary as to the "best" way to determine transfusion efficacy in a patient in vivo. In general, there are not yet any in vitro tests to assess quality or predict efficacy for specific units of RBC blood product prior to their transfusion, though there is exploration of potentially relevant tests based on RBC membrane properties such as erythrocyte deformability and erythrocyte fragility (mechanical).
Many physicians have adopted a so-called "restrictive protocol" - whereby transfusion is held to a minimum - due in part to the noted uncertainties surrounding storage lesion, in addition to the very high direct and indirect costs of transfusions, along with the increasing view that many transfusions are inappropriate or use too many RBC units. Of course, restrictive protocol is not an option with some especially vulnerable patients who may require the best possible efforts to rapidly restore tissue oxygenation.
Although tranfusions of platelets are far less numerous (relative to RBC), platelet storage lesion and resulting efficacy loss is also a concern.
Beginning with Harvey's experiments with circulation of the blood, research into blood transfusion began in the 17th century, with successful experiments in transfusion between animals. However, successive attempts by physicians to transfuse animal blood into humans gave variable, often fatal, results.
The first fully documented human blood transfusion was administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys, eminent physician to King Louis XIV of France, on June 15, 1667. He transfused the blood of a sheep into a 15-year-old boy, who survived the transfusion. Denys performed another transfusion into a labourer, who also survived. Both instances were likely due to the small amount of blood that was actually transfused into these people. This allowed them to withstand the allergic reaction. Denys' third patient to undergo a blood transfusion was Swedish Baron Gustaf Bonde. He received two transfusions. After the second transfusion Bonde died. In the winter of 1667, Denys performed several transfusions on Antoine Mauroy with calf's blood, who on the third account died. Much controversy surrounded his death. Mauroy's wife asserted Denys was responsible for her husband's death; she was accused as well, though it was later determined that Mauroy actually died from arsenic poisoning, Denys' experiments with animal blood provoked a heated controversy in France. Finally, in 1670 the procedure was banned. In time, the British Parliament and the Vatican followed suit. Blood transfusions fell into obscurity for the next 150 years.
Richard Lower examined the effects of changes in blood volume on circulatory function and developed methods for cross-circulatory study in animals, obviating clotting by closed arteriovenous connections. His newly devised instruments eventually led to actual transfusion of blood.
"Many of his colleagues were present. Towards the end of February 1665 [when he] selected one dog of medium size, opened its jugular vein, and drew off blood, until ... its strength was nearly gone. Then, to make up for the great loss of this dog by the blood of a second, I introduced blood from the cervical artery of a fairly large mastiff, which had been fastened alongside the first, until this latter animal showed ... it was overfilled ... by the inflowing blood." After he "sewed up the jugular veins," the animal recovered "with no sign of discomfort or of displeasure."
Lower had performed the first blood transfusion between animals. He was then "requested by the Honorable [Robert] Boyle ... to acquaint the Royal Society with the procedure for the whole experiment," which he did in December 1665 in the Society's Philosophical Transactions.
Six months later in London, Lower performed the first human transfusion of animal blood in Britain. At a meeting of the Royal Society, Lower stated he had "superintended the introduction in [a patient's] arm at various times of some ounces of sheep's blood at , and without any inconvenience to him." The recipient was Arthur Coga, "the subject of a harmless form of insanity." Sheep's blood was used because of speculation about the value of blood exchange between species; it had been suggested that blood from a gentle lamb might quiet the tempestuous spirit of an agitated person and that the shy might be made outgoing by blood from more sociable creatures. Lower wanted to treat Coga several times, but his patient refused. No more transfusions were performed. Shortly before, Lower had moved to London, where his growing practice soon led him to abandon research.
The science of blood transfusion dates to the first decade of the 20th century, with the discovery of distinct blood types leading to the practice of mixing some blood from the donor and the receiver before the transfusion (an early form of cross-matching).
In the early 19th century, British obstetrician Dr. James Blundell made efforts to treat hemorrhage by transfusion of human blood using a syringe. In 1818 following experiments with animals, he performed the first successful transfusion of human blood to treat postpartum hemorrhage. Blundell used the patient's husband as a donor, and extracted four ounces of blood from his arm to transfuse into his wife. During the years 1825 and 1830, Blundell performed 10 transfusions, five of which were beneficial, and published his results. He also invented a number of instruments for the transfusion of blood. He made a substantial amount of money from this endeavour, roughly $2 million ($50 million real dollars).
George Washington Crile is credited with performing the first surgery using a direct blood transfusion in 1906 at St. Alexis Hospital in Cleveland while a professor of surgery at Case Western Reserve University.[when?]
Early transfusions were risky and many resulted in the death of the patient. It was not until 1901, when the Austrian Karl Landsteiner discovered human blood groups, that blood transfusions became safer. Mixing blood from two incompatible individuals can lead to an immune response, and the destruction of red blood cells releases free hemoglobin into the bloodstream, which can have fatal consequences. Karl Landsteiner discovered that when incompatible types are mixed, the red blood cells clump, and that this immunological reaction occurs when the receiver of a blood transfusion has antibodies against the donor blood cells. His work made it possible to determine blood type and allowed a way for blood transfusions to be carried out much more safely. For this discovery he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine in 1930, and many other blood groups have been discovered since.
While the first transfusions had to be made directly from donor to receiver before coagulation, in the 1910s it was discovered that by adding anticoagulant and refrigerating the blood it was possible to store it for some days, thus opening the way for blood banks. The first non-direct transfusion was performed on March 27, 1914 by the Belgian doctor Albert Hustin, though this was a diluted solution of blood. The Argentine doctor Luis Agote used a much less diluted solution in November of the same year. Both used sodium citrate as an anticoagulant. The First World War acted as a catalyst for the rapid development of blood banks and transfusion techniques. The first blood transfusion using blood that had been stored and cooled was performed on January 1, 1916. Geoffrey Keynes, a British surgeon, developed a portable machine that could store blood to enable transfusions to be carried out more easily. His work was recognized as saving thousands of lives during the war. Oswald Hope Robertson, a medical researcher and U.S. Army officer, is generally credited with establishing the first blood bank while serving in France during World War I.
The first academic institution devoted to the science of blood transfusion was founded by Alexander Bogdanov in Moscow in 1925. Bogdanov was motivated, at least in part, by a search for eternal youth, and remarked with satisfaction on the improvement of his eyesight, suspension of balding, and other positive symptoms after receiving 11 transfusions of whole blood.
In fact, following the death of Vladimir Lenin, Bogdanov was entrusted with the study of Lenin's brain, with a view toward resuscitating the deceased Bolshevik leader. Bogdanov died in 1928 as a result of one of his experiments, when the blood of a student suffering from malaria and tuberculosis was given to him in a transfusion. Some scholars (e.g. Loren Graham) have speculated that his death may have been a suicide, while others attribute it to blood type incompatibility, which was not completely understood at the time.
Today, Red Blood Cells (RBC) can be stored for up to 42 days / 6 weeks from the time of collection, assuming proper storage solutions and conditions. While this particular shelf life has little evidentiary basis and persists primarily for historical reasons, it remains the default metric in the absence of any direct means for measuring actual quality degradation of product units. Likewise, inventory is managed essentially on a "first-in-first-out" basis, due to the need to rely upon storage time as a rough indicator of quality (with many controversies surrounding the extent to which this is reliable).
Following Bogdanov's lead, the Soviet Union set up a national system of blood banks in the 1930s. News of the Soviet experience traveled to America, where in 1937 Bernard Fantus, director of therapeutics at the Cook County Hospital in Chicago, established the first hospital blood bank in the United States. In creating a hospital laboratory that preserved and stored donor blood, Fantus originated the term "blood bank". Within a few years, hospital and community blood banks were established across the United States.
In the late 1930s and early 1940s, Dr. Charles R. Drew's research led to the discovery that blood could be separated into blood plasma and red blood cells, and that the plasma could be frozen separately. Blood stored in this way lasted longer and was less likely to become contaminated.
Another important breakthrough came in 1939-40 when Karl Landsteiner, Alex Wiener, Philip Levine, and R.E. Stetson discovered the Rhesus blood group system, which was found to be the cause of the majority of transfusion reactions up to that time. Three years later, the introduction by J.F. Loutit and Patrick L. Mollison of acid-citrate-dextrose (ACD) solution, which reduces the volume of anticoagulant, permitted transfusions of greater volumes of blood and allowed longer term storage.
Carl Walter and W.P. Murphy, Jr. introduced the plastic bag for blood collection in 1950. Replacing breakable glass bottles with durable plastic bags allowed for the evolution of a collection system capable of safe and easy preparation of multiple blood components from a single unit of whole blood.
In the field of cancer surgery replacement of massive blood loss became a major problem. The cardiac arrest rate was high. In 1963, C. Paul Boyan and Willam Howland discovered that the temperature of the blood and the rate of infusion greatly affected survival rates, and introduced blood warming to surgery.
Further extending the shelf life of stored blood was an anticoagulant preservative, CPDA-1, introduced in 1979, which increased the blood supply and facilitated resource-sharing among blood banks.
As of 2006, there were about 15 million units of blood products transfused per year in the United States.
Objections to blood transfusions may arise for personal, medical, or religious reasons. For example, Jehovah's Witnesses object to blood transfusion primarily on religious grounds—they believe that blood is sacred, the Bible says "abstain from blood" (Acts 15:28,29) they have also highlighted complications associated with transfusion.
Veterinarians also administer transfusions to other animals. Various species require different levels of testing to ensure a compatible match. For example, cats have 3 known blood types, cattle have 11, dogs have 12, pigs 16 and horses have 34. However, in many species (especially horses and dogs), cross matching is not required before the first transfusion, as antibodies against non-self cell surface antigens are not expressed constitutively - i.e. the animal has to be sensitized before it will mount an immune response against the transfused blood.
The rare and experimental practice of inter-species blood transfusions is a form of xenograft.
Thus far, there are no available oxygen-carrying blood substitutes, which is the typical objective of a blood (RBC) transfusion; however, there are widely available non-blood volume expanders for cases where only volume restoration is required. These are helping doctors and surgeons avoid the risks of disease transmission and immune suppression, address the chronic blood donor shortage, and address the concerns of Jehovah's Witnesses and others who have religious objections to receiving transfused blood.
A number of blood substitutes have been explored (and still are), but thus far they all suffer from many challenges. Most attempts to find a suitable alternative to blood thus far have concentrated on cell-free hemoglobin solutions. Blood substitutes could make transfusions more readily available in emergency medicine and in pre-hospital EMS care. If successful, such a blood substitute could save many lives, particularly in trauma where massive blood loss results. Hemopure, a hemoglobin-based therapy, is approved for use in South Africa.
Although there are clinical situations where transfusion with red blood cells is the only clinically appropriate option, increasingly clinicians are looking at alternatives. This can be due to several reasons, such as patient safety, economic burden or scarcity of blood. Increasingly guidelines recommend blood transfusions should be reserved for patients with or at risk of cardiovascular instability due to the degree of their anaemia In these cases parenteral iron is recommended.
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Anyone who has driven the A55 will have likely come face to face with Penmaenmawr. Coming from the west you drive around the outside of it, the road balancing precariously between the sea and the shored up, granite cliff face. Come from the east and you’ll mostly drive underneath it but before you get there you’ll see it rising up in front of you, blocking the road ahead. When you get close you’ll see it scarred by scree slopes and criss-crossed with wire fences. It looks uninviting, unwelcoming, but it does not look all that threatening. It is hard to believe, driving past it today, that this was once regarded as one of the most dangerous headlands in Britain. In order to get around it people used to brave the mudflats of the Lavan sands at low tide. That mountain genuinely terrified people. The Romans had the better idea of diverting their road behind it. Over the course of the twentieth century the mountain was decimated, stripped of its terror, first by way of intensive quarrying and the reduction of its size from 1550 feet to just over 1000, and then by the building of the A55 dual carriageway around and under it. The quarrying in particular is both a travesty and a tragedy for not only has it has stripped Britain of one of its coastal wonders, it has completely destroyed what was, potentially, one of the most important archaeological sites in the region, the hill fort of Braich-y-Dinas.
Braich-y-Dinas was, until the quarrying destroyed it in the early nineteen tens, one of the largest hill forts in North Wales. It was by no means the largest hill fort in Britain, it was nothing when compared to Maiden Castle in Dorset, but according to plans made in the late 1800s (1877, precisely,) it was around 1000 feet across north to south and 800 feet east to west. The ramparts were stone, comprising of an outer wall and a series of inner walls. The outer wall was roughly 1000 metres (3300 feet) in length. At the time of its destruction these walls still stood to around 9 feet high, though one report from 1845 makes the suggestion that they were 12 feet high. To me this latter height sounds like an overestimation and a height of around 7 to 10 feet is more likely. In terms of thickness the ramparts varied from between 8 and 15 feet thick.
Already we can see that this was a substantial monument and it would not only have been one of the largest hill forts in North Wales, but one of the largest archaeological monuments in North Wales, period. To give a comparison of size, today the largest surviving monuments are the medieval castles of Edward I. Take, for example, Conwy castle. From the east to the west barbican, its length, is 340 feet. Braich Y Dinas was almost three times as lengthy. Conwy castle could have sat comfortably inside Braich-y-Dinas and there would still have been room to fit Caernarfon in as well. Even then there’d still be a bit of space left over. Admittedly, if we include the area within the old town of Conwy, including the walls, Braich-y-Dinas comes up short but even despite this the fort is still quite substantial. Conwy, for example, does not have walls that are eight feet thick. At best they are only five and a half feet thick. At 29 feet high they are considerably taller than the walls of Braich-y-Dinas, but let us not forget that the 9 foot height of Braich-y-Dinas was after two thousand years of weathering and erosion. At the time of occupation the height of the ramparts would likely have been much, much higher than at the time of their destruction. How high, however, we cannot say.
In its heyday Braich-y-Dinas would have been as much of a statement as those castles of Edward I, more so given its prominent position in the landscape. Even today, despite being a shadow of its former self, Penmaenmawr is a notable presence in the landscape and the presence of an above nine foot high masonry wall at the very peak would have been an astonishing sight. It would have indubitably demonstrated that the people who occupied this hill fort, that the people who built it, were in charge. Braich-y-Dinas would have dwarfed all other forts in the area. It sat in a chain of them which stretched along the high ground of this coast, from the fort of Caer Seion on Mynydd y Dref above Conwy to Maes-y-Gaer above Abergwyngregyn, and occupied what was then, and still is, the highest point on the North Wales coast. In fact, in the whole of the Irish Sea zone, you would struggle to find any coastal point that was higher than the old altitude of Penmaenmawr. To get anywhere close you have to go as far north as Scotland and the Isle of Mull. The hill fort, therefore, would have perhaps indicated the presence of a powerful people who not only dominated the local landscape, but the whole of the Irish Sea zone as well.
Within Braich-y-Dinas were a sizeable number of stone buildings, mostly ovoid and between 10 and 20 feet diameter. It was estimated there were around ninety of these, though the 1877 plan shows in excess of one hundred and forty. There is a high chance that not all of these would have been dwellings. Some would probably have been used for storage or as animal houses and others may have had a more public function, though the reports made about the site seem to suggest there was no evidence for the latter. All the buildings that were investigated during rescue excavations in 1910 were revealed to have paved stone floors and hearths. One was even found to have a raised stone bench, similar to those seen at Skara Brae. According to the 1845 report one of the buildings was still roofed, though I find this fanciful. The indications are there was a fairly large community here.
Finds included coins from the reigns of Nerva, Trajan and Hadrian as well as bronze bracelets featuring a ‘celtic’ design of concentric circles. There were also spindle whorls, whetstones, saddle querns and fragments of Roman pottery, in particular Samian ware. In total the finds indicated that the fort was occupied from some point in the Iron Age to at least the 2nd Century AD. I couldn’t find any definitive location for these finds in the modern day, but I would presume they are in Penmaenmawr museum.
There were also three Bronze Age Cairns at the very summit of the mountain, within the hill fort enclosure. This is not untypical of mountain peaks in this area.
Given its location, the fort would have been of vital strategic importance. I have already mentioned how it was positioned at one of the highest points in the Irish Sea zone and the height would have given the occupiers in both the Iron Age and Roman period a major advantage when it came to controlling and observing both maritime and land based activity. On a clear day the view from the top of the fort would be uninterrupted all the way over to Ireland, to Man (at least) and right across the whole of Liverpool Bay. Even on a day that was cloudy the view would still be considerable. Approaching ships could have been observed well in advance of their arrival and in the case of enemy or pirate shipping apprehended and dealt with before they could do any damage. It would also have been a useful site for controlling trade. It is not likely, however, that there was any connection with the copper mines at Gogarth. These had been abandoned by the start of the Iron Age and were not reworked until the Roman period, towards the supposed end of Braich-y-Dinas’s occupation.
The hill fort sat in the far north of the Carneddau archaeological zone, an area that stretches from the Conwy River in the east to the junction of the A5 and A55 in the west. As is clear by the name, it mostly encompasses the Carneddau mountain range. This whole area, approximately 200 square miles in size, is saturated with archaeology of all periods from the Neolithic to the post-medieval. Braich-y-Dinas, being one of the largest monuments in the area, was crucial to our understanding of how this landscape functioned and changed over time. It was crucial to our understanding of what happened here in the Iron Age and early-mid Roman period. Sadly, thanks to its destruction, we can no longer study, in detail and using modern techniques and practices, this site. As I mentioned in the opening paragraph, this is a travesty and a tragedy for this, as I have shown, was one of the most significant sites in the area.
How, therefore was its destruction allowed to happen? How did it come to pass that such an important and significant site came to be completely destroyed?
The first schedule of ancient monuments in Britain was undertaken by Augustus Pitt Rivers, who became the first inspector of ancient monuments in 1882. Pitt Rivers made great strides in cataloguing and preserving important archaeological sites but his work was far from a complete picture. He was limited by the law, which at that time gave precedence to the needs of landowners instead of the public benefit and the preservation of the past. His work only included a few select sites in Wales, for example. One of these was not, as you can well guess, Braich-y-Dinas. It was not until 1908, when the need for protection and preservation was becoming paramount, that three separate Royal Commissions were set up to protect ancient monuments in England, Wales and Scotland. In Wales this body is still known as the Royal Commission but in England and Scotland the commissions are now part of Historic Scotland and English Heritage, respectively.
When these commissions were set up in 1908 Braich-y-Dinas was not beyond saving, though it was perilously close to destruction. Already some parts of it had been destroyed. Small scale quarrying had been going on at Penmaenmawr for some time, there was an axe factory here in the Neolithic, but under the ownership of a Colonel Darbishire in the 1880s the mountain began to be quarried on an industrial scale. The newly formed commission began efforts to save the site in 1909. Parliament was petitioned and the issue was even raised with the Prime Minister, Herbert Henry Asquith. According to the North Wales Weekly News (dated 25th June 1909) he responded, when asked about the issue at Prime Ministers Question Time, by saying: ‘as the undertaking gives employment to six hundred men I do not think that Commissioners would be warranted in interfering on this point, even if they had the power to do so.’ In other words, Asquith placed the interests of the quarry owners, of business, above the need for preserving an ancient site. The quarrying was allowed to continue. Rescue excavations and research, such as that undertaken by Harold Hughes, were made and by 1912 the site had been, more or less, completely destroyed. The destruction was so important that it made international news, featuring in no less than the New York Times (27th November 1910.)
Had Asquith (and parliament) not put the interests of business first, had the true significance of the site been recognised at the time, Braich-y-Dinas would still be with us today. At the time various excuses were made that the quarrying would not destroy the camp, including erroneous claims that the quarrying lease did not include that portion of the mountain and that it would not be profitable to quarry out that portion of the mountain. It should have been blatantly apparent that the quarrying would continue and that the site would be destroyed. The fact that it took only a few years for the site to be decimated shows how critical the situation was. Any cursory glance at the site, at this time, would have made abundantly clear that it was in danger.
We can certainly blame the likes of Asquith, as much as we can blame the quarry men and quarry owners, for the destruction as (knowingly or not) the excuses were accepted and the desecration allowed to continue unchecked. Instead of recognising the significance of this site, instead of listening to the Royal Commission and putting a stop to the quarrying for the sake of the long term national, historical interest, he let Braich-y-Dinas be destroyed.
Was it really for the sake of those six hundred men? I doubt it. At least, I doubt that it was entirely for those six hundred men. If it was supposedly not profitable to quarry out that portion of the mountain, as was claimed, would they not have lost their jobs anyway? If the quarry had been closed, for the sake of saving the hill fort, could not a provision for their employment be found elsewhere? Yes, they deserved security of employment but at what cost? Quarrying in North Wales, at this time, was ubiquitous after all. There was the Penrhyn Quarry at Bethesda, the Dinorwig in Llanberis, mines elsewhere. Even if they could not find work locally, there would have been opportunities further afield. Skilled labour such as that would not have remained unemployed for long, especially at a time when industrial quarrying and mining was still enormously profitable on the whole. Yes, there may have had to have been a small scale migration, but such was the risk of working in industry in those days. You had to go where the work was. The only person who lost out in the long term would have been Colonel Darbishire, the quarry owner. It is clear to me that it was mostly in his interest, for the sake of his profit and quarry that Braich-y-Dinas was destroyed. I do not know what kind of a man he was, but it is apparent that he was at least the sort who thought profit and money were more important than an ancient monument of national significance.
Any gains for Darbishire and his workers, profit and secure employment etc. would have been phenomenally short term and would have benefited only the select few. The advantages of saving Braich-y-Dinas would have far outweighed those of saving the quarry. Modern analysis could have revealed so much about life in Iron Age and Roman North Wales. There is every chance that it could have fundamentally altered our understanding of the period. Future generations could have learnt from and explored this site. We would be better able to understand its relationship to the landscape and to sites that were then unknown. Preserving it would have been of an enormous benefit to future generations. Its regional importance would have been recognised and it would have formed, perhaps, a key component of our national heritage. Saving it would have been an advantage for all time. Meanwhile, Darbishire and his workers are all dead. Today their continued employment means nothing. Any profit made from cutting out the heart of Penmaenmawr has presumably been long frittered away and scattered to the winds. For that we have lost one of the finest ancient monuments in Wales and it can never be replaced.
Today much of the Carneddau archaeological zone is covered by the Snowdonia National Park and most of the important ancient sites are well protected, even those that lie outside of the park boundary. The chances of losing another monument like we did Braich-y-Dinas are slim. Yet, around the mountain of Penmaenmawr the park boundary makes an unusual kink. Mostly it follows the edge of the mountain range but here it diverts a long way inland before, on the far side of Llanfairfechan, returning to the edge of the mountains. The area that this kink excludes includes is dense with archaeology, amongst which are the remains of the Neolithic axe factory. There is one reason and one reason alone for this kink- The Penmaenmawr quarry. Still it is active, though today it employs less than ten people, and still the once mighty headland is being whittled away stone by stone and pebble by pebble. So that this may continue, the national park boundary makes its kink and in so doing endangers the nearby archaeology. In theory the quarry could swamp these sites like it once did Braich-y-Dinas, destroy them utterly, forever. They are not so important as Braich-y-Dinas was, but their presence is still a vital component in understanding this landscape as it once was.
The environment act of 1995 sets out that the aim of a national park is to ‘conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage’ of a given area. By allowing the kink around the Penmaenmawr quarry Snowdonia National Park is not fulfilling that aim. It is, again, a case of business being served at the expense of wider, more national and cultural, interests. For the sake of this one quarry, which has already been the destruction of one staggeringly important monument, the remaining beauty of Penmaenmawr and the surviving archaeology is being placed at potential risk. There is nothing left of Braich-y-Dinas but it is my opinion that we should now be doing what should have been done over one hundred years ago, and preserving this small corner of North Wales for future generations. | <urn:uuid:d89c0e08-3c59-432a-bf86-f55ee3537b2c> | CC-MAIN-2018-51 | https://jpcrocks.wordpress.com/2017/10/08/the-destruction-of-braich-y-dinas/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-51/segments/1544376828507.57/warc/CC-MAIN-20181217113255-20181217135255-00267.warc.gz | en | 0.983482 | 3,661 | 2.75 | 3 |
How to Combine Several Gradients in Adobe Illustrator
Estimated completion time: 15 minutes
In this tutorial we will deal with some combination of gradient fills with the help of Blending modes, gradients with transparent sliders, and Opacity masks. These techniques allow us to create complex color blends, which typically have real world objects.
Gradient Combining with the Help of Blending Modes
Let’s check out some opportunities of object transparency change with two Blending modes. Create two rectangles, one of which should have a color fill, and the other is filled with black-and-white linear gradient.
Apply the Multiply blending mode in the Transparency panel to the object with gradient fill. As you can see, the white color became absolutely transparent after usage of this mode.
And now apply the Screen blending mode to this rectangle. This time, the black color became transparent.
Here I want to note, that this trick works fully only in RGB color mode. In addition, we need to use absolutely black color R=0; G=0; B=0 for the black color.
And now, let’s see on practice how to use features, describes above. A pole of a stop-sign is filled with linear gradient, which carries the volume of the cylindrical surface.
Duplicate this object, then fill the new object with vertical linear gradient from dark-grey to white.
Apply the Multiply blending mode to the top form. As we expected, white became transparent, and we’ve got some shadow on the upper part of the pole.
Now we can control the intensity of our shadow, either lighten or darken our grey linear gradient.
Duplicate the form of the pole one more time. Fill the copy with radial gradient from black to white.
Apply Screen blending mode to the upper form
The black color became transparent. Now we can adjust the intensity of the reflection by changing white radial gradient to grey.
You can, of course, use these techniques for color gradient combining, but it won’t work very effectively, because of the color blends.
Despite the limitations mentioned here, combining of gradients with the help of blending modes is a rather common technique, and is often used for creation of highlights and shadows.
Combining of Gradients with the Help of Transparency Slider Feature
Since the release of CS5, we can change the opacity of gradient fill sliders. This feature can be used for gradient combining. In this case, we won’t need to use blending modes; we can apply such gradients in both color modes (RGB and CMYK) and combine color gradients with no limitations.
Usually, two sliders of the same color are used in such gradients; one of the sliders should have 0% opacity. Some users avoid usage of gradients with transparent sliders, because the final version of the artwork should be saved in EPS10 format. I think, it won’t cause you any problems. After your vector work has been saved in EPS10 format, the gradient with transparent sliders is transformed into the Opacity Mask.
Combining of Gradients with Opacity Mask
Let’s check out the Opacity Mask creation technique on one easy example. We have a rectangle, which is filled with linear gradient.
Create a new rectangle, which is located above the first rectangle, and fill it with black-and-white linear gradient.
Select both rectangles, and then select Make Opacity Mask in the fly-out menu of the Transparency panel. The top rectangle with black-and-white gradient plays a role of a mask. The place where it is black, the bottom rectangle became transparent.
If the Opacity Mask placed above other gradient fill, then we will get a combination of gradients.
To control black-and-white gradient, click on the thumbnail of masking objects in the Transparency panel.
To control the gradient of color object, click on the Opacity mask thumbnail.
The usage of Opacity mask gives us more opportunities, than two other ways of gradient fill combing. In fact, we have two objects, the transition between which is defined by the third object in the form of black-and-white gradient. Moreover, you can mask the groups of objects in such a way, which cannot be achieved by any other way. Let’s look at some pictures, which shown how I used the Opacity Mask in practice.
In this example, I used the Opacity mask to create the reflection. The mask allowed me to limit the visibility and blur the edges. | <urn:uuid:fbca95cf-3786-4228-921d-2e34f4c10236> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | http://lifeintheweehours.com/index-190.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656104354651.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20220704050055-20220704080055-00241.warc.gz | en | 0.873872 | 963 | 2.765625 | 3 |
In 2019, the Government of Seychelles had indicated its desire to include blue carbon, in particular mangroves and seagrass, in its NDC.
Although ambitious for a small island nation, existing and new partners responded to this call to support the Government of Seychelles to integrate blue carbon into its NDC. The Pew Charitable Trust agreed to provide a grant and technical expertise from its Coastal Wetlands team and The Nature Conservancy’s International Climate Policy team to Seychelles through SeyCCAT.
The project was highlighted at the COP 25 that had been dubbed the “Blue COP.” Ambassador Jumeau delivered the keynote address and underlined that blue carbon refers to mangroves, seagrass and salt marshes, and noted that addressing these ecosystems aligns with the growing support for nature-based solutions, and awareness of oceans as part of the solution to the climate crisis. Jumeau stressed the need to understand the role of ocean protection in the fight against climate change, underlining that when small island developing states (SIDS) act as “Big Ocean States,” ambition increases 1000-fold. Noting that huge ocean spaces absorb more carbon than land, he stressed that a healthy ocean acts as a climate buffer as well as the need to reduce emissions.
The Pew Charitable Trusts funded project focuses on seagrass meadows as critical habitats for addressing the impacts of climate change.
The project includes both national and international partners, such as the University of Seychelles – Blue Economy Research Institute (BERI), University of Oxford, Deakin University and local NGOs, such as Island Conservation Society. | <urn:uuid:67ce05a6-1698-4fee-afc7-052a01c6f14a> | CC-MAIN-2021-04 | https://seyccat.org/partnership-and-finance-to-integrate-blue-carbon-in-seychelles-ndc/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-04/segments/1610703529128.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20210122051338-20210122081338-00730.warc.gz | en | 0.945395 | 347 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Content, progress and pedagogy of the
The module adds to the knowledge obtained in 1st
- Of the most important machine learning techniques.
- About tools for applying machine learning solutions.
- About characteristics of big data.
- About programming models and tools for big data
- Understand the types of machine learning algorithms, such as
supervised, unsupervised and reinforcement learning.
- Understand the different classes of tasks where machine
learning can be applied, including classification, regression and
- Apply machine learning algorithms in a given problem.
- Understand big data characteristics, such as volume, velocity,
variety, veracity, valence, and value and explain how they can
influence big data analysis.
- Create data models that suit the characteristics of given
- Design and develop autonomous systems that exploit machine
learning and big data.
- Is able to compare, choose, or develop the most appropriate
machine learning algorithm in a given problem.
- Can identify the type of task and required machine learning
algorithm in a given application.
- Can identify what are big data problems.
- Must have the competency to compare and choose the most
appropriate data model that suits the characteristics of given
- Is able to compare and assess the use of techniques and tools
for issues that include collecting, storing, organizing, analyzing
and using big data.
Type of instruction
The teaching is organized in accordance with the general form of
teaching. Please see the programme cirruculum §17.
Extent and expected workload
Since it is a 5 ECTS course module the expected workload is
150 hours for the student.
|Name of exam||Machine Learning and Big Data|
|Type of exam|
Written or oral exam
|Assessment||7-point grading scale|
|Type of grading||Internal examination|
|Criteria of assessment||The criteria of assessment are stated in the Examination
Policies and Procedures| | <urn:uuid:b34a99fd-775e-4f8c-8b92-1c0423d6480d> | CC-MAIN-2021-21 | https://moduler.aau.dk/course/2020-2021/M-AS-K2-3 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-21/segments/1620243988850.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20210508061546-20210508091546-00330.warc.gz | en | 0.807973 | 410 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Sitting for long periods, using motorized transportation (such as a bus or car), watching television, playing passive video games and playing on the computer – these are a few examples of Sedentary behaviour, or in other words, the time when children are doing very little physical movement.
- Active Transportation: Instead of driving, walk to school with a group of kids from the neighbourhood
- Active Play: Limit after-school TV watching. Plan time outdoors instead!
- Active Family Time: Instead of video games in the evening, introduce the family to a new active game.
Related: Parenting hack: An easy, everyday change to keep your kids active and healthy.
- Healthy bodies: Being active helps kids build a healthy heart, bones and muscles. It also helps to maintain a healthy body weight.
- Better grades: Being active helps to improve memory and concentration, fosters creativity and problem-solving skills.
- Positive self-esteem and good mental health: Physical activity helps children feel good about themselves. It provides opportunity to help them master a skill. It helps to reduce stress, anxiety and depression.
Better social skills: Playing games and participating in team activities helps children make new friends, learn team-building skills and self-discipline.
Related: 10 Simple to-do’s to keep your kids active
Are your children meeting the recommended physical activity guidelines? Let us know about the types of activities you do with your kids in the comments below!
Source: Canadian Physical Activity Guidelines | <urn:uuid:395b89d7-22b2-4810-942a-108fdcea89eb> | CC-MAIN-2019-18 | http://letslivehealthier.com/physically/health-children/how-to-guide-building-daily-healthy-habits/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-18/segments/1555578610036.72/warc/CC-MAIN-20190423174820-20190423200820-00118.warc.gz | en | 0.917879 | 310 | 3.921875 | 4 |
A urinal (pronounced US // or UK //) is a sanitary plumbing fixture for urination only, predominantly used by males. It can take the form of a container or simply a wall, with drainage and automatic or manual flushing, or without flush water as is the case for waterless urinals.
The different types of urinals, be it for single users or as trough designs for multiple users, are intended to be utilized from a standing position (rather than squatting or sitting). The term may also apply to a small building or other structure containing such fixtures. It can also refer to a small container in which urine can be collected for medical analysis, or for use where access to toilet facilities is not possible, such as in small aircraft, during extended stakeouts, or for the bedridden.
While urinals are generally intended for use by males, it is also possible for females to use them. Designers of urinals for women have adopted various approaches: some intending the user to "hover" over the unit, facing away from it, others intending the user to stand facing the urinal, with or without a female urination device. While uncommon due to restroom segregation, it is possible for females to use male urinals.
- 1 Description
- 2 Urinals with flushing
- 3 Waterless urinals
- 4 Street urinals
- 5 Special urinals
- 6 History
- 7 Society and culture
- 8 See also
- 9 References
- 10 External links
In busy washrooms, urinals are installed for efficiency: compared with urination in a general-purpose toilet, usage is faster because within the room there are no additional doors, no locks, and no seat to turn up; also a urinal takes less space, is simpler, and consumes less water per flush (or even no water at all) than a flush toilet. Urinals also come in different heights, to accommodate tall and short users, men or boys. There are often privacy barriers between the urinals.
Public urinals usually have a plastic mesh guard, which may optionally contain a deodorizing urinal deodorizer block or "urinal cake". The mesh is intended to prevent solid objects (such as cigarette butts, feces, chewing gum, or paper) from being flushed and possibly causing a plumbing stoppage. In some restaurants, bars, and clubs, ice may be put in the urinals, serving some of the same purposes as the deodorizing block without dispensing odorous chemicals.
The body posture for users of urinals is usually the standing position, except for urinals intended for females which may be used in more of a "hovering" position (partial squat), or even a full squatting position.
Urinals for high throughput capacity are part of an efficiently designed washroom architecture. Large numbers of them are usually installed along a common supply pipe and drain. There may or may not be partitions installed for privacy.
Urinals in high-capacity washrooms are usually arranged in one or more rows directly opposite the door, so that users have their backs to people entering or standing outside. Urinals in the street may be arranged in a circle, with all users facing the center, with partitions high enough that they cannot wet each other, and usually high enough that they cannot see over. In a street urinal with an outside screen or wall, the users may stand back to back.
Often, one or two of the urinals, typically at one end of a long row, will be mounted lower than the others; they are meant for the disabled and other users who cannot reach the regular urinals. In facilities where people of various heights are present, such as schools, urinals that extend down to floor level may be used to allow anyone of any height to use any urinal.
Instead of individual fixtures, trough urinals may be installed. These designs can be used by a number of people simultaneously, but they do not allow for much privacy. They are often installed where there is a high peak demand, such as in schools, music festivals, theatrical events, sports stadiums, discos, dance clubs, and convention halls.
Urinals were once installed exclusively in commercial or institutional settings, but are also now available for private homes. They offer the advantages of substantial water savings in residences with many occupants, and reduction of "splash back", making cleaning easier.
Urinal with pink-colored urinal cake
Urinals in Tokyo, Japan; one at far right is fitted with handle bars for people with disabilities
Urinals in the Czech Republic
Trough urinal in Los Angeles
Train station urinal in Munich, Germany
Men's restroom in Vienna, Austria
Modern trough urinal in an art museum in Brisbane, Australia
Vintage urinals in Boston secondary school (c.1933-1959)
Outdoor urinals at school for boys (left) and girls (right) in Tamil Nadu, India
Urinals with flushing
Most public urinals incorporate a water flushing system to rinse urine from the bowl of the device, to prevent foul odors. The flush can be triggered by one of several methods:
This type of flush might be regarded as standard in the United States. Each urinal is equipped with a button or short lever to activate the flush, with users expected to operate it as they leave. Such a directly controlled system is the most efficient, provided that patrons remember to use it. This is far from certain, however, often because of fear of touching the handle, which is located too high to kick. Urinals with foot-activated flushing systems are sometimes found in high-traffic areas; these systems have a button set into the floor or a pedal on the wall at ankle height. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires that flush valves be mounted no higher than 44 inches (110 cm) AFF (above the finished floor). Additionally, the urinal is to be mounted no higher than 17 inches (43 cm) AFF, and to have a rim that is tapered and elongated and protrudes at least 14 inches (36 cm) from the wall. This enables users in wheelchairs to straddle the lip of the urinal and urinate without having to "arc" the flow of urine upwards.
Some urinals are equipped with water-saving "dual-flush" handles, which use half as much water when pushed upwards, and operate a standard full flush when pressed downwards. The handles are often color-coded green to alert users to this feature.
In Germany, the United Kingdom, France, the Republic of Ireland, Hong Kong and some parts of Sweden and Finland, manual flush handles are unusual. Instead, the traditional system is a timed flush that operates automatically at regular intervals. Groups of up to ten or more urinals will be connected to a single overhead cistern, which contains the timing mechanism. A constant drip-feed of water slowly fills the cistern until a tipping point is reached, when the valve opens (or a siphon begins to drain the cistern), and all the urinals in the group are flushed. Electronic controllers performing the same function are also used.
This system does not require any action from its users, but it is wasteful of water when toilets are used irregularly. However, in these countries users are so used to the automatic system, that attempts to install manual flushes to save water are generally unsuccessful. Users ignore them not through deliberate laziness or fear of infection, but because activating the flush is not habitual.
To help reduce water usage when restrooms are closed, some restrooms with timed flushing use an electric water valve connected to the restroom light switch. When the building is in active use during the day and the lights are on, the timed flush operates normally. At night when the building is closed, the lights are turned off and the flushing action stops.
This is an older method of water-saving automatic flushing, which only operates when the room has been used. A push-button switch is mounted in the door frame of the restroom, and triggers the flush valve for all restroom urinals every time the door is opened. While it cannot detect the use of individual urinals, it provides reasonable flushing action without wasting excessive amounts of water when the restroom is not being used. This method requires a spring-operated automatic door closer, since the flush mechanism only operates when the restroom door opens.
Alternatively, a flushing system connected to the opening of the washroom door can count the number of users and operate when the count reaches a certain value. At night, the door never opens, so flushing never occurs.
Electronic automatic flushes solve the problems of previous approaches, and are common in new installations. A passive infrared sensor identifies when the urinal has been used, by detecting when someone has stood in front of it and moved away, and then activates the flush. There usually is also a small override button, to allow optional manual flushing.
Automatic flush facilities can be retrofitted to existing systems. The handle-operated valves of a manual system can be replaced with a suitably designed self-contained electronic valve, often battery-powered to avoid the need to add cables. Older timed-flush installations may add a device that regulates the water flow to the cistern according to the overall activity detected in the room. This does not provide true per-fixture automatic flushing, but is simple and cheap to add because only one device is required for the whole system.
To prevent false-triggering of the automatic flush, most infrared detectors require that a presence be detected for at least five seconds, such as when a person is standing in front of it. This prevents a whole line of automatic flush units from triggering in succession if someone just walks past them. The automatic flush mechanism also typically waits for the presence to go out of sensor range before flushing. This reduces water usage, compared to a sensor that would trigger a continuous flushing action the whole time that a presence is detected.
Since about the 1990s urinals are available on the market that use no water at all. These are called waterless urinals or flushless urinals. They were first invented by a German named Klaus Reichardt, who secured his innovation with several patents.
Waterless urinals can save between 15,000 and 45,000 US gallons (57,000 and 170,000 l) of water per urinal per year, depending on the amount of water used in the water-flushed urinal for comparison purposes, and the number of uses per day. For example, these numbers assume that the urinal would be used between 40 and 120 times per business day.
Models of waterless urinals introduced by the Waterless Company in 1991 and others in 2001 by Falcon Waterfree Technologies and Sloan Valve Company, as well as Duravit, use a trap insert filled with a sealant liquid instead of water. The lighter-than-water sealant floats on top of the urine collected in the U-bend, preventing odors from being released into the air. The cartridge and sealant must be periodically replaced.
Waterless urinals may also use an outlet system that traps the odor, preventing the smell often present in toilet blocks. Another method to eliminate odor was introduced by Caroma, which installed a deodorizing block in their waterless urinal that was activated during use.
Odor control in waterless urinals is also achieved with simple one-way valves which are manufactured as a flat rubber tube (the tube opens when urine flows through) or with two silicon "curtain" pieces. The former is used in the waterless urinals by the company Keramag in Germany (model Centaurus) and the latter is marketed by the company Addicom in South Africa who called it the EcoSmellStop device.
Waterless urinals can be installed in high-traffic facilities, and in situations where providing a water supply may be difficult or where water conservation is desired. Due to high-level water restrictions, Brisbane, Australia, has mandated conversion to waterless urinals, and flush urinals are rarely seen there.
Waterless urinals have become rather common in Germany since about 2009 and can be found at restaurants, cinemas, highway rest stops, train stations and so forth. Waterless urinals can be integrated into ecological sanitation approaches where the collected urine - after storage - can be used in agriculture as a fertilizer.
Installation and maintenance
The drain pipes from waterless urinals need to be installed correctly in terms of diameter, slope and pipe materials in order to prevent buildup of struvite ("urine stone") and calcium phosphate precipitates in the pipes, which would cause blockages and could require expensive repairs. Also, the undiluted urine is corrosive to metals (except for stainless steel), which is why plastic pipes are generally preferred for urine drain pipes.
Most waterless urinals do not prevent odorous staining on the surface of the urinals, and periodic cleaning of the fixture and its surrounds is still required. When maintained according to manufacturers' recommendations, well-designed waterless urinals do not emit any more odors than flushed urinals do. However, some odor-trapping devices work better than others in the longer term. Regular, thorough maintenance of the respective odor control device is needed for all types of waterless urinals, as per the manufacturer's recommendation.
Situation in the United States
US federal law has mandated no more than one gallon per flush since 1994, and the EPA estimates that the average urinal is flushed 20 times per day, which gives an average water use of 7,300 US gallons (28,000 l) per year. Mechanical traps are not allowed by US building codes but are allowed in many other countries.
Plumbers' unions initially opposed waterless urinals, citing concerns about health and safety, which have been debunked by scientists who have studied the devices. Facing opposition to their attempts to have the devices allowed in plumbing codes, manufacturers devised a compromise. The Uniform Plumbing Code was modified to allow waterless urinals to be installed, provided that unneeded water lines were nevertheless run to the back of the urinals. This allows conventional water-flushing urinals to be retrofitted later, if waterless models were judged to be unsatisfactory over time.
In March 2006, the Associated Press reported that the plumbers' union in Philadelphia had become upset because developer Liberty Property Trust had decided to use waterless urinals in the Comcast Center. Many in the union believed that this would lead to less work for them. The developer cited saving the city 1,600,000 US gallons (6,100,000 l) of water per year as its deciding factor.
In February 2010, the headquarters of the California EPA removed waterless urinals that were installed in 2003 due to "hundreds of complaints", including odors and splashed urine on the floors. Officials blamed the failure of the project on incompatibility with the building's existing plumbing systems.
In some localities, urinals may be located on public sidewalks or in public areas such as parks. These urinals are often equipped with partitions for the sake of privacy. They may or may not be equipped with water flushing mechanisms.
The Netherlands has a number of strategically-placed street urinals in various cities, intended to reduce public urination by drunken men. Some urinals can be retracted into the ground during the day or between special events, in order to save space when they are not expected to be needed. When closed they look like a large manhole in a sidewalk. Such retractable models, such as the model by the Dutch company Urilift, are also seen in the UK and other countries. At night when bars are open they rise out of the sidewalk; some time after the bars close, the urinals return to their manhole configuration so that they are unseen by people during the day.
In the Philippines, Marikina was the first city to install street urinals in the late 1990s. When Marikina Mayor Bayani Fernando was appointed chair of the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority, he installed street urinals in the rest of Metro Manila as well.
Modern street urinal in London
Street urinal in Vauxhall, London
Movable temporary urinal in Amsterdam
Street urinal in Stockholm
Street urinal in Groningen
Modernist street urinal in Hamburg, Germany
"Public Convenience" in Varanasi, Benares, India
Urinals designed for women
In the Western world, women are generally taught to sit or squat while urinating. Many therefore do not know how – or even that it is possible – for a woman to aim her urine stream as would be required to use a male urinal. Thus, several different types of urinal have been designed for women that do not require the user to aim her urine stream. Additionally, a few urinal designs are marketed as unisex. They are generally more conventional designs, but perhaps with a wider bowl and lower mounting height. A typical female user could thus approach such a urinal squatting backwards over it without necessarily trying to aim her stream.
From 1950 to 1974, the American Standard company offered the mass-produced "Ladies' Home Urinal". It did not provide significant advantages over conventional toilets, because it used just as much floor space and water for flushing. Its main selling point was that it was specifically designed for women to use without touching.
Several other designs have been tried since then, but they required the user either to hover awkwardly or to bring her genitals into close contact with the fixture. Most have not caught on. Current clothes fashions, such as panty hose and slacks, inhibit women from using them because they do not want their garments to touch the urinal or the floor. Often, women have little experience with urinals and do not know whether to approach them forward or backward.
Standard trough models intended for use with a specialized funnel have been introduced with some success, at outdoor festivals such as Glastonbury, to reduce dwell times and to alleviate long queues. In 2011, a portable female urinal—the Pollee—was introduced at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark and was received enthusiastically by female festival visitors.
Arts and interactive urinals
Kisses! is a controversial urinal designed by the female Dutch designer Meike van Schijndel. It is shaped like an open pair of red lips. In early March 2004, the National Organization for Women (NOW) took offense to the new urinals that Virgin Atlantic Airways decided to install in the Virgin Atlantic clubhouse at JFK Airport in New York City. After receiving many angry phone calls from female customers, Virgin Atlantic Vice President John Riordan called NOW to apologize. Protestors surmised a connection to oral sex or urolagnia, and based their complaints on the urinals being sexist. A McDonald's restaurant in the Netherlands removed them after a customer complained to the head office in the United States.
Interactive urinals have been developed in a number of countries, allowing users to entertain themselves during urination. One example is the Toylet, a video game system produced by the Japanese company Sega that allows users to play video games using their urine to control the on-screen action.
During military operations, such as the Korean War, Vietnam War, or Operation Desert Storm, "piss tubes" were used as makeshift urinals. To make one, soldiers would affix an inverted disposable water bottle on one end of a rigid tube, burying the other end. Removing the base of the bottle made a funnel which would be left at the proper height. Deposited urine simply soaked into the ground; when the area became saturated, the device was relocated.
|This section requires expansion. (May 2015)|
Until the 1990s, street urinals were a common sight in Paris (France), and in the 1930s more than 1200 were in service. They were famous among foreign tourists. Parisians referred to them as vespasiennes, the name being derived from that of the Roman Emperor Vespasian, who, according to an anecdote, imposed a tax on urine. Beginning in the 1990s, the vespasiennes (renowned for their smell and lack of hygiene) were gradually replaced by Sanisettes. Today only one vespasienne remains in the city (on Boulevard Arago), and it is still regularly used. They still exist in other French cities and in other countries.
Society and culture
Examples of urinals in popular culture include:
- Marcel Duchamp's Fountain (1917), which some have called the most influential modern artwork, is a urinal which Duchamp signed "R. Mutt".
- Police in Nassau County, New York adopted talking urinals in an anti-drunk driving initiative. Using Wizmark, a talking urinal display screen, police can provide bars with free pre-programmed urinal messages urging patrons not to drink and drive.
- Ernest Hemingway converted a urinal from Sloppy Joe's bar into a water fountain for his cats. The fountain remains a prominent feature at his former home in Key West, Florida, a popular tourist destination in the town.
- Pissoir, retitled Urinal in some countries, was the first feature film directed by John Greyson. It was released in 1980 and takes place in a toilet.
- Gabriel Chevallier's 1934 satirical novel Clochemerle deals with the ramifications of plans to install a new urinal in a French village.
Gallery of unusual or historical urinals
- [dead link]
- With public sit-down toilets, users often kick the flush lever to avoid the perceived or real possibility of infection from touching it.
- Waterless Survey Investigates No-Water Urinal Systems. Green Lodging News (24 June 2008).
- "Going Green Pays Off", Buildings magazine, July 2004, www.buildings.com
- "XLerator Hand Dryer – Top Ten". Retrieved 2014-02-05.
- von Münch, E., Winker, M. (2011). Worldwide listing of suppliers for waterless urinals - Appendix 1 for technology review of urine diversion components. Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH
- von Münch, E., Dahm, P. (2009). Waterless Urinals - A Proposal to Save Water and Recover Urine Nutrients in Africa. 34th WEDC International Conference, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
- von Münch, E., Winker, M. (2011). Technology review of urine diversion components - Overview on urine diversion components such as waterless urinals, urine diversion toilets, urine storage and reuse systems. Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, Chapter 4
- "WaterSense Labeled Flushing Urinals". Epa.gov. 2008-12-22. Retrieved 2014-02-05.
- Joshua Davis (22 June 2010), Pissing Match: Is the World Ready for the Waterless Urinal?, Wired
- Saffron, Inga (Inquirer Architecture Critic) (5 April 2006). "Phila. no-flush standoff unclogged, with a catch". The Philadelphia Inquirer. pp. A1, A10.
- Cal/EPA headquarters flushes waterless urinals. news10.net (22 February 2010).
- California Environmental Protection Agency, "CAL/EPA Issues Statement on Waterless Urinals", April 1, 2010 (pdf)
- Kisses!. Bathroom-mania.com.
- "Tell Virgin Atlantic: There's Nothing 'Fun' About Exploiting Women". National Organization for Women. 18 March 2004. Retrieved 23 April 2006.
- "Outrageous Interruptus: NOW Cheers Decision to Abandon Sexist Urinals" (Press release). National Organization for Women. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-23.
- Geere, Duncan. (6 January 2011). Sega Installs "‘Toylet’ Games in Japan’s Urinals" Check
|url=scheme (help). Wired UK. Retrieved 20 January 2011.
- Aimée Turner (April 10, 2008). "A380 male urinals to become 'bog standard'". Flight International.
- Harvey A. Levenstein, We'll Always Have Paris: American Tourists in France since 1930, Chicago: University of Chgicago, 2004, ISBN 9780226473789, p. 31.
- "Duchamp's urinal tops art survey: A white gentlemen's urinal has been named the most influential modern art work of all time". BBC News. 1 December 2004. Retrieved 2006-04-28.
- "NY Police Use Anti-DUI Talking Urinal Messages". Police Magazine.
- Home. hemingwayhome.com.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Urinals.|
- Collection of urinals worldwide (e.g. Berlin wall, flowers and at the South Pole)
- Photos of waterless urinals worldwide
- Urilift website | <urn:uuid:bf2f78de-5b92-48be-a280-e5a0d132cceb> | CC-MAIN-2015-48 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinal_(restroom) | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-48/segments/1448398448389.58/warc/CC-MAIN-20151124205408-00248-ip-10-71-132-137.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.942372 | 5,216 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Study to identify grasslands that may be suitable for cellulosic feedstock production. Producing ethanol from non-cropland areas such as grassland will minimize the effects of biofuel developments on global food supplies.
Site for the Platte River Program in Nebraska an area that is a critical staging area for migratory waterbirds of the Central Flyway. Includes links to color-infrared aerial photos, 1938 historic aerial photos, and Cottonwood Ranch research site.
Consistent, real-time water data from streams, lakes, reservoirs, ground-water, and meteorological sites, are available from the USGS National Water Information System as graphs, tables, or files to download.
One of the greatest challenges for conserving grassland, prairie scrub, and shrub-steppe ecosystems is maintaining prairie dog populations across the landscape. Of the four species of prairie dogs found in the United States, the Utah prairie dog (Cynomys | <urn:uuid:527003fa-863f-4d04-89e1-16cfd0ac7b3d> | CC-MAIN-2015-22 | http://www.usgs.gov/science/science.php?thcode=1&term=fUS31&b=10&n=10&order=alpha | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2015-22/segments/1432207929096.44/warc/CC-MAIN-20150521113209-00280-ip-10-180-206-219.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.876637 | 197 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Marketing campaign after marketing campaign, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires have been dubbed “precious” in an effort to create the illusion that they are higher in value than other “semi-precious” gemstones.
Even though some semi-precious stones are rarer to find than precious ones, only four gemstones continue to be labeled as the latter:
Diamonds are a girl’s best friend – or so marketers have said. Their beauty, value, and sturdiness have made the stones a prized addition to any piece of jewelry. Although diamonds are not so rare, their value has only increased over time, thanks to their popularity and, certainly, the harsh conditions under which they are formed.
Although rubies are known for their shade of bright red, their color can range from pale rose to dark red – and sometimes even purple. Just as diamonds are formed from carbon, rubies are formed from corundum, which is transparent in color, but whose traces of chromium result in a radiant red hue.
Sapphire gets its blue color from a combination of corundum alongside other mineral traces. It has been noted that any corundum that is not red (i.e. ruby), blue (i.e. sapphire) or colorless (i.e. white sapphire) is known as “fancy sapphire.”
A variety of beryl, emeralds are made green by traces of either chromium, the same mineral that makes rubies red or, sometimes, vanadium. It has been noted that if the beryl gemstone is not rich in color, it would not be considered “emerald” but simply “green beryl.”
Labels aside, the fact remains that precious gemstones are indeed precious, otherwise they would not have been labeled as such. Whether for their ornamental or monetary value, precious gemstones continue to fascinate jewelry lovers of all tastes and backgrounds. | <urn:uuid:88532a6f-4d43-4bb8-9537-84df0fa504c9> | CC-MAIN-2020-34 | https://zeinpieces.me/how-precious-are-precious-gemstones/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-34/segments/1596439738609.73/warc/CC-MAIN-20200810042140-20200810072140-00148.warc.gz | en | 0.956554 | 423 | 2.59375 | 3 |
A new animal study has found that aromatic-turmerone, a bioactive compound in turmeric, causes neural stem cells (NSCs) in rats to proliferate. There is evidence that the activation of NSCs in humans may help adult human brains recover from strokes and neurodegeneration. Published in the journal, Stem Cell Research and Therapy, the study investigated the effects of aromatic-turmerone on NSCs in test tubes (i.e. NSC cultures), and NSCs in vivo (i.e. NSCs in live rats).
When researchers bathed NSC cultures in aromatic-turmerone, NSC proliferation increased by up to 80%.
After injecting live rats with aromatic-turmerone, the researchers discovered that the width of the subventricular zone in the brain expanded by 45%, indicating NSC proliferation.
More research is still needed to confirm whether these positive results would translate to humans, but the research adds to a growing body of evidence on turmeric’s brain-boosting effects. For example, studies have found that another bioactive component of turmeric, curcumin, possesses both anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties.
Source: Stem Cell Research and Therapy | <urn:uuid:69a889cb-debf-478b-a0cb-23d448681a33> | CC-MAIN-2020-24 | https://www.purecapspro.com/osmon/pe/health-library/articles/assets/news-item/turmeric-compound-may-boost-brains-ability-to-self-heal-and-no-its-not-curcumin/~default | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-24/segments/1590347426801.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20200602193431-20200602223431-00239.warc.gz | en | 0.887544 | 257 | 3.03125 | 3 |
MBL, WOODS HOLE, MA—Cuttlefish are well-known masters of disguise who use highly developed camouflage tactics to blend in almost instantaneously with their surroundings. These relatives of octopuses and squid are part of a class of animals called cephalopods and are found in marine habitats worldwide. Cephalopods use camouflage to change their appearance with a speed and diversity unparalleled in the animal kingdom, however there is no documentation to date that they use their diverse camouflage repertoire at night.
In a paper published in the April 2007 issue of The American Naturalist, MBL (Marine Biological Laboratory) Senior Scientist Roger Hanlon and his colleagues report, for the first time, that giant Australian cuttlefish employ night camouflage to adapt quickly to a variety of microhabitats on temperate rock reefs. The research sheds light on the animal's remarkable visual system and nighttime predator/prey interactions.
While it's known that some marine fish and invertebrates use night camouflage as an anti-predator tactic, most camouflage studies are based on observations taken during daytime or dusk because videotaping behavioral data at night can be technically difficult. According to Hanlon, many animals perform some type of nocturnal color change, but the biological explanations behind the phenomenon have received scant attention in the science world. "The scarcity of studies on visual predator/prey interactions at night constitutes a major gap in sensory and behavioral ecology," he says.
Using a Remotely Operated Vehicle (ROV) equipped with a video camera, Hanlon and his team observed the giant Australian cuttlefish, Sepia apama, on their southern Australian spawning grounds over the course of a week. They observed that only 3% of cuttlefish were camouflaged during the day, during peak spawning periods. However, at dusk, the animals settled to the bottom and 86% of them quickly adapted their body patterns to blend in with habitats from sea grass to rocky reefs.
"The fact that we observed multiple camouflage pattern types, each effective in different microhabitats, provides two important insights into visual predator/prey interactions at night," says Hanlon. "First, it provides the first behavioral evidence that cuttlefish have fine-tuned night vision. We know that in daytime they use visual information of their immediate surrounds to choose their camouflage pattern, and these new data demonstrate that they can fine-tune their camouflage patterns in concert with different visuals surrounds of each microhabitat at night. Curiously, the visual mechanism for night vision is largely unknown for cephalopods. Second, such fine-tuned camouflaged patterning implies strongly that fish predator vision at night is keen as well."
Visual predation at night is an unstudied phenomenon in the marine world, notes Hanlon. "From the perspective of a behavioral ecologist, we are ignorant of perhaps half of what goes on each daily cycle. There is a large ocean frontier out there yet to be studied."
The MBL is a leading international, independent, nonprofit institution dedicated to discovery and to improving the human condition through creative research and education in the biological, biomedical and environmental sciences. Founded in 1888 as the Marine Biological Laboratory, the MBL is the oldest private marine laboratory in the Western Hemisphere. For more information, visit www.MBL.edu | <urn:uuid:b563a806-75e3-4b97-b6f5-2728a5531497> | CC-MAIN-2022-33 | https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/683535 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-33/segments/1659882573849.97/warc/CC-MAIN-20220819222115-20220820012115-00013.warc.gz | en | 0.951073 | 682 | 3.75 | 4 |
In the eighth instalment of our top user tips we looked at Excel Surveys using the Excel Web App, and today we’re going to look at the co-authoring features that can help you analyse that data, brainstorm ideas, and work collaboratively with your classmates and colleagues in real time, via the browser.
Document collaboration is a critical element to working effectively in the classroom. The combination of SharePoint Online and Office offers a spectrum of document collaboration methods, whether it is co-authoring a spreadsheet or routing a school field trip plan through a workflow. Understanding the ways you can collaborate on documents is vital to making the best choice for your needs and improving your productivity as a student or educator.
Here are two examples of the Excel, and Word Web Apps being used by two people to edit the same work (click on them to enlarge!):
Without having to download and open the document in the full Office client students and teachers can work together in real-time; and the beauty is that the Web Apps work across a variety of devices, here’s the same spreadsheet from above on an iPad:
Getting started is really simple – check out our fourth top tips post all about SkyDrive Pro to see how you can easily upload your content into Office 365 and in minutes you can be working with others! | <urn:uuid:3d8bfa80-b453-43af-ba68-9d09fb91636a> | CC-MAIN-2017-39 | https://blogs.technet.microsoft.com/educloud/2013/03/12/top-user-tips-9multiple-co-authoring-in-office-web-apps/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-39/segments/1505818695066.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20170926051558-20170926071558-00246.warc.gz | en | 0.933243 | 270 | 2.578125 | 3 |
A simple diffusion model of cross-shore mixing employing an inhomogeneous diffusivity is applied to near-surface particle dispersion within a high-resolution numerical model of the central California coastal ocean. The theoretical model employs a linear diffusivity, Ky = νy, where y is the cross-shore coordinate and ν a constant, as traditionally assumed for wall-layer flows. A realistic implementation of the Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) is used to generate hundreds of thousands of three-dimensional, passive particle trajectories. Particles were released daily along the inner shelf for one model year, 2002, tracked for 16 days and treated statistically as an instantaneous point-source release. Application of the theoretical model to the observed moments of particle position yielded estimates for the offshore slope of the diffusivity, ν ∼ 3 – 4 cm s–1. Using this value, the cross-shore particle density was well described over the outer continental shelf and slope by an analytical solution to the theoretical model. Unlike wall turbulence, the implied mixing length was not equal to the distance from the coast, but was found to be equal to the local first mode internal Rossby radius of deformation. The successful theoretical model has many potential applications, such as quantifying the amount of offshore larval loss from the shelf and/or carbon loss from the coastal upwelling zone.
Drake, Patrick T., and Christopher A. Edwards. 2009. "A linear diffusivity model of near-surface, cross-shore particle dispersion from a numerical simulation of central California’s coastal ocean." Journal of Marine Research 67, (4). https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/237 | <urn:uuid:e4e8b2d7-fb72-42b2-8af3-dac9f0cd1c23> | CC-MAIN-2023-40 | https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/journal_of_marine_research/237/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-40/segments/1695233510149.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20230926043538-20230926073538-00027.warc.gz | en | 0.911722 | 362 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Tektites (from Greek τηκτός tēktós, "molten") are gravel-sized bodies composed of black, green, brown, or gray natural glass formed from terrestrial debris ejected during meteorite impacts. The term was coined by Austrian geologist Franz Eduard Suess (1867–1941), son of Eduard Suess.[note 1] They generally range in size from millimeters to centimeters. Millimeter-scale tektites are known as microtektites.
Tektites are characterized by:
- a fairly homogeneous composition
- an extremely low content of water and other volatiles
- an abundance of lechatelierite
- a general lack of microscopic crystals known as microlites and chemical relation to the local bedrock or local sediments
- their distribution within geographically extensive strewn fields
Although tektites are superficially similar to some terrestrial volcanic glasses (obsidians), they have unusual distinctive physical characteristics that distinguish them from such glasses. First, they are completely glassy and lack any microlites or phenocrysts, unlike terrestrial volcanic glasses. Second, although high in silica (>65 wt%), the bulk chemical and isotopic composition of tektites is closer to those of shales and similar sedimentary rocks and quite different from the bulk chemical and isotopic composition of terrestrial volcanic glasses. Third, tektites contain virtually no water (<0.02 wt%), unlike terrestrial volcanic glasses. Fourth, the flow-banding within tektites often contains particles and bands of lechatelierite, which are not found in terrestrial volcanic glasses. Finally, a few tektites contain partly melted inclusions of shocked and unshocked mineral grains, i.e. quartz, apatite, and zircon, as well as coesite.
The difference in water content can be used to distinguish tektites from terrestrial volcanic glasses. When heated to their melting point, terrestrial volcanic glasses turn into a foamy glass because of their content of water and other volatiles. Unlike terrestrial volcanic glass, a tektite produces only a few bubbles at most when heated to its melting point, because of its much lower water and other volatiles content.
On the basis of morphology and physical characteristics, tektites have traditionally been divided into four groups. Those found on land have traditionally been subdivided into three groups: (1) splash-form (normal) tektites, (2) aerodynamically shaped tektites, and (3) Muong Nong-type (layered) tektites. Splash-form and aerodynamically shaped tektites are only differentiated on the basis of their appearance and some of their physical characteristics. Splash-form tektites are centimeter-sized tektites that are shaped like spheres, ellipsoids, teardrops, dumbbells, and other forms characteristic of isolated molten bodies. They are regarded as having formed from the solidification of rotating liquids, and not atmospheric ablation. Aerodynamically shaped tektites, which are mainly part of the Australasian strewn field, are splash-form tektites (buttons) which display a secondary ring or flange. The secondary ring or flange is argued as having been produced during the high-speed re-entry and ablation of a solidified splash-form tektite into the atmosphere. Muong Nong tektites are typically larger, greater than 10 cm in size and 24 kg in weight, irregular, and layered tektites. They have a chunky, blocky appearance, exhibit a layered structure with abundant vesicles, and contain mineral inclusions, such as zircon, baddeleyite, chromite, rutile, corundum, cristobalite, and coesite.
Microtektites, the fourth group of tektites, are less than 1 mm in size. They exhibit a variety of shapes ranging from spherical to dumbbell, disc, oval, and teardrop. Their colors range from colorless and transparent to yellowish and pale brown. They frequently contain bubbles and lechatelierite inclusions. Microtektites are typically found in deep-sea sediments that are of the same ages as those of the four known strewn fields. Microtektites of the Australasian strewn field have also been found on land within Chinese loess deposits, and in sediment-filled joints and decimeter-sized weathering pits developed within glacially eroded granite outcrops of the Victoria Land Transantarctic Mountains, Antarctica.
Since 1963, the majority of known tektites have been known to occur only within four geographically extensive strewn fields: the Australasian, Central European, Ivory Coast, and North American. As summarized by Koeberl, the tektites within each strewn field are related to each other with respect to the criteria of petrological, physical, and chemical properties, as well as their age. In addition, three of the four strewn fields have been clearly linked with impact craters using those same criteria. Recognized types of tektites, grouped according to their known strewn fields, their associated craters, and ages are:
- Australasian strewnfield (no associated crater identified, age: 0.77–0.78 million years):
- Central European strewnfield (Nördlinger Ries impact crater (24 km), Germany, age: 15 million years):
- Moldavites (Czech Republic, green).
- Ivory Coast strewnfield (Lake Bosumtwi impact crater (10 km), Ghana, age: 1 million years):
- Ivorites (Ivory Coast, black).
- North American tektite strewn field (Chesapeake Bay impact crater (40 km), United States – age: 34 million years):
Comparing the number of known impact craters versus the number of known strewn fields, Artemieva considered essential factors such as the crater must exceed a certain diameter to produce distal ejecta, and that the event must be relatively recent. Limiting to diameters 10 km or more and younger than 50 Ma, the study yielded a list of 13 candidate craters, of which the youngest eight are given below,
|?||Indochina?||0.78||32–114?||Australasian strewn field|
|Zhamanshin||Kazakhstan||0.9 ± 0.1||14||?|
|Bosumtwi||Ghana||1.07||10||Ivory Coast strewn field|
|Elgygytgyn||Russia, Siberia||3.5 ± 0.5||18||?|
|Karla||Russia||5 ± 1||10||?|
|Ries||Germany||15.1 ± 0.1||24||Central European strewn field|
|Chesapeake Bay||USA||35.5 ± 0.3||40||North American strewn field|
|Popigai||Russia, Siberia||35.7 ± 0.2||100||?|
Povenmire and others have proposed the existence of an additional tektite strewn field, the Central American strewn field. Evidence for this reported tektite strewn field consists of tektites recovered from western Belize in the area of the villages of Bullet Tree Falls, Santa Familia, and Billy White. This area lies about 55 km east-southeast of Tikal, where 13 tektites, two of which were dated as being 820,000 years old, of unknown origin were found. A limited amount of evidence is interpreted as indicating that the proposed Central American strewn field likely covers Belize, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, and possibly parts of southern Mexico. The hypothesized Pantasma Impact Crater in northern Nicaragua might be the source of these tektites.
The ages of tektites from the four strewnfields have been determined using radiometric dating methods. The age of moldavites, a type of tektite found in the Czech Republic, was determined to be 14 million years, which agrees well with the age determined for the Nördlinger Ries crater (a few hundred kilometers away in Germany) by radiometric dating of Suevite (an impact breccia found at the crater). Similar agreements exist between tektites from the North American strewnfield and the Chesapeake Bay impact crater and between tektites from the Ivory Coast strewnfield and the Lake Bosumtwi Crater. Ages of tektites have usually been determined by either the K-Ar method, fission-track dating, the Ar-Ar technique, or combination of these techniques.
Terrestrial source theoryEdit
The overwhelming consensus of Earth and planetary scientists is that tektites consist of terrestrial debris that was ejected during the formation of an impact crater. During the extreme conditions created by an hypervelocity meteorite impact, near-surface terrestrial sediments and rocks were either melted, vaporized, or some combination of these, and ejected from an impact crater. After ejection from the impact crater, the material formed millimeter- to centimeter-sized bodies of molten material, which as they re-entered the atmosphere, rapidly cooled to form tektites that fell to Earth to create a layer of distal ejecta hundreds or thousands of kilometers away from the impact site.
The terrestrial source for tektites is supported by well-documented evidence. The chemical and isotopic composition of tektites indicates that they are derived from the melting of silica-rich crustal and sedimentary rocks, which are not found on the Moon. In addition, some tektites contain relict mineral inclusions (quartz, zircon, rutile, chromite, and monazite) that are characteristic of terrestrial sediments and crustal and sedimentary source rocks. Also, three of the four tektite strewnfields have been linked by their age and chemical and isotopic composition to known impact craters. A number of different geochemical studies of tektites from the Australasian strewnfield concluded that these tektites consist of melted Jurassic sediments or sedimentary rocks that were weathered and deposited about 167 My ago. Their geochemistry suggests that the source of Australasian tektites is a single sedimentary formation with a narrow range of stratigraphic ages close to 170 Mya more or less. This effectively refutes multiple impact hypotheses.
Although the formation of and widespread distribution of tektites is widely accepted to require the intense (superheated) melting of near-surface sediments and rocks at the impact site and the following high-velocity ejection of this material from the impact crater, the exact processes involved remain poorly understood. One possible mechanism for the formation of tektites is by the jetting of highly shocked and superheated melt during the initial contact/compression stage of impact crater formation. Alternatively, various mechanisms involving the dispersal of shock-melted material by an expanding vapor plume, which is created by a hypervelocity impact, have been used to explain the formation of tektites. Any mechanism by which tektites are created must explain chemical data that suggest that parent material from which tektites were created came from near-surface rocks and sediments at an impact site. In addition, the scarcity of known strewn fields relative to the number of identified impact craters indicate that very special and rarely met circumstances are required for tektites to be created by a meteorite impact.
Nonterrestrial source theoriesEdit
Though the meteorite impact theory of tektite formation is widely accepted, there has been considerable controversy about their origin in the past. As early as 1897, the Dutch geologist Rogier Diederik Marius Verbeek (1845–1926) suggested an extraterrestrial origin for tektites: he proposed that they fell to Earth from the Moon.[note 2] Verbeek's proposal of an extraterrestrial origin for tektites was soon seconded by the German geologist Franz E. Suess. Subsequently, it was argued that tektites consist of material that was ejected from the Moon by major hydrogen-driven lunar volcanic eruptions and then drifted through space to later fall to Earth as tektites. The major proponents of the lunar origin of tektites include NASA scientist John A. O'Keefe, NASA aerodynamicist Dean R. Chapman, meteorite and tektite collector Darryl Futrell, and long-time tektite researcher Hal Povenmire. From the 1950s to the 1990s, O'Keefe argued for the lunar origin of tektites based upon their chemical, i.e. rare-earth, isotopic, and bulk, composition and physical properties. Chapman used complex orbital computer models and extensive wind tunnel tests to argue that the so-called Australasian tektites originated from the Rosse ejecta ray of the large crater Tycho on the Moon's near side. O'Keefe, Povenmire, and Futrell claimed on the basis of behavior of glass melts that the homogenization, which is called "fining", of silica melts that characterize tektites could not be explained by the terrestrial-impact theory.[clarification needed] They also argued that the terrestrial-impact theory could not explain the vesicles and extremely low water and other volatile content of tektites. Futrell also reported the presence of microscopic internal features within tektites, which argued for a volcanic origin.
At one time, theories advocating the lunar origin of tektites enjoyed considerable support as part of a spirited controversy about the origin of tektites that occurred during the 1960s. Starting with the publication of research concerning lunar samples returned from the Moon, the consensus of Earth and planetary scientists shifted in favor of theories advocating a terrestrial impact versus lunar volcanic origin. For example, one problem with the lunar origin theory is that the arguments for it that are based upon the behavior of glass melts use data from pressures and temperatures that are vastly uncharacteristic of and unrelated to the extreme conditions of hypervelocity impacts. In addition, various studies have shown that hypervelocity impacts are likely quite capable of producing low volatile melts with extremely low water content. The consensus of Earth and planetary scientists regards the chemical, i.e. rare-earth, isotopic, and bulk composition evidence as decisively demonstrating that tektites are derived from terrestrial crustal rock, i.e. sedimentary rocks, that are unlike any known lunar crust.
In 1960, another nonterrestrial hypothesis for the origin of tektites was proposed by the Russian-born mathematician Matest M. Agrest, who suggested that tektites were formed as a result of nuclear blasts produced by extraterrestrial beings. He used this as an argument to support his paleocontact hypothesis.
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- McCall, G. J. H. (2001) Tektites in the Geological Record: Showers of Glass from the Sky. The Geological Society Publishing House, Bath, United Kingdom. 256 pp. ISBN 1-86239-085-1
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- O'Keefe, J. A., (1978) Tektites and Their Origin. Developments in petrology vol. 4. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York, New York. 254 pp. ISBN 9780444413505
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- Folco, L., M. D’Orazio, M. Tiepolo, S. Tonarini, L. Ottolini, N. Perchiazzi, P. Rochette, and B.P. Glass (2009) Transantarctic Mountain microtektites: Geochemical affinity with Australasian microtektites. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 73(12):3694–3722.
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- Senftle, F. E., A. N. Thorpe, J. R. Grant, A. Hildebrand, H. Moholy-Nagy, B. J. Evans, and L. May (2000) Magnetic measurements of glass from Tikal, Guatemala: Possible tektites. Journal of Geophysical Research. 105(B8):18921-18926.
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- Verbeek (1897). "Over glaskogels van Billiton" [About the glass spheres of Billiton (now: the island of Belitung off Sumatra, Indonesia)]. Verslagen van de Gewone Vergaderingen der Wis- en Natuurkundige Afdeeling (Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam) [Reports of the Ordinary Sessions of the Mathematical and Physical Section (Royal Academy of Sciences at Amsterdam)] (in Dutch). 5: 421–425. From p. 423: "Daar hiermede de aardsche bronnen voor deze lichamen uitgeput zijn, blijft er, volgens spreker, neits anders over dan aan te nemen, dat ze van buitenaardschen oorsprong zijn. … De eenige mogelijkheid is daarom, volgens spreker, dat die lichamen uitgeworpen zijn door de vulkanen van de maan." (Since earthly sources for these bodies are thereby exhausted, there remains, according to the speaker [viz, Verbeek], nothing else but to assume that they are of extraterrestrial origin. … The only possibility is therefore, according to the speaker, that these bodies have been ejected by the volcanoes of the moon.)
- Suess, Franz E. (1898). "Ueber die Herkunft der Moldavite aus dem Weltraume" [On the origin of moldavites from outer space]. Anzeiger der kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, mathematische-naturwissenschaftliche Classe [Journal of the Imperial Academy of Science, mathematical-scientific Class (Vienna, Austria)] (in German). 35: 255–260.
- Suess, Franz E. (6 December 1898). "Ueber den kosmischen Ursprung der Moldavite" [On the cosmic origin of moldavites]. Verhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt [Proceedings of the Imperial-Royal Geological Institute of the Empire (Vienna, Austria)] (in German). 32 (16): 387–403.
- Povenmire, H. (2000) Tektites: A Cosmic Enigma. Florida Fireball Network, Indian Harbour Beach, Florida. 209 pp.
- Chapman, D. R. (1971) Australasian tektite geographic pattern, crater and ray of origin, and theory of tektite events. Journal of Geophysical Research. 76(26):6309–6338.
- Futrell, D. (1999) The lunar origin of tektites; space science sheds new light on an old controversy. Rock & Gem. 29(2–3):40–45.
- Futrell, D., and L. Varricho (2002) An argument against the terrestrial origin of tektites. Meteorite. Meteorite. 8(4):34–35.
- Artemieva N. A. (2002) Tektite origin in oblique impact: Numerical modeling. in C. Koeberl C. and J. Plado J., eds, pp. 257–276, Impacts in Precambrian shields. Springer-Verlag, Berlin.
- Artemieva, N., E. Pierazzo, and D. Stoffler (2002) Numerical modeling of tektite origin in oblique impacts: Implication to Ries-Moldavites strewn field. Bulletin of the Czech Geological Survey. 77(4):303–311.
- Heidea, K., and G. Heideb (2011) Vitreous state in nature—Origin and properties. Chemie der Erde. 71(4):305–335.
- Agrest, Matest (1961). КОСМОНАВТЫ ДРЕВНОСТИ. НА СУШЕ И НА МОРЕ (in Russian). Moscow. Geografgis. pp. 526–542.
- Suess, Franz E. (1900). "Die Herkunft der Moldavite und verwandter Gläser" [The origin of moldavites and related glasses]. Jahrbuch der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt (Yearbook of the Imperial-Royal Geological Institute of the Empire (Vienna, Austria)) (in German). 50: 193–382. From p. 194: "Als gemeinschaftlichen Namen für die ganze Gruppe habe ich nach der Eigenschaft der Körper, welche im Gegensatze zu den übrigen Meteoriten gänzlich durchgeschmolzene Massen sind, die Bezeichnung "Tektite" gewählt. (τήχειν, schmelzen von Metallen und anderen harten Massen; τήχτος, geschmolzen)." (As a collective name for the whole group, I have chosen – in accordance with the property of these bodies, which, in contrast to the usual meteorites, are completely melted masses – the designation "tektite". (τήχειν, melt (of metals and other hard masses); τήχτος, molten).)
- As early as 1893, the Australian geologist Victor Franz Paul Streich (? – 1905) suggested in a private letter to the German geologist Alfred Wilhelm Stelzner that the tektites of Australia had an extraterrestrial origin. See:
- Stelzner, A. W. (1893). "Supplementary notes on the above-named collection". Transactions of the Royal Society of South Australia. 16: 110–112. From p. 112: " "55B. Obsidian-bombs. Found between Everard Range and Fraser Range." Most decidedly not of cosmic origin, as suggested by you [i.e., Streich] in your private letter to me. At least so far there are no vitreous masses known to me of meteoric origin."
- Stelzner, Alfred W. (1893). "Ueber eigenthümliche Obsidian-Bomben aus Australien" [On strange obsidian bombs from Australia]. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft (in German). 45: 299–319. From p. 300: "Wieder Andere sind der Meinung, dass das Räthsel nur dadurch gelöst werden könne, dass man den "Bomben", obwohl sie eine von jenen aller anderen bekannten Aërolithen sehr abweichende Beschaffenheit zeigen, trotzdem einen kosmischen Ursprung zuschreibe." (Again, others are of the opinion that the puzzle can be solved only by ascribing to the "bombs" a cosmic origin, although they show a nature that deviates greatly from those of all other known aeroliths.)
- Barnes, V., and M. Barnes (1973) Tektites. Dowden, Hutchinson, & Ross, Inc., New York, New York. 444 pp. ISBN 0-87933-027-9
- Bouska, Vladimir (1994). Moldavites: The Czech Tektites. Stylizace, Prague, Czechoslovakia. 69 pp.
- Heinen, Guy (1998) Tektites – Witnesses Of Cosmic Catastrophes. Guy Heinen, Luxembourg. 222 pp.
- McCall, G.J.H. (2001) Tektites in the Geological Record. The Geological Society of London, London, United Kingdom. 256 pp. ISBN 1-86239-085-1
- McNamara, K., and A. Bevan (1991) Tektites, 2nd ed. Western Australian Museum, Perth, Western Australia, Australia. 28 pp.
- O'Keefe, J. A. (1976) Tektites And Their Origin. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, Netherlands. 266 pp. ISBN 0-44441-350-2
- Povenmire, Hal (2003) Tektites: A Cosmic Enigma. Florida Fireball Network, Indian Harbour Beach, Florida. 209 pp.
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tektites.|
- Faul, Henry. (1966) The Virgil E. Barnes Tektite Collection Tektite Information Page. Texas Natural Science Center, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
- Anonymous (ndb) Tektite Information Solving The Tektite Puzzle. the Meteorite Exchange.
- Anonymous (ndc) Part III: The Leap to Space: 1959–1965 (on Chapman's work) Adventures in Research: A History of Ames Research Center 1940–1965, NASA History Program Office.
- Jakiel, R. (1997) Meteorites from Earth: The Tale of Tektites. Georgia Mineral Society.
- Ralph, J., and I. Chau (2012) Tektite., Mindat.org.
- Schneider, D.M. (2002) Tektites. The Meteoritical Society.
- Weir, D. (2012) Tektites and Other Impact-Related Material. Meteorite Studies Collection Classification.
- Whymark, A. (nd) Introduction to Tektites. Tekties.com. | <urn:uuid:4fc2a156-e416-48ee-976a-5e5e90bed555> | CC-MAIN-2020-40 | http://conceptmap.cfapps.io/wikipage?lang=en&name=Tektites | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-40/segments/1600400223922.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20200925084428-20200925114428-00176.warc.gz | en | 0.787312 | 6,371 | 4.15625 | 4 |
Nov 13, 2008
The following text was adopted by Lutte Ouvrière, the French Trotskyist organization, at its annual conference and reprinted in the December 2008 issue of its political journal, Lutte de Classe. In a few places, we have added or substituted U.S. examples for French ones.
The crisis of the capitalist system has taken on different forms, simultaneously or successively striking real estate, raw materials, the banking system, the stock market, slowing down production itself. But these were all manifestations of the same crisis – undoubtedly the most severe since the crisis that began with the stock market crash of 1929 and was prolonged by the Great Depression.
On September 15, 2008, the bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers, one of Wall Street’s major investment banks, marked a brutal aggravation of the financial crisis. Economists – very clever when it comes to forecasting what has already happened – have since blamed the crisis on deregulation, liberalism, globalization, or the lack of control over the financial system.
These factors played a role, and they explain some aspects of the sequence of events that led to the present financial crisis and the form that it took. But they do not explain its fundamental reason: the capitalist economy cannot function without crises. Commenting on the 1920-1921 crisis, Trotsky wrote: “So long as capitalism is not overthrown by the proletarian revolution, it will continue to live in cycles, swinging up and down. Crises and booms were inherent in capitalism at its very birth; they will accompany it to its grave. [...] In periods of rapid capitalist development, the crises are brief and superficial in character. In periods of capitalist decline, the crises are of a prolonged character while the booms are fleeting, superficial and speculative.”
Imperialism emerged more than a century ago, with its trusts spreading their tentacles all over the world, increasing the complexity of economic activity. These developments have rendered the periodicity of economic cycles less predictable. They have multiplied the ways crises can occur and have worsened their damage, but they have not allowed capitalism to avoid crises. Crises constitute essential phases of capitalist reproduction. In fact, it is through crises that the market economy, the motor of which is blind competition, re-establishes the equilibrium between production and solvent demand, between the different sectors of the economy – notably that of the means of production and that of consumer goods – or between the different companies engaged in the successive phases of the production process. Crises express the fall in the rate of profit resulting from the saturation of the market. By destroying part of the capital engaged in production, by getting rid of non-profitable companies, crises create the conditions for launching a new cycle, in which the rate of profit begins to increase, investments start back up, and hiring begins.
On August 9, 2007, when the U.S. and European central banks announced they were injecting massive amounts of liquidity into the financial system, and the French bank BNP-Paribas announced it was suspending the listing of three of its funds specializing in mortgage-backed securities, it became clear that the U.S. housing credit crisis had transformed itself into a financial crisis. This was not one of those “short-lived, superficial” crises. The crash of the U.S. mortgage market not only set off the financial crisis; it also brought it out into the open. Today’s financial crisis itself is only the latest in a long series of financial or stock market crises which have hit since the 1980s, striking every three years or so: 1982, Mexican crisis; 1987, stock market crash; 1990, “junk bond” crash and the wave of failures in the U.S. savings and loans; 1994, crash of U.S. corporate bonds; 1997, financial crisis in South East Asia; 1998, financial crisis in Russia and Brazil; 2001-2003, bursting of the Internet bubble; without speaking of the long-lasting crisis of Japan’s financial system.
Today’s financial crisis is distinguished from its predecessors by its severity, its global extension, and its complete disruption of the entire worldwide banking system.
The frequency of financial or stock market crises, having repercussions on production, is in itself an indication that the current crisis is not the simple result of an isolated cycle. It is, in reality, the most acute phase of a long protracted crisis, beginning in the early 1970s, announced by a crisis in the monetary system, followed by the first oil shock in 1973, leading to a crisis of overproduction, and then to a fall in production in all the industrial countries in 1974-1975. For the first time since the end of World War II, the spread of a recession throughout the planet showed that the vast capacities of production had run up against the limits set by solvent demand in the market. The loss of 2.2% in the U.S. Gross National Product was by itself the equivalent of the total GDP of a country like Turkey and twice that of Portugal.
More significant than the drop in GDP – which mixes production that creates value with services which don’t – was the drop in manufacturing. Every industrial country was hit. In 1975, production dropped by 7% in the United States, 8% in France and 15% in Japan. The year saw the first explosion in unemployment.
Since the 1974-1975 recession, the capitalist economy has gone through periods of expansion, each time interrupted by a recession. But it has never regained the level of growth of the preceding period. The global capitalist economy has never come out of its long, protracted crisis.
In the early 1990s, the capitalist class brought the level of profit back up to what it had enjoyed in the early 1970s. But this was not produced by a new dynamism, nor by the expansion of markets due to growing solvent demand, which would have encouraged new investment in production. The capitalist class increased its profit by carrying out a war against the working class – increasing exploitation, freezing wages, increasing the intensity of work. Using the fear of unemployment, the capitalist class drastically reduced the workers’ share of the national income in each country. In the U.S., the wage-earners’ share of income in private industry went from 30% in 1982, down to 27% in 1998.
Even when the rate of profit had been restored, the capitalist enterprises weren’t much interested in investing in production, instead they looked to the financial markets for spots to place their capital. This development, with its multiple consequences, put in place all the ingredients for the current financial crisis. Referred to as the “growing financialization of the economy,” it is characteristic of the way capitalism functions today.
The tendency of the exploiting class to prefer financial placements to productive investments has nothing to do with their collective psychology. There are material reasons for their distrust of their own economy. In reducing the workers’ share of income, the enterprises have certainly increased their profits. But they have, by the same means, reduced the workers’ capacity to buy consumer goods.
The re-establishment of profit did not come from an expanding market; on the contrary, profits were increased at the expense of the laboring population, and this reduced solvent demand for consumer goods. That is to say, it aggravated the fundamental cause of the crisis.
Using credit to enlarge solvent demand is as old as capitalism itself. But over the last 25 years, this scheme was developed on an unprecedented scale. Armaments budgets (a classic ploy of the capitalist economy) and cheap credit (that is, quick indebtedness) have been the two sources of capitalist growth during all the phases of expansion over the past thirty years. The expression “growth” itself reflects the bourgeois view of reality, and not reality itself. It was customary, for example, to say that the United States’ or even Spain’s “growth” was pulled forward by real estate. However, statistics of this growth reflected not only newly constructed housing and new construction sites (that is, the production of real goods), they also mixed in the increasing prices of land and houses caused by speculation. National accounts and statistics have always lumped together the production of real goods and finance, in other words, real growth and financial growth. The so-called period of growth that came just before the present collapse was one of growing profit for businesses, growing prices in the stock market, and above all the growing volume and return on financial products. But it was not a period when total wages of the laboring population grew. Just the opposite: the share of wages in the national income has declined. Nor did wages grow for individual workers – at best their wages were stagnant. And unemployment hardly went down – except in official reports, as statistical manipulations became more prevalent. But official lies could not hide the widening gap between the growth of capital and the diminishing purchasing power of ordinary people – this gap which is precisely the basis of the present crisis.
The mechanisms that would ultimately accelerate the economy’s financialization and push indebtedness up to unprecedented heights were implemented after the deep recession of 1982, which was even more severe than the one of 1975. In order to slow down inflation, governments decided to borrow massive amounts of money instead of cranking up the printing press. Issuing securities for pubic debt – treasury bonds and state obligations of different sorts – they were able to compensate their growing deficits. It also suited capital owners who could invest their money more profitably than if they invested in production.
The following figures give an idea of this development. The U.S. public debt, which stood at 305 billion dollars in 1963 and 370 billion in 1970, just before the crisis, reached 907 billion in 1980, 3.23 trillion in 1990, and 5.67 trillion in 2000. By the beginning of October 2008, U.S. debt had reached 10.024 trillion dollars! (And these figures take into account only the Federal government’s debt, and not the debts of the different states, local governments, public school boards, sewage and water boards, airport commissions, etc.)
The same evolution marked the debt of individuals: the total indebtedness of all U.S. households, going from 7.4 trillion dollars in 2000 to 14.6 trillion in 2008.
An economic functioning pulled forward by credit and indebtedness aggravates inequalities both inside and outside its borders. Those with money lend to the wealthy – this is true for individuals and for states. (Although – as the sub-prime affair proves – under certain circumstances, bankers will lend money even to the poor if they can cheat them.)
The United States is the most indebted state in the world, at least in the absolute amount of debt, if not in relative terms. But an important portion of the world’s population, those in the poor countries, are completely shunned by the credit system, though they bear the burden of it. Local governments force them to foot the bill for loans the governments take out to pay for armaments and luxury goods – plus the interest owed, of course!
The consequences of the economy’s growing financialization are most devastating in the underdeveloped countries. As everywhere else, capital in search of a big return is not interested in developing production, that is, in investing. The owners of capital want only to swallow up as much profit as possible from the existing plants and production. But given the backwardness of the existing equipment in the poor countries, this signifies a general decline. Today, the underdeveloped countries are being bled dry by financial capital – that is, by the mechanism of indebtedness. It builds no roads, no railways and no other facilities that could benefit the population. Even colonialism had once constructed some things, leaving them behind.
Banks and credit play an irreplaceable role in the capitalist economy. It is thanks to the banks and to credit that capitalist reproduction rolls on without a break and that industrial companies do not have to wait until their goods are sold before launching a new production cycle. In making money available to businesses, the banks are instrumental in converting money into productive capital. They are paid for carrying out this function with the interest appropriated from the surplus-value made in production.
However, there has been a rapid and vast increase in the share of surplus-value that the banks have appropriated. Instead of facilitating the transformation of money capital into productive capital, this diverts capital from production into financial operations, which seem to have the miraculous ability of producing money directly from money, without going through the vulgar phase of production.
In this creeping 30-year crisis, the growing role of finance was, at the beginning, a consequence of the crisis itself. With markets saturated, capital could not transform itself into productive investment, so the owners of capital sought other places to put their money. After the first oil shock in 1973, the oil companies and a handful of oil sheiks accumulated gigantic sums of money, and neither wished to invest their “petrodollars” in more wells nor refineries. Since then, vast sums of capital, searching for places that would provide a good return, have only continued to grow.
Starting as a by-product of the crisis, the growing role of finance soon became one of the factors prolonging it. Mechanisms were set up that favored financial profit in the short term instead of investments in production over the long term.
It seemed miraculous: despite a globally weak economy with limited growth, financial placements were increasingly profitable. Added to the “old classics,” like placements in the stock exchanges or loans to states, speculative schemes based on fluctuating currency rates or real estate market prices were added to many other financial operations that had not previously existed. With the vast growth of money available for financial operations, a new industry emerged, the “financial industry.” Its function is to manage these growing quantities of money capital, and to invent “financial products” and the markets in which they could be bought and sold. The surrealistic coupling of these words, “financial” and “industry,” is characteristic of our epoch of usurious capitalism. “Private equity” firms, “investment funds” of all sorts rapidly proliferated. Abandoning the essential activities of classic banks, these companies specialized in financial placements offering a much greater return in keeping with their much greater risk. The word “investment” itself soon lost its significance directly tied to production. It came to designate all placements of money, those which contributed to create real value and surplus-value, as well as the most fantastic ones, creating nothing, destroying much.
The deregulation policies of the 1980s did not cause the explosion of finance, but they did facilitate and globalize it. They smashed the barriers that separated institutions in the financial sector itself (between commercial banks and investment banks, between insurance companies and banks), as well as the barriers between the production sector and the finance sector.
Even manufacturing companies, at least the largest ones, were drawn into financial operations, which appeared to be more profitable than production itself.
All this seemed to keep the effects of the crisis at bay. In fact, it merely prevented crises from carrying out their function, that is, “regulation” of the system. But hiding crises does not eliminate them. Production can be replaced by financial frenzy, but only for a short time.
Financial activities create no value. They merely appropriate one part of the surplus-value created by exploitation in the sector of production. To put it bluntly, financial capital either gobbles up industrial capital directly, or indirectly through the intermediary of the state and of the public debt. Industrial capital is “the only mode of existence of capital whose function consists not only in appropriating surplus-value, or surplus-product, but simultaneously in creating it.” (Marx, Capital, Volume II.)
Not only does the uninterrupted ballooning of the financial sphere since the 1970s come from the worsening exploitation of the working class, but it also contributes to the strangulation of economic growth.
Nonetheless, 1992 marked the beginning of a period enthusiastically described as “the longest period of economic growth in the U.S. economy since the war.” Between 1994 and 2000, the United States GDP recorded a 32% increase. And even unemployment seemed to go down. Given the development of new technologies (computers, semiconductors, electronic networks, cell phones, etc.), these years were supposed to usher in a “new economy.” Investment in production was also growing, bringing with it a growth in productivity. However, even during this period, the rate of growth of the U.S. GDP was lower than during the 1960s. As for new investments, they were practically all limited to the new technology sector which, even in the United States, represented less than one-tenth of overall economic activity. Investments in the traditional sectors continued to stagnate or even, according to some recent studies, lost ground. No problem – since profits were swelling, stocks prices were skyrocketing (especially those of companies specializing in new technologies, listed on the NASDAQ Index), and low interest rates were encouraging company mergers and takeovers. It is at this time that the chairman of the U.S. Federal Reserve, Alan Greenspan, warned of “the irrational exuberance of the stock market.”
The market for computers and cell phones, despite its original dynamism, was not large enough to absorb the enormous quantities of accumulated money-capital, nor could it transform that money-capital into productive capital.
In fact, the main effect of the “new economy” primarily was to open up a new field for stock market speculation. This was encouraged by the cheap credit policy of the Federal Reserve, which had lowered its interest rate and kept it low. This is the rate at which banks can get new money from the Fed, and it determines the cost for the whole hierarchy of credit. With the Fed keeping this rate low, banks and financial institutions extended credit all the more easily since they knew they could refinance themselves easily and cheaply from the central bank.
This low interest rate policy was sometimes said to have been tailor-made to encourage the development of the computer industry. In a period when the founder of any new “start-up” was seen as the latest Bill Gates, the mere promise of future dazzling developments was enough to get easy credit. It soon turned out, however, that none of these “start-ups” was tomorrow’s Microsoft or Google in embryo.
In fact, from the beginning, the credit extended to information technology financed speculation much more than it did production. It was used to buy out companies that for some reason seemed to have a promising future and whose shares were skyrocketing. A sign of this speculative craze was the fact that the market capitalization of Amazon.com, in other words, the total value of the shares issued by the “world’s number one on-line bookshop” (which was just coming into existence), was more or less the same as that of General Motors, with its hundred and some factories and its 200,000 workers.
In May 2000, the speculative bubble burst and the internet crash sent the NASDAQ Index into a nose dive, destroying many “promising” start-ups and the money that naive people had used to buy up their shares.
The expansion of the “information” sector had not primed the pump for a general recovery.
Nonetheless, after the crash of this sector, finance, benefitting from the injection of government money, continued to balloon. In a context marked by recession and then by the political consequences of September 11, 2001, the U.S. central bank lowered its interest rate still further in order to maintain liquidity in the financial system and to prevent an epidemic of bankruptcies. If one took inflation into account, the new interest rate was as close to zero as it could get.
This policy prevented the bursting of the internet bubble from turning into a brutal financial crisis, but only by pushing back the deadline. The financial crisis was postponed in 2001, but it returned like a boomerang in 2007. And it returned with much greater force, given the ballooning of the financial system and the increasing number of financial products, which were more and more artificial and opaque even for those who created them.
The crisis of the New Economy can be considered the very first phase of the present financial crisis, or its dress rehearsal. The financial practices that resulted in today’s disaster began then.
The interest rate set by the Fed was so low that it was difficult not to take advantage of it. Bankers and industrialists grabbed the opportunity and borrowed profusely. So what if production could not absorb all the money that was circulating? Production was of secondary importance! The “financial industry” was cooking up more and more sophisticated products, mixing together different types of credit, created like magic by a now famous technique called “securitization.” The “mix” was so complicated that in the end nobody knew what was in any of the “securities.” But who cared? As long as the buyer was convinced that he could sell his securities at a higher price, the entire machinery kept running. At the same time, it became more and more detached from real production and from the creation of surplus value.
Nonetheless, production and finance were increasingly intertwined – above all, through the financing of huge mergers and acquisitions. The big companies did not aim to expand the market, but to increase their share of the market by gobbling up their competitors. The numerous takeover bids developed into genuine wars launched by industrial and financial groups against their rivals. These operations, which led to ever greater concentration, developed during the 1990s thanks to the huge sums of money held by companies as well as to cheap credit. The groups which won the rat race increased their profits in proportion to their increased share of the market, or even more, when their winning bid gave them monopoly control. But – whether they borrowed money to defend themselves or to attack their competitors – they increased their indebtedness and their dependence on credit. Today, according to the French economic paper Les Échos, the 40 biggest non-financial French companies owe a total of some 250 billion euros – a 25% increase in the last two years.
These concentrations, especially financial ones, did not entail a rationalization of production or a growth in productive capacity. Huge sums had been thrown into the market for benefitting the financiers, not production. All those deals only increased the domination of financial capital over production.
The Leveraged Buy Out (LBO) was the financial sector’s favorite tool. It was also an indication that capitalism had become self-destructive as well as parasitic. Basically, an LBO allows someone to buy up a big company with very little of his own money, relying instead on credit. In order to repay the debt, the buyer bleeds the company dry. He will tear it apart, empty its reserves, sell the profitable units and get rid of the rest, auction off the land on which the plant was built, etc. In such a case, not only does financial capital fail to transform itself into productive capital and to generate surplus-value; it destroys existing productive capital.
In other words, 21st century rentier capitalism has invented a new, sophisticated form of suicide. However, bankers and financiers are not the only ones to die. Production and the economy, that is, society as a whole, are taken down with it.
It has become fashionable to blame the present financial collapse on speculative funds – especially “hedge funds,” which specialize in the riskiest forms of speculation. But a lot of these funds were created by well-known banks. They speculated not only with the money of individual millionaires but with the money of banks, established businesses and pension funds.
Finance may have spawned more and more specialized entities, but they all belong to the world of finance, just like finance itself belongs to big capital. The financial creations are increasingly usurious and self-destructive simply because that is what is happening to capitalism itself.
Although those who act in the financial sphere and those who act in the productive sphere may be the same people, they have two different functions. Surplus-value can be created only through the exploitation of labor, that is, through the robbery by capitalism of a part of the value created by workers. Finance does not create anything; it merely appropriates a share of the surplus-value thus created in the productive sector.
For any given group of capitalists, it doesn’t matter where profit comes from. If they expect to make more money in the financial sector, they buy financial products – even though, when this behavior generalizes, the capitalist class is digging its own grave by reducing the production of surplus-value.
The preoccupation with finance at the expense of production brought about a multitude of changes in the way industrial companies were managed.
Moreover, the purely financial – or even speculative – groups played a more and more important role in shareholders’ decisions.
Finally, under the pressure of these developments, industrial companies themselves adopted the logic of finance.
Management of industrial companies had their eyes riveted on the stock exchange. They ended up launching absurd “restructuring” plans with the goal of eliminating a fraction of the workforce in order to increase the value of their company’s shares. It was – and remains – an aberration from the point of view of the interests of the capitalist class as a whole. By reducing the number of workers to exploit, they automatically reduce the global surplus-value. But as Lenin said: “A capitalist will sell you the rope to hang himself with, if he can make a profit on it.” That is exactly what capitalists have been doing for years: selling the rope that is currently strangling the world financial system to death! Serge Tchuruk, the ex-CEO of Alcatel (the world’s second largest manufacturer of telecommunications and networking equipment), formulated this approach in a particularly stupid way when he spoke of his plans to transform Alcatel into a “company without plants”! He forgets that “without plants” means “without workers” and that “without exploitation of workers,” there is no profit and hence, no profiteers, no CEOs and no Tchuruk, nor others like him!
It’s been said that the 1929 crisis came like a bolt out of the blue. It’s certainly not the case with today’s crisis. Long before it broke out, its outlines could be seen. It was obvious that the stampede set off by cheap credit would bring about greater speculation and that the whole system was running into a brick wall. A lot of people understood this and said it, including bourgeois economists and Nobel prize winners. Noting that the growth of France’s GDP was around 3% to 4% for years, while the owners of capital wanted a 15% to 20% return on investments, a French economist declared: “Finance’s arrogance gave birth to the global lie at the origin of the crisis. It was mathematically impossible to guarantee more than the average profit to everyone.” Of course, he didn’t say it until after the crisis broke out!
Nothing was done to stop the machine before it slammed into the wall. Basically, nothing could be done in an economy based on making profit. Who or what could have compelled financial groups, companies or individuals to stop speculating up to the very last second when it was still profitable?
The current financial crisis was all the more foreseeable since the real estate crisis followed the same scenario as that of the “new technology” bubble. As the price of houses and apartments rose, it drew the immediate and massive attraction of the owners of capital. Speculation, which had been a consequence of the price increases, fueled much higher prices. According to the British magazine, The Economist, between 1997 and 2006, real estate prices rose by 100% in the United States, 127% in France, 192% in the United Kingdom and... 327% in South Africa! For those who needed a home to live in as well as those who speculated in the housing market, credit was cheap, but also filled with booby traps created by financiers. Cheap credit caused prices to soar in both construction and mortgage loans. Then, in 2007, the real estate bubble burst.
Once the U.S. real estate crisis broke out, it spread through numerous securities that contained some U.S. mortgage-backed credit. This detonated the financial crisis.
Every bank in the world owned mortgage-backed securities! According to the most recent estimates, the total face-value of the toxic mortgage-backed securities owned by European banks stands at around 800 billion euros (more or less, one trillion dollars, depending on the week)!
Distrust toward these securities then caused a general distrust of all “risky” securities. These “risky” securities are found everywhere, because they played an essential role in the growth of the financial system. They are held by banks, financial institutions, industrial companies and even local governments.
The amount of all so-called “derivatives” is much greater than the securities contaminated by toxic U.S. mortgage-based credit. It is estimated at 400 trillion dollars. By way of comparison, the market capitalization of all the big firms listed on all the stock exchanges, in other words, the price at which they could all be bought, is a mere 60 trillion dollars.
If a spark in one sector was able to set the entire financial system on fire, it was essentially due to the fact that heaps of inflammable material had been accumulated everywhere during the past decades.
The general distrust toward any kind of security then generated a panic in the banking system. Those who panicked were not the banks’ clients and depositors, as was the case in 1929, but the banks themselves, which suddenly stopped carrying out most daily transactions among the banks.
The banking system is divided into so many units that, without these daily transactions, credit is frozen or it becomes too expensive, amounting to the same thing.
The capitalist economy has created the absurdity of a financial crisis caused by too much credit, the consequence of which is a lack of credit for production!
The stock market crash soon followed the banking system’s crisis. Monday, January 21, 2008, was a “black Monday” for all stock markets, which recorded their biggest losses since September 11, 2001. Other “black days” soon followed. October 2008 turned out to be a global “black month,” even though it did record a few better days. The lack of credit due to the crisis of the banking system considerably slowed operations in stock exchanges in which credit plays such an important role.
But something else was going on. The stock market is also a thermometer, measuring the health of the capitalist economy. Behind the financial form of the crisis loomed a crisis in the system of production.
Years and years of intense speculation, fostered by the growing profits of industrial companies, have increased the price of shares beyond their normal price.
The “average” price of a share is a theoretical notion, since its price varies permanently according to supply and demand. Still, the value of a share theoretically depends on the dividend, that is, on the income stockholders expect. But speculation had sent share prices way beyond this “normal price.” The bursting of the stock market bubble sent stock market indices around the world into a nose dive. A great number of industrial companies saw their shares slump to 50% or even 20% of their former price. And today’s stock prices have not yet stabilized. This indicates that speculation continues (this time, speculation on falling prices). The stock market’s correction is still incomplete. With the recession, big capital expects a widespread drop in production and profits.
In September 2008, the crisis of the banking system and the crisis of the stock market began to be interconnected. After that, the leaders of the imperialist countries regularly met, discussed and injected fantastic sums of money into the system to reestablish confidence between bankers. To no avail. The states offered the banks new credit lines to refinance themselves or the states directly refinanced the banks. But this did not restore confidence and the banks have not resumed lending to the economy.
The economic press is full of articles in which bosses of small and medium-sized companies complain that they cannot expand their businesses because the banks not only refuse to grant new loans but also the banks no longer authorize them to overdraw on their account.
The banks obviously prefer to use the state’s help to “seize on a good opportunity” – in other words, to buy up vulnerable competitors. The concentration in finance, which appeared during the first days of the crisis, will continue – especially since this concentration is supported by the actions of the various governments.
Having already struck the banking system and the stock market, the crisis could smash the monetary system. The currency market is completely disoriented. The ups and downs of currency rates look like the fever chart for a severe bout of malaria. This situation is bound to have important consequences on international trade.
To a certain extent, trade relations between the countries of the euro zone have not suffered from the crisis. But for how long? The support given by each state to its bourgeoisie will inevitably aggravate the budget deficit of each country, though not all at the same rhythm or to the same extent. It is up to the richest countries to decide whether to defend the euro against the dollar, the pound or the yen. How long will the rich countries in the euro zone go on paying to prop up the poorer ones?
Also, the different countries inside the euro zone do not have comparable imports and exports with the United States. The ups and downs of the euro versus the dollar do not have the same consequences for each one of them. And it seems that after a period during which the euro was stronger than the dollar, the trend has been reversed.
It was a monetary crisis in the early 1970s that began this protracted crisis. The monetary crisis of the 1970s ended the Bretton Woods system, which dated back to the post-war period. Under that system of fixed exchange rates, the rates of other currencies were set in relationship to the dollar, which itself was based on gold. This monetary system greatly facilitated international trade. But in 1971 it collapsed, and in 1975 was replaced by floating exchange rates, that is, rates that vary according to supply and demand. This did not put an end to domination by the U.S. currency. The dollar remained the main currency for international trade and monetary reserves kept by the central banks. However, the new system opened up unlimited possibilities for speculators to play on even the smallest variations in exchange rates over very short periods of time. This has played a major role in the financialization of the economy.
The slightest movement in exchange rates can have an enormous impact on the financial system, given the huge size of the reserves accumulated by states and central banks – mostly in dollars. According to Les Échos, today’s reserves total around 7.1 trillion dollars. In itself, this is a huge sum. Yet even more impressive is how fast it has grown! It is five times larger than a decade ago and 150 times larger than in 1971, when the U.S. unilaterally announced that the dollar would no longer be convertible into gold. The purpose of the reserves held by the different countries’ central banks is to defend their national currency. The rapid expansion in these reserves gives us an idea of the speculative threat on national currencies and is a measure of the parasitic nature of finance capital.
Despite the fact that it has remained the cornerstone of the international monetary system, the dollar has not been in great shape for many years. In the mid-1980s, the United States stopped being a creditor and became a debtor country. The country’s foreign debt is almost three trillion dollars (nearly 30% of the GDP). For years the equilibrium in the accounts has been achieved thanks to the “deposits” made by other countries like Japan, China and a handful of oil-producing countries, which bought U.S. Treasury bonds. However, the United States’ increasing indebtedness has reduced confidence in the dollar and pushed depreciation of the U.S. dollar in currency markets. Those markets have grown tremendously in recent years, not in order to facilitate global trade but because of the growth of financial operations and all kinds of currency speculation. (Apparently only 3% of the exchanges carried out in currencies correspond to real trade transactions.)
For years, the U.S. dollar had lost ground to the euro. In 2002, a euro was worth 86 cents. At the end of 2007, the euro was worth $1.48. The dollar had lost nearly half its value compared to the euro! But the current crisis reversed the situation. At the end of October 2008, the euro had fallen to only $1.23.
The leaders of industrial countries know full well that the currency market’s volatility could have grave consequences on international trade, thereby aggravating the crisis. But they have no means to end speculation, nor do they seek to have any. They often talk about a “new Bretton Woods” – but they do nothing to set it up! In fact, the Bretton Woods Agreement was not really an agreement. The U.S. imposed Bretton Woods on the English, French and other imperialisms that had been weakened by the war. They had no other choice but to accept the conditions dictated by the United States. Today, the U.S. itself is weakened by the crisis and it’s not at all clear that it can impose itself in the same way.
Speculation that strengthens the dollar in currency markets is not based on renewed confidence in the U.S. currency, but on increased distrust of the euro. In this period of financial upheaval, the owners of capital, seeking a haven for their money, look in the direction of U.S. Treasury bonds. Add to this, intervention by the central banks that have invested their reserves in Treasury bonds. China, for example, has just increased its U.S. dollar reserves by 100 billion dollars. Any depreciation of the dollar would mean a severe loss for China. In other words, China and the United States are chained together by the same chains. This is why it is stupid to claim that emerging countries like China, India or Brazil are havens of growth capable of instilling new vitality to the global economy. A collapse of the dollar, a sudden hostile reaction against Chinese imports or the withdrawal of American or Japanese capital could, separately or together, end China’s current growth.
After the crash of 1929, the withdrawal of American capital was the principal means by which the crisis was transmitted to Germany. The same phenomenon is today threatening the countries of Eastern Europe, where the big banking, distribution and industrial sectors are entirely dominated by Western capital – mostly European. Hungary and Ukraine, on the verge of collapse, had to be bailed out by injections of money by the IMF.
Investment funds, especially those that specialize in the riskiest forms of speculation, have been hit by a double squeeze. On the one hand, they have lost a lot of money in their various speculative schemes, and on the other hand, they have to come up with huge amounts of cash to meet big obligations that are coming due. And they can’t borrow more money from the banks, especially since credit markets have been frozen. So these funds have been massively withdrawing their money from emerging markets, such as Eastern Europe.
The auto industry was a rare exception in that it did not just make sweetheart deals to buy up what was left over from the time of the former People’s Democracies. It built new plants in the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary and Slovenia. The crisis of the auto industry and the withdrawal of its capital, ending production, would have much more dramatic consequences in these countries than in the West.
The decline of industry’s needs for raw materials, amplified by speculation, has resulted in erratic price movements for raw materials. After the price of crude oil reached unprecedented highs, it then lost two-thirds of its value in a matter of weeks. The poor classes living in underdeveloped countries who had to pay high food prices due to speculation will now have to pay again (this time because of speculation on falling prices). As the price of exports from these countries falls, their governments will try to force the poor to compensate for lost government revenues.
The crisis has already spread far beyond real estate or finance.
It has hit the auto industry. Not only have vehicle sales already dropped, but the bosses expect an even bigger fall. A drop in car production has repercussions on a multitude of subcontractors and suppliers. This includes the steel industry, whose other main client is the construction industry. Steel already had planned drastic cuts in production and mill shutdowns. Given the auto industry’s economic role and size, including its suppliers and subcontractors, there will be a significant increase in unemployment. as well as temporary layoffs. This will push down the purchasing power of the working class and further aggravate the crisis.
There is nothing “moral” about the way financial markets work, and governments’ interventions in those markets won’t change that. On the contrary. By opening credit lines to bail out financial companies and by helping them recapitalize, governments are not only absolving these companies of their past speculation, they are also encouraging them to speculate even more.
The same is true of the central banks’ decision to lower interest rates under the pretext of encouraging banks to offer credit to companies big and small. Currently, the banking system is not really using the credit offered by the central banks to lend to the production sector. Instead the banks are setting aside the money for a “golden opportunity” – such as buying out a weaker competitor at a fire sale price.
In a panic, the capitalist system’s political leaders promise to reform the global financial system. But each of the big imperialist powers that have a say have different views on how to carry out reform according to the interests of their own bourgeoisie. And more importantly, what can they really reform anyway? What is certain is that the governments are increasingly intervening. Their intervention has been immediate. From the very first day of the financial crisis, the central banks opened the money taps. They established lines of credit for the private banks, justifying this action as a way to deal with the lack of confidence that plagued the banking system, pretending this would allow the banks to lend money to companies for production. To illustrate how the banks use the money: the Wall Street Journal reported that Goldman Sachs, which had received a 10-billion-dollar line of credit, had a total compensation package for its executives, including pensions, etc., of 11.8 billion dollars.
Given the banks’ tendency to keep the money for themselves while lending little or nothing to industrial companies, some governments might be tempted to carry out some kind of nationalization of the banks to set up a public banking service that would come to the rescue of those sectors that really need help. This is precisely what the French government did after World War II: all banks holding deposits were nationalized in the interests of the bourgeois class as a whole.
Next in line begging for government money are the big auto companies. From the United States to Europe, it is fashionable to talk about this or that “stimulus program” for industrial recovery. Governments could even decide to launch a series of big public works programs. Governments never cease using public funds to guarantee the profits of the capitalist class. However, in times of economic crisis – as in times of war – when governments want to guarantee the profits of the owners of capital, they will take the money they need directly from the workers’ pockets, even more than usual.
From the outset, the protracted crisis of the capitalist economy has meant an escalation of the class struggle. But so far, the struggle has been one-sided. At each and every step, it was the bourgeois class that took the initiative. They have been able to make the workers foot the bill, especially by taking advantage of the massive unemployment and the workers’ increased fear of losing their job. They did this with the complicity of all the political parties, including those which, because of their past, had links with the working class.
The last 30 years have been marked by a long period of reduction in the workers’ living conditions and a regression of the whole society. It was by continually reducing wages and brutally worsening working conditions that companies have been able to increase their profits and the capitalist class has been able to maintain the total surplus-value it takes. The ballooning of the financial system was fostered by huge cuts in social programs and the siphoning of fantastic sums of money from useful programs for the entire society, including those that benefit the poorest people. Governments have carried out bigger and bigger cuts of budgets that should have gone to hospitals, schools and community facilities. Instead, the money was used to pay the interests on the government’s debt, in other words, it fed the financial system.
In the United States, for example, the richest and most powerful capitalist country in the world, 40 million people are terribly impoverished. While the government spends 150 billion dollars to bail out a single insurance company (AIG), it has totally failed to set up a health-care system for the 40 million working people currently without any. No need to ask who will pay for the crisis: the working class has already paid more than enough!
However, the workers are not done with paying for the crisis of the capitalist system. The aggravation of the crisis can only aggravate the social war waged by the bourgeoisie. In the coming period, how much the governments intervene will vary from country to country, according to local conditions and the depth of the crisis. But those differences change nothing. The governments will not intervene to alleviate the conditions of the working class, but to help the bourgeois class to emerge from the crisis as strong as possible.
The soothsayers of the International Monetary Fund, the World Trade Organization and the central banks might look at the past in order to find regulations or controls that could allow them to avoid a catastrophe. New G4, G8 or G20 summits might be organized. But they will fail to come up with a system to regulate capitalism. As proof, just look at France, where every Socialist government, including those with Communist Party ministers, carried out the same policy: they sold off portions of the public sector to private interests and supported the financial sector through the French state’s growing indebtedness.
More and more people say that in order to perfect the market economy there must be some control and regulation – as was the case in the 1950s and 1960s. But they do not explain why the regulations of that time did not prevent the crisis of the early 1970s from breaking out. Nor can they explain why out of such a brilliantly regulated system came the generalization of laissez-faire and the frantic development of neo-liberalism, which they denounce today after having praised them for years.
It is absolutely ridiculous to blame the influence of this or that “conservative” economist or the “ultra-conservatism” of Reagan and Thatcher. The fact that a B-movie actor was able to have such an imprint on the evolution of capitalism is an indication that his policies were in line with the aspirations and desires of the capitalist class, in keeping with the whole evolution of capitalism itself. The top politicians are only the servants of the propertied classes.
So far, the working class has not shown that it was prepared for an intensification of the war that the bourgeoisie is about to launch. The parties that claim (though with less and less conviction) to stand for the workers’ interests betrayed the workers a long time ago. The union confederations aren’t any better. The aggravation of the crisis and the expected brutal increase in unemployment obviously do not encourage workers to fight back. However, the blows they suffer can also develop their combativeness and consciousness, both of which could change very rapidly. Remember that in the 1930s, the crisis surprised and disoriented the laboring masses at the outset, but ultimately led to great fights.
The workers’ reaction was not immediate. Massive layoffs, unemployment, plant closings, attacks of all kinds at first surprised and demoralized workers.
It took years before the workers’ counter-offensive began. But it came, and it was massive. During the mid-1930s it shook countries as different as the United States, Spain and France. There were huge strike waves in other countries as well.
In Germany, the response came too late. The bourgeoisie used Hitler’s regime to break that country’s working class. But the coming to power of Nazism showed the workers in other countries the real danger that they confronted and thus played a decisive role in the working class upsurges in France or Spain.
Based on the experiences of these years of massive workers struggles, Trotsky wrote the Transitional Program for the organizations of the Fourth International, which were then being constituted.
The program was published in 1938 when the workers’ march forward was already coming up against a wall, either because it was trapped in a dead-end or because it was betrayed. World War II was on its way. But Trotsky nevertheless issued the Program with the hope that the war would lead to workers’ revolts, as World War I had done.
His program was a tool for a revolutionary organization addressing itself to a struggling working class, offering the workers a series of objectives that would allow them to concretely challenge bourgeois control over corporations and banks. His program’s aim was to transform a pre-revolutionary situation into a revolutionary one.
The history of the present crisis is not yet written and no one can tell how, where and when, confronted with the offensive of the bourgeoisie which will inevitably intensify, explosions of anger on the part of the working class will break out. We cannot even be sure that there will be fights wide enough and long lasting enough to shake up the bourgeoisies and their state apparatuses.
However, the reason for a revolutionary organization to exist is to prepare itself for times like these, when the working class has the possibility to change the course of history. The Transitional Program was written for this kind of historical period. It is in such a situation – if it occurs – that it will gain its meaning.
The evolution of the crisis brings to the fore the partial objectives of the Transitional Program: the sliding scale of wages to protect the workers’ purchasing power; dividing up the available work among all workers without cutting wages to protect against rising unemployment.
But the past has shown that the bourgeoisie and its left-wing political servants know how to divert these two demands that correspond to the interests of the proletariat and transform them from goals for an all-out struggle into kitchen recipes that demobilize them. For many years, Italy had a system that indexed wages to the cost of living. In a sense, France has such a system with a minimum wage (SMIC) that is regularly increased. In the U.S., clever bosses like Ford quickly proposed cost-of-living adjustments (COLA) as a way to rein in struggles. As for dividing up the available work, the idea was recently perverted in France by the Socialist Party’s Aubry Law which claimed that a shorter work week meant more jobs for more people.
The basic demands of the Transitional Program can keep their revolutionary meaning only if they are connected to the control, by the workers and the population, over banks and corporations. Bank secrecy and, more generally speaking, business secrecy are vital for capitalists. It allows them to cover up their plunder of the society’s wealth. The lifting of these “secrets” is a priority because it is the first step towards workers’ control over industry.
These objectives are linked with the means that are used: workers’ democracy in their struggles, the creation of strike committees or factory committees that can transform themselves into a leadership recognized by all workers, including the most exploited who, in normal times, stay on the sidelines, removed from unions and politics.
For working people, the crisis of the banking system has raised the questions not only of the need to control the banks, but also of who does the controlling. It has become obvious that the control of the banks among themselves as well as the control by the state only serves the bourgeoisie's interests with catastrophic consequences. The control of the banks must be wrenched away from the financiers. Not only should the banks be nationalized – and nationalized without compensation – they must also be unified into a single bank run by the state under the control of the workers and the population in the interests of society as a whole.
These objectives are not magic recipes. They will find their true meaning only when the exploited masses take hold of them. A small organization does not have the power to make the working class fight back. But during those time periods when the working class does react, and reacts in an important way, small groups of revolutionaries can grow, and, if they measure up to the situation, they can play a role in the events.
In the 1930s, it was not the working class that failed to confront the necessities of the time period. If the workers’ fights in the U.S., France and Spain could not prevent the bourgeoisie from imposing its solutions to the crisis – the New Deal in the U.S., Fascism in Germany, state intervention in France and, finally, the World War – it was due to the policies put forward by the organizations that had the confidence of the workers.
Despite its cost to society, capitalism will not disappear automatically. It will disappear only if and when a social force manages to get rid of it.
We believe that the proletariat is the only class that can bring about that transformation. The crisis and its consequences, such as the immense waste of human labor, emphasize this necessity. Today, we do not know any more than we did 20 or 50 years ago which path, which collective experiences, will bring the proletariat to the consciousness and understanding of its historic role: the revolutionary overthrow of the bourgeoisie’s rule, the suppression of privately-owned means of production and the reorganization of production to satisfy the needs of everyone under the democratic control by collective social forces.
But what we do know is that for this consciousness to take hold, the working class needs a revolutionary party. The task of the revolutionary party is to defend and spread these revolutionary objectives in all circumstances. It must be able, thanks to its cohesion and common understanding of events, to lead the proletariat in motion to the realization of these objectives.
To make our own contribution to this historical task is the fundamental reason why we exist. | <urn:uuid:d114ccdc-f38b-462f-af86-64b80481e6d1> | CC-MAIN-2020-29 | https://the-spark.net/csart614.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-29/segments/1593657155816.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20200715035109-20200715065109-00308.warc.gz | en | 0.969371 | 11,399 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Air pollution thickens the blood and increases the likelihood of inflammation, according to research.
Pollution can penetrate deep into the body
The study may help explain why poor air is linked to an increased risk of heart attacks and stroke, as well as worsening respiratory problems.
University of Edinburgh researchers focused on ultra-fine pollutants known as particulate matter, which they say may be able to alter cell function.
Details are carried in the Occupational and Environmental Medicine journal.
The researchers tested the inflammatory and blood clotting responses of human immune cells called macrophages, lung cells and cells taken from the umbilical cord.
Each was tested six and 24 hours after exposure to particulate matter.
The results showed that levels of clotting factors, which thicken the blood, were raised in almost all the cell types.
The rate of death in immune cells also significantly increased, and exposure to the pollutants boosted inflammatory activity.
The researchers say their findings strongly suggest that particulate matter has the ability to alter cell function.
They believe that factors which trigger clotting may also trigger inflammation, and vice versa, so that if one begins to take hold, it is highly likely that the other will follow.
Recent research has shown that particulate matter is so tiny that, when inhaled, it can pass through the lungs directly into the bloodstream.
This may mean that its effect on macrophages could be deadly in people who are at risk of heart disease.
Macrophages are a major component of the plaque deposits which can build up on the walls of the arteries.
These plaques can obstruct blood flow, and it they rupture may lead to the formation of a clot which can trigger a heart attack, or stroke.
Lead researcher Professor William MacNee told the BBC News website that particulate matter produced high levels of charged particles called free radicals, which can damage the body's tissue.
"Our research points to the fact that they stimulate a change in the blood which make clots more likely to form," he said.
Judy O'Sullivan, a cardiac nurse at the British Heart Foundation, said: "This research adds to the debate that air pollution may contribute to heart and circulatory disease, the UK's biggest killer."
She said there was no direct evidence to suggest that there is a direct causal link between air pollutants and coronary heart disease.
However, research funded by the BHF is examining the issue further.
In a statement, the Stroke Association called for "more attention to be given to the issue of reducing air pollution in an effort to reduce the risk of stroke and to create a safer environment for people to live in".
Dr Richard Russell, of the British Lung Foundation, said it was well established that particulate matter increased inflammation in the lung tissues.
However, while it was clear that this made existing respiratory disease worse, there was, as with heart disease, still no direct evidence that it triggered the onset of disease.
Dr Russell said it was probable that free radicals caused damage to the lung tissue, thus triggering inflammation.
It was also possible that inflammation was triggered by the lungs reacting to the carbon deposits which were also a major component of particulates. | <urn:uuid:271f8e25-3812-47cc-b8a9-df6d259692ea> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4277113.stm | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1406510274967.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20140728011754-00217-ip-10-146-231-18.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.966168 | 654 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Posted on Aug 14, 2007 | Comments 0
Asperger’s syndrome can also be called as “Asperger’s disorder” or “Autistic Psychotherapy”. It is a pervasive developmental disorder or autistic spectrum disorder which usually occurs in childhood.
Recent estimation about this disease indicates that two out of every 10,000 children have Asperger’s syndrome. The difficulties can be somewhat different for each individual.
Aspergers syndrome can have both positive and negative side effects on individual’s life. Asperger’s syndrome affects people in many ways. Children with aspergers syndrome will have various activities that are similar to those with autism; however they have better language and cognitive skills.
Symptoms with Asperger’s syndrome include:
- It is a condition that concerns the way an individual communicates and relates to others.
- A lack of social imagination and artistic play
- Difficulty in communicating
- Difficulty in communal relationships
- Lack of social interactions
- Awkward movements and body postures with poor coordination
- Difficulty in reading, writing, or math skills
- Lack of nonverbal cognitive ability such as lack of facial expressions or eye contact
- Unable to understand others or understanding humors
- Sensitive to criticism
- Failure to think in abstract ways
- Behaviors differ from gently unusual to quite aggressive and complex
Some of the people with aspergers syndrome can be very talented. They show much interest in their chosen field or area. Every time they may enjoy their success while some of the strengths and abilities vary from one person to another.
Other symptoms of Asperger’s syndrome include:
- Some children will be very active at school or work, if there is a supportive environment.
- People show excellent factual memory for their selected area or interest.
- Children have extensive vocabulary skills and some have trouble while practically using the language.
- People show keenness and dedication in the environment they work and their job is appropriate according to their interest.
- Normally people show higher than average intelligence.
- Become skilled in their selected area of interest.
- Interest in specialized fields, areas or hobbies.
Asperger’s syndrome is not a chronic disease or illness. The effects of this disease will decrease as you get older and learn coping skills. This condition exists from birth but it normally takes a long time for you to be sure that the abnormal activities and difficulties of a child fit the pattern of aspergers syndrome.
Cause of Aspergers syndrome: Exactly the cause of aspergers syndrome is not known. Inheritance is one of the causes of this disease. Occasionally, aspergers syndrome can be developed after the problems through pregnancy or birth. Viral infection may also be a cause before or soon after birth.
Diagnosis is important! Sometimes you can observe your child behaving in different manner. The diagnosis of aspergers syndrome includes questions about social and emotional skills, moving abilities, learning skills, special interests, and communication skills.
Treatments to consider! The treatment for aspergers syndrome can point in three main symptoms. They include poor communication skills, anxious or dull routines and physical awkwardness.
The treatment program for aspergers syndrome can be made according to your child’s interest than offering a predictable schedule. This program consists of tasks which can be explained as a series of simple steps, actively holds your child’s concentration in highly planned behaviors, and offers regular reinforcement of behavior.
The treatment also includes social skills training, cognitive behavioral therapy, medication for synchronized conditions and other measures.
So, if your child has asperger’s syndrome, don’t bother about it. It is not a chronic illness and it won’t cause any serious effects. With the above mentioned treatment steps you can reduce the symptoms of aspergers syndrome.
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Minorities and Tribes in Somalia
The majority of Somali traditionally were, and still are, nomads and herders keeping flocks of goats, black and white fat-tailed Somali sheep together with herds of cattle and camels. Over 60% of the world’s camels are to be found with Somalis and are used for meat, milk and as beasts of burden but they are never ridden. I was told the word Somali has its origins in their language and means ’go and milk’, or comes from Arabic and means ‘wealthy owner of animals’. In either case the nation has a name that has origins in the people’s dependence on livestock.
As in many such people an hierarchical tribal system is to be found and when Siad Barre was in power his clan, the Marehan, were the top echelon with regard to power, wealth and the top jobs. At the other end of the scale were the Jerar people, (jerar meaning ‘kinky hair.) This minority group had their origins in south east Africa and were good farmers and freshwater fishermen. The Jerar people had been enslaved by the Sultan of Zanzibar over 200 years ago, and they continued to suffer in Somalia, were often victimized, and their crops could be devastated as herdsmen released their animals onto their crop. I always tried to help them with seeds, tools and chemicals as they were good farmers and I had sympathy for them as I was from a minority myself where the top echelon were the Tikriti of Saddam’s family and I was from the minority, the victimized Faili Kurds of Iraq.
The Jerar trusted me and told me something of their suffering. During the years of the civil war the suffering of this minority increased and the rape of a Jereer girl, or the killing of a Jerar for no reason, was a common occurrence. Many of the Jerar elders and their families used to visit me in the FAO office in Hamar Jeb Jeb and opened their hearts to tell me their problems. The Jerar elders with their beards dyed red with henna were a common sight around my office and I firmly believe that they are the best farmers in Somalia.
I was limited in what I could do to help them because FAO worked within the remit of development and was highly centralized and program orientated, as are most UN organisations. However helping the Jereer and the poor Somali nomads was really an emergency aid situation and I was accused by FAO Rome of ‘going native’ when I directed what available assistance I could to these people. I believed then, and still do, that providing good farmers and herdsmen with the seed and tools they need to produce food was the right thing to do in the situation but I could not get this across to the bureaucrats in Rome, the majority of which had no experience in the field, or indeed outside their offices. In all the years I was there with FAO the only visit by any individual from the Rome headquarters was when the Chief of OSRO (FAO’s emergency unit) came to the country. On one occasion we received a visit from consultants on a strategic mission but there was no positive outcome from their visit. Ironically I met most of the DG’s of the international organizations who had offices in Somalia, George Bush Snr and two UN Secretary Generals and worked with five representatives of the latter. A visit of a chief of service was the limit of FAO HQ support.
I was dealing with the catastrophic situation in the country and dealing each day with issues that were not really under FAO’s mandate but were part and parcel of the daily life in Somalia and required a sympathetic and humane approach. I could not make my colleagues read between the lines and fully appreciate the conditions that existed there, and especially the suffering of the Jerar and the poor nomads.
There are very few nations in the world as homogenized as the Somali speaking nation. Virtually all of them are from the same religion and sect and historically were herders and nomads with many similar physical features as opposed to the tribes of Kenya who show physical differences and tribal languages. Nevertheless the Somalis are divided to the extreme on tribal lines. Throughout history nomads have never been country makers in their ancestral lands, whereas farmers settle and establish themselves. As I mentioned previously my first task with FAO was to train nomads in primary animal health care and, from the start, I wanted to know something about the tribes and clans of the regions where we were to work with the nomads. My Somali counterpart started to fill me in with the necessary information and I even got a map and marked on it the locality of the clans. My office was in the Ministry of Livestock, Range and Forestry and I stuck the map on a board behind my desk.
Early one morning I was called to the Office of the Minister, who I had never met before, and he bluntly asked me what was the map in my office. I was taken aback by his tone and why the map should generate such interest. He told me that I should understand that in Somlia there was no such thing as tribes, clans and regions and that all of Somalia was the same and united. He then abruptly changed his tone and asked me to sit and take tea with him! I was about to drink when he asked if I had a secretary. I told him that I was running a small FAO project and there was no budget available for the employment of a secretary. Budget or no budget I had a secretary when I left his room! The secretary and the minister were from the same tribe that had come to Somalia after the Ogaden (Ethiopian Somali war). Within a year Somalia had succumbed to the strife caused by tribal fiefdoms and it has yet to recover.
In 1960, the colonial powers of Britain and Italy, who ruled north and south of the country, decided to give independence to the people and the north and south formed Somalia. This was an African country gaining full independence without a single act of violence. Now, half a century later, the land has been divided into 10 tribal defacto states. The promised future that was there in 1960 has wasted away and the tribal leaders should recognize the role they must play to regain a chance of a future for the country as a whole. The Somali people deserve a better future. | <urn:uuid:3812a118-a89b-42d4-8b2c-332c799b1ffd> | CC-MAIN-2022-05 | http://www.talibelam.com/2011/05/somali-saga-3.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-05/segments/1642320299927.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20220129032406-20220129062406-00141.warc.gz | en | 0.988737 | 1,314 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Dental hygienists are dental care professionals who typically work as part of a team along with dentists, dental technicians, and dental assistants. Dental hygienists perform a wide range of dental care tasks, including screening patients, cleaning and polishing teeth, examining gums and more.
Dental Hygienist Schools
Most dental hygienists prepare for their careers by earning an associate's degree in dental hygiene from an accredited dental hygienist training program. There are approximately 300 dental hygiene training programs in the United States accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation. Though a handful of programs offer certificates in dental hygiene, the following degrees are the most common:
- Associate Degree: An associate's degree in dental hygiene is the most popular way for individuals to prepare for entry-level dental hygienist jobs. Associate's degree programs generally take about two years to complete and they are offered by approximately 270 accredited dental hygienist training programs.
- Bachelor's Degree: Like an associate's degree, a bachelorӳ degree program in dental hygiene prepares you for state licensing and entry-level dental hygiene work, but it can also qualify you for positions in dental hygiene education, research, and public health. A bachelor's degree generally takes about four years to complete.
- Master's Degree: A masterӳ degree in dental hygiene requires an additional one to two years of study after the bachelor's degree and qualifies graduates for jobs in education, research, administration, and public health.
Earning a dental hygiene degree requires a combination of coursework and clinical experience. Exact offerings vary by program, but most dental hygienist training programs require students to take courses in the following subjects:
- General science: chemistry, anatomy, physiology, biochemistry, microbiology, pathology, nutrition, pharmacology
- Dental science: dental, head, and neck anatomy; oral histology and pathology; radiography; periodontology; dental materials; pain control
- Dental hygiene science: health education, community dental health, patient management, medical and dental emergencies
Classes and Coursework for Dental Hygienists
A strong background in biology, chemistry and mathematics is a good place to start. Many dental hygiene programs require at least one year of college education before applying. At the very least, a high school diploma and college entrance test scores are required to begin a dental hygiene program.
Dental hygienist education includes both classroom and clinical instruction. Coursework often includes the following subjects:
- Clinical dental hygiene
Expect classes that will educate you on a variety of dental materials used, as well as instruction in social and behavioral sciences.
Dental Hygienist Education Requirements
Dental hygienists receive post secondary education from a dental hygiene program. A high school diploma or equivalent as well as passing an entrance test are typically required to obtain admission into a dental hygiene program. Dental hygiene programs offer laboratory, clinical, and classroom instruction. Most dental hygiene programs award associate degrees, which are typically all that is necessary educationally to practice in a private dentist's office. Advanced degrees are typically obtained by those wishing to go into research.
The majority of associate degree programs can be found in community colleges, technical colleges, dental schools or universities. It is important to make sure your program is accredited by the Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA).
Dental Hygienist Licensing
All states require that dental hygienists be licensed to practice. Most require that applicants be graduates of an accredited dental hygiene program and pass the written National Board Dental Hygiene Examination (NBDHE). In addition, most states also require the passing of a clinical examination which is administered by state or regional testing agencies.
Resources for Dental Hygienists
- American Dental Education Association (ADEA)
- American Dental Hygienists' Association (ADHA)
- Commission on Dental Accreditation (CODA), of the American Dental Association
- Dental Hygienists, U.S. Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics
- Dental Hygienists, Virginia Career VIEW
- International Federation of Dental Hygienists (IFDH)
- Dental Hygienists, Occupational Outlook Handbook, Bureau of Labor Statistics, http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/dental-hygienists.htm | <urn:uuid:4079298f-aac6-415d-ade0-d07b1c89715d> | CC-MAIN-2016-50 | http://www.citytowninfo.com/employment/dental-hygienists | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-50/segments/1480698542009.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20161202170902-00358-ip-10-31-129-80.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.919394 | 917 | 3.484375 | 3 |
1. Benibana (Safflower : Carthamus Tinctorius) Revived (蘇った紅花)
Kahoku Town is called "the country of benibana". In Edo period, Mogami (最上) safflower was in cultivation in this area (in those days, a present Murayama (村山) area was called Mogami). And the flower leaves were processed into a cake of lumps and transported up to Kyoto. There, the lumps were made into the red cosmetic for cheeks and lips and used to make up the lips of noble ladies. Furthermore, people dyed the costumes in bright or faint crimson with benibana color. The mysterious beauty of its color was the longing of ladies all through the ages.
In spite of such valuable materials of colors as these, the flower was forced to disappear in Meiji era under the influence of the chemical materials which were brought into this country. But even after that, the costumes that have been used in the Emperial Palace or its various ceremonies slightly continued to be dyed with the safflower dyeing materials produced in Yamagata refecture.
In 1981, when Kahoku Town decided its town's flower, the people did not hesitate to nominate benibana as a town's flower. Also in 1984 they opened "the Benibana Museum", consisted of "the Benibana House" in 1986 and other properties in 1984. The beautiful color of benibana has charmed people and the faint and vanishing beauty of it has been miraculously revived by benibana loving people. | <urn:uuid:554b672c-ec72-43d6-8c5e-6afbc0cb47d2> | CC-MAIN-2022-27 | http://www2.lib.yamagata-u.ac.jp/benibana/bunken/book/bmuseum/bmuseum2.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-27/segments/1656103034170.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20220625034751-20220625064751-00422.warc.gz | en | 0.973266 | 334 | 3.03125 | 3 |
More From This Reporter
Experts: Active Removal Key To Countering Space Junk Threat
BRUSSELS — The growing threat of orbital debris eventually will shut down the global space industry unless government agencies field a technology to remove the biggest pieces of garbage from low Earth orbit, experts from government, academia and industry said here Oct. 30.
Even the adoption by every spacefaring nation of practices designed to mitigate the formation of new debris will not be enough to assure the long-term sustainability of space activity, manned and unmanned, they said.
Unless a government-sponsored effort is made to take down the biggest pieces of debris, the risks in launching astronauts and most satellites will force a cessation of most, and maybe all, space operations for an extended period of time.
But despite this consensus, the experts from the United States, Canada and Europe said there are no plans on either side of the Atlantic to develop an active debris-removal system that could capture — by a net, tentacles or harpoon — the larger debris pieces that present the biggest threats to the usability of space.
“There is a paradox between the urgency of the issue and the slowness of actions,” one official said. “No one wants to pay for it, financially or politically.”
The one-day conference on orbital debris removal and in-orbit satellite servicing was organized by the Secure World Foundation, a U.S. think tank; and by the French International Relations Institute, or IFRI.
The meeting follows a similar conference in June organized in Washington by the U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) on the prospects for in-orbit servicing of satellites. DARPA and NASA are both making still-modest investments in programs designed to stimulate industrial development of a satellite-servicing capability.
Speakers at the conference included representatives from the U.S. government; the German, British, Swiss and European space agencies; the 27-nation European Union; and the space industry, as well as experts in space law.
The two organizers asked that no names be attached to any specific statements. What follows are key points made during the conference.
Current United Nations space law gives spacefaring nations ownership of space property even if the object in question is dead in orbit and is obviously space junk that threatens other objects in nearby orbits. As a consequence, any nation spending hundreds of millions of dollars to remove from orbit a satellite or rocket upper stage before it explodes or collides with another object, creating thousands of new pieces of debris, would need to notify the object’s owner before acting.
Some experts said the law may require that the owner of the space junk give its permission before any debris-removal effort is undertaken.
Further complicating things are technology-export regulations in many nations that make it difficult to rendezvous with these nations’ satellites without permission, even if the goal is only to send the satellite or rocket upper stage into the atmosphere to be destroyed.
“You can get lots of legal opinion on how complicated it all is, but really what this will take is an executive fiat,” one official attending the meeting said, referring to a head-of-government-level decision, preferably with other nations, to order full speed ahead on a debris-removal effort.
Some officials said a government effort first requires that the technical choices — what kind of machine will be built to do the job — be settled. But others said that at this point, the technology is almost beside the point. The political will by one nation to start moving would resolve the technological issues, they said.
The United States and Europe both have objects that are on the top-50 list of dangerous pieces of large debris in low Earth orbit that are tracked by the U.S. Space Surveillance Network of mainly ground-based sensors.
Europe’s 8,000-kilogram Envisat environment-monitoring satellite, which suddenly ceased functioning in April, is Europe’s principal contribution to a list that many governments still appear reluctant to talk about.
The United States and Europe continue to discuss a European code of conduct for space affairs, but this code is struggling for the support of less-developed nations that fear it is somehow against their interests. The U.S. government has sent mixed signals about the code as well but has agreed to continue working with Europe to craft a text that could be brought to the United Nations around 2013 — six years after it was first proposed.
The code says nothing about debris removal, and none of its proposals is binding. | <urn:uuid:456cdebf-1a2c-4185-b484-70d6ed7b248f> | CC-MAIN-2013-48 | http://www.spacenews.com/article/experts-active-removal-key-countering-space-junk-threat | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2013-48/segments/1386164036407/warc/CC-MAIN-20131204133356-00099-ip-10-33-133-15.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.945754 | 938 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Southern States Notes
During the Civil War of 1861 to 1865, a number of constituent states of the Confederacy issued paper currency as a medium of exchange. These notes circulated alongside Confederate States currency, and are known today as “southern states currency.” The reasons for issuance of state notes were complex, and varied from state to state. These notes were sometimes backed by Confederate Treasury notes. Some were backed by land or cotton. Most were backed by nothing at all, save for faith and credit. Before War’s end, the state-issued currency had become practically worthless as a medium of exchange, like the Confederate currency that it supplemented. The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, adopted in 1868, forbade the honoring of any debts represented by the southern notes, and many of those that weren’t destroyed were saved as war souvenirs.
Southern states notes remain a popular collecting field. In today’s world, they’re often treated as a subcategory of Confederate currency. The notes are relatively inexpensive relics from a time of profound division and epic conflict. They vary widely in appearance and workmanship, produced by a vast range of different engravers, printers & workshops. As a result of Union blockades, paper was often in short supply in the south – some of the state notes are even printed on the blank backs of re-purposed unissued sheets of earlier banknotes. The series of state-issued notes traditionally includes notes and certificates issued after the war, up through 1895, by governments in Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, South Carolina, and Tennessee. The legality of these later issues was sometimes dubious; some of these post-war notes are quite rare. In addition to the Reconstruction- & later-era issues, notes issued before the War by state governments in Alabama and North Carolina, as well as notes issued by the Republic/Territory of Florida, and the Provisional Government/Republic of Texas, are collected alongside the later notes. Texas notes, in particular, are a popular & complex field of study on their own. Notes issued by the Cherokee & Choctaw Nations, all rare, are also collected alongside the southern currency, but are almost never seen in the current market.
Southern notes are generally identified by a numbering system devised by Grover Criswell (“Cr.”). This numbering system is distinct & different from Criswell numbers used to identify varieties in Confederate notes. The standard reference work in the southern states currency field is A Guide Book Of Southern States Currency: History, Rarity And Values, by Hugh Shull. Shull’s work utilizes Criswell’s numbering. Specialized references also exist for some states, and these are referenced in our listings where appropriate. | <urn:uuid:69d27759-8319-4b3c-96ba-a3b2e1d4bfc4> | CC-MAIN-2023-50 | https://www.harfordcoin.com/inventory/paper-currency/southern-states-notes | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2023-50/segments/1700679100650.21/warc/CC-MAIN-20231207054219-20231207084219-00391.warc.gz | en | 0.974059 | 567 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Peer Grading FRQS
Peer grading free response questions is a great way to
1. Teach kids how the questions are graded by the national readers and how picky and precise the language should be.
2. Save you some personal time.
My method of peer grading has morphed into this method through the years. Like most teachers I’ve take ideas of here and there and merged into what works for me. You can read how I use and teach FRQs here.
When we peer grade, my students write their student ID # on the FRQ instead of their name. A couple of days after the exam (when most make-ups are finished), I pass out the FRQs to grade. Since I teach multiple sections of AP, classes don’t grade their own class’ FRQs. That way, its harder for the students to know if they’re grading someone that they know. I also pass out a pink slip.
I don’t usually use the College Board rubrics for peer grading with the students. Many students find them confusing. Instead, I type the most common answers from the rubric that I know my students will use on a PowerPoint. If you are new to teaching the course, I suggest you place the answers that your students learned in the textbook, activities, or lecture. Its unlikely that students will know or guess something different (but it does happen so be sure to answer questions). We go through each part of the FRQ on the PowerPoint and I answer any questions. The only exception to is when we grade math.
Students need to highlight the exact words that give the points. This helps students understand that they don’t need to write lots of words and sentences for points and helps them clearly identify where the points are. They are not guessing or saying “well it sounds right” and give points. They need to clearly indicate where the points are by highlighting.
When we grade math, I find it best to copy just the page with the math solutions from the College Board rubrics. That way, kids can see exactly what their math needs to look like. I also make notes on the rubric about remembering units and how any points each question is worth. After the math is graded, we go back to a PowerPoint for the rest of the FRQ.
After all sections are graded, students add up the points out of 10 or 11 and write on the top of the students’ paper. They also write it on the pink slip. If they need me to check something or they had another comment for me only, they need to write it on the pink slip. Students will never get the pink slips back to them. They are only for me. This helps with anonymity.
I go through each pink slip and check for comments. When I’m finished, I recycle/toss the pink slips.
Students will get their own FRQ returned to them to check over on a different day. I also include a “fudge” point in the curve. If they want to argue 1 point, I say I don’t want to hear it as its factored in the curve. If they find 2 or more points in error, they can come see me, but they have to show me exactly where the mistake was made. They cannot say “I’m sure I got more points, can you please check it over?” This prevents a long line of students who want to argue one point or grasping at straws to get a better grade.
Here’s my peer-graded curve as an FRQ is worth 50 exam points for me. (Multiple Choice is worth 100 points) | <urn:uuid:b9a18b49-0e89-4b79-89d2-a06f58f59342> | CC-MAIN-2020-16 | https://teachingapscience.com/peer-grading-frqs/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2020-16/segments/1585371620338.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20200406070848-20200406101348-00225.warc.gz | en | 0.956663 | 765 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Virtual Directory Authentication
To study virtual directory authentication, create identical user accounts called Vdiruser on both your Web server and your file server and assign the same strong password to both accounts. Then, be sure to clear the User must change password at next logon check box. On the file server, create a user account that's identical to the user account you use to log on to Microsoft Management Console (MMC) on the Web server. Make that user a member of the local Administrators group.
Create a shared folder on the file server. Assign NTFS Full Control permission to the local Administrators group and Read permission to Vdiruser. Place a few files in the folder so that you'll have something to look at when you use Microsoft Internet Explorer (IE) to browse to the virtual directory.
Next, create a virtual directory on the IIS system. Enter the path \\file_server IP_address\share_name in the Directory text box. Enter Vdiruser and the associated password when prompted. When prompted for permissions, select the Read and Browse check boxes. The result is a browsable virtual directory that maps to the remote file server. To test your configuration, open IE and browse to http://iis_server IP_address/virtual_directory. (You'll need to enable Anonymous Authentication for the Web site first.)
Now, let's see what happens when you misconfigure the virtual directory. On the IIS server, open the MMC Internet Information Services snap-in, open the virtual directory's Properties dialog box, click Connect As, and enter the username Bogus and any password. Close the MMC console. Open a command prompt and type
This little test has an interesting outcome. Open the Internet Information Services console. You can see the remote folder's contents, but the virtual directory object is marked with an error icon. You can enumerate the virtual directory's contents because IIS uses the valid user account with which you've logged on to the IIS server to enumerate the files on the remote system. But if you use IE to browse to the virtual directory, authentication will fail because the remote system can't authenticate the user account you specified for the virtual directory. Open the virtual directory's Properties dialog box again, change the user account in the Connect As setting back to Vdiruser, and enter the correct password. This action removes the error icon and restores IE access to the virtual directory.
Now, change the password of the file server's matching Administrator account so that it no longer is identical to the account you use to log on to MMC. If you're logged on to the file server with the matching account, log off the file server, then log on again. Open a command prompt on the IIS server and type
You might not see an error icon by the virtual directory, but you won't be able to enumerate the virtual directory's files. However, you'll still be able to access the virtual directory through IE. | <urn:uuid:5eadfcac-5287-444b-9da6-d563a4633a49> | CC-MAIN-2017-13 | http://windowsitpro.com/virtualization/virtual-directory-authentication | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-13/segments/1490218189686.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20170322212949-00195-ip-10-233-31-227.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.827772 | 612 | 2.578125 | 3 |
A General Election is the chance for voters in the UK to choose who they want to represent them as an MP.
That person will then represent their local area (constituency) in the House of Commons for up to five years, explains parliament.uk.
Polling stations across the UK opened at 7am this morning and close at 10pm before the count to decide Britain's future begins.
MPs are elected using the First Past the Post system. You will usually have a choice of several candidates for each constituency and you should choose one. The candidate with the most votes becomes MP for the constituency.
If a political party wins more than half the seats in the House of Commons (326) then the party leader can become Prime Minister. The other parties are 'the opposition' and whoever wins the second largest number of seats is the main opposition party.
To vote in a General Election you must:
- be registered to vote
- be 18 or over on the day of the election (‘polling day’)
- be a British, Irish or Commonwealth citizen
- be resident at an address in the UK (or a British citizen living abroad who has been registered to vote in the UK in the last 15 years)
- not be legally excluded from voting
When was the last General Election?
The last General Election was held on May 7 in 2015. The Conservatives won the election after a dramatic night.
Ed Miliband quit as Labour leader after his hopes of entering No 10 were shattered in a night that saw David Cameron claim the scalps of his three main rivals.
Why is there an election now?
Theresa May shocked the country with her decision to push for an early General Election on June 8, 2017.
The move stunned Westminster, as Mrs May and Number 10 have repeatedly insisted she would not seek a General Election before the scheduled 2020 poll.
But Mrs May, who had a working majority of just 17 in the Commons, said she wanted "unity" at Westminster as talks on Brexit begin in earnest with the European Union.
What is a hung Parliament?
The situation where no single political party wins an overall majority in the election is known as a hung Parliament.
One party would need to win 326 out of 650 seats to form an absolute majority in the House of Commons and, failing that, there is a hung Parliament.
What would happen if there was a hung Parliament?
The current Government will remain in place until a replacement working government can be formed. This is what happened in the 2010 General Election.
Some argue it damages the legitimacy of any ensuing government as polices are traded and agreements brokered to ensure the new administration can function.
It means the party manifestos on which people voted can appear to be cast aside within hours of the polls closing. | <urn:uuid:f3549df8-47b0-44c5-9b81-c4079c8a511e> | CC-MAIN-2022-21 | https://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/politics/how-general-election-works-vote-12908736 | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2022-21/segments/1652662520817.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20220517194243-20220517224243-00539.warc.gz | en | 0.970518 | 574 | 3.140625 | 3 |
Science is not supposed to mislead. It’s supposed to be precise. Rigorous. Circumspect.
But in recent years, something sneaky and unethical has occurred. Officials have begun talking about the worst case climate scenario is if it were our likely future.
More than a decade ago, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change developed four fairy tales to describe how humans might impact the climate by the year 2100. There was an optimistic scenario, two mid-range scenarios, and a pessimistic scenario.
The latter is known as RCP8.5 (I think of it as Ridiculous Climate Prophecy 8 dot 5).
In January, Zeke Hausfather and Glenn Peters published a comment in Nature reminding everyone that RCP8.5 isn’t a realistic vision of the future. It represents an unlikely, high-risk, dystopian world (their words) in which “the dice are loaded with the worst outcomes.”
It can’t become reality, they point out, unless humanity burns five times more coal than we currently do, “an amount larger than some estimates of recoverable coal reserves.” Whenever RCP8.5 gets mentioned, they say, it should be clearly labelled as an “unlikely worst case.”
Their plea is unmistakable:
We must all – from physical scientists and climate-impact modellers to communicators and policymakers – stop presenting the worst-case scenario as the most likely one. [bold added]
US climate analyst Roger Pielke Jr. has similarly written a trio of articles that document how RCP8.5 “moved from an extreme outlier to the center of climate policy discussions,” corrupting great swaths of the scientific literature along the way (see here, here, and here). He, too, calls the RCP8.5 vision of the future imaginary and impossible.
Canadian economist Ross McKitrick is also ringing the alarm bell. RCP8.5, he says, is “a scorcher that predicts historically unprecedented increases in global CO2 emissions.” Using words such as implausible, improbable, exaggerated, and distortion, he makes it clear the only place this vision of the future exists is in fevered imaginations.
“No one seriously believes,” he says, that the increase of coal consumption described by RCP8.5 “is even possible.”
Even journalists who’ve hyped the climate threat are wising up. In an article titled We’re Getting a Clearer Picture of the Climate Future – and It’s Not as Bad as It Once Looked, David Wallace-Wells reports that most experts he’s interviewed “told me that they did not see RCP8.5 as a plausible scenario.”
By the year 2100, remember, teenager Greta Thunberg will be 97 years old. Wallace-Wells observes that any attempt to predict what the world will be like that far into the future is really just “a foolish game.” In his words:
Projecting what global energy use will be in the year 2100 is the equivalent of trusting projections made in 1940 about where we are today.
Yet that is what much of climate ‘science’ – and climate ‘journalism’ – now amounts to. In 2018, the front page of the New York Times announced: U.S. Climate Report Warns of Damaged Environment and Shrinking Economy. It began this way:
A major scientific report issued by 13 federal agencies on Friday presents the starkest warnings to date of the consequences of climate change for the United States, predicting that if significant steps are not taken to rein in global warming, the damage will knock as much as 10 percent off the size of the American economy by century’s end. [bold added]
Incredibly, that ‘major scientific report’ takes RCP8.5 seriously. Calling it a “core scenario,” page 6 of the report presents it as a realistic possibility rather than a farfetched hallucination:
RCP8.5 is generally associated with higher population growth, less technological innovation, and higher carbon intensity of the global energy mix.
This means the report is junk. No matter how many federal agencies were involved in its creation. But the Times didn’t tell readers that.
Then again ..
When a “Green” Rent & Grant Seeking Activist want to earn money also on his way out of the Climate SCAM:
Prominent Eco Activist Shellenberger Apologises For Climate Scare
“Here are some facts few people know:
– Humans are not causing a “sixth mass extinction”
– The Amazon is not “the lungs of the world”
– Climate change is not making natural disasters worse
– Fires have declined 25% around the world since 2003
– The amount of land we use for meat humankind’s biggest use of land
has declined by an area nearly as large as Alaska
– The build-up of wood fuel and more houses near forests, not climate
change, explain why there are more, and more dangerous, fires in
Australia and California
– Carbon emissions have been declining in rich nations for decades and
peaked in Britain, Germany and France in the mid-seventies
– Adapting to life below sea level made the Netherlands rich not poor
– We produce 25% more food than we need and food surpluses will
continue to rise as the world gets hotter
– Habitat loss and the direct killing of wild animals are bigger threats to
species than climate change
– Wood fuel is far worse for people and wildlife than fossil fuels
– Preventing future pandemics requires more not less “industrial” | <urn:uuid:d26c3de9-fead-4281-a575-0fe0601473e3> | CC-MAIN-2021-25 | https://www.newscats.org/how-the-ugliest-climate-fairy-tale-won-a-preposterous-climate-yarn-has-taken-center-stage/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2021-25/segments/1623487586239.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20210612162957-20210612192957-00038.warc.gz | en | 0.939144 | 1,211 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Return from banishment
Although not as historic as his mother, Edward was indeed his mother’s son, fighting, in a quieter way, for freedom of belief. He had been raised at his mother’s knee, studying the Bible and learning to delve into its wisdom. He had followed her into banishment and then set out on his own, only to return to Boston, where he, like his mother would lose his life by the hand of American Indians.
Edward Hutchinson baptized 28 May 1613 in Alford, Lincoln, England, son of William Hutchinson and his wife Anne Marbury.
He married Catherine Hamby 23 October 1636 in Ipswich, County Suffolk, England where Catherine, the daughter of Robert Hamby and his wife Elizabeth Arnold was born in 19 October 1615.
He married secondly Abigail Firmage or Vermais the daughter of Alice (Blessing) Firmage. Abigail married first Robert Button by whom she had four children, including Abigail who was the second wife of Barnabas Lathrop, son the Rev. John Lathrop. Abigail died August 10, 1689 in Boston.
Edward died 19 August 1675, Marlborough, Middlesex, MA and was buried at Spring Hill Cemetery, Marlborough, Middlesex, MA
Edward and Catherine Hutchinson had the following children:
1. Elisha Hutchinson who was born and died in 1637, Boston, Suffolk, MA
2. Elizabeth Hutchinson born 04 November 1639 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died there 16 September 1718. She married Edward Winslow son of John and Mary (Chilton) Winslow and grandson of Mayflower passenger James Chilton.
3. Elisha Hutchinson born 16 November 1641 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died there 10 December 1717. He married Hannah Hawkins.
4. Anne Hutchinson born 17 November 1643 Boston, Suffolk, MA and died in 1717 in Newport, Newport, RI. She married Samuel Dyer, son of William and Mary (Barrett) Dyer (Line 12)
5. William Hutchinson born November 1645 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died young.
6. Catherine Hutchinson born 12 May 1648 Boston, Suffolk, MA. Died young.
7. Susanna Hutchinson born 19 May 1649 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died 26 May 1716 in Newport, Newport, RI. She married Nathaniel Coddington son of son of Governor William Coddington and his wife Ann Brinley
Edward and Abigail Hutchinson had:
8. Edward Hutchinson born January 1651/52 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died
9. Catherine Hutchinson born 13 February 1652/53 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and married Henry Bartholomew who was related to both William Bartholomew who came on the Griffin with Edward Hutchinson Sr.’s family and to Elizabeth Scudder who married John Lathrop’s son.
10. Benjamin Hutchinson born 08 April 1656 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died there 1675.
11. Hannah Hutchinson born 16 May 1658 in Boston, Suffolk, MA and died 15 January 1703/04 in Taunton, Bristol, MA. She married Peter Walker
Edward was born in the year1613 in Alford, County Lincoln, England, where all his siblings except his youngest brother were born and baptized. He, as well as the rest of his family, came over on the Griffin with John Lathrop, John Cotton and William Bartholomew.
Nearly immediately, he became involved with community affairs and was made a freeman of Boston and admitted to the First Church of Boston. Two years later he returned to England where he married Catherine Hamby. Catherine came from a family with lines back to the Second King Henry of England. The trouble in Boston was beginning to brew by the time Edward returned there with his bride. The young couple followed his parents to Rhode Island but did not stay long. The town of Boston was forgiving and they received the young couple, returning the family property and allowing Edward to be active in the community. Edward, however, was much more tolerant of differences in theology and showed more sympathy to the Quakers and others who, though Christian, leaned toward teachings outside of the Puritan theology. It is to be expected, that Edward still sympathized with his mother’s teachings and his tolerance toward the Quakers and Baptists proved that. While he returned to the people who had banished his family, his experience must have tempered his heart, as he proved to be far more tolerant towards those who expressed theology outside the Puritan expression. His daughter, Anne Hutchinson (named for her grandmother) [see line 11.1], married the son of the Quaker martyr, Mary Dyer [who see, line 12].
Edward became known as Captain Hutchinson because of his activities in the militia. In the summer of 1675 the Boston militia was sent to negotiate with the Nipmuck Indians. “King Philip” the warrior son of Massassoit who had befriended the Pilgrims at Plymouth and then Boston. “Philip” as the colonist knew him, was called Metacom, Pometacom or Metacomet in his native tongue. With the arrest and death by illness of Philip’s brother Wamsutta, the warrior had an excuse to attack the English colonist, which led to the English colonist burning a Pokanoket village.
Philip aside, Edward Hutchinson had a good relationship with the Indians near Boston. He trusted them and they him. As an employer, the Indians who worked for him found him fair and respectful. The government of Boston often asked Hutchinson to negotiate with the natives of New England when the situation called for negotiations.
Because of the peaceful relationship the colonist had had with the native population while Massassoit (for whom Massachusetts was named), the war between the two peoples groups came as a surprise to the colonist. Many Indians were still friendly toward the colonist, but the threatened Nipmuck felt differently. Under Philip, they retaliated with violence. Capt. Thomas Wheeler and Capt. Edward Hutchinson went out to negotiate with the Nipmuc who ambushed them
Ephraim Curtis of Boston was sent to negotiate with the Nipmucs but was surprised by empty villages. The Nipmucs, unknown to Curtis, had already attacked the village of Mendon and had joined the rebellion that became King Philip’s War. Curtis did met up with Muttawmp, the Nipmuck chief in July who forged friendship, all the while knowing some of his warriors were attacking Mendon. He and Curtis arranged for a meeting in Boston. Curtis must have sensed something was not quit right as on returning to Boston, he sent Captain Edward Hutchinson and Captain Thomas Wheeler, 30 solders and Christian Natick Indians as guides, to continue the negotiations with the Nipmucks. They found the village empty. Curtis and the Naticks found the village near Brookfield. Negotiation didn’t go well except that Muttawmp agreed to meet with Hutchinson in Brookfield on the following day.
The Nipmuck, once again, had moved their camp and the stubborn English Captains decided to follow. The Indian guides, knowing ambush along the narrow swampy trail, protested. Hutchinson and Wheeler, however, decided to ignore the warning and walked into an ambush just 400 yards into their journey. The fleeing Englishmen were blocked on their retreat by other Nipmuc. Hutchinson and Wheeler as well as several of their men were wounded. Their saving grace was a Natick guide who took over command of the company out of the swamps. Edward Hutchinson died of his wounds several days later. Captain Wheeler survived and his son wrote an account of the skirmish.
A rustic gravestone in honor of Edward Hutchinson was erected by the Daughters of the Revolutionary War in 1921. It reads in part:
AGED 67 YEARES
WAS SHOT BY
AVGVST 2 1675
DYED 19 AVGVST
AGED 67 YEARES
WAS SHOT BY
AVGVST 2 1675
DYED 19 AVGVST
Through Edward’s line, Massachusetts would once again be touched by the Hutchinsons. His grandson, Thomas Hutchinson became governor of the colony of Massachusetts and again causing dissension in that state. Thomas, a loyalist in a fiercely rebellious state, was force to leave Massachusetts, like his great-grandmother.
1. "The Hutchinson Family of England and New England, and its Connections wit the Marburys and Drydens" by Joseph Lemuel Chester, New England Historical and Genealogical Register (NEHGR)
2. A Brief Genealogy of the Hutchinson Family by W. H. Whitmore from the Genealogies of RI Families from the NEHGR Vol I
3. Ancestral Roots of Certain American Colonists Who Came to America Before 1700 by Frederick Lewis Weis
4. "Family History, the Marbury Family" http://www.plix.com/~users/ncallahn
5. Vital Records of Boston, 1630-1699
6. http://genweb.net/~blackwell/blql "Hutchinson Ancestry" by David C. Blackwell
7. Internet "Register Report - Hutchinson" by Sam Behling
8 Will of Edward Hutchinson Senr. of Boston, 1675
10 New England Historical and Genealogical Register April 1991 "The Ancestry of Katherine Hamby, Wife of Captain Edward Hutchinson of Boston, MA" by Wayne Howard Miller Wilcox, page 258
11. Find a Grave www.findagrave.com
12. "Memoir of Governor Hutchinson, "New England Historical and Genealogical Register" Vol. I, October 1847, No. 4 | <urn:uuid:48c48af6-bdaf-4bce-be16-a9ba14ed4ef5> | CC-MAIN-2016-30 | http://alonglineoffamily.blogspot.com/2011/10/line-11-edward-hutchinson-return-from.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-30/segments/1469257823963.50/warc/CC-MAIN-20160723071023-00040-ip-10-185-27-174.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979316 | 2,052 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Saving the World’s Endangered Coral Reefs: A Renowned Smithsonian Biologist Voices an Urgent Ecological Concern
This is an ecological situation that should concern all of us: the world’s coral reefs are in danger of disappearing.
“In the Caribbean alone over the last three decades we’ve lost 80 percent of all corals,” says renowned coral reef biologist Nancy Knowlton who serves as the Smithsonian Institution’s Sant Chair for Marine Science.”And we’re also losing an increasing amount of coral in the Pacific, and even places like the Great Barrier Reef, which we used to think of as healthy, are now experiencing significant coral loss.”
What this all means, she warns, is “if we don’t change our direction as humans in the way we manage the planet, coral reefs as we know them will be gone by the year 2050, which is really unbelievable.”
Why are coral reefs so important? These simple, basic skeletal animals (similar to sea anemones) form a vital part of the world’s ecosystem and help to provide the oceans with much of their biodiversity. “About a quarter of all marine species live on coral reefs, so this represents an important source of food,” says Nancy, who in her position at the Smithsonian leads the institution’s effort to foster a greater public understanding of the world’s oceans.
In addition, she says, coral reefs are becoming a vital source for biopharmaceutical drugs, and provide crucial shoreline protection against hurricanes and tsunamis, as well as serving as a lucrative draw for tourism for many coastline areas worldwide.
Emphasizing the seriousness of the coral reef situation, Nancy says, “This is a level of destruction that rivals the devastation of tropical rain forests. We’re headed towards major ecological problems if we don’t change our ways — and that’s not just coral reefs, it’s ocean resources in general.”
So, what things specifically are endangering coral reefs today? One culprit is overfishing which is wiping out a lot of fish and other marine life who would normally eat the seaweeds that can smother corals, says Nancy, who began studying reefs in the mid-1970s on the north coast of Jamaica in a place called Discovery Bay.
The second threat is declining water quality, caused by toxic materials, mud, and fertilizers that run off the land. The third danger to coral reefs is carbon dioxide, which not only makes the oceans too warm for reefs but also changes the chemistry of the water, making it more acidic, says Nancy.
She adds: “The more acid that’s in the water, the harder it is for corals to deposit the skeletal structures that form the bulk of the reef. It’s sort of like when you’re mother told you not to drink so much Coca-Cola because it would dissolve your teeth. It’s the same kind of principle.”
In addition to her work in the evolution and conservation of coral reef organisms, Nancy is also known for her work in ecology. Her analyses of marine ecosystems have led to the now widespread recognition that estimates of marine diversity are probably too low by a factor of ten.
She received her undergraduate degree at Harvard University and her Ph.D. at the University of California at Berkeley, and was a professor at Yale University prior to moving to the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute in Panama. Later, she joined the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at the University of California at San Diego, where she became the founding Director of the Center for Marine Biodiversity and Conservation. She was appointed to her current post at the Smithsonian in 2008. Her husband Jeremy Jackson is also a renowned marine biologist.
Among her numerous professional activities, Nancy currently serves on the National Board of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and on the editorial board of the Annual Review of Marine Science.
As she continues to spread the word about endangered coral reefs, Nancy is often asked by individual citizens what they can do to help, and if it is alright to snorkel among the reefs.
“I think we should be snorkeling and swimming on reefs, because I think people only develop a passion for protecting things if they know what is at risk,” she says. However, it’s also important to manage tourism properly, including managing the number of people visiting reef areas, she adds.
“ If you have a lot of people going onto reefs, stepping on reefs, collecting things from reefs, breaking corals off, or throwing anchors on top of reefs, that’s not good.,” she advises. “It’s important to properly manage the numbers of people and their behavior when they’re in water. It’s also important to make sure that the hotels that support that tourism have good water treatment for the sewage that they release, and that they aren’t also feeding this large population of visitors critically important reef fish.”
Other things that are critical to the preservation of the reefs: “We must change our patterns of fossil fuel usage so we can get carbon dioxide emissions capped and declining,” she says.” We have to do that. Reefs can’t grow in the level of acidity that is projected for business-as-usual CO2 emissions.” She adds: ”But while we struggle with the problem of the global threat of greenhouse gas emissions, reducing local stresses is essential and have been proven to make a difference. “
“And on a more generic level,” Nancy says, “I wish that people would really, passionately, appreciate, and protect the biodiversity of the ocean, not just on coral reefs but the world at large.” To learn more about these creatures large and small, including many that need our help, check out Nancy’s book, Citizens of the Sea, published by National Geographic.
Click here for more information. | <urn:uuid:ab264c72-3106-4ae5-ba86-353edb0ffc8f> | CC-MAIN-2019-35 | https://usasciencefestival.org/people/dr-nancy-knowlton/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2019-35/segments/1566027319470.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20190824020840-20190824042840-00194.warc.gz | en | 0.953225 | 1,260 | 3.609375 | 4 |
The story “The Cask Of Amontillado” which is written by Edgar Allan Poe is about a murder and revenge. The story is told in first person so we don’t learn the name until the end. The protagonist ( Montresor ) is seeking for a revenge from the antagonist ( Fortunato ) who has insulted him. These two are very close friends and at the end of the story the Montresor leaves Fortunato to die in a vault. At the very end, Montresor tells us that the whole affair happened fifty years ago, and nobody has found out. . The story consists of several ironies such as time of the year, mottos and names of protagonist and antagonist.
Firstly, ironies the writer use in the text are environmental ironies. The time of the year is very important. It is festival time so it is suitable to kill someone. It is ironic that someone is killed while other people are having fun at the festival. Another ironic enviromental element is that Fortunato is killed in a vault where the wine bottles are stored. Since the wine is a traditional symbol of long life, a vault is an ironic place to be killed.
Another, antagonist’s name and his dress the most significant ironies in the text. The antagonist wears a cloud costume which generally amuses people and makes them laugh. He also has a hat with jingling bells. It is again ironic that he was killed in such an amusing costume. Moreover the antagonist’s name is Fortunato and it means lucky but at the end he is killed by one of his closest friends. This also constitues an irony.
Mottos which are belong to protagonist and antagonist have ironic meanings also. “Rest in peace” which is said by Montresor after chasing and leaving his friend to die in the vault. It is also ironic that in the story Montresor fake his friend and suggest him to return because of cough but Fortunato says “I shall not die of a cough”. However keeping going kills him. Another ironic motto is “To your life” said by Montresor when they drink... | <urn:uuid:6c72c36d-a38b-4cd8-a38b-0fdb8c18a477> | CC-MAIN-2017-09 | http://www.studymode.com/essays/Cask-Of-Amontillado-1571992.html | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-09/segments/1487501170839.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20170219104610-00358-ip-10-171-10-108.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.979444 | 453 | 3.046875 | 3 |
The Amateur’s Guide to Running at High Altitude
Elites have been doing it for ages. And it certainly gives the Kenyans an edge. So what exactly is it about high altitude running that makes it so popular with the pros? And, perhaps more importantly, will running at altitude instantly transform a back-of-the-pack amateur into a star?
Here’s an amateur’s guide to running at altitude.
How High is “High”?
So how high exactly is “high altitude”? Ben Hahn, formerly involved with offering custom high altitude training programs as part of the Mancos Project in Colorado, considers anything higher than 1 400 m (+-4 590 ft) above sea level to be high altitude. He adds, however, that he believes that training between 2 000 m and 2 400 m (+-6 560 to 7 870 ft) above sea level is ideal.
The Perks of Training at a High Altitude
But why does Hahn feel that training at such a high altitude is ideal? As a result of differences in atmospheric pressure, air is more dense at lower altitudes. Which means that oxygen is more readily available for uptake at sea level than it is at high altitude. And while training at sea level therefore sounds ideal, the opposite is actually true. Because while running at sea level is perceived to be “easier” than running at altitude, the latter forces the body to make some pretty nifty adaptations. Like, for instance, the following:
- Running at high altitudes forces the body to produce more red blood cells. Through the production of erythropoietin or EPO, the body is stimulated into producing more red blood cells. A higher red blood cell count, in turn, leads to improved oxygen uptake in the body – a quality that can come in very handy when racing at sea level.
And while this perk of running at high altitude takes time to develop and manifest, others are immediate. According to running coach, Jack Daniels, the endurance-hindering lack of oxygen at higher altitudes is somewhat counteracted by a decrease in air resistance. Which means that, over shorter, faster races, a decrease in air resistance may help you clock faster times. This phenomenon is especially relevant to sprinting distances and, as a result, sprinting times clocked at altitude are not allowed for record-keeping purposes.
Tips for Training and Racing at High Altitude
Not everyone is lucky enough to live and train at altitude, though. So, for those of us who train at lower altitudes and wish to travel to and participate in high-altitude races, the following is important to keep in mind:
- Arrive early. Acclimatizing to high-altitude conditions takes time. In fact, according to Hahn, full adaptation can take months. But don’t let that discourage you! Hahn is quick to add that most athletes tend to start feeling “normal” after approximately a 10-day acclimatization period. So be sure to make your travel arrangements accordingly!
- Or arrive as late as possible. Alternatively, if spending a week or more at your race destination before the race is out of the question, running coach and -legend, Hal Higdon, recommends arriving as close to race day as possible. Oxyhaemoglobin levels are lowest approximately 72 hours after arriving at high altitude, so carefully time your arrival to fall within 72 (and preferably within 48) hours of your race.
- Adapt your expectations. Whether you arrive at altitude ten days or 24 hours before your race, you will by no means be fully acclimatized when the starting gun fires. So do yourself a favor and adjust your expectations. Instead of aiming for a good finishing time, focus on taking in the scenery and relishing the experience instead.
- Adapt your program. It’s a good idea to ease into your acclimatization runs once you’ve arrived at altitude. Start off with an easy 20-minute run on the first day, and limit your runs to every other day for your first week. And, perhaps most importantly, listen to your body and adapt your program accordingly.
- Do a short, easy shake-out run as soon as possible after arriving. Running coach and professional runner, Megan Lizotte, believes in the value of an initial shakeout run. It “allows you to get a taste of what you’re in for and re-energizes you from the travel”, she says.
During your race
- Start your race slowly. While not starting out too fast is always a good idea in any race, it’s vital when racing at altitude. Remember that breathing while running might feel harder at altitude. So give yourself a chance to settle down and find your rhythm before (slightly) stepping things up.
- Make use of breathing techniques. Lizotte recommends relaxing your jaw and breathing out with a “ssss”- or “th”-sound while running. She believes that this technique “takes the focus off of the pain and sense of panic that runners can feel”.
- Don’t force your normal running pace. And even after you’ve started out slowly and found your rhythm, you’ll probably have to run at a slower pace than normal. Take it easy when you need to. Walking up a hill is nothing to be ashamed of at altitude.
- Remember to drink according to thirst. It may feel like you’re sweating less at high altitude, so pay extra attention to your thirst levels and hydrate accordingly.
- Pay extra attention to recovery post-race. Your body may need a little extra TLC after running at altitude, so be sure to get enough good quality sleep, and focus on proper post-race nutrition.
Acute Mountain Sickness: Are You at Risk?
And what about the cons of running at high altitude? Surely it must have some risks as well? An article published in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports in 2008 concluded that transient acute mountain sickness (AMS), or altitude sickness, which is usually characterized by headaches and nausea, is present in 10 to 30% of subjects at altitudes between 2 500 and 3 000 m above sea level. The authors furthermore concluded that pulmonary edema, where fluid starts to accumulate in the tissue and air spaces of the lungs, becomes a risk at heights above 3 000 m above sea level. Cerebral edema, where fluid accumulates in the brain and causes swelling, generally poses a risk at heights above 4 000 m above sea level.
And while any sea-level athlete can fall victim to AMS, a number of factors can increase your likelihood of being affected. This includes:
- Your genetic make-up.
- The rate at which you ascended to a higher altitude.
- Whether or not you had a respiratory infection while changing altitudes.
But is AMS preventable? While not 100% foolproof, the training and racing tips listed above should help you combat its effects.
Stop and Smell the Roses
So while running or racing at altitude may seem like the ultimate adventure, it’s good to note that it does come with some risk. So prepare as best you can, ease into it, and remember to stop and smell the roses. It is, after all, not everyday that you get a chance to run on top of the world!
- How to Adjust Your Running for a Race at High Altitude, Online publication, ,
- 5 Tips to Beat High Altitude Sickness, Online publication, Mar 22, 2017 ,
- What you need to know about running at altitude, Online publication, Mar 19, 2014 ,
- Altitude training for the non-elite, Online publication, Mar 31, 2014 ,
- Training for a high altitude marathon, Online publication, Sep 29, 2015 ,
- General introduction to altitude adaptation and mountain sickness, Scientific journal, Aug 01, 2008 , | <urn:uuid:4cd52c41-3e69-43f6-9d67-12bdb46ded2c> | CC-MAIN-2018-43 | https://runnerclick.com/the-amateurs-guide-to-running-at-high-altitude/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-43/segments/1539583511063.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20181017065354-20181017090854-00042.warc.gz | en | 0.932094 | 1,666 | 2.515625 | 3 |
WEAVERVILLE, N.C. – Jim Hurst has doted on his trees, arranged in three “families” on a bluff high above the rushing French Broad River.
He installed a drip irrigation system to help rejuvenate this former hayfield’s powdery, depleted soil. To protect against browsing deer, he girded the delicate sprouts in plastic sleeving and wire mesh. In the four years since planting the fuzzy, deep-brown nuts, he nursed the seedlings — through back-to-back droughts, a killing frost, even an infestation of 17-year locusts — applying herbicides and mowing between the rows to knock down anything that might compete.
Then, on a hot day this past June, Hurst moved methodically along the steep hillside, a petri dish in his left hand, and infected the young saplings with the fungus that will almost certainly kill them.
It wasn’t malice, but science — and hope — that led him to take such an action against these special trees.
“My mother’s family never stopped grieving for the (American) chestnuts,” the 51-year-old software engineer and father of two said as a stiff breeze rustled through the 110 or so surviving trees, many already bearing angry, orange-black cankers around the inoculation sites.
“Her generation viewed chestnuts as paradise lost.”
Hurst hopes the trees on his hillside farm — part of a vast experiment in forest plots where this “linchpin” species thrived before the onslaught of an imported parasite — might hold the key to regaining that Eden. The American chestnut once towered over everything else in the forest. It was called the “redwood of the East.” Dominating the landscape from Georgia to Maine, Castanea dentata provided the raw materials that fueled the young nation’s westward expansion, and inspired the words of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow.
Then, the blight struck. By the 1950s, this mightiest of trees was all but extinct — “gone down like a slaughtered army,” in the words of naturalist Donald Culross Peattie.
Now, after 30 years of breeding and crossbreeding, The American Chestnut Foundation believes it has developed a potentially blight-resistant tree, dubbed hopefully, the “Restoration Chestnut 1.0.”
At a national summit in Asheville in mid-October, the group’s board adopted a master plan for planting millions of trees in the 19 states of the chestnut’s original range.
This year, volunteers in state chapters established seed orchards that will soon begin producing regionally adapted nuts for transplanting into the wild. But as those who attended the recent summit heard, much hard work remains — and much uncertainty. The restoration tree is being introduced onto landscape that has long since learned to do without the once-indispensable American chestnut.
Will it crowd out other trees and plants we have come to value in the past century? How do you convince landowners and government agencies that it’s worth the money and effort?
And there are those who will question the wisdom of trying to bring back something that could not survive on its own or, worse yet, “engineering” a replacement that can.
“I think that’s something worth fighting for,” Hurst said. “To fix something that’s broken.” | <urn:uuid:576ba7be-5904-492c-a466-ba857a47d79e> | CC-MAIN-2014-23 | http://www.pressherald.com/2012/12/09/blight-resistant-chestnut-tree-developed_2012-12-09/ | s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2014-23/segments/1405997889379.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20140722025809-00081-ip-10-33-131-23.ec2.internal.warc.gz | en | 0.948899 | 737 | 2.5625 | 3 |
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