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The dissemination of knowledge is a major area of focus of the IPHES. Socialization is the process by which individuals learn and incorporate as their own elements of the culture of their social environment. The socialization of scientific knowledge means not only the dissemination of results, but it also encompasses the need to establish strategies so that scientific results and methods are assumed by the public in order to better understand the concepts, efforts, successes and failures of scientific research. To this end, the IPHES seeks to develop mechanisms, opportunities and platforms to promote the socialization of knowledge in general and human evolution in particular.
Our dissemination activities include:
- IPHES-produced mobile exhibitions throughout the country
- Attendance at fairs and markets
- Television documentaries
- Editing and publishing advice
- Lectures, talks, and curated exhibitions by different members of the Institute
Our website, www.evoluciona.org, focuses on the teaching of human evolution and prehistory through socialization programmes and non-formal education, and provides further information about our activities.
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A note on terminology. Throughout the article the abbreviation ID is used for intellectual disability. The terms ‘insane’, ‘feebleminded’, ‘idiot’ and ‘imbecile’ are used in the context of the historical account of ID and are not used as accepted terms by the authors. The authors acknowledge the first human inhabitants of WA as Indigenous Australians. The reference to the ‘colonisation’ of WA refers to British colonisation, as ‘white settlers’ on the land.
Historically, the lives of people with intellectual disability (ID) have been influenced by socially accepted beliefs and attitudes, resulting in oppression and discrimination because of social difference (Barnes & Mercer 2003; Cocks & Allen 1996; Gillgren 1996). Some previous constructions of disability included criminality, madness and insanity. Language and discourse were used to describe people who were ‘different’ from ‘normal society’, devaluing and constraining them through knowledge and power (Cocks & Allen 1996). Dominant constructions of disability informed the ideologies of the policy makers in each era (Cocks & Allen 1996). Nirje and Wolfensberger’s work on ‘normalisation’, and later ‘social role valorisation’, addressed the devalued roles that people with ID were allocated, redirecting the ‘problem’ of disability away from people with disability, directing it instead towards the societal and political realm (Cocks & Allen 1996).
The societal and political response to disability has moved from deviance and containment (in prisons, asylums and workhouses), to welfare and containment (in hospitals and institutions) and then to health and social services (Drake 1999). Drake (1999: 54) suggests, ‘The overriding aim of welfare was to “rehabilitate” or “normalise” disabled people’. Policies in each era became embedded in social and physical (built) infrastructure (e.g., asylums), which outlasted the policies that informed their construction decades earlier. Permanency of the structure and cost considerations meant that, despite adaptations, the legacy of ideologies of disability from previous eras remained in the fabric of buildings long after the beliefs that informed their design had been repudiated. This is illustrated in the discussion of the use of Claremont Hospital, retained and used long after policies ‘redirected’ services away from institutional care (Gillgren 1996; Martyr 2011b).
This article examines the legacy of constructions of disability and the resulting social and built infrastructure, bringing together previous accounts of the history of ID in Western Australia (WA) since British colonisation early in the 19th century. The history is explored over time using eras defined by dominant social constructions of ID in each era (see Table 1). This approach provides a framework for the discussion in this paper. Discussion also explores the relationship between contemporary ideals of the National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS), introduced in Australia in 2013, to provide a positive change for people with a disability (Kendrick, Ward & Chenoweth 2017) and the physical and intellectual legacy of previous policy.
|Era||Social construction||Political ideology||Policy response||Infrastructure||Societal perception|
|Colonial 1800s to early 1900s||Criminality, insanity.||Punishment, containment, cured through therapy.||Incarceration, hospitalisation.||Seclusion, prisons, asylums and hospitals.||ID as insane, deviant, defective.|
|Early-20th Century (1900–1940s)||Unfit to breed.||Medical treatment and prevention.||Eugenics, deportation and invalid pensions.||Seclusion, asylums and hospitals.||ID as insane, feebleminded, mental retardation, personal tragedy.|
|Mid-20th Century (1950s–1970s)||Developmental delay, ability to learn, normalisation, having rights, advocacy.||Education and training, disability is socially constructed, human rights in a welfare state.||Disability on the ‘world stage’ (United Nations), access to education, sheltered workshops, deinstitutionalisation, support to live at home, welfare.||Segregated special schools, parental involvement, training for adults with ID, welfare, alternative housing and training facilities.||ID as ‘child’ able to learn, with human rights, contribute economically to society.|
|Late-20th Century (1980s–1990s)||Advocacy and self-advocacy, rights and inclusion.||Integration and access, policy underpinned by normalisation.||Deinstitutionalisation, disability reform, neoliberalism and globalisation.||Group homes, supported housing, privatisation and social agencies.||ID as being able to speak for themselves, more choices in support.|
|Early-21st century||People with disability as consumers, individualised services.||Rights as a consumer, person-centred practices, self-directed funding, move away from welfare state.||Disability rights, disability standards, Australia ratifies the UNCRPD and introduces the NDIS.||Individualised funding and services provided in a ‘market’.||ID as adult with consumer rights.|
The analysis undertaken in this paper employs the Foucauldian concept of ‘biopower’ as a tool to explicate the relationship between ideas of disability and physical structures. For an analysis of ID, biopower is particularly relevant as it objectivises people as ‘subjects’, providing some explanation for the design of historical infrastructure, the classifying and dividing practices and the methods of exclusion and constraint that were used to control and contain the population that differed from the ‘norm’ (Tremain 2015). The analysis undertaken is also from a critical disability perspective, which focuses on equality, social justice and ‘genuine inclusiveness, not just abstract rights’ (Pothier & Devlin 2006: 2). This analysis will provide an account of the interplay between policy, legislation and infrastructure in the context of ID to improve understanding of contemporary practices and future directions. Foucault’s conception of power as a productive ‘bottom-up’ power enables the critical examination of the ‘relationship between impairment and disability’ to see beyond the social model of disability to a more critical perspective (Tremain 2015: 18).
Several publications explore the history of disability in WA (e.g., Atkinson & Walmsley 2010; Cocks et al. 1996; Gillgren 1996; Hudson-Rodd & Farrell 1998; Martyr 2011b; Maude 2013; Megahey 1996; Piddock 2016), whilst other authors discuss policy more generally (Chenoweth 2000; Fisher & Purcal 2017; Grover & Soldatic 2013; Hallahan 2015; Lindsay 1996).
Poor record keeping means there are gaps in the social history of disability in early colonised WA, and the surviving records were from the perspective of the authorities (Hudson-Rodd & Farrell 1998). The history of ID in WA has been subsumed within historical accounts of psychiatry and mental illness, from a medical perspective (Atkinson & Walmsley 2010). Furthermore, due to the inability of authorities to differentiate between mental illness and ID, records fail to provide a clear picture of the lives of people with ID living in colonial WA (Megahey 1996). Despite this, available literature provides sufficient information for the purpose of this analysis.
Foucauldian analysis conceptualises disability as a construct produced by power and discipline (Pezdek & Rasiński 2017). Foucault defined power as a ‘disciplinary power’ from a societal relationship perspective (Pezdek & Rasiński 2017). For Foucault, power objectivises human life, and he coined the term ‘biopower’ (Hughes 2015; Meekosha & Shuttleworth 2009; Pezdek & Rasiński 2017; Tremain 2015). An example of this is when statisticians measure the biological characteristics of individuals (i.e., births, deaths and fertility), then apply the measurements to divide and categorise people as ‘normal or abnormal’ (Tremain 2015). Biopower describes how people are medicalised, classified, managed and measured in terms of their variance from the ‘norm’ (Hughes 2015; Meekosha & Shuttleworth 2009).
Foucault linked biopower to control, or governmentality, contending that biopower normalised and legitimised particular procedures and practices in institutions, such as the classification, management and control of the people who resided there (Meekosha & Shuttleworth 2009), the policies that legislated these practices, as well as the physical design of buildings. Foucault defines government as ‘any form of activity that aims to shape, guide or affect the conduct of some person or persons’ (Tremain 2015: 16). Tremain explains that this broad meaning of government can apply to oneself, within interpersonal relationships, within social institutions and communities, as well as political and social governance. Examples from WA’s history, discussed later, will illustrate how Foucault’s theories explain the control, segregation and diagnosis of people who differed from the ‘norm’.
The language and discourse used to describe and classify people with ID in different historical eras portray the constructions and societal perceptions of ID, seen in the use of the terms ‘insane’, ‘feebleminded’ and ‘idiot’ (Carlson 2015). These terms elicited particular systems of control and specific infrastructure. Language and discourse used changed over time, often meaning different things in different eras (Cocks & Allen 1996); control systems changed but buildings remained. Foucault’s work on ‘madness’ explains how people who were unemployed, poor or sick or those with physical and intellectual disability were classified in one category, as ‘insane’ (Carlson 2015). Foucault argued that, in history, society had developed new terms for people with disability and new ways of regarding them (Cocks & Allen 1996). This often led to terms being used interchangeably due to a lack of understanding of characteristics of mental illness and ID (Megahey 1996).
By the 19th century, doctors in the United States and Europe considered idiocy curable and used a continuum of ID as ‘idiot’, ‘imbecile’ and ‘feebleminded’ (Megahey 1996). The introduction of IQ tests provided a means of classification of levels of intelligence (Carlson 2015) as a tool for biopower and governmentality. In the United States after the mid-19th century, the ‘insane’ were separated from the paupers and criminals in purpose-built asylums. These were established to educate the ‘curable’ cases of idiocy and to shelter and supervise the ‘incurable’ (Carlson 2015). The ‘curable’ would ultimately be returned to ‘productive lives’ in society (Megahey 1996). Carlson (2015: 141) argues that ‘all inmates were subjected to a form of disciplinary power that both characterised and justified the institution’s existence’. Foucault’s work refers to this disciplinary power and provides an explanation of how discourse about disease and the generation of knowledge led to the institutions designed specifically to educate, shelter and supervise people categorised as ‘insane’, ‘feebleminded’ or ‘idiot’ (Carlson 2015). Throughout his work, Foucault inextricably links knowledge with power (Tremain 2015).
Five distinct eras were identified by the authors that illustrate the interplay between discourse, political ideology and policy responses that led to the development of infrastructure, which in turn reinforced societal perceptions of disability in WA in each era (see Table 1). The table illustrates how infrastructure and societal perceptions often remained as a legacy that spanned more than one era. For example, ID as insanity was a dominant discourse in the 19th century and early 20th century, resulting in institutionalisation in purpose-built asylums. These physical buildings reflected discourses of danger and remained to reinforce this perception to the public long after the expert construction of ID had changed.
When the Swan River colony was established in 1826 (at the site of the present capital of WA, Perth), the dominant discourse in Europe constructed disability as a form of criminality or insanity, and policy responses emphasised seclusion and the segregation of people diagnosed as insane from the rest of the population (Piddock 2016). Secure facilities modelled on prisons (such as asylums), were built for containment and management of the inmates in a response to both social and economic conditions (Megahey 1996; Piddock 2016).
The Swan River colony experienced low population growth, which slowed economic growth (Piddock 2016). To overcome this, the settlement was declared a penal colony in 1849, anticipating that able-bodied convicts would provide labour for free settlers and stimulate economic growth (Maude 2013; Piddock 2016). Financed by the English Parliament, convicts began to arrive in the colony in 1851. However, an increasing number of convicts were classified ‘insane’ upon their arrival, and some had previously been admitted to lunatic asylums in England (Piddock 2016).
The Round House Gaol in Fremantle was built in 1831 and housed inmates categorised as insane alongside criminals, local Indigenous people and the poor (Maude 2013), but order and discipline were difficult to maintain (Megahey 1996). The governor of the colony ordered a purpose-built asylum to house all insane patients, including newly arrived insane convicts (Megahey 1996; Piddock 2016). Plans for the new asylum were developed in the 1850s after the Round House Gaol and other temporary asylums became overcrowded (Maude 2013; Piddock 2016).
The Fremantle asylum opened in 1865 and was the first purpose-built institution for people with ID in WA. The penal roots of the system meant that patients were treated as prisoners (O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998). Children were admitted to the asylum from the age of nine years (Megahey 1996; O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998). The asylum’s superintendents raised complaints in parliament about overcrowding in the asylum and about practices of accommodating children and adults together; however, these were ignored (O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998).
Separate institutions for the ‘feebleminded’ had been introduced in the United States from the mid-19th century (Carlson 2015). In Europe, a belief emerged that the insane could be restored to sanity through appropriate training and treatment. Emphasis was placed on the space and use of rooms within the purpose-built asylums (Piddock 2016). Foucault argued that the rise of the medical clinics to treat patients gave rise to new institutions and provided a new discourse about disease and classification through the generation of medical knowledge (Carlson 2015). This is illustrated by the ‘epistemic shift’ that occurred in the classification of ID, from criminal to medical (Carlson 2015). This change was not reflected in the physical appearance of Fremantle Asylum or in its system of management of inmates at its inception.
In 1871, the WA government introduced the Lunacy Act, modelled on the British Lunacy Act of 1845 (Megahey 1996). The act did not differentiate between lunacy (insanity) and idiocy (ID), even though at the time of its introduction people classified as idiots were thought to be educatable (Megahey 1996). Despite emerging medical discourse, the Fremantle Asylum functioned to control inmates and segregate people who were perceived to be a moral or economic ‘threat’ to society (Megahey 1996). The distinction between ‘insanity’ and ‘idiocy’ that was a dominant discourse in Europe and the United States throughout the 19th century was not evident in the buildings or the systems of management that operated in 19th century colonial WA, where the different needs of people with ID were not considered (Megahey 1996).
The rise of the medical professions and the subsequent recognition of medicine as a specialised profession led to the dominance of the medical model of disability by the beginning of the 20th century in Australia (Carman-Brown & Fox 1996). As ‘insanity’ became recognised as a treatable condition, asylums became hospitals and the specialisation of psychiatry emerged (Carman-Brown & Fox 1996). ID was diagnosed by doctors as ‘incurable’, which led to policy and practices to prevent disabilities through eugenic practices of sterilisation and segregation (Carman-Brown & Fox 1996; Gillgren 1996).
In 1900, following repeated calls for a Royal Commission into the conditions within the Fremantle Asylum, a select committee was appointed to make recommendations to improve the living conditions for people living within the asylum (O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998). The Lunacy Act 1871 was replaced by the Lunacy Act 1903, and a new asylum modelled on a hospital was planned in the Perth suburb of Claremont (Megahey 1996). The 1903 Lunacy Act differentiated between mental illness and ID, however little changed in the way patients were treated (Gillgren 1996). The Claremont Hospital for the Insane opened in 1907 and, reflecting the dominance of the medicalisation of disability, the hospital was administered by doctors and staffed by nurses (Gillgren 1996).
Foucault’s concept of biopower manifests in the hospital setting as ‘medical power’, ‘dividing practices’ that classify patients as ‘either sick or healthy, curable or incurable, complete or incomplete, normal or abnormal’ (Sullivan 2015: 30). The wards within the Claremont Hospital for the Insane were a reflection of this ‘medical power’, with wards for patients specific to their diagnosis and divided by their diagnosis (Gillgren 1996). According to Foucault, the practice of classification of individuals and the dividing practices that ensued transformed humans into ‘subjects’ (Hughes 2015).
Medical diagnosis informed the introduction of the WA Immigration Restriction Act 1897, whereby immigrants who were diagnosed as insane could be deported back to their country of origin, with no limitations on the time since arrival (Martyr 2011a). After Australian Federation in 1901, the Commonwealth government passed the first Federal Immigration Restriction Act with the same deportation criteria for insane immigrants. In 1924 and again in 1932, changes were made to limit the diagnosis of insanity within three years and five years, respectively, since arrival (Martyr 2011a). By 1939, 112 patients had been deported from Claremont Hospital for the Insane to their country of origin under this legislation (Martyr 2011a).
Eugenics (employing Darwinian concepts of survival of the ‘fittest’ to justify programmes to decide who should reproduce) emerged in Western Europe in the late-19th century in response to moral panic about the threat posed to society by rising poverty, illness and crime (Gillgren 1996). This discourse was employed in the Australian context in the preceding decades on people with ID and used as a way to prevent the ‘unfit from breeding by first locating, then registering, and finally segregating or sterilising them’ (Gillgren 1996: 65).
Legislation enabling permanent segregation had been introduced in Britain and Australia by 1913 and in most Western countries by the 1920s for people deemed ‘mentally deficient’ (Garton 2017). Legislation that enabled sterilisation gained less support, though countries such as Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Japan, two provinces in Canada and 30 states of the USA had legislated sterilisation by the beginning of World War Two (Garton 2017).
According to Gillgren (1996), in the early-20th century eugenics had taken on an added urgency in Australia as the birth rate dropped dramatically by the commencement of World War One. In WA, legislation to authorise sterilisation was proposed to Parliament in the 1929 Mental Deficiency Bill (Gillgren 1996). However, despite consensus on the issue of control over people with ID, there was some debate over sterilisation and segregation (Gillgren 1996). The bill failed to gain enough support and was defeated partly due to the economic environment of the 1930s (Garton 2017; Gillgren 1996; O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998). In addition, there were concerns that if the bill was passed people with ID would come from other states to institutions in WA, increasing the financial burden on WA (Garton 2017; Gillgren 1996). According to Gillgren (1996: 71), the debate over the failed bill ‘resulted in an airing of public opinion on intellectual disability’.
By the mid-20th century, the dominant construction of ID changed to developmental delay. The dominant belief was that people with ID could be trained to work and contribute economically to society; therefore, policy emphasised education and training. The systems management and infrastructure changed in response to this. Infrastructure was modelled on schools for children and sheltered workshops for adults who were supervised to undertake ‘industrial training’ and simple manual work tasks. Adults with ID were constructed as ‘children’ in need of supervision.
Prior to the 1920s in WA, children with ID received little formal education, even though facilities in Europe and North America had provided specialised education for children with ID since the mid-19th century (O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998). In 1952, the Education Department of WA introduced policies to provide access to formal education for children with ID and segregated ‘special schools’ were introduced (O’Donoghue & Chalmers 1998).
Parent-led groups were formed in the early 1950s, the largest of which in WA was the Slow Learning Children’s Group (SLCG) (Gillgren 1996). The SLCG acted as advocates for children with ID and provided services in their own right, firstly pre-school education, diagnostic and therapy services, then training and residential services (Gillgren 1996). Gillgren (1996) argues that the establishment of the SLCG was brought about because of the disillusionment of the parents with a child with ID and concerns regarding the inadequacy of existing service provision.
Despite the change in discourse, many people with ID were still living in Claremont Hospital. Poor living conditions at Claremont Hospital caused concern throughout the 1950s, and eventually people with ID were transferred from Claremont to alternative accommodation that provided training and treatment (Gillgren 1996), and antipsychotic medication meant some patients were discharged back into the community (Martyr 2011b). Throughout this period, alternative accommodation options were being built to provide residential services and training options through sheltered workshops and activity therapy centres for people with mild to moderate ID (Tuckerman et al. 2012).
In 1962, the Mental Health Act replaced the Lunacy Act 1903 in WA. The Mental Health Act advocated for early intervention and accommodation for people with ID within the community (Gillgren 1996). In the late 1960s, hostel style accommodation was built to rehouse people from the Claremont Hospital. The Mental Health Act 1962 made provisions for the building and establishment of accommodation facilities and day hospitals to reduce overcrowding at Claremont. In 1966, a new accommodation and training facility, Pyrton Training Centre, was opened for children and young adults (Gillgren 1996). Pyrton Training Centre still segregated people with ID from the rest of the community, though with a focus on training that might enable people to undertake roles in society that could reduce the financial burden on social welfare costs (Cocks & Allen 1996). However, it should be noted that Claremont Hospital was still used at this time.
Prior to the 1960s, disability in Western societies was constructed as a ‘personal tragedy and a social problem or burden for the rest of society’ (Barnes & Mercer 2003: 1). Policy had supported the medical view of disability, which sanctioned segregated living within institutions away from society (Barnes & Mercer 2003). The shift from seeing disability as the ‘medical problem’ of an individual to a ‘social problem’ of society emerged as a dominant model from the 1970s onwards. The social model of disability is based on the principle that disability is socially constructed and any disadvantage that people with disability experience is a result of the social environment (physical, institutional and attitudinal) that does not meet their needs (Hosking 2008). Significant social change, and the developing politicised conceptions of disability, countered the previously medicalised view (Hughes 2015; Tremain 2015). Foucault’s work assists with the understanding of disability as a socially constructed concept (Hughes 2015). However, from a critical disability perspective, a ‘synthesis of the medical and social models’ balances the biological, personal and social impact of disability (Hosking 2008: 7). According to Hosking (2008), critical disability theory acknowledges that the medical model and the social model both contribute to how an individual experiences the impairment of disability, their personal responses to their disability and the social environment that hinders full participation in society.
From the 1960s, the exclusion of people with disability from ‘normal’ society had become a moral and socio-political problem, meaning that politics became an essential tool to enable change (Simons & Masschelein 2015). The idea of ID as developmental delay (and deficiency) was challenged by normalisation and advocacy perspectives from the 1970s onwards. Both these perspectives emphasised the rights of people with ID. Bengt Nirje (1969: 19) wrote about normalisation, which he defined as ‘making available to the mentally retarded patterns and conditions of everyday life which are as close as possible to the norms and patterns of the mainstream of society’. Over the next decade, and as a result of further development of the normalisation principle, Wolf Wolfensberger suggested the use of the term ‘social role valorisation’, which focused on the value of the social roles of people with disability (as opposed to the person themselves) (Wolfensberger 1983: 238). Nirje (1969) believed residential services should be viewed as homes to avoid segregation and to allow social integration for people with disability. Policy based upon normalisation led to deinstitutionalisation, and infrastructure began changing to group home accommodation. Applying Foucauldian analysis, deinstitutionalisation was a change in the way ‘power’ was distributed, from a ‘top down’ sovereign power, to a ‘bottom up’ modern power that is both positive and productive (Drinkwater 2015), exemplified by the closing of institutions and rehousing people with disability into community housing (Stella 1996).
Internationally, normalisation and the rights of people with disability influenced the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Mentally Retarded Persons in 1971 and the Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons in 1975 (Chenoweth 2000). In Australia, federal policies included the Handicapped Persons Assistance Act 1974, which superseded previous legislation for people with disability. People with ID were no longer physically segregated in large institutions. Normalisation and social role valorisation principles also informed the provision of education services to people with ID (Simons & Masschelein 2015). Australian disability strategies focused on inclusivity and ‘the social’, which led to integration of children into mainstream education instead of special schools (Simons & Masschelein 2015).
The Claremont Hospital was officially closed in 1972 and reopened as two facilities: Graylands Hospital for Mental Health and Swanbourne Hospital for people with ID (Martyr 2011b). The change of name was intended to reduce stigmatisation of people with disability living within Claremont Hospital (Stella 1996). Reflecting a change of terminology, the Mental Deficiency Division was renamed the Division for the Intellectually Handicapped (DIH) in 1977. The DIH ran other hostels and was responsible for policy to keep people living in their own homes or moving them from hostels into the community (Stella 1996). In 1986, Swanbourne Hospital, which was built as Claremont Asylum, finally closed.
By the late-20th century, discourse and policy development in Australia focused on integration and access, underpinned by normalisation principles (Cocks & Allen 1996). Infrastructure was influenced by neoliberal ideology, and services for people with disabilities began to focus on consumer choices (and user payments). In 1983, the federal government reviewed Australian disability programs and services (Lindsay 1996) and committed to major reform. The government of WA also commenced a reform of disability services. Advocacy and self-advocacy organisations and groups were formed, which meant that some people with ID had opportunities to have a voice about their services (Atkinson & Walmsley 2010), though they became increasingly reliant on formal services subject to economic rationality (Cocks & Allen 1996). However, Hughes (2015: 80) argues that while Foucault’s work illustrates the ‘medical, administrative and legal practices’ that medicalised and supervised people with ID transforming them into a ‘docile target of power’, he underestimated their ability to transform themselves through self-advocacy.
The Commonwealth Disability Services Act was introduced in 1986, influenced by the principles of normalisation and social role valorisation (Chenoweth 2000; Lindsay 1996). Historical practices of segregation and institutionalisation were making way for integrated services into mainstream society (Lindsay 1996), and open employment services and supported workplaces for people with ID were being introduced (Tuckerman et al. 2012).
The newly elected Australian Labor government had a budget deficit and enacted policy changes that were intended to break down the expensive institutional care model into smaller community-based services (Lindsay 1996). This meant that to be eligible for Commonwealth funding, organisations had to close hostels and provide alternative accommodation for residents. The focus on the infrastructure of normalisation meant this was pursued without offering residents any meaningful choice about where they lived (Chenoweth 2000). Chenoweth (2000) argues that deinstitutionalisation failed to achieve the goal of actual participation in community life and, instead, achieved only a physical presence.
Policy implementation was influenced by the discourse of neoliberal ideology, which shaped the politics of Australia and other Anglophone countries from the 1980s. Economic policies drove social policy and resulted in a market-driven approach for goods and services, often resulting in lower quality services for people with disability (Sakellariou & Rotarou 2017) for which users were charged. One rationale for market-driven services was that it would benefit service users because they would have more choice. The same policy stated that users ought to pay for services, and this had adverse consequences for some people with ID who were no longer assured housing, support or health services (if they could not pay), which increased barriers to service access (Sakellariou & Rotarou 2017).
The National Disability Services Standards were introduced in 1994, and changes to federal and state-based policies ensued. The Disability Services Commission (WA) was formed in 1993 by the Western Australian Disability Services Act 1993, which addressed equality, rights, accommodation and employment choices among the items for reform (Disability Services Commission 2009).
Following the introduction of the federal Disability Discrimination Act in 1992, it was criticised for focusing on the ‘shift from equal opportunities to equal responsibilities’ for people with disability as long as they ‘do not make too many economic demands on the system’ (Campbell 2015: 115). The neoliberal view of ‘abled and non-abled bodies’ meant that people with disabilities were viewed as ‘costly’ and ‘potentially financially burdensome’ on public services (Sakellariou & Rotarou 2017: 3). The new legislation was premised upon the assumption that people with disability ought to contribute to society economically and should transform the ‘unproductive disabled body’ into a ‘productive’ one, to reduce the demands on the welfare state (Campbell 2015). According to Foucault, biopower has an objective to ‘render bodies docile’ so that they may undergo practices that ‘train’ them to be productive (Sullivan 2015: 29).
Discourse on normalisation and rights gave way in the 21st century to the concept of people with ID (or their guardians) being consumers. The state withdrew as a service provider and funding was provided to ‘consumers’ to purchase services from non-government providers (either for-profit or not-for-profit). Infrastructure became a responsibility of the service provider and the consumer, rather than government.
Under the Commonwealth State/Territory Disability Agreement 3rd Agreement 2002–2007, state governments were responsible for accommodation services and respite services (AIHW 2007). For people with disability, the availability and distribution of funding and services depended on the state in which they lived. In 2008, a public consultation process informed the development of the National Disability Strategy 2010–2020 to direct collaborative action between federal, state and territory governments and ‘to close the gap between the lived experience of people with disabilities and the rest of the Australian community’ (Productivity Commission 2011: 1). Intended as a 10-year plan, the National Disability Strategy 2010–2020 was informed by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (United Nations 2006), which the Australian government ratified in 2008. The National Disability Strategy identified areas for action to advance reform within the disability sector. These included accommodation options providing support for people with high and complex needs, supported and community living options and support for family living choices (Commonwealth of Australia 2011).
In 2008, the proposal for a fully funded National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) for people with disability was accepted by the Australian government (Reddihough et al. 2016). The scheme commenced in 2013 (2014 in WA), signifying a major change in the distribution of disability funding from ‘block funding’ to service providers, to individualised funding offering choice and control to people with disability (Foster et al. 2016), aligning with neoliberal principles of the free market through a market-driven approach to disability care and services (Carey et al. 2017). The NDIS also signified a change in the neoliberal use of the term ‘consumer’ or ‘customer’ to ‘participant’ under the NDIS.
The NDIS individualised funding model is Australia’s first major social policy that utilises a self-directed, personalised model for the purchase of services to meet the needs and goals of the participants (Carey et al. 2017). Similar policies have been implemented in the UK and Europe; however, Carey et al. (2017) question whether self-directed care has led to improvements in the lives of people with disability or if it will address the inequitable system of service provision in Australia. From a critical disability perspective, Hallahan (2015) questions whether the NDIS will reinstate the ‘welfare’ focus of earlier disability reform and policies and redirect the focus from the wider reform of community inclusion and economic participation.
Competing social constructions of disability persist in contemporary practice despite disability reform and changes to policy and practice. Outdated policy and infrastructure are still evident in current practice, submerged in contemporary ideology. In the discussion we focus on three issues: firstly, the changing influence of infrastructure on how services are delivered for people with ID; next, new discourse and reinvented dividing practices, illustrated in discussions about genetic testing and supported employment; and lastly, the issues raised by the implementation of the NDIS, which has supported the concept of ‘choice’ without sufficient consideration of the contextual factors that make choice meaningful.
Physical infrastructure, in particular the Claremont Hospital for the Insane, influenced how services were delivered to people with ID long after the philosophy that supported its design changed. Even as philosophies of ID changed to medicalisation, then to an education response, the existence of this building influenced provision of services and was used with modifications until its closure. The presence of the building also reinforced the public perception of people with ID as needing segregation and containment away from ‘normal’ people. Training facilities, such as Pyrton, were less physically imposing, but their architecture affirmed the desirability for segregation of people with ID.
There is a marked difference in the appearance of group homes that replaced the imposing structures of earlier institutions. Group homes house people with ID in ‘normal housing’ within the community and are intended to provide accommodation that closely as possible resembles ordinary family life. There are no name boards or outward markings to distinguish the houses from surrounding properties. The closure of Claremont hospital and the training facilities removed the tyranny of architecture and external symbolism that shaped public perceptions about how services for people with ID ought to be provided.
However, the literature on services for people with ID indicates that whilst some issues may have been resolved, others remain. The first issue is that deinstitutionalisation commenced when the large institutions were closed, but the necessary support services were not fully funded, leading to a lack of alternative housing stock (Bostock & Gleeson 2004). This led to the over-representation of people with ID in prisons and among the homeless population, which arguably cater less well to their needs (Bostock & Gleeson 2004). Group homes, the most common form of supported accommodation for people with ID outside of the family home in WA, continue to isolate people with ID within the community and fail to offer a choice of where they can live (Bostock & Gleeson 2004; Chenoweth 2000). Drinkwater (2015) suggests that supported accommodation, such as group homes, don’t serve as an example of emancipation or humanitarian reform, but represent modern power, biopower at a population level. From a Foucauldian perspective, the problem is that although dividing practices of incarceration, segregation and seclusion have changed, they have not disappeared. According to Foucault, modern power ‘administers bodies and manages life’, still evident in the ‘benign regime’ of supported accommodation (Drinkwater 2015: 236). The next section examines new discourse and new dividing practices.
This section argues that although many of the older discursive practices that separated people with ID from the ‘normal’ population have been discredited, new discourses have arisen to perform the same function. Here we will briefly illustrate this with a discussion of the discourse around two issues: firstly, genetic testing and ID and secondly, supported employment and ID.
The explicit discourse of eugenics, dominant in the first half of the 20th century, is no longer supported in mainstream thinking; however, a related discourse about genetic testing has arisen and, in many ways, serves as a replacement ‘dividing practice’ that singles out people with inherited ID as ‘other’. Normalisation has permeated all aspects of society, evident in the accepted practice of genetic testing and selected abortion, resulting in a discourse, policy and practice that involves decisions about what is ‘normal’ and what is not (Waldschmidt 2015) and ‘which lives are worth living’ (Taylor 2015: 373). Genetic testing is a private and individual choice and may provide parents with the benefit of foresight to better prepare for additional needs of their child. In contrast, societal assumptions are that positive results mean parents can selectively abort unborn children to reduce the risk of passing on inherited conditions. Described by some authors (Baker 2002; Taylor 2015) as the ‘new eugenics of the contemporary world’, genetic testing is a dividing practice that remains as a legacy of eugenic thought.
The large training facilities that were closed in the mid-20th century were replaced with legislation that supported employment of people with disability in mainstream work and sheltered workshops. In 2018, sheltered workplaces remain integral to employment for people with ID in Australia, despite international moves away from sheltered workplaces (e.g., Taylor-Gooby, Gumy & Otto 2015, in the UK) and legislation that calls for integrated employment (Migliore et al. 2007, in the USA). Tuckerman et al. (2012) suggest that sheltered workplaces disadvantage people with ID by providing little choice, low pay, repetitive work and reduced contact with the broader community. Nevertheless, they can offer enhanced workplace safety, workplace and task support, socialisation, job satisfaction and job security for people who would otherwise be unemployed (Hemphill & Kulik 2017).
The NDIS scheme is an example of a social insurance scheme, intended to share the financial burden of disability across the whole population by the way of a levy on income (Purcal, Fisher & Meltzer 2016). Foster et al. (2016: 29) state that the NDIS ‘represented a fundamental shift from a targeted, needs-based system to an insurance, universal rights-based approach’. The national scheme was introduced following recommendations from the Productivity Commission enquiry to explore funding for disability services that refocused disability support to a national level. Its purpose is to enable economic sustainability of support arrangements to allow people with disability to actively participate in society and have care and support over their lifetime (Foster et al. 2016; Purcal, Fisher & Meltzer 2016). The competitive ‘marketplace’ of disability services emerged as a result of globalisation and neoliberal ideology in the late-20th century and has re-emerged in the legislation that drives the NDIS. Based on ‘user led’ choice and control, it is expected that the disability care market will see disability services emerge from ‘for-profit’, non-government providers under the NDIS (Foster et al. 2016). Conceptually, it could lead to a reinvented welfare system that is more responsive to the aspirations of service users. However, according to Hallahan (2015), a legacy of a welfare-based response to disability continues to underpin the NDIS. Interpreted within the framework of neoliberal ideological assumptions, the NDIS has driven social policy that changed social services into a commodity. This approach focuses on provision of services that are provided to individuals in response to their choice, on a user pays basis, but ignores more collective possible responses that might bring benefits that cannot be realised within a framework that prioritises individual choice.
Individual choice has meaning to the extent that people are able to understand the alternatives and consequences. An individualised rights perspective would argue that people with ID should have rights to maximal autonomy commensurate with their capacity to understand what they are deciding and to avoid being taken advantage of or exploited by others. The limitations of this approach can be seen when it comes to food choices. Should people with ID be completely free to decide what they eat (on the basis of preference), or should their choices be limited to some extent because they may not have a good grasp of long-term consequences? This dilemma highlights the limitations of giving individual choice privileged status when powerful industries spend billions of dollars convincing us to act against our best interests. The answer to this dilemma is not to create special conditions and protection for people with ID (and create another dividing practice) but to offer more protection to all of us against commercial forces that make unhealthy food too readily available.
This paper utilised the Foucauldian concept of ‘biopower’ as a tool to explore the relationship between ideas of disability and the physical infrastructure that was used to seclude, control and contain the population that differed from the ‘norm’ (Tremain 2015).
There have been achievements. Physical infrastructure that contained people with ID, and the socially accepted beliefs and attitudes that resulted in oppression, discrimination and segregation, no longer dominates service provision or thinking about services for people with ID. The goals of normalisation and deinstitutionalisation have been partially achieved, though legacies of ideologies that informed practices still remain. However, there are still serious gaps in practical support and in sense of community and the convivial life. Social equality is not achievable until all discursive forms of dividing practices are challenged, including new and emerging forms. Once we move away from dividing practices and see everyone as essentially human, it may be possible to see more easily how issues that were raised as concerns for people with ID may have a more general application. Neoliberal polices that treat people only as individual, rights-bearing consumers and competitive selfish, rational economic maximisers undermines conviviality and limits social connection for all. The NDIS may improve resources and services for people with disability. However, a shift from a ‘welfare focus’ to a broader agenda of rights and genuine inclusion in social and economic realms, a central goal of critical disability theory, is needed to ensure that policy direction remains centred on the goals of the National Disability Strategy 2010–2020 (Hallahan 2015).
The authors have no competing interests to declare.
Wendy Simpson conducted the literature review, research regarding policy and disability history in Western Australia and Australia and constructed the first draft of the paper. All authors contributed to the conceptual design, intellectual content, drafting and revision of the paper.
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Moving with children comes with a long list of challenges, big and small. From how they’ll adjust to a new school to ensuring you know where you packed their favorite stuffed animal, a parent’s goal during any move is to minimize the stress on the children. After all, kids thrive on normalcy and routine, and nothing disrupts those values more than a life change like moving.
In addition to saying goodbye to their friends and family and relocating their personal belongings, kids moving from an urban area to a more rural one are also faced with the challenge of adapting to an entirely new and unfamiliar environment. Commonly, small towns, rather than big cities, are considered a safer place to learn, play, and grow. However, there are still a variety of health and safety hazards parents need to be aware of and teach their children to avoid.
Crime & Accidental Injury
Contrary to popular belief, rural areas experience more accidents and crime-related deaths than cities. According to one study, the risk of injury or death from both violent crime and accidents is more than 20 percent higher in rural areas than urban ones.
In particular, firearm deaths have been “significantly higher” in children. While you may not own a gun, many people who live in rural areas are avid hunters or leisure shooters. And, because children in families with guns are taught gun safety at an early age, firearms are often stored within arm’s reach in these households.
If you do own a firearm, be sure to it or other weapons in your own home in a locked safe, unloaded, and out of the reach of children. You should also store ammunition separately. Even if you don’t own any guns, you should teach your children how to identify a gun and what to do if they encounter one while at a friend or relative’s home.
According to the same study, people “drive more, drive faster, drive longer, and drive drunker” in rural areas where there is no public transportation and where taxis or rideshare services can be expensive. This puts not only the drivers of those vehicles at risk, but everyone else on the road. As a result, more than twice as many people die in motor vehicle incidents in small towns compared to big cities.
Children used to taking short rides or using public transportation may not be used to spending a lot of time in the car. While it may be uncomfortable for them at first, it’s important for all children to remain buckled or belted for the duration of the trip. Be sure younger children utilize a safety seat or booster that is appropriate for their age, weight, and height.
Regardless of where you live, when it comes to teenage drivers and those who ride with other newly-licensed teens, be sure to emphasize the importance of vehicle safety. Set rules you feel are necessary to keep them safe, like curfews on weekends and limits on the type and number of passengers allowed in the car.
Drugs & Alcohol
Illegal drugs, while portrayed in movies as an urban ailment, are common in rural areas as well. Homemade methamphetamine, prescription opioids, and illicit heroin are becoming hobbies for young people in suburbs and rural areas across America.
A typical complaint from young people in small towns is the lack of things to do on the weekends. So, they party. Too often, in addition to underage drinking, there is also illegal drug use. If your children are unaware of substance use and its consequences, they may be persuaded to experiment.
In addition to getting to know your children’s friends, you need to educate them about drugs in general, especially those known to be common in the area where you live. Show them photos of the drugs they may encounter, and explain how drugs can affect their bodies and minds in the short and long term. Most importantly, encourage them to be open and honest with you about any questionable activity they experience, and give them a way out of any situation where they feel pressured or threatened.
Depending on how far you move, you may not experience a major change in day-to-day temperatures or precipitation. However, differences in terrain can make for some pretty significant changes in severe weather, especially when it comes to weather-related emergencies.
While you don’t hear about many tornados in big cities, open farmland and plains are prime territories for the destructive winds. Flash floods are also common in low-lying areas where there are no man-made barriers to prevent them. To keep your children safe, ensure they are aware of these potential weather incidents. Practice emergency preparedness drills until your children have a good grasp of what they should do in the event of a tornado or a flash flood, and repeat the drill every so often to help them remember.
Additionally, emergency services are likely to be less robust in areas where there are fewer residents, especially when they live far apart from one another. In other words, when the utilities go out or the roads are impassable, it could take more time to restore them. In some cases, you may even have to clear roads yourself. If you have backup power sources like generators or potentially-dangerous machinery like a snow plow, it’s important to keep them out of reach of young children and to teach older children how to use them correctly. In most cases, this type of equipment will require adult supervision.
Rural America is beautiful with its mountains, streams, and acres of farmland, and one of the advantages to growing up in the midst of nature is the opportunity to explore it all. But the varied terrain can pose a number of threats, making it a dangerous place for a child who is used to playing in the concrete jungle. For example, open bodies of water are more prevalent in rural areas, as are the instances of drowning.
First and foremost, it is important for you to familiarize yourself and other caregivers with the play areas surrounding your home. Any area where your children are allowed to play without supervision should be checked prior to allowing them to explore on their own. In addition to ponds, swamps, and streams, look for potential hazards like steep drop offs, wildlife habitats, and even poisonous plants.
Based on what you find, you’ll need to set boundaries for your children as to where they can go, supervised and unsupervised. Create a system that will allow you to confirm they are safe, like checking in every hour, and enforce it. When possible, send them out with a buddy.
Like any transition, it will take time and effort for you and your children to acclimate to a new environment. Of course, it’s not all bad. A more rural lifestyle has a lot of advantages for parents and children alike, including less traffic, a strong sense of community, and an overall slower-paced lifestyle. Chances are, these positive changes are at least part of the reason you chose your rural destination in the first place. And once you and your children have become familiar with the changes a rural area affords, you can really start to enjoy them.
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A newly discovered protein turns on plants’ cellular defence to excessive light and other stress factors caused by a changing climate, according to a new study published in eLife.
Plants play a crucial role in supporting life on earth by using energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars and oxygen – a process called photosynthesis. This provides a crucial food supply for humans and animals, and makes the atmosphere more hospitable to living creatures. Understanding how plants respond to stressors may allow scientists to develop ways of protecting crops from increasingly harsh climate conditions.
Tiny compartments in plant cells called chloroplasts house the molecular machinery of photosynthesis. This machinery is made up of proteins that must be assembled and maintained. Harsh conditions such as excessive light can push this machinery into overdrive and damage the proteins. When this happens, a protective response kicks in called the chloroplast unfolded protein response (cpUPR).
“Until now, it was not known how cells evaluate the balance of healthy and damaged proteins in the chloroplast and trigger this protective response,”says co-senior author Silvia Ramundo, Postdoctoral Fellow in the Walter Lab at the University of California, San Francisco (UCSF).
To learn more, the UCSF team genetically engineered an alga called Chlamydomonas reinhardtii to produce fluorescent cells in response to damaged chloroplast proteins. They then searched for mutants in the cells that would no longer fluoresce, meaning they were unable to activate the cpUPR.
“Open annotations. The current annotation count on this page is 0.These experiments led the team to identify a gene called Mutant Affected in Retrograde Signaling (MARS1) that is essential for turning on the cpUPR. “Importantly, we found that mutant cells in MARS1 are more sensitive to excessive light, are unable to turn on the cpUPR, and die as a result,” explains lead author Karina Perlaza, a graduate student in the Walter lab. Restoring MARS1, or artificially turning on the cpUPR, protected the algae’s cells from the harmful effects of excess light on chloroplast proteins.
“Our results underscore the important protective role of the cpUPR,” says co-senior author Peter Walter, Professor of Biochemistry and Biophysics at UCSF, and a Howard Hughes Medical Institute investigator. “The findings suggest that this response could be harnessed in agriculture to enhance crop endurance to harsh climates, or to increase the production of proteins in plants called antigens that are commonly used in vaccines.”
Read the paper: eLife
Article source: eLife
Image credit: Dartmouth College Electron Microscope Facility, Louisa Howard
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Throughout New England, maple trees are currently being outfitted with taps and buckets. The sugaring season has already begun at Duke Farms in New Jersey. The sap from maple trees is destined to sweeten future breakfasts across America. Artificial maple syrup made from corn syrup just doesn’t compare to the real stuff.
Maple sugaring, which dates back to the indigenous peoples of North America, is an elegant mix of biology, physics, and patience.
All trees produce sugars during the growing season. In the fall, these sugars are shunted to storage tissues in the trunk and roots. Some sugars travel from smaller branches down tree trunks in what are called rays cells. Rays hold the sugars that trees use for everything from building new cells to repairing woodpecker damage. They also give us sap.
Sugar maple sap has a high concentration of sucrose—which makes it sweet. It flows freely during the spring. You can tap other species, but you’ll work harder for your syrup. The sap-to-syrup ratio for a sugar maple is 40:1. For a birch, the ratio is 80:1.
What makes sap flow? The answer lies in physics. You need cold nights with temperatures near freezing, followed by sunny days with temperatures in the 40s to 50s (F). This freeze/thaw cycle causes a change in pressure, which forces the sap to run out of the tree and into the sap-collecting bucket.
Converting sap to syrup requires careful attention—undercooked syrup is watery while overcooked syrup can crystallize. Early sap usually produces light amber-colored syrup, with the syrup darkening as the season progresses. This is likely due to changes in sugar concentrations, as early syrup has a high concentration of sucrose relative to other sugars. When the trees begin to use the sugars for their own growth, it heralds the end of the sugaring season.
Already in some regions, the maple sugaring season has moved earlier, due to ongoing changes in climate, especially warmer winters. We can hope that those who tap maple trees can respond accordingly, so future generations will have maple syrup to enjoy.
However, some studies show future declines in maple trees, as the optimal region for their growth and reproduction moves north into Canada as a result of climate change. This may take some decades, inasmuch as a large, old maple tree can often hold its ground in the face of changing climate and other impacts, and at least one recent study suggests that maple trees hold a 3- to 5-year supply of sap to tide the tree over poor growing conditions.
Maple trees like a cold winter; let’s hope that nature will continue to provide those, so the sound, smell, and taste of the spring sugarbush stay with us. If not, climate change will claim another victim.
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Houle, D., A. Paquette, B. Cole, T. Logan, H. Power, I. Charron and L. Duchesne. 2015. Impacts of climate change on the timing of the production season of maple syrup in Eastern Canada. Plos One 10: doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0144844
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Muhr, J., C. Messier, S. Delagrange, S. Trumbore, X.Xu, and H. Hartmann. 2016. How fresh is maple syrup? Sugar maple trees mobilize carbon stored several years previously during early springtime sap-ascent. New Phytologist 209: 1410-1416.
Skinner, C.B., A.T. DeGaetano, and B.F. Chabot. 2010. Implications of twenty-first century climate change on northeastern United States maple syrup production: Impacts and adaptations. Climatic Change 100: 685-702.
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Kept From A Hard And Stormy World
It is possible for anyone to have a nervous breakdown. Those who have never experienced any nervous disorder have either never been subjected to any stressful conditions in life, or they have a greater resistance to stress than most. This resistance can vary greatly according to the individual. What is a nervous breakdown?
I believe that the terms ‘nervous breakdown’ and “neurasthenia’ are the most maligned in the whole practice of medicine. They can mean anything from wild anxiety symptoms, to a complete psychotic disintegration, depending under which circumstances these terms are applied. A true nervous breakdown usually occurs in normal, sensible people as a reaction to stress they cannot bear. It manifests itself initially as a fatigue (neurasthesia) and headaches. The patient cannot concentrate. Later he develops neurotic symptoms usually taking the form of anxiety neurosis. The main symptom is muscular tension which affects the patients thinking capacity, especially in the making of decisions.
Allsorts of uncomfortable physical symptoms appear as a result of over stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system: palpitations, indigestion, over rapid speech, tremors, difficulty in breathing, diarrhoea and frequency of micturition. If the neurosis remains unattended, and if the causative influences do not improve, the symptoms grow worse and the patient has to be hospitalized. Only then is the term ‘nervous breakdown’ correct. The prognosis for such patients is good – many recover completely.
However, there are many people with some sort of mental disorder who are not treated in hospital. There are people who have phobias like not daring to cross bridges; others have petty obsessions that are a nuisance to them, but which do not radically effect their daily lives. Many vagrants who roam the country are in fact suffering from schizophrenia; many people who talk too much and are who are abnormally optimistic are mildly hypomaniac. A good example of this kind of person is Mr Wilkins McCawber from David Copperfield.
As mental illness is always among us in one form or another, I became very interested in psychology and psychiatry. This interest has developed since my grammer school days. It was then that I realized the existence of an inner force driving people to behave in a certain way. The mass media of the cinema and newspapers were responsible for my increasing awareness of people and their problems. I saw films of stressful situations that drove people to do and say things they would not normally do. The newspapers spoke of people convicted of crimes. Often a psychiatrist was called to give evidence of the accused’s background at home or other contributing factors that made his action more understandable. I found that the accused’s environment was usually unstable.
Much is done now to enlighten the general public about mental illness and psychiatric hospitals, but too often I have found that mental illness is still only whispered about in dark corners. There is still a great stigma attached if a member of your own family has to go into a psychiatric hospital. It is a topic of street gossip and the person concerned is treated with a condescending kind of sympathy that is very humiliating. Other people are often embarrassed when they come into contact with someone suffering from a mental illness. They do not know how to react. The hospitals themselves are also the object of gross misconception. Many people still imagine them as gaunt, custodial places with keys rattling in locks, where the patients are put in straight-jackets and padded cells. Another section of the public think that the patients recline on couches all day while the psychoanalyst, a demi-god who knows all the corners of the mind, probes and unearths the mysteries of the subconscious.
My education in this aspect of human nature was extended through my days as an art student. Many of the great masters suffered from a mental illness, e.g. Toulouse-Lautrec, Van Gogh, Gauguin, Blake. Through the nature of my art studies I wanted to know why certain artists should paint in a certain manner. My quest for the philosopher’s stone of human nature led me to explore many books, both on art and psychology and psychiatry. During this quest I formed my own opinions as to why people behave d in certain ways. The mass media strengthened some of my opinions and refuted others, but these media never ceased to say something, directly or indirectly, about mental illness. I could not have forgotten about it even if I had wanted to. In bygone days people used to visit the local asylum and amuse themselves by watching the inmates antics. We do not do this anymore. Instead, the mass media take over; they provide us with our peep show that way. I have seen some very commendable documentaries and newspaper articles, but I have also seen extensive damage done by the mass media in general. Some of them portray only the public’s misconceptions in order to make a box-office attraction by giving them what they want.
Mental illness is not something strange that is detached from ordinary life to be locked away in shame. It is merely an exaggeration of something that exists in us all.
A major drawback in the recovery of psychiatric patients is institutional neurosis. It acts in the same way as a secondary infection acts on a patient in general hospital. There are many causative influences of this dangerous state of mind which I have discussed in detail. It is a very common affliction affecting all long-stay and even some short-stay patients, yet there is no book on psychiatry that even touches on this state of mind. Institutionalisation is taken for granted so much that people even forget it needs treatment in the same way as the actual mental illness. It is always with us now as septicemia was an accepted evil in the days before Dr Lister’s sterilization of surgical instruments.
What does institutionalization mean ? Even the dictionaries could not tell me exactly what I wanted to know. James Drayers Dictionary of Psychology says:-
INSTITUTION – An organization representing an established phase or aspect of social, political, or religious life, with a body of laws and principles, and subordinate rules and regulations; a custom or group of customs; or a practice; but in all cases having a degree of permanence not possessed by a fashion or convention. Popularly the name is often applied to the building housing the organization.
I was very surprised that a dictionary of psychology bore no reference to the actual institutional state of a person. Next I looked in Collins National Dictionary and found:-
INSTITUTION – An established law, custom, or public occasion; an institute; Institution (in the sociological sense) ; an organized pattern of group behaviour established and generally accepted as a fundamental part of a culture such as slavery. Institutional (adj) ; Pertaining to or of the nature of institutions.
This was not entirely satisfactory either so I looked up:- Asylum: A sanctuary; refuge for criminals, debtors and others liable to be pursued; any place of refuge; an institution for the …..insane; the protection afforded by such places.
This is the best definition I could find, but during my work at High Royds Hospital I found that many of the contributing factors to institutional neurosis could have been eliminated with a little more teamwork among the staff. Much more could have been done to help the patients overcome the institutional and more could have been done to keep alive the interest and goodwill of the young student nurses.
In this study I have examined various aspects of institutional neurosis, and have tried to provide some answers in the hope that one day the right person might read it and act upon some suggestions. It would, I feel be a breakthrough in the treatment of some psychiatric patients. My ideas on rehabilitation do not require expensive new buildings or extra staff who are unobtainable. Nor would my programme interfere with the general running of the hospital, but in order to launch projects, thought and effort are always needed.
My own definition of institutional neurosis has arisen out of my observations on, and experiences with, my own patients. What does institutionalization mean to patients? It seems the stunting of psychological and spiritual growth, culminating in the eventual loss of identity and initiative.
Who were my patients? I came into contact with a comprehensive cross section of the hospital community, from the Day Hospital to old men in terminal stages of various kinds of dementia; from the women’s industrial therapy unit to Ward 24, a female chronic geriatric ward. On this ward I found women who I felt need not have stayed there; I found evidence of the really adverse effects that living in this environment can cause. Here was the seat of most of my indignation. It was here that I found the worst effects of institutionalization on intelligent people., and here it was that there was absolutely no understanding or communication between patients and staff. Almost everyone who came into contact with these patients was in some way to blame. Each person I mention has a case to answer, though each would protest that under the circumstances he was doing his best.
This study started with the writing of two sets of progress notes. I had been thinking of writing reports long before I was ever asked. The visiting GP merely provided the opportunity. It was not expected that anyone accept the qualified Occupational Therapists and ward sisters should write any reports. Why then did I wish to impose this upon myself?
After working here for a while I found this hospital’s attitude too complacent. The secretary kept coming round with the management committee, showing them the fresh paint, new lino, rugs, chairs, and better lighting, but nobody ever asked the patients how they felt. If they did ask, they either never waited for the answer, or did not take the answer seriously and act upon it. Obviously, one cannot take too much notice of a mentally ill person, but people who have studied this type of work should be able to distinguish between a reasonable request or otherwise. I wrote the progress notes in the hope that something could be done to make the patients feel that they count and that somebody really cares about them.
The idea of their rehabilitation was very dear to me too. It’s possibility did not seem too remote for some of them. I could see some opportunities of arranging a rehabilitation programme, which I discuss in the second part of this study. I thought that my superiors would be pleased with any suggestions I could make about the patients’ welfare, but found that not only did they not act upon what I mentioned, but they did not seem to want to discuss it with me. Perhaps they did not like the idea of a junior member of staff being so interested in the darker side of human nature. They must have also felt that I was trying to tell them how to do their job. Afterall, if somebody sets out to pinpoint matters that should be attended to, it could read like an indictment of how the hospital was run. In the hands of the wrong person this could easily be so, and the hospital must safeguard itself against such people. But when I wrote the notes, I had been there long enough for people to realize my intentions were good. I felt from the reactions of some of them that there had been a misunderstanding. As well as not being interested enough not discuss it with me, these people never tried to find out what kind of person I was. Like the patients on Ward 24, all staff were cast in the same mould.
This study is intended to decategorise all people – patients and staff.
MOIRA C’S CASE HISTORY
Moira was born by caesarean section. The mother had had a very difficult antenatal period, a prolonged pregnancy late in life. Moira was an only child, whose father died when she was young. They lived in Spalding Lincolnshire and her father had been in the gardening business. Moira was a fee paying pupil in a grammer school, and later went to college to train as a teacher, also paying fees. She had many out of college activities, including membership of Lincoln Cathedral Choir. In these early days there was no sign of mental illness.
On qualifying she took a post in a primary school in Bramley, brining her ageing mother. The mother never felt settled in Yorkshire and was always grumbling at Moira for dragging her there. Later Moira married a Horsforth man. Her mother refused to move from Bramley to Horsforth, so Moira had to look after two homes as well as teaching full-time. Later she gave birth to a son, but her husband made her return to teaching as soon as she was able. Her mother’s health began to deteriorate at this time. Moira had to watch her constantly and spend nights at her mother’s house because she refused to go into hospital. Moira herself began to show signs of anxiety neurosis and her schoolwork deteriorated. She carried on teaching in spite of contrary advice from her doctor until her mother died, then she had a complete nervous breakdown aged about 45 and was unfit to work. She was treated at home.
She developed agoraphobia (fear of open spaces) and also feared that people would burst into her house and harm her so she kept going to the back door and looking out to see if anyone was coming. Her husband had her placed in Moorpark Hospital, which was then only for fee paying patients, but contrary to expectations, her health did not improve sufficiently for discharge. Seeing this, her husband thought there was no point in continuing to pay for her. His attitude towards her changed he had her moved to High Royds and never visited her anymore. Moira was always classified as ‘informal’ but her husband tried to certify her as insane, so that he could use this classification as grounds for divorce. The motion was unsuccessful. He moved, selling their house and not letting her know his whereabouts. Her son had married, his work taking him to Glasgow. His letters to his mother remained unanswered, because his concern in her welfare was misinterpreted; she thought he just had a morbid curiosity. She was hypersensitive of being a ‘mental patient’, especially at High Royds, which was then merely called the asylum.
Moira did not settle well at the hospital. She became negligent of her personal dress and hygiene, so that the other patients did not wish to be friends with her. Her teeth grew into bad condition. She herself became a nursing problem because everything had to be done for her, from hand feeding to toileting. The diagnosis is chronic reactive depression. Treatment consisted of electro-convulsive therapy (ECT) and Largactil, a major tranquilliser, later progressing to Nardil, a major anti-depressant.
In Moira’s case, a favourable reaction to ECT was too temporary to be satisfactory so it was discontinued. The above mentioned drugs have been used ever since. She became less withdrawn, reverted to clean habits and was then able to take her place in the more active section of the hospital community. She began to attend the female occupation hut where industrial therapy was carried out. One winter whilst crossing the main path fro the hospital to this place, Moira slipped and fell with her legs under her breaking both at the neck of the femur. It was thought she would never walk again, but on complete recovery and with the right physiotherapy she was able to walk with two sticks.
FIRST SET OF PROGRESS NOTES WRITTEN 20TH JANUARY 1966
This patient was the last of the group to make any progress, but when at last she did, it was the most noticeable progress of all. For a long period she would only knit dishcloths, then complain she was fed up, but refused to do anything else. She was very depressed, one day I told her there was no knitting yarn left, brining in a simple cutting out job to do for Christmas decorations. Her attitude seemed superficially stupid, for she said she could not do it, but underneath lay a deep fear of doing anything wrong. I changed her handicrafts in the first instance at long intervals, then gradually speeding up the process until she would do anything at all. Here is a woman of great potential intelligence and ability. She is very much aware of her surroundings. It was not possible to mark her book with page numbers because she is intelligent enough to notice this and ask questions. The first page of patterns, which is where her own drawings and ideas come, is marked with a cross. The techniques of using crayons were instructed to her and she understood them perfectly first time. It was a big jump in her progress when she stopped asking me to draw her things. At first I had to be with her a considerable time until she gained more confidence, otherwise the work would have given rise to much anxiety. The patterns become more ingenious as the book goes on. Her ability equals that of Day Hospital patients. Moira does not like the idea of using a new medium, using the one she knows as a sort of protection from the unknown.
She has expressed dislike for being on Ward 24, but she has become so used to being on there, that she does not wish to move, although she is not happy. There is not enough to stimulate her intellectually. Would it be a good idea to let her go to the day hospital for one half day a week? She also hates the idea of going in a wheelchair, but I wonder if, in the long run, she might not benefit from her new surroundings.
Present State: – She peers short sightedly at her work and says she has difficulty seeing. She does not make such a fuss at bathtime and helps herself more. She is less self pitying about her leg; is much happier, less anxious and worried than she used to be though some anxiety is still there. She is very eager now to do her artwork and always asks me what there is to do. One disturbing fact, however, is that she makes no effort to communicate with her son and his family, thus cutting herself off.
8th May – 13th June 1966 Ward 24 Progress Notes
Environment lately has been very influential in governing my patients progress. Certain events in the ward and the patients responsible for those events, therefore, require a report. One patient, Lucy S dominates the whole of the gallery. The other patients are frightened of her because they do not have the means to defend themselves verbally. They are therefore on the defensive a little more than they should be when talking to her. She shouts at them and makes them feel stupid. Sometimes she would have struck the frailer patients if I had not stopped her. She refuses to do therapy, saying she has worked very hard in her life, and sits there generally causing trouble, not only among the patients, but tries to take members of staff into her confidence by gossiping about other members of staff. It is the only way she knows of buying our friendship. Because of this I believe Lucy is a very lonely and unhappy person, so I have tried to make friends with her and talk to her.
She is highly suspicious of all doctors and nurses regarding her health. Instead of telling Dr Morgan or Sister about her pains and symptoms, she tells me after making me promise not to tell anyone else. She says she has a bad pain in her abdomen when she wants to go to the toilet and must wait until it goes. Sometimes it does not go quickly enough and she cannot wait. She has a painful swollen knee. She does no work and pays another patient to dust for her.
Hilda N has bad delusions (of persecution?) and tries to punish herself for some kind of wickedness by not eating.. Sometimes she has to be hand fed. Believes someone will come to take her away to Armley Jail. Has ideas of reference from newspapers and TV, so I let her read only sections of the newspapers, taking care not to let her see anything of the nature of murders, rape, or any other disturbing subject that comes up in the news. Concentration is poor. When she comes to the end of a row of knitting she stops, looking up to see if ‘they’ are coming to fetch her and she is very frightened. I reassure her that her family is well and she is relieved. She asks after her son. She sometimes hallucinates saying she sees guns pointing at her in the toilet. She has not lost any sense of orientation. Because of all this, Sister has forbidden her to do any work on the ward. This has set off repercussions among some of the other patients that must work and I believe this has started all the trouble. There has been silliness in the kitchen, marked in a couple of the patients.
Hilda’s Present State: Tells me she dreads the electricity and can’t stand it. I believe she means ECT treatment.
The business of pensions and weekly pocket money is a very sore point with all the patients who are given no money at all. Some of them feel that absolutely everything is being taken away from them. These patients have no small possessions as far as I know, with which to identify themselves.
I have been feeling that all the patients, because they have been so unwell all at once, have been becoming too insular in their attitudes, and there has been a need to alter the therapy I used before. A group project has been introduced, that of making a desert island with all the ‘props’ – palm trees out of newspaper, old catalogues and bobbins, grass out of tissue paper, and houses out of match boxes. So far the palm trees and cardboard men have been made. Each patient had to consider the others because each did only one part of the object.
May P, has been upset because she cannot hear anything and wishes for certain possessions she says are at home; lower set of dentures, watch, and most important, hearing aid. She says if only she could hear she would find things more bearable. Feels hopelessly cut off from everyone else. This patient is of a cheerful courageous disposition, though often she feels much pain.
Doreen C, until Easter this patient has been progressing very well in occupational therapy. She has been very happy, telling me she loved painting. When she is well, she mixes her own colours to produce excellent permutations. Her drawing has been improving all the time and conversation sensible and coherent. When I started with her in September she said she was “fed up with painting” before she even began. She has been making steady progress all the time, with only one lapse when she became incoherent, upset and dirty. This was after she had been home.
At Easter her relatives came to take her home. I feel she is over excited by these trips, for she always suffers a reaction when back at the hospital. This time it has been a very bad reaction from which she has not yet recovered.
Amendment Tuesday 24th May – This patient has now recovered and works cheerfully and well. The relapse was a long one. Occasionally she kept looking out of the window and calling after her sister.
She is capable now of doing her own drawing and painting with little supervision, though she tends to fall asleep at any time. Her movements are still very unsteady, but she makes a conscious effort to control her hand when doing art.
Present State – happy and co-operative. She has been home once again since Easter but this time there has been no reaction.
Estelle R. No progress since the last report. I feel the dementia is increasing, for Estelle either sits motionlessly and stares with a fixed expression, or she is very agitated and depressed. Is totally unable to concentrate when in the latter mood and disturbs other patients by shouting and screaming. Co-ordination between brain hand and eye is non existent. She cannot make the pencil do what she wishes no matter how easy the job is and this upsets her. I have been utilizing her last relapse by breaking her away from the patterns which I felt were becoming obsessional, and she has been very good in the group craftwork. Progress was good and I felt her attitude was improving slightly until I found her as above mentioned after my holidays. Present State – looks fixedly in the direction of the corridor. Tries to run away sometimes. Is so tense she can hardly speak sensibly. There is a deep rooted fear of doing something wrong.
13th June 1966: Does not speak at all, completely unfit to work.
Anna W: Still completely disorientated and unsettled. Keeps putting all the art materials away or taking her clothes off. At first she drew some very wild patterns and motifs. Images and their respective colours meant nothing and she painted all in the same colour. I have found that patients who do this have lost all touch with reality. An attempt at writing about her experiences as a nurse resulted in a rapid, undisciplined association of ideas. I changed her paints for coloured ball pens so that there would be a greater stimulus to use different colours and keep her mind more on one job. The result is some very interesting drawing. Present State: Rapidly changing moods of happiness and spasms of crying.
Sarah L: works consistently well and enjoys the work. Is very imaginative. However, sometimes she flairs up in anger very easily and picks quarrels with other patients. Says she would like to do embroidery if it was available.
Flora B: At first refused to do anything. Now will draw coloured lines but is unable to follow any instructions. Keeps referring to her father when indignant over something, constantly quoting him. Is very restless. It is a good sign however that she is now willing to put pencil to paper.
Henrietta B: Has had to stop doing therapy because of her eyes. She is more aware of her surroundings but this awareness has taken a wrong turn. Has more time on her hands to think and her thoughts are turning again in a paranoid direction.
The predominant emotion is aggression against all the agitating pressures that she feels are against her and I have been unable to make her express it on paper as she is too afraid to make a mark. The pencil flies in the air above the paper making most weird, interesting patterns, but even after all this time she cannot make marks on paper. It is maybe too conscious an effort for her rapidly flying thoughts. Once she could follow lines in colour that I drew, but she cannot do it anymore.
She misses her relatives very much. On 24th May she told me that she had two brothers, but one was murdered. She admitted her mother is dead. On 23rd May she is working better but still not well. She is quick to take the cue from any symbolism in art, eg, heart shapes that I drew for her today put her in a better frame of mind, and she drew a couple. However, when she draws something even as simple as this it takes virtually all day, the pencil tracing it’s way slowly and painfully. Often this patient’s mood undergoes a rapid change. She has once identified herself with symbolism in a flower and bird picture, without any prompting from me. Paul the bird, (her dead brother) is picking Estelle the flower with his long, sharp beak. Paul does not love her anymore. “I shall never live again” she ended.
Moira C: Since Easter this patient has suffered a relapse, during which she has had to be told every little thing about what to do in ordinary daily routines. Asked stupid questions about everything and has been in the kitchen without her sticks. Her stupid questions annoyed the other patients and there were often arguments. Moira told me that she was very frightened of doing anything wrong, so she kept asking questions. There is a very deep feeling of anxiety underlying all that she does, even her artwork. She feels her nose must be kept to the grindstone at all costs, but I have done nothing to make her feel that way. She also feels nobody likes her. Her son came to see her at Easter and she looked very happy, talking normally. Just before Easter I suggested that she should send him at least a card, but she would not. She told me that last time he came (with one of his daughters) he only came for a very short time and could not wait to go out again as quickly as possible. It is her impression he does not want her. Whenever I casually mentioned her son after Easter, she nearly cried.
She feels the hopelessness of everything very intensely, being very conscious of the fact that she has nowhere to go and is not sure of her marital state or where her husband is. Often she asked me whether she was insane and whether there was any hoipe. She often tells me that “nothing nice ever happens here”. It is just the same routine for her every single day. She badly needs some interesting stimulus but has not the emotional capacity to make use of it.
Week beginning 6th June 1966: This patient is now in the throes of another very bad relapse after a break of one week (Whitsuntide) when no therapy work was done. I feel she has been so over anxious (rather than depressed) that she has completely seized up. Her work now consists of incoherent scribbling as opposed to the very intellectual patterns she has been doing for so many months. She cannot even fill in shapes with colour.
NOTHING NICE EVER HAPPENS HERE
“ I haven’t time to discuss it now, just do it”. “These are chronic mental patients – they go queer like this, that’s why they are here”.
These two lines were constantly thrown at me by the two sister on ward 24. It was unpleasant to work under both of them for they extended their annoying petty neuroses throughout the ward, affecting staff and patients alike. A typical day would go like this:-
When I came on the ward at 9am, I greeted Sister Rush, who would often reply, “take your women out of here from under my feet, there are only two of us on today. The night staff needn’t have bothered coming for all the work they have done. And I might just as well be on by myself this morning”. She was aged about seventy and had already retired twice.
It was true that Sr Rush did her fair share of the ward work, but her standard of hygiene was appalling. She would go round the large sick room and change the nightdresses and beds of the doubly incontinent patients and wash them. As these patients were bedridden and very old they all had bedsores. Because of what I am just going to relate, these sores never healed but grew worse until they stank.
Sister wore no protecting gown or mask, but dipped her dirty fingers into the jar of Aseroine Cream, and rubbed the patients pressure areas immediately after changing the beds and handling dirty linen. It was unheard of for her ever to be seen washing her hands. She did not care under what circumstances these dressings were done – it could be while worker patients were sweeping the floor.,, bearing infection across the room in the dust. She pulled off the soggy dressings and applied Cicatrin powder. When these were replaced by fresh gauze they looked clean, but they were never sterile although there was a big sterilizer in the duty room. It stood idle except when she had a “sterilizing passion”. This would take place once a week when all the receivers, kidney dishes and other containers and instruments would be thrown in together. It needed two nurses to sort them out again. The irony of this is that these articles were rarely used on the ward. Immediately after finishing the dressings, she would serve the dinners without changing her apron, washing her hands or using the proper serving utensils. She was often seen handling food with her fingers and smoking over it. Nurses complained among themselves, but it was useless telling matron. It was very much to anyone’s disadvantage to complain, because Matron had the habit of punishing the plaintiff without investigating the matter.
Sr Rush, whizzed through the work as if her life depended on it, catching up her staff with her in a confused whirlwind. When they were doing one job, she nattered at them for not doing two; when they were trying to do two at once, she nattered at them for not doing three. The ‘worker’ patients were also shouted at, which made them bad tempered with other patients and uncooperative with staff.
Because of this mad rush, the work was always finished early. It left the nurses tired and hungry but they were never allowed to eat any dinner on that ward under either sister. If the patients could not eat it all, it went straight into the pig bin. ( This is of course correct hospital policy but in the years 63 – 66 nurses did not get an official break and used the ward kitchen for snacks).
The nurses were not allowed to rest either, although there was nothing left to do. They were made to do unnecessary work that had already been done. To avoid this they would go around the beds in pairs, pretending to straighten the counterpanes (about which sister had another passion). This fiasco enabled the nurses to carry on a conversation. The only time when there was no need for this was when Dr Morgan, an outside visiting GP, made his daily visit to the ward. He and sister would both disappear into her office, ostensibly to discuss patients, but somehow the conversation always drifted round to his beloved Wales.
Both Sisters regarded this doctor as something higher than the normal run of mankind. He was always given most deferential treatment, coupled with a blind panic on Sr Rush’s part to find him a ‘worker’ to make him some coffee; it was served in a china cup and saucer kept in their own special corner of the crockery cupboard purely for this purpose. After these elevenses coffee with a thick slice of Wales, Dr Morgan would condescend to see the patients. He annoyed them with his habit of asking them how they were, then turning to Sister for a reply, completely ignoring them. It was true that many of them were in an advanced state of dementia, so unable to reply coherently, but there were many others who understood their position and would have dearly liked a private word with the doctor. Dr Morgan did not seem to understand this and was the unwitting cause of a sense of hoplessness and uselessness among them. “We don’t matter anymore” when of them told me sorrowfully once. It was this attitude to his patients that led him to make tactless remarks to me about them in their hearing, and later he was to make my work with them rather difficult because of this uncomprehending attitude.
Dr Morgan’s superficiality annoyed me too. He would come in with a breezy “good morning” while sister ran in circles around him. This pantomime disgusted my patients.
“It’s alright for him, being so cheerful. He can afford to be. After all, he has a home hasn’t he, probably with a loving wife waiting with hot meals. Why should he care about us ?. We don’t count, he only comes to see the sick-room patients”. These were sentiments expressed by my patients at different times. They would often tell me their trouble, not only of the big matters in their lives, but more often it was the minor points in their immediate surroundings that caused them trouble.
It is often a feature in the mentally sick who must spend their lives in an institution, that minor annoyances and troubles are the most interesting. The patients told me of these various points, usually aspects of ward life that could have been altered to their comfort without much trouble to the routine. If it was a health matter, they often would have liked a word with the doctor. I was powerless to do anything about it, and was told so a few times by both sisters in no uncertain terms. It would not have hurt Dr Morgan to listen to these patients now and then, and treat them like respectable people. This in turn would have made them respect themselves and raise them from the futile, sorrowful inertia of institutional life.
It was also hopeless trying to tell sister Rush. She never nade time to discuss the patients with me. Her attitude was that as long as I stayed on the gallery and made sure no-one wandered off, started fighting, or ate each other’s dinners and that all were sitting in the right place (about which she was obsessional), nothing else mattered. My art therapy and attempts to establish contact with the patients and to ease their sorrowful and bewildered minds were regarded as so much airy-fairy.
Sister Murphy ( who liked to be known as ‘the good mother’) was even worse. If I tried to tell her anything she was very sarcastic, asking what did I expect in mental patients?
One day, Dr Morgan would have brushed past us as usual, but something happened. I was just crossing to the radiator with some patients work to dry it, when he came in suddenly and bumped into me, upsetting some of the paintings on the floor. He had been coming in every day yet never seemed to realize there was an art therapist on the ward. He looked at the work scattered on the floor.
“Tell me, how are they progressing?” he asked. The suddenness of the question took me by surprise after being used to the prolonged indifference on all sides. There was so much I had been wanting to say, had I been given the opportunity. Now that this opportunity had so abruptly presented itself, I found that I could not think of the right things to say. I mumbled a conventional reply. However, Dr Morgan wanted to know more. He asked me loudly for details in front of all the patients, and actually expected me to tell him on the spot! All reports on patients are supposed to be strictly confidential. In any case some of them would not have been very pleased about the things I intended to tell the doctor about them. They would never have understood that it was for their own good, and trust would have been broken. As it was he had already made the situation difficult enough through his tactlessness. Contrary to common belief, my patients were not raving lunatics bereft of all logical thought. Most of them were intelligent, many of whom had led full professional lives until something went wrong and cracked a sensitive mechanism. Aware of their curious stares I asked Dr Morgan quietly if I could write a report for him as he seemed so interested, hoping that none of the patients had heard me.
“What a good idea, yes you do that !” he said to all the world. This was quite enough for the patients to put two and two together later when I presented him with the report. I was careful to smuggle the report through the gallery under my white coat to Sister’s office. I need not have bothered, on his way out Dr Morgan waved the type written sheets for all to see saying “Thanks for the report, I am sure it will be interesting”. This caused the patients to ask if the report was about them. I replied that it was just a report about ward conditions that contained points they had mentioned. It was a half truth, and they believed me, but for a long time afterwards the relationship was not quite the same. In this ward there were a large proportion of paranoid patients, and this incident gave them additional scope for their delusions. I was almost back at square one, regarded as a spy and intruder who now made disparaging remarks about them to the doctor after treacherously winning their confidence.
Soon I began to wonder if it had all been worth the effort. A fortnight passed and nothing happened, except that Sr Rush made disparaging remarks about my report to the nurses. To me she said “Don’t you think Dr Morgan is busy enough with reading your ‘stories’?” It was useless telling her that he had requested these notes. As usual she would not listen. Both she and her counterpart Sr Murphy were too obsessed with trivialities to concern themselves with patients actual feelings. Counterpanes and commodes ruled the days and filled their heads.
Sr Murphy was particularly unpleasant to work under. On meeting her the first impression would be one of a dedicated religious nurse, for she was an Irish catholic. She appeared most charming and understanding, but she worked her insidious way under everybody’s skin in time. She was nothing nut a hypocrite with an apparent hindrance policy. She would only appear to work by going round the sick room and talking to patients sitting on the commodes. She had a dingle track mind about that particular body function, the maximum intake of food being a close second subject. She engaged in long babyish conversations on the amount of excretion to the intense embarrassment of the more sensible patients. Otherwise she left the other nurses to struggle on their own while she retired to the office with “The Catholic Nursing Times”.
Her obsession with stuffing patients with as much food as possible led to more complaints among the nurses. These people were old and bedridden and doubly incontinent. They did not need or want all that food. It made them fat and flabby, so more prone to bedsores as well as turning them into worse nursing problems through their obesity. They became harder to lift and their bowels ceased to function properly, so every Monday they were all given old fashioned enemas and suppositories that were hated by patients and nurses alike.
This sister made favourites among the patients, with the result that some became very spoiled and demanding. It destroyed any compassion that the nurses might have felt for them because they were so very awkward and disagreeable. One such patient presided over a complete corner of the ward, her disapproving eyes would follow the nurses at their work. She had a bad habit of reporting anything untoward to the sister on duty, and both sisters had an even worse habit of listening to and acting on, her comments. The woman’s favourite pastime was playing off each shift against the other – night against morning, morning against afternoon, and so on. The concessions made to the woman were unbelievable. She lay abed everyday with her so called bad heart, which was in no worse condition than any other patients’ and was a compulsive commode demander. Every ten minutes she would ask sister for it, who would tell the nurse to fetch it, it would be seldom used. A relief sister would make her get out of bed and go to the toilet….
These are the written views of my friend Nurse Ellen Walls, who subsequently became a State Registered Nurse, and who worked with me for a long period on this ward. In her report, she goes on to describe the typical nurse’s attitude engendered by such spoiling, and how it ultimately worked to the patient’s detriment.
“….Apart from the two doting sisters, no one could stand the woman which was rather sad, for I have no doubt that if she had been treated with a little sense by the person in charge, she could have been a pleasant enough person. After all, she was mentally ill with mild depression and had no visiting relatives, and for someone so alone, one is bound to feel pity. But both sisters spoiled her intolerably and made her a nuisance and a problem to the other nursing staff, especially those of a lower hierarchy. Eventually she died of pneumonia and a certain feeling of freedom to the nurses of ward 24. Not a very commendable emotion on the part of a nurse at the passing on of a patient”.
Another very serious fault of Sr Murphy’s was not following the doctor’s directions in the administering of drugs. She was generous with vitamins, but otherwise her complete disregard for the medicine list raised hell on the ward. “….Old ladies wandered from their table making nonsensical demands, bed patients climbed up their cot sides, and the more docile ones were upset and became bewildered and tearful”.
The sister was so inefficient, that often when I came on duty at 9am, I would find breakfast pots in disarray on the tables and scraps of food on the floor. Many patients would still be unwashed and the sick room was in chaos with dirty bedding and cursing women all over the place.
In this sort of environment were placed sensible but sorrowful, ex-professional women who formed my therapeutic group. They felt utter degradation in having to live among these conditions where they were shown mo respect. They lived among the innuendos of the tale telling patients and were completely at their mercy. One of these was suffering from mania which meant that she was grossly over active for her age. She embroidered her tales with vindictiveness into the ready ears of the sisters who never thought to question what one said.
On talking to these patients I found that they had almost forgotten that they were once teachers, nurses or artisans. They were so painfully aware of being ‘nut cases in a loony bin’. Their days were dominated by the constant commands of the sisters and the general regimentation that left no wish to do anything on their own initiative. Indeed if they ever tried they would be pulled up with “what do you think you are doing?” They became so afraid of this remonstration that they gave up trying, finding it best to do nothing unless specifically told otherwise. This worked well for the nursing staff who were always short handed and for whom it was impossible to supervise all the patients comings and goings. It was ideal for the purpose of quick attention, especially at mealtimes to know that patient A always sat in chair A, but these people were kept sitting in the same place day in and day out.
Imagine the effect this would have on someone who had once sustained a major fracture of the femur, to name but one case. I had almost forgotten about the progress notes written for Dr Morgan and had shrugged them off in my mind as wasted effort, until he came in one day and told me to accompany him to sister’s office. Sister Rush was not a bit pleased by this intrusion, which struck her as most irregular. It has never been known at High Royds for a nursing assistant (for that was my official status even though I was not a nurse) to fraternize with a doctor so openly. She could only be content with a cursory “good morning” from him while being excluded from her own office and deprived of her authority and her rightful place with him. With this build up of events, I had been hoping that the outcome would have been more interesting and fulfilling, but even so with it’s slight anti-climax, it was not discouraging. I was hoping that he would discuss the notes with me, taking each patient in turn and exploring the possibilities of making their lives a little happier and more interesting. However, all he said about the actual notes was that he had no time to discuss them, but would do so at the first opportunity. His reaction to them was favourable and his manner towards me was amicable, which was a great relief to me. I had been worrying about the propriety of someone in my position having the audacity to present a doctor with case notes and telling him, no matter how subtly, how to run his work. He said he had told matron which set me wondering again, how it would be received.
I was not to wait long. In the afternoon she came with Dr MacKenzie, the superintendent or medical director, as he called himself. He visited this ward regularly once a week as they were all his patients. This fact does not sound unusual, but in many mental hospitals the geriatric wards are usually the ‘lost continents’ and are lucky if they see their consultant once every six months.
Dr MacKenzie was a man of few words, but gave one the impression of noticing everything and making mental notes of it. It took him all his time to say “good morning”, yet I never felt rebuffed by him. Unfortunately, he cut too awe inspiring a figure, so none of the patients dared speak to him, which is a pity as he proved to be a sympathetic man with a ready ear – a rare quality at High Royds. The matron usually accompanied him. This influx of the Gods always sent matron into a panic of straightening chairs and counterpanes, the anxiety radiating and generating it’s way to the patients.
Dr McKenzie was Scottish but never brought the Highlands to his work. He saw each patient with sister and they talked about nothing but the patients. Unfortunately neither sister ever told him anything of any interest. I overheard them many times. They were mostly conversations about bowel function and physical illnesses that accompany old age, but never about the patient’s state of mind. The best report on this aspect that Dr MacKenzie could hope for would be that “Patient ‘A’ is more depressed today”, or that “Patient ‘B’ has hallucinated again”. No reasons were ever given as to the causative influences of these states. Here again, all the talk was about the sick room patients, not about my patients on the gallery. The doctor did not ask them how they were, but they could never give anything but non-commital replies. Can you imagine telling your doctor your very private anxieties and troubles in front of a ward full of listening patients who might humiliate you?. Often after Dr MacKenzie had gone, the patients told me what they would have like to tell him if only they could have talked to him properly.
The matron was quite hopeless at even beginning to understand how people felt in any given situation. She was disliked by the patients and even more by the staff because of this lack of understanding. This unpleasant quality reverberated through the hospital with sometimes disastrous effects, especially to young student nurses. She treated and spoke to my patients as if they were babies. It humiliated them and they hated it; needless to say, matron was completely unapproachable. She ran the hospital on the lines of vindictiveness and innuendo in the same way as the two sisters ran the ward, depending on favourite nursing assistants for her information as the sisters depended on favourite patients. This meant that the nurses had to be very careful not to offend the “trusties” as matron acted on their tales without investigation.
She came in now with Dr MacKenzie and gushed about my ‘very clever’ progress notes in front of the patients. Dr MacKenzie listened in surprise. Nobody had told him about the notes. He asked to see them. Matron hedged, then said she had forgotten where they were. Immediately I chimed in and said cheerfully “ don’t worry Dr MacKenzie, I have a carbon copy at home”. Matron was amazed that a mere nursing assistant should even think about writing out case notes. The fact that carbon copies were made, amazed her even more. She suddenly remembered where the original case notes were, and Dr MacKenzie insisted on seeing them. This pantomime was enacted on the ward gallery, larger than life in front of patients and a too interested staff. The tale of my case notes spread through the hospital very quickly. It is interesting to note various reactions.
The older nursing assistants thought I was mad and could not understand why I should not only wish to write them, but to give my time to them freely without thought of financial reward. Some of them thought I was trying to soft soap the consultant. My student nurse friend thought it was something that needed doing badly and agreed with it in principle, but she added sadly that nothing would come of it. She said that Dr MacKenzie would not have the courage to fight over it with the rest of the staff, for instance, matron and the old fashioned sisters. She was right. Dr MacKenzie was pleased with the notes and said he would like another report later, but nothing was done. Too many people would have been upset, therefore it was better to leave things alone.
No scandal has ever been caused by jogging along in the same old rut. Nobody suffered physically; most patients were reasonable comfortable and as well as could be expected.. However, any radical change in the routine was bound to cause unrest; it is essential that a hospital should work in harmony. Yet the very fact that I felt the need to write those notes was a sign that all was not well, and the lack of teamwork was evident in every monotonous day.
I wrote the second set of notes because I knew now that Dr MacKenzie was interested, and I was hoping that if I wrote them penetratingly enough, he might be sufficiently impressed to act upon them. He was certainly pleased and came on the ward specially to tell me so, but some people started acting very strangely. I had made two carbon copies, one for Dr Morgan and one for Matron. Dr Morgan kept his copy without ever mentioning it to me, but he or someone else must have pulled sister up. Sr Rush was very cross about me mentioning the patients’ financial matters, and said I should have spoken to her first. She discussed certain matters with me but she was so stupid that she completely missed the point of what I had been trying to say. I would have been glad to speak to her if only she had been a bit more approachable and amenable to new ideas. There was a suggestion box in the ward but it was never opened. No other members of staff ever put anything in. It’s contents were buttons, pins and pieces of paper on which were written requests for millions of pounds to be paid from Fort Knox to “Prince Albert”, one of the female patients on the ward who cleaned the toilets!
Matron completely ignored me for a long time after sending her copy of the notes back to me immediately without comment. My student friend said this attitude was typical of the attitude at High Royds. You enter the hospital, keen to help people only to find that nobody thanks you for your efforts. Sooner or later, she said, you give up because of the pointlessness of it all and become as the rest of them, lethargic, and growing to hate the boredom of your job. They were in the habit of treating staff as if they had no intelligence, and like the patients, the staff responded accordingly. Many could not stand it and either left the profession altogether, or went to another hospital. The student failure rate was appallingly high. Very few actually finished their training. They seldom stayed long as staff nurses. There are various causative influences governing this rapid turnover:-
1. The matron was not a suitable person to be in the position, being the unsympathetic and vindictive woman she was. Many young girls suffered at her hands.
2. She did not interview people well. Girls told me they were asked nothing about themselves and references were waived, yet they were accepted for a three year training.
3. There was no one to whom these girls could turn for help if they had any problems. Many of them were miles away from home for the first time ; others who were near home had problems there usually with unsympathetic parents.
4. The tutors at the training school were out of touch with the hospital, so that nurses found difficulty in applying what they had learnt.
5. The tutors did not ensure that the students received adequate practical training in all spheres of psychiatric nursing. In more than one case, student nurses complained bitterly because they were either left on one ward for a long period, or they were changed from one ward to the other very often. Matron often did this to people she disliked.
Here was the breeding ground of discontent, which together with ward conditions, did not make for a happy atmosphere. In the end it was the patients who suffered. A nurse who is unhappy in her job does not make a good therapist. Her discontent can be felt by the patients.
I have just read a book by Barbara Robb called ‘Sans Everything’. It is a survey of the treatment of old people in mental institutions, pinpointing all the malpractices. One consultant psychiatrist to whom I have spoken about it said the book was written by a trouble maker who went round looking for all the bad points in these places, then editing them to form a book that makes frightening reading. At High Royds, nobody ever hit or hurt patients. The wards were not unpleasant as they had once been; they had been painted and new lights were put in, and plants were on the window sills. Television and newspapers were in every ward. There was no evidence of real cruelty but bathtime was most distressing:-
1. Patients were made to strip in full view of each other, causing unnecessary embarrassment in some cases.
2. Naked women sat waiting on a form in the bathroom, jostling each other. There were more quarrels in the bathroom than anywhere else.
3. Bowls of water were thrown over patients’ heads without them being given anything to cover their eyes with.
4. All sizes of clothes were piled together in the cupboard, making it impossible to sort out the right size. As a result patients were often in uncomfortable, ill fitting clothes that also undermined their self respect.
5. The same hairbrush was used on everyone.
6. On the male side it has been known for nurses to leave soap in the patients hair causing irritation and infection.
The resulting physical and psychological ward conditions had adverse effects on the longstay patients:-
1. Negligence in hygiene brought about frequent outbreaks of gastroenteritis and even one of scabies.
2. Institutional clothing and identical hairstyles undermined patients’ self respect.
3. Soft diet food was served in an unattractive way which some patients noticed.
4. Case histories were freely discussed in patients hearing. Most of them could not understand what was being said, but they knew they were always being talked about, never talked with.
I did not have to think very hard to mention these facts, although the hospital itself is no longer visually unpleasant. And is certainly not notorious for cruelty to patients. Overcrowdings, shortage of nursing staff and outdated buildings are the standard excuses for the inability not to do the job properly. These are understandable reasons, but a fourth, wrong priorities, need not have happened. Theirs was more the sin of omission. The vices were thoughtlessness, tactlessness and the failure to realize that people exist in their own right, even if they are unfortunate enough to be mentally ill. The hospital was full of those that had ears, yet heard not.
THE PROBLEMS OF INSTITUTIONAL NEUROSIS AFFECTING DIFFERENT TYPES OF MENTAL PATIENT
“Monastery, prison, hospital, nursery, it sheltered us from the hard, stormy world; it kept us from the foggy, foggy dew”
This is the apt summing up of life in a mental hospital by William Seabrook in his autobiography. ‘Asylum’ recounts his experiences in such an institution, and the effect it had on him as a person. The words that I have underlined are the essence of the state of mind in institution-conditioned psychiatric patients who are intelligent and aware of their surroundings. It is a highly dangerous attitude, symbolizing a wish to return to the womb (Freud). The patient is afraid to face up to his problems in the outside world. If allowed to do so, he sinks further and further in the shelter. Rehabilitation becomes increasingly difficult.
Mr Seabrook was treated in the days preceding electro-convulsive therapy and the drugs used in psychiatry today. It is interesting to examine his treatment briefly, because it induced his institutional state of mind. However, the hospital took care not to let this state of mind grow.
In the days of Seabrook’s admission all wards in psychiatric hospitals were locked. The wards containing wild and dangerous patients lay in the heart of the hospital; they were nicknamed the ‘back halls’ in spite of the staff’s efforts at emancipation.
Although Seabrook was never in one of those, his ward had barred windows, even when he was moved to the convalescent wing.
Seabrook was subjected to a form of regimentation as soon as he was admitted. He had to join queues for various items and reasons and was marched from one place to another down long dark corridors, alive with echoing footsteps. Because of this, one patient actually developed an obsession with marching up and down one particular corridor all day; he was afraid of being late for the various queues.
Seabrook’s first few days were spent in helping to fill various forms about personal belongings, and in being taken to see his doctor, dentist, barber; butcher, baker and candlestick maker. He felt swallowed up in the labyrinthine institution with it’s ordered life and precise timing of every day. He had his own bedroom but the fact that the door had to be kept open with a blue nightlight shining on him was the cause of much annoyance. The locked doors and barred windows added their own note of finality. Seabrook mentions that the risk of escape almost caused more worry to the doctors and administrative officials than the risk of suicide.
His initial treatment consisted of body temperature baths that completely submerged the whole body except the head. These were supposed to be relaxing. They did not help him but gave him a sense of being cocooned in foetal fluid within the great protective institution walls. Straight jackets were a dirty word in this then progressive hospital; instead the nurses used ‘the pack’ to pacify forcible disturbed and restless patients. This involved a special technique of rolling the patient in sheets and bands on the bed. When the process was finished the patient was left to writhe alone on the bed, completely helpless until he was exhausted, sweating profusely. This treatment was given to Seabrook when he grew restless with the diminishing alcoholic fog and he suddenly realized his new position and status more clearly. After a couple of sessions it was discontinued. It was found that he was deriving some kind of pleasure from being bound up tight and completely helpless in another sort of cocoon. Soon after this, the doctor declared him fit enough to be taken out of the special observation room and put in the main ward with the other patients. He resisted this move although he knew it would mean no more disturbed nights with blue nightlights and open doors. This active resistance is a clear symptom of institutional neurosis. On release, long stay prisoners have been known to resist rehabilitation very strongly. They have lived so long in prison that , however unpleasant it might have been, they have come to accept it and become completely dependant upon it.
His removal to the main ward was timely, but this was offset by the ward atmosphere being reminiscent of a nursery. Nothing was left to patients’ initiative. They were told exactly how and when to dress, wash, eat; the times of each event were fixed everyday alike. They were all taken for walks together always with a nurse to escort them at the same time each day. In between walks, meals, treatments, handicraft and gymnastic classes, the patients were left to recline on soft chairs and read or play games.
And all the time in the background the attendants hovered like motherly hens watching over their brood. The very fact that these days were so comforting, protecting and predictable led to an institutional state of mind. This place was so unlike the relatively unpredictable outside world, where people must take the initiative and make decisions.
The convalescent ward to which Seabrook was later moved had a completely different atmosphere from the one to which he was used. He resisted that move more energetically than the first, to the extent of him making a nuisance of himself. There were neither soft chairs, nor vigilant nurses. Here the patients were supposed to think for themselves. These were not the only reasons for Seabrook’s intense dislike of the move. He was placed among new patients, none of whom he knew. He was removed from the old familiar, comforting fraternity, and was determined to do all in his power to be placed back amongst them. A timely remonstration from his doctor made him realize the gravity of such a move. It would have meant his becoming more and more dependant on the institutional way of life to such an extent that his chances of recovery and rehabilitation would have grown less and less. It was only the doctor’s foresight that saved his life.
“INSTITUTIONALISATION LEAVES AN UNMISTAKABLE STAMP ON MEN – SHABBINESS, WEAKNESS, AND LACK OF SELF RESPECT”
There were hundreds of patients at High Royds answering to this characteristic description – patients who had been there for up to forty years. On them, the mark of institutionalization was indeed unmistakable, but there is a more subtle kind that goes unnoticed. It is deceptive in it’s manifestation, for all appears to be well.
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The Morrill Land Grant Act, passed by the federal government in 1862, allotted state land for construction of colleges and universities. Even though the Act applied to the state, it was several years until North Carolina started building schools of higher education. North Carolina State University (NCSU) became the first land grant college in the state when it was established in Raleigh in 1887. The precursor to NCSU, North Carolina State University of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, was the result of a legislative proposal by the Watauga Club and the North Carolina Farmers’ Alliance.
The school was first opened to seventy-two incoming students in 1889. With Alexander Q. Holladay as its first president, NCSU’s purpose was “to provide theoretical and practical education in agriculture and mechanic arts (engineering) while maintaining a basic curriculum in classical (liberal arts) studies” (Powell, p. 832). The young school increased in its size by the start of the twentieth century with 250 enrolled students. Most students studied agriculture and in 1914 the agricultural program was enhanced with the passing of the Smith-Lever Act. The act provided federal funding to the school’s agriculture program, leading to an increase of students.
In 1917, the name of the university was changed to North Carolina State College of Architecture and Engineering. From 1900 to 1930, North Carolina State College continued to grow at a moderate pace, adding study programs such as textiles, education, and forestry. In 1931, the General Assembly passed the Consolidation Bill. The act merged the University of North Carolina with Women’s College at Greensboro and North Carolina State into the University of North Carolina System.
During World War II, the university expanded to include programs for servicemen and women. The GI Bill of Rights led to continued growth, and 5,000 students attended North Carolina State in 1947. However, the school experienced the most profound proliferation under Chancellor John Tyler Caldwell’s leadership.
In the year 1959, John Caldwell began his service as the college president and under his leadership a liberal arts school was added to the college curricula, the college gained university status, and racial integration occurred with limited tension. The liberal arts program was added in 1963, and the General Assembly changed the school’s name to North Carolina State University in 1965. In regards to the integration of schools in the 1950s and 1960s, the college went through an easy transition. The easy transition solidified North Carolina State as a national leader in higher education equality. According to William Powell, “By the time of Caldwell’s retirement, 12,800 undergraduates and 2,600 graduate students matriculated on the campus” (p. 832).
Today, North Carolina State University has become a national leader in higher education, providing top programs in engineering, design, and veterinary medicine. According to the institution’s website, over 34,000 students currently attend the university with almost 8,000 staff members. The Centennial Campus is a program that connects students with businesses and government organizations, and the school has an extension mission, making outreach a prime importance of every college at North Carolina State. Due to the prevalence of research and technological science programs, North Carolina State continues to rank as a top ten school in the nation for industry-sponsored research.
“North Carolina State University.” William S. Powell, ed. Encyclopedia of North Carolina (University of North Carolina Press: Chapel Hill, NC 2006).
“North Carolina State University at Raleigh.” North Carolina Highway Historical Marker Program website. A Division of the North Carolina Department of Cultural Resources. (accessed January 27, 2012).
“About NC State.” North Carolina State University website. http://www.ncsu.edu/about-nc-state/index.php, (accessed January 27, 2012).
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| 0.729421 | 1,050 | 2.75 | 3 |
Here are some examples of problems that orthodontics can correct.
Patient started treatment at age eleven and wore braces for twenty-six months. He loves his new smile.
Patient sucked her thumb as a young child. She started treatment at age thirteen. She had braces and a special appliance--called a crib--to retrain the tongue, for twenty-eight months. Now she can bite the lettuce out of a sandwich.
This adult patient (age twenty-five) required braces and jaw surgery to correct his severe overbite, treatment taking two years. His problem could have been corrected without surgery if he had been treated before he was a teenager.
This patient's lateral incisors were congenitally missing. She had braces for twenty months to move the teeth into the correct position, then the missing teeth were replaced with bonded "Maryland" bridges.
Patient's underbite was causing her to have jaw joint discomfort and excessive wear patterns on her teeth. After thirty months of treatment starting at age thirty-two, she now finds smiling and chewing much easier.
Patient was bothered by the spaces between his teeth. Braces closed the spaces and gave him an ideal bite in twenty-four months. Special glued-in retainers help keep the spaces closed.
At age ten, patient had a big overbite with the top teeth protruding beyond the bottom. She had two phases of treatment. The first helped her jaws to grow more harmoniously; the second aligned her teeth and bite. At age thirteen, she was proudly displaying her new smile.
Sometimes braces are not needed to get noticeable improvements in tooth alignment. This patient was first seen at age 7 for crowding of the lower permanent teeth. A procedure was performed to reduce the width of the adjacent baby teeth and the permanent incisors aligned on their own in 9 months.
Patient's parents were concerned about both aesthetics and the health of the erupting permanent teeth when they brought him to the orthodontist at age 8. The lower front teeth were crowded and they touched the palate, and the upper front teeth were extremely displaced from their normal positions. After 20 months of Phase I treatment with an expander and partial braces, patient's appearance and dental function was vastly improved.
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<urn:uuid:d0448e27-e902-453c-8f11-89855c7939a8>
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CC-MAIN-2020-24
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http://www.phoenixpediatricdental.com/common_treatment.php
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en
| 0.982055 | 463 | 2.875 | 3 |
The formulation and implementation of adequate science, technology and innovation (STI) policies is critical to tackling contemporary challenges, including global climate change; exploring of new energy sources and promoting sustainable management and conservation of freshwater.
- Strengthen institutional capacity for research and improve science education, including earth science, in particular at secondary and tertiary levels;
- Identify strategic areas for enhancing national and regional research capacity, infrastructure for engineering and innovation, and designing new institutional strategies at national and regional levels;
- enhance university-industry collaborations, technology transfer and entrepreneurship;
- develop globally comparable STI monitoring and analytical policy tools (GO-SPIN and STIGAP);
- ensure effective implementation of the Barbados Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States (SIDS)
UNESCO is working to develop and promote global monitoring and analysis of STI policies and strategies, as well as to improve the interface between science and policy, notably in Africa, least development countries (LDCs) and Small Island developing states (SIDS). In this regard, UNESCO is assisting a wide range of countries around the world, in developing national science policies and indicators to assess the progress of investment in STI. UNESCO has also launched a web-based information system named the Global Observatory on Science, Technology and Innovation Policy Instruments (GO-SPIN), which provides up-to-date and comprehensive information on STI policies and best practices and stimulates cooperation between countries, particularly from the south.
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<urn:uuid:42472314-65e5-4602-a598-b02e6a44673c>
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CC-MAIN-2017-47
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https://en.unesco.org/partnerships/partnering/strengthening-capacity-building-and-innovation-science-and-technology
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en
| 0.89533 | 304 | 2.84375 | 3 |
When you connect the computer to the Internet is not enough simply to establish a connection between your PC and a worldwide network. It should be more software that would give access to the information placed on the network, it was the intermediary between your PC and the Internet. That intermediary is a browser. Simply put, the browser - a program for viewing Web sites. The browser stores all the addresses of sites you've visited, recording them in a special section of the program called "History of visits." It is obvious that if a user actively uses the Internet browser history is growing enormously. History Visits can be cleaned manually in the browser, but if you do not want to dig into its settings, or you're not sure what to do it right, you can use a special program that automatically cleans the browser history. For example, clean PC, including clearing the browser history can be performed using Manyprog PC Cleaner.
This program will scan all the browsers installed on your computer, you will find in every history of visits and issue a report with a list of files, which stores information about the pages visited by the user. Next, the user is either to agree to the removal of the entire history (all files in the report is automatically marked for deletion) or delete only the information that it is no longer needed. The program is very simple, so the user has no problem clearing your history and the question of "how to clear browser history" no longer occurs.
So, now you know that the browser - a program that asks the server information that you need, it receives, processes, and outputs as needed on the screen. In the process, the browser records in a special file, all addresses visited sites, forming a history of visits. Clean browser history is necessary not only to free up hard disk space it occupies, but also to ensure the confidentiality of your work on the Internet. If you do not want your family or work colleagues have seen a list of sites you've visited for a given period of time, make it a rule to regularly clean the browser history..
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<urn:uuid:caba95d3-428b-4cd5-ac6e-240ab274e2b3>
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CC-MAIN-2018-30
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http://manyprog.com/all-history.php
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-30/segments/1531676593302.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20180722135607-20180722155607-00416.warc.gz
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en
| 0.945488 | 418 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Amateur anatomists, or perhaps anyone interested in all the odd dead ends of the human body, will like Nathan Lents’s Human Errors. Human anatomy, as the American biologist points out, is a clumsy jumble of adaptations, including some useful life-saving features such as the opposable thumb — without which we would be unable to hold a paintbrush, a pen or, God forbid, a scouring pad.
But alongside the miracles of the useful thumb and the bulging brain sit a wide range of interestingly useless bits and pieces. A scientist who can tell a story, Lents takes the reader on a fantastic voyage through the human body, looking at the flaws and explaining their evolution — or lack of it.
He notes that two of the large sinus cavities, under the upper cheeks, have ducts at the top, so gravity is of no help in draining them. The ducts are in this tricky place because humans evolved from creatures with snouts, but as the primate ancestors of humanity evolved, the sense of smell became less important (as the sense of sight became more important) and the snouts shrank up and backwards, leaving the ducts at the top. Sinusitis sufferers, then, can blame their snouty ancestors.
Then there’s the recurrent laryngeal nerve that starts in the brain, heads down into the upper chest, winds around the aorta and heads back up to the larynx, where its job can begin. This roundabout journey, Lents reports, apparently has no purpose at all.
The oesophagus, on the other hand, isn’t purposeless. But it is potentially lethal. While it’s useful for eating and breathing, when the two tasks get mixed up, a person can be stuck with a lot of choking and spluttering — or, in the worst case, die.
Even the seemingly wonderful eye gets short shrift from Lents: seven in 10 Asians are shortsighted, and many other races are also myopic, because their eyeballs are simply too long. Evolution failed to take care of that one, so glasses and contact lenses are a big business worldwide. For what’s supposed to be the most highly evolved species on the planet, a lot of people can’t see very well.
Crook knees, backs, hips, internal organs and their connections, defective genes, supernumerary bones: looking through the lens of Lents, the average human seems like a jerry-built structure put together by an enthusiastic but untrained band of drunk tradies. So much for the watchmaker analogy beloved of creationists: if there is a designer up there, his (or her) designs leave a lot to be desired.
Even desire can leave a lot to be desired, says Frank Tallis in The Incurable Romantic, a book about human love and attraction. Endorsed by Ian McEwan, this book starts with the story of a middle-aged married British woman, Megan, who oddly and unreasonably falls deeply in love with her dentist, a professional she hardly knows — and, worse, a man who has had his fingers deep in her mouth.
McEwan explores this strange theme in his novel Enduring Love: unrealistic, unreasonable, indefatigable infatuation. It is, of course, a clinically defined mental illness: de Clerambault’s syndrome.
Megan exhibited all the symptoms: she repeatedly telephoned the object of her affections; she hung around outside his home (he was married, with children); and she created a small shrine to him in her bedroom. Not only did she love him deeply, she explained, she knew he loved her.
The beleaguered dentist and his family eventually moved to Dubai, apparently to get away from this slavish adoration, yet Megan’s syndrome persisted. Even while she said she still loved her long-suffering husband, she continued to adore the dentist. She was never, as far as Tallis knows, cured. The obsessive lover in McEwan’s book, too, ends up in an asylum.
If Megan’s bizarre obsession casts doubt on the nature of true love, Tallis’s dispassionate observations on romance go even further. He discusses the so-called “look of love”, which scientists apparently call the “copulatory gaze”, when eyes lock for several seconds before one party looks away. “This intense, probing stare usually signals sexual interest,” he writes. “Apes do much the same thing.”
The Incurable Romantic has a flavour of the fascinating books written by the British neurologist Oliver Sacks, whose work explored unusual mental conditions and how they affected his patients. One of Lents’s patients, a good-looking woman named Anita, is convinced her boyfriend has been unfaithful. Her relentless paranoia is uncontrollable and, despite Tallis’s efforts, Anita can’t stop picking at her boyfriend, asking him endless questions about where he’s been and who he’s seen.
She probably has a “delusional disorder: jealous type”, Tallis concludes, but despite his best efforts, he can’t help her get past it. Eventually Anita throws a plate at her boyfriend, which smashes that romance forever.
Tallis has a detached and scholarly way of writing about fundamental human urges, including love. “All things being equal,” he writes, “we tend to pair up with an individual of a similar type to us — particularly so with respect to attractiveness.” Humans, he suggests, generally resist “trading down” in the attractiveness stakes. So love, rather than a meeting of minds, according to psychotherapists, is simply the mutual attraction to a series of so-called ‘‘fitness indicators’’, such as beauty and wealth.
In this book, Tallis, a doctor of the mind, offers a prosaic and remarkably unromantic reading of the emotion that has inspired so many poets and artists, driven the desperate to suicide and even sent armies to war. Romantic he ain’t.
Rozanna Lilley’s memories of her bohemian and less-than-romantic childhood in Sydney’s eastern suburbs have already been thoroughly discussed in the Australian media: her mother, the celebrated writer Dorothy Hewett, permitted her to appear naked in a film at the age of 13, and Lilley and her sister were sexually abused by men in their parents’ milieu.
Do Oysters Get Bored, though, offers only oblique glimpses of Lilley’s childhood. The book is more concerned with Lilley’s son, Oscar, a charming child who has high-functioning autism.
Oscar can be a handful. He can eat an entire large birthday cake by himself, leaving only a scattering of crumbs and disappointed adults. Oscar doesn’t like dogs. Or cats. He’s not good with new shoes: ongoing bribery over many days is required to even get him to try wearing a new pair.
His main interests are electronic games and comic book superheroes, and he strenuously resists attempts to divert him from a set purpose. He can ask a question at top volume and then walk away before his interlocutor has managed to answer. He lifts chunks of dialogue from cartoons and loudly and somehow endearingly inserts them into daily conversations: “Your roast beef sandwich has undergone significant improvements,” he tells his mother.
When Oscar started kindergarten in a special education school, he usually vomited from anxiety in the car on the way there; in first grade he was moved to a class for children thought to be more educable — but this also reduced him to daily despair. Finally, after much anguish, Oscar is enrolled in an ordinary school, where he unexpectedly makes friends.
An extraordinary boy, he somehow manages to overcome his limitations and become a popular figure in his primary school class, and his often outrageous comments become a source of hilarity for the other children.
In the main, then, this book is an affectionate memoir of Lilley’s life with Oscar, with her tall, dark and “reliably handsome” husband Neil, and with her cantankerous elderly father, Merv, who winds up living with her and her family in Sydney.
At 90-plus, Merv has difficulties with dementia. Occasionally incontinent, he is often frustrated by his physical handicaps and his inability to leap in a ute and take off for distant parts. By the time he is living in Lilley’s house, Merv mostly can’t remember whether his wife, Hewett, is dead or not, and Lilley has to break it to him over and over again.
These people: Lilley’s often difficult father, her often difficult son, and her remarkably equable (and handsome) husband, are her “elemental attachments”, she writes, and her life is navigated around their needs and desires.
Do Oysters Get Bored? — one of Oscar’s difficult questions and the title of the book — is a meditation on dealing with the lifelong dramas that fate can hurl at you: an autistic child, a demented father, a distant mother, a screwed-up childhood. Lilley appears endlessly patient and even serene in this gentle book, negotiating Oscar’s fears, coping with his tantrums.
She is a likeable woman, and by the last page we wish her and her unlikely menage all the best in the world.
Human Errors: A Panorama of Our Glitches, From Pointless Bones to Broken Genes
By Nathan Lents
W&N, 256pp, $29.99
The Incurable Romantic and Other Unsettling Revelations
By Frank Tallis
Little, Brown, 304pp, $32.99
Do Oysters Get Bored? A Curious Life
By Rozanna Lilley
UWAP, 228pp, $29.99
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| 0.965622 | 2,120 | 2.53125 | 3 |
S: Sky Ranch By: Dylan D.
BC: Thanks for watching! | . . | D
FC: My Sky Ranch Experience By: Dylan D.
1: This is what I did while I was at Sky Ranch.
2: Forces in Nature | During forces of nature, we talked about rocks, friction and gravity, weathering and erosion, and we built rockets.
3: Rocks | The three types of rocks are: Sedimentary, Igneous,and Metamorphic. To get Igneous rocks, rock have to melt down into lava. Then they cool and turn into Igneous Rocks! To get a Sedimentary Rock, there have to be bits and pieces of other rocks that merge together somehow, and to get a Metamorphic rock, a rock has to go through intense heat and pressure.
4: Weathering & Erosion | The force of Weathering is breaking things apart into smaller new pieces. The force of Erosion is transporting those small pieces into a new area.
5: Gravity & Friction | During this activity, we forced The COLEMINATOR and the MARTIN MACHINE to go down a zipline and used the forces of friction and gravity to our advantage to slow them down or speed them up.
6: Rockets | At this station, we built rockets for different purposes, like to go far, near, average, or exploding. My group built the exploding rocket, which means that it should not go any distance at all in the end, when we tested it, it did not explode because it was too thick.
7: Limnology | During Limnology classes, we learned about the many different ways water can travel, and we also experimented on whether the water at the lake was healthy or not.
8: Water Transportation | While we were here, we learned about how water moves around the Earth and the many different forms it can take. For example,
9: Healthy, or not? | During this class, we went to the lake and tried to decide if it was healthy or not. Healthy means that it can sustain life. During the investigation, we poked and prodded mud in the lake to see if there were any bugs in it. We found: mosquito larvae, a baby spider, and a tiny, wormlike bug.
10: Expeditions | During expeditions, we got to see and learn about many interesting animals. We also looked at different soil samples, and observed Sky Ranch's forests.
11: Petting Zoo | While we were at this class, we learned about Bearded Dragons and Red-tailed Boas. Bearded Dragons live in the desert and are omnivores, and Red-tailed Boas live in the jungle and are carnivores. We also learned about Green Iguanas and Corn Snakes. Green Iguanas live in the jungle and are omnivores. Corn snakes live in the grasslands and eat only meat (Carnivore).
12: Soil Decomposition | For this class, we looked at four different soil times at different times in time. First we looked at the first soil sample which consisted of mostly sand and leaves. Then we looked at a one month sample. That had many leaves and some branches in it. Next we looked at a six month sample which just had chunks of tree bark in it. Finally we looked at a one year soil sample. It had small pieces of wood and very tiny leaf pieces in it.
13: Outdoor Observation | And last but not least... Outdoor Observation! In the first area, the Zip Tower, I saw much sand with sticks, rocks, and leaves in it. There is grass, but very little. Also, sunlight is streaming through the trees. In area number two, the Zip Ladder Deck, I saw many live plants. I also noticed that sunlight was shining halfway throughout the area. In area number three, I saw that it was mostly covered in shade, and that there were many fallen trees.
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<urn:uuid:5f83ee72-bd11-4ac2-bd19-6dfcd6ee8740>
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CC-MAIN-2017-09
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en
| 0.975333 | 829 | 3.109375 | 3 |
In behavioral health, it is very common to hear the term “evidence-based.” Evidence-based means that an approach is supported with scientific evidence and extensive research. This is more than anecdotal evidence or clinical impressions or observations. Evidence-based goes beyond clinical practice. It can impact social and educational policies as well.
With so many treatment options to evaluate in behavioral health, it’s important to understand what evidence-based treatment (EBT) means and why it should matter to individuals who are seeking treatment.
What Evidence-Based Means
Evidence-based practices incorporate three principles, often referred to as the “three-legged stool”:
- Best available research across several studies
- Clinical expertise
- Clients’ values and personal preferences
What could this look like in practice? Let’s use an example. A person with a substance use disorder and depression is starting treatment. They’ve expressed that they would like to work with a therapist who has experience treating patients with depression. Their therapist is trained and certified in an evidence-based treatment practice known as dual diagnosis treatment. This means the provider is certified to treat co-occurring disorders.
The therapist utilizes the tenets of dual diagnosis treatment, their own clinical experience and knowledge, and the person’s values and preferences to develop a treatment plan.
What are Examples of Evidence-Based Treatment?
In behavioral health, there are many therapeutic interventions that are considered evidence-based. These are usually pharmacologic treatments or behavioral therapies. Examples of evidence-based practices in addiction treatment include:
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy
- 12-step facilitation therapy
- Methadone maintenance
- Other types of Medication-Assisted Treatment
- Family therapy
- Motivational interviewing
These approaches can be used across many levels of care in addiction treatment, including inpatient and outpatient settings. Often these therapeutic interventions are used in combination for a multi-disciplinary approach to treatment.
Why EBT is Important
There are many treatment options in mental health and addiction. Some of these treatment options may be more effective than others. Understanding what evidence-based means can help clients feel knowledgeable and empowered when choosing a treatment center or provider.
Evidence-based treatment means that it is an intervention that has been well-researched and has proven to be effective. Evidence-based treatment standardizes care, but still accounts for the client’s needs and the clinician’s experience.
Finally, adoption of EBT in communities and treatment settings ensures that individuals have access to effective treatment, ultimately improving outcomes for individuals with substance use and mental health disorders.
How to Increase Adoption
While evidence-based approaches have had successful outcomes in research and real-world settings, there is still resistance to adopt some of these practices. Often this is due to stigma that is common in behavioral health. These strategies can help to increase adoption and accessibility of well-researched treatment approaches:
- Early education and training for clinicians
- Dissemination of research and literature
- Funding and grants to make EBT more accessible to clients
- Telemedicine to increase delivery of EBT
When evaluating addiction treatment centers or behavioral health professionals, ask about evidence-based treatment programming. Pyramid Healthcare offers a full continuum of treatment programs that are evidence-based, including Medication-Assisted Treatment (MAT) and dual diagnosis treatment.
For more information on Pyramid’s treatment programs, contact our admissions department.
All content provided on the Pyramid Healthcare, Inc. blog is for informational purposes only and is not intended to represent medical advice. Pyramid Healthcare, Inc. and its blog authors make no guarantees as to the accuracy or completeness of any information on this site or found by following any link on this site. Pyramid Healthcare, Inc. and its blog authors will not be liable for any errors or omissions in the information provided in the blog, nor be liable for any losses, injuries, or damages from the display or use of this information. The opinions stated in this blog reflect those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of Pyramid Healthcare, Inc. These terms and conditions are subject to change at any time with or without notice.
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en
| 0.934972 | 867 | 3.578125 | 4 |
When the stepper motor receives the final pulse signal, (either one or from a continuous train), it will stop rotating. However, complete rest will not occur until all the oscillations have stopped. The time it takes from the application of the last pulse received until the stepper motor comes to a complete rest is known as settling time. (See graph below). Resonance occurs when the stepper motor suddenly makes large oscillations, or the output torque suddenly drops at one certain pulse rate or numerous small regions of pulse rates. The stepper motor will stop (stall), may miss steps or reverse direction from the commanded direction. This phenomenon occurs when the natural frequency of the stepper motor coincides with the frequency of the input pulse rate. This generally occurs around 100 – 200 pulses per second in a full-step operation, and also at higher pulse rates. Microstepping half-step operation, or electrical or mechanical damping, can reduce resonance issues. Microstepping has a large effect on settling time and resonance due to the smaller angular displacement taken per pulse. See Figure below.
Since a hybrid stepper motor system is a discreet increment positioning system, it is subject to the effect of resonance. Where the system is operated at this given frequency, it may begin oscillating. The primary resonance frequency occurs at about one revolution per second. Oscillating will cause a loss of effective torque and may result in a loss of synchronism. Settling time and resonance can be best dealt with by dampening the stepper motor’s oscillations through mechanical means. Mechanically, a friction or viscous damper may be mounted on the stepper motor to smooth out the desired motion.
Methods for Changing or Reducing Resonance Points:
• Use of Gearboxes or Pulley Ratios
• Utilize Microstep Drive Techniques
• Change System Inertia
• Accelerate Through Resonance Speed Ranges
• Correct Coupling Compliance
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en
| 0.902566 | 395 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Growing up I was not exposed to much technology. However the tables have turned to a great extent, and children nowadays have so much more technology on their hands. As a child the most advanced form of technology I have used was the computer. One technology I’ve seen in almost all children with is the cell phone. The first time I used a cell phone was not till a few years ago and I feel astonished when I see kids using these devices effortlessly. However, teachers want to ban this technology from classrooms because they believe it is only used for entertainment purposes. On the contrary cell phones can be used as learning tools. The same functions can be used to learn. Bluetooth is often used for music sharing, but can also be used to share notes and other class information. Different programs can be used to enjoy lesson plans. A teacher can use a phone application and have all their students install it in their phone and take it from there. This way assignments can also be submitted through the app and students can converse with one another about an assignment they are having trouble with. This also gives the teacher the opportunity to go green; not involving any paper and making projects fun and exciting. Since phones have so many functions within them, children can even change the language on the app to make it more compatible for them.
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CC-MAIN-2017-51
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en
| 0.975311 | 264 | 2.640625 | 3 |
What is a Sand Dollar?
As a child, you may have heard that sand dollars are pressed sand or lost money from mermaids living out in the sea. But since we've never seen a mermaid off the Oregon Coast, the following explanation is a bit more believable.
The Sand Dollar (Echinarachnius parma) is a flat-looking burrowing sea urchin. The flat rigid skeleton is called a test and has a five star pattern of pores.
Sand Dollars live in shallow sandy waters and their fossils are washed up on Oregon Coast beaches regularly. These fragile fossils break easily, so finding a whole one is rare and special. They are a favorite among beachcombers, children, collectors, and decorators alike.
The sand dollar got its name from the shape and color of the test after it is washed up on the beach and bleached by the sun making it look like a large silver dollar. See the comparison below:
The Legend of the Sand Dollar
There’s a lovely little legend That I would like to tell, Of the birth and death of Jesus Found in this lowly shell.
If you examine closely You’ll see that you find here, Four nail holes and a fifth one Made by a Roman’s spear.
On one side the Easter Lily, Its center is the star, That appeared unto the shepherds And led them from afar.
The Christmas Poinsettia Etched on the other side, Reminds us of His birthday Our happy Christmastide.
Now break the center open And here you will release, The five white doves awaiting To spread Good Will and Peace.
This simple little symbol Christ left for you and me, To help us spread His Gospel Through all Eternity
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en
| 0.916612 | 364 | 3.234375 | 3 |
In the mid-1940’s and 1950’s, massive amounts of King Crabs suddenly appeared in the waters off Kodiak Island, prompting the once sleepy fishing town of Kodiak, Alaska to grow in to a bustling fishing port. Twenty-five years later the supplies disappeared just as suddenly, impacting the town of Kodiak in profound ways.
“When Crab Was King: Faces of the Kodiak King Crab Fishery 1950 – 1982 ” is a newly opened exhibit at the Alaska Humanities Forum featuring 24 large format portraits of Kodiak fisherman, processing workers, coast guardsmen, bartenders, and others, who were part of the heyday of the storied Kodiak King Crab fishery. The exhibit was named after a radio series started in 2007 by the Kodiak Maritime Museum as an oral history effort to record the voices of people who lived through the King Crab years in Kodiak. A complete digital archive of the interviews is available online. The Baranov Museum in Kodiak, a history museum focused on southwest Alaska's Russian and early American eras, was the first site to host the portraits. The exhibit at the Baranov opened in May 2011, scheduled to coincide with Kodiak's annual Crab Festival. All 24 portraits, and their subject's oral history recordings, are available in an online exhibition run by the Kodiak Maritime Museum.
When Crab Was King begins a month long run at the Alaska Humanities Forum on Friday, September 7, 2012 with a First Friday opening from 5:30 – 8:00 pm. Kodiak Maritime Museum Director and exhibit curator Toby Sullivan will host a discussion about the exhibit at 6:45 pm. A specially designed audio cell phone tour is available that features 24 of the more than 50 three-minute King Crab oral history radio shows produced by the Kodiak Maritime Museum. Visitors will be able to dial a number, enter a code correlating to a specific portrait, and hear the photo subject talking about their memories of the Kodiak crab fishing boom. The exhibit runs through September 28, 2012 at the Alaska Humanities Forum.
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General Overview of Trail
Illinois, the Prairie State, is mostly a land that glaciers have smoothed out and left with rich deposits of soil that produce abundant crops. Under that soil lies the largest coal reserves in the nation, but it is manufacturing that provides the most employment.
The ADT's two routes through Illinois are quite different in character. The Northern Midwest Route is across land that is flat to slightly undulating mostly along two canals. By contrast, the Southern Midwest Route goes through very hilly country, untouched by glaciers. This area is known as the Illinois Ozarks or the Shawnee Hills and geologically remains much as it has been for eons.
Detailed Trail Description Northern Route
This part of the trail is divided into three segments totaling 219 miles, mostly trails, sidewalks, and little used roads.
Indiana State line to Joliet 60 miles
Joliet to Bureau Junction (Depue) 79 miles
Bureau Junction to Iowa line (Rock Island) 80 miles
Detailed Trail Description Southern Route This section of the trail consists of three segments, totaling 284 miles, mostly on gravel and paved roads/shoulders.
Indiana State line to intersection with the River to River Trail — 41 miles
Harden County line to Grand Tower — 127 miles
Grand Tower to East St. Louis (Missouri state line) 116 miles
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Hydrology and Chemical Quality of Flow from Small Pastured Watersheds: II. Chemical Quality1
- F. W. Chichester,
- R. W. Van Keuren and
- J. L. Mc Guinness2
A beef cattle-pasturing system involving four rotationally grazed summer pastures with winter-feeding on one pasture was studied on sloping upland watersheds in Ohio to determine its effect on chemical quality of water. The concentrations of chemicals in runoff from the pastures, which were summer-grazed only, increased relative to that of incoming precipitation but not enough to significantly impair water quality. No measurable sediment was lost from the pastures used only for summer grazing, allowing no chemical movement via that pathway. Much soil and plant-cover disturbance on the pasture used for winter-feeding, however, resulted in increased runoff, some surface erosion, and more chemical movement as compared with the pastures grazed only in summer. Considerably more chemicals moved in subsurface than in surface flow from the summer pastures while amounts of chemicals transported from the winter-feeding pasture were equally as great in surface runoff and subsurface flow. Watershed surface management was a key factor in determining the flow route of water in excess of that used for evapotranspiration and, hence, the pathways and amounts of chemical transport from the pastures.Please view the pdf by using the Full Text (PDF) link under 'View' to the left.
Copyright © . .
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The Catholic Churchs liturgical calendar is one of the treasures of our Faith. Through the Churchs liturgical year, we experience the ebbs and flows of life, seasons of feasting celebration, and seasons of fasting penitence.
We are nearly in a period of liturgical transition. Lent is coming Ash Wednesday is March 6. It is not too early to consider how we will make this Lent the spiritual preparation for celebrating the Paschal Mystery that it is meant to be. Lent is a forty-day period during which we take stock and refocus. What in our lives do we need to let go of; what do we need to embrace, so that on Easter Sunday we are closer to God and more conformed to His Will than we were on Ash Wednesday?
There are many traditional and powerful practices fasting, prayer, almsgiving but each persons Lent will be unique, a call from God to grow in whatever way we need to. For those of us with children in our care parents, teachers, religious educators, youth ministers, etc., there is an additional challenge: how can we help this Lent benefit the young people we are trying to lead in faith?
A Tool for your Lenten Arsenal
At Catholic Brain, we share that concern, and we would like to offer a tool to enhance this Lent. For the holy season of Lent, we have a special daily Lent program to help lead young people (and not so young people) on the journey to Easter.
Catholic Brains Lent program follows Jesus through the Churchs daily Gospel readings. Each day includes an excerpt from the Gospel that is read at Mass, adapted to child-friendly language, followed by a reflection, aimed primarily at young people, but relevant for people of any age.
Following the reflection is a journaling prompt. The program is built so children can create a Lent journal based on the days Scripture and lesson. Because many of the Gospel readings are the same from year to year, students who participated last year will be able to compare this years journal with last years, to see how they are maturing spiritually.
Next are the challenge and daily activity. The daily challenge is an opportunity for children, and adults, to put the days lesson into concrete action in their lives. As our spirits grow, our actions should change. The daily challenge helps our spiritual growth translate into healthy habits (virtues). The daily activity is meant for younger children who are too young to tackle the challenge, and maybe too young for the journal as well. It is an activity on Catholic Brain a game, video, coloring page, etc., that reinforces the Gospel message of the day.
How Can We Use It?
Lent should feel different than the rest of the year. We should experience Lent in a way that we could not possibly mistake it for another season. That is why, ideally, Catholic Brains Lent program should be a part of the morning. The day begins differently than it does during Ordinary Time, and the days message has a chance to stay with us throughout the day and take root.
For families and homeschoolers, this is simple. As the day begins, simply make the program a part of your morning routine. And perhaps the daily challenge can be something that you work on together as a family.
For Catholic school teachers, it can be very similar. Catholic Brains Lent program does not need to take up much time every day, so it can be a simple addition to your classs morning. Students can keep their journals in class, and by the end of the season, they will have become a wonderful Lenten project. Reach out to parents, as well, so they can encourage students to continue the program at home on weekends and other non-school days.
For parish religious education teachers, using the program may require more creativity. Because you likely only see your students once a week, participating consistently means enlisting commitment from parents. Many students may not engage the program on a daily basis, but perhaps one of the weeks lessons will relate in a special way with what you are doing in class, and can become one of your activities. Maybe have students commit to doing one challenge between classes, and come prepared to discuss their experience the following session.
However you want to implement the program, it will provide a unique and spiritual experience so this Lent can be an opportunity for you and your students to dive more deeply into your Faith.
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"Science is what we have learned about how to keep from fooling ourselves." - physicist Richard Feynman
"We believe a scientist because he can substantiate his remarks, not because he is eloquent and forcible in his enunciation." - literary critic I.A.Richards
"Nullius in verba" - Latin for "On no man's word". Motto of the Royal Society of London.
The big question about a theory is whether it's right or wrong.
Unfortunately, it's impossible to know that a scientific theory is right. The theory may agree beautifully with all the evidence - today. But science isn't like mathematics. There can be no guarantee about what evidence we will discover tomorrow.
So, we go for the next best thing, which is proving theories wrong. That's easy. You just find some evidence that contradicts what the theory says. The theory is then falsified and stays that way.
So, a scientific theory is one which can in principle be falsified. The theory has to make strong statements about evidence. If the statements aren't strong, then the theory fits any evidence, and is unfalsifiable. That's bad.
It's bad for three very practical reasons. First, a theory which can't make predictions is a dead end. Second, it would be useless. Oil companies are very pleased that geologists can predict where to drill for oil. And third, if we have two rival theories, we want to use evidence to choose between them. If they are unfalsifiable, then evidence doesn't do that for us.
The classical scientific example is Einstein's Theory of General Relativity. Einstein didn't just expect everyone to believe him. In his 1916 paper, he said that the Sun's gravity would bend light. He predicted that a photograph taken during a solar eclipse would clearly show the effect. Starlight passing near the Sun would bend, and the stars would show up in just slightly the wrong place. If they didn't, then his theory would be falsified.
Sure enough, pictures of the 1919 eclipse showed that exact amount of bending. The pictures falsified Newton's "Law" of Gravitation, and left Relativity standing. Did that prove General Relativity right? No, of course not, because Relativity may still turn out to mispredict something else. And, in fact, several alternatives - such as the Brans-Dicke theory - have been proposed down through the years. At the moment, Relativity is once again the only theory still standing. But there's no way to guarantee that it will stay on top. It isn't proven. Like all other scientific theories, it is forever tentative.
"Whenever my computer glitches, it is because an Invisible Pink Unicorn has messed with it."
Note that this is unfalsifiable, because you can't detect an Invisible Pink Unicorn. There's no way to prove it isn't there.
Next, some humor from David Canzi:
"According to the Just So Theory of Instantaneous Cosmogenesis, the universe came into existence suddenly, just as it is. This theory predicts that, if we examine reality, we will observe that things are the way they are. The theory is falsifiable: If things were not the way they are, it would be proven false. Observation has shown that things are, indeed, the way they are. Thus the theory is proven."
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| 0.966959 | 700 | 3.3125 | 3 |
In 11–18, find a general solution to the differential equation.
Solution:Step 1In this problem we need to find a general solution to the given differential equation.Step 2Given : The auxiliary equation to find the complementary solution of the given differential equation is .To solve the auxiliary equation, we do as followsWe know that if the roots of the auxiliary equation has complex roots , then The general solution for the problem can be written as :Here the roots are with and therefore the solution for the problem is Step 3We will use the method of variation of parameters.Now we will find the particular solution for .Here we have and . Also we know...
Textbook: Fundamentals of Differential Equations
Author: R. Kent Nagle, Edward B. Saff, Arthur David Snider
The answer to “In 11–18, find a general solution to the differential equation.” is broken down into a number of easy to follow steps, and 10 words. Fundamentals of Differential Equations was written by and is associated to the ISBN: 9780321747730. This textbook survival guide was created for the textbook: Fundamentals of Differential Equations , edition: 8. Since the solution to 17E from 4.6 chapter was answered, more than 237 students have viewed the full step-by-step answer. The full step-by-step solution to problem: 17E from chapter: 4.6 was answered by , our top Calculus solution expert on 07/11/17, 04:37AM. This full solution covers the following key subjects: Differential, equation, Find, general, solution. This expansive textbook survival guide covers 67 chapters, and 2118 solutions.
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| 0.922037 | 354 | 2.6875 | 3 |
On December 3, 1972, Brown University wrote to the president concerning the climate changing back to a potential Ice Age. Because our models have been divided by time, it is much easier to distinguish short-term changes in trend from the long-term.
What is fascinating is that even a decade of rising temperatures leads people to proclaim global warming. When you have five years of declining temperatures, they live in denial and proclaim the rising volatility is indicative of global warming. They offer no evidence of that because there is none. What we show is that climate has always changed and the next solar cycle points to the lowest in hundreds of years. The major broader trend is toward global cooling, which is far more dangerous for this is when crops fail and disease rises.
Certainly, we must be concerned that the rising level of activity in volcanic eruptions could lead to a volcanic winter and that would be very bad in the years ahead. If we see a major eruption on the level of 6+, you better start buying canned goods for the future for two of these events, even a year apart, would seriously cool the planet.
We have to look at climate data not just on a year to year basis. That is like looking at the Dow Jones Industrials for 10 days and then trying to forecast the long-term trend.
The major trend on a broader basis is moving toward a steep cooling trend. The few years that saw rising temperatures were nothing more than a three-day reaction in market terms on a daily chart.
The major concern remains the broader long-term trend. The activists are trying to use the climate to force socialism down the throats of society to take over the global economy. That agenda has been sold so well that they have distracted society from the real climate threat that is unfolding before our eyes. They keep pretending that this is part of CO2 and global warming entirely caused by humans. The planet has been going through these changes long before humans ever existed.
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https://finagg.com/2019/12/18/global-cooling-warning-to-the-president/
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| 0.966816 | 396 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Freedom in the World
Freedom Rating (1 = best, 7 = worst)
Civil Liberties (1 = best, 7 = worst)
Political Rights (1 = best, 7 = worst)
Jordan’s royally appointed government ruled by decree for most of 2010, after the king dissolved the parliament in November 2009. During this period, several controversial measures were enacted, including a new election law that retained major structural flaws in the electoral system, and an information law regulating online outlets. The main Islamist opposition group boycotted parliamentary elections held under the new law in November 2010, resulting in an overwhelming victory for government supporters.
The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, then known as Transjordan, was established as a League of Nations mandate under British control in 1921 and won full independence in 1946. The turbulent 46-year reign of King Hussein, which began in 1953, featured a massive influx of Palestinian refugees, the occupation of the West Bank by Israel in 1967, and numerous assassinations and coup attempts. Nevertheless, with political and civil liberties tightly restricted, Hussein proved adept at co-opting his political opponents.
By the time Crown Prince Abdullah succeeded his father as king in 1999, the kingdom faced severe economic problems. The expected “peace dividend” from Jordan’s 1994 peace treaty with Israel had failed to improve conditions for most of the population, and Abdullah began major economic reforms. Meanwhile, additional restrictions on the media, public protests, and civil society activity were imposed after groups including Islamists, leftists, and Jordanians of Palestinian descent staged demonstrations to demand the annulment of the 1994 treaty and express support for the Palestinian uprising (intifada) against Israel that began in 2000.
In 2001, Abdullah dissolved the parliament, postponed elections scheduled for November, and replaced elected municipal councils with state-appointed local committees. He ruled by decree for over two years, issuing more than 200 “temporary laws” that weakened due process and restricted freedoms of expression and assembly.
The king allowed reasonably free and transparent—though not fair—parliamentary and municipal elections in 2003. In an informal understanding with the palace, dissident leftist and Islamist groups gained limited freedom of expression and political participation, and agreed to curtail their agitation against Jordan’s pro-U.S. foreign policy.
The relationship between the government and political parties remained strained, however. In 2007, security forces arrested nine members of the Islamic Action Front (IAF), the main opposition party, for “threatening national security” ahead of that year’s municipal and parliamentary elections. Only a handful of IAF candidates won seats in the polls, which were marred by irregularities. A new political party law in 2008 required parties to have broader membership bases, and the number of registered parties consequently fell to 14, from 37.
The king unexpectedly dismissed parliament in November 2009. While new elections would ordinarily be held within four months, the government postponed polls until November 2010, allowing it to rule by decree for a year. By August 2010, the government had promulgated 34 laws, including a new election law. The resulting elections were monitored by international observers and deemed to have been well conducted on a technical level, but the IAF boycotted them, citing structural biases that guaranteed the success of the king’s traditional supporters.
Political Rights and Civil Liberties:
Jordan is not an electoral democracy. King Abdullah II holds broad executive powers, appoints and dismisses the prime minister and cabinet, and may dissolve the National Assembly at his discretion. The lower house of the National Assembly, the Chamber of Deputies, is elected through universal adult suffrage. It may approve, reject, or amend legislation proposed by the cabinet, but its ability to initiate legislation is limited. It cannot enact laws without the assent of the 55-seat upper house, the Senate, whose members are appointed by the king. Members of both houses serve four-year terms. Regional governors are appointed by the central government.
The 2010 election law added 10 seats to the Chamber of Deputies, for a new total of 120. Four of the new seats represent urban districts, where most Jordanians of Palestinian origin reside. Nevertheless, the parliament remains heavily imbalanced in favor of rural districts, whose residents are generally of Transjordanian origin. The six other new seats are reserved for women, bringing the number set aside for women to 12. The Christian and Circassian minorities are guaranteed nine and three seats, respectively.
The new election law retains a voting system in which voters must choose a single candidate in what are generally multiseat districts. Reformers have long called for a move toward proportional representation, arguing that the existing system encourages voting based on tribal ties rather than political and ideological affiliation. The new election law reinforced these traditional allegiances by creating large electoral zones, each with several subdistricts. Both voters and candidates can choose to vote or run in any subdistrict within their zone, effectively making it easier for well-connected individual candidates to engineer victories for themselves and their allies. As noncitizen residents, Jordan’s roughly 600,000 refugees, overwhelmingly Palestinian, remain unable to vote.
The security forces, whose leadership generally excludes Jordanians of Palestinian descent, continue to exercise significant influence over Jordanian political life by limiting citizens’ freedoms of speech and assembly.
Efforts to combat corruption in recent years have yielded mixed results. While officials have announced several investigations and arrests since an independent Anticorruption Commission (ACC) was established in 2007, these rarely lead to any serious punishment. The prime minister announced in January 2010 that the state would crack down on corruption, and in March police arrested four high-profile officials, including a former cabinet minister, on corruption charges. However, judicial authorities issued an order that month instructing the media not to report on the case without permission. Jordan was ranked 50 out of 178 countries surveyed in Transparency International’s 2010 Corruption Perceptions Index.
Freedom of expression is restricted, and those who violate redlines regarding the royal family and certain societal taboos face arrest, causing widespread self-censorship. As in previous years, private citizens were arrested in 2010 for criticizing the monarch. A student was arrested in July for criticizing the king in an online chat with a friend, suggesting that the security services monitor such communications. Another student was arrested the same month for writing a poem that criticized the king, though he claimed not to have written it; authorities later confiscated his computer.
While imprisonment was abolished as a penalty for press offenses in 2007, journalists can still be jailed under the penal code. A study released in 2009 by the Amman-based Center for Defending Freedom of Journalists found that 43 percent of journalists admitted receiving some form of “incentive” from the government, while 94 percent said they practiced self-censorship. In February 2010, four journalists were referred to the state security court, three for electronic offenses. Two other journalists were held for 15 days each in February for criticizing the Jordanian intelligence service’s cooperation with the CIA. In June, management changes at one of Jordan’s independent newspapers were widely attributed to political pressure from the government.
Most broadcast news outlets remain under state control, but satellite dishes give residents access to foreign media. While there are dozens of private newspapers and magazines, the government has broad powers to close them. Jordan’s only independent satellite television channel, which was often under political pressure, declared bankruptcy in August 2010. Authorities are routinely tipped off about potentially offensive articles by informers at printing presses, editors are urged to remove such material, and intelligence agents often call journalists with warnings about their writing.
In January 2010, a court ruled that websites were subject to the press and publications law. Ambiguities in the court’s ruling led the government to promulgate a new law governing websites in August. The measure was amended to delete the most egregious features several weeks after its initial approval, due to sustained criticism from local and international advocates for press and internet rights. The final version requires that police obtain a court order to search websites’ offices. However, several vague provisions give considerable discretion to police, and the effects of the law will ultimately depend on how it is applied in practice.
Islam is the state religion. Christians are recognized as religious minorities and can worship freely, and while Baha’is and Druze are not officially recognized, they are allowed to practice their faiths. The government monitors sermons at mosques, where political activity is banned. Preachers must obtain written government permission to lead services or teach the Koran. Only state-appointed councils may issue religious edicts, and it is illegal to criticize these rulings.
Academic freedom is generally respected, and Jordanians openly discuss political and societal developments. However, certain limits remain in place, and there have been reports of a heavy intelligence presence on some university campuses. Islamist students were prevented from running in university elections at Hashemite University in April 2010, despite having met the necessary requirements.
Freedom of assembly is heavily restricted. Provincial governors often deny permission to hold demonstrations, particularly when organizers seek to criticize Jordanian-Israeli relations.
Freedom of association is limited. While many nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are able to operate without running afoul of the authorities, the government is considering new rules that would severely limit their independence. The most controversial of these measures would allow the government to supervise NGO budgets, reject foreign funding, and veto individual programs. Though proposed in 2009, the regulations remain stalled at the Ministry of Social Development. The government currently puts occasional pressure on NGOs’ activities. In 2010, the state-sponsored National Center for Human Rights changed its official position on both the election law and the new information law after first announcing critical opinions.
Workers have the right to bargain collectively but must receive government permission to strike. More than 30 percent of the workforce is organized into 17 unions. In March 2010, teachers in a rural area struck unsuccessfully for the right to organize and were consequently subject to disciplinary measures. Day laborers in the public sector were arrested in May after they protested their dismissal. Labor rights organizations have raised concerns about poor working conditions in so-called Qualifying Industrial Zones (QIZs), where mostly female and foreign factory workers process goods for export.
The judiciary is subject to executive influence through the Justice Ministry and theHigher Judiciary Council, most of whose members are appointed by the king. While most trials in civilian courts are open and procedurally sound, the State Security Court (SSC) may close its proceedings to the public. A 2001 decree allows the prime minister to refer any case to the SSC and denies the right of appeal to people convicted of misdemeanors by the SSC.
Suspects may be detained for up to 48 hours without a warrant and up to 10 days without formal charges being filed; courts routinely grant prosecutors 15-day extensions of this deadline. Even these protections are denied to suspects referred to the SSC, who are often held in lengthy pretrial detention and refused access to legal counsel until just before trial. Provincial governors can also order indefinite administrative detention, and about a fifth of all Jordanian prisoners are held under this provision; there are approximately 10,000 new cases of administrative detention each year. The UN special rapporteur on torture found in 2006 that “torture is systematically practiced” by the General Intelligence Department (GID), which interrogates suspects to obtain confessions in SSC cases. There is no independent complaint or monitoring mechanism for abuse in custody.Prison conditions are poor, and inmates are reportedly subject to severe beatings and other abuse by guards.
Freedom of movement and travel is generally respected. The size of the Iraqi refugee community, whose entry into Jordan is strictly limited, has decreased significantly in recent years.
Women enjoy equal political rights but face legal discrimination in matters involving inheritance, divorce, and child custody, which fall under the jurisdiction of Sharia (Islamic law) courts. Government pensions and social security benefits also favor men. Although women constitute only about 14 percent of the workforce, the government has made efforts to increase the number of women in the civil service. Women are guaranteed a quota of 12 seats in the lower house of parliament and, under the 2007 municipalities law, 20 percent of the seats in municipal councils. In November 2010, nine female senators were appointed to the upper house. Article 98 of the penal code allows for lenient treatment of those who commit a crime in a “state of fit or fury” resulting from an unlawful or dangerous act on the part of the victim. In practice, this provision is often applied to benefit men who commit “honor crimes” against women. In February 2010, a man was sentenced to 10 years in prison for murdering his sister in 2007; the court had originally ordered the death penalty but reduced its sentence when the victim’s family dropped charges. In June, a man was arrested for allegedly shooting his 16-year-old niece 30 times after she was sexually assaulted. Between 15 and 20 such crimes occur in Jordan each year.
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| 0.966401 | 2,667 | 3.40625 | 3 |
India's first Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) project with solar thermal technology was formally registered on 12 November 2010 by the CDM Executive Board of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in Germany. The CDM project, which bundles 15,000 small-size solar water heaters such as the one on the photo, was submitted by Indian developer G.K. Energy Marketers Pvt Ltd. Nearly 15 months passed between submission and registration.
Photo: Jaideep Malaviya
The respective systems range from 2 to 10 m2 and were delivered by 26 different collector and tank manufacturers located in the Indian states of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Gujarat. The total installed collector area adds up to 64,000 m2. The project developers of G.K. Energy Marketers themselves paid the fees of EUR 100,000 - none of the industry partners were asked to invest or shoulder the risk. Only legal charges were recovered from the manufacturers.
This is a big step ahead for the Indian solar thermal sector, because the solar water heating industry has so far stayed away from CDM projects due to high transaction costs, a tedious bureaucratic process and the complexity of system testing & monitoring. According to solar thermal manufacturer Akson’s Solar, the system supplier benefits financially from the CDM project with close to 625 INR/m2*year (10 EUR/m2). The manufacturer pays a certain fraction of the amount to G.K. Energy Marketers according to a previously agreed arrangement.
The crucial part of the submission process revolves around how to calculate the electricity saved by running the solar water heaters. However, G.K. Energy Marketers does not want to give any further details. Project leader Gopal Kabra confirms that, “the method for calculating the electricity savings convinced the validators and, subsequently, also the UN officials.” The CDM mechanism depends on the frame conditions – radiation and electricity production - of each state. Several studies in India have shown that every m2 of installed solar collector results in annual electricity savings of nearly 0.6 MWh.
But the most important point: G.K. Energy Marketers will continue as a facilitator for the sector. “We have started registering projects on a state basis”, announces Kabra. It means that this first CDM project has opened the gateway for small and micro size manufacturers and installers to reap the fruits of CDM.
This text was written by Jaideep Malaviya, an expert in solar thermal based in India ([email protected])
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https://www.solarthermalworld.org/content/india-first-solar-water-heater-cdm-project
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en
| 0.942152 | 533 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Have you ever wondered what the difference is between Water Bath Canning and Pressure Canning? There’s a big difference between the two processes and when each method should be used.
Water Bathing is used mainly when canning food with high acidity such as: tomatoes, fruits, pickles, jams, jellies and other preserves. During the water bathing process, the jars of food are sealed and are covered completely with 1-2 inches of water, brought to a boil and then boiled for a specific amount of time. Water bath canners are large pots with lids and wire racks inside. The racks allow water to boil underneath the jars and keep the jars from bumping each other and breaking during the boiling process.
Pressure Canning is used when canning foods with a low acidity such as: vegetables, meats, poultry and seafood. During the pressure canning process, the jars are placed in the canner with 2-3 inches of water, the canner lid sealed and then brought to a temperature of a least 240°. By bringing it to this temperature, it kills the bacteria (clostridium botulinum) that causes botulism. Pressure canners are heavy pots with lids that can be sealed off to prevent any steam from escaping and allow the pot to build pressure. Some canners have gaskets like the Presto. And some are metal to metal like the All American. I have used both and both will come with a weighted pressure gauge and a wire rack. NOTE: Do not pressure can on a glass top stove. I’ve heard of horror stories!
Other things you will need for canning:
Jars – the older the better, raid Grandma’s basement! Mason, Ball and Kerr jars are specifically made for canning. Try to stay away from mayonnaise jars, baby food and pickle jars. They can’t withstand the heat during pressure canning. Mayonnaise jars are ok for water bathing but not recommended. They come in all sizes from 4 oz jelly to 1/2 gallon.
Jar Lids and bands – Flat metal disc or “lids” with a rubber-type seal around one side near the outer edge, and a separate screw-type metal band, often referred to as rings. The flat lid may only be used once but the rings are reusable as long as they’re not dented or rusty. Lids come in two sizes: regular mouth (like the ones pictured below) and wide mouth. I have seen all kinds of lids. I’ve had success with BALL and KERR.
Jar lifter: perfect for removing hot jars from canners. Jar funnel: helps in pouring and packing food/juices into canning jars. Lid wand: magnetic wand used for removing jar lids from hot water. Clean cloths: for wiping jar rims and spills. Narrow, flat rubber spatula or butter knife (not pictured): for removing trapped air bubbles before the jars. Laddle: a must for spooning hot liquids into jars. You can purchase a “canning kit” that will have the lid wand, jar funnel, jar lifter and spatula at most places that have canning supplies.
Now that we’ve covered the basics, let’s start canning with confidence!
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CC-MAIN-2020-29
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https://preservingthegoodlife.com/2016/05/23/water-bath-canning-vs-pressure-canning/
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en
| 0.938619 | 696 | 2.78125 | 3 |
ERIC Number: ED214209
Record Type: RIE
Publication Date: 1982-Feb
Reference Count: 0
The Relationship between Communicator Attitudes and Communication Behavior: Initial Evidence.
Eadie, William F.
A study examined the relationship between communicator attitudes and communication behavior by having 122 college students complete the RHETSEN scale of communication attitudes and the Communicator Style Measure. The RHETSEN scale characterizes communication attitudes according to three communicator types: (1) the "rhetorically sensitive" (RS) person, who generally accepts the variability of communication and interpersonal relationships and does not try to avoid stylized verbal behaviors; (2) the "noble self" (NS), who sees any variat ion from personal norms as hypocritical and a denial of integrity; and (3) the "rhetorical reflector" (RR), who presents a different self for each person or situation. The Communicator Style Measure examines style along dominant, dramatic, contentious, animated, impression leaving, relaxed, attentive, open, and friendly dimensions. In examining the relationships between the three components of the RHETSEN measure and the nine components of the Communicator Style Measure, it was found that persons who scored high on the RS scale tended to see themselves as being less animated, relaxed, and impression leaving than others. Persons who scored high on the NS scale, on the other hand, tended to see themselves as being more dramatic, impression leaving, and attentive. The RR attitude was not associated with any general style of communication. (RL)
Publication Type: Reports - Research
Education Level: N/A
Authoring Institution: N/A
Identifiers: Communicator Style; Interpersonal Communication
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CC-MAIN-2016-44
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http://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED214209
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en
| 0.912015 | 352 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Everybody wants to eat and experience the taste of mouth watering dishes for a healthy life. But, the only problem is, not everyone enjoy cooking.
With the introduction of Induction cooktop, cooking is no longer hard and tedious. Induction cooking technology has revolutionized and brought about the pleasure, comfort, and convenience in cooking. Nutritious and balanced meal is at hand.
How Does Induction Cooktops Work?
Induction cooktop uses an electromagnetic field to heat up the cookware or the cooking vessel directly and not the cooking surface. When the cooktop is connected to a power supply, the heat passes through the vessel without wasting any energy.
Therefore, latest Induction cooktop models are energy efficient, environmentally friendly, and safe to use. The cooking element or the burner will cool down as soon as the power supply is cut or when cooking is done. The cooking surface and the environment of the kitchen continues to remain cool even while it’s cooking.
Some of the Advantages of using Induction cooktop
- No matter what kind of food or fruits you eat or drink, if the method of preparation is incorrect, it will not retain any minerals and vitamins that are present in the food. Therefore, it’s highly important to know and to prepare food at the right temperature. With top induction cooktop you will not face any difficulty in preparing food at the correct temperature because it’s incorporated with a precise heating system that can be adjusted or programmed as per the type of food you are intending to cook.
- Induction cooking has become one of the most preferred methods of cooking for homemakers, cooking professionals, and chefs who are concerned about health.
- Food preparation is much easier, simpler, and more efficient when using induction cooktop than through other cooktops like a gas stove that are available in the market.
- Induction cooking technology will enable you to prepare food for your family in much faster and quicker time than other cooking methods.
- Induction cooking is quite safe in terms of power consumption and other safety measures. It uses very little power, and it’s instantly responsive, non-polluting, safe to touch and easy to clean and maintain as well.
- Induction cooktops also has the ability to detect or sense compatible cookwares when placed on the top of the heating element. If the vessels are not compatible or not magnetic, it will not generate heat for cooking. Therefore, you need to place appropriate cookware for effective cooking.
Therefore, use Induction cooktops for preparing delicious meals or dishes for yourself and for the family, food fest, and experience the pleasure & comfort, and adopt healthier cooking techniques with Induction cooktop for good health and better life.
If you are hosting a huge feast and you want it to be the one memorable feast that your guests enjoyed the most, you will have it so. It’s possible because it’s all in your hands; the power is all in you. The secret lies not just in the food you serve. Your hospitality is very important even in the culinary arts. Besides, they need your cheerful spirit as a host, and yes, they will love everything about the feast if you give the impression that they are served the best food. So, yes, brace yourself and come out with all the positive vibe in you for the best ever food feast.
- The guests who arrive at your feast all want to make a good impression too. They don’t want to be a bad guest either. So, you need to entertain their expectations.
- Treat them with gladness whenever you get into a talk with anyone. Never stay in one place or with just the few guests you get along with.
- Making every guest feel important should be your primary concern. The impression that you are happy seeing them at your feast is the best way of making them feel welcomed.
- Make efforts to find out what a guest prefers whenever you are with them. Ask for serving their choicest item among your menu right away; another way of making them feel important.
- Make sure you offer a variety of choices when serving drinks or beverages. Even if you don’t have all that they ask for, it is important to have some alternatives at hand. Check out the most preferred combination of beverages and try not to miss out the most common choices.
- Get experienced DJs who have been to more feasts or parties rather than the most expensive ones. They usually know more about the kind of music guests like. You usually get more information from youngsters or otherwise the adult party freaks.
- The same goes with cooks. Find the ones who have been hired for more feasts. Catering is fine, but hiring the cook from your favorite food stall could be a big mistake. You need someone specialized in working fast and yet pay attention to details as well as manage quite a pressure in the kitchen. Such a cook will probably know more about what kind of cooktops and cookwares to work with.
- If you, yourself are the cook, you are probably in for a lot of hectic heap of feast. Well, get your associate manage everything once the guest start arriving. Only if you give your attention will your quest be contented.
- Unless you are inviting just a bunch of close friends, I tell you, you don’t want to be running about hustling the serves and meeting guests at the same time.
But yes, the best thing about being the host who cooks is that you know how and what to serve which guest as you go along. Even then, don’t do more than giving just the instructions. You can probably budge your head into the kitchen and make sure your associate cook is handling well. If it’s just one special dish for a special someone, you sure can whip something up for them, they would greet that with a big grin of appreciation. But otherwise, just make sure you have installed all the kitchen home essentials and the best set of cooking appliances, and keep your heels cool. Enjoy with your guests, best way to have them enjoy.
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CC-MAIN-2017-17
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http://www.mdbeerfoodfest.com/page/2/
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en
| 0.951224 | 1,259 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Course DescriptionAfro-Latin music's distinctive percussion sound is the conga; percussionists may perform with just about anyone! Students will understand the Puerto Rican bomba and plena and the fundamental Cuban tumbao pattern utilized in son or salsa (including cha cha and mambo). Harper will loan djembes to all students who register for the course.
Lesson 1. Intro to the program
What will students be doing for eight weeks
Each student will receive a djembe
Lesson 2. Introduction to Congas and Interactive using djembes, other students clapping, and maintaining tempo
Lesson 3. How to maintain a djembe
Lesson 4. Djembe intervals
Lesson 5. Detune heads
Lesson 6. Djembe Sounds and Techniques
Lesson 7. Open Tone, Closed Tone, Open Slap and Closed Slap
Lesson 8. Open Tone, Closed Tone, Open Slap and Closed Slap
Lesson 9. Bass Tone, Heel Stroke, Toe Stroke, and touch
Lesson 10. Warm-up Exercises
Lesson 11. Coordination Exercises (pic of the band)
Lesson 12. Permutation - (Lesson 7,8, 9) Tone, Slap, Mute, Bass
Lesson 13. Warm-up Exercises
Lesson 14. Coordination Exercises -Syncopation using other instruments with the conga
Lesson 15. Coordination Exercises-Syncopation using other instruments with the conga
Lesson 16. Mano Secreta-technique
Lesson 17. Rhythm and patterns
Lesson 18. Traditional rhythms
Lesson 19: Traditional rhythms
Lesson 20. Salsa, Hip-Hop and Pop
Lesson 21. Salsa, Hip-Hop and Pop
Lesson 22. Playing with clave
Lesson 23. Rhythms with clave
Lesson 24. Playing as a group
Students Showcase: Students will form a circle. Some will hold clave sticks, others tambourine, clapping hands to tempo through synchronization.
Click here for information about private music lessons for adults.
Click here for our homepage.
Click here for a list of our percussion instructors.
Related Course Recommendations
LMU0030 - Guitar I
LMU0039 - Banjo 1
LMU0006 - Ukulele Pleasure
LMU0008 - Blues Harmonica
LMU0106 - Back Porch Revue Clinic
LMU0013 - Harper's Back Porch Revue Ensemble
LMU0016 - World Music Ensemble
LMU0014 - R&B Ensemble
Make every day count. Discover your passions. Advance your career. Play and learn.
I started a new job as a graphic and web designer and the digital badge I got was part of the reason they chose to hire me. I couldn't have done it without you!
David is a truly amazing teacher who makes learning the harmonica lots of fun. His enthusiasm is contagious and he has a heart of gold.
The Writing Salon was so much more than a writing class. The experience was energetic, enthusiastic and supportive. I highly recommend this class for anyone who wants to develop their skills as a writer!
As always, your Spanish classes are packed with new information about the language. You make it easy to learn Spanish and keep it very interesting. Thank you!
I have participated in many LLI classes over the past two years. Gary is a terrific discussion facilitator and brings excellent background knowledge to our classes. I'm learning so much about Foreign Policy.
Just want to let you know how much I enjoyed your class. Hope you will have more classes since I am a novice in the wine area and am anxious to learn.
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en
| 0.882114 | 798 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Teaching the Language Arts: Forward Thinking in Today’s Classrooms by Elizabeth Dobler, Denise Johnson and Thomas DeVere Wolsey. Published by Inkling
When I received a copy of Forward Thinking I was immediately struck by the calibre of the authors (Elizabeth Dobler, Denise Johnson and our own Literacy Beat blogger De Vere Wolsey). In turn, each author is well respected within the literacy community for situating their research in classrooms and making strong research-to-practice connections. The six modes of the Language Arts- reading, writing, listening, speaking, viewing and visually representing provide the organisational framework of this etext. However, it is the enhanced etext publishing format which I want to particularly draw attention to in this post.
A number of distinctive features encourage active learning environments by combining traditional and electronic content. These features allow the reader to transact with the text in multiple ways through media elements such as, video, graphics, and audio which are embedded in the etext. Readers can watch lessons being taught in real classrooms; have instant access to multiple resource ideas that are shared through video clips (e.g. writing workshop); listen to podcasts of teachers and students; view graphics of work samples and follow hyperlinks to websites. In addition, links between research and practice are featured in interviews with scholars like Don Leu, Dorothy Strickland and Nell Duke. Finally, the etext incorporates a note sharing feature which could be used to create pathways to learning through listening, reading and viewing within a community of learners.
The authors of Forward Thinking note that the book models ways in which electronic resources can be integrated with and used to augment traditional classroom instruction. Forward Thinking allows us envision the possibilities when technology is integrated in meaningful ways to enhance literacy and learning in the 21st century classroom.
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<urn:uuid:d1c8e585-be8c-4637-81c7-87c0286732a0>
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CC-MAIN-2014-42
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http://literacybeat.com/
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en
| 0.932526 | 368 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Megan Leach and
Paula Agudelo, Department of Entomology, Soils, and Plant Sciences, 206 Long Hall, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634; and
Amy Lawton-Rauh, Department of Genetics and Biochemistry, 100 Jordan Hall, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634
Go to article:
Accepted for publication 2 August 2011.
Rotylenchulus reniformis is a highly variable nematode species and an economically important pest in many cotton fields across the southeastern United States. Rotation with resistant or poor host crops is a method for management of reniform nematode. We studied the effect of six planting schemes covering four 120-day planting cycles on the predominant genotype of R. reniformis. Rotations used were: (i) cotton to corn; (ii) susceptible soybean to corn; (iii) resistant soybean to cotton; (iv) corn to cotton; (v) continuous susceptible soybean; (vi) continuous cotton. After each 120-day cycle, amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs) produced from four primer pairs were used to determine the effect of crop rotation on the predominant genotype of reniform nematode. A total of 279 polymorphic bands were scored using four primer combinations. Distinct changes in genotype composition were observed following rotations with resistant soybean or corn. Rotations involving soybean (susceptible and resistant) had the greatest effect on population structure. The characterization of field population variability of reniform nematode and of population responses to host plants used in rotations can help extend the durability of resistant varieties and can help identify effective rotation schemes.
© 2012 The American Phytopathological Society
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<urn:uuid:94df7d44-ec8e-41ea-af9b-d9d32b8ecf5b>
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CC-MAIN-2019-35
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https://www.apsnet.org/publications/plantdisease/2012/January/Pages/96_1_24.aspx
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en
| 0.863545 | 357 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Ikhwanul Muslimin, or al-Ikhwan al-Muslimun, Egypt is the oldest and largest Islamic organization. Founded by Hassan al-Banna in 1920, this group has influenced Islamic movements around the world with its model of political activism, combined with the activities of Islamic charities.
This movement was originally intended only to spread Islamic morality and good deeds, but became involved in politics, especially the struggle to get rid of British colonial control in Egypt and clean all Western influence. Today, although officially prohibited and subject to repression, the Ikhwanul Muslimin led the public opposition against the ruling National Democratic Party led by President Hosni Mubarak, who has ruled since 1981.
The Muslim Brotherhood said that they support democratic principles. Their most famous slogan, used around the world, is: "Islam is the solution. After al-Banna's Muslim Brotherhood launched in 1928, established branches throughout the country. Mosques, schools and sports clubs became the place to sow a new cadre and membership grew rapidly.
In the late 1940s, the group is believed to have as many as two million followers in Egypt. And in the same period the ideas that have spread throughout the Arab world. Al Banna also created a paramilitary wing, the Special Apparatus, which joined the war against British rule.
The Egyptian government disband the group in 1948 because it's considered to attack British and Jewish interests. Soon after, the group accused of killing Prime Minister Mahmoud al-Nuqrashi.
Al Banna condemned the killings, but he was later shot dead by unidentified gunmen - believed to be members of the security forces. In 1952, colonial rule came to an end after a military coup led by a group of young officers who called themselves the Free Officers.
Muslim Brotherhood played a supporting role - Anwar al-Sadat, who became president in 1970 and member of the Free Officers had a relationship with this group - and initially work with the new government. But the relationship soon deteriorated.
During the 1980s the Muslim Brotherhood tried to rejoin the political mainstream. Their supporters clashed with riot police in Egypt (2008) and the Muslim Brotherhood is officially banned and subject to re-repression.
Successive groups formed an alliance with the Wafd party in 1984, and with Labour and the Liberal party in 1987, became the main opposition force in Egypt. In 2000, the Brotherhood won 17 seats in the People's Assembly. Five years later, this group achieved the best election result for the moment, with independent candidates allied to it won 20 percent of seats.
The results surprised President Mubarak. The government then launched a crackdown on Muslim Brotherhood detained hundreds of members, and instituted a number of legal "reform" to fight for their resurrection.
The Constitution was rewritten to specify that "the practice of politics or political parties will not be based on religious background or foundation"; independent candidates are prohibited from running for president, and legislation introduced anti-terrorism that gives security forces the power to detain suspects and restrict public meetings.
National Democratic Party (NDP) is also working hard to reduce the possibility of further opposition victory in parliamentary elections last November.
Continuing repression against the opposition is one of the main triggers for mass anti-government protests by thousands of Egyptians this time. Ruling party office burned.
The Muslim Brotherhood is blamed for fomenting unrest this time, but representatives of this group, Mahmoud Izzat, insisted that the grand rally this time is purely born out of dissatisfaction of the people.
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<urn:uuid:4f5c486a-be4a-4c33-8f05-4ddda680ddb7>
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CC-MAIN-2018-09
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http://andriana-ani.blogspot.com/2011/01/ikhwanul-muslimin-blamed-as-puppeteer.html
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2018-09/segments/1518891813883.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20180222022059-20180222042059-00502.warc.gz
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en
| 0.965194 | 718 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Grandparents of children with albinism take on many different roles and responsibilities depending on the family dynamics and norms. It is important that when defining these roles for your family that you follow the lead of your son or daughter while meeting your own needs. Adapting to a diagnosis of albinism requires education, support, love and time. Each person has their own way of coping and learning, therefore respecting this process in all family members is very important.
Following are a few suggestions to keep in mind during the journey ahead.
- Take care of yourself. As a grandparent, you may feel overwhelmed with concern for your child and for your grandchild. Feelings of sadness, fear, helplessness and anger are normal. Take some time to process how you are feeling so that you can be a support for the family.
- Support and encourage both your grandchild and your own child. Acknowledge the progress and celebrate the successes. Don’t borrow trouble, stay in the present. Remember, you only need to know how to handle the immediate phase in front of you and stay one step ahead.
- Offer to help your son or daughter in any way that is needed. Remember that their version of help may be different from yours – stay flexible! Let them know by your affirming and supportive attitude that you have confidence in their ability to parent a child with albinism. Don’t forget to tell them you love them and think they are doing a wonderful job of being a parent. Remind yourself they are learning also!
- Educate yourself about albinism, don’t just rely on busy parents to answer your questions about albinism. Be prepared to answer questions yourself about your grandchild’s appearance or vision. Increase awareness of albinism by educating your colleagues, neighbors, friends and family.
- Ask questions and try new things. There are a few adjustments your grandchild with albinism may need. Ask about making the physical environment comfortable for your grandchild, Small changes can be very helpful.
- Whenever possible, let your grandchild figure things out for themselves and find their own creative solutions. Encourage your grandchild to be a problem solver – ask them what THEY think will work if there is a visual challenge, how would THEY solve the problem.
- Don’t make the job harder than it is. Being a grandparent to a child with albinism doesn’t require special skills. The most important thing about your grandchild isn’t that they have albinism, but that they are a unique human being, to be treasured for exactly who they are.
- Remember that low vision is normal for your grandchild, it is all they have ever known. They will naturally adapt by doing things like holding objects closer to them, or physically standing closer to things such as the TV, preferring a darker room over a brighter one, exploring their environment more tactically than visually.
- Functional vision is different than actual eye exam vision tests. Kids often see more than you expect them to, their brains and experience “fill in the gaps”. Have faith that your grandchild with albinism will learn to succeed at normal childhood activities like riding a bike, participating in sports, learning to read, finding their way around the neighborhood, making friends, etc.
- Don’t sit with a worry, ask for help. Tap into the shared companionship and knowledge of the larger NOAH community. Share any concerns you may have with a NOAH grandparent or member. Make friends with adults with albinism and listen to their stories. Go to a NOAH conference, watch a webinar, participate in a bowl-a-thon. Join NOAH’s Grandparent Connections teleconferences to hear from specialists and other grandparents.
- Give back – Volunteer for NOAH. Participate in the annual NOAH Bowl-a-thon and/or volunteer to help in other ways. Parents are often too busy to do this. Your help means NOAH resources will be there for your grandchild when and If they are needed.
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<urn:uuid:56cbee9a-1d6d-4ee5-ae2d-378a037c32d7>
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CC-MAIN-2022-27
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https://albinism.org/helpful-tips-for-grandparents/
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en
| 0.952115 | 852 | 2.921875 | 3 |
By Kenneth Hewitt, China Dialogue
Part I of a three-part series
Glaciers are quite sensitive to climate change and, recently, there have been many reports of major changes in the Himalaya and other parts of High Asia; mostly of glaciers retreating fast. Impacts of a range of glacier hazards, and on the reliability of water resources, are of concern at local, national and transnational scales.
However, there is also a growing recognition that glacial conditions in the region are very diverse, and so are their responses to climate change.
There are some very different implications in different societal contexts, not least in relation to rapid socio-economic changes, water resource projects and security crises. The latter are often more urgent or immediate problems that disrupt or undermine peoples’ capacities to adapt to environmental change. Such complexities are the focus of this article.
The reality of climate change is not questioned, but some recent oversimplifications are, and claims about a narrow range of glacier hazards. In particular, unresolved problems of understanding high altitude glaciers and climate are emphasized, and the inadequacies of available information and monitoring. Recent evidence of glacier advances in the Karakoram Himalaya, and the author’s work there, illustrate many of these complexities.
Globally, most glaciers are reported to be diminishing more or less rapidly. Reports of “disappearing glaciers” have come from many parts of High Asia.
However, this is not the case in the upper Indus and upper Yarkand River basins. Here, the glaciers have been holding their own for several decades and recently, in the Karakoram Himalaya, many have started thickening and advancing. Not only is this opposite to the broader picture for Eurasian glaciers, but also to what had been happening to Karakoram glaciers.
Through most of the 20th century they, too, diminished and retreated. There is no question that today’s behaviour is a regionally distinct response to climate change. It may sound like good news, given the dominant lament for the loss of glaciers, but that too would be misleading. Advancing glaciers bring dangers as well.
Of immediate concern are a number of glaciers on the Indus and Yarkand Rivers, whose past advances gave rise to large ice dams and catastrophic outburst floods. In the longer term, existing and planned water resource uses, dependent on glacier-fed streams or at risk from glacial floods and sedimentation, are of major concern.
However, the largest challenges stem from inadequate information and monitoring, and limited scientific understanding of these high elevation glaciers. Misleading or exaggerated reports based on assumption rather than evidence are also a problem. Some high profile reports have suggested that the Indus basin is in imminent danger of losing its glaciers. Glacier hazards, notably “dangerous lakes” associated with retreating ice in other regions, have been assumed to be equally present in the Karakoram. The reports are simply wrong in this case.
Meanwhile, if the main trend in most of High Asia does seem to be glacier retreat, various lines of evidence show that it is occurring at very different rates in different mountain ranges, even within the same mountains.
A 2006 survey of 5,020 glaciers in the mountains of western China and the Tibetan Plateau found widely differing rates of reduction. It also found 894 glaciers, about 18%, have advanced in recent decades. The jury is still out on a 2009 report from India, which questions the scale and reality of the extreme rates of retreat formerly reported for the Himalayas, and projections based on them.
None of this is to suggest that climate change is not a serious issue in the Karakoram.
In every valley of the region, farmers tell me the winters have grown shorter in the past couple of decades, there is less snow and more rain. They report an increase in windstorms and rain during summer. Formerly, clear, sunny weather in autumn was reliable and perfect for drying grain, fruit and winter fodder, and for post-harvest chores around the villages. Not any more. They report increasing problems with damp and mildew from insufficient drying days. Rain and wind threaten the harvest and damage buildings.
These are, in fact, more immediate hazards for the mountain communities than anything that may be happening to the glaciers. This refers to the inhabited areas at lower elevations, where more, and more severe, rainstorms have been reported in recent years, notably a disastrous storm on Sept. 9, 1992. It triggered rockfalls and debris flows that damaged many villages, closed most roads and stranded tourists. Again, advancing glaciers are also a response to climate change — and are not necessarily good news.
Although there have been reports and discussions of Karakoram glaciers since the mid-19th century, they have been patchy in space and time and of varying quality. The glaciers are not, and have never been, consistently monitored.
Few glaciers anywhere in the inner Asian mountains meet the criteria of the World Glacier Monitoring Service, and hence have not been tracked by it. The cries of concern for these glaciers should at least highlight the need for more reliable data and a better grasp of climate-glacier interactions in the world’s highest mountains.
The glacier cover of High Asia exceeds 110,000 square kilometers, the number of identifiable glaciers more than 50,000. There are major concentrations in about a dozen mountain ranges, forming watersheds of all the major rivers of the central, south and south-east Asian mainland. The Upper Indus and Yarkand basins have around 21,000 square kilometers of glaciers, the larger fraction in the Greater Karakoram, or about 16,500 square kilometers. Most of the biggest valley glaciers outside polar regions are found here.
While there are more than 5,000 individual glaciers, just 12 make up almost half the ice cover. Melt waters from glacier basins comprise more than 40% of the average annual flows of the Indus and the Yarkand, with a potential to affect the lives of some millions of people downstream. While there was a roughly 10% reduction of the Karakoram ice cover in the first 60 years of the 20th century, no significant reduction has occurred in recent decades and, as noted, many glaciers are undergoing advances.
One must qualify the notion that threats only arise from “disappearing” glaciers or in proportion to the rate of reduction. This is certainly a cause for concern, in itself or in what it implies about humanly induced atmospheric changes. But growing glaciers are not necessarily benign.
In most glacierized mountains, certainly the Karakoram Himalaya, the worst consequences experienced in recent history came with the enlarged ice cover of the Little Ice Age: a period of several centuries, ending just over 100 years ago, when glaciers grew throughout the northern hemisphere. From those events come most of the stories and fears about glaciers recalled in Himalayan towns and villages. The considerable reduction of the glaciers observed between about 1910 and the 1960’s was, in effect, removing ice stored in the Little Ice Age, a process that is not yet complete. Today’s glaciers are larger than a few centuries ago.
Meanwhile, the evidence of advances in the Karakoram not only indicates a different response here to changing climate. It raises the prospect of a return to the hazards of advancing ice not seen since the Little Ice Age.
(Originally published at China Dialogue)
(Photos: Kenneth Hewitt)
Kenneth Hewitt is professor emeritus in geography and environmental studies and research associate at the Cold Regions Research Centre at Wilfrid Laurier University in Ontario, Canada.
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South Africa’s public health system is a countrywide network of care facilities ranging from mobile and rural clinics to huge academic hospitals in the urban centres.
In this article:
- Expenditure on health
- National, provincial and local
- National Health Insurance
- Doctor shortages
- Statutory bodies
- Health profile: HIV, TB, maternal and child health, malaria
- Traditional medicine
Health care in South Africa varies from the most basic primary health care, offered free by the state, to highly specialised, hi-tech health services available in the both the public and private sector.
However, the public sector is stretched and under-resourced in places. While the state contributes about 40% of all expenditure on health, the public health sector is under pressure to deliver services to about 80% of the population.
The private sector, on the other hand, is run largely on commercial lines and caters to middle- and high-income earners who tend to be members of medical schemes. It also attracts most of the country’s health professionals.
This two-tiered system is not only inequitable and inaccessible to a large portion of South Africans, but institutions in the public sector have suffered poor management, underfunding and deteriorating infrastructure. While access has improved, the quality of health care has fallen.
The situation is compounded by public health challenges, including the burden of diseases such as HIV and tuberculosis (TB), and a shortage of key medical personnel.
However, the South African government is responding with a far-reaching reform plan to revitalise and restructure the South African health care system, including:
- Fast-tracking the implementation of a National Health Insurance scheme, which will eventually cover all South Africans.
- Strengthening the fight against HIV and TB, non-communicable diseases, as well as injury and violence.
- Improving human-resource management at state hospitals and strengthening co- ordination between the public and private health sector.
- Deploying “health teams” to communities and schools.
- Regulating costs to make health care affordable to all.
- Increasing life expectancy from 56.5 years in 2009 to 58.5 years in 2014.
The bulk of health-sector funding comes from the South Africa’s National Treasury. The health budget for 2012/13 was R121-billion, which was aimed at improving hospitals and strengthening public health ahead of the National Health Insurance scheme.
In 2011, total spend on health was R248.6-billion – or around 8.3% of GDP, way above the 5% recommended by the World Health Organisation (WHO). Despite this high expenditure, health outcomes remain poor when compared to similar middle-income countries. This can largely be attributed to the inequities between the public and private sector.
According to the National Treasury’s Fiscal Review for 2011, the GDP spend on health was split as follows:
- R120.8-billion (48.5%) in the private sector, which covers 16.2% of the population or 8.2-million people, many of whom have medical cover.
- R122.4-billion (49.2%) in the public sector, which is made up of 84% of the population, or 42-million people, who generally rely on the public health care sector.
- The remaining R5.3-billion (2.3%) is donor and NGO spend.
National, provincial and local
Before South Africa’s first democratic elections, hospitals were assigned to particular racial groups and most were concentrated in white areas. With 14 different health departments, the system was characterised by fragmentation and duplication. But in 1994 the dismantling began, and transformation is now under fully under way.
However, high levels of poverty and unemployment mean health care remains largely the burden of the state. The Department of Health holds overall responsibility for health care, with a specific responsibility for the public sector.
- Visit the Department of Health
Provincial health departments provide and manage comprehensive health services, via a district-based, public health-care model. Local hospital management has delegated authority over operational issues, such as the budget and human resources, to facilitate quicker responses to local needs.
Public health consumes around 11% of the government’s total budget, which is allocated and mostly spent by the nine provinces. How these resources are allocated, and the standard of health care delivered, varies from province to province.
A Health Charter has been devised with the aim of creating a platform for engagement between sectors to address issues of access, equity and quality of health services as well as issues of broad-based black economic empowerment and employment equity.
- Download a copy of the Revised Draft Health Charter [PDF]
South Africa has more than 110 registered medical schemes, with around 3,4-million principal members (and 7,8-million beneficiaries).
- See the Council for Medical Schemes, an autonomous statutory body created by parliament.
Hundreds of NGOs make an essential contribution to HIV, Aids and TB, mental health, cancer, disability and the development of public health systems. The part played by NGOs – from a national level, through provincial and local, to their role in individual communities – is vitally important to the functioning of the overall system.
National Health Insurance
The Department of Health is focused on implementing an improved health system, which involves an emphasis focus on public health, as well as improving the functionality and management of the system through stringent budget and expenditure monitoring.
Known as the “10-point plan”, the strategic programme is improving hospital infrastructure and human resources management, as well as procurement of the necessary equipment and skills.
Under this plan, health facilities – such as nursing colleges and tertiary hospitals – are being upgraded and rebuilt to lay the way for the implementation of the National Health Insurance (NHI) scheme.
The NHI is intended to bring about reform that will improve service provision and health care delivery. It will promote equity and efficiency to ensure that all South Africans have access to affordable, quality health care services regardless of their employment status and ability to make a direct monetary contribution to the NHI Fund.
The NHI will be phased in over 14 years, beginning in 2012. In 2012/13, the government earmarked R1-billion to its pilot projects.
Apart from infrastructure and management overhauls, another factor for ensuring the success of the NHI will be the strict regulation of the sector to make it more affordable to all South Africans.
- See the Department of Health’s FAQs on the NHI
There are 4 200 public health facilities in South Africa. People per clinic is 13 718, exceeding WHO guidelines of 10 000 per clinic. However, figures from March 2009 show that people averaged 2.5 visits a year to public health facilities and the usable bed occupancy rates were between 65% and 77% at hospitals.
Since 1994, more than 1 600 clinics have been built or upgraded. Free health care for children under six and for pregnant or breastfeeding mothers was introduced in the mid-1990s.
The National Health Laboratory Service is the largest pathology service in South Africa. It has 265 laboratories, serving 80% of South Africans. The labs provide diagnostic services as well as health-related research.
In March 2012, 165 371 qualified health practitioners in both public and private sectors were registered with the Health Professions Council of South Africa, the health practitioner watchdog body. This includes 38 236 doctors and 5 560 dentists.
- The doctor-to-population ratio is estimated to be 0.77 per 1 000. But because the vast majority of GPs – 73% – work in the private sector, there is just one practising doctor for every 4 219 people.
In response, the Department of Health has introduced clinical health associates, midlevel health-care providers, to work in underserved rural areas.
About 1 200 medical students graduate annually. In some communities, medical students provide health services at clinics under supervision. Newly graduating doctors and pharmacists complete a year of compulsory community service in understaffed hospitals and clinics.
In an attempt to boost the number of doctors in the country, South Africa signed a co- operation agreement with Cuba in 1995. South Africa has since recruited hundreds of Cuban doctors to practice here, while South Africa is able to send medical students to Cuba to study.
South Africa believes the Cuban opportunity will help train the doctors it so desperately needs for the implementation of the National Health Insurance Scheme.
Other agreements exist with Tunisia and Iran, as well as between Johannesburg Hospital and Maputo Central Hospital.
The government has also made it easier for other foreign doctors to register here.
The Allied Health Professions Council of South Africa had 3 773 registered “complementary health” practitioners in 2012.
Statutory bodies for the health-service professions include:
- Allied Health Professions Council of South Africa
- Council for Medical Schemes
- Health Professions Council of South Africa
- Medicines Control Council
- The National Health Laboratory Service
- South African Dental Technicians Council
- South African Medical Research Council
- South African Nursing Council
- South African Pharmacy Council
The National Health Act, 61 of 2003, provides a framework for a single health system for South Africa. The Act provides for a number of basic health care rights, including the right to emergency treatment and the right to participate in decisions regarding one’s health.
The implementation of the Act was initiated in 2006, and some provinces are engaged in aligning their provincial legislation with the national Act.
Other legislation relating to health care, some recently passed, include laws which aim to:
- Ensure all health establishments comply with minimum standards through an independent entity (National Health Amendment Bill, 2010)
- Make drugs more affordable and provide for transparency in the pricing of medicines (Medicines and Related Substances Amendment Act, 59 of 2002)
- Regulate the medical schemes industry to prevent it from discriminating against “high risk” individuals like the aged and sick (Medical Schemes Act, 1998)
- Legalise abortion and allow for safe access to it in both public and private health facilities (Choice on Termination of Pregnancy Act, 92 of 1996)
- Limit smoking in public places, create public awareness of the health risks of tobacco by requiring certain information on packaging, and prohibt the sale of tobacco produces to anyone younger than 18 (Tobacco Products Control Amendment Act, 23 of 2007)
- Provide for the introduction of mandatory community service for nurses (Nursing Act, 2005)
- Introduce a process to develop and redesign mental health services so as to grant basic rights to people with mental illnesses (Mental Health Care Act, 2002)
- Allow non-pharmacists to own pharmacies, with the aim of improving access to medicines (Pharmacy Amendment Act, 2000). This came into effect during May 2003.
Other important developments in health care policy and legislation include:
- The Health Professions Amendment Bill of 2006
- The Traditional Health Practitioners Act, 35 of 2004
- Regulations relating to the Labelling and Advertising of Foodstuffs came into effect in May 2012, and aim to empower citizens to make healthy food choices.
- Find full copies of health-related Acts, Bills, and other legal documents on the Department of Health’s website
Aids and other poverty-related diseases such as tuberculosis and cholera place a tremendous strain on South Africa’s health care system. According to Statistics South Africa, in 2011:
- The overall HIV prevalence rate was 10,6%. About one-fifth of South African women in their reproductive ages were HIV positive.
- There were 5,38-million people living with HIV. This was up from 4,21-million in 2001.
- 16,6% of the adult population (aged 15-49) years was HIV positive.
- There were about 2,01-million orphans due to HIV.
- New HIV infections for 2011 among adults was estimated at 316 900.
- An estimated 1,06-million adults and 105 123 children were receiving antiretroviral treatment in 2010. This was up from 101 416 and close to 12 000 children in 2005.
In May 2012, the government said it had cut the mother-to-child transmission rate from 3.5% in 2010 to less than 2%. It also said the rate of new infections had dropped from 1.4% to 0.8% in the 18 to 24 age groups.
HIV and TB are dangerous bed fellows: the co-infection rates exceed 70%, with TB being the most common opportunistic infection in HIV-positive patients.
Because of late detection, poor treatment management, drug-resistant forms of TB (known as DR-TB or multidrug-resistant TB; and XDR TB or extensively drug-resistant TB) have increased significantly, with about 5 500 cases diagnosed during 2009.
- See the WHO’s factsheet on tuberculosis
Integrating the double scourge of HIV/Aids and TB for the first time, the government has launched the National Strategic Plan for HIV/AIDS and TB for 2012 – 2016. It is shored up by a provincial implementation programme.
The plan seeks to address the social structural drivers of HIV/Aids, STD and TB care, prevention and support; to prevent new infections; to sustain health and wellness; and to protect human rights and access to justice of sufferers.
The HIV Counselling and Testing (HCT) campaign was launched in April 2010 – by mid- 2012, almost 20-million people had been tested and knew their status. Millions were also screened for TB.
Increasing the number of anti-retroviral sites as well as nurses certified to initiate ARV treatment has seen 1.7-million people placed on ARV treatment, from 1.1-million in 2009. South Africa has the largest ARV therapy programme in the world, and an improved procurement process has seen a 50% decrease in the prices of ARV drugs.
- Download the National Strategic Plan for HIV/AIDS and TB for 2012 [PDF]
- Download the Global Aid Response Progress Report 2012 [PDF]
- Visit UNAids profile of South Africa, which includes statistics and progress reports
South Africa is a signatory to several international commitments such as the UN’s Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which seeks to address the health needs of women and children. However, in South Africa the health of mothers and children remains poor.
According to statistics from WHO, South Africa has a maternal mortality ratio of 310 deaths per 100 000 lives births. The infant (under-1) mortality rate in 2010 was 41 deaths per 1 000 live births, while the under-5 mortality rate was 57 per 1 000 live births.
Under the national prevention of mother-to-child (PMTCT) programme, every pregnant woman is offered HIV testing and counselling. If a woman tests positive for HIV, she is put on to a regime of anti-retroviral therapy to avoid transmitting the virus to her baby, and is offered a continuum of treatment, care and support for herself and her infant.
But it is really access and utilisation of antenatal care services that most influence pregnancy outcome, child survival and maternal health. The renewed focus on primary health and the improving and expanding the health system infrastructure should go some way to addressing the high mortality rates – and get South Africa closer to the MDG target of reducing infant mortality to 20 by 2015.
The Department of Health has a strategic plan in place which identifies “priority interventions” that will have the greatest influence on reducing mortality rates, as well as enhancing gender equity and reproductive health.
The campaign on Accelerated Reduction of Maternal Mortality in Africa (CARMMA), an African Union initiative, was launched in May 2012 and aims to reduce maternal and infant mortality rates.
- Download the Strategic Plan for Maternal, Newborn, Child and Women’s Health and Nutrition in South Africa 2012 – 2016 [PDF]
- See the UN website on its Millennium Development Goals
- Read more about the African Union’s CARMMA campaign
Immunisation is a significant barrier against disease and death, and the rates of children receiving their primary vaccines have steadily been increasing under immunisation programmes. These aim to protect children against vaccine-preventable diseases, such as measles, TB, cholera and pertussis.
Measures to improve child health also include the expansion and strengthening of school health services and the establishment of district clinical specialist teams.
Other prevention services, such as regular deworming and growth monitoring, help protect children’s health.
The Health of our Children report in 2010, which surveyed 8 966 children, found that HIV prevalence among infants (age 0 to 2 years) was 2.1%, lower than the 3.3% average in the age 0 to 4 years, suggesting a positive impact of the national Prevention of Mother-to-Child Transmission programme, begun in 2006.
- Download a copy of the Health of our Children report
Malaria is not endemic in South Africa, and does not pose a major health risk. According to the WHO’s World Malaria Report 2010, only 4% of the population is at high risk of malaria and 6% at low risk, while 90% live in malaria-free areas. Almost all cases are caused by Plasmodium falciparum. Transmission occurs seasonally, with peak rates of infection occurring in April and declining by June.
- See the WHO’s Malaria Country Profile, 2010 for South Africa [PDF]
An estimated 80% of South Africans consult with traditional healers alongside general medical practitioners.
The Medical Research Council (MRC) founded a traditional medicines research unit in 1997 to introduce modern research methodologies around the use of traditional medicines. It also aims to develop a series of patents for promising new entities derived from medicinal plants.
- See the MRC’s Traditional Medicines Research Unit
Brand South Africa reporter
Last reviewed: 2 July 2012
Would you like to use this article in your publication or on your website? See Using Brand South Africa material.
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In J. Novotná, H. Moraová, M. Krátká, & N. Stehlíková (Ed.), Proceedings of the Thirtieth Conference of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education (Vol. 2, pp. 1 – 8). Prague, Czech Republic: Charles University.
Twenty-eight Grade 4 – 6 students participated in 1 hr. clinical interviews in a design-based study that investigated: (a) probability-related intuitions; (b) the affordances of a set of innovative mixed-media learning tools for articulating these intuitions; and (c) the utility of the learning-axes-and-bridging-tools framework supporting diagnosis, design, and data-analysis. Students intuited qualitative predictions of mean and variance, yet only through grounding computer-based simulations of probability experiments in discrete–scalar, non-uniform, multiplicative transformations on a special combinatorial space, the combinations tower, could students articulate their intuitions. We focus on a key learning axis, students’ confusing likelihoods of unique events with those of classes of events.
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Magnesium, Health, and Disease Prevention
By Dr. Chris Meletis N. D.
Magnesium is one of the major mineral nutrients in the human body. Containing approximately 20 to 28 grams of magnesium, 60% is found in the bones and teeth, while the remaining 40% is found in muscle. Serum levels of magnesium range from 1.5 to 2.1 mEq/L; magnesium is the second-most plentiful positively charged ion found within the cells of the body, signifying its importance in the multitudes of physiologic cellular functions. One of the most important metabolic process, the synthesis and consumption of ATP, is directly linked to magnesium. Magnesium-linked ATP processes activate approximately 300 different enzymes which are involved in diverse functions such as DNA and RNA synthesis, glycolysis, intracellular mineral transport, nerve impulse generation, cell membrane electrical potential, muscle contraction, blood vessel tone, and the regeneration of ATP. 1
The adult Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for magnesium is 350 mg per day for men and 280 milligrams for women. The typical American diet provides approximately 120 milligrams per 1,000 calories, meaning that a person that consumes fewer than 1,500 calories is likely to be deficient in magnesium. The absorption rate of magnesium ranges from 24 to nearly 85 percent, while magnesium derived from metallic sources is less absorbable, whereas magnesium derived from plant sources are more easily absorbed. Factors that increase the need for magnesium due to limited uptake or increased losses include excess phosphate consumption (soft drinks) and alcoholic beverages, high stress lifestyles, some diuretics, digitalis, strenuous exercise (high performance athletes lose a considerable amount of magnesium in sweat), pregnant and lactating women, individuals with diabetes, severe diarrhea, or kidney disease. The early signs of magnesium deficiency include vague symptoms such as loss of appetite, stomachache, and diarrhea. Longer-term deficiency symptoms may manifest as confusion, apathy, depression, irritability, arrhythmias, weakness, poor coordination, nausea, vomiting, electromyographic changes, muscle and nerve irritability, and tremors.2
Magnesium has many novel uses for common health conditions. As an antacid, magnesium salts react with gastric acid to form magnesium chloride, thereby neutralizing hydrochloric acid. As a laxative, magnesium acts osmoticaly in the intestine and colon as well as triggering the release of gastrin and cholecystokinin, stimulating gastric motility. The inhibitory effect of magnesium on preterm labor contractions (tocolysis) is attributed to antagonism of calcium-mediated uterine contractions, while the anticonvulsant actions of magnesium in eclampsia may be due to inhibition of neuromuscular transmission, and a resulting depressant effect on smooth muscle contraction.3
Magnesium and Blood Pressure
Magnesium has an important role in reducing blood pressure.4 Magnesium deficiency has been found to allow for increased intracellular concentrations of sodium and potassium, which results in increased peripheral resistance and vasospasm.5 Additionally, some research points out that hypertensive patients with hypomagnesemia usually require more antihypertensive medications than hypertensive patients with normal magnesium levels.6 Diets that contain plenty of fruits and vegetables, which are good sources of potassium and magnesium, are consistently associated with lower blood pressure.7 The effect of various nutritional factors on incidence of high blood pressure was examined in over 30,000 U.S. male health professionals. After four years of follow-up, it was found that a greater magnesium intake was significantly associated with a lower risk of hypertension.8 The Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure recommends maintaining an adequate magnesium intake as a positive lifestyle modification for preventing and managing high blood pressure.9
Magnesium and Heart disease
Magnesium may play a role in reducing coronary vascular resistance, increasing coronary artery blood flow parameters, and prevention of arrhythmias. Further, inadequate intake and absorption of magnesium are associated with the development of disease processes such as hypertension, cardiomyopathy, atherosclerosis, and stroke.10 Evidence exists that indicates low body stores of magnesium actually increase the risk of a person having arrhythmias, which can increase the risk of cardiovascular complications.11 Surveys of the population in general have associated higher blood levels of magnesium with lower risk of coronary heart disease.12 Additionally, dietary surveys have suggested that a higher magnesium intake is associated with a lower risk of stroke.13
Magnesium and Osteoporosis
Magnesium deficiency may be a risk factor for postmenopausal osteoporosis. This may be related to the fact that magnesium deficiency negatively alters calcium metabolism and the hormone that regulates bone-calcium stores.14 Several studies have suggested that magnesium supplementation may improve bone mineral density and low intake and impaired absorption of magnesium have also been associated with the development of osteoporosis.
Magnesium and Diabetes
Magnesium plays an important role in carbohydrate metabolism, influencing the release and activity of insulin, the main hormone that exerts control of blood glucose levels. Elevated blood glucose levels can increase the loss of magnesium in the urine, leading to increased magnesium loss from the body. Commonly, low serum levels of magnesium are often seen in poorly controlled diabetics.
Magnesium and Asthma
Magnesium plays a dynamic role in lung structure and function. Magnesium acts to block the function of calcium, which in the lungs causes bronchial smooth-muscle contraction. The possibility exists that magnesium deficiency may contribute to lung complications. It is interesting to note that the average calcium consumption in the U.S. has increased in the past few years but this is accompanied by little change in magnesium intake, causing an imbalance in the calcium:magnesium ratio.15 This deficiency in magnesium also has an effect on the activity of specific white blood cells (neutrophils) that during an asthma attack can worsen the condition. Researchers theorize that low magnesium content of white blood cells has an important effect on the pathogenesis of asthma.16 It is additionally hypothesized that a diet high in magnesium is directly related to healthy lung function and a reduced risk of airway hyper reactivity and wheezing. Low magnesium intake may therefore be involved in the occurrence of asthma.17
The beneficial health effects of magnesium and its disease-prevention qualities emphasize the importance of this commonly overlooked mineral. As the fields of nutrition and medicine continue to reveal the benefits of magnesium, it becomes more and more apparent that supplementation with this mineral is vital to maintaining our health. Like all supplements, proper supplementation of magnesium must be emphasized by seeking the advice of a qualified, nutritionally oriented physician.
1 Shils M, Olson A, Shike M. Modern Nutrition in Health and Disease. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lea and Febiger, 1994.
2 Whitney E, Cataldo CB, Rolfes SR, eds. Understanding Normal and Clinical Nutrition. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 1998.
3 Swain R, Kaplan-Machlis B. Magnesium for the next millennium. South Med J 1999;92: 1040-7
4 Yamori Y, Nara Y, Mizushima S, et al. Nutritional factors for stroke and major cardiovascular diseases: international epidemiological comparison of dietary prevention. Health Rep 1994; 6(1):22-7
5 Douban S, Brodsky MA, Whang DD, Whang R. Significance of magnesium in congestive heart failure. Am Heart J 1996;132(3):664-71
6 Altura BT, Memon ZI, Zhang A, et al. Low levels of serum ionized magnesium are found in patients early after stroke which result in rapid elevation in cytosolic free calcium and spasm in cerebral vascular muscle cells. Neurosci Lett 1997;230:37-40
7 Simopoulos AP. The nutritional aspects of hypertension. Compr Ther 1999;25:95-100.
8 Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Giovannucci EL, Colditz GA, Rosner B, Willett WC, Sacks FM, Stampfer MJ. A prospective study of nutritional factors and hypertension among US men. Circulation 1992;86:1475-84.
9 National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute. Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2413-46.
10 Appel LJ. Nonpharmacologic therapies that reduce blood pressure: A fresh perspective. Clin Cardiol 1999;22:1111-5.
11 Institute of Medicine. Food and Nutrition Board. Dietary Reference Intakes: Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D and Fluoride. National Academy Press. Washington, DC, 1999.
12 Ford ES. Serum magnesium and ischaemic heart disease: Findings from a national sample of US adults. Intl J of Epidem 1999;28:645-651.
13 Ascherio A, Rimm EB, Hernan MA, Giovannucci EL, Kawachi I, Stampfer MJ, Willett WC. Intake of potassium, magnesium, calcium, and fiber and risk of stroke among US men. Circulation 1998;98:1198-204.
14 Rude RK and Olerich M. Magnesium deficiency: Possible role in osteoporosis associated with gluten-sensitive enteropathy. Osteoporos Int 1996;6:453-61.
15 Landon RA, Young EA. Role of magnesium in regulation of lung function. J Am Diet Assoc 1993 Jun;93(6):674-7
16 Fantidis P, Ruiz Cacho J, Marin M, Madero Jarabo R, Solera J, Herrero E. Intracellular (polymorphonuclear) magnesium content in patients with bronchial asthma between attacks. J R Soc Med 1995 Aug;88(8):441-5
17 Britton J, Pavord I, Richards K, Wisniewski A, Knox A, Lewis S, Tattersfield A, Weiss S. Dietary magnesium, lung function, wheezing, and airway hyperreactivity in a random adult population sample. Lancet 1994 Aug 6; 344(8919): 357-62
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What Does a Flash Animator Do? Where Do Flash Animators Work? ACR Takes a Look.
|Austin Film School||Austin||Texas|
|Brigham Young University||Provo||Utah|
|Columbia College Chicago||Chicago||Illinois|
|Grand Canyon University||Phoenix||Arizona|
|Massachusetts College of Art and Design||Boston||Massachusetts|
|Ringling College of Art and Design||Sarasota||Florida|
|Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design||Denver||Colorado|
|Southern Illinois University||Carbondale||Illinois|
|University of Southern California||Los Angeles||California|
What Does a Flash Animator Do?
Flash animators create animation for websites, videos, advertising and marketing, games, and education materials using Adobe Animate CC (formerly Adobe Flash). Flash animators may also use Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, Dreamweaver (formerly Macromedia Dreamweaver), Autodesk 3ds Max (formerly 3D Studio and 3D Studio Max, and After Effects.
Flash animators have excellent design, art, and layout skills as well as a superior command of high-end 3D packages. They coordinate with creative directors to ensure that the animation compliments the design and works in harmony with the technology used to drive the finished product. Flash animators may also create storyboards and design multimedia presentations.
Where Do Flash Animators Work?
Flash animators work in educational publishing, advertising and public relations, the motion picture and video industries, software publishing, game design and development, specialized design services, computer systems design and related services, marketing, web design, graphic design firms, in the mobile technology industry, and more.
What is the Job Outlook for Flash Animators?
Flash animators are part of the broader career group “multimedia artists and animators.” Employment for this group is expected to grow 8% for the 2016-2026 decade. This is about as fast as average for all occupations. Projected employment growth for animators and multimedia artists will be the result of increased demand for animation and more realistic visual effects in video games, movies, and television. However, job growth may be slowed by companies hiring artists and animators who work overseas for lower wages. The increasing demand for computer graphics for mobile devices may counter slow growth by creating more job opportunities in the massive mobile industry.
Despite average employment growth, competition for job opportunities in animation will remain strong. The Bureau says, “opportunities should be best for those who have a wide range of skills or who specialize in a highly specific type of animation or effect.” Still, the U.S. is home to an impressive population of 73,700 multimedia artists and animators, making it the third largest career field in the world of art and design.
Job opportunities for animators and multimedia artists can be found all over the U.S. However, five states have the highest employment levels. California has the highest, followed by Texas, New York, Georgia, and Florida. Ten metropolitan areas, including several from each of these states, have the highest employment levels of all metro areas. They include:
- Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA
- San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA
- New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA
- San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA
- Austin-Round Rock, TX
- Atlanta-Sandy Springs-Roswell, GA
- Dallas-Fort Worth-Arlington, TX
- Chicago-Naperville-Elgin, IL-IN-WI
- Portland-Vancouver-Hillsboro, OR-WA
- Boston-Cambridge-Nashua, MA-NH
The top five industries with the highest employment levels for animators and multimedia artists are:
- Motion Picture and Video Industries
- Computer Systems Design and Related Services
- Software Publishers
- Advertising, Public Relations, and Related Services
- Other Information Services
Other Animation Schools to Consider:
- Atlanta, Georgia; Savannah, Georgia; Lacoste, France; and SCAD eLearning
How Much Do Flash Animators Make?
The median annual wage for multimedia artists and animators is $72,520. The mean annual wage is $78,230. The lowest 10% of multimedia artists and animators earn less than $40,870 and the highest 10% earn more than $124,310. At $86,080 (mean), multimedia artists and animators working in the motion picture and video industries have the highest annual wage of the top five industries with the highest employment levels for animators.
It is important to keep in mind that salaries for multimedia artist and animators may vary by experience, type and size of company, and even geographic location. For example, Connecticut-based multimedia artists and animators average $102,630 per year—the nation’s highest average salary for this profession—while South Carolina-based artists average $36,270—the lowest salary for this profession.
In addition to Connecticut, the top five highest paying states for multimedia artists and animators are Washington ($90,700), District of Columbia ($89,210), California ($87,960), and New York ($86,490).
The top paying metro areas for multimedia artists and animators are:
- Bridgeport-Stamford-Norwalk, CT - $115,070
- San Jose-Sunnyvale-Santa Clara, CA - $91,850
- San Francisco-Oakland-Hayward, CA - $91,840
- Seattle-Tacoma-Bellevue, WA - $91,010
- New York-Newark-Jersey City, NY-NJ-PA - $87,320
- Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim, CA - $86,240
- Savannah, GA - $82,880
- Sacramento-Roseville-Arden-Arcade, CA, $80,2300
- Raleigh, NC - $79,070
- North Port-Sarasota-Bradenton, FL - $78,980
Some of the lowest paying states for multimedia artists and animators are Iowa ($53,430), Nebraska ($50,650), Montana ($48,900), South Dakota ($44,340), and South Carolina ($36,270).
The top paying industries for multimedia artists and animators are:
- Professional and Commercial Equipment and Supplies Merchant Wholesalers - $99,790
- Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing - $90,960
- Motion Picture and Video Industries - $86,080
- Software Publishers - $85,270
- Navigational, Measuring, Electromedical, and Control Instruments Manufacturing - $83,050
Salaries for the top five industries with the highest employment levels for multimedia artists and animators are:
- Motion Picture and Video Industries - $86,080
- Computer Systems Design and Related Services - $78,850
- Software Publishers - $85,270
- Advertising, Public Relations, and Related Services - $73,780
- Other Information Services - $80,070
How Do I Become a Flash Animator?
Today’s employers prefer to hire animators, including flash animators, with at least a bachelor’s degree. Just a few options include a BA, BFA or BS in Animation, Computer Animation, Computer Graphics, Animation & Digital Arts, Media Arts & Animation, Media Arts & Science, Fine Art, and Computer Science (with an Emphasis in Animation). Courses common to these degree paths and other related programs include Drawing, 2-D Animation Production, 3-D Animation Production, and Stop Motion.
In addition to a 4-year degree, many employers look for at least two years’ experience in the industry, and advanced technology skills. Entry-level positions may require only a degree and experience through an internship or other support position. Senior level positions may require at least five to seven years’ professional experience in the industry and possibly an advanced degree. In fact, more schools than ever before now offer MA or MFA degrees in Animation, Animation & Visual Effects, Animation & Digital Arts, and more.
Some schools in the U.S., and many in Europe and Asia, even offer PhD programs in Digital Arts & Animation, Multimedia & Animation, Computer Science with an Animation Emphasis and others. The Bureau reports that in addition to years of experience and/or advanced degree, animators who show strong teamwork and time-management skills can advance to supervisory positions. Some animators may advance to leadership or directorial positions, such as an art director, producer or director.
Which Schools Offer Programs for Aspiring Flash Animators?
- Austin Film School, Advanced 2D Digital Animation (hands-on workshops and courses)
- Boston University School of Visual Arts, BFA, MA, MFA Graphic Design
- Brigham Young University, BFA Animation, BS Computer Science, Animation Emphasis
- Columbia College Chicago, BA, BFA Computer Animation
- Grand Canyon University, BA Digital Design - Animation
- Massachusetts College of Art and Design, BFA in Animation
- Ringling College of Art and Design, BFA in Computer Animation
- Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design, BFA 2D, 3D Animation
- Southern Illinois University, BS Digital Animation (Computer Animation and Storytelling)
- University of Southern California, BA, MFA, Minor Animation and Digital Arts
Awesome Animation Fact: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs was America's first animated feature film. Released in 1937, the Disney film cost $1.4 million to produce and remains one of the few animated films listed in the American Film Institute’s 100 Greatest American Films of All Time.
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AES Encryption for Life. AES encryption is a fundamental part of any data security plan, whether business or personal. Using uncrackable algorithms, these security standards hide your unencrypted data behind a series of complicated transformations into what’s known as ciphertext. This is where the Advanced Encryption Standard AES comes in. Originally adopted by the federal government, AES encryption has become the industry standard for data security. AES comes in 128-bit, 192-bit, and 256-bit implementations, with AES 256 being the most secure. This lead to its widespread exploitation in the private security sector, which lead to AES becoming the most used encryption algorithm in symmetric key cryptography. How AES encryption functions. Advanced Encryption Standard is built from three block ciphers: AES-128, AES-192, and AES-256. In this article I will bring you up to speed on the Advanced Encryption Standard AES, common block modes, why you need padding and initialization vectors and how to protect your data against modification. Finally I will show you how to easily implement this with Java avoiding most security issues. AES is a more secure encryption protocol introduced with WPA2. AES isn’t some creaky standard developed specifically for Wi-Fi networks, either. It’s a serious worldwide encryption standard that’s even been adopted by the US government. For example, when you encrypt a.
Lecture 8: AES: The Advanced Encryption Standard. • About the security of AES, considering how many years have passed since the cipher was introduced in 2001, all of the threats against the cipher remain theoretical — meaning that their time complexity is. 05/04/2013 · Java support many secure encryption algorithms but some of them are weak to be used in security-intensive applications. For example, the Data Encryption Standard DES encryption algorithm is considered highly insecure; messages encrypted using DES have been decrypted by brute force within a single day by machines such as the. Open Kaspersky Security Center 10. Go to the Policies node. Open the properties for the Kaspersky Endpoint Security 10 policy. Go to Encryption of hard drives. In the Encryption technology field, select Kaspersky Disk Encryption. In the Encryption mode field, select Encrypt all hard drives. Click Yes in the Apply hard drive encryption settings. 28/08/2016 · شرح كامل لطريقة التشفير باستخدام Advanced Encryption Standard Block Cipher بطريقة مبسطة مع حل مثال.
Reusing a bitstream destroys security. In CBC mode, the IV must, in addition, be unpredictable at encryption time; in particular, the previously common practice of re-using the last ciphertext block of a message as the IV for the next message is insecure for example, this method was used by SSL 2.0. Meet data security obligations by easily enforcing encryption policies while keeping productivity high. Companies large and small benefit with low help-desk overhead and short deployment cycles. No other product can match ESET Endpoint Encryption for flexibility and ease of use. For Advanced encryption, DMR radios use either 128-bit or AES Advanced Encryption Standard 256-bit. AES 256 is generally regarded as among the safest encryption types available and it is widely used by national governments, public safety departments and agencies.
ESET Endpoint Encryption Cifratura di facile utilizzo, in grado di garantire un controllo in remoto delle chiavi crittografiche degli endpoint e delle policy di sicurezza per file su. SecurEncrypt: Rock-Solid AES-256 Encryption on ATP Flash Storage Devices. SecurStor-enabled ATP flash storage devices feature SecurEncrypt with AES-256 encryption to safeguard data against unauthorized access. They make use of a hardware-based set of security modules and an AES engine. Ludovic Rembert — Keeping data secure is a primary concern for anyone who uses the Internet. From the NSA and the FBI to soccer moms and do-it-yourself investors, all of these users are able to function with more peace of mind thanks to data encryption. AES encryption is the most widely used standard around the world. AES Encryption offers good performance and also a good level of security. The AES encryption is a symmetric cipher that uses the same key for encryption and decryption. Here is an example of the AES encryption code check comments in the code for details: public string EncryptData string textData, string Encryptionkey.
The more popular and widely adopted symmetric encryption algorithm likely to be encountered nowadays is the Advanced Encryption Standard AES. It is found at least six time faster than triple DES. A replacement for DES was needed as its key size was too small. MSDN suggests that I should use the AES class. The Rijndael class is the predecessor of the Aes algorithm. You should use the Aes algorithm instead of Rijndael. For more information, see the entry The Differences Between Rijndael and AES in the.NET Security blog. Could anyone point me in the direction of a good example using the AES class for.
There are many different encryption algorithms and security protocols that help to keep our communications safe when we are online. Learn about RSA, AES. Use both an authentication algorithm esp-sha256-hmac is recommended and an encryption algorithm esp-aes is recommended. The following example shows a Cisco IOS Software or Cisco Adaptive Security Appliance ASA transform set configuration that uses 256-bit AES encryption and HMAC-SHA-256 authentication for ESP IPsec in tunnel mode. 03/10/2019 · What is AES 256-bit encryption? AES stands for Advanced Encryption Standard, which is the norm used worldwide to encrypt data. 256 refers to the key size – the larger the size, the more possible keys there are. To understand the magnitude of the effort it.
23/12/2019 · If I use an AES keyboard, is my private and confidential information 100% safe? AES is among the most secure electronic data encryption standards in use today. There are however, no guarantees when it comes to security. We recommend that you stay informed about threats, use strong passwords, and keep your systems and security software up to date. AES Encryption. AES Advanced Encryption Standard has become the encryption algorithm of choice for governments, financial institutions, and security-conscious enterprises around the world. The U.S. National Security Agency NSC uses it to protect the country’s “top secret” information.
Security Intelligence Logs. Detailed data access audit logs delivered by Vormetric Transparent Encryption are useful not only for compliance, but also for the identification of unauthorized access attempts, as well as to build baselines of authorized user access patterns. News has recently bring attention on mobile phones encryption policies, particularly through the Apple vs. FBI case. The FBI unsuccessfully tried to force the firm to decipher the phone used by a terrorist. This article will aim at making an overview of the different encryption methods used by major mobile operating systems.
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World news is the coverage of news events that occur internationally. It can be about one country, but often involves global issues. Journalism is concerned with news sent by news agencies and foreign correspondents. News is also obtained by means of distance communication technologies. Some of the world’s leading media companies and organizations are involved in reporting world news. While journalists from many countries contribute to world news, some are not so inclined to report on world affairs. Nevertheless, the need for world news coverage is undeniable.
While we cannot stop the news from happening in the world, we can use the latest tools and sources to inform ourselves about the latest events. The World News Digest is a useful resource because it offers a wealth of information in an intuitive interface. This is a great place to begin a reference project. It has been the go-to resource for 80 years for context and background on the key issues in the news. There are hundreds of news sources that rely on World News Digest for their coverage.
On Monday, a UN peacekeeping convoy was attacked by a roadside bomb in central Mali, killing two peacekeepers and wounding four others. Meanwhile, senior U.S. officials secretly visited Venezuela to unfreeze hostile relations between the two nations. While Venezuela is a Russian ally and top oil exporter, it has frozen U.S. visas and barred its citizens from entering the U.S. since 2008. Venezuela’s president, Nicolas Maduro, has repeatedly expressed his desire to return to the country.
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The concept of a straw man is easiest understood by looking at the use of the literal straw men, which is to serve as a dummy for a specific purpose. The most common use of straw men is as a scarecrow to help farmers guard their fields. Aside from that straw men are also used as dummies for everything from combat training targets to effigies during protests.
In business and finance terms, a straw man also serves as a dummy but this time with the specific purpose of hiding the identity of the person or firm behind the business or financial transaction.
In most cases, transactions involving a straw man are of an illegal or questionable nature, hence the need for primary movers to remain unknown. However, straw men can also be used for legal transactions that simply require discretion.
Just like dummies used for combat trainings, straw men, also sometimes called front men, in business get the full brunt of the law when the illicit transaction is found out. The real entities behind the transactions stay shielded and safe, unless the straw man decides to tell on them.
However, in some cases the straw man may not even be allowed to find out who he is really representing and could only communicate with them through a middle man. Straw men may or may not be aware of the illegal transaction of the business and usually accept the position due to the relatively huge financial reward that goes with the work.
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Sea Level Rising
At present, sea levels around the world are rising. Current sea level rise potentially impacts human populations and the natural environment. Global average sea level rose at an average rate of around 1.7 ± 0.3 mm per year over 1950 to 2009 and at a satellite-measured average rate of about 3.3 ± 0.4 mm per year from 1993 to 2009, an increase on earlier estimates. Climate change
Destructive sudden heavy rains, intense tropical storms, repeated flooding and droughts are likely to increase, as will the vulnerability of local communities in the absence of strong concerted action.
Climate change is not just a distant future threat. It is the main driver behind rising humanitarian needs and we are seeing its impact. The number of people affected and the damages inflicted by extreme weather has been unprecedented.
It has been estimated that about half of the Earth's mature tropical forests—between 7.5 million and 8 million km2 (2.9 million to 3 million sq mi) of the original 15 million to 16 million km2 (5.8 million to 6.2 million sq mi) that until 1947 covered the planet—have now been destroyed. Some scientists have predicted that unless significant measures (such as seeking out and protecting old growth forests that have not been disturbed)
Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells). It has been suggested that it is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and diseases and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 700 million Indians have no access to a proper toilet, and 1,000 Indian children die of diarrheal sickness every day. Some 90% of China's cities suffer from some degree of water pollution, and nearly 500 million people lack access to safe drinking water. Air Pollution
Smog hanging over cities is the most familiar and obvious form of air pollution. But there are different kinds of pollution—some visible, some invisible—that contribute to global warming. Generally any substance that people introduce into the atmosphere that has damaging effects on living things and the environment is considered air pollution.
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is the main pollutant that is warming Earth. Though living things emit carbon dioxide when they breathe, carbon dioxide is widely considered to be a pollutant when associated with cars, planes, power plants, and other human activities that involve the burning of fossil fuels such as gasoline and natural gas. In the past 150 years, such activities have pumped enough carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to raise its levels higher than they have been for hundreds of thousands of years.
Other greenhouse gases include methane—which comes from such sources as swamps and gas emitted by livestock—and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which were used in refrigerants and aerosol propellants until they were banned because of their deteriorating effect on Earth's ozone layer.
Oil is perhaps the most publicly recognized toxic pollutant. Large tanker accidents like the Exxon Valdez quickly become known worldwide. Events like this, where the Exxon Valdez grounded on Bligh Reef spilling nearly 11 million gallons of oil into the Prince William Sound in March of 1989, are dramatic and devastating to the entire surrounding marine ecosystem for many years.
The biggest spill ever recorded happened during the 1991 Persian Gulf War when about 240 million gallons spilled from oil terminals and tankers off the coast of Saudi Arabia.
Many people don't realize that hundreds of millions of gallons each year quietly end up in our oceans by sources. The following list shows how much oil reaches our oceans from other sources.
References: 05. Ron Nielsen, The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet, Picador, New York (2006) ISBN 978-0-312-42581-4
07. West, Larry (March 26, 2006). "World Water Day: A Billion People Worldwide Lack Safe Drinking Water". About.
08. "A special report on India: Creaking, groaning: Infrastructure is India’s biggest handicap". The Economist. December 11, 2008.
09. "China says water pollution so severe that cities could lack safe supplies". Chinadaily.com.cn. June 7, 2005.
10. "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". The New York Times. August 26, 2007.
15. World Health Organization, Fiona (January 2008). "An interview with Mahmuder Rahman Bangladesh 's arsenic agony" (PDF). Bulletin of the World Health Organization (BLT) 86 (1): 11–12. DOI:10.2471/BLT.08.040108.
16. Smith, Allan H., Allan H.; Lingas, Elena O; Rahman, Mahfuzar (2000). "Contamination of drinking-water by arsenic in Bangladesh: a public health emergency" (PDF). Bulletin of the World Health Organization 78 (9): 1093–1103.
17. Kar, Kamal; Bongartz, Petra (April 2006) (PDF). Update on Some Recent Developments in Community-Led Total Sanitation. Brighton: University of Sussex, Institute of Development Studies. Retrieved 2008-04-28.
18. "Copenhagen Fashion Summit". Copenhagen Fashion Summit. 2012-05-03. Retrieved 2012-05-19
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Building Web Sites – Website Design
‘World Without websites’ are you able to even think concerning this as you may know Sites are an inescapable a part of our lives. Government providers are accessible through the internet, so we have to communicate with the online or the net consists of many websites. If we search for a services or products, we shall be led to a web site. Ever thought of how thisWebsite works or who made it? The whole process of website design is called website designing. Someone that models an internet site is named a web designer. To develop and sustain a webpage, the Fashionable should have many expertise. A web designer functions at many ranges.
Web Design Service
When we said previous, the Fashionable concentrates around the aesthetic elements that come with Structure, image style, Typography, and many others. An Online Makers main objective is usually to make your Internet site end user-friendly. The Designer should do a couple of things User Interface Design (UI) and User Practical experience(UX) Design
Ui layout (UI): The goal of interface design and style would be to easily simplify the user discussion with a web page. An excellent user interface is formed when the user can readily and effectively communicate with a web-based webpage. Visual Planning and Typography are utilized to make a excellent user interface. The Fashionable should know the user’s requirements. Ui design generally is focused on the requirements the user. Interface style tutorials the users via a internet site.
End user Practical experience Style(UX): Boosting the customer experience on the web page. Customer encounter style helps you to learn exactly how the web site functions. It mainly is focused on individual-pc relationships.The consumer program was created taking into consideration the user’s practical experience with a web page
Generally the two main significant folks behind the creation of your webpage web designer and online programmer. A developer functions with a online page’s graphic features if the developer concentrates on html coding and other specialized elements.
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Rebar is the reinforcing steel or bar that is used to give support to a concrete structure. Rebar bonds well with the swimming pool concrete structure and it is one of the most important materials required for the construction of any type of swimming pool. Rebar is bendable. It can be used for many swimming pool designs, including the steps.
Size of the rebar
The size of the rebar for use in pools is No. 5. No. 5 rebar will have a diameter size of 0.625 inches. The weight will be in the range of 1,000 to 1,100 pounds. The metric diameter will be 15.8 millimeters and the metric bar size will be No. 16.
Proper rebar spacing is important to the structural strength of the swimming pool foundation. In most locations the ideal space between two adjacent rebars should be 2 1/2 inches. Local building codes may vary, so determine the correct rebar spacing for your area and for your specific swimming pool project.
There are three types of grades in rebars. They are grade 40, 60 and 75. The rebar used for swimming pool construction is grade 40 deformed bars conforming to the standard of ASTM A615. Grade 40 means that the yield strength is 40,000 psi and the code allowed strength is 20,000 psi. PSI means per square inch. Deformed bars mean that the rebar must have protrusions that will help the bar to bond mechanically with the swimming pool structure. When you say ASTM A615, it means that the rebar has been manufactured from hot rolled new billets.
The rebar should be of the bar size and the spacing must be based on the swimming pool structural plan. The rebar must be of the same grade that is mentioned in the swimming pool structural plan. The protection coverage of the rebar must be specified in the code or the structural plan. The rebar must be tied or held in one place so that there is no vibration or movement of the rebar. The placement of the rebar should be in such a manner that proper encasement should be enabled in gunite or shortcrete. Shortcrete or gunite is concrete that is projected at a very high velocity into the surface. If the rebar is not properly encased it means that the concrete is not reinforced properly. There could also be relective cracking if the rebar is not securely tied.
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Aude Bernheim (2019): Bacteriophages (phages) are the most abundant viruses on the planet. The majority of free-living bacterial species are thought to be infected by phages, as evidenced by the widespread presence of prophages (dormant phages) in bacterial genomes. The arms race between bacteria and phages are considered almost as old as bacteria themselves. Facing the abundance and diversity of phages, bacteria have developed multiple lines of defense that can collectively be referred to as the ‘prokaryotic immune system’. In recent years, it has been recognized that prokaryotic immunity is much more complex than previously perceived, with evidence for chemical defense and intracellular signalling regulating defence that are relevant also for archaeal defense systems that protect from archaeal viruses. Diversity of defense systems Anti-phage defense systems can roughly be divided into those that target viral nucleic acids (for example, R-M and CRISPR–Cas), Abi systems that lead the host to commit suicide once infected, and other types of systems (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Antiviral defense systems in bacteria.
Defence systems that target nucleic acids encompass both innate and adaptive immunity.
a | Restriction-modification (R-M) and other related systems modify specific sequence motifs in the host genome and cleave or degrade unmodified foreign DNA.
b | CRISPR–Cas systems work in two main phases: adaptation, where a complex of Cas proteins guides the acquisition of new bacteriophage (phage)-derived spacers; and interference, where Cas proteins in a complex with a spacer-derived CRISPR RNA (crRNA) target and degrade phage nucleic acids.
c | Chemical defense has been described in Streptomyces spp., in which bacteria produce a small anti-phage molecule that intercalates into phage DNA and inhibits its replication.
d | Abortive infection mechanisms are diverse. In concert with phage-encoded holins and lysins of phage Phi31, AbiZ from Lactococcus lactis accelerates lysis before phage assembly is completed. Upon expression of the T4 phage protein Gol, the Escherichia coli Lit protein inhibits translation through cleavage of the EF-Tu elongation factor. The E. coli protein RexA recognizes a specific DNA–protein complex formed by the λ phage, and activates RexB, an ion channel that depolarizes the membrane, leading to cell death.
e | CBASS (cyclic oligonucleotide-based anti-phage signalling system) senses the presence of phage and generates a cyclic oligonucleotide small-molecule signal that activates an effector leading to cell death.
f | Multiple systems have recently been demonstrated to have anti-phage roles, but their mechanisms remain unknown. Abi, abortive infection; BREX, bacteriophage exclusion; DISARM, defence islands system associated with R-M.
Of these, the most abundant and elaborate systems are those that target nucleic acids, presumably because nucleic acid is usually the first viral component to penetrate the cell upon infection (Fig. 1a,b). R-M collectively refers to systems that cleave or degrade DNA through the recognition of specific sequence motifs on the viral genome. These sequence motifs are modified in the host self-DNA, usually by methylation, to prevent the host genome from being targeted (with the exception of type IV R-M systems, which target modified phage DNA while the host genome remains unaltered). R-M systems are classified into four types and are present in more than 74% of prokaryotic genomes. On average, a bacterial genome encodes two R-M systems. DNA modification as a strategy to discriminate between self-DNA and non-self-DNA is not limited to methylation. For example, the dnd defense system modifies the host DNA backbone to include a sulfur group, and the dpd system utilizes a multi-enzyme pathway to modify guanine residues into 7-deazaguanine derivatives in the host DNA. The BREX (bacteriophage exclusion) system and DISARM (defense islands system associated with R-M) also function through methylation of host DNA, although the mechanisms of phage DNA targeting in these systems are still unknown. All of these defense systems constitute part of the innate immunity of bacteria. A large fraction of bacteria and archaea encode CRISPR–Cas1, a family of adaptive immune systems that also function through the recognition and degradation of viral nucleic acids. The CRISPR–Cas immune memory is formed through the acquisition of short viral-derived DNA sequences that are incorporated as CRISPR ‘spacers’ within the outcome, as well as the discovery of a large number of new defense systems whose mechanisms are still unknown. Individual bacterial species can encode multiple different defense systems, and it was shown that such systems can be horizontally acquired and lost on short evolutionary time scales.
Diversity of defense systems Anti-phage defense systems can roughly be divided into those that target viral nucleic acids (for example, R-M and CRISPR–Cas), Abi systems that lead the host to commit suicide once infected, and other types of systems (Fig. 1). Of these, the most abundant and elaborate systems are those that target nucleic acids, presumably because nucleic acid is usually the first viral component to penetrate the cell upon infection (Fig. 1a,b). R-M collectively refers to systems that cleave or degrade DNA through recognition of specific sequence motifs on the viral genome. These sequence motifs are modified in the host self-DNA, usually by methylation, to prevent the host genome from being targeted (with the exception of type IV R-M systems, which target modified phage DNA while the host genome remains unaltered). R-M systems are classified into four types and are present in more than 74% of prokaryotic genomes. On average, a bacterial genome encodes two R-M systems. DNA modification as a strategy to discriminate between self-DNA and non-self-DNA is not limited to methylation. For example, the dnd defense system modifies the host DNA backbone to include a sulfur group, and the dpd system utilizes a multi-enzyme pathway to modify guanine residues into 7-deazaguanine derivatives in the host DNA. The BREX (bacteriophage exclusion) system and DISARM (defence islands system associated with R-M) also function through methylation of host DNA, although the mechanisms of phage DNA targeting in these systems are still unknown. All of these defence systems constitute part of the innate immunity of bacteria. A large fraction of bacteria and archaea encode CRISPR–Cas, a family of adaptive immune systems that also function through the recognition and degradation of viral nucleic acids. The CRISPR–Cas immune memory is formed through acquisition of short viral-derived DNA sequences that are incorporated as CRISPR ‘spacers’ within the host genome. These sequences are then transcribed and processed into CRISPR RNAs that guide the CRISPR–Cas machinery, through sequence complementarity, to target the viral nucleic acids. CRISPR–Cas systems are diverse, comprising two classes, six types and more than 20 subtypes that differ in the composition of the interference machinery, their mechanisms of targeting and the nucleic acid targeted (that is, DNA or RNA). In most cases, both spacer acquisition and interference necessitate the occurrence of a short sequence motif named PAM (protospacer adjacent motif) next to the sequence matched by the spacer in the targeted molecule. Operons that include prokaryotic argonautes have also been hypothesized to provide defense. Present in 9% and 32% of bacterial and archaeal genomes, respectively, their frequent localization in defense islands (regions in microbial genomes in which defense systems are concentrated) as well as their protective activity against plasmids suggest that they are involved in antiviral defense. Another common strategy of defense against phages is Abi. Abi systems allow the bacterial cell, once infected, to kill itself or to arrest its metabolism before the phage reproductive cycle is completed, thus preventing the phage from spreading and killing the surrounding bacterial community. Abi systems have been detected in a wide variety of microorganisms but, given their high diversity, it is challenging to assess their abundance in nature. These systems are usually triggered by a specific component that could be a phage protein, a nucleic acid or a cellular state caused by phage infection. For example, the Escherichia coli Lit Abi is activated upon sensing a unique substrate formed by the Gol peptide of phage T4 when bound to the ribosomal elongation factor EF-Tu. Once active, the Lit protein cleaves EF-Tu, thus inhibiting translation and ultimately killing the cell.
Box 1: Antiviral defense systems tend to cluster on bacterial and archaeal chromosomes in regions denoted as defense islands. Defense islands typically comprise diverse defense systems. see the figure for examples of defense islands within selected bacterial and archaeal genomes (different colors represent different defense systems). Beige represents genes of non-defense functions or of unknown function. Defense systems are also enriched with genes typical of mobile genetic elements such as transposases, recombinases, and conjugation genes. Some defense islands were predicted to encode more than 100 defense genes. The origin and the mechanism of formation of defense islands are currently unknown but could reflect different effects. First, co-localization of defense genes with mobile genes could facilitate the horizontal transfer of multiple defense systems from one bacterium to another in a single transfer event. Alternatively, such islands can be hotspots for integration of horizontally acquired genes, with defense systems clustering in defense islands through the ‘garbage and pile effect’, in which high rates of acquisition and loss are not strongly deleterious. in addition, such co-localization of defense genes could reflect functional links between the defense systems, including possible co-regulation or positive epistasis. the phenomenon of defense islands in bacterial genomes allows the prediction of novel defense systems through a ‘guilt by association approach. in this approach, protein families with unknown functions that are enriched in defense islands can be predicted to constitute new defense systems. This methodology has led to the discovery of individual defense systems such as BreX (bacteriophage exclusion) or DisarM (defense islands system associated with r-M), and its application in a systematic manner recently revealed nine new antiviral systems that are widespread in bacteria and archaea. For r-M and CrisPr–Cas systems, the type is indicated in parentheses.
Another example is PrrC in E. coli, which cleaves bacterial tRNALys molecules when it senses that the phage has suppressed bacterial R-M systems. In Lactococcus spp., many Abi genes (around 20) have been described: for example, AbiZ accelerates lysis before phage assembly whereas AbiB leads to non-specific degradation of mRNAs. In Staphylococcus spp., the serine threonine kinase STK2 protein is activated when exposed to the phage protein PacK, leading to phosphorylation of proteins involved in multiple cellular pathways and eventual cell death. Toxin–antitoxin systems, representing a large family of two-gene modules each comprising a toxin and an immunity component, were also shown to execute Abi in some cases, although their general role in defense against phages is still disputed. A newly discovered system called CBASS (cyclic oligonucleotide-based anti-phage signalling system) employs a specific form of Abi34. This system, appearing in more than 10% of sequenced bacterial genomes, relies on cyclic oligonucleotide signalling to provide defense against phages. Sensing of phage infection leads to the production of a cyclic oligonucleotide, for example cyclic GMP–AMP, which activates a downstream effector that causes cell death. The CBASS system is considered the prokaryotic ancestor of the cGAS–STING antiviral pathway in animals, which similarly relies on cyclic GMP–AMP signalling. Recent studies have revealed the existence of many additional families of antiviral defense systems in bacteria and archaea. An effort to map microbial defense islands (Box 1) has resulted in the discovery of nine new defense systems that are widespread in bacterial and archaeal genomes. These systems were named after protective deities from world mythologies including Hachiman, Thoeris, Zorya, Gabija and Shedu, and their molecular mechanisms of action are yet to be deciphered. Finally, species of Streptomyces produce small molecules called doxorubicin and daunorubicin that act as DNA intercalants, and were recently shown to specifically block phage DNA replication but not the replication of bacterial DNA4 .
A need for multiple defences
Analysis of sequenced prokaryotic genomes demonstrates that they can concomitantly harbour multiple different defense systems. As shown in Fig. 2, a single strain can encode diverse defence strategies including Abi, R-M and CRISPR–Cas. Many bacteria and archaea encode multiple defence systems of the same kind: for example, Helicobacter pylori F30 encodes three type I R-M systems, 11 type II R-M systems, one type III R-M system and one type IV R-M system15. In total, it was estimated that up to 10% of some prokaryotic genomes is dedicated to defence systems8 . These observations raise a basic question — what is the benefit for a single microorganism to encode so many different lines of defence?
Fig. 2 | closely related bacterial strains encode diverse defense systems. Each line represents a different strain of either Escherichia coli (part a) or Pseudomonas aeruginosa (part b). Each column corresponds to a different defense system (color indicates the presence of a defense system). CRISPR–Cas systems were detected using CRISPRCasFinder, restriction-modification (R-M) systems using HHsearch with HMM profiles, BREX (bacteriophage exclusion) by the presence of the pglZ gene, DISARM (defense islands system associated with R-M) and CBASS (cyclic oligonucleotide-based anti-phage signalling system). For R-M and CRISPR–Cas systems, the type or subtype is indicated in parentheses. R-M, restriction-modification.
One obvious answer is that some defence systems can protect only from a specific type of virus. For example, the GmrSD type IV R-M system only targets phages such as T4, whose genomes are modified to include glucosylated hydroxymethylcytosine. Cas9, on the other hand, cannot cleave the DNA of phage T4 owing to its heavily modified cytosine residues. The Thoeris defence system seems to protect only against phages from the Myoviridae family . Therefore, for a microorganism to be protected against a wide variety of viruses, it should encode a broad defence arsenal that can overcome the multiple types of viruses that can infect it. There are benefits for a microorganism to encode multiple defense systems, even if these systems overlap in the range of viruses that they target. This is because phages can develop resistance to defense. First, phage genomes can evolve to eliminate specific sequences such as motifs targeted by restriction enzymes or PAM sequences that are essential for CRISPR–Cas defense. Second, phages often encode anti-defense proteins, including anti-CRISPR and anti-restriction proteins. These proteins are either injected into the cell together with the viral DNA or expressed early upon infection, and inhibit the defense systems. Anti-CRISPRs are typically short proteins that bind the CRISPR–Cas complex and prevent it from working properly. Recent discoveries report on anti-CRISPRs working as enzymes that can cleave the CRISPR RNA or add an acetyl group to a PAM-sensing residue in the Cas effector. Similarly, anti-restriction proteins inhibit restriction enzymes: for example, the T4 IPI (internal protein I) inhibits type IV R-M systems, whereas the DarA and DarB proteins of phage P1 bind the restriction sites on the phage genome and mask them from cleavage by the type I R-M system of E. coli. Faced with viruses that encode counter-defense mechanisms, bacteria and archaea cannot rely on a single defense system and thus need to present several lines of defense as a bet-hedging strategy of survival.
Gain and loss of defense systems
Owing to the selective advantage that defense systems provide, they are frequently gained by bacteria and archaea through horizontal gene transfer (HGT). Multiple studies based on phylogenetic analyses and comparative genomics have confirmed the high rate of transfer of defense systems. For example, only ∼4% of R-M systems are found in the core genomes of prokaryotic species, suggesting recent transfer events. In another example, an analysis of phylogenetic trees of Cas proteins and CRISPR repeats showed weak consistency with the species tree, demonstrating the dominance of horizontal transfer for the spread of CRISPR–Cas loci. Both CRISPR–Cas and R-M systems have been detected on mobile genetic elements, such as plasmids, transposons and phages, partially explaining their mode of HGT. In addition, genomic analyses have shown that defense systems tend to be concentrated in ‘defense islands’ — regions of the host chromosome that are also enriched with mobile elements presumably responsible for the genetic mobilization of the islands (Box 1). Given their selective advantage in the arms race against viruses, one might expect that defense systems, once acquired (either through direct evolution or via HGT), would accumulate in prokaryotic genomes and be selected for. Surprisingly, this is not the case as defense systems are known to be frequently lost from microbial genomes over short evolutionary time scales, suggesting that they can impose selective disadvantages in the absence of infection pressure. A major drawback of defense systems is autoimmunity: CRISPR–Cas, for example, can make mistakes in the process of spacer acquisition and acquire spacers from the chromosome instead of from the invading element. This directs the CRISPR–Cas interference machinery to attack the chromosome, resulting in cell death or in survival through pseudogenization and eventual deletion of the CRISPR–Cas locus. Similarly, R-M systems can also rarely target the chromosome, cleaving self-DNA at a low but measurable rate and inflicting a fitness cost. Unwanted activity of Abi systems can also lead to dormancy or cell death. In addition to autoimmunity, defense systems can impose an energy burden on the cell: some R-M systems require the hydrolysis of one ATP molecule per base pair for translocation of the restriction enzyme along the DNA. As a result of these fitness costs, there is a selective pressure for bacteria to get rid of defense systems under conditions when there is no selection pressure exerted by phages. Indeed, competition studies between strains encoding defense systems, such as CRISPR–Cas or Lit Abi, and cognate defense-lacking strains have demonstrated the existence of a fitness cost in the absence of phage infection. An experimental study in Staphylococcus epidermidis showed that the loss of CRISPR–Cas systems by large deletions have little or no fitness cost. Another study demonstrated that the inactivation of CRISPR–Cas systems in Streptococcus pneumoniae is even advantageous under specific conditions. The frequent gain and loss of defense systems over short time scales lead to a highly variable pattern of presence and absence of systems in microbial genomes. Even in closely related strains with otherwise similar genomes, the composition of defense systems can drastically vary, as demonstrated in Fig. 2. Defence systems appear to be in a state of constant genetic flux, constituting the second most dynamic class of genes after mobile genetic elements in terms of rates of gain and loss in microbial genomes.
Pan-immunity as a shared resource
Given the fitness costs inflicted by antiviral systems, it is probable that no single bacterial or archaeal strain can encode, in the long term, all possible defense systems without suffering serious competitive disadvantages. On the other hand, access to a diverse set of defense mechanisms is essential in order to combat the enormous genetic and functional diversity of viruses. We propose that these seemingly contradictory requirements can be reconciled when considering the available arsenal of immune systems as a resource shared by a population of bacteria or archaea rather than by individual cells. In the example shown in Fig. 2, none of the strains encode all defense systems. However, if these strains are mixed as part of a population, the pan-genome of this population would encode an ‘immune potential’ that encompasses all of the depicted systems. As these systems can be readily available by HGT, given the high rate of HGT in defense systems, the population in effect harbors an accessible reservoir of immune systems that can be acquired by population members. When the population is subjected to infection, this diversity ensures that at least some population members would encode the appropriate defense system, and these members would survive and form the basis for the perpetuation of the population (Fig. 3).
The pan-immune system model.
Closely related strains of microorganisms within a population encode a diverse set of antiviral systems constituting the pan-immune system defense.
a | Maintenance of diversity of the pan-immune system. Bacteriophage (phage) infection results in bacterial selection for those encoding a specific defense system (red) that can overcome that phage (part a, stage 1). In the absence of phage pressure over a period of time, members of the population can acquire a diverse set of defense systems, through horizontal gene transfer (HGT) (part a, stage 2), whereas some cells lose defense systems owing to their selective cost (part a, stage 3). The cycle continues, resulting in a population defense that together constitutes the immune potential of the population.
b | Dynamic changes to the pan-immune system composition. Phage infection results in selection for members encoding a specific defense system (yellow) that can overcome that phage (part b, stage 1). In some cases, this can result in the loss of immune system defense (green). Conversely, new systems can be introduced into the population through HGT from a more distantly related strain, migration of a new member in the population or emergence of a new system through mutation or exaptation (part b, stage 2). Red, green, yellow and blue genes represent different types of defense systems.
We thus hypothesize that some of the selection for defense systems occurs at the group level. In a sense, this pan-immune system model aligns well with previous observations and mathematical models of distributed immunity that specifically focused on CRISPR–Cas systems. Studies on CRISPR–Cas have shown that spacer diversity in the population is essential to overcoming phage infections. In co-evolution experiments between Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Streptococcus thermophilus and their respective phages, bacterial populations in which different strains encoded different sets of spacers overcame phage infection and resulted in phage extinction, whereas populations comprising homogeneous sets of spacers allowed phage propagation. Protection of spacer-diverse populations occurred because no single phage could accumulate enough mutations to overcome the diversity of spacers encoded by the population as a whole. In the context of CRISPR–Cas, mathematical models that explored the parameters leading to the emergence of a distributed immunity predicted two key parameters: the cost of generating a new allele (in this case, a new spacer) should be small; and the fitness constraints of evolving escape mutations for phages is enhanced by the fact that an escape mutant will be resistant only to one allele (one spacer in the case of the CRISPR model). Beyond the specific case of CRISPR–Cas, the same conditions also fit the broader context of the microbial pan-immune system model, which can be viewed as satisfying the two parameters mentioned above: given the high rate of HGT of defense systems (which can be considered the acquisition of alleles of defense), the cost of acquiring a new allele via HGT is expected to be relatively small; and due to the diversity of molecular mechanisms among different defense systems, the emergence of one phage mutation that allows escape from a specific defense system is not expected to abolish defense by other systems. As group selection occurs within closely related kin, we expect the pan-immune system model to be mainly relevant among populations of similar, related strains that differ in their defense content, thus allowing for selection at the group level.
Implications for counter-defence
It is well documented that individual phages have well-defined host ranges, such that they can infect some, but rarely all, strains of the same species. This is often attributed to the diversity of surface molecules among the infected microbial strains, as these are used by phages as specific receptors. However, given the diversity of defense systems observed in different strains of the same species, it is clear that the host range of any given phage would depend on its ability to overcome multiple defence systems. This predicts that phages need to encode many different counter-defense mechanisms in order to have a broad host range. This prediction may help reconcile the puzzle of dispensable genes in phage genomes. As phage genomes are under strong selection, one might expect that most of their genes are essential. However, serial mutational analyses showed that as much as 79% of genes in phage T4 and 63% of genes in phage T7 are not essential for successful infection of the E. coli laboratory strain. We predict that many of these genes will turn out to encode anti-defense proteins that target defense systems not present in the E. coli strain used in these studies. We would therefore expect that the set of anti-defense genes cumulatively encoded by strains of a phage species should mirror the set of defense systems encoded by its host pan-genome. 1
Evolution of Immune Systems From Viruses and Transposable Elements
Felix Broecker (2019): Cellular organisms have co-evolved with various mobile genetic elements (MGEs), including transposable elements (TEs), retroelements, and viruses, many of which can integrate into the host DNA. MGEs constitute ∼50% of mammalian genomes, >70% of some plant genomes, and up to 30% of bacterial genomes. 2
FIGURE 1. Cartoons depicting various defense systems.
The systems are color-coded based on the level of support in green (experimental evidence available), magenta (bioinformatic evidence available), and orange (speculative with some supporting evidence). DNA/RNA cleaving is indicated with scissors. RNA is depicted as wavy lines or with secondary hairpin-loop structures. A ribozyme cleaving another ribozyme is a hypothetical early immune system that does not require DNA or proteins. The ribozyme may be part of a viroid-like selfish RNA. Restriction-modification systems distinguish between foreign and self DNA by methylating target sequences of restriction endonucleases. Prophages can mediate superinfection exclusion, exemplified by the expression of the Tip protein that reduces bacterial surface expression of type IV pili required for infection by various phages. CRISPR-Cas acts by incorporating small genomic fragments from phages into CRISPR arrays in the prokaryotic genome. The transcribed spacers are then used by another Cas member to cleave sequence-homologous phage genomes. PIWI-associated RNAs (piRNAs) are small RNAs complementary to transposable elements (TEs) that are encoded in piRNA clusters. piRNAs associate with a PIWI nuclease to cleave complementary TE transcripts. RNA interference (RNAi) is initiated by dsRNA which is fragmented by Dicer to siRNAs. These siRNAs are loaded into the RNA-induced silencing complex to cleave complementary RNAs using Ago nucleases. A variation of RNAi is the endo-siRNA pathway, in which dsRNA is generated from TEs that are transcribed in both orientations, for instance, if the TE is located in an intron in opposite orientation to the encompassing gene. Endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) can mediate the restriction of ERVs and exogenous retroviruses through various mechanisms, including receptor blockade by captured Env proteins, Gag-mediated restriction, and antisense RNA mechanisms. The interferon system recognizes dsRNA or other pathogen-associated molecular patterns, which leads to the upregulation of antiviral interferon-stimulated genes (ISGs). The antibody system involves diversification through light and heavy chain recombination, which is mediated by the Rag recombinases. This enables the detection of diverse pathogens. Note that the references provided in the figure are not comprehensive. Please refer to the text for more details and additional references.
1. Aude Bernheim: The pan-immune system of bacteria: antiviral defence as a community resource 06 November 2019
2. Felix Broecker: Evolution of Immune Systems From Viruses and Transposable Elements 29 January 2019
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Reader 1: The story has always been told of a miraculous well of living water which has accompanied the Jewish people since the world was spoken into being. The well comes and goes, as it is needed, and as we remember, forget, and remember again how to call it to us. In the time of the exodus from Mitzrayim, the well came to Miriam, in honor of her courage and action, and stayed with the Jews as they wandered the desert. Upon Miriam’s death, the well again disappeared.
Reader 2: With this ritual of Miriam’s cup, we honor all Jewish women, transgender, genderqueer, intersex people whose histories have been erased. We commit ourselves to transforming all of our cultures into loving welcoming spaces for people of all genders and sexes.
Reader 3: Tonight we remember Miriam and ask: Who on own journey has been a way-station for us? Who has encouraged our thirst for knowledge? Who sings with joy at our accomplishments?
Reader 4: Let us each go around and name an act of courage or resistance you have seen from another, and pour water into the communal cup until it overflows.
Haggadot.com is a project of Custom & Craft Jewish Rituals, Inc (EIN: 82-4765805), a 501(c)(3) tax-exempt California public benefit corporation. Your gift is tax deductible to the extent allowed by law.
Anyone you invite to collaborate with you will see everything posted to this haggadah and will have full access to edit clips.
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Mind-Mapping to Social Media: Enhancing Higher Learning for Students and Professors
By Catherine White
Faculty Member, Information Technology Department at American Public University
Students new to online education quickly learn the value of time management in order to adapt and be successful. While most students are accustomed to attending instructor-led classes or lectures, innovative learning tools are consistently being released that help students transition to online education based on a variety of learning preferences. For example, I learn best using a hybrid of visual and auditory styles. Today, there are countless options available that help instructors make online learning feel just as comfortable for students as in a live classroom. Here are a few to consider.
Are you a visual learner–do you prefer to see the material being taught versus reading about it? Many instructors are utilizing tools like Jing and Camtasia to create enriching instructional videos that can be reviewed at a moment’s notice. Best of all, these tools are also available to you the student. You can utilize them to liven-up your own presentations for class assignments!
If you’re someone who benefits from pure audio lessons, tools such as Audacity and PodBean can be used by instructors to publish supplemental podcasts. Since many online students are always on the go, listening to podcasts is a great way to keep pace with the material being presented.
What if you’re someone who absorbs knowledge more effectively through static materials like texts and pictures? Many learners prefer this method because it provides them with a preface of what they’re about to learn and serves as a helpful reference. A more advanced method is mind-mapping, an effective educational technique, which is a process for diagramming relationships between ideas and concepts. Many instructors are using mind-mapping software like MindMeister and XMind to chart and help students better understand concepts. Word cloud tools like Wordle also provide alternative diagrams for memorization, and when researching, students can use social bookmarking tools such as Diigo to collect, organize and highlight information.
Social media outlets are also quickly becoming a staple in online learning as a supplement to school forums. For example, Twitter is a favorite. With a strict limit on words per tweet, 140 characters or less, it’s an ideal way to get right to the point. Twitter also provides the instructor with a quick way to reach students. Additionally, Facebook and Google+ Hangouts are providing virtual space for learners to casually interact with each other and even meet with their instructors. No longer are students and instructors bound by formal, in-person office hours.
Advancements in technology and in education go hand in hand. As instructors or as lifelong learners, it’s important that we all continue to explore and make the most of the technology available. Don’t be afraid to open up a dialogue with your instructor and make suggestions regarding media if it helps you learn. Ultimately, online education is an opportunity for you. Why not make it suit your learning style?
[see also: Gaming in the Online Education]
About the Author
Catherine White has served as a faculty member with the Information Technology Department at American Public University since 2008. White holds dual master degrees in information technology and business administration. Currently, she is researching and incorporating innovative forms of technology to enhance communication with students and to provide them with additional learning assistance in the online classroom.
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We recently interviewed ag and food journalist Carey Gillam for our podcast, Take Out. She’s been a journalist for twenty years, most recently with Reuters, as a senior correspondent that covered the agrochemical industry.
As we were wrapping the interview, she said, “We need a food agency that can conduct the independent science to know whether our food is safe.”
Nothing could be more urgent.
In a new study called “Contaminants of Emerging Concern” published in the journal Environmental Pollution, researchers studied salmon in the Puget Sound, from locations that had wastewater treatment plants located nearby.
What they found is jaw dropping. Not only was the water contaminated, but they also found an incredible number of contaminants in the fish.
According to Take Part, Puget Sound has 106 wastewater treatment plants that discharge into local waters. It’s estimated they spew about 267 pounds of drugs and chemicals into the sound every day, or nearly 100,000 pounds a year. Even more contaminants enter the water from leaking septic systems, industrial facilities, and agricultural runoff.
Of the hundreds of chemicals likely present in the Puget Sound ecosystem, only a small percentage are monitored or regulated, the study authors found, and there is little or no environmental toxicity information for the vast majority of these compounds.
So why is this happening? Because discharges of most of these chemicals are neither monitored nor prohibited, and different wastewater treatment plants use different techniques to filter their effluent. Some do a better job than others.
So what kinds of drugs were in the salmon?
Drug concentrations included amphetamines; Benadryl; antibiotics; the antidepressants Prozac, Zoloft, and norfluoxetine; a calcium channel blocker called diltiazem; hormones such as estrone and testosterone; the cholesterol medication Lopid; and the antifungal miconazole.
We can do so much better than this. We have to. The health of our country is on the line.
You can read more here and a link to the study can be found here.
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“Parrhesia,” from the Greek, means “bold or fearless speech.” We are often taught to turn a blind eye to experiences of oppression. This is no more apparent than today when the United States sits in turmoil still arguing about whether or not racism exists. However, when our eyes are opened to oppression, we can be overwhelmed by a sense that individually we are powerless and the problem is too large big to be changed. PARRHESIA shows us though that we can take a stand against oppression, and that this kind of work is done every day through the regular choices we make as we live our ordinary lives. In the film, we meet eight “ordinary” individuals who share their stories about how they came to know oppression, how they act against it, and the costs and triumphs that come with speaking out.
This film was developed to generate conversation and exploration of concepts like privilege, racism, sexism, heterosexism, and social justice. It was inspired by the work of students from many walks of life who took on the challenge of answering very hard questions about how oppression has tried to direct their lives. We will see that while there are still many unsolved puzzles, just taking the steps to find the answers is an act of defiance against oppression. We invite the audience to go on this journey with us with the hope of creating these vital, if at times scary, parrhesiastic conversations.
PARRHESIA represents not just the vision of the directors, but the stand taken by everyone involved in this production. This documentary is unscripted, and it is the first time the directors have attempted to make a feature film. Ours is a low-budget, no-frills production; many involved volunteered their time and talents because in the end, we all believe in taking a stand against oppression and its many expressions. Each cast member had a say in how they are portrayed in this film. Every crew member had a voice in developing the film’s design. This film was a truly collaborative effort, the work of a community who chose to make media the way we want to make it, to show our stories the way we want them told. PARRHESIA is our expression of our lived truths. We risk ourselves in order to be ourselves, fully, even if this risk comes with potential personal cost.
The intention of the film is to create a counter-discourse to the norm of powerlessness against oppression, to show that there are many people who are invested in making change. The people in the film do not hold all the answers; in fact, several discuss their daily challenges in trying to take a stand and also address their fears and uncertainties with how to proceed. The film is meant to inspire dialogue and open audiences to the possibilities that they already have the ability to take steps, even if small, against oppression.
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Bougainvillea spectabilis, commonly known as great bougainvillea, is a popular ornamental plant that is native to South America. However, this beautiful flowering plant is more than just a pretty decoration. Bougainvillea spectabilis has a long history of use in traditional medicine, and recent scientific research has revealed that it has many potential health benefits. In this blog, we will explore the successful stories of Bougainvillea spectabilis medicinal uses.
Traditional Medicinal Uses:
Bougainvillea spectabilis has been used for centuries in traditional medicine. In India, it is used to treat a wide range of ailments including diabetes, fever, cough, and diarrhea. In Brazil, it is used as an anti-inflammatory and to treat skin diseases. In the Philippines, it is used to treat coughs, flu, and other respiratory illnesses.
Recent scientific research has confirmed many of the traditional medicinal uses of Bougainvillea spectabilis. For example, studies have found that the plant has anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties, which makes it an effective treatment for pain and inflammation. Bougainvillea spectabilis has also been found to have antimicrobial properties, making it an effective treatment for bacterial and fungal infections.
In addition, Bougainvillea spectabilis has been found to have potential anti-cancer properties. Studies have found that the plant contains compounds that can inhibit the growth of cancer cells and induce apoptosis (cell death) in cancer cells.
Bougainvillea spectabilis is more than just a beautiful flowering plant – it has many potential health benefits. Its traditional medicinal uses have been confirmed by scientific research, and the plant has been found to have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, and potential anti-cancer properties. As more research is conducted, it is likely that we will discover even more successful stories of Bougainvillea spectabilis medicinal uses. It is a promising plant for traditional and alternative medicine.
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What is Phone ‘Tethering’ ?
Smartphone Tethering is the process of attaching your phone to your laptop and using it as a 3G or a 4G modem. If you have your laptop with you and you are out and about, tethering allows you to attach that laptop to the internet using the data in your phone plan.
Any ‘decent’ phone will allow you to do tether. Your phone need only have a WiFi facility and a mobile data connection to wireless network. i.e. You need a SIM with some data on it from a company like Optus or Telstra and you (probably ) need a phone which was bought in the last 5 years.
Setting yourself up as a person who tethers their phone is not nearly as technical as you think. On Android, the facility is known both as a ‘Hotspot’ ( see image, below ) and ‘Tethering’. Apple call it a ‘Personal Hotspot.’ Get stuck in to your ‘Settings’ and you’ll see it quickly.
Connecting can be done in any of the usual PAN ( Personal Area Network ) – – ways : Using a physical cable to connect the mobile device and your laptop, Bluetooth or even WiFi to link them up. If you go the WiFi route – which is what most people do, simply select ‘Hotspot’ and flick the soft switch to ‘On’ you will then see your phone as an option under your laptop’s WiFi options on ‘Network and Internet’ settings. It’s nearly as simple as connecting to any other WiFi network.
The telcos ( phone companies ) used to be very sensitive about tethering and in some cases prevent it. They wanted to sell you a separate SIM for your mobile broadband service. Since data bundle allocations increased, things have loosened up. At the time of writing, all of those companies let you tether your mobile to a laptop and use the mobile plan’s data allowance for internet data on your computer.
Why tethering is so good
The simple version is that you can get mobile broadband at a really low cost by ‘bolting’ extra data on top of your standard voice plan and using your phone to access the internet at 3G ( or now 4G – LTE ! ) speeds. Because you’re already paying for the plan and the extra data is seen as a ‘bolt on’ ( an ‘add on’ service in addition to the core offering ) by the telcos, they offer the extra data at a low cost. This is why it makes sense to do it.
The alternative is to buy a separate service. Telcos call this Wireless or Mobile Broadband. This service requires an extra piece of hardware to act as the modem. This extra hardware can cost a lot of money. It’s possible to get more data by going on to a contract with the telco but signing up for a data contract while prices are halving every year is the quickest way to get really unhappy with your data bills !
If you tether : Adding 3 Gig to your plan on, for example, Optus, costs $30. You can vary your usage every month – although you’ll have to call the telco to change the details of the bolt on. There’s no contract for it, you can add more as you need it and you also have the flexibility of using the data on your phone if you prefer that ! Why would you do it any other way !? The answer is you probably shouldn’t.
If you are tethering, be careful
Obviously, there are some ideas to keep in mind if you decide to do a bit of tethering.
1. You need a more ‘modern’ Smartphone. On Apple devices, you can only do this on iPhones which are IOS version 4.0 or later. Which is pretty much everyone.
2. In some of the ‘lower end’ plans ( for example, anything under the $20 mark ) with the phone companies, you get relatively small data allowances. Data bundles under 2GB are common on plans with this sort of monthly commitment. In these circumstances, it’s technically possible to tether your laptop, you are almost certain to ‘blow your bundle’. That means exceed the data allowance they’ve given you. Out of bundle charging mechanisms have changed for the better since Optus introduced the new normal back in 2013. Even on a postpaid plan, buying an extra 1GB of data will cost you $10 from most providers. Of course, on a prepaid plan, so long as you don’t have credit on your account, the service will just stop.
3. Tethering can be slightly slower than the option of taking a separate modem to do the job.
4. Finally, unless the laptop is plugged in, there is obviously a battery impact either to the laptop and or the mobile device.
But, when you’re out and about, whether it’s an ‘emergency’ connection you need and so long as you’re not downloading a tonne of video, the smartest way to get mobile data to your laptop is by tethering.
We suggest you also keep in mind alternatives which have popped up recently, including significant data bundles, 25 GB – 75 GB for very affordable monthly fees. Why not take a look at the table of mobile broadband plans like or read more about these plans with significant data allowances.
The ACMA cover the whole topic of mobile broadband, including tethering, here : http://www.acma.gov.au/~/media/Numbering%20and%20Projects/Report/pdf/Economic%20impacts%20of%20mobile%20broadband_Final%20pdf.pdf
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Turn it in
Did you know that you can now use Turnitin on your assignments before you hand in your work?
Turn it in is a tool designed to support students and staff in identifying similarities in your work. It does this by checking your work against thousands of journal articles, websites, newspapers and work submitted by students, not just in UOS but all over the country.
How do I use Turnitin?
When you hand in your assignment on Brightspace, you will find an option to submit a draft, this will scan your work and give you feedback on your work. The university learning services have put together a useful guide on how to use Turnitin which can be found here.
How do I understand the feedback given by Turnitin?
The learning services department have put together a useful guide on how to interpret the feedback provided by Turnitin found here
What is plagiarism?
Plagiarism is presenting ideas or concepts from other sources without acknowledging the source, passing them off as your own work or referencing properly.
What is collusion?
Collusion is where a student uses another student’s work and tries to pass it off as their own work. This can be with or without a student’s knowledge.
My TurnItIn has a high percentage, does this mean I have plagiarised?
Turnitin does not check for plagiarism but at similarities in your work, so a high score does not necessarily mean you have plagiarised. Many students will be using the same sources of information and the same terms. Whoever is marking your work will be able to distinguish between plagiarism and similarities.
If you think you are struggling academically or need additional support, the Library holds regular workshops for referencing, academic writing and much more! You can see all the latest workshops here
or book a one-to-one appointment here.
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Gender equality is the view that both men and women should receive equal treatment and not be discriminated against based on their gender. Their are separate issues when we say rights,in terms of men’s rights and women’s rights.Gender equality is achieved when women and men enjoy the same rights and opportunities across all sectors of society, including economic participation and decision-making. Gender equality is measured by looking at the representation of men and of women in a range of roles. A number of international comparative gender equality indices have been prepared but here we are taking about India and what is the condition around. There are places where women are brutally beaten and are not cared of, but we often listen about injustice to men, here of course we are not talking about the condition of houses where a wife is ruling a husband but a man going to prison without any faults.
Some argue that some gender equality measures, place men at a disadvantage. However, when India’s population is examined as a whole, women are at a disadvantage in several important ways. We should be ashamed that India is ranked 132 for Gender Inequality Index out of 148 countries by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). According to a you tube video where some people asked public about gender equality and its implementation in India, most of the people were straight to the fact that women will not be able to reach the heights of men, here height meant physical strength. Basically interviewing in village areas matters because most of the country is covered with farms and plantings and is the main source of income for rural families. Women are not allowed to take over men in a family. When a man dies in India, and wife is left with her female kids, it is referred that now their would be no one to make their family going. This is the thinking of most of the people around us. Rural women are the most affected by this issue as they do not have rights and are married before they are capable of. Women who try to take actions are also not supported because their female ancestors have been following this since long. Female foeticide is the most buzzing topic in India whereas in foreign countries people even don’t know of the topic. Female foeticide refers to sex-selective abortion, where girls are not allowed to take birth. Then it comes to health and care, here India’s condition is bad for both males and females but here too girls lack in immunisation rates i.e.. 41.7 for girls and 45.3 for boys. Then next comes education where In rural India girls continue to be less educated than the boys India is on target to meet its Millennium Development Goal of gender parity in education by 2015. UNICEF’s measure of attendance rate and Gender Equality in Education Index (GEEI) capture the quality of education.Despite some gains, India needs to triple its rate of improvement to reach GEEI score of 95% by 2015 under the Millennium Development Goals.
Now i would want to brief about some men’s rights where men gets trapped between morality and responsibility. The first example I would want to make is undue advantage of urban city girls in several government and private schools and colleges, where they offer admission to girls if they are girls and no further criteria. Taking another example where girls take undue advantage is metros where they order for seats being a teenager from an old man intact having a separate coach for them and reserved seats in every coach.
Whatever be the condition is current times, but in recent future it is expected from our Indian government that some steps would surely be taken against these barbaric acts and country would be improved.
MOM ! I HAVE REALIZED IT
Have you ever seen a person or a moment that brought up any change in you or in your life? It might be a small change. Fortunately I had experience it, and yes it brought a change in me.
It was a normal day; I was going back to my house I was in the auto and from the start I noticed a person, he was not a poor man but he was from a lower middle class family, he was having a bottle of juice and a veg roll. I noticed him for some time and the thing i noticed and realized was an eye opener to me.
The auto was fully packed and there was hardly any space to sit but that person dint cared about anything he was busy eating his roll, from his expressions and from the way he was eating I get to know that he was very hungry, it seems like he was hungry since morning. People were fighting for their seats but that person was fighting with his hunger. It might be a first meal of his day and his meal meant a lot to him at that time, feeling of satisfaction could be seen from his face easily. I got to know about common people’s hunger.
A man hungry since morning just to save money, that’s ironic man earns for his stomach but his stomach is not always filled. On the other hand there are people like us who spend money on useless things without giving it a second thought. The reason might be anything showing off, buying stuffs that we really don’t need, eating junk food whenever we want in spite knowing the fact that we are not hungry or anything. We are the future of this nation if we will be casual regarding these things, you can simply imagine the future.
While noticing him I recalled my mom saying ‘you get things easily that’s why you don’t value them’ but today I want to say, Mom! I have realized what you wanted me to understand which was to value each and every thing you have.
He was a stranger to me but he taught me the major lesson of life and aspired me know the reality. No teacher could teach us things like this but our own experiences. Ill implement his lesson with the thought which says ‘ NO ONE CAN GO BACK AND MAKE A NEW START BUT ANYONE CAN START FROM NOW AND CAN MAKE A BRAND NEW ENDING.’
By – shubhanshi dimri
HUMAN TRAFFICKING – A SHAME TO HUMANITY
Human trafficking is the third largest organized crime across the globe after drugs and arms trade. Human trafficking is “the trade in humans, most commonly for the purpose of sexual slavery, forced labor, or for the extraction of organs and tissues, including surrogacy and ova removal. Trafficking is a lucrative industry, representing an estimated $32 billion per year in international trade, compared to the estimated $650 billion for all illegal international trade.” India is considered as the hub of this crime in Asia.
As per the statistics of the government in every eight minutes a child goes missing in our country. In 2011 about 35,000 children were reported missing and more than 11,000 out of these were from West Bengal.Further,it is assumed that only 30% of the total cases are reported,so the actual number is pretty high. The New York Times has reported on the widespread problem of human trafficking in India especially in the state of Jharkhand. Also in the report it is stated that young girls are trafficked from neighboring Nepal to India. In another article published in The Times of India – Karnataka is the third state in India for human trafficking. Other South Indian states are also the most sought after destinations for human trafficking. Every year more than 300 such cases are reported in each of the four south Indian states. Whereas West Bengal and Bihar, on an average have 100 such cases every year. As per the data, morethan half of the human trafficking cases are from these states. According to the latest reports on human trafficking by the United Nations on Drugs and Crime reveals that Tamil Nadu has 528 cases of human trafficking in 2012. The number is really high and more than any other state except West Bengal (549). As per the data from Ministry,1379 cases of human trafficking were reported from Karnataka in the period of four years, in Tamil Nadu the number is 2,244 whereas Andhra Pradesh has 2,157 cases of human trafficking. Recently 300 bonded laborers in Bangalore have been rescued. According to an article in Firstpost, Delhi is the hub of human trafficking trade in India and half of the world’s slaves lives in India. Delhi is the hotspot for illegal trade of young girls for domestic labor, forced marriage and prostitution. Delhi is also the transit point for human trafficking.
By- mukul paul
फूल कहते हैं
फूलों की पंखुड़ी पे रखी शबनम मुझसे बोली।
क्यों हो तुम खोई-खोई, क्या सोच रही हमजोली।।
ऐसा क्या है ग़म तुमको जो तुम भूली मुस्कान।
इस जग की सारी खुशियों से यूँफिरती हो अनजान।।
दर्द अगर है कोई जीवन में तो भी हँसते रहना।
सीखो इन फूलों से काँटों की चुभन भी सहना।।
तक़दीर ने तो फूलों को दिए हैं केवल काँटे।
लेकिन फूलों ने हर पल सबको सुख ही बाँटे।।
लोग कुचलकर इसके तन को कितनी दवा बनाएँ।
खु़द को मिटाकर भी ये सबकी जान बचाए।।
रंग-रूप निखारे सबका,सबका मन बहलाए।
रंग सजाकर अपना ये दुनिया रंगीन बनाए।।
पूजा की थाली में सजकर बने साधक की भाशा।
ईश्वर के चरणों में चढ़कर पूरी कराए अभिलाषा।।
बिंधकर सूई से गजरा बन जब वेणी को सजाए।
प्रियतम के मन की बात कह प्रिया को मनाए।।
अंतिम यात्रा में भी यही अंत तक साथ निभाए।
सब छोड़े साथ पर ये खुद संग ही जल जाए।।
लोग तोड़ लेते इसको पर ये न शिकवा करता।
अपनी रंगो-खुशबू से है सबका मन ये हरता।।
काँटों में रहकर भी न अपना स्वभाव बदला।
बुरा करने वालों का भी करता सदा ही भला।।
और तुम हो कि ज़रा से कश्ट से हो घबराई।
शबनम की बातें सुनकर मैं ज़रा सा मुसकाई।।
अपने मन में सोचा फिर इस सच को पहचाना।
फूलों में इक गुरु छिपा है ग़र समझे इसे जमाना।।
माना मैंने जीचन है एक अग्नि परीक्षा।
पर फूलों ने दी मुझको आज नई ये शिक्षा।।
जीवन में भाग्य चाहे सुख दे या दुख बाँटे।
मुझे फूल ही बनना है त्याग निराशा के काँटे।।
फूल की हर पंखुड़ी का है सबसे यही कहना।
सुख आए या दुख बस हँसते ही रहना।।
अपनों के लिए अपनों से दंश सह रही है नंदिनी।
संतान सफल हो इसलिए एकाकी रह रही है नंदिनी।।
बचपन की त्यागकर सभी अल्हड़ अठखेलियाँ
गंगा की तरह शांत गंभीर बह रही है नंदिनी।।
नव नीड़-निर्माण-निरत हैं सुत-सुता
उनकी खुशी के आशीर्वचन कह रही है नंदिनी।।
देह जीर्ण, हृदय विदीर्ण धारण किया पर धैर्य को
त्याग की प्रतिमूर्ति बन वसुधा सी सब सह रही है नंदिनी।।
नंदिनी नाम नारी का है जो सबके सुख में है सुखी
आरती की लौ बनी मौन जी रही है नंदिनी।।
सूरज से सीखो तुम भैया रोज़ समय से आना।
और सीखो तारों से तुम रातों को चमकाना।।
प्रकृति ने अपने-अपने सबको काम हैं बाँटे।
सब के हैं कर्त्तव्य यहाँ पर फूल हो या काँटे।।
फूलों का है काम , सारी दुनिया को महकाना।
काँटों की ड्यूटी है उनको बुरी नजर से बचाना।।
नदियों का कर्त्तव्य बना है सबकी प्यास बुझाना।
धरती करे व्यवस्था सबकी रहना हो या खाना।।
छोटे से तिनके का भी जब कुछ न कुछ कर्त्तव्य ।
सोचो हमें क्या करना है, हम तो हैं मनुष्य ।।
लें शपथ कि जी जान से अपना कर्त्तव्य निभाएँगे।
मानवता की सेवा में जीवन अर्पित कर जाएँगे।।
डाॅ. सीमा ठाकुर
नव चेतना फूँक ज़रा
फिर माता रही पुकार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।
उठ फिर भर हुँकार, नव चेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
झाड़ झंकार खड़े बेईमानी के
उखाड़ दे ये खर पतवार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
भीख नहीं हक़ माँग रहा तू
और ज़ोर से ललकार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
नहीं देश के काम आई जो ये जवानी
तो तुझपे है धिक्कार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
जयचंदों ने धारण कर लिए है नए वेश
ढूँढ निकाल गद्दार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
फिर उठा तलवार देश के गद्दारों का
ढूँढ कर मार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
रावण फिर मिलते हैं अब इन रूपों में
आतंक, मंहगाई,भ्रष्टाचार, नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा ।।
फिर ला धानी चूनर भारत माँ को पहनाने
फिर कर नव शृंगार , नवचेतना फूँक ज़रा।।
डाॅ. सीमा ठाकुर
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Today, February 11th is “National Make a Friend Day”
Making friends is such an important life skill, no matter your age. How do you make a new friend? National Make A Friend Day is a great opportunity for us all to meet someone new and make new friendships. It’s important to remember that friends play vital roles in everyone’s lives by being there for us on our good days and bad days.For the younger kids these friendship can form live long bonds and give them the understanding of trust and compassion for each other. New friends can introduce us to new healthy activities and see different perspectives and of course challenge us to try new and exciting things. Some great ways to open up and learn how to make a new friend 1. Show a smile and simple say “Hello”. 2. Revive old friendships, in today’s world of social media it’s easy to reconnect with friends and learn about what they are doing in life. 3. Understand the friendship is a responsibility. Just like a lot of things in life, friendships need to be nurtured and valued. It’s important to realize that the person you call friend, buddy, pal or bff is in your life for a reason and it’s so important to make them feel important.
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The 6th June, 2014 will mark the 70th Anniversary of Operation Overlord and the D-Day landing that changed the course of the Second World War and was the largest seaborne invasion in history.
Tonight at 9.30pm, 70 years ago the first aircraft took off from British airfields for airborne operations to seize key objectives such as bridges road crossings, and terrain features, particularly on the eastern and western flanks of the landing areas.
Some estimates state that more than 4,000 Allied troops lost their lives in the D-Day invasion, with thousands more wounded or missing. However, by the end of the day around 156,000 Allied troops had successfully stormed Normandy’s beaches.
In the following weeks after D-Day, the Allies fought their way across the Normandy countryside in the face of determined German resistance and by the end of June, the Allies had seized the vital port of Cherbourg, landed approximately 850,000 men and 150,000 vehicles in Normandy, and were poised to continue their march across France.
Do you have any D-Day heroes in your family? Maybe you are researching them and your family's military history - search the Forces war records site and fill in the missing pieces...
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Dr Debi Futter-Puati has studied intimacy and relationships for the past five years and what her research has uncovered could be uncomfortable for some people.
“One of the interesting things in our research was that about 20 per cent of the young population have more than one relationship at one time.
“I would suspect that would be very similar with the adult population. It’s not something that only young people do.
“I think it’s an interesting - and challenging - thing in this resource to take that statistic and work out how do we keep people safe when they are choosing to have more than one relationship at the same time?
“In the past we always have promoted that people should be faithful as a way of minimising Sexually Transmitted Infections.
“When we know that a fifth of our population is having more than one relationship we have to think outside the box to consider how we can keep people safe if they are choosing to have multiple relationships.
“We have to start actually talking about polyamorous relationships - where people are not monogamous - in a safe way mentally, emotionally, physically. That was the biggest challenge.”
Futter-Puati says there is a future lesson about that and “It will be very interesting to see how they respond to that”.
“Telling people to just stick to one person doesn’t work – people have been told that for decades and it hasn’t stopped these behaviours! “
Is there a large lesbian, gay, bisexual or transgender population on the island?
Futter-Puati says a 2012 survey showed almost 10 per cent of youth identified as being LGBT.
But, she says, 23 per cent either refused to answer the question or didn’t know.
“Because we were talking about 15 to 24-year-olds there could have been young people still questioning their sexuality, or they could have been too scared to answer.
“I think if you are straight (heterosexual) you just tick the box and move on ... you don’t think twice. But if you are not ...”
She says the fact that 23 per cent were confused tells her it is likely that more than 10 per cent of the population are probably LGBT.
“Therefore our society needs to support these people.”
In the educational resource the stories of eight LGBT Cook Islanders are shared.
“These courageous people were willing to write about the discrimination and fear they have experienced and how they have overcome some of these issues and how they would like to, or do, live their lives now.
“Some are able to do be who they are in our society but, for others, it is much more difficult. It is determined by society’s ‘rules’ and often by a person’s immediate family values.
“It is not easy for anyone who is LGBT to come out in the Cook Islands.”
Futter-Puati says while sexuality education was mandated in 2004, the realities are different.
“There may be only two schools providing comprehensive sexuality education. They are Tereora and Mauke. The fact that Mauke can offer sexuality education from Grade 1 (age-appropriate lessons of course) right through to their senior level takes away all the excuses that are often given that communities don’t support sexuality education.
“What the staff at Mauke School are achieving is inspirational.
“There may be others and I would love to be proven wrong.”
She says: “I’d really like to see all 30 people trained this week to be supported by their communities to facilitate this education on their island or in their school.
“Then we would straightaway have 550 kids who are being educated and who are more likely to make ‘good, healthy’ choices for themselves.
“Isn’t that what we all want for our kids? Ideally they’d teach this work with more than one classroom of kids ... three or four classes.”
Futter-Puati says education is just one step, with changes in the Crimes Act needed and support systems in place for kids struggling with aspects of their sexuality or relationships.
The Rangi Marie: Suicide Prevention Report (2015) identified that issues with sexuality and relationships are more often than not the main reasons that young people ring the helpline.
So how difficult is it to get across these ideas in a religious country?
“I think that most people really care for their children - no matter what religious denomination they are - and they want the best for their kids.
“My experience when I talk to parents concerned about their child’s sexual education is that we are usually on the same page.
“We want our kids to choose good partners, want our kids to have positive relationships and we want our kids to be happy and safe.
“And that’s what this is about. People say to me that this is so long overdue and they can’t believe we finally have a Cook Islands sexuality education resource and are doing this work.
“It is very rare to have somebody - once they understand what we are doing - to actually resist it.”
So what do the workshops teach people?
“Understanding we are all different and unique and what I want in a relationship is not necessarily what someone else wants and that is okay. Because if we talk about and decide that our needs together aren’t compatible then we can work with that in respectful ways rather than resorting to the violence that young people told me happens regularly in relationships here.
“Either stay together, or not, it isn’t rocket science is it?”
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Many years ago we grew potatoes in a DIY pallet container and I’ve been asked a lot since how it all turned out.
Reasons to use pallets for a potato container
Pallets are readily available and a free source of building material which is why there’s been a trend of re-purposed pallet projects.
There is mixed information online however in terms of whether or not pallets are safe to use because they are often treated with a chemical (Methal Bromide) to kill insects.
If they’ve been chemically treated they will be stamped MB. Other times they are heat treated and will be stamped HT. Make sure you check your pallets and choose HT stamped ones.
The idea with growing potatoes in large containers is that as the plant grows you keep adding soil and mulch to increase the depth thus the yield. Does this work? It depends on a couple of things.
Mistakes not to make
When we grew our potatoes in these re-purposed pallet containers there were a few things that we did wrong so we didn’t get the yield expected. We were newbie gardeners back then (this was our 2nd garden!) and I believe that following the tips below will make the pallet potato container a success instead of just ‘so-so’ for yields.
Tips for growing potatoes in pallets.
- Choose potato varieties that are late season not early. Increased depth and yield will only work if your crops can grow to a tall size. Early potatoes, and even some mid-season potato varieties (determinate) don’t grow very tall like the late season (indeterminate potatoes) do. We made the mistake of using an early season potato and thus our container didn’t yield much at all and there was wasted space.
- Make sure you use good soil and compost. If you have poor soil your plants can’t grow well.
- Don’t cover the plants too much. As the crops grow you want to keep mulching with more soil, compost and straw but make sure you don’t cover all the plant matter as it needs sunshine to keep growing. We mulched one pallet with wood chips instead of soil and that one failed compared to the straw mulched container, so I’d also recommend not using wood chips.
- Make sure your pallet containers get enough sunshine. There are a lot of potato tower designs that you add wooden boards while the plant grows to allow for adequate light. The pallets can block sunlight so make sure it’s situated in the right place.
I would grow potatoes in pallet containers again and not make the same mistakes that we did the first time around as I am curious to know if the yield is higher with the increased depth.
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Particularly powerful are the newly-released copies of the IBM concentration camp codes. IBM maintained a customer site, known as the Hollerith Department, in virtually every concentration camp to sort or process punch cards and track prisoners. The codes show IBM’s numerical designation for various camps. Auschwitz was 001, Buchenwald was 002; Dachau was 003, and so on. Various prisoner types were reduced to IBM numbers, with 3 signifying homosexual, 9 for anti-social, and 12 for Gypsy. The IBM number 8 designated a Jew. Inmate death was also reduced to an IBM digit: 3 represented death by natural causes, 4 by execution, 5 by suicide, and code 6 designated “special treatment” in gas chambers. IBM engineers had to create Hollerith codes to differentiate between a Jew who had been worked to death and one who had been gassed, then print the cards, configure the machines, train the staff, and continuously maintain the fragile systems every two weeks on site in the concentration camps.
Newly-released photographs show the Hollerith Bunker at Dachau. It housed at least two dozen machines, mainly controlled by the SS. The foreboding concrete Hollerith blockhouse, constructed of reinforced concrete and steel, was designed to withstand the most intense Allied aerial bombardment. Those familiar with Nazi bomb-proof shelters will recognize the advanced square-cornered pillbox design reserved for the Reich’s most precious buildings and operations. IBM equipment was among the Reich’s most important weapons, not only in its war against the Jews, but in its general military campaigns and control of railway traffic. Watson personally approved expenditures to add bomb shelters to DEHOMAG installations because the cost was born by the company. Such costs cut into IBM’s profit margin. Watson’s approval was required because he received a one-percent commission on all Nazi business profits.
[In an odd coincidence, I was discussing IBM’s role in the holocaust just this weekend. Thanks T., for the pointer to the article.]
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An incredible day in history. Early in the morning Jesus was transferred from Caiaphas, the Jewish High Priest, to Pontius Pilate, the Roman military governor. When Pilate learned that Jesus was from Galilee, he sent Him to Herod Antipas. Herod quickly sent Him back to Pilate. Under pressure from the religious leaders, Pilate delivered Jesus to be crucified. The numerous events from the last day prior to the crucifixion of Jesus are recorded in the New Testament (Matthew 26-27; Mark 14-15; Luke 22-23; John 18-19).
As early as Byzantine times Christians began to follow the final steps of Jesus on specified days. Over the centuries many changes were made in the route and the stops. The traditional Via Dolorosa, as known today, was fixed in the 18th century.
Jerome Murphy-O’Connor says,
The Via Dolorosa is defined by faith, not by history. (The Holy Land, 5th edition, 37)
The present Way of the Cross has little chance of corresponding to historical reality… (38)
According to tradition, the third station of the cross is where Jesus falls the first time under His cross. It sounds reasonable, but the Gospels make no specific mention of this.
This photo shows the street in front of the third station. The plaque in Hebrew, Arabic and English provides the following information about the street.
Paving stones, apparently from the Second Temple Period (ca. 100 B.C.E. – 100 C.E.). The street was found in its entirety 3 meters below the existing level and was partially restored by the Municipality of Jerusalem … 1980-1981.
This means that the street Jesus might have walked is at least 10 feet below the present street level.
[A portion of this post is repeated from April 8, 2009.]
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Hate getting shots at the doctor? Take heart: scientists are working on microscopic needles that don't hurt. First up, vaccines:
Microneedle patches are about the size of a postage stamp and hold hundreds of miniscule needles, each less than a millimeter long. They feel "like 400-grit, fine sandpaper," says Pete Daddona, chief scientific officer at Zosano Pharma Inc., in Fremont, Ca., which is working on microneedle delivery for several drugs, including one for treating osteoporosis.
Though skin is approximately 2 millimeters thick, the outermost barrier is much thinner. Once through it, the microneedles are within the skin's wet interior, where vaccines can reach the immune system and medicines can easily get into the bloodstream.
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What is a Private Water Supply and do these regulations apply to me?
In north Norfolk, a private water supply (PWS) is any water supply that is not provided by Anglian Water; i.e. it is not a ‘mains’ supply.
There are about 450 such supplies in our district. The source of the supply may be a well, borehole, spring, stream, river, lake or pond. Most of those in north Norfolk are supplied via a borehole or well. The supply may serve just one property or several properties through a network of pipes.
The Private Water Supplies Regulations apply to all private water supplies intended for human consumption. This means they apply to water for domestic purposes (e.g. drinking, cooking, food preparation and washing) and water used for food-production purposes (e.g. hotel, restaurant, food factory, etc) in England.
We are responsible for monitoring PWS. The Regulations give a clear indication of the monitoring requirements from which we develop our annual sampling programme. They set out procedures we must follow if we consider a PWS is unwholesome.
Our Private Water Supplies leaflet is available to download below. It summarises how the Regulations work, our responsibility for risk assessments, sampling and how we handle the results.
The Supporting Information link below provides three factsheets about the most likely problems to affect a private water supply.
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In Exodus 14, the people are between a rock and a hard place, or more literally they are between Pharaoh’s army and the Red Sea. Moses steps forward and shouts “Fear not, stand still and see the Salvation of the Lord… He will fight for you“, Exodus 14:13-14.
The “Angel of the Lord” seen in the pillars of smoke and fire, then moves between the people and Pharaoh’s army as the Red Sea opens in front of them, Exodus 14:19. Then as the army pursues the people into the opened up sea they come through the pillars of fire and smoke and their wheel get caught and swerve, Exodus 14:24. It is then that the Egyptian’s declare that God is fighting for Israel, Exodus 14:25. God is seen visibly fighting for his people by his Angel, literally his “walker” in the fire and smoke.
This is a clear Christophany, a pre-incarnation appearance of the Son making the the unknowable and invisible God tangible. But what is really interesting here is that both before and after the event Moses unwittingly by faith acknowledges Jesus by name.
First the name appears in the statement “the Salvation of the Lord…” which reads “את–ישועת יהוה“.
The blue word את is the untranslated Aleph-Tav word that symbolically speaks about God who is the “first and last”, but also of sacrifice, because when it was written in Moses day it was written picto-graphically with a bulls head and two crossed sticks, (see left). A bull was the biggest sacrifice you could offer and you did so by burnt offering over sticks.
Then in red we see Jesus’ name ישוע followed by a final tav ת, which is convention when the next word starts with a vowel, which is does here, YHWH/יהוה .
Then when the children of Israel come out on the otherside of the Red Sea, Moses and then Miriam sing a song that starts with: “I will sing to the LORD because he is highly exalted“, Exodus 15:1. The phrase “highly exalted” (“triumphed gloriously” in some translations) is actually the same Hebrew word doubled up, the word “גאה“/”gaah”, (the masoretic text adds different vowel markers to slightly modify the two meanings but in Jesus’ day these where the same word), and “גאה“/”gaah” means “risen”, see Strong’s 01342.
So Moses and the people and in particular Miriam which is the Hebrew root of the name Mary declare: “I will sing to the Lord for he is RISEN RISEN” just as Mary Magdalene must have first announced this truth the first Easter Sunday.
As the people worship they continue to express their faith prophetically calling out: “The LORD my strength and Song has now become salvation for me. He is my God and I will prepare a place for him to live.“, Exodus 15:2. You’ve probably already guessed it, but the words “salvation for” are in Hebrew “ל:ישועה” where “ישועה“/”Yeshuah” is an alternative spelling of the name “ישוע“/”Yeshua” just as “Stephen” is the same as the name “Steven” in English.
Crossing of the Red Sea was Israel’s baptism, passing through the waters of death with Jesus and coming to up into life on the other side. To become a place for the God who had become “Yeshua” for them to dwell.
It was Jesus who led the people through the waters and Jesus whose rising bought them safe to the Promised land and Jesus who dwelt in them when they got there!
Christen has planted churches, been a youth worker, mission administrator and church leaders. The author of several books, Christen is now an itinerant minister, helping churches to step into a more deliberately spiritual experience of the Christian life while at the same time firmly rooting their practice in scripture.
© 2000 - 2017 Christen Forster
Latest posts by Christen Forster (see all)
- The Gospels: Who, When and Why? (Audio & Video Teaching Sessions) - September 16, 2016
- Samson – whose greatest victory was his death. - August 7, 2016
- Jephthah – fulfilled vows and family tragedy! - April 25, 2016
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“When... any of your brothers is poor, do not harden your heart or shut your hand against your needy brother. Open your hand generously, and extend to him any credit he needs to take care of his wants.” (Deut. 15:7-8)
Below are two stories which illustrate Rav Kook’s remarkable generosity. Both incidents occurred during the years that he served as chief rabbi of Jaffa, from 1904 to 1914.
Rav Kook’s wife once appeared before the community directorate of Jaffa, headed by Mr. Meir Dizengoff, with a serious complaint. She had not seen her husband’s salary for months and had no means of support. The leaders of the community were shocked. After investigating the matter, however, they discovered that the rabbi himself was distributing his income to the needy.
The leaders asked Rav Kook how he could act in such a manner, caring more for strangers than his own household.
Rav Kook responded simply, “My family can buy food at the local grocery on credit. Others, however, cannot do so. Who would agree to give them what they need on credit?”
From that day on, the treasurer of the community was given strict orders to give the rabbi’s salary only to his wife.
In 1907, the Jaffa correspondent for the Chavatzelet newspaper published an article criticizing the Anglo-Palestine Bank (now known as Bank Leumi). Apparently, a man applied for a loan in the bank and was asked to provide eleven guarantors. The man managed to find fourteen people who were willing to sign, one of whom was Rav Kook. The bank, however, disqualified most of them - including the rabbi. The correspondent’s conclusion was that the bank deliberately discriminated against religious Jews.
A few weeks later, a rejoinder appeared in the paper. The author, almost certainly associated with the bank, argued that the bank was justified in its rejection of Rav Kook’s guarantees. He wrote:
“The rabbi is extremely good-hearted and gentle by nature. The poor cling to him. The only reason there are some beggars who do not knock on his door is because they know he has no money. If they only knew that they could get money in exchange for a small piece of paper, which he can always grant them, they would give him no peace.”
“Besides which, [if the rabbi would be accepted as a guarantor], he would unwittingly put himself under the burden of debts, from which he would be unable to escape. Large amounts of money would be lost, and one of the following would suffer: either the esteemed rabbi — and it would be highly unpleasant for the bank to extract money from him — or the bank itself. Therefore, the bank decided unanimously not to honor the rabbi’s guarantees.”
(Adapted from An Angel Among Men by Simcha Raz, translated by R. Moshe Lichtman, pp. 344-346)
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Sir William Herschel, original name Friedrich Wilhelm Herschel (born Nov. 15, 1738, Hannover, Hanover—died Aug. 25, 1822, Slough, Buckinghamshire, Eng.), German-born British astronomer, the founder of sidereal astronomy for the systematic observation of the heavens. He discovered the planet Uranus, hypothesized that nebulae are composed of stars, and developed a theory of stellar evolution. He was knighted in 1816.
Herschel’s father was an army musician. Following the same profession, the boy played in the band of the Hanoverian Guards. After the French occupation of Hanover in 1757, he escaped to England, where at first he earned a living by copying music. But he steadily improved his position by becoming a music teacher, performer, and composer, until in 1766 he was appointed organist of a fashionable chapel in Bath, the well-known spa.
By this time, the intellectual curiosity he had acquired from his father led him from the practice to the theory of music, which he studied in Robert Smith’s Harmonics. From this book he turned to Smith’s A Compleat System of Opticks, which introduced him to the techniques of telescope construction and whetted his appetite for viewing the night sky. Combining obstinacy with boundless energy, William was not content to observe the nearby Sun, Moon, and planets, as did nearly all astronomers of his day, but was determined to study the distant celestial bodies as well, and he realized he would need telescopes with large mirrors to collect enough light, larger, in fact, than opticians could supply at reasonable cost. He was soon forced to grind his own mirrors. They were ground from metal disks of copper, tin, and antimony in various proportions. In 1781 his ambitions outran the capacities of the local foundries, and so he prepared to cast molten metal into disks in the basement of his own home; but the first mirror cracked on cooling, and on the second attempt the metal ran out onto the flagstones, after which even he accepted temporary defeat. His later and more successful attempts produced ever-larger mirrors of superb quality—his telescopes proved far superior even to those used at the Greenwich Observatory. He also made his own eyepieces, the strongest with a magnifying power of 6,450 times.
At Bath, he was helped in his researches by his brother Alexander, who had come from Hanover, and his sister, Caroline, who was his faithful assistant through much of his career. News of this extraordinary household began to spread in scientific circles. He made two preliminary telescopic surveys of the heavens. Then, in 1781, during his third and most complete survey of the night sky, William came upon an object that he realized was not an ordinary star.
It proved to be the planet Uranus, the first planet to be discovered since prehistoric times. William became famous almost overnight. His friend Dr. William Watson, Jr., introduced him to the Royal Society of London, which awarded him the Copley Medal for the discovery of Uranus, and elected him a Fellow. Watson also helped him to secure in 1782 an annual pension of £200 from George III. He could thus give up music and devote himself exclusively to astronomy. At this time William was appointed as an astronomer to George III, and the Herschels moved to Datchet, near Windsor Castle.
Although he was 43 years old when he became a professional astronomer, William worked night after night to develop a “natural history” of the heavens. A fundamental problem for which Herschel’s big telescopes were ideally suited concerned the nature of nebulae, which appear as luminous patches in the sky. Some astronomers thought they were nothing more than clusters of innumerable stars the light of which blends to form a milky appearance. Others held that some nebulae were composed of a luminous fluid. When William’s interest in nebulae developed in the winter of 1781–82, he quickly found that his most powerful telescope could resolve into stars several nebulae that appeared “milky” to less well equipped observers. He was convinced that other nebulae would eventually be resolved into individual stars with more powerful instruments. This encouraged him to argue in 1784 and 1785 that all nebulae were formed of stars and that there was no need to postulate the existence of a mysterious luminous fluid to explain the observed facts. Nebulae that could not yet be resolved must be very distant systems, he maintained; and, since they seem large to the observer, their true size must indeed be vast—possibly larger even than the star system of which the Sun is a member. By this reasoning, William was led to postulate the existence of what later were called “island universes” of stars.
Theory of the evolution of stars.
In order to interpret the differences between these star clusters, it was natural for William to emphasize their relative densities, which he did by contrasting a cluster of tightly packed stars with others in which the stars were widely scattered. These formations showed that attractive forces were at work: with the passage of time, he maintained, widely scattered stars would no doubt condense into one or more tightly packed clusters. In other words, a group of widely scattered stars was at an earlier stage of its development than one whose stars were tightly packed. Thus, William made change in time, or evolution, a fundamental explanatory concept in astronomy. In 1785 he developed a cosmogony—a theory concerning the origin of the universe: the stars originally were scattered throughout infinite space, in which attractive forces gradually organized them into even more fragmented and tightly packed clusters. Turning then to the system of stars of which the Sun is part, he sought to determine its shape on the basis of two assumptions: (1) that with his telescope he could see all the stars in our system, and (2) that within the system the stars are regularly spread out. Both of these assumptions he subsequently had to abandon. But in his studies he gave the first major example of the usefulness of stellar statistics in that he could count the stars and interpret this data in terms of the extent in space of the Galaxy’s star system. Other astronomers, cut off from the evidence by the modest size of their telescopes and unwilling to follow William in his bold theorizing, could only look on with varying degrees of sympathy or skepticism.
In 1787 the Herschels moved to Old Windsor, and the following year to nearby Slough, where William spent the rest of his life. Night after night, whenever the Moon and weather permitted, he observed the sky in the company of Caroline, who recorded his observations. On overcast nights, William would post a watchman to summon him if the clouds should break. Often in the daytime, Caroline would summarize the results of their work while he directed the construction of telescopes, many of which he sold to supplement their income. His largest instrument, too cumbersome for regular use, had a mirror made of speculum metal, with a diameter of 122 centimetres (48 inches) and a focal length of 12 metres (40 feet). Completed in 1789, it became one of the technical wonders of the 18th century.
William’s achievement, in a field in which he became a professional only in middle life, was made possible by his own total dedication and the selfless support of Caroline. He seems not to have considered the possibility of marriage until after the death in 1786 of a friend and neighbour, John Pitt, whose widow, Mary, was a charming and pleasant woman. Before long, William proposed marriage; he and Mary would live in the Pitt house, while Caroline would remain at Observatory House in Slough. But Mrs. Pitt was shrewd enough to realize that William’s commitment would be to Observatory House, which they made their principal home after their marriage on May 8, 1788. William continued his labour in astronomy, but as the rigours of observing took their toll of William’s health, he came to appreciate more and more the comforts that Mary’s sensible management brought to his home.
Theory of the structure of nebulae.
William’s grand concept of stellar organization received a jolt on Nov. 13, 1790, when he observed a remarkable nebula, which he was forced to interpret as a central star surrounded by a cloud of “luminous fluid.” This discovery contradicted his earlier views. Hitherto William had reasoned that many nebulae that he was unable to resolve (separate into distinct stars), even with his best telescopes, might be distant “island universes” (such objects are now known as galaxies). He was able, however, to adapt his earlier theory to this new evidence by concluding that the central star he had observed was condensing out of the surrounding cloud under the forces of gravity. In 1811 he extended his cosmogony backward in time to the stage when stars had not yet begun to form out of the fluid.
This example of William’s theorizing is typical of his thinking: an unrivalled wealth of observations interpreted by means of bold though vulnerable assumptions. For example, in dealing with the structural organization of the heavens, he assumed that all stars were equally bright, so that differences in apparent brightness are an index only of differences in distances. Throughout his career he stubbornly refused to acknowledge the accumulating evidence that contradicted this assumption. Herschel’s labours through 20 years of systematic sweeps for nebulae (1783–1802) resulted in three catalogs listing 2,500 nebulae and star clusters that he substituted for the 100 or so milky patches previously known. He also cataloged 848 double stars—pairs of stars that appear close together in space, and measurements of the comparative brightness of stars. He observed that double stars did not occur by chance as a result of random scattering of stars in space but that they actually revolved about each other. His 70 published papers include not only studies of the motion of the solar system through space and the announcement in 1800 of the discovery of infrared rays but also a succession of detailed investigations of the planets and other members of the solar system.
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A campaign launched by economist Gareth Morgan to raise awareness about the impact of cats on native wildlife has elicited a range of opinions, but what does the evidence say?
This week , Dr Morgan launched the Cats-to-go campaign, calling for further efforts to prevent cats killing native birds. Recommendations included: affixing bells to collars, keeping cats indoors, neutering, requiring registration and microchipping for cats and — more controversially — calling on cat owners not to replace their pets when they die.
You can read more about the website and the extensive media coverage it has received here. Bloggers Dr David Winter and Dr Wayne Linklater have also written about the issue on science blogging network Sciblogs.co.nz
The Science Media Centre gathered the following comments from experts on predator control and conservation. If you would like to contact a New Zealand expert, please contact the SMC (04 499 5476; [email protected]).
Dr Alistair Fairweather, Department of Conservation, comments:
“Dr Morgan has expressed concerns about the high level of cat ownership in New Zealand and the threat cats pose to our native wildlife. He is advocating for responsible cat ownership and encouraging people to consider not replacing pet cats when they die. What Dr Morgan is saying and promoting is broadly supported by current research and in line the Department of Conservation’s (DOC) views.
“A feral cat is a cat living independently of humans and breeding in the wild. Their populations are self-sustaining, although they may be supplemented by unwanted domestic cats that have been dumped. While feral cats feed mainly on rabbits and rodents they also have an impact on native birds, lizards, bats and insects. There are many examples where feral cats have contributed to the decline of native species in New Zealand. To reduce the impact of feral cats on native wildlife, there are a number of sites around New Zealand where they are controlled by the Department of Conservation and community groups.
“Domestic cats are companion for many people. However, they are predators, and given the chance, will hunt. Many of the animals caught by domestic cats around cities and towns are rodents or non-native birds. Domestic cats, especially those living near native habitats, have been reported as catching native birds (including kereru, tui, fantails, grey warbler), reptiles (such as common skink and the rare gold-striped gecko) and native insects. It is difficult to estimate the scale of domestic cat predation on native species because domestic cats only bring home about 25% of their prey, the rest being eaten or left were it was caught.
“DOC supports responsible cat ownership and there are a few simple actions cat owners can do to help protect native wildlife.”
- Don’t dump unwanted kittens, give them to the SPCA or have them put down.
- If you live near an area with native wildlife, keep your pet well fed and indoors at night.
- Attaching a bell to your cat’s collar can also help as it makes it harder for them to stalk silently.
Cath Watson, President of the Companion Animal Society of New Zealand Veterinary Association, comments:
“Dr Morgans dream of eliminating cats from NZ is laudable from a conservation viewpoint, but unrealistic in reality and cannot in itself solve the issues surrounding endangered wildlife in NZ.
“There are a number of factors that would have to be taken into account before targeting solely cats can be considered:
- Cat are just a part of a wider ecosystem and do not just prey on birds. They will also reduce the populations of other pest such at mice, rats, and rabbits. Removing cats from the ecosystem may have unforseen consequences on the ecosystem as a whole, also to the detriment of native wildlife
- Habitat destruction and competition for food sources from introduced species such as rabbits, possums, insects and introduced bird species also have a huge impact on NZ native wildlife, arguably more so than owned cats
- The important role of cats in households. 83% are currently considered a member of the family and most of these are kept for their companionship role or education for children. Cats can play a very important role in human health, bahviour and wellbeing.
- There are currently no controls on who can own cats, what the responsibilities of cat owners are, what areas there are may not be suitable for cat ownership, and how many cats a person can own. This would be a better starting point for managing the NZ cat population
“There are also three classes of cats that need to be taken into account:
1) True feral cats who have no dependence on humans for survival at all. These cats have to be highly capable killers just to survive and are likely to be the greatest threat to NZ wildlife.
2) Stray cats – these cats often have many of their needs directly or indirectly met by humans – often living in shelter provided by human habitation and existing by scavenging, or sometimes fed by members of the public. They interact and interbreed with pet populations. They also contribute to predation of vulnerable NZ native species such as birds, skinks and geckos.
3) Owned domestic cats have a human directly responsible for their welfare needs of food, water, shelter, health needs etc. These cats are more likely to be occasional killers to satisfy behavioural needs rather than as a source of food.
“The Companion Animal Society of the NZ Veterinary Association recognise feral cats as being the greatest threat to NZ wildlife and they have the least value to society, except as random pest control. Stray cats contribute more positively to NZ society but still require responsible management and monitoring to ensure their impact on native fauna is minimal. The third group of cats are family members, where education on responsible pet ownership would have much greater benefits not only to nearby wildlife, but also the cats and the families they belong with as well.
“Gareth Morgan would do well to direct his energies to eliminating feral cats, dismantling stray cat populations and encouraging responsible cat ownership and legislation to support it. This could be achieved by legislating (central government) that all cats should be microchipped, all non – breeding cats are neutered, and cat ownership regulated by local councils (eg define number of cats permitted /household, ban cat ownership in sensitive areas for NZ wildlife).
“From an individual cat owner perspective, the responsibility lies around ensuring there is whole of life care for the cat. It means there is somewhere safe for the cat to be when on holiday or in the case of a change of living circumstances. It means restricting the cat’s access to the outdoors at the high risk time to both cats and wildlife i.e. dawn, dusk and overnight. It means providing behavioural enrichment and a suitable food and water supply to reduce the cats need for predation. It means desexing, microchipping and providing suitable health care for the cat. It means being aware of the surroundings you live in and what is safest for both the cat and any native wildlife before taking on the responsibility of cat ownership.”
Should consideration be given to the fact that cats do prey on other pests that harm native wildlife?
“Absolutely. It is the reason some people have cats in the first place. You cannot eliminate one predator without controlling all pests at the same time in an ecosystem. Remove cats and you may find a boom in rat and mice populations as a result. While his aims are admiarble, eliminating cats alone won’t solve NZ predation issues on native wildlife. You also have to look at the issues of competition for food sources from introduced birds, possums etc, as well as habitat destruction which also play a huge role in the success and decline of endangered species
“Responsible pet ownership centres around pet owners being aware of their legal & moral responsibilities as well as what their pet needs for optimum health and wellbeing. It also means showing empathy, compassion and a sense of responsibility towards all animals. This includes:
- a commitment to ‘whole of life’ care
- provision of appropriate food, water and shelter
- provision of a safe environment & containment that allows for adequate control of access to the road, toxins and other hazards
- providing environmental enrichment to avoid behavioural problems
- adequate holiday arrangements to ensure the safety and welfare of the pet
- adequate arrangements if the owners circumstances change to ensure the pet is not abandoned
- desexing or fertility control of pets to prevent unwanted litters
- seeking veterinary assistance for any health problems as well as regular health checks, worming, vaccinations
- adequate arrangements to cover health care needs of the pet eg pet insurance or a savings account
- understanding, accepting and following council bylaws for public safety and the preservation of ecologically sensitive areas
- identification, preferably by microchip, of all pets
“More specifically in this case, to reduce predation of native wildlife, considering keeping the cat indoors is a reasonable demand. However, it will not suit all lifestyles of owners and may result in serious behavioral consequences for the cat and owner, and needs careful consideration to the cats environmental needs. We would strongly recommend keeping cats indoors overnight and especially around dawn and dusk. Not only does this reduce the risk of predation, it also reduces the risk of misadventure for the cat.”
Dr Yolanda van Heezik, Senior Lecturer, Zoology, University of Otago, comments:
“There have been three published studies quantifying the prey caught by domestic cats in New Zealand (in Auckland, Christchurch and my study in Dunedin) and they all agree in reporting that pet cats catch birds, including native species. Cats appear to catch species in proportion to their abundance in the environment, so in Dunedin, the two most abundant bird species (silvereyes and house sparrows) were the two most common bird species caught by cats. Cats in the Dunedin study also caught native species such as fantails and bellbirds. Fantails seem to be particularly vulnerable. My study identified that about one third of cats did not bring any prey home, about a half brought back prey infrequently, but that about 20% were frequent hunters. The average number of prey brought back per year was 13, but that included rats, mice, lizards and invertebrates. It should be borne in mind though, that a recent study using Kittycams in the US reported that cats brought back only one third of the prey that they actually caught and killed, so the NZ studies probably under-estimated total numbers killed.
“I support Gareth Morgan in his campaign to raise awareness about the impacts that pet, stray, and feral cats have on our native wildlife. I suspect that most people have never given the issue much thought, or they think that the one or two birds caught by their own cat makes no difference. People need to consider that cats exists across cities at a density of about 225 per sq km, and that even though individual cats may catch few birds, cumulatively the total of birds killed is large. Other countries such as Australia have regulations in place around cat ownership and cat movements, and we need to start thinking along the same lines, if we value our native wildlife, and want to live in towns and cities where we can encounter native wildlife as part of our everyday lives.
“Feral cats are known to be a problem. The impact of pet cats is less well known. Because pet cats are fed, they are referred to as subsidized predators. They are more likely to hunt wildlife populations to extinction, as they do not rely on wild prey for food, so they are less likely to switch to alternative sources of prey when their prey population becomes so depleted it costs too much energy to hunt for it.
“Stray cats are an important issue. Stray cat colonies that are fed by the public still kill wild species. Well-fed cats hunt. TNR policies (trap-neuter-return) have been shown in other countries to be ineffective at controlling stray cat populations.
“Cats do prey on rats, which are also significant predators of wildlife. This is an argument for carrying out simultaneous rat control in areas where cats are absent.
“The recommendations given by Gareth Morgan are reasonable: consider using a collar with a bell: our research has shown they reduced catch by 50%. There are other devices to curb cat predation, such as the catBib, and I suspect more in development. Consider keeping your cat inside at all times. This ruling is in effect already in some parts of Australia. And consider not replacing your cat when it eventually dies.
“I’m currently involved in a study coordinated by Assoc. Prof Mike Calver at Murdoch University in Australia, surveying the public in NZ, Australia, the UK and the USA to ascertain the opinions of the community on cat ownership and regulations around ownership. The results from that study should be available later this year.”
Mr John Innes, Scientist – Biodiversity and Conservation, Landcare Research, comments:
“On his website, Gareth Morgan paints a broad picture of cats as major predators of native birds in New Zealand (‘cats are wiping out our native birds’) and suggests that New Zealand without cats is ‘a New Zealand teeming with native wildlife, penguins on the beach, kiwis roaming about in your garden. Imagine hearing birdsong in our cities’. However, careful reading of the site does show that its authors are aware that there are other predator species to consider besides cats. They refer to cats being ‘one step’ towards a Predator Free New Zealand.
“The impact of cats – whether feral or pet – on valued wildlife remains controversial because it is site-dependent and ecologically complex, and because key impact questions are frequently unresearched. The website cites Medina et al (2011) regarding birds threatened or made extinct by cats, but this is a worldwide study of islands and not just New Zealand, and effects of cats are frequently additive to those of other predators, especially rodents, and habitat modification. In New Zealand also, cats alone cannot be blamed for the loss of any species. However, they are undoubtedly key contributors to declines of some birds (and other fauna) in some places, for example black stilts, black-fronted terns and wrybills in braided rivers and other shorebirds trying to nest on beaches, but so potentially are hedgehogs, ferrets, stoats, four wheel drive vehicles, people walking dogs and fishermen. When cats, ferrets and hedgehogs were targeted in Mackenzie Basin braided rivers, possums and Norway rats then ate the black-fronted terns.
“Cat diet studies in New Zealand urban areas (e.g. Gillies & Clout (2003); van Heezik et al. (2010)) show that cats eat small mammals, birds, lizards and invertebrates. The birds are mostly common introduced species or widespread natives, especially silvereyes. The research to clarify whether the negative effects of cats on these fauna outweighs the positive effects of their predation on ship rats, Norway rats and mice has not been done. However, keeping cats inside, especially at night, will negate these possible positive effects. Urban sanctuaries like Zealandia in Wellington clearly change this context because highly threatened species like saddlebacks may be taken by cats, but it is likely that they would be taken by ship rats or possums anyway if cats were removed.
“In New Zealand native forests, ship rats are the major prey, and this little-seen predator eats many more birds than cats do. The Gareth Morgan website refers to kaka, kokako, weka, mohua, t?eke and robins as endangered, perhaps implying that cat control might help them, but cats are not significant predators of any of these species, except possibly weka.
“I agree with the website that ‘we need to control cats and rats together’, and in fact recent thinking around a Predator Free New Zealand has always focused on several species, usually stoats, ship rats and possums. Whether mice, hedgehogs, Norway rats, ferrets, weasels and cats may yet be included is still unfolding.
“In the meantime, pet cat owners should educate themselves about the possible threats of their cats to local wildlife, and they should plant trees and shrubs suitable for native wildlife.“
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The Cask of Amontillado
Character Role Analysis
Fortunato and Montresor
A foil is a pair of characters that compliment and contrast with each other in ways that deepen the story. Poe was very fond of this device, and it shows up in many, if not all of his stories, most notably, "William Wilson."
In “The Cask,” we find a classic foil in Fortunato and Montresor. It’s classic because they change places by the end of the story. There is a reversal.
At the beginning of the story, Fortunato is the epitome of freedom – he’s reveling in the spirit of the carnival. Montresor, on the other hand, is trapped by his desire for revenge. So he snares Fortunato with something Fortunato thinks will give him even more freedom: the Amontillado. What Fortunato thinks will free him, traps him, while simultaneously freeing Montresor − from his desire for revenge. By the end of the story, Montresor is free and Fortunato has been dead for 50 years, trapped in Montresor's catacomb.
But is Montresor really free once he’s killed Fortunato? You argue that Montresor is now trapped by the memory of his horrific actions, which is why he's still talking about it 50 years later. In that case, Fortunato and Montresor still form a foil – but they are complimentary characters instead of contrasting ones. Both are free at the beginning of the story, and both are confined at the end.
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Before reading this second lesson of Sanskrit (Samskrit) it is strongly recommended that you read the first lesson to learn Sanskrit. It is in simple English, easy to understand, interesting and you will learn about a very important unique aspect of the Sanskrit language.
So we saw in our first lesson how in Sanskrit we do not give names, but derive names of objects and things based on their properties. Giving a name is just assigning a name that we like to a place, person or thing. Many a times these names are random in naturally evolved languages like English. Deriving a name on the other hand is using a name that tells something about the place, person or thing based on its attributes or properties.
For instance, the name of the place Ayodhya means the one which can never be conquered, derived from Yuddha meaning war. It talks about a kingdom that was never conquered by others in history. Rama means delighting, pleasant, beautiful and Chandra means Moon. Ramachandra hence means as pleasant, delighting and beautiful like Moon.
Unknown Object Identification by Names
Since an object can have multiple properties or features, in Sanskrit same object can have multiple names each describing a property of that object. Note that these are not actually the object names, but names of features of that object.
More than one object can have the same name if they share the same property or feature. By looking at the name of an object in Sanskrit we can guess which object it is without having to memorize its name. In other words, in Sanskrit we understand names not remember them. In case of attributes which are common among many objects, by mentioning a few more attribute names of that object, we can tell which object is exactly being referred to.
Take the case of the word School. If you already don’t know what a School is then you will have to look into the English dictionary for its meaning. On the other hand in Sanskrit, a term used for School is Vidyaalaya, where Vidya means knowledge and aalaya means place. So just by looking at its name in Sanskrit you can say that School is a place where one earns knowledge, or where one learns.
Similarly Shauchaalaya is a place where one can fresh up, Shuchi means clean or fresh. So Shauchalaya means Toilet.
Aushadhaalaya means a medical shop, because Aushadha is medicine, so the place where you get medicine is Aushadhaalaya. Hima means Snow, Himalaya is the abode of Snow, a place where there is snow, The Himalayas. Deva means heavenly, Devalaya is any divine place, like a Temple.
Take the name of the Indian state Meghalaya, in Sanskrit Megha is a term describing clouds. So Meghalaya means Land of Clouds. Meghalaya receives one of the highest amount of rainfall on this planet. Places in Meghalaya like Mausynram, Cheerapunji receive world’s highest rainfall. See how much of general knowledge is hidden in Sanskrit names!
Take the case of the word Bird. In Sanskrit a term used for birds is Khaga, and if you know Sanskrit Grammar, then you don’t need a Sanskrit Language dictionary to know what Khaga means. ga means to move or to go. The English word go is derived from Sanskrit ga. kha means sky. So Khaga is something that moves in the sky – can be used to describe not just birds, but also Sun, even for planes and helicopters! They all move in the sky.
Now see the word Mrga. Mr means kill. So Mriga means the one that moves to kill. All predator animals like Lion, Tiger, etc can be called Mrga. When a person is called Mrga in Sanskrit, it means that person is behaving like a wild animal with predatory instincts, with an intention of harming. Mrgalaya is a name for zoo, a place of wild animals! Cow is not a Mrga, Lion is. Cow is a Pashu. Pashu means being restrained to a specific perimeter. Cows and cattle are restrained by tying them up using ropes.
Tura means quickly. So Turaga means the one that moves quickly. In Sanskrit one of the names of Horse is Turaga. Similarly Ura means belly, uraga is something which moves on its belly. Uraga is used to refer to Snakes, Serpents in Sanskrit.
Dur means difficult, so Durga is something that is difficult to move into or difficult to access. Durga hence is one of the names of Fort in Sanskrit.
In other words, Sanskrit names themselves are like General Knowledge, packed with facts. Just by looking at its names we can tell that a Lotus is pale red in color (Kamala), is born in water (Jalaja), is born in mud (Pankaja), and so on.
If you cannot be sure what an object is by looking at its single attribute name, look for multiple attribute names of that object. One of the reasons why Sanskrit verses use multiple names while referring to the same object or person is so that the reader can be sure which specific object or person is being referred to. Also, as described in the previous lesson, context plays a very important role in understanding the true meaning of a Sanskrit sentence.
So, in Sanskrit, mentioning multiple names act like a filter that further consolidate the object being referred to. If you have one attribute name, and say five objects have that attribute, mentioning any other attribute which other four do not have, will help the reader figure out the actual object being referred to. So usually two or three names are more than enough to make it clear which object or entity is being referred to in a sentence. That is the reason we find multiple names of an entity in many ancient Sanskrit texts.
Of course, as time passed, many entities were referred to by their most common or unique attribute. So nowadays, when a Sanskrit speaker says Kamala, it almost always refers to Lotus. But while reading ancient texts, one has to make sure that the context is actually referring to Lotus and not someone’s reddish face.
No separate Dictionary in Sanskrit – Dictionary is part of Grammar
As we saw earlier, in other languages, say for example in English you just call it Lotus. Now if you don’t know what ‘Lotus’ means in English, then there is absolutely no information you can derive about which object this name represents without looking into an English dictionary.
Even if you are an expert in English grammar, you cannot know what a name means because unlike in Sanskrit, names are independent of the grammar in all other languages on this planet. They are simply categorized as nouns, and you have categories like proper nouns, common nouns – but nothing in the grammar has rules about how to derive a name. In other words, names in other languages are absolute, may or may not say anything about the object, and always refer to a given object.
There is no fixed rule as such in other languages about how you name things. The names are absolute in the sense there is a one-to-one mapping between a name and an object, for instance a Violin is always that, the musical instrument it refers to. Lotus is always that, the flower it refers to. Sometimes you might have multiple objects in English with the same name. For instance, a Mouse might be either an animal, or a computer hardware device. But again, they are absolute names.
On the other hand in Sanskrit, you can use the names to refer to anything that has the attribute being described by that name. For instance, as we saw earlier, Khaga can be used for anything that moves in the sky. You cannot do that in other languages because the names themselves do not describe any properties as such, they are not derived names, but given names.
So while in other languages you require a separate dictionary of names to look into the meaning of words, in Sanskrit all you need to know is Sanskrit grammar and in most cases can easily guess the object from its name. If the name in Sanskrit is referring to a more common attribute, then you need to look into the context of the sentence, or there will be adjacent words hinting at additional attributes of that object with more names, and you can guess the object easily. For instance, if the sentence is about a flower, and says it is pale red and born in water, then it is referring to lotus.
You cannot identify an object in other languages with its name if you do not know the object, even if you are an expert in its grammar. Because grammar has nothing to do with names in other languages. But if you are an expert in Sanskrit grammar, you rarely need a Sanskrit dictionary. In fact, a Sanskrit dictionary similar to an English dictionary is not possible in the first place because objects do not have names in Sanskrit, only attributes do. So even if you write a Sanskrit dictionary, Jalaja should not mean Lotus there, but it should only say,
Jalaja = born in water. For example, Lotus.
And if you know Sanskrit grammar, you will know that Jala is water, Ja is “to be born”. So what is the use of a Sanskrit dictionary then?
Wait, wait. But don’t we need a dictionary to at least say
Jala = Water
Ja = to be born
and so on.
Well as I said earlier, Jala is one of the names of water. Jala in itself is the attribute name that means having a cool touch, which is a property of water. So we can use Jala while referring to water. Thus your dictionary will actually be
Jala = having a cool touch. For example, Water.
Ja = to be born
and so on.
But you don’t need a separate dictionary like this in Sanskrit, if you are an expert in Sanskrit grammar! Why? I will explain, but before that…
Computational Parsing and Structured Information in Sanskrit
In naturally evolved languages like English, sentences can be ambiguous, and this is one of the primary reasons why it is extremely difficult for knowledge representation in Computers using human languages. In the sentence, “Flying planes can be dangerous”, is it the planes that are dangerous, or the act of flying them dangerous?
If Sanskrit were the language of Choice in computation, then you could have directly written compilers to parse Sanskrit sentences, instead of having to invent new programming languages like C or Java. What I mean is, suppose English were well structured like Sanskrit, then you could have written a compiler which directly compiles English sentences into programs, instead of having to invent new syntax for programming languages! The very fact that you have to invent new structured representation for programming languages means that existing grammar is not well structured, is ambiguous and difficult to interpret by computational logic.
If you write a compiler based on Sanskrit grammar, you can have it compile a Sanskrit sentence directly! Of course, the number of keywords in this compiler will be huge, it will be the number of dhatus that I will explain about later.
You cannot do that in other languages. For example, if you had to write a for loop in Sanskrit like how you write in programming languages, you could simply write a Sanskrit sentence which unambiguously says that what computation should be repeated how many times or till what condition is met.
The same holds true for querying stored information. In Sanskrit you wouldn’t need to invent a separate structured database querying syntax like SQL, the Structured Query Language, Sanskrit is already a Structured language and Sanskrit sentences querying information are structured naturally, because the language itself is structured extremely well. If Sanskrit were used then there would be no need for SQL, and database engines like Oracle, MySQL, etc would be just parsing Sanskrit queries, not SQL.
You need SQL today because English is the predominant language in the world which invented computers and computing, and naturally evolved languages like English cannot be used to represent structured queries like SQL because English sentences themselves are not structured well, and are ambiguous. If all those software pundits who invented various computational technology knew Sanskrit, then it would be an all Sanskrit digital world on which Computers would be running today.
In fact, the world’s oldest binary system of representing knowledge using just two symbols is found in the ancient Sanskrit work ChandahShastra by Pingala where enumeration of meters is done using short and long syllables – laghu and guru, similar to how zero and one is used in binary computing.
Many are not aware that Sanskrit is already being used in the very foundation of modern Computer programming languages.
If you don’t know what BNF notation (Backus-Naur Form) is, it is a notation for writing context free grammars and all modern computer programming languages make use of these notations. This idea of writing context free grammar has its roots in the works of the ancient Indian grammarian Panini who used them to describe the structure of Sanskrit words. In fact there are suggestions to rename Backus-Naur Form as Panini–Backus Form!
Parts of Speech – Sanskrit and other languages
If you know English grammar, you must be also aware of the Parts of Speech in English. In the traditional English Grammar you have eight parts of Speech – Noun, Verb, Pronoun, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, Interjection. Then you have this broad classification of words into Open word classes and Closed word classes, where open word classes include the ones like Nouns, Adjectives etc to which new words can be continuously added as the language evolves. Then you have closed word classes like pronouns, conjunctions etc which are a fixed set of predefined words in English.
Now as we know Noun is the name of a person, place or thing. But there is no grammatical rule in English about how to name a person, place or thing. Similarly there are no rules about how names of verbs are derived and so on. In short, there is no fixed rule about how you can name a word – be it a noun, verb etc. This is the same with languages across the world. I am only using English here as an example. What I say about English in these articles applies to all naturally evolved languages around the world.
So we have two issues here in non-Sanskrit languages. The first is, you will need a separate dictionary independent of grammar, to understand the meaning of different words in English. Grammar and names are totally disconnected in these languages and are independent of each other.
The second natural consequence of this is, the names may or may not give you any information of the object it represents. For instance, while the word Thermometer can imply that it is a device which measures temperature, the word Scissor on the hand implies nothing about what it is!
On the other hand in Sanskrit, a term used to denote Scissor is Kartari, where in Kart means to Cut. So, the term Kartari also tells us what exactly it does, unlike in English.
But we are back to our original question of, how do we know in Sanskrit that Kart means cut, Ja means born, etc?
The answer is that unlike grammar in other languages whose basic building blocks are many different classes called Parts of Speech, the basic building blocks of Sanskrit grammar are just a group of root words called Dhatu.
Dhatu – The magical building block of Sanskrit Grammar
You do not start learning Sanskrit Grammar by learning different parts of Speech, but instead there is an even more fundamental building block called Dhatu. Dhatu is a fixed set of very short words in Sanskrit Grammar representing ideas – any idea like an action, a property, etc. In English they call it Verb Roots, but more specifically these represent ideas like to be, to go, to do, etc. There are 2012 Dhatus in all in Sanskrit, and this is a fixed set.
It is said that ancient Vedic Sanskrit had even more number of dhatus. So the Sanskrit of today, called the Classical Sanskrit, is actually a subset of the original Vedic Sanskrit and that is for only one reason, the number of dhatus was reduced in post vedic period.
Everything else in Sanskrit Language is built on top of these 2012 Dhatus. If you know the meanings of these Dhatus, you can derive the meaning of ANY Sanskrit word! That is because all Sanskrit words are built on top of these Dhatus. Each word is derived from one or more Dhatus using the rules of Sanskrit grammar. So Sanskrit never needs any loan words, because the very process of word creation is inbuilt in Sanskrit grammar.
Unlike non-Sanskrit languages where Dictionary and Grammar are independent of each other, Sanskrit starts with a dictionary of Dhatus and Sanskrit grammar is just the rule of creating words and forming sentences using words derived from these Dhatus!
You should by now have understood what I meant when I said you don’t need a Sanskrit dictionary if you are an expert in Sanskrit Grammar. If you know Sanskrit Grammar, then you also know the Dhatus which are the basic building blocks of Sanskrit, and if you know them you also know the meaning of every word, because all Dhatus have meanings and all words in Sanskrit are derived from these Dhatus. So you will never need a separate dictionary to find meanings of names, because names themselves are meanings in Sanskrit.
If you are from a computer programming background, then Dhatu words are like base classes, and all other words in Sanskrit are like derived classes. They represent various attributes, and when you apply these attributes to specific objects, they become like instances of those classes. For instance, Mr and Ga are base classes from which the class Mriga is derived, which means anything that moves to kill. Now when you apply this attribute to a specific object like say a Lion, it becomes an instance of this derived class Mrigam.
More on this instance creation later. For now just remember that Dhatu is a abstract base class, vyaya is a derived class and avyaya are instances of derived classes. Dhatu is abstract because you don’t create instances of abstract classes, you derive Vyaya words from Dhatu, and then create instances of those Vyaya words i.e Avyaya words. There will be a separate detailed lesson on this later. So don’t worry much if you don’t understand this yet.
Samskrit – A Refined Language
Sanskrit has remained a language unchanged, never evolved but was perfectly designed in the very beginning with everything in place. No new grammar rules were added to Sanskrit at any point of time later. All new words created in Sanskrit can be traced back to a combination of these 2012 dhatus and related grammar rules, and also retaining the original idea of those dhatus. So you don’t need ever expanding dictionaries in Sanskrit as new words are created, because they can easily be split into their root dhatus to extract the meanings of these new words.
In Sanskrit the set of Dhatus remains fixed, and all new words are derived from these Dhatus. But dictionaries of other languages keep increasing over time, because there words are independent from grammar. So for instance, the English dictionary is ever expanding, started with around 3000 words, and today has nearly 300,000 words!
For most of these words you need to have a dictionary of English to find its meaning, where as in Sanskrit you can create millions of words and still there wouldn’t be need for a dictionary! Just split the words into its Dhatus and you will get the meaning! And Dhatu is a closed word class in Sanskrit grammar, meaning you cannot add new dhatus to the list.
In fact, in Sanskrit, if you are creative enough, you can write your own dictionary that also doubles up as a knowledge base describing huge number of facts about different objects and classes.
Those who known modern English find it next to impossible to read and understand old English, or for that matter those who know modern Kannada (Hosagannada) cannot understand Old Kannada (Halegannada), same in other languages as well. But in Sanskrit, there is nothing like modern, old etc because there has been no evolution of Sanskrit in the first place.
EDIT: The 3 paragraphs below were added after reading the comments by Dharma Dhwaja in the comments section.
The only change was reduction in the number of dhatus from Vedic Sanskrit to Classical Sanskrit. This happened after Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi that hugely simplified the original grammar and by removing dhatu forms from the original Vedic Sanskrit whose usage had become rare by his time. So, if the Vedic Sanskrit was like the difficult C programming language, Panini created a Java version of it which became the Classical Sanskrit.
So, it was not that Panini created the grammar of original Sanskrit, the Sanskrit was designed even before the vedas were written, because they are written in Vedic Sanskrit and you need to have the language first. Panini simplified the Vedic Sanskrit, and it became Classical Sanskrit.
In other words, Sanskrit never evolved. In one shot, in the beginning, Vedic Sanskrit was designed. Much later, in one shot, a simplified version of Sanskrit, a version 2.0 – Classical Sanskrit was created by Panini that became quite popular in writing later Sanskrit texts, because it was more easy than Classical Sanskrit.
An introduction to some more Dhatus
The entire process of learning Sanskrit is learning Dhatus and the rules of playing around with these Dhatus creating extremely beautiful and innovative combination of words and sentences. There is no unnecessary complication. We will have a very brief look at some Dhatus now, and as we move forward in future lessons, make ourselves more comfortable with more Dhatus and the rules of using Dhatu to form words and use them in sentences. As I said in the beginning of this series in the first lesson, this Sanskrit learning series will be more like practical classes, than plain boring theory classes.
We now know that Dhatu is a basic building block of Sanskrit words. All other names in Sanskrit are derived from these fixed set of Dhatus. When we said earlier that Khaga denoted a bird, implying the one that moves in the sky, we saw that this meaning came from splitting the word in kha and ga where kha meant sky and ga (from the dhatu gam) meant to move. So by now it should be clear that in Sanskrit to understand the meaning of a word, all we need to do is split it into its root Dhatus and using the meaning of the ideas behind that dhatu we can understand the meaning of the word. So simple and beautiful, isn’t it?
Dhatu Roopa – Splitting words into Dhatus
This processing of splitting a word into its dhatu format is called Dhatu Roopa. Remember this term, as we will be using it quite often. Dhatu Rupa means the Dhatu Form. By Dhatu Roopa we mean finding out the root Dhatus of the word, i.e doing the reverse process of word creation using Dhatus to find word meanings.
Let us start with the very word Dhatu, because even this is a Sanskrit word and hence should be derived from some Dhatu word This word is derived from the Dhatu called Dha in Sanskrit. Dha means foundation, root, basic building block. How is the word Dhatu derived from Dha? More on this in future lessons. For now, just remember that Dhatu is derived from the Dhatu word Dha.
Since, the meaning of this is root or foundation, all the root words of Sanskrit which form the building block of Sanskrit language are called Dhatu. Moreover, as we saw earlier, since these are names of the properties, and since the property name Dhatu represents root, foundation, basic building block, it can be used to represent any such root or base object!
So in Chemistry for instance Dhatu represents Chemical Elements, Metals etc which are the basic building blocks there. In Ayurveda, Dhatu represents the basic building blocks of our body like for instance Asti Dhatu represents the building blocks of bones, as Asti represents Bone in Sanskrit. Rakta Dhatu represents the building blocks in blood, where Rakta represents Red Color and hence Blood in Sanskrit.
Kr is a Dhatu which means to do. Karman is a derived word of this Dhatu meaning deed. Kriya is derived from this dhatu and means action. The word Prakriya is derived from this dhatu and means process. Then the word Sakriya is derived from this Dhatu and means being active. And so on. In fact there is a huge number of combinations possible from each dhatu, and we will learn about the actual process of creating words, combination of words, sentences, meanings and so on in the future lessons of Sanskrit grammar.
Inflection – an amazing contribution of Sanskrit to Linguistics
But note that, one of the biggest contribution of Sanskrit to the world of linguistics was inflection. Consider the English word create – its inflections are words like creating, created, creation, creates, creator, etc. Sanskrit was the first language in the world to come up with this concept of using the same word, modify it a little (inflect it) and use it to mean things related to that word.
This is a great innovation, which many of us ignore, just like the way we ignore the wonderful idea of place value based number representation invented by ancient Indians.
Imagine having to create a separate word for created, creation, creating, creates, creator etc without using the inflected forms! Sanskrit gifted the concept of inflections to the world of languages.
Summary of Lesson 2
Today we learnt that
- In Sanskrit, attributes and properties have names, and all the names in Sanskrit are derived from a fixed set of 2012 root words called Dhatu.
- Dhatu, not the Parts of Speech, forms the basic building block of Sanskrit.
- The process of deriving names is in built in Sanskrit Grammar, because of which Sanskrit never requires any loan words from other languages. If there is a new invention, a new object or a new information discovered, Sanskrit grammar can be used to easily create one or more new words to represent it. We saw an example of representing download and upload in our First Sanskrit Lesson.
- Since the Dhatus have meanings attributed to them, and since there is a predefined process of deriving names in Sanskrit, all names in Sanskrit have meaning inherent in the name itself unlike in other languages. For example in English the word Quiz means nothing without a dictionary, or the word Magma means nothing without a dictionary. However in Sanskrit, every word means something on its own, without referring to an particular object or class. In other words, all Sanskrit names state facts – describe the nature and attributes of the thing they represent.
- Since Sanskrit is an extremely well structured language with no ambiguity in its grammar , Sanskrit Sentences can easily be used in computational language unlike other natural languages whose sentences are ambiguous and whose grammar is extremely complex making it difficult to write compilers which can understand English sentences. For instance, if Sanskrit was used as a language for database queries, you wouldn’t have needed SQL, because queries in Sanskrit are as structured as SQL.
- Dhatu words have meanings over a vast range covering all possible basic meanings representing all human knowledge and actions. Words are derived from one or more Dhatus using a set of grammar rules to represent compound properties and attributes like we saw for “moving in sky”, “born in water” and so on. These attributes are then used to represent objects which have the properties matching these attributes, as we saw for Birds, Lotus, etc.
- So Sanskrit language words are an encyclopedia in itself, with each name describing one or more properties of what it represents.
- More in next lesson. Questions, corrections, criticism is welcome. Please do not forget to share this lesson. Knowledge and Happiness grows by sharing.
Continue to Sanskrit Lesson 3 – The Science behind the amazing Sanskrit alphabet
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8.5. Log Analysis
Successful log analysis begins long before the need for it arises. It
starts with the Apache installation, when you are deciding what to
log and how. By the time something that requires log analysis
happens, you should have the information to perform it.
If you are interested in
log forensics, then Scan of the
Month 31 (http://www.honeynet.org/scans/scan31/) is the
web site you should visit. As an experiment, Ryan C. Barnett kept an
Apache proxy open for a month and recorded every transaction in
detail. It resulted in almost 300 MB of raw logs. The site includes
several analyses of the abuse techniques seen in the logs.
A complete log analysis strategy consists of the following steps:
Ensure all Apache installations are configured to log sufficient
information, prior to any incidents.
Determine all the log files where relevant information may be
located. The access log and the error log are the obvious choices,
but many other potential logs may contain useful information: the
suEXEC log, the SSL log (it's in the error log on
Apache 2), the audit log, and possibly application logs.
The access log is likely to be quite large. You should try to remove
the irrelevant entries (e.g., requests for static files) from it to
speed up processing. Watch carefully what is being removed; you do
not want important information to get lost.
In the access log, try to group requests to sessions, either using
the IP address or a session identifier if it appears in logs. Having
the unique id token in the access log helps a lot since you can
perform access log analysis much faster than you could with the full
audit log produced by mod_security. The audit
log is more suited for looking at individual requests.
Do not forget the attacker could be working from multiple IP
addresses. Attackers often perform reconnaissance from one point but
attack from another.
Log analysis is a long and tedious process. It involves looking at
large quantities of data trying to make sense out of it. Traditional
Unix tools (e.g., grep,
sed, awk, and
sort) and the command line are very good for
text processing and, therefore, are a good choice for log file
processing. But they can be difficult to use with web server logs
because such logs contain a great deal of information. The bigger
problem is that attackers often utilize evasion methods that must be
taken into account during analysis, so a special tool is required. I
have written one such tool for this book:
logscan parses log lines and allows field names
to be used with regular expressions. For example, the following will
examine the access log and list all requests whose status code is
$ logscan access_log status 500
The parameters are the name of the log file, the field name, and the
pattern to be used for comparison. By default,
logscan understands the following field names,
listed in the order in which they appear in access log entries:
logscan also attempts to counter evasion
techniques by performing the following operations against the
Decode URL-encoded characters.
Remove multiple occurrences of the slash character.
Remove self-referencing folder occurrences.
Detect null byte attacks.
You will find the following web server log forensics resources useful:
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Because of the way laboratory-grown diamonds are created in a lab, they exhibit identical chemical, physical and optical characteristics to mined diamonds. This means, just like their natural counterparts, lab-grown diamonds exist in a scale or range of colors.
What is Diamond Color?
Diamond Color Is Actually Its Lack of Color - Diamond color is the natural color or ‘whiteness’ of the diamond. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) refers to diamond color as the lack of natural color visible within a diamond.
In white diamonds, color describes how clear or yellow the diamond is and affects how light passes through the diamond. Diamonds with less natural color allow more light to pass through and result in more sparkle, brilliance, and fire and therefore, have a higher value.
By norm, higher quality diamonds are ‘colorless’, while lower quality diamonds often have a slight yellow tint. Diamond color is not only a measure of quality but also a measurement of its rarity. The more colorless the diamond, the rarer it is, so and the higher value it has. However, there are “fancy colored” diamonds that have non-white, unique colors and are considered even rarer than colorless white diamonds.
With white diamonds, color in diamonds is caused by different trace elements present while the diamond is formed. Color in diamonds is the result of 3 components: hue, tone, and saturation. Hue is the basic tinge or impression of color such as yellow, brown, gray, pink, or another color. Tone is the relative lightness or darkness of color, and saturation refers to the strength, purity, and intensity of the hue. Colorless or near-colorless diamonds rarely have vivid saturation.
Most diamonds used in jewelry are colorless or nearly colorless with tints of yellow or brown. Though even with these diamonds, there is variation in color that is measured on a scale from D (colorless) to X (light yellow).
Diamond Color Scale and How it is Measured
Since diamond color actually refers to the absence of color, a chemically pure and structurally accurate diamond has no hue and higher value. Diamond color is measured using GIA’s globally accepted color scale that starts from D (colorless) and goes until Z (light yellow or brown in color).
Diamond color grades are measured and determined by comparing each diamond, under controlled lighting, to a master set, (i.e., a predetermined set with established diamond grades). Each letter grade represents color and how noticeable the color is. The lower the letter, the more color there is and the lower the diamond quality.
- D color is the highest grade and means the diamond is of the highest quality, extreme rarity, and highest value.
- E & F color are the next highest ‘colorless’ grades with nearly no color, even under magnification.
- G color has nearly no color and appears nearly colorless to the naked eye.
- H color is nearly colorless to the naked eye but may display a faint yellow tint under magnification in bright lighting.
- I color is also near-colorless with a yellow hue, especially visible when compared to diamonds of a higher color grade.
Though the color-grading system rates diamonds from D to Z, only diamonds that fall in the D to M grade range are usually used in jewelry. However, our lab-grown diamonds do not come in a color grade below I color because they have a noticeable yellow tint that no longer makes them appear ‘colorless’ and thus they do not meet our color quality standards.
How Color is affected by Diamond Size, Diamond Shape & Setting
While diamond color is an important factor of a diamond, it is the 4C’s (carat, cut, clarity, and color) that collectively determine a diamond’s quality and value and so they should be considered in totality when buying a diamond entirely.
Color is more visible in bigger diamonds. For example, you may consider choosing H/I grade for small diamonds, especially to set in jewelry because their slight hue is invisible to the naked eye. But we recommend choosing an H-grade and grade for stones over 1 carat in size.
Some fancy-shapes hide color better than others. For example, a round brilliant cut is better at hiding color than an emerald cut. Besides the shape, the cut of the diamond also affects the amount of light that passes through it, increasing its sparkle.
Similarly, the diamond setting and color of precious metals play a role in the perception and view of diamond color. For example, yellow gold emits a warm glow and compliments diamonds with faint colors. Platinum or white gold makes near-colorless diamonds look whiter/icier.
Like the 4C’s, diamond color affects its price. Thus, by knowing your size, shape, and setting preferences and how diamond color affects these attributes, you can make an informed color choice and valuable diamond purchase.
What are Fancy Color Diamonds?
Diamonds, both natural and lab-grown, come in the natural rainbow spectrum of colors such as red, orange, yellow, green, blue, pink, purple, brown, gray, and more. These are known as colored or fancy-colored diamonds. Fancy-colored diamonds are diamonds with a unique color that is outside the ‘normal’ color range (D-Z). Since yellow hue in white diamonds undesirably reduces diamond brilliance, Z-graded diamonds are not considered fancy-colored.
Since such colors are rare and unique, with fancy color diamonds, the more intense the color, the rarer and more valuable the diamond. These exclusive diamonds are graded on a separate color scale and are more expensive than white diamonds.
Diamond Color Tips to Remember
- Lack of color in diamonds implies higher quality and is one of many factors of good value.
- Diamond color differences may be very subtle and indistinguishable to an untrained eye. Therefore, diamond color should always be graded by a professional. It is advisable to seek a GIA certificate that states diamond color due to the relativity and variedness of color degrees.
- To get the best value when buying a diamond, it’s important to balance color with the three other Cs. Read more about the diamond 4 C's here.
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[ dip-luh-blas-tik ]
/ ˌdɪp ləˈblæs tɪk /
having two germ layers, the ectoderm and endoderm, as the embryos of sponges and coelenterates.
Dictionary.com Unabridged Based on the Random House Unabridged Dictionary, © Random House, Inc. 2019
Examples from the Web for diploblastic
A diploblastic condition of the organism preceded, as we have seen, the triploblastic.The Works of Francis Maitland Balfour, Volume III (of 4)|Francis Maitland Balfour
British Dictionary definitions for diploblastic
/ (ˌdɪpləʊˈblæstɪk) /
(of jellyfish, corals, and other coelenterates) having a body developed from only two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm)Compare triploblastic
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition © William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Medicine definitions for diploblastic
[ dĭp′lō-blăs′tĭk ]
Derived from two embryonic germ layers, the ectoderm and the endoderm. Used of invertebrates such as sponges and coelenterates.
The American Heritage® Stedman's Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2002, 2001, 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.
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Kindermusik is the single best choice for your child.
Kindermusik® is a developmental music program which through joyful music-making between the parent, child and teacher seeks to promote cognitive, physical, language, social, emotional and musical development in young children. Each class, geared toward your child’s developmental stage, is taught by a trained and licensed Kindermusik educator who is passionate about transforming the lives of children through musical learning.
Children sing, play instruments, dance, explore literature and learn to listen in an active, intent way. Musical goals range from developing a steady beat at 18 months to learning to read music at five years-old. The program is based on the beliefs that all children are musical and that the parent is the child’s most important teacher.
Why is music vital to a young child's development?
Before your child learns the ABC’s and 1-2-3′s, early exposure to music is critical to your child’s total development and can make a significant impact on lifelong learning. Research shows us that music helps build children’s self-confidence, enhances complex reasoning and focuses listening skills. It helps children express their creativity and lays a foundation for lifelong musical enjoyment and appreciation.
Early childhood specialists and educators suggest that toddlers and preschoolers benefit from daily, informal musical and physical activities with nursery rhymes, lullabies, patty-cake and singing in the home. Well-known research by Dr. Frances Rauscher and Dr. Gordon Shaw shows that young children who participate in musical activities develop a measurable improvement in the type of intelligence needed for high-level math, science and spatial reasoning.
Why should I choose a Kindermusik program for my child?
For over 20 years Kindermusik has been and still is the world’s most respected name in musical learning for young children. Every aspect of the Kindermusik program is grounded in these core beliefs: every child is musical, every parent is the child’s most important teacher, the home is the most important place for learning to take root and grow, and based on research, music nurtures a child’s cognitive, emotional, social, language and physical development.
From birth through eight years of age, with the caring guidance of a trained and licensed Kindermusik educator, your child can grow with Kindermusik without pressure to perform, only encouragement to explore, express and discover. You’ll see a developmental evolution in language skills, literacy, listening, problem solving, coordination, social skills, self-esteem and musicality!
Because of its belief that the home is where learning takes root and grows, Kindermusik classes include home activity books and CD recordings. Suggested activities might be as simple as asking the child to listen for loud and quiet sounds in the kitchen. Exposing children to strings, opera, jazz or choir recordings not only challenges their attention span but lays the foundation for an appreciation of those music genres later in life.
Kindermusik benefits parents & children
With your hectic schedules, quality time with your child can sometimes be hard to find. As you undoubtedly know, the time you spend with your child is absolutely essential for his or her developmental growth. Kindermusik can be your invitation to make the time. The Kindermusik class is a well-planned, educational experience of singing, moving, social and listening skills and much more. Kindermusik makes it fun to learn for both you and your child!
The key to the Kindermusik program is parental involvement. Research has shown that children learn best when they are secure. During a class, a child can reach out a bit but he can turn around and mom is still there. Read what people are saying about Kindermusik.
How do I know which class is right for my child?
The Kindermusik philosophy springs from genuine respect for each child’s individual rate of development. Class activities and at-home materials are designed to honor, support and celebrate the wonderful uniqueness of each child. Learn more about each Kindermusik class.
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VECCHIO, DEL ():
Italian family, tracing its descent from the period of the destruction of the Second Temple. Some members of this family were called also ("the old ones"). Its most important members were the following:Abraham ben Shabbethai del Vecchio:
Scholar of the seventeenth century; rabbi of Venice, Sassuolo, and Mantua. He was the author of the "Perush 'al ha-Ketubah," a work on marriage settlements. A commentary on this, entitled "Sheṭar Bi'urim," was in the possession of Joseph Almanzi. Abraham wrote also the "Sefer Zera' Abraham," on rituals, and a responsum included in the "Debar Shemuel" of Samuel Aboab (No. 19).Samuel ben Mahalaleel del Vecchio:
Rabbi of Ferrara in the sixteenth century. He was the author of "Tiḳḳunim" (or "Haggahot ha-RIF"), on Alfasi's commentary on the Talmud, and of a responsum included in the collection of Jehiel ben Azriel Trabot (No. 19).Shabbethai Elhanan ben Elisha del Vecchio (SHaBA):
Rabbi of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries; officiated at Lago, Leghorn, Ancona, and Casale. He was the author of all those responsa in Lampronti's "Paḥad Yiẓḥaḳ" which bear the signature ; and he wrote also an approbation of that work. His correspondence with Morpurgo has been published in the latter's collection of responsa entitled "Shemesh Ẓedaḳah" (i., Nos. 15, 16; iv., No. 9), while his letters to Ḥayyim Joseph David Azulai are included in the latter's "Ḥayyim Sha'al" (i. 16). Shabbethai was also the author of the "'Ir Miḳlaṭ," responsa on the Biblical commandments, and of the "Da'at Zeḳenim," a work on ethics. The latter work is mentioned in the "Paḥad Yiẓḥaḳ" (iv. 61b).Solomon David ben Moses del Vecchio:
Rabbi of Lugo; flourished in the latter part of the seventeenth and at the beginning of the eighteenth century. A responsum of his is printed in the "Paḥad Yiẓḥaḳ" (i. 33a) of Lampronti, with whom he was on terms of intimate friendship, although the two were engaged in a literary controversy concerning the question of damage to property (ib. iii. 37a). Solomon was also the author of a responsum on phylacteries, which is included in Samson Morpurgo's "Shemesh Ẓedaḳah" (i., § 4), and of a responsum in Motalia Terni's "Sefat Emet" (p. 19).Solomon Moses del Vecchio:
Rabbi at Sinigaglia in the eighteenth century.
- Mortara, Indice, p. 68;
- Fürst, Bibl. Jud. iii. 469-470;
- Steinschneider, Hebr. Bibl. v. 21;
- She'elot u-Teshubot 'Afar Ya'aḳob, No. 41;
- Nepi-Ghirondi, Toledot Gedole Yisrael, pp. 235, 321-323;
- Mose, vi. 265, 338;
- Vogelstein and Rieger, Gesch. der Juden in Rom, i. 25.
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HOLIDAY PROGRAM - A Musical Exploration of Time
This is Shep O'Neal with a Special English program for the New Year. We present fifteen minutes of music about time.
We celebrate the new year with a few examples of music about time. You just heard a song called "Syncopated Clock."
American music writer Leroy Anderson wrote it more than fifty years ago.
Ten years later, the group Bill Haley and His Comets provided musical proof that any time on the clock is a good time to dance.
In nineteen-sixty-five, a group named the Byrds recorded a song that seemed modern. But the words are old. They are from the Book of Ecclesiastes in the Old Testament of the Bible.
Countless songs have been written about time. Many songs are also about two other forces that seem just as unstoppable love and desire. This song by Jim Croce captures these emotions.
Jim Croce did not have much time to live. The singer died in an airplane crash in nineteen-seventy-three. He was thirty years old.
Another song about love and time is sung by one of the most famous groups of our time, the Rolling Stones. In this song, time is an ally.
Americans sing a traditional Scottish song at New Year's celebrations. It is "Auld Lang Syne. " Poet Robert Burns wrote it in the seventeen-hundreds. It is about keeping alive the memory of old friends.
A bandleader named Guy Lombardo helped make "Auld Lang Syne" a modern tradition. The song has become a well known signal of the beginning of another year.
This Special English program was written by Avi Arditti and produced by Lawan Davis. This is Shep O'Neal.
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A new report by the Nuffield Council on Bioethics calls for a change in culture across all areas of children’s health research, so that children’s and young people’s views and opinions can help to shape how research is prioritised, designed and reviewed. Unless ethical concerns about asking children to take part in research are addressed, our understanding of childhood disorders and ability to provide evidence based care will remain limited.“It will always be easier to say ‘no’ to research with children on the grounds that it’s too difficult, but we should challenge the idea that it is acceptable to continue to offer healthcare to children without seeking to improve the evidence base for many of the treatments provided,” says Professor Bobbie Farsides, Chair of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics Working Party and Professor of Bioethics at Brighton and Sussex Medical School.The report is the result of a two-year inquiry, which has heard from over 500 professionals, parents, children and young people, in the UK and internationally.In many areas of child health, evidence on childhood diseases and treatments remains limited because of a lack of research specifically with children. For instance, many medicines prescribed to children have not been developed specifically for children, meaning that doctors must use their expertise to adapt adult doses (1).Research in areas such as childhood leukaemia, where survival rates are now over 80%, demonstrate the crucial role of research in improving healthcare (2). The Council argues that research with children should become a core part of the NHS.“Being invited to take part in research can come at very difficult times in children’s and parents’ lives”, said Professor Farsides, “but children told us time and time again that it was important they should be asked to take part in research, particularly as it may help other children in future.”Children should have a say in the whole research processThe starting point for most health research is adult needs, leaving children’s research lagging behind. But there are examples where children and parents help set research priorities, and the Council supports these initiatives. For example, the James Lind Alliance has worked with parents, researchers and health professionals to set out the 15 most pressing research priorities in preterm birth.The role of research ethics committees (RECs) is to assess the value, risks and benefits of all research proposals. However, members of RECs told the Working Party that they can feel anxious about approving research with children. The Council concludes that to make properly informed decisions, RECs should have access to experts in child health who can advise on the risks or burdens of normal practice, and areas where there is a lack of evidence. The Council recommends that registers of experts in different areas of child health should be set up and that employers should ensure that doctors’ time to serve on ethics committees is protected.Additionally, RECs should require researchers to have listened to children and parents when developing their studies. An example of this is the UK network of Young Persons’ Advisory Groups (YPAGs). These are groups of 8-18 year olds who advise researchers on whether their proposed studies and information materials are acceptable to children – for example, by commenting on language, the number of blood tests or days off school required. The Council recommends that industry should help fund YPAGs, for example through a central fund to protect the groups’ independence.“Research should always be subject to robust scientific and ethical review, but by speaking to children and their families, researchers can design studies which are more suited to their needs, and ultimately more acceptable,” says Hugh Whittall, Director of the Nuffield Council on Bioethics. “Throughout our project, we’ve heard from children with strong opinions on complex ethical and scientific issues. We shouldn’t underestimate them. Alongside appropriate regulation, we need a change in culture to ensure that children have a say in the whole research process.”Children should be actively involved in decisions to take part in researchUnder UK law, young people aged 16 or above can give their own consent if they want to take part in research. Under 16, parents consent on behalf of their children. While there is usually a requirement to provide information to children, there is little agreement on how children should be involved in decisions to take part in research under the age of 16.The Council concludes that, where possible, decisions to take part in research should be a partnership between researchers, children and their parents; and that children should be as involved in decision making as they are able, and wish to be.“As soon as children are able to express their opinions, or give their views, we should respect them as individuals by listening to them. Parents will always be concerned with their child’s well-being, and there may be times when those concerns override a child’s wishes,” says Dr Helen Sammons, member of the Working Party, and general paediatrician at the Derbyshire Children’s Hospital. “However, in most cases, researchers should seek to get the agreement of both children and their parents to take part in research. Children don’t suddenly become adults overnight at the age of 18, but develop their ability to make decisions with their parents’ support.”Smarter regulation of clinical trials is requiredSome incentives do exist to help encourage research with children. The 2006 EU Regulation on Paediatric Medicine requires that any trial of a new medicine should also include research with children, unless the medicine would treat a disorder that occurs only in adults. In these cases waivers may be granted. In its first five years, the regulation has led to 132 new medicines, or new uses for existing medicines, being licensed for children.Although there has been progress, the Council concludes that the waiver system is not working as intended. Many adult disorders, such as some cancers, do not have direct equivalents in children, but this does not mean that the medicine being developed won’t be effective in treating related disorders in children (3).The Council recommends that EU regulation should be amended so that if the medicine has a possible related use in children, then waivers should not apply. Furthermore, the Council recommends that smarter regulation is needed to encourage companies to adapt off-patent medicines for children, including in age-appropriate formulations like syrups.ENDSDownload the report
Further information(1) Medicines prescribed to children‘Off label’ prescribing means that doctors prescribe medicines for children that are outside of the conditions of their original licence. This is often because the evidence base for children is limited, as they have been specifically developed for use in adults. Doctors will sometimes use the medicines at a younger age than specified, in a different disease, at lower or higher doses or adapt the medicine, for example by crushing and dissolving tablets in water if no syrup is available. A UK study from 1999 put the rate of off-label prescribing at 46% in children’s wards. More recent European studies (2011 to 2014) show similar trends, where rates of off-label prescribing in children’s wards vary from 30 to 50 percent of all prescriptions. In neonatal care, a UK study from 2000 put rates of off-label prescribing at up to 90 percent.(2) Childhood leukaemiaThe development of treatment for children with leukaemia has been lauded as a particular success story for clinical research. Most recent statistics (2002-5) show 10 year survival rates for children aged 0-14 in Great Britain with leukaemia at 81 per cent, compared to 27 per cent for 1971-1975. See Box 1.1 (page 10) of the report.(3) EU regulationA summary of the impact of EU regulation is included in the report (pages 73-74). In relation to waivers, the Institute of Cancer Research, London notes that 26 of the 28 cancer medicines that have been authorised in Europe since 2007 have a mechanism of action that is relevant for childhood cancers; nevertheless, 14 of these medicines received waivers (pages 75-76).
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Simulating the Effects of Conservation Ag Practices
DNDC: The Denitrification-Decomposition (DNDC) model was used to simulate carbon and nitrogen soil dynamics in the US corn belt as a function of the soil health management practices monitored by OpTIS (crop diversity, conservation tillage, and cover crops). Results are presented for observed (by OpTIS) adoption levels of these soil health management practices and for alternative scenarios where only conventional tillage and/or no cover cropping are practiced.
DNDC performs process-based simulations of nitrogen and carbon dynamics in agroecosystems. Based on environmental drivers (inputs like soil characteristics, temperature and precipitation data, crop characteristics, and crop management) the model predicts crop growth and yield, greenhouse gas emissions (such as carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide), and other environmental effects (like nitrogen leaching and runoff). DNDC is used widely around the world and has been tested against many field datasets in the US and abroad.
A new dataset released in June 2021 covers additional geography with notable expansions into Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The data are also now presented in the context of a two-year crop rotation with options to review by the previous and following cash crop for both tillage and winter cover. Both the OpTIS and DNDC pages have been updated with new charts and maps to further enhance identification of trends and opportunities to promote the adoption of conservation practices.
CTIC is leading a new effort to pilot a phosphorus load reduction market in the Western Lake Erie Basin (Maumee, Sandusky, and Cedar-Portage watersheds, see map). Growers within the indicated watersheds are now being sought to
participate in this pilot market.
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March comes in like a lion, and out like a lamb! This set of Spring printable activities is great for language development and building a sense of community in the preschool or kindergarten classroom.
Here's what I've included:
1. Two detailed circle time discussion suggestions, giving you a script for how to introduce this concept to young learners.
2. Lion & lamb cut-outs for visual aids
3. Question of the Day printables
4. Lion & Lamb crown
5. Can/Have/Are pages with instructions
6. Lion Weather/Lamb Weather drawing pages
7. Cut & Paste Lion Weather/Lamb Weather worksheet
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Designed by Adolph A. Weinman, the Walking Liberty Half Dollar was minted from 1916-1947. The mintmark appears on the obverse under the motto, “In God We Trust”, on the 1916 and some 1917 issues. The mint mark was then moved to the reverse near the rim at the 7 o’clock position. 1917 issues have either obverse or reverse mint marks. The Walking Liberty Half Dollar is widely considered to be one of the most beautiful United States coins.
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Souvenir shops in South Africa are full of lamps made out of ostrich eggs. The eggs are so big and strong that you can carve and cut intricate designs into their shells. The egg’s contents are emptied through a hole and a bulb can be inserted instead, casting pretty shadows on walls and ceilings. The results are a big draw for modern tourists, but ostrich eggs have a long history of being used as art in South Africa. The latest finds show that people were carvings symbolic patterns into these eggs as early as 60,000 years ago.
Pierre-Jean Texier from the University of Bordeaux discovered a set of 270 eggshell fragments from Howieson Poort Shelter, a South African cave that has been a rich source of archaeological finds. Judging by their patterns, the fragments must have come from at least 25 separate eggs, although probably many more.
Texier says that the sheer number is “exceptional in prehistory”. Their unprecedented diversity and etched patterns provide some of the best evidence yet for a prehistoric artistic tradition. While previous digs have thrown up piecemeal examples of symbolic art, Texier’s finds allow him to compare patterns across individual pieces, to get a feel of the entire movement, rather than the work of an individual.
As you might expect, the millennia haven’t been too kind to the shells but even so, their etchings are still well preserved and Texier even managed to fit some of the pieces together. Despite the variety of fragments, their patterns fall into a very limited set of motifs produced in the same way – a hatched band like a railway track, parallel(ish) lines, intersecting lines, and cross-hatching. It’s possible that, once assembled, these elements would have combined into a more complex artistic whole but Texier notes that he has never found a piece with more than one motif on it.
Thirty-five thousands years before the likes of Kraftwerk, Nena and Rammstein, the lands of Germany were resounding to a very different sort of musical sound – tunes emanating from flutes made of bird bones and ivory. These thin tubes have recently been uncovered by Nicholas Conard from the University of Tubingen and they’re some of the oldest musical instruments ever discovered.
The ancient flutes hail from the Hohle Fels Cave in Germany’s Ach Valley, a veritable treasure trove of prehistoric finds that have also yielded the oldest known figurative art. The flutes were found less than a metre away. Together, these finds show that Europeans had a rich artistic and musical culture as far back as the Upper Palaeolithic period, some 35,000 years ago.
Conard unearthed the new finds last year, including several flutes of ivory and bone. One of these was found in 12 separate pieces, but once they were recovered and united, the insturment proved to be remarkably complete. It was so beautifully preserved that we can even work out its source – its maker fashioned it from the arm bone of a griffon vulture, a large species with long bones that make for good wind instruments.
The flute is just 8mm in diameter and has five finger holes along its 22cm length. Around each hole, there are up to four precisely carved notches, which Conard thinks were measurement markers that told the tool-maker where to chip an opening. Two deep, V-shaped notches were also carved into one end, which was presumably where its maker blew into to make sweet, prehistoric music.
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The art of music is for them a sublime language, a song mystic in itself though clear to the initiated, which they use to express what they want without being influenced by anything foreign to their desires. They have invented their music for their own use, to speak, to sing about themselves to themselves, to remain united, and they have invented the most touching monologues.
— The Roma and Music
The Great Gypsy Round-up was certainly one of the most sinister ordeals to have befallen Spain’s Roma community and generally one of the most sinister episodes in the History of Spain. At the same time, it can also be viewed as a mere continuation of previous administrative policies towards Roma in Spain. It did not come about unexpectedly but was considered highly justified and was even supported by a legal ruling.
— Interview with Isaac Motos
No reliable figures exist on the number of Romani speakers in Europe or in other continents. Estimates offered by Romani organisations suggest that there are more than 10 million Romani-speaking people in Europe. This makes Romani by far the most spoken minority language in the European Union.
— The Romani Language
Very little is widely known of Roma, their history and their culture. What we do know does not get to us through them, but through the perspectives of other peoples. Such views are frequently tainted by ignorance, prejudice and negative stereotypes. Furthermore, historical sources offering data about Roma are not always accurate, not to mention scarce.
— Roma, an unknown culture
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Ashley Barnwell, Ashworth Lecturer in Sociology at the University of Melbourne, explores the ethics of keeping family secrets hidden.
At the International Family History Workshop in Manchester 2017, I presented my research on Australian family secrets. As a sociologist, I am interested in the connections between the small events of everyday life and the large events of social history. My project looks at how national policies and social attitudes influence what families choose to keep secret over time. I also study the family politics that arise when past secrets are revealed in the present.
In late 2016 I conducted a national survey of Australian family historians, asking them about their experience of finding secrets in past generations of their families. The respondents described how they discovered the secret and why they thought it was kept. I also asked how family members reacted when they learned about the secret, and whether the family historian would share this sometimes quite sensitive information on their family tree.
The findings from the survey show that family historians are grappling with important ethical questions about how to respect the privacy of their ancestors while also being true to the historical record. As one respondent notes, “It is a dilemma that I do not wish to cause further distress but wish to portray the family history correctly”.
Australian family histories
Australia’s settler colonial context presents a unique case for family secrets and national memory. Historians such as Chris Healy and Babette Smith have defined Australia as a nation with wilful amnesia about the colonial past, specifically its violent impact on Indigenous families and communities. Ann McGrath also explains that in 19th-century Australian families, ‘keeping the “secrets of nation”’ became ‘a deeply ingrained practice’ [Insert link: ].
My survey results often confirm this collective secret-keeping. Family historians in my study describe the early 20th century, when many of their parents grew up, as a time when it was improper to ‘look back’, or to ask overt questions about people’s backgrounds, for fear of outing convict stains, mixed racial origins, rapid social mobility, and other stigmatised ancestries.
In this ‘forgetful’ setting, family history – particularly following a democratic turn in the 1970s – has been vital in shaking things up. Tanya Evans argues that, in the Australian context, family history has had a “radical potential” to alert people to the crafting of dominant national histories, as they find its secrets and suppressions within their own family trees. “The construction of a family tree”, and “the discovery of manifold secrets and lies” she argues, “throw into question the solidity not only of the history of family, class relationships, and the power relations between men and women, but also of the history of nation and empire”. Unpacking family secrets, and reinstating some of the characters and stories that were pruned out of family stories for the sake of colonial mores, has been an integral part of contemporary Australian family history research.
The ethics of revelation
Family history can challenge social stigmas, but pushing at the boundaries of what family stories are acceptable to discuss can also cause family conflict, particularly between generations. Family secrets are complex because they are shared; yet family members may hold different stakes in either keeping or disclosing the secret. The impact of revealing a secret can also differ depending on a person’s distance from the unspoken event. To the descendants of one branch of the family the secret might be an intriguing curiosity, but to another branch it might trigger intergenerational trauma or even unsettle present family relationships. This can mire genealogists in tricky ethical situations, where they must choose whether to speak or remain silent about certain discoveries.
In the survey I conducted, family historians reported needing to develop practical strategies to protect family members’ sensitivities, and manage the raw emotions that revealing secrets can provoke. These strategies include not disclosing a secret if the people concerned are still alive, or if their descendants might still be offended or hurt by the revelation. Some family historians also explain that they publish family histories with cut-off dates, so that the events discussed are “a safe distance in the past”. Others decided only to share their family trees with select members of the family, carefully chosen for their discretion; and some genealogists hesitated to publish the stories online, which was considered too public.
But the need to be sensitive can also conflict with a need to be truthful, leaving the family historian in a double bind. For example, a respondent who decided not to reveal the story and “respect all the others who had kept this secret up until their deaths”, was also concerned that another family member might discover the information online – it is freely available on Trove – and become upset that the family historian knew, but withheld their discovery. Adding to concerns about being truthful to the family, genealogists also felt strongly about being true to history, and to the experience of their ancestors. One respondent proclaimed that they would publish the secrets, even at the risk of offending living relatives, because “The shame [the ancestors] experienced was unjustified and they need their identity back”, their lives, in all their thorny details, offered “great stories of hardship, grace and survival”.
Managing emotions, challenging stigmas
In the survey results, one of the most frequently cited ethical dilemmas was how to balance emotional sensitivity with historical accuracy. Genealogists want to be sensitive to the family’s privacy but also resist reproducing the shame around certain secrets, such as mental illness or illegitimacy, by continuing to exclude them from the family’s history.
For some respondents emotional sensitivity is the main priority. For example, one family historian notes that she wishes to ‘honour [her ancestors’] feelings, even after death’. She explains that there ‘are strong emotional ties because these two aunts were the centre of a family which suffered many tragedies’. ‘Out of a deep respect and deep love’, she adds, ‘I have kept private the particular shame they suffered’.
However, another respondent decides to reveal her forebear’s illegitimate pregnancy and forced adoption based on the rationale that ‘Oppression of individuals is continued though such shaming and fear’. ‘Too many times’, she reasons, ‘the ‘secrets’ are about shaming someone […] and has led to the subjects of the secret living lives hiding the secrets and being subject to shame and fear’.
In both scenarios, the family historian must carefully deliberate over their sometimes quite complex and conflicting ethical obligations to the family. Sometime they chose to respect the social mores of the time and their ancestor’s desire for privacy, and other times, as we can see above, they chose to challenge the social context and impact of past stigmas and secrets. In both instances the ethical decision required the family historians to empathise, and manage both their own and their relatives’ emotions.
As my survey results suggest, Australian family historians are very attuned to the social, emotional, and ethical significance of their research practices. The ethical quandaries that are thrown up by family secrets often reveal just how connected family and social histories are, and offer us the opportunity to consider the most ethical ways to balance respect for individual families with an accurate account of family life in the past, and in the present.
Ashley Barnwell is the Ashworth Lecturer in Sociology at the University of Melbourne. Her research focuses on memory, emotion, cultural transmission, and family storytelling.
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Popular Foods That are Not as Healthy as You Think
Health and diet fads come and go, but there are many foods that have intentionally misled consumers about their supposed health benefits. With these tips, you can cut out harmful elements of your diet and substitute them with food that is more nutritious.
Energy and Nutrition Bars
Although they have been heralded as a great healthy snack for many years, energy bars are not as good for your body as you may believe. Many types of energy bars do contain dense nutrition, but it is important to be mindful of labels and ingredients listed when you are looking into nutrition bars that will benefit you. For example, bars that have a chocolate or yogurt coat are usually higher in saturated fats, which impede on the healthfulness of this snack. Energy bars hold a lot of calories and can sometimes serve as a meal replacement, so be sure the calories you are consuming are full of good nutrients.
Acai is a popular choice among health aficionados, and has been heralded as a super fruit. One of the most common variants of using acai fruit in your daily diet is the acai bowl. You may be wondering, though, are acai bowls healthy? The acai bowl that you may view as a healthy, post-workout snack actually contains more sugar than a can of soda, and acai does not have any proven health benefits that could justify this amount of consumption. Rather than acai berries, try to stock up on berries rich in antioxidants, such as raspberries, blueberries, and goji berries. Combine them with a plain yogurt and other nutritious toppings for a treat.
Another health food fad that has emerged recently is substituting egg whites, rather than consuming the entire egg. However, studies have shown that eating all parts of the egg may be more beneficial in terms of nutrients offered. For example, biotin is a nutrient that is extremely beneficial and can only be found in egg yolks, rather than egg whites. Egg whites have also been shown to be a home for lots of different types of bacteria. Rather than using egg whites as an alternative, you may be better off cutting eggs from your diet altogether and replacing them with more nutrient dense options, such as fruits and vegetables.
Many types of cereal are in fact healthy, such as varieties that feature whole grains, and plenty of dietary fiber that you need in your daily intake. However, many of the brands that claim to be healthy are actually not as healthy as you may believe. Sugary cereals can cause blood sugar to spike and lead to a crash later, which is particularly unfortunate for school children who are relying on their breakfast as a source of energy to carry them through the day. Make sure when you are picking out a cereal, you are reading nutrition labels and considering how much fiber, whole grains, and low amounts of sugar are present in the cereals you like to eat.
Granola is always seen as a popular topping on parfaits, cereal, and has also been shown to be a staple for those who love physical outdoor activities, such as hiking and camping. However, although it contains some fiber, granola also contains a high amount of calories, so use it sparingly. Homemade granola is better for you than the processed granola you can find in stores, so if you would like a healthier option, you can easily make it out of your own pantry stores. Additionally, granola has saturated fats, which are not ideal for your health. For more nutritional benefit, combine granola with fruit or yogurt, rather than more carbohydrates.
Although jumping on board with these dietary trends may be tempting, it is important to understand the drawbacks of foods that are seen as healthy. With these tips, you are sure to find a diet that is satisfying and beneficial to your body.
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Causes of moral decadence among the youth can be categorized into social, economic, cognitive and technological factors. Social causes include peer influence and unstable home environments, while economic factors include poverty. Technological innovations, such as media and the Internet, expose young people to potentially unwelcome information and cognitive causes are related to the need for belonging among the youth driven by physical and psychological needs.Continue Reading
Different societies across the globe continue to experience increases in the cost of living, which puts added pressure on parents to provide for all household needs, explains the Daily Times Nigeria. Parents have less time to share with children on important subjects, such as the dangers of premarital or unprotected sex. Lack of parental guidance on these sensitive issues makes youth more vulnerable.
Children and youth in such households are at an increased risk of engaging in drug abuse and illicit sex due to lack of supervision. Poverty pushes youth into vices such as drug trafficking or prostitution in an effort to earn a living, explains the World Council of Churches. Technology enables youth access to unrestricted information that may influence bad behavior. The Daily Times Nigeria suggests that the solution to bad behavior in youth is education and quality time.Learn more about Teenagers
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The purpose of this class is to familiarize employees with the Lockout/Tagout/Blockout processes and to establish safe working practices. Lockout/Tagout/Blockout means that any energy source, whether electrical, hydraulic, mechanical, compressed air, or any other source that might cause unexpected movement, must be disengaged or blocked and electrical sources must be de-energized and locked or positively sealed in the OFF position for worker safety.
Lockout/Tagout/Blockout training is required for all workers involved in or around machines that are required to be locked and tagged out for safety purposes. Our program meets all of the OSHA requirements for Lockout/Tagout/Blockout Training.
Compliance Reference: T8 CCR 3314 and 29 CFR 1910.147
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If you take a look at the chewing surfaces of your child’s back teeth, you may see some deep fissures and pits. These deep textures are normal and help the molars and premolars perform the function of grinding up and chewing tough foods. However, deeply pitted areas can also prevent these teeth from being properly cleaned. Our dentist can help you determine if your child’s back teeth would benefit from the protection of dental sealants for their current and future dental health.
Deep fissures allow food particles and plaque to accumulate and lead to tooth decay, and when this occurs in the back teeth, cavities can result in the need for large dental fillings, which can increase the likelihood of dental risks later in life.
To create dental sealants, Dr. John J. Andre and our team use durable plastic-resin that is very long lasting. The resin is applied to the molars’ and premolars’ chewing surfaces and then hardened with a special ultraviolet light. Our dentist can place dental sealants in just a few minutes at the end of your child’s dental cleaning and exam.
Dental sealants function to prevent food particles and plaque from invading the deep fissures in the surface of the back teeth, and their durability prevents them from being worn away by toothbrushes and dental floss. In fact, they can last for many years, protecting your child’s teeth.
For more information regarding the benefits of dental sealants in Louisa, Virginia, and how they can help your child, please call John J. Andre, DDS & Associates at (540) 967-0777 and arrange a time to sit down with our dentist. We look forward to having you and your child at our office!
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5 Strategies for Teaching Vocabulary
The term “vocabulary” depicts the knowledge about words and their meanings.
The vocabulary knowledge keeps growing broader and reaches deeper with time.
Acquiring vocabulary stems from indirect word exposure and with intentional follow-up with a particular word or word-learning tactics.
Every effective vocabulary program comprises of four components –
1. Improving vocabulary knowledge with broad and liberated reading.
2. Focus on particular words that can develop text comprehension.
3. Guidance toward independent word-learning strategies.
4. Motivate learning with a friendly experience through activities like word games that enrich vocabulary.
Parts in vocabulary guidance
The National Reading Panel pointed out that vocabulary education does not possess a single-research method.
The panel made use of different methods for proper vocabulary instructions.
1. Deliberate Vocabulary Teaching
A. Particular Word Guidance
1. Choose the teaching words.
2. Detailed instructions.
B. Tactics to Learn Words
1. Use a dictionary.
2. Morphemic Analysis
3. ELL or Cognate Awareness
4. Contextual Analysis
Deliberate vocabulary development is achievable by those pupils who are trained in particular words and similar word-learning tactics.
The construction of specific words needs to be potent enough to improve their word meaning vocabulary.
Learning vocabulary can be better achieved concerning enriched vocabulary contexts.
Since the ability to “define” a word indicates possessing previous knowledge about that word.
2. Nurturing Word Awareness
Nurturing word consciousness can make students focus their interests toward words. Such vocational awareness arises from the regular study.
Word games, researches on the history of word origins, or nourishing adept diction (skillful expression) can help sharpen word consciousness.
Playing with word games can initiate the interest of a child to keep learning new words.
3. Several disclosures on different perspectives
Different exposures to a meaning of a word can also enrich vocabulary learning.
It can help students to add new vocabulary knowledge to their old experiences.
A student has to refer to a particular word multiple times to stick it permanently in their long-term memories.
They can perceive a word from different angles.
Students need to face certain words in repeated ways on different occasions from multiple perspectives.
4. Incidental Vocabulary Learning
The majority proportion of the vocabulary portions comes to grasp with indirect word exposure.
Incidental vocabulary for students is possible by reading by themselves or paying heed to the words when someone is reading to them aloud.
They can also face enriching experiences in oral languages either at their school or in their home.
Long-term vocabulary enrichment can be sharpened with reading.
Continuous reading can expose students to certain unknown or unfamiliar words that they can add to their vocabulary.
5. Suitable Candidates
Most students lack the skills they need to speak English.
From 1979 till 2003, there was a 124 percent increase in the number of students who faced problems speaking English.
By 2003, there was a 2% increase in these people.
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CECs: What Are They & Should I Be Worried?
Compounds of emerging concern - or CECs - have gained notoriety in recent years. CECs include pharmaceuticals, personal care products, endocrine disrupters, and antibiotic resistance genes that can turn up in water supplies. They are unregulated by federal and state water quality agencies because they occur at extremely low concentrations - nanograms per liter. In fact, laboratory equipment could not detect these compounds until about 2002. Improvements in analytical technology now allow labs to detect compounds below the concentrations that are known to impact public health.
The City of Flagstaff "recycles" over 700 million gallons of water each year, a process that entails treating wastewater from our homes and businesses to meet state and federal water quality standards. This treated water - also known as reclaimed water, recycled water, or effluent - is delivered via a separate distribution system. Reclaimed water is used by communities around the world for irrigation, and the City has used this proactive water conservation strategy since 1965, at the "Bill Johnston Golf Properties" (now Continental Country Club).
Tackling a tough issue: Flagstaff's CEC Advisory Panel
Recognizing the importance of this issue, Kevin Burke, Flagstaff's previous City Manager, organized an advisory panel of 12 local, state, and nationally recognized researchers, scientists, and industry professionals to help understand what CECs mean to Flagstaff. The Advisory Panel first met in January 2013 to identify steps to better understand the effects, if any, of CECs in our raw, treated, and reclaimed water. Discussions initially focused on "human health impacts" rather than animal, aquatic, or environmental impacts.
Results of Interim Report
The Panel issued an Interim Report in July 2013, which contained numerous findings, recommendations, and priorities on CECs in drinking water and reclaimed water - including a finding that CECs pose no risk to either drinking or reclaimed supplies in Flagstaff. A few of these findings and recommendations are summarized below.
The EPA, based on analyses and the advice of national scientific panels, has developed a list of currently unregulated CECs that may warrant further consideration for regulation in drinking water. This "Contaminant Candidate List Number 3" (CCL3) focuses on human health impacts and does not yet include antibiotic resistance genes or microbes. The Advisory Panel recommended that the City consider evaluating which contaminants on the list are used or prescribed within the Flagstaff community as background information in preparation for potential future regulation. You can also see "Reclaimed Water: Is It Safe?" for more information
The Advisory Panel found that there are currently no data to suggest that the continued use of reclaimed water provides an undue risk to human health; however, it recommended that the City monitor for four chemicals on the CCL3 list. A subgroup was tasked with outlining a cutting-edge epidemiological and microbial study and searching for funding with partners or agencies; such a study would provide a better understanding of what it means if we detect antibiotic resistance genes or bacteria in Flagstaff's reclaimed water. The Advisory Panel suggested a parallel study to compare the effects of various water treatment technologies on the removal of CECs, specifically antibiotic-resistant genes in reclaimed water.
The Advisory Panel met again in July 2016. Check back here for an update on their activities.
- Preliminary Data Report (September 14, 2015) (PDF)
- May 2014 update on the review of findings in the Interim Report, a status update from the Research Subcommittee, and the "next steps" for the full Advisory Panel (PDF)
The Water Research Foundation (WRF) has published several informational pieces on CECs including fact sheets on pharmaceuticals and personal care products in water supplies by Dr. Shane Snyder, a member of our Advisory Panel.
For more information, call Bradley M. Hill, R.G., Water Services Director at 213-2400 or email Bradley Hill.
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Perhaps no one thought much more would need to be known about Saturn's rings 100 or so years ago, when Daniel Kirkwood explained the various features. The main rings, within the three so-called Cassini divisions, were due to gravitational resonance conditions between small orbiting particles and the satellite Mimas. Now, after several spacecraft—especially Voyager—have shown the rings' close-up characteristics, there has been a great deal of activity in the planetary geophysics community to try to explain the origin of the numerous features of the rings of solar system bodies that were far beyond the resolution of telescopes in Kirkwood s day. A pretty good sample of that activity was reported recently by R.A. Kerr (Science, Oct. 8, 1982), who stated ‘Resonance theory still stands after the onslaught of spacecraft observations, but its new applications have yielded a greater variety of ring features than Kirkwood ever dreamed.’ One has only to have an inkling of the levels of gravitational mechanics to appreciate the complexities of the theories that have yielded resonance variations such as spiral density waves and bending waves in the past few years. As theories unfold, however, and are tested against Voyager's results, it has become evident that most of the actually observed ring structure of the major planets remains unexplained.
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Throughout history there have been two basic forms of social organization: collectivism and individualism. In the twentieth-century collectivism has taken many forms: socialism, fascism, nazism, welfare-statism and communism are its more notable variations. The only social system commensurate with individualism is laissez-faire capitalism.
The extraordinary level of material prosperity achieved by the capitalist system over the course of the last two-hundred years is a matter of historical record. But very few people are willing to defend capitalism as morally uplifting.
It is fashionable among college professors, journalists, and politicians these days to sneer at the free-enterprise system. They tell us that capitalism is base, callous, exploitative, dehumanizing, alienating, and ultimately enslaving.
The intellectuals’ mantra runs something like this: In theory socialism is the morally superior social system despite its dismal record of failure in the real world. Capitalism, by contrast, is a morally bankrupt system despite the extraordinary prosperity it has created. In other words, capitalism at best, can only be defended on pragmatic grounds. We tolerate it because it works.
Under socialism a ruling class of intellectuals, bureaucrats and social planners decide what people want or what is good for society and then use the coercive power of the State to regulate, tax, and redistribute the wealth of those who work for a living. In other words, socialism is a form of legalized theft.
The morality of socialism can be summed-up in two words: envy and self-sacrifice. Envy is the desire to not only possess another’s wealth but also the desire to see another’s wealth lowered to the level of one’s own. Socialism’s teaching on self-sacrifice was nicely summarized by two of its greatest defenders, Hermann Goering and Bennito Mussolini. The highest principle of Nazism (National Socialism), said Goering, is: “Common good comes before private good.” Fascism, said Mussolini, is ” a life in which the individual, through the sacrifice of his own private interests…realizes that completely spiritual existence in which his value as a man lies.”
Socialism is the social system which institutionalizes envy and self-sacrifice: It is the social system which uses compulsion and the organized violence of the State to expropriate wealth from the producer class for its redistribution to the parasitical class.
Despite the intellectuals’ psychotic hatred of capitalism, it is the only moral and just social system.
Capitalism is the only moral system because it requires human beings to deal with one another as traders–that is, as free moral agents trading and selling goods and services on the basis of mutual consent.
Capitalism is the only just system because the sole criterion that determines the value of thing exchanged is the free, voluntary, universal judgement of the consumer. Coercion and fraud are anathema to the free-market system.
It is both moral and just because the degree to which man rises or falls in society is determined by the degree to which he uses his mind. Capitalism is the only social system that rewards merit, ability and achievement, regardless of one’s birth or station in life.
Yes, there are winners and losers in capitalism. The winners are those who are honest, industrious, thoughtful, prudent, frugal, responsible, disciplined, and efficient. The losers are those who are shiftless, lazy, imprudent, extravagant, negligent, impractical, and inefficient.
Capitalism is the only social system that rewards virtue and punishes vice. This applies to both the business executive and the carpenter, the lawyer and the factory worker.
But how does the entrepreneurial mind work? Have you ever wondered about the mental processes of the men and women who invented penicillin, the internal combustion engine, the airplane, the radio, the electric light, canned food, air conditioning, washing machines, dishwashers, computers, etc.?
What are the characteristics of the entrepreneur? The entrepreneur is that man or woman with unlimited drive, initiative, insight, energy, daring creativity, optimism and ingenuity. The entrepreneur is the man who sees in every field a potential garden, in every seed an apple. Wealth starts with ideas in people’s heads.
The entrepreneur is therefore above all else a man of the mind. The entrepreneur is the man who is constantly thinking of new ways to improve the material or spiritual lives of the greatest number of people.
And what are the social and political conditions which encourage or inhibit the entrepreneurial mind? The free-enterprise system is not possible without the sanctity of private property, the freedom of contract, free trade and the rule of law.
But the one thing that the entrepreneur values over all others is freedom–the freedom to experiment, invent and produce. The one thing that the entrepreneur dreads is government intervention. Government taxation and regulation are the means by which social planners punish and restrict the man or woman of ideas.
Welfare, regulations, taxes, tariffs, minimum-wage laws are all immoral because they use the coercive power of the state to organize human choice and action; they’re immoral because they inhibit or deny the freedom to choose how we live our lives; they’re immoral because they deny our right to live as autonomous moral agents; and they’re immoral because they deny our essential humanity. If you think this is hyperbole, stop paying your taxes for a year or two and see what happens.
The requirements for success in a free society demand that ordinary citizens order their lives in accordance with certain virtues–namely, rationality, independence, industriousness, prudence, frugality, etc. In a free capitalist society individuals must choose for themselves how they will order their lives and the values they will pursue. Under socialism, most of life’s decisions are made for you.
Both socialism and capitalism have incentive programs. Under socialism there are built-in incentives to shirk responsibility. There is no reason to work harder than anyone else becuase the rewards are shared and therefore minimal to the hard-working individual; indeed, the incentive is to work less than others because the immediate loss is shared and therefore minimal to the slacker.
Under capitalism, the incentive is to work harder because each producer will receive the total value of his production–the rewards are not shared. Simply put: socialism rewards sloth and penalizes hard work while capitalism rewards hard work and penalizes sloth.
According to socialist doctrine, there is a limited amount of wealth in the world that must be divided equally between all citizens. One person’s gain under such a system is another’s loss.
According to the capitalist teaching, wealth has an unlimited growth potential and the fruits of one’s labor should be retained in whole by the producer. But unlike socialism, one person’s gain is everybody’s gain in the capitalist system. Wealth is distributed unequally but the ship of wealth rises for everyone.
Sadly, America is no longer a capitalist nation. We live under what is more properly called a mixed economy–that is, an economic system that permits private property, but only at the discretion of government planners. A little bit of capitalism and a little bit of socialism.
When government redistributes wealth through taxation, when it attempts to control and regulate business production and trade, who are the winners and losers? Under this kind of economy the winners and losers are reversed: the winners are those who scream the loudest for a handout and the losers are those quiet citizens who work hard and pay their taxes.
As a consequence of our sixty-year experiment with a mixed economy and the welfare state, America has created two new classes of citizens. The first is a debased class of dependents whose means of survival is contingent upon the forced expropriation of wealth from working citizens by a professional class of government social planners. The forgotten man and woman in all of this is the quiet, hardworking, lawabiding, taxpaying citizen who minds his or her own business but is forced to work for the government and their serfs.
The return of capitalism will not happen until there is a moral revolution in this country. We must rediscover and then teach our young the virtues associated with being free and independent citizens. Then and only then, will there be social justice in America.
C. Bradley Thompson is Assistant Professor of Political Science at Ashland University and Coordinator of Publications and Special Programs at the John M. Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs.
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1. Boiled Potatoes
Many people avoid potatoes due to their high carbohydrate content, but there is no need for this. Potatoes are very nutritious as long as they aren’t fried. More than that, potatoes contain resistant starch that acts like soluble fiber in the digestive system. This helps you feel full with fewer calories.
Studies show that cooking and then cooling potatoes increases the level of resistant starch. Heating and cooling them repeatedly further raises that level. So not only are potatoes delicious and nutritious, but they become more so when you eat them as leftovers.
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Range: Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, Burma, Sichuan and Yunnan provinces
Main page content begins here
Scientific Name: Ailurus fulgens refulgens
Habitat: bamboo forests of Himalayan mountains
Diet: bamboo leaves, berries, grasses; also small rodents
Life Span: 12–14 years captivity (unknown in wild)
Young: 1-4 young/litter (cub)
Size: 4-6 kg (8–13 lbs)
In the wild red pandas spend much of the daytime sleeping, foraging for food at dusk and dawn. Bamboo leaves are a staple in their diet and they have developed a specialized wrist bone that acts like a thumb. This allows them to grasp bamboo stalks. Red pandas are well adapted for climbing.
A frightened or angry red panda will hiss like a cat.
Red Panda Network
The Edmonton Valley Zoo has taken up the cause to protect and conserve these animals in their native habitat. Donations received from the campaign will be administered by the Red Panda Network, a non-profit organization dedicated to saving the Panda's habitat and educating the people of Nepal.
Species Survival Plan
The Species Survival Plan (SSP) consists of co-operative, coordinated breeding programs for captive endangered species throughout the world. Species Survival Plans are not a substitute for preserving animals in nature but are a strategy for creating healthy, self-sustaining, captive populations that can be reintroduced into restored or secured habitats.
Get Closer: Qiji on the Transforming Edmonton Blog
These are some other websites that we think have more great information about this species.
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The physicist Frank Oppenheimer is remembered today, insofar as he is remembered at all, as the younger brother of J. Robert Oppenheimer, leader of the Manhattan Project scientists who built the atomic bomb. Some also recall that Frank was drummed out of academic life for lying about whether he had belonged to the Communist Party yet went on to found the Exploratorium, San Francisco’s innovative science museum. But there is far more to his story, as K.C. Cole’s able biography makes clear.
The elegant and oracular Robert Oppenheimer was a theorist whose conspicuously cultivated mien played well among those who assume that intellectual progress is mainly a matter of great thinkers thinking great thoughts. Frank was an experimenter—plainspoken, handy at fixing things, and so unconcerned about appearances that he habitually erased blackboards with his necktie. Science owes at least as much to its experimenters as to its theorists but old habits of mind are slow to change, so experimental physicists are still often overlooked and underrated. For this and other reasons Frank was obscured by his older brother’s long shadow even before the Bomb made Robert world-famous. This elision Cole is at pains to repair.
The Oppenheimer brothers grew up in a well-off, cultured household on 88th Street and Riverside Drive where the windows looked out on the Hudson River and the walls were adorned with paintings by Rembrandt, Van Gogh, Renoir, and Picasso. Their mother, Ella Friedman, had been a painter—she studied in Paris and taught at Columbia—but gave it up upon marrying Julius Oppenheimer, who had emigrated from Germany at age seventeen and made a fortune importing suit-lining fabrics. The family had a chauffeured limousine, a waterfront summer house in Bay Shore, Long Island, and a forty-foot yacht, the Lorelei.
Robert, who characterized himself as having been “an unctuous, repulsively good little boy,” became an intellectual athlete who read the Bhagavad Gita in Sanskrit and, when invited to speak in the Netherlands, elected to give his lectures in Dutch although he had never studied that language. Frank was another matter. He inherited his mother’s beauty—the physicist I.I. Rabi described the cherubic young Frank as something “out of an Italian painting”—and was sufficiently artistic to consider a career as a classical flutist, but he was happiest welding, taking things apart, and conducting electrical experiments. He liked to climb trees during lightning storms and once threw a bicycle across the third rail of a train track just to see the sparks fly. Dexterous and grubby, accustomed to using words literally rather than spinning glittering metaphors, Frank was not thought brilliant. When the brothers were at Caltech in 1939, a fellow student recalled, Robert was “always at the center of any group—smooth, articulate, captivating,” while Frank “stood at the fringe, shoulders hunched over, clothes mussed and frayed, fingers still dirty …
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System dynamics , developed by J. W. Forrester in the 1960s, goes far beyond diagrams to analyse the behaviour of complex systems using qualitative and quantitative methods to model the dynamics of systems.
The models of Systems Dynamics go beyond those of sign graphs by providing mathematical fomulae to produce the value for the change at a node at at time t+1 based on all the input values at time t. This enables the values associated with each node to be computer through time as a computer simulation. We will say more about this in the context of the Science of Complex Systems in Week 2. Thus System Dynamics lies at the intersection between qualitative systems thinking and quantitative complex systems analysis.
Although systems diagrams can give deep insights into the behaviour of systems, they have their limitations. For example, by themselves complicated diagrams may not make it easy to understand large complex systems with many qualitative and quantitative elements, and many interacting feedback loops.
What do you think of the systems diagram above which depicts US military strategy in Afghanistan, which was criticised in the New York Times for its complexity?
In a letter to The Times dated 3 May 2010, Jon Moynihan of PA Consulting Group gave a robust defence, including:
You printed what has been dubbed on the internet a “spaghetti” chart, depicting the current Afghan environment … However, ours was far from being over-simplistic PowerPoint, using instead a well-known technique — system dynamics — to review a highly complex situation. Unlike linear thinking, the default mode of the human brain, system dynamics thinks about repercussions and occasionally unintended consequences of actions. This chart was … designed to be part of a broad briefing, where it was slowly revealed alongside a verbal description of each major element. … This chart, with its attempt to grapple with complexity, was a dream for those wanting to respond trivially. But do we really want simplistic philosophies to win out … Do we want strategies developed that take no account of complexity and the sometimes counterintuitive outcomes of well-intentioned actions?
System Dynamics Society, ‘Introduction to systems dynamics’. http://www.systemdynamics.org/what-is-s/
Jon Moynihan, ‘In using charts to grapple with complex situations we should support dynamic thinking and avoid the over-simplistic’, Letter published in The Times Newspaper, 3rd May 2010.
What do you think?
Do you think the system diagram above is clear and understandable, or too complex to be useful? Are you convinced by Jon Moynihan’s argument?
Do you think systems diagrams can help in understanding the way systems work? You can add your comments below.
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We will focus on the New Covenant in our study. Just like the Mosaic Covenant formed the basis for the Old Testament kingdom, so too the New Covenant forms the basis for the New Testament kingdom. And so as new members of that Kingdom, we need to study the New Covenant because the it is the foundational to our understanding of our role in the Kingdom. Unlike the Mosaic and the Abrahamic Covenants, there is no text of the New Covenant in the full legal form. We do not have a passage that says: As for God, here is what he will do. As for man, here is what he will do. However, we do have abundant promises of the content and effect of the New covenant. One promise is that the New Covenant establishes a personal relationship between God (the King) and his people (the citizens). Another promise of the covenant is that the New Covenant will not just affect the hearts of the people, but their entire lives will be changed and there will be prosperity. Along with the New Covenant, God also promises to restore the Kingdom to Israel. From these promises, we can conclude that the New Covenant is not just salvific in nature, but points to a future time when God shall reestablish the kingdom in greater glory. Also, the New Covenant is not just individualistic, but nationalistic, that is, it promises a new nation under God. And so, when this covenant comes, we will see the Kingdom in its full glory.
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The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 have been called the defining moment of our time. Thousands of people died and the attacks had huge individual and collective consequences, including two wars. But less is known about the immediate emotional reactions to the attacks. For a new study published in Psychological Science, a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, researchers analyzed text messages sent on September 11, 2001 for emotional words. They found spiking anxiety and steadily increasing anger through that fateful day.
The researchers took advantage of transcripts of more than 500,000 text messages sent to pagers on the day of the attacks. The transcripts were published anonymously last year on WikiLeaks. Psychological scientists Mitja D. Back, Albrecht C.P. Küfner, and Boris Egloff of the University of Mainz in Germany used software for automatic text analysis to look for words that relate to sadness (words such as crying and grief), anxiety (worried, fearful), and anger (hate, annoyed). They also noted when various events happened that day, such as the plane crashes, President George W. Bush's two speeches, and the time when American Airlines reported the loss of two airplanes.
Anger accumulated through the day. By the end of the day, there were 10 times as many angry text messages as in the morning, before the plane crashes. Anxiety, on the other hand, rose and fell through the day; 30 minutes after a stressful event, significantly more anxiety-related words appeared in text messages than 30 minutes before. But anxiety always returned to baseline levels. The data show that people did not mainly react with sadness; that may have come later, the researchers say.
The fact that anger dominated in people's immediate reactions may help explain some of the consequences of the attacks. Anger is known to make people want vengeance; this could explain the reports of acts of discrimination against Muslims in the days after the attacks, as well as the broader societal response, the researchers speculate.
Cite This Page:
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Manufacturing Flexible Electronics and Photovoltaics
- Tuesday, Mar 06, 2012
Building off of the Cockrell School of Engineering's existing, patented ink-jet technology with Molecular Imprints, researchers believe a revamped manufacturing process, known as ink-jet roll-to-roll nanopatterning, could be the key to producing the large-scale, inexpensive manufacturing tools needed for electronic devices and photovoltaics.
What if an electronic device could be implanted into patients to monitor their health and treat disease? In a patient with diabetes, the device would know instantly if sugar levels were low and could report the results in real-time to the patient’s doctor, who would wirelessly command the device to release life-saving insulin.
Now imagine a sheet of solar cells, one that can be printed affordably and at large-scale – as simply as printing newspapers. The sheets would be flexible, lightweight and capable of generating so much energy that U.S. troops in remote areas could easily carry and unroll them whenever they needed power for laptops, chargers or batteries.
Scientists and engineers have long dreamed of such scenarios, but transforming them into a reality has been hampered in past decades because of high costs and the inability to manufacture nano-devices at mass-scale – rather than building them one by one as their tiny, complicated structures have traditionally required. The perpetual demand for smaller and more powerful electronics, however, has fueled recent research advancements in the field of nanotechnology and moved the vision of large-scale, flexible electronics and photovoltaics closer to a reality.
Among those spearheading these research advancements are faculty and students at The University of Texas at Austin’s Cockrell School of Engineering. In the past decade, Cockrell School researchers have taken their research from the lab to the market by commercializing a new and higher performing nanotechnology manufacturing process. The process, known as ink jet nanopatterning, spawned the Austin startup company Molecular Imprints, Inc., which now boasts more than 100 employees and serves as a widely recognized model for how top research institutions can partner with industry to bring new technologies to markets.
The Cockrell School has also assembled a multidisciplinary research team made up of experts in materials science, nanomanufacturing, design and devices. Expertise from each of the fields is needed for the challenge they face: to manufacture a process in which materials and devices – 1,000 times smaller than a strand of hair – can be precisely manipulated, controlled and mass produced for cheap.
“Electronic devices have now shrunk to dimensions that are so tiny, and they’re acting differently and new physical phenomena are occurring because of it,” said Sanjay Banerjee, a professor, member of the research team and director of the Microelectronics Research Center at the university’s Pickle Research Campus. “Students ask me all the time if nanotechnology is an area they should get into and whether there’s a long-term career in it. I tell them I’ve not been this excited about the field in a long time because the potential of nanotechnology right now is so enormous.”
Expanding the research team’s role as a game-changer in the field is a recent $1.3 million grant from the National Science Foundation Scalable Nanomanufacturing Program for which Mechanical Engineering Professor S.V. Sreenivasan is the principal investigator, and the installation of new custom-made, state-of-the-art equipment that is the only one of its kind in the world.
The equipment, housed at the Microelectronics Research Center (MRC), is jointly funded by the school and Molecular Imprints, and will enable researchers to create the manufacturing processes required for large-scale roll-to-roll nanopatterning.
“With this equipment, we are at the leading edge of technology,” said Sreenivasan, a mechanical engineering professor, inventor and co-founder of Molecular Imprints. “This is the kind of facility that could keep paying off for years and usher in a new generation of electronics and devices.”
Better control of materials leads to higher performance and versatility
Nanopatterning is used to create the integrated circuits, or microchips, found in almost all modern electronic equipment. The process produces the electronic circuits by fabricating complex exotic patterns at the nano-scale.
“You could have a fairly complicated circuit pattern but the individual elements of these circuits are as small as 30 nanometers, 1,000 times smaller than a human hair,” Sreenivasan said. “So you can’t easily see them and measure them, let alone fabricate them in highly a repeatable manner. We’ve been able to do it on silicon wafers – where it leads to high value devices. But when you want to make flexible electronics and photovoltaics, the process has to be really inexpensive for them to be viable.”
Building off of their existing, patented ink-jet technology with Molecular Imprints, Cockrell School researchers believe a revamped manufacturing process, known as ink-jet roll-to-roll nanopatterning, could be the key to producing the large-scale, inexpensive manufacturing tools needed for electronic devices and photovoltaics.
The ink-jet based process is capable of creating photovoltaics and electronic devices out of a roll of flexible materials, or films. The process also gives researchers more control over where the materials go and how they respond. By having more control, the manufacturing process is higher performing and provides more flexibility and versatility than current manufacturing applications offer.
Demonstrating its uses
In a lab on the first floor of the MRC, Sreenivasan and his students demonstrate how the manufacturing process works for flexible display elements, and are collaborating with engineering faculty, like Associate Dean of Research and Chemical Engineering Professor John Ekerdt, Chemical Engineering Department Chair Roger Bonnecaze, and Mechanical Engineering Professor and graphene pioneer Rodney Ruoff to incorporate novel nanomaterials.
Sreenivasan and his students hold a high quality substrate that, on the surface, looks like nothing more than a small, round glass plate. But on this glass material is a complex, nano-scale pattern that is so small it can only be viewed using high-powered electron microscopes capable of seeing features on the nanometer scale.
The pattern is known as the “master pattern,” because – once inserted into the manufacturing machine – the tool will automatically replicate it over and over again on to flexible film materials that roll throughout the equipment, similarly to how film is fed through a projector.
“The interesting thing about this test bed, compared to most other university experimental facilities, is that this is a manufactured test bed,” Sreenivasan said. “So it really allows you to study processes at a more applied level, and that allows you to innovate on devices and processes.”
The equipment has been on campus for less than a month, but researchers working on the project expect that they could see some early wins in producing flexible, large-scale photovolatics.
Creating flexible electronic devices, like one that could monitor a patient’s health or a flexible display for things like iPads and other devices, could be more complicated, but the potential has never been this great, said Banerjee, an expert on devices and displays.
“To make these devices affordable and easy to produce in volume has been the holy grail of this field for a long time,” Banerjee said. “There are challenges at every level but we are on the cusp of the next phase of nano-electronics and nanotechnology.”
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Home Heating Info for Do-It-Yourselfers Home Heating Info for Do-It-Yourselfers
Heating and cooling your home uses more energy and drains more energy dollars than any other system in your home. Typically, 44 percent of your utility bill goes for heating and cooling. What's more, heating and cooling systems in the United States together emit over a half billion tons of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere each year, adding to global warming. They also generate about 24 percent of the nation's sulfur dioxide and 12 percent of the nitrogen oxides, the chief ingredients in acid rain.
No matter what kind of heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning system you have in your house, you can save money and increase comfort by properly maintaining and upgrading your equipment. But remember, an energy-efficient furnace alone will not have as great an impact on your energy bills as using the whole-house approach. By combining proper equipment maintenance and upgrades with appropriate insulation, weather proofing, and thermostat settings, you can cut your energy bills and your pollution output in half.
Household Heating Systems
Although there are several different types of fuels available to heat our homes, about half of us use natural gas.
- Set your thermostat as low as is comfortable.
- Clean or replace filters on furnaces once a month or as needed.
- Clean warm air registers, baseboard heaters, and radiators as needed; make sure they're not blocked by furniture, carpeting, or drapes.
- Bleed trapped air from hot-water radiators once or twice a season; if in doubt about how to perform this task, call a professional.
- Place heat-resistant radiator reflectors between exterior walls and the radiators.
- Use kitchen, bath, and other ventilating fans wisely; in just 1 hour, these fans can pull out a houseful of warmed or cooled air. Turn fans off as soon as they have done the job.
- Keep draperies and shades open on south-facing windows during the heating season to allow sunlight to enter your home; close them at night to reduce the chill you may feel from cold windows.
- Close an unoccupied room that is isolated from the rest of the house, such as in a corner, and turn down the thermostat or turn off the heating for that room or zone. However, do not turn the heating off if it adversely affects the rest of your system. For example, if you heat your house with a heat pump, do not close the vents closing the vents could harm the heat pump.
- Select energy-efficient equipment when you buy new heating equipment. Your contractor should be able to give you energy fact sheets for different types, models, and designs to help you compare energy usage. Look for the ENERGY STAR® label. The ENERGY STAR® is a program of the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designed to help consumers identify energy-efficient appliances and products.
One Btu, British thermal unit, is roughly equivalent to burning one kitchen match. That may not sound like much, but a typical home consumes about 100 million BTUs per year. Approximately one-half of the total is used for space heating.
Gas and Oil Heating Systems
If you plan to buy a new heating system, ask your local utility or state energy office for information about the latest technologies available to consumers. They can advise you about more efficient systems on the market today. For example, many newer models incorporate designs for burners and heat exchangers that result in higher efficiencies during operation and reduce heat loss when the equipment is off.
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Images of corals from the Back reef of Ofu (a national park in American Samoa).
Across the globe, reef-building corals live in symbiosis with algae, which provide the animals with food and their iconic brilliant color. But environmental stress — high temperatures, in particular — can kill corals by causing them to "bleach," a process in which they lose their vital algal friends and turn ghostly white.
Scientists have long thought that faulty algal photosynthesis (the process that uses light to make food) ultimately triggers coral bleaching, but new research now shows that substantial bleaching can also occur when heat-stressed corals are not exposed to light (such as at night).
The study, published Thursday in the journal Current Biology, suggests that different molecular mechanisms may spark coral bleaching and that certain strategies proposed to prevent bleaching, such as shielding corals from sunlight when water temperatures are high, may need to be re-evaluated.
"The results make us rethink how coral remediation might be achieved," said study lead author Arthur Grossman, an algal physiologist at the Carnegie Institution for Science in California. "As we learn more about the mechanisms involved in coral bleaching, we may be able to ameliorate the situation a bit more." [In Images: A Trip to the Coral Triangle]
Coral reefs in danger
Coral reefs are sometimes called "rain forests of the ocean," as they are an important part of the aquatic ecosystem, providing food and shelter for countless marine species. But coral reefs around the world are in decline due to a number of different issues, including overfishing, water pollution and coastal development.
A greater problem, however, may be atmospheric carbon dioxide. Since the industrial revolution, humans have increasingly piped more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, much of which the ocean then absorbs. The resulting chemical reactions reduce seawater pH, making it more acidic. "If the water gets more acidic, it's harder for corals to make calcium carbonate for their skeletons," Grossman told LiveScience. Ocean acidification slows coral growth and weakens the reef infrastructure, making it more vulnerable to erosion and predators.
Close-up of the sea-anemone, Aiptasia. Note the symbiotic algae, symbiodinum (the brown dots) in the animal tissue.
Increased atmospheric carbon dioxide also raises global temperatures, which leads to coral bleaching — the breakdown of the symbiotic relationship between coral polyps and single-celled algae called zooxanthellae. Normally, algae supply corals with oxygen, glucose, glycerol, amino acids and other nutrients, while corals protect algae and feed them the compounds they need for photosynthesis.
Until now, the prevailing theory behind coral bleaching explained that when water temperatures are too high, the photosynthetic apparatus of algae — the chloroplast — is unable to efficiently process incoming light. The algae begin producing toxic, reactive oxygen molecules during photosynthesis, which interact with and disrupt algal membranes and proteins. The excess oxygen can also react with the water to produce hydrogen peroxide, which damages coral tissue.
After a while, the algae separate from the corals, though scientists aren't sure if the corals expel the algae or if the algae abandon the corals. Without the algae, the corals become bleached and will die if they don't quickly take up zooxanthellae again.
Grossman and his colleagues wondered if coral bleaching can still occur if algae are heat-stressed and in the dark, when the photosynthetic machinery is turned off. To find out, they first tested how a model system — the sea anemone, Aiptasia, and its algal symbiont, Symbiodinium — responds to heat stress.
They found that the sea anemone loses its algae in both the light and dark at 93.2 degrees Fahrenheit (34 degrees Celsius), and that the heat damages the algae's photosynthetic abilities; that is, they saw that the remaining algae fluoresce less than normal (fluorescence has previously been indicated as a way to test the health of coral). When the team returned the sea anemones to their normal temperature of 80.6 degrees F (27 degrees C), the animals continued to bleach for several days, but their algal populations eventually returned to their pre-stress levels.
The researchers then heated up nine reef-building corals from the genus Acropora, which came from Ofu Island in American Samoa and from the Monterey Bay Aquarium in California. At 93.2 degrees F, seven of the coral species bleached (the team isn't sure if the two other species would have bleached under higher temperatures). [Images: Colorful Corals of the Great Barrier Reef]
"The surprising thing is that in many cases, the bleaching was just as strong in the dark as it was in the light," Grossman said. "Photosynthesis is not necessary for bleaching to occur, though it may exacerbate bleaching."
A lingering mystery
The researchers suggest that other mechanisms may also trigger coral bleaching, such as nitric oxide molecules released during heat stress or reactive oxygen molecules that don't come from photosynthesis.
Another possibility is that the heat disrupts the functions of the algae and coral membranes, which allow the symbionts to pass nutrients between each other. In this case, the coral or algae realize they are not getting what they need, so they separate. There is some validity to this idea, Grossman said — in another experiment, the team discovered that they could get sea anemones to spit out their algae if they stopped photosynthesis with a drug.
Grossman also notes that the research shows that corals change color during bleaching because of the loss of algae. Some scientists have previously suggested that corals may turn white because the algae lose their pigmentation, but Grossman and his colleagues found that the expelled algae were still pigmented.
The researchers think that ejecting the algae in the dark during heat-stress may actually be beneficial to the coral. "When the light comes up the following day, if you still have algae in there you will get more reactive oxygen species and eventually destroy yourself," Grossman explained, adding that future work will tease out any advantages there may be to coral bleaching and elucidate the role that gene expression plays in the matter.
"We want to continue probing it on the molecular level and trying to pinpoint those specific mechanisms that will let us understand this whole process," Grossman said. "Then maybe we can do something about coral bleaching."
Follow Joseph Castro on Twitter. Follow us @livescience, Facebook and Google+. Original article on LiveScience.
First published September 5 2013, 4:24 PM
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Did you know that there are at least 10,000 big cats kept in private hands in the U.S., but that no one knows exactly how many or where?
It’s a dangerous situation – for people and animals – when tigers, lions and other big cats are kept as backyard pets or in roadside zoos. When things go wrong, as they too often do, police officers, veterinarians, firefighters, EMTs and other first responders are forced to make life-or-death decisions.
We will never forget the Zanesville, Ohio tragedy, when a backyard exotic animal owner released 38 big cats and 18 other dangerous animals and then took his own life. To protect the surrounding community, law enforcement had no choice but to kill most of the animals. This type of situation happens time and time again.
U.S. Senator Richard Blumenthal (D-Conn) has introduced the Big Cats and Public Safety Protection Act (S.1381). Spearheaded by the International Fund for Animal Welfare, the bill aims at banning private possession and breeding of tigers, lions, and other captive big cats in the United States, while requiring current “owners” to register their big cats. The identical House version of the bill was introduced in May by U.S. Representatives Buck McKeon (R-CA) and Loretta Sanchez (D-CA).
First responders have to risk their lives when a person is killed or mauled by a big cat, or after a big cat escapes.
A few months ago, a young woman was attacked by an adult lion while she was cleaning his enclosure. Tragically, the young woman died, and the lion had to be killed by authorities.
The incident took place at a facility that breeds and frequently transports its big cats for public display.
Since 1997, incidents involving the animals have resulted in 22 human deaths including five children; and over 200 people have been mauled or injured.
And yet private ownership of big cats remains legal in many states.
Things need to change. You can help us and IFAW make it happen. Ask your U.S. senator to co-sponsor the Big Cats and Public Safety Protection Act today.
Thank you! The cats depend on it.
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Wednesday, February 25, 2009
That D****d Mob of Scribbling Women
(Here’s another installment in the “Women’s Art is Women’s Work” series. In this section, Eberle discusses the community of women writers in the 18th & 19th centuries—so be sure to keep checking back for more installments.)
One way to know for sure what’s been important in the past is to look at what’s been left out of history. Women’s writing has had a curious tendency to get pushed out of sight, but the trail of ruffled feathers it has left behind can be traced across the centuries.
In 1855, a well-known male author complained to his publisher about the “damned mob of scribbling women,” as he referred to the American women writers of his day. Nathaniel Hawthorne didn’t think highly of the best-sellers penned by women; however, his main worry was not about their literary quality, but about the way they might cut into the sales of his own books.
America is now wholly given over to a d****d mob of scribbling women, and I should have no chance of success while the public taste is occupied with their trash--and should be ashamed of myself if I did succeed. What is the mystery of these innumberable editions of The Lamplighter and other books neither better nor worse? Worse they could not be, and better they need not be, when they sell by the hundred thousand.
Nathaniel Hawthorne (1855)
For a long time, writing was largely an old boys’ club, created by limiting education to men and by establishing criteria that effectively excluded women, granting privileged status to the male perspective—a writer had to know Greek and read the classics, had to be able to “see life.” And “seeing life” was conveniently defined more along the lines of visiting prostitutes than being one, for example-- or giving birth or raising a garden or learning how to make elderberry wine. Mary Astell (1666-1731) was one of the first to make a plea for higher education for women in her Serious Proposal to the Ladies, for the Advancement of True and Greatest Interest (1696). It was published anonymously and proposed the foundation of an academic community for women. Although her idea attracted some enthusiastic support, men in positions of power opposed the idea.
However, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, a literary revolution began to threaten the dominant status of the educated and wealthy male author. Writers from outside that privileged sanctum were finding publishers and, what was worse, they were finding hordes of readers. Ever since women began penning novels, efforts have been made to write them out of history. Gallons of ink went toward the project of explaining just why it was that women couldn’t write anything worth reading. None of that verbiage, though, solved the most troubling problem with women writers: their success.
In spite of success, women writers could sometimes get annoyed at the constant belittling of their work. In Northanger Abbey (1818) Jane Austen lashed out unsparingly at criticisms of novels, most of which were being written by women:
Let us leave it to the Reviewers to abuse such effusions of fancy at their leisure, and over every new novel to talk in threadbare strains of the trash with which the press now groans. Let us not desert one another; we are an injured body. Although our productions have afforded more extensive and unaffected pleasure than those of any other literary corporation in the world, no species of composition has been so much decried.
Jane specifically describes writers and readers of novels as being women— holding up the works of Maria Edgeworth and Frances Burney and their readers as examples. In contrast to these, Jane heaps scorn onto the work of “the nine-hundredth abridger of the History of England, or of the man who collects and publishes in a volume some dozen lines of Milton, Pope, and Prior, with a paper from the Spectator, and a chapter from Sterne,” commenting that the praise these men receive in contrast to women novelists is not always in proportion to their worth.
Jane makes a separation between the work of male and female authors and there is ample cause for this separation. Women, it has been noted, often seem to speak a different language than men. When women first became novelists they continued this tradition, speaking to each other in ways that men did not readily interpret. They wrote in a kind of code strewn with bustles and buttonhooks, where a bonnet could be a secret weapon and a scrub-brush give a heroine the courage to finally speak her mind.
The everyday mechanics of the household made up much of the material these women writers used to comment on the world around them. They wrote in this shared language, giving each other hints and help, analyzing society and behavior from this shared perspective. Many of the ways they spoke to each other were invisible to those unfamiliar with the intricate map of the domestic landscape. And so, dear reader, to find your way through scullery and armoire, the airing closet and the spring house, to become initiated into the secrets of pelisses and pariahs—read on.
Elderberry wine is particularly associated with spinsters—an association that is a remnant of the days when spinsters were not only making wine but herbal remedies and potions and sometimes credited with magic. In addition to wine, preparations of shoots, bark, and root of the elderberry tree were described in seventeenth century books on medicines. Also known as Lady Elder, the tree has ancient associations with magic. Elder wands were hung in doorways of houses and barns to drive away enchantment. Norse mythology tells of the Hyldemoer, or Elder Tree Mother-- the spirit who lives in the Elder tree, watches over it, and can take revenge if violence is done to the tree. Hawthorne and some of his colleagues wrote about witchcraft—but you can bet bustles to broomsticks they never learned how to make elderberry wine.
© Eberle Umbach 2007-2009
Pix are all PD images from Wiki Commons; from top:
Title Page to A Serious Proposal to the Ladies
Title Page to the 1818 edition of Northanger Abbey & Persuasion
Jane Austen painted by her sister Cassandra Austen
An illustration by Lorenz Frølich from Hans Christian Andersen's story about the Hyldemoer
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|
en
| 0.975171 | 1,361 | 2.75 | 3 |
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