Hessa/tqa-multimodalContext-all2 · Datasets at Hugging Face

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L_0048	effects of air pollution	DD_0032	This diagram shows how acid rain is caused by air pollution. Acid rain is mainly caused when air pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides mix with water vapor in the atmosphere. Nitrogen and sulphur oxides are generated on the earth's surface by man-made sources such as factories. A natural source of nitrogen oxides are volcanoes. These air pollutants generated then move upwards into the earth's atmosphere and get deposited back on the earth as dry or wet deposits. Wet deposits happen when gases and particulate matter mixes with water vapor which causes acid-rain/precipitation. Dry deposits come back to earth in the form of acidic gases and particulate matter.	image	teaching_images/acid_rain_formation_8000.png
L_0049	reducing air pollution	T_0479	FIGURE 22.14 This is a model of a hydrogen car. A major problem with hydrogen cars is the lack of hydrogen fuel.	image	textbook_images/reducing_air_pollution_20332.png
L_0049	reducing air pollution	T_0480	FIGURE 22.15 How a Scrubber Works. Some scrubbers use steam to remove pollutants from exhaust.	image	textbook_images/reducing_air_pollution_20333.png
L_0049	reducing air pollution	T_0483	FIGURE 22.16 This diagram shows how a cap-and-trade system works. meeting their goals. Most scientists also think the Kyoto Protocol did not go far enough to limit greenhouse gases. A stricter agreement must be reached very soon. Unfortunately, efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions are mired in politics. Meanwhile, crucial time is being lost.	image	textbook_images/reducing_air_pollution_20334.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0488	FIGURE 23.1 The Andromeda Galaxy as it appeared 2.5 million years ago. How would you find out how it looks right now?	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20335.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0488	FIGURE 23.2 An electromagnetic wave has oscillating electric and magnetic fields.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20336.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0489	FIGURE 23.3 The electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20337.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0492	FIGURE 23.4 Refracting telescopes can be very large.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20338.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0492	FIGURE 23.5 Newtonian reflector telescopes are fairly easy to make. These telescopes can be built by school students.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20339.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0492	FIGURE 23.6 The radio telescope at the Arecibo Obser- vatory in Puerto Rico.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20340.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0492	FIGURE 23.7 The Very Large Array in New Mexico con- sists of 27 radio telescopes.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20341.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0493	FIGURE 23.8 The Hubble Space Telescope has opened up the universe to human observation.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20342.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0493	FIGURE 23.9 Stars in the star cluster appear as points of light. Observations like these must be made with a space telescope.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20343.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0496	FIGURE 23.10 Galileo made the drawing on the left in 1610. On the right is a modern photo- graph of the Moon.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20344.png
L_0050	telescopes	T_0498	FIGURE 23.11 The dark lines indicate the elements that this star contains.	image	textbook_images/telescopes_20345.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0500	FIGURE 23.12 A rocket pushes in one direction so that it moves in the opposite direction.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20346.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0502	FIGURE 23.13 This missile is pushed upwards into the sky by its thrust.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20347.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0502	FIGURE 23.14 Robert Goddard with the first American rocket to use liquid fuel. This rocket was launched in 1926.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20348.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0502	FIGURE 23.15 A captured German V2 rocket was launched in New Mexico after the war.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20349.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0502	FIGURE 23.16 This Saturn V rocket took the first men to the Moon during Apollo 11.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20350.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0503	FIGURE 23.17 Isaac Newton explained how a cannonball fired from a high point with enough speed could orbit Earth.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20351.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0506	FIGURE 23.18 Communications satellites carry solar panels to provide energy for their mis- sions.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20352.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0509	FIGURE 23.19 Satellites detect different wavelengths of energy. This means that they can find different types of objects.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20353.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0510	FIGURE 23.20 Laika went into orbit on the Soviet space- craft, Sputnik 2.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20354.png
L_0051	early space exploration	T_0510	FIGURE 23.21 Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin with the Lunar Module Eagle and the American flag in the background. The photo was taken by Commander Neil Armstrong. nations working together.	image	textbook_images/early_space_exploration_20355.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0514	FIGURE 23.22 Salyut 7 with a docked spacecraft to bring crew on and off.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20356.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0514	FIGURE 23.23 Mir, with an American space shuttle at- tached.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20357.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0515	FIGURE 23.24 The International Space Station, as pho- tographed from the Space Shuttle Atlantis in May 2010.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20358.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0516	FIGURE 23.25 The space shuttle Atlantis rides a special- ized Boeing 747 from its landing site in California back to Florida. an airplane. The shuttle is launched from Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. During launches, the orbiter is attached to a huge fuel tank that contains liquid fuel. On the sides of the fuel tank are two large booster rockets. Figure 23.26 shows the stages of a normal space shuttle mission. Once in space, the orbiter can deliver equipment or supplies to the International Space Station. Astronauts can to repair orbiting equipment such as the Hubble Space Telescope. They may also do experiments directly on board the orbiter.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20359.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0516	FIGURE 23.26 The stages of a shuttle mission. The orbiter takes off like a rocket and lands like an airplane.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20360.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0517	FIGURE 23.27 The disasters on the Challenger space shuttle mission showed just how danger- ous space travel can be.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20361.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0520	FIGURE 23.28 The Cone Nebula is a star-forming pillar of gas and dust.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20362.png
L_0052	recent space exploration	T_0520	FIGURE 23.29 This artists painting of one of the two Mars rovers shows the six wheels, as well as a set of instruments being extended forward by a robotic arm. The Cassini mission has been studying Saturn, including its rings and moons, since 2004. The Huygens probe is studying Saturns moon Titan. Titan has some of the conditions that are needed to support life. Some missions visit the smaller objects in our solar system. The Deep Impact Probe collided with a comet in 2005. The probe sent back data from the impact. The Stardust mission visited another comet. There it collected tiny dust particles. Missions are underway to study some asteroids and Pluto. Small objects in our solar system may help us to understand how the solar system formed.	image	textbook_images/recent_space_exploration_20363.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0523	FIGURE 24.1 This is how the Earth looks from space - like a blue and white marble.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20364.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0523	FIGURE 24.2 Compare the Sun with the other planets and see how the Sun is much bigger than all the other planets. Atmosphere: the thin layer of air, mostly nitrogen and oxygen, that surrounds the Earth. Hydrosphere: all the water on Earth. Biosphere: all the living organisms on Earth. Lithosphere: the solid rock part of Earth, including mountains, valleys, continents, and all of the rock beneath the oceans.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20365.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0523	FIGURE 24.3 Earth has four layers: atmosphere, hydro- sphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20366.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0525	FIGURE 24.4 The Moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth- Moon system orbits the Sun.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20367.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0525	FIGURE 24.5 The strength of the force of gravity be- tween objects A and B depends on the mass of the objects and the distance (u) between them.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20368.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0525	FIGURE 24.6 Earths space. magnetic field extends into	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20369.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0525	FIGURE 24.7 Earths magnetic field protects the planet from harmful radiation.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20370.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0525	FIGURE 24.8 The needle of a compass will align with Earths magnetic field, making the com- pass a useful device for navigation.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20371.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0527	FIGURE 24.9 Imagine a pendulum at the North Pole. The pendulum always swings in the same direction. But because of Earths rotation, its direction appears to change to observers on Earth.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20372.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0529	FIGURE 24.10 The Earth tilts on its axis.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20373.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0529	FIGURE 24.11 Earths tilt changes the length of the days and nights during different seasons.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20374.png
L_0053	planet earth	T_0530	FIGURE 24.12 Earth and the other planets in the solar system make elliptical orbits around the Sun. The distance between the Earth and the Sun is about 150 million kilometers. Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 kilometers (17 miles) per second. Mercury and Venus are closer to the Sun, so they take shorter times to make one orbit. Mercury takes only about 88 Earth days to make one trip around the Sun. All of the other planets take longer amounts of time. The exact amount depends on the planets distance from the Sun. Saturn takes more than 29 Earth years to make one revolution around the Sun.	image	textbook_images/planet_earth_20375.png
L_0054	earths moon	T_0531	FIGURE 24.13 The Mare Moscoviense is one of the few maria, or dark, flat areas, on the far side.	image	textbook_images/earths_moon_20376.png
L_0054	earths moon	T_0534	FIGURE 24.14 Craters, like the one shown in this image, are found on the surface of the Moon.	image	textbook_images/earths_moon_20377.png
L_0054	earths moon	T_0534	FIGURE 24.15 Maria (the dark areas) and terrae (the light areas) cover the Moon.	image	textbook_images/earths_moon_20378.png
L_0055	the sun	T_0538	FIGURE 24.16 The sizes of the planets relative to the Sun, if the Sun was the size of a basketball.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_20379.png
L_0055	the sun	T_0542	FIGURE 24.17 The Suns atmosphere contains the pho- tosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. This image was taken by NASAs Spacelab 2 instruments.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_20380.png
L_0055	the sun	T_0546	FIGURE 24.18 The darker regions in this image are sunspots.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_20381.png
L_0055	the sun	T_0547	FIGURE 24.19 This image is actually made up of two suc- cessive images and shows how a solar flare develops.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_20382.png
L_0055	the sun	DD_0033	This diagram shows the internal structure of the sun. The atmosphere lies on top and has the following layers. The corona is the outermost layer. Then lies the chromosphere, a reddish gaseous layer immediately above the photosphere of the sun or another star which, together with the corona, constitutes its outer atmosphere. The photosphere is about 300 km thick. Most of the Sun's visible light that we see originates from this region. Then lies the convection zone and the radiation zone. Then is the core which is made up of a very hot and dense mass of atomic nuclei and electrons.	image	teaching_images/sun_layers_6305.png
L_0055	the sun	DD_0034	The diagram represents the various parts of the sun. There are three main parts to the Sun's interior: the core, the radiative zone, and the convective zone. The core is at the center. It is the hottest region, where the nuclear fusion reactions that power the Sun occur. Moving outward, next comes the radiative (or radiation) zone. Its name is derived from the way energy is carried outward through this layer, carried by photons as thermal radiation. The third and final region of the solar interior is named the convective (or convection) zone. It is also named after the dominant mode of energy flow in this layer; heat moves upward via roiling convection, much like the bubbling motion in a pot of boiling oatmeal. The boundary between the Sun's interior and the solar atmosphere is called the photosphere. It is what we see as the visible "surface" of the Sun. The photosphere is not like the surface of a planet; even if you could tolerate the heat you couldn't stand on it. The sun has its own atmosphere. The lower region of the solar atmosphere is called the chromosphere. A thin transition region, where temperatures rise sharply, separates the chromosphere from the vast corona above. The uppermost portion of the Sun's atmosphere is called the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter than the Sun's surface (photosphere).	image	teaching_images/sun_layers_6304.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	T_0549	FIGURE 24.20 During a solar eclipse, the Moon casts a shadow on the Earth. The shadow is made up of two parts: the darker umbra and the lighter penumbra.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_and_the_earthmoon_system_20383.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	T_0549	FIGURE 24.21 A photo of a total solar eclipse.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_and_the_earthmoon_system_20384.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	T_0550	FIGURE 24.22 A lunar eclipse is shown in a series of pictures.	image	textbook_images/the_sun_and_the_earthmoon_system_20385.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	DD_0035	The diagram shows the phases of the moon as it moves in orbit around the earth. Although we can see the moon in the night sky, it does not actually produce its own light. Instead, it reflects the light of the sun onto the earth, much like a mirror would. When the moon is fully lit by the sun, we can see the entire face of the moon. This is called a full moon. However, as the moon moves around its orbit, we see less reflected light due to its changing position. The moon is waning when the reflected surface of the moon is becoming smaller. When we can see only half of the waning moon, we call this the last quarter. When the moon reaches the other side of the earth, it becomes completely dark because the earth blocks the sunÕs light. However, as the moon continues to move around the earth, the sunÕs light will gradually reach the moon again, and the moon reappears in the night sky. The moon is waxing when the reflected surface of the moon is becoming bigger. When we can see half of the waxing moon, we call this the first quarter. The moon will continue to grow until it again becomes a full moon. A full lunar cycle takes about 29.5 days.	image	teaching_images/earth_moon_phases_6008.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	DD_0036	This diagram shows 8 phases of the moon. When the side of the moon facing the earth is not illuminated by the Sun the moon phase is called New Moon. When the side of the moon facing the earth is fully lit by the sun, the moon phase is known as Full Moon. The first quarter and last quarter are phases when exactly half of the moon is lit by the sun. The intermediate stages are known as Crescent and Gibbous.	image	teaching_images/earth_moon_phases_2534.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	DD_0037	The diagram shows the different phases of moon. The moon does not produce any light of its own. It only reflects light from the sun. As the moon moves around the earth, we see different parts of the moon lit up by the sun. This causes the phases of the moon. A full moon occurs when the whole side facing earth is lit. This happens when earth is between the moon and the sun. About one week later, the moon enters the quarter-moon phase. Only half of the moon's lit surface is visible from earth, so it appears as a half circle. When the moon moves between earth and the sun, the side facing earth is completely dark. This is called the new moon phase. Sometimes you can just barely make out the outline of the new moon in the sky. This is because some sunlight reflects off the earth and hits the moon. Before and after the quarter-moon phases are the gibbous and crescent phases. During the crescent moon phase, the moon is less than half lit. It is seen as only a sliver or crescent shape. During the gibbous moon phase, the moon is more than half lit. It is not full. The moon undergoes a complete cycle of phases about every 29.5 days.	image	teaching_images/earth_moon_phases_2549.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	DD_0038	This image shows the different phases of moon. The phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth over about a month. As the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. A new moon is when the Moon cannot be seen because we are looking at the unlit half of the Moon. A waxing crescent moon is when the Moon looks like crescent and the crescent increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. The first quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waxing crescent phase. A waxing gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. A full moon is when we can see the entire lit portion of the Moon. A waning gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next. The last quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waning gibbous phase. A waning crescent moon is when the Moon looks like the crescent and the crescent decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next.	image	teaching_images/earth_moon_phases_139.png
L_0056	the sun and the earthmoon system	DD_0039	Illustrated in the diagram are the 8 different phases of the moon. The moon does not produce its own light. However, the moon becomes visible to us due to its capability to reflect light from the sun. As it moves around the Earth, we see these phases that result from the different angles the moon makes with the sun. A New Moon occurs when the side of the moon facing the earth is not illuminated by the sun. After a few days, a thin crescent shape of the moon becomes visible in the night sky. The crescent moon waxes, or appears to grow fatter, each night. When half of the moon is illuminated, it is called a First Quarter moon. The moon continues to wax, forms a gibbous shape, until it eventually becomes a Full Moon. This now means that the moon has completed one half of a month. During the second half, the shape of the moon starts to wane, growing thinner every night. Once the moon reaches the Third Quarter, it shows the other half of its disc that is illuminated by the sun. It continues to wane while nearing its approach to the New Moon Phase. The Moon undergoes a complete cycle of phases about every 29.5 days.	image	teaching_images/earth_moon_phases_2736.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0554	FIGURE 25.1 On left is a line art drawing of the Ptole- maic system with Earth at the center. On the right is a drawing of the Ptolemaic system from 1568 by a Portuguese as- tronomer.	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20386.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0555	FIGURE 25.2 Copernicus proposed a different idea that had the Sun at the center of the universe model more seriously. Through his telescope, Galileo saw moons orbiting Jupiter. He proposed that this was like the planets orbiting the Sun.	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20387.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0556	FIGURE 25.3 This artistic composition shows the eight planets, a comet, and an asteroid. Object Mass (Relative to Earth) Diameter of Planet (Relative to Earth) 3.81 Earths diameter	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20388.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0558	FIGURE 25.4 The Sun and planets with the correct sizes. The distances between them are not correct. Figure 25.5 shows those distances correctly. In the upper left are the orbits of the inner planets and the asteroid belt. The asteroid belt is a collection of many small objects between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. In the upper right are the orbits of the outer planets and the Kuiper belt. The Kuiper belt is a group of objects beyond the orbit of Neptune.	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20389.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0558	FIGURE 25.5 In this image, distances are shown to scale.	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20390.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	T_0562	FIGURE 25.6 The nebula was drawn together by gravity.	image	textbook_images/introduction_to_the_solar_system_20391.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	DD_0040	The diagram shows the Solar System. The Sun and all the objects held by its gravity make up the solar system. There are eight planets in the solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and Neptune. Pluto, Eris, Ceres, Make make and Haumea are dwarf planets. The ancient Greeks believed Earth was at the center of the universe and everything else orbited Earth. Copernicus proposed that the Sun at the center of the universe and the planets and stars orbit the Sun. Planets are held by the force of gravity in elliptical orbits around the Sun. The solar system formed from a giant cloud of gas and dust about 4.6 billion years ago. This model explains why the planets all lie in one plane and orbit in the same direction around the Sun.	image	teaching_images/solar_system_1428.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	DD_0041	This diagram shows our Solar system. Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun, the planets Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It includes: the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, and meteoroids; and the interplanetary medium. Jupiter is the largest planet and Saturn and Neptune have rings around them. Earth lies after Mercury and Venus. All the planets revolve around the sun. Pluto is the farthest and Mercury is nearest to the sun.	image	teaching_images/solar_system_6293.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	DD_0042	There are eight planets in the Solar System. From closest to farthest from the Sun, they are: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. The first four planets are called terrestrial planets. They are mostly made of rock and metal, and they are mostly solid. The last four planets are called gas giants. This is because they are large planets that are mostly made of gas. Even though they are made of gas, they have much more mass than the terrestrial planets. Pluto had been called a planet since it was discovered in 1930, but in 2006 astronomers meeting at the International Astronomical Union decided on the definition of a planet, and Pluto did not fit. Instead they defined a new category of dwarf planet, into which Pluto did fit, along with some others. These small planets are sometimes called plutinos.	image	teaching_images/solar_system_1435.png
L_0057	introduction to the solar system	DD_0043	This diagram shows a few of the objects in our solar system. The first object shown in the upper row is the sun which is a star and is at the center of our solar system. The next three objects are the planets mercury, venus, earth. The objects in the second row are the moon which is the Earth's moon followed by the planets mars, jupiter and saturn. Jupiter is the largest planet. The planet saturn contains rings around it. Mercury is the planet closest to the sun in our solar system. Earth is the planet that we live on. The two planets not shown in this diagram are neptune and pluto.	image	teaching_images/solar_system_6303.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0564	FIGURE 25.7 Tiny Mercury is the small black dot in the lower center of this picture of the Sun. The larger dark area near the left edge is a sunspot.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20392.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0564	FIGURE 25.8 The surface of Mercury is covered with craters, like Earths Moon.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20393.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0565	FIGURE 25.9	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20394.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0568	FIGURE 25.10 Mercury is one of the most dense planets, with a very large core.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20395.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0570	FIGURE 25.11 Venus in real color. The planet is covered by a thick layer of clouds.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20396.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0570	FIGURE 25.12 A topographical image of Venus produced by the Magellan probe using radar. Color differences enhance small scale struc- ture. reddish-brown.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20397.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0570	FIGURE 25.13 Maat Mons volcano on Venus, with lava beds in the foreground.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20398.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0573	FIGURE 25.14 Earth from space.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20399.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0576	FIGURE 25.15 Mars is Earths second nearest neighbor planet.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20400.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0578	FIGURE 25.16 The largest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20401.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0578	FIGURE 25.17 The largest canyon in the solar system, Valles Marineris.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20402.png
L_0058	inner planets	T_0580	FIGURE 25.18 Phobos is Mars larger moon. It has a 6.9 mile (11.1 km) radius.	image	textbook_images/inner_planets_20403.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0581	FIGURE 25.19 Jupiter is the largest planet in our solar system.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20404.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0584	FIGURE 25.20 The Great Red Spot has been on Jupiter since weve had telescopes powerful enough to see it.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20405.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0584	FIGURE 25.21 The Galilean moons are as large as small planets. showed that Jupiter has a ring system. This ring system is very faint, so it is very difficult to observe from Earth.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20406.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0585	FIGURE 25.22 Saturn is the least dense planet in our solar system.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20407.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0587	FIGURE 25.23 Cassini scientists waited years for the right conditions to produce the first movie that shows lightning on another planet - Saturn.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20408.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0587	FIGURE 25.24 This hexagon has been visible for nearly 30 years.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20409.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0588	FIGURE 25.25 Titan has an atmosphere like Earths first atmosphere.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20410.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0589	FIGURE 25.26 Uranus is the 7th planet out from the Sun.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20411.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0592	FIGURE 25.27 Uranus rings are almost perpendicular to the planets orbit.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20412.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0592	FIGURE 25.28 The five biggest moons of Uranus: Miranda, Ariel, Umbriel, Titania, and Oberon.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20413.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0593	FIGURE 25.29 Neptune has a great dark spot at the center left and a small dark spot at the bottom center.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20414.png
L_0059	outer planets	T_0595	FIGURE 25.30 Neptunes moon Triton.	image	textbook_images/outer_planets_20415.png
L_0060	other objects in the solar system	T_0598	FIGURE 25.31 Asteroid Ida with its tiny moon Dactyl. The asteroids mean radius is 15.7 km.	image	textbook_images/other_objects_in_the_solar_system_20416.png
L_0060	other objects in the solar system	T_0598	FIGURE 25.32 The asteroid belt is between Mars and Jupiter.	image	textbook_images/other_objects_in_the_solar_system_20417.png
L_0060	other objects in the solar system	T_0601	FIGURE 25.33 Meteors burning up as they fall through Earths atmosphere.	image	textbook_images/other_objects_in_the_solar_system_20418.png
L_0060	other objects in the solar system	T_0603	FIGURE 25.34 The Mars Rover, Opportunity, found a metal meteorite on the Red Planet.	image	textbook_images/other_objects_in_the_solar_system_20419.png

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effects of air pollution

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This diagram shows how acid rain is caused by air pollution. Acid rain is mainly caused when air pollutants such as sulphur and nitrogen oxides mix with water vapor in the atmosphere. Nitrogen and sulphur oxides are generated on the earth's surface by man-made sources such as factories. A natural source of nitrogen oxides are volcanoes. These air pollutants generated then move upwards into the earth's atmosphere and get deposited back on the earth as dry or wet deposits. Wet deposits happen when gases and particulate matter mixes with water vapor which causes acid-rain/precipitation. Dry deposits come back to earth in the form of acidic gases and particulate matter.

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reducing air pollution

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FIGURE 22.14 This is a model of a hydrogen car. A major problem with hydrogen cars is the lack of hydrogen fuel.

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reducing air pollution

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FIGURE 22.15 How a Scrubber Works. Some scrubbers use steam to remove pollutants from exhaust.

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reducing air pollution

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FIGURE 22.16 This diagram shows how a cap-and-trade system works. meeting their goals. Most scientists also think the Kyoto Protocol did not go far enough to limit greenhouse gases. A stricter agreement must be reached very soon. Unfortunately, efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions are mired in politics. Meanwhile, crucial time is being lost.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.1 The Andromeda Galaxy as it appeared 2.5 million years ago. How would you find out how it looks right now?

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.2 An electromagnetic wave has oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.3 The electromagnetic spectrum from radio waves to gamma rays.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.4 Refracting telescopes can be very large.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.5 Newtonian reflector telescopes are fairly easy to make. These telescopes can be built by school students.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.6 The radio telescope at the Arecibo Obser- vatory in Puerto Rico.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.7 The Very Large Array in New Mexico con- sists of 27 radio telescopes.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.8 The Hubble Space Telescope has opened up the universe to human observation.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.9 Stars in the star cluster appear as points of light. Observations like these must be made with a space telescope.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.10 Galileo made the drawing on the left in 1610. On the right is a modern photo- graph of the Moon.

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telescopes

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FIGURE 23.11 The dark lines indicate the elements that this star contains.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.12 A rocket pushes in one direction so that it moves in the opposite direction.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.13 This missile is pushed upwards into the sky by its thrust.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.14 Robert Goddard with the first American rocket to use liquid fuel. This rocket was launched in 1926.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.15 A captured German V2 rocket was launched in New Mexico after the war.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.16 This Saturn V rocket took the first men to the Moon during Apollo 11.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.17 Isaac Newton explained how a cannonball fired from a high point with enough speed could orbit Earth.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.18 Communications satellites carry solar panels to provide energy for their mis- sions.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.19 Satellites detect different wavelengths of energy. This means that they can find different types of objects.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.20 Laika went into orbit on the Soviet space- craft, Sputnik 2.

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early space exploration

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FIGURE 23.21 Apollo 11 astronaut Buzz Aldrin with the Lunar Module Eagle and the American flag in the background. The photo was taken by Commander Neil Armstrong. nations working together.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.22 Salyut 7 with a docked spacecraft to bring crew on and off.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.23 Mir, with an American space shuttle at- tached.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.24 The International Space Station, as pho- tographed from the Space Shuttle Atlantis in May 2010.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.25 The space shuttle Atlantis rides a special- ized Boeing 747 from its landing site in California back to Florida. an airplane. The shuttle is launched from Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. During launches, the orbiter is attached to a huge fuel tank that contains liquid fuel. On the sides of the fuel tank are two large booster rockets. Figure 23.26 shows the stages of a normal space shuttle mission. Once in space, the orbiter can deliver equipment or supplies to the International Space Station. Astronauts can to repair orbiting equipment such as the Hubble Space Telescope. They may also do experiments directly on board the orbiter.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.26 The stages of a shuttle mission. The orbiter takes off like a rocket and lands like an airplane.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.27 The disasters on the Challenger space shuttle mission showed just how danger- ous space travel can be.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.28 The Cone Nebula is a star-forming pillar of gas and dust.

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recent space exploration

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FIGURE 23.29 This artists painting of one of the two Mars rovers shows the six wheels, as well as a set of instruments being extended forward by a robotic arm. The Cassini mission has been studying Saturn, including its rings and moons, since 2004. The Huygens probe is studying Saturns moon Titan. Titan has some of the conditions that are needed to support life. Some missions visit the smaller objects in our solar system. The Deep Impact Probe collided with a comet in 2005. The probe sent back data from the impact. The Stardust mission visited another comet. There it collected tiny dust particles. Missions are underway to study some asteroids and Pluto. Small objects in our solar system may help us to understand how the solar system formed.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.1 This is how the Earth looks from space - like a blue and white marble.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.2 Compare the Sun with the other planets and see how the Sun is much bigger than all the other planets. Atmosphere: the thin layer of air, mostly nitrogen and oxygen, that surrounds the Earth. Hydrosphere: all the water on Earth. Biosphere: all the living organisms on Earth. Lithosphere: the solid rock part of Earth, including mountains, valleys, continents, and all of the rock beneath the oceans.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.3 Earth has four layers: atmosphere, hydro- sphere, biosphere, and lithosphere.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.4 The Moon orbits the Earth, and the Earth- Moon system orbits the Sun.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.5 The strength of the force of gravity be- tween objects A and B depends on the mass of the objects and the distance (u) between them.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.6 Earths space. magnetic field extends into

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.7 Earths magnetic field protects the planet from harmful radiation.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.8 The needle of a compass will align with Earths magnetic field, making the com- pass a useful device for navigation.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.9 Imagine a pendulum at the North Pole. The pendulum always swings in the same direction. But because of Earths rotation, its direction appears to change to observers on Earth.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.10 The Earth tilts on its axis.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.11 Earths tilt changes the length of the days and nights during different seasons.

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planet earth

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FIGURE 24.12 Earth and the other planets in the solar system make elliptical orbits around the Sun. The distance between the Earth and the Sun is about 150 million kilometers. Earth revolves around the Sun at an average speed of about 27 kilometers (17 miles) per second. Mercury and Venus are closer to the Sun, so they take shorter times to make one orbit. Mercury takes only about 88 Earth days to make one trip around the Sun. All of the other planets take longer amounts of time. The exact amount depends on the planets distance from the Sun. Saturn takes more than 29 Earth years to make one revolution around the Sun.

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earths moon

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FIGURE 24.13 The Mare Moscoviense is one of the few maria, or dark, flat areas, on the far side.

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earths moon

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FIGURE 24.14 Craters, like the one shown in this image, are found on the surface of the Moon.

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earths moon

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FIGURE 24.15 Maria (the dark areas) and terrae (the light areas) cover the Moon.

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the sun

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FIGURE 24.16 The sizes of the planets relative to the Sun, if the Sun was the size of a basketball.

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the sun

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FIGURE 24.17 The Suns atmosphere contains the pho- tosphere, the chromosphere, and the corona. This image was taken by NASAs Spacelab 2 instruments.

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the sun

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FIGURE 24.18 The darker regions in this image are sunspots.

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the sun

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FIGURE 24.19 This image is actually made up of two suc- cessive images and shows how a solar flare develops.

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the sun

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This diagram shows the internal structure of the sun. The atmosphere lies on top and has the following layers. The corona is the outermost layer. Then lies the chromosphere, a reddish gaseous layer immediately above the photosphere of the sun or another star which, together with the corona, constitutes its outer atmosphere. The photosphere is about 300 km thick. Most of the Sun's visible light that we see originates from this region. Then lies the convection zone and the radiation zone. Then is the core which is made up of a very hot and dense mass of atomic nuclei and electrons.

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the sun

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The diagram represents the various parts of the sun. There are three main parts to the Sun's interior: the core, the radiative zone, and the convective zone. The core is at the center. It is the hottest region, where the nuclear fusion reactions that power the Sun occur. Moving outward, next comes the radiative (or radiation) zone. Its name is derived from the way energy is carried outward through this layer, carried by photons as thermal radiation. The third and final region of the solar interior is named the convective (or convection) zone. It is also named after the dominant mode of energy flow in this layer; heat moves upward via roiling convection, much like the bubbling motion in a pot of boiling oatmeal. The boundary between the Sun's interior and the solar atmosphere is called the photosphere. It is what we see as the visible "surface" of the Sun. The photosphere is not like the surface of a planet; even if you could tolerate the heat you couldn't stand on it. The sun has its own atmosphere. The lower region of the solar atmosphere is called the chromosphere. A thin transition region, where temperatures rise sharply, separates the chromosphere from the vast corona above. The uppermost portion of the Sun's atmosphere is called the corona, and is surprisingly much hotter than the Sun's surface (photosphere).

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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FIGURE 24.20 During a solar eclipse, the Moon casts a shadow on the Earth. The shadow is made up of two parts: the darker umbra and the lighter penumbra.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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FIGURE 24.21 A photo of a total solar eclipse.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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FIGURE 24.22 A lunar eclipse is shown in a series of pictures.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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The diagram shows the phases of the moon as it moves in orbit around the earth. Although we can see the moon in the night sky, it does not actually produce its own light. Instead, it reflects the light of the sun onto the earth, much like a mirror would. When the moon is fully lit by the sun, we can see the entire face of the moon. This is called a full moon. However, as the moon moves around its orbit, we see less reflected light due to its changing position. The moon is waning when the reflected surface of the moon is becoming smaller. When we can see only half of the waning moon, we call this the last quarter. When the moon reaches the other side of the earth, it becomes completely dark because the earth blocks the sunÕs light. However, as the moon continues to move around the earth, the sunÕs light will gradually reach the moon again, and the moon reappears in the night sky. The moon is waxing when the reflected surface of the moon is becoming bigger. When we can see half of the waxing moon, we call this the first quarter. The moon will continue to grow until it again becomes a full moon. A full lunar cycle takes about 29.5 days.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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This diagram shows 8 phases of the moon. When the side of the moon facing the earth is not illuminated by the Sun the moon phase is called New Moon. When the side of the moon facing the earth is fully lit by the sun, the moon phase is known as Full Moon. The first quarter and last quarter are phases when exactly half of the moon is lit by the sun. The intermediate stages are known as Crescent and Gibbous.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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The diagram shows the different phases of moon. The moon does not produce any light of its own. It only reflects light from the sun. As the moon moves around the earth, we see different parts of the moon lit up by the sun. This causes the phases of the moon. A full moon occurs when the whole side facing earth is lit. This happens when earth is between the moon and the sun. About one week later, the moon enters the quarter-moon phase. Only half of the moon's lit surface is visible from earth, so it appears as a half circle. When the moon moves between earth and the sun, the side facing earth is completely dark. This is called the new moon phase. Sometimes you can just barely make out the outline of the new moon in the sky. This is because some sunlight reflects off the earth and hits the moon. Before and after the quarter-moon phases are the gibbous and crescent phases. During the crescent moon phase, the moon is less than half lit. It is seen as only a sliver or crescent shape. During the gibbous moon phase, the moon is more than half lit. It is not full. The moon undergoes a complete cycle of phases about every 29.5 days.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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This image shows the different phases of moon. The phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth over about a month. As the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. A new moon is when the Moon cannot be seen because we are looking at the unlit half of the Moon. A waxing crescent moon is when the Moon looks like crescent and the crescent increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. The first quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waxing crescent phase. A waxing gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. A full moon is when we can see the entire lit portion of the Moon. A waning gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next. The last quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waning gibbous phase. A waning crescent moon is when the Moon looks like the crescent and the crescent decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next.

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the sun and the earthmoon system

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Illustrated in the diagram are the 8 different phases of the moon. The moon does not produce its own light. However, the moon becomes visible to us due to its capability to reflect light from the sun. As it moves around the Earth, we see these phases that result from the different angles the moon makes with the sun. A New Moon occurs when the side of the moon facing the earth is not illuminated by the sun. After a few days, a thin crescent shape of the moon becomes visible in the night sky. The crescent moon waxes, or appears to grow fatter, each night. When half of the moon is illuminated, it is called a First Quarter moon. The moon continues to wax, forms a gibbous shape, until it eventually becomes a Full Moon. This now means that the moon has completed one half of a month. During the second half, the shape of the moon starts to wane, growing thinner every night. Once the moon reaches the Third Quarter, it shows the other half of its disc that is illuminated by the sun. It continues to wane while nearing its approach to the New Moon Phase. The Moon undergoes a complete cycle of phases about every 29.5 days.

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