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sured via energy
sensors connected to the testbed. An experimental study
on the energy consumption of the permissioned, non-PoW
XRP ledger demonstrates that customising validator hardware
can yield reductions in energy demand [16]. Metrics reported
for common cryptocurrencies have been combined with testbed
experiments to model the energy consumption behaviours of
various consensus algorithms [17].
Mathematical models: An alternative method is to
quantify assumptions about the environment in which a DLT
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system operates. Often, such models use a 'top-down' approach
that relies on publicly observable factors – such as the hash
rate in the case of Bitcoin – and associates them with common
mining hardware or even seeks to determine the hardware used
via surveys [12]. The papers of Gallersdörfer et al. [18], Küfeo-
glu and Özkuran [19], and Zade et al. [20] are examples of this
hash rate-based approach. Sedlmeir et al. [8] undertake a basic
comparison of different DLT architectures with the conclusion
that th | [
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system operates. Often, such models use a 'top-down' approach
that relies on publicly observable factors – such as the hash
rate in the case of Bitcoin – and associates them with common
mining hardware or even seeks to determine the hardware used
via surveys [12]. The papers of Gallersdörfer et al. [18], Küfeo-
glu and Özkuran [19], and Zade et al. [20] are examples of this
hash rate-based approach. Sedlmeir et al. [8] undertake a basic
comparison of different DLT architectures with the conclusion
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] | The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work | 1,574 |
e energy consumption differs significantly depending on
the design chosen. A further study by the same authors [21]
refines previous models for measuring the power consumption
2This was done using the query ("Blockchain" OR "DLT" OR
"Distributed Ledger") AND ("Energy Consumption" OR "Energy
Demand" OR "Electricity Demand" OR "Carbon Footprint")
year:[2008 TO *].
of Bitcoin, such as the one by Vranken [22], and emphasises that
the driving forces behind power consumption are the Bitcoin
price and the avai | [
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lability of cheap electricity. Eshani et al. [23]
use a linear regression model to predict Ethereum's energy con-
sumption based on the observed hash rate and difficulty level;
however, the use of simplistic interpolation techniques alone
is likely not an appropriate method for PoW blockchains [12].
Powell et al. [24] derive a mathematical model for the energy
consumption of the PoS-based Polkadot blockchain by extra-
polating from the power demand of a single validator machine.
III. Systems reviewed
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is paper compares six DLT systems, both permissioned
and permissionless, with high market capitalisation that use PoS
as part of the consensus mechanism. To reiterate: PoS systems
are conceptualised in such a way that the eligibility to actively
participate in their consensus mechanism is proportional to the
amount of cryptocurrency a participant holds. This means that
the resource 'computing power', as used in PoW, is replaced by
the resource 'capital' [8]. While the systems compared use dif-
ferent PoS- | [
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"1"
] | The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work | 1,577 |
based consensus mechanisms that have different par-
ticipation requirements, such as a minimum balance or a com-
mitment to staking capital for a pre-defined period, they share
important commonalities. A commonality particularly relevant
to energy consumption is the need for dedicated servers, valid-
ator nodes, to validate sets of transactions and attach generation
proofs. This activity is essential, irrespective of whether transac-
tions are organised as chains of blocks [1], or as directed acyclic
grap | [
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hs [25]. It is this validation and proof generation aspect that
attracts stern criticism in the context of PoW since it is respons-
ible for its problematic energy consumption characteristics [1].
Platform Permissioned Permissionless
Ethereum 2.0 •
Algorand •
Cardano •
Polkadot •
Tezos •
Hedera •
Table I
Comparison of the analysed DLT systems in node permission setting.
The selection process for validation and proof generation in
PoS constitutes a pseudo-random procedure in which a higher
stake yields | [
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782,
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119,
164,
2588,
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5127,
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115,
120,
18630,
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120,
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188,
1777,
1377,
14044
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a higher probability of being selected [26]. PoS can
be applied in both permissioned [27] and permissionless [28]
settings (see Table I). Participants in permissionless networks
can contribute validator nodes by following the respective
admission procedures, such as broadcasting a key registration
transaction in the case of Algorand [29]. The procedures often
involve staking cryptocurrency and emitting messages on the
ledger to indicate the willingness to act as validator [30].
In permissioned systems, su | [
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] | The Energy Footprint of Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms Beyond Proof-of-Work | 1,580 |
a higher probability of being selected [26]. PoS can
be applied in both permissioned [27] and permissionless [28]
settings (see Table I). Participants in permissionless networks
can contribute validator nodes by following the respective
admission procedures, such as broadcasting a key registration
transaction in the case of Algorand [29]. The procedures often
involve staking cryptocurrency and emitting messages on the
ledger to indicate the willingness to act as validator [30].
In permissioned systems, su | [
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ch as Hedera, participation in
the pseudo-random selection procedure is, however, limited
to participants previously determined via an off-ledger
process [31]. Once a node is recognised as a validator, it
1136
Authorized licensed use limited to: University College London. Downloaded on July 04,2023 at 16:25:58 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
may participate in validation and proof generation. Depending
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the pseudo-random selection procedure is, however, limited
to participants previously determined via an off-ledger
process [31]. Once a node is recognised as a validator, it
1136
Authorized licensed use limited to: University College London. Downloaded on July 04,2023 at 16:25:58 UTC from IEEE Xplore. Restrictions apply.
may participate in validation and proof generation. Depending
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l steps, such as election onto
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the transactions received and generate proofs of validation,
most commonly in the form of cryptographic signatures.
In summary, the commonalities of the protocols analysed
can be described as follows: in all protocols, participants can
act as validators, thereby qualifying to perform transaction
validation and proof generation. In permissioned networks,
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<concept><concept_id>10002950.10003714.10003739</concept_id><concept_desc>Mathematics of computing~Nonlinear equations</concept_desc><concept_significance>500</concept_significance></concept>
Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System
Ishaku Liti Awalu
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 102 8624557
[email protected]
Park Hung Kook
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 109 1541509
[email protected]
Joa Sa | [
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<concept><concept_id>10002950.10003714.10003739</concept_id><concept_desc>Mathematics of computing~Nonlinear equations</concept_desc><concept_significance>500</concept_significance></concept>
Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System
Ishaku Liti Awalu
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 102 8624557
[email protected]
Park Hung Kook
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 109 1541509
[email protected]
Joa Sa | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,587 |
n Lim
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 103 2342035
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Over the years, elections at different levels are the subject of
many disputes, consolidation and reaffirmation of confidence in
different leaders. These elections range from either boardroom
elections, local elections to national elections. Correspondingly,
electioneering as an institutional process has transformed with
both technological advancements as well politica | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,588 |
n Lim
Computer Science Department
Sangmyung University Seoul
South Korea
+82 103 2342035
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
Over the years, elections at different levels are the subject of
many disputes, consolidation and reaffirmation of confidence in
different leaders. These elections range from either boardroom
elections, local elections to national elections. Correspondingly,
electioneering as an institutional process has transformed with
both technological advancements as well politica | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,589 |
l sophistication.
Blockchain as a nascent technology has ushered in a range of
opportunities in different sectors such as finance, real estate,
supply chain management, medical records, elections etc. In this
paper, we leveraged on some of the key characteristics of
Blockchain technology in form of immutability, auditability,
confidentiality, transparency, decentralization etc to develop a
Blockchain eVoting network system that can be utilized for
geographically dispersed elections. Key us | [
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actors were isolated and their interactions with the system
identified using Use Case Methodology. The system actors are the
voters, miners that consists of Universities and public libraries,
central authority, candidates and the voters. The different stages
of an election process such as pre-election, registration of both
candidates and voters, voting/balloting, tallying and auditing were
equally enumerated. The interactions of the actors with the system
were equally | [
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"computers",
"and",
"all"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,591 |
ers of the system or
actors were isolated and their interactions with the system
identified using Use Case Methodology. The system actors are the
voters, miners that consists of Universities and public libraries,
central authority, candidates and the voters. The different stages
of an election process such as pre-election, registration of both
candidates and voters, voting/balloting, tallying and auditing were
equally enumerated. The interactions of the actors with the system
were equally | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,592 |
captured, analyzed and used to develop the
conceptual system. The proposed system is made up of a
multichain Blockchain network, an arbitration server, distributed
database, an interactive, multi-device graphic user interface GUI,
and an application server. To engender anonymity, a combination
of Digital Signature and Secure Hash Algorithm SHA was
proposed, also Proof of Work PoW was the proposed consensus
algorithm. The identified stages of the election were evaluated
against the requirem | [
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"to",
"have",
"the",
"ability",
"to",
"identify",
"and",
"accurately",
"count",
"all",
"valid",
"votes",
".",
"Furthermore",
",",
"the",
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"the",
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"a",
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"cast",
"his",
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"anonymous",
"##ly",
"i",
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"e",
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"cannot",
"be",
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"back",
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"a",
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"voter",
".",
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"system",
"should",
"provide",
"the",
"adequate",
"security",
"that",
"will",
"prevent",
"ta",
"##mper",
"##ing",
"or",
"changing",
"of",
"any",
"vote",
"cast",
".",
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",",
"the",
"system",
"should",
"be",
"designed",
"to",
"have",
"the",
"ability",
"to",
"accommodate",
"all",
"eligible",
"voters",
"and",
"the",
"capability",
"to",
"prevent",
"any",
"voter",
"from",
"casting",
"multiple",
"votes",
".",
"Factor",
"##s",
"like",
"mobility"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,593 |
ents of an eVoting system. The proposed
system was found to satisfy the requirements of an eVoting
system such as transparency, privacy, scalability, receipt freeness,
security, integrity, accuracy, auditable etc.
CCS Concepts
• General and reference➝Cross-computing tools and
techniques➝Design
Keywords
Blockchain, eVoting, Multichain, Elections.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modes and methods of monitoring citizens' opinions and
decisions are often conveyed in form of elections or referendums
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,594 |
ents of an eVoting system. The proposed
system was found to satisfy the requirements of an eVoting
system such as transparency, privacy, scalability, receipt freeness,
security, integrity, accuracy, auditable etc.
CCS Concepts
• General and reference➝Cross-computing tools and
techniques➝Design
Keywords
Blockchain, eVoting, Multichain, Elections.
1. INTRODUCTION
Modes and methods of monitoring citizens' opinions and
decisions are often conveyed in form of elections or referendums
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cted through democratically accepted voting processes.
Groups of individuals (which range from a small group up to
national sizes) employ voting as a method to indicate the group's
formal decision-making process either to select an individual into
a leadership position or to accept or reject a political position or
proposition. In other circumstances, it is used as a process of
reinforcing or affirming a leadership or proposition. The history of
contemporary formal elections can be traced as | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,596 |
cted through democratically accepted voting processes.
Groups of individuals (which range from a small group up to
national sizes) employ voting as a method to indicate the group's
formal decision-making process either to select an individual into
a leadership position or to accept or reject a political position or
proposition. In other circumstances, it is used as a process of
reinforcing or affirming a leadership or proposition. The history of
contemporary formal elections can be traced as | [
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far back as the
17th century [1]. Its emergence is mainly attributed to the
adoption of representative government systems in the western
countries and its corresponding evolution has witness significant
transformations in terms` 244 of the processes and methods,
legislations, technology etc. These transformations are often
geared towards engendering inclusiveness and acceptability by
stimulating trust in the public. This is often translated in form of
reform acts to increase certain socia | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,598 |
far back as the
17th century [1]. Its emergence is mainly attributed to the
adoption of representative government systems in the western
countries and its corresponding evolution has witness significant
transformations in terms` 244 of the processes and methods,
legislations, technology etc. These transformations are often
geared towards engendering inclusiveness and acceptability by
stimulating trust in the public. This is often translated in form of
reform acts to increase certain socia | [
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l factors such as, inclusiveness
e.g adults suffrage [2], women suffrage [3], universal suffrage [4]
or to expand the size of electorate, e.g 1832 reform act in Britain.
Some reforms were directed towards changing the voting system
that translates into collective decisions e.g plurality systems [5],
majority systems [6], proportional representation systems [7],
hybrid systems etc. These are often expressed in ‗first-pass-post',
‗winner-takes-all', 'alternate-votes' etc. Another area that has | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,600 |
l factors such as, inclusiveness
e.g adults suffrage [2], women suffrage [3], universal suffrage [4]
or to expand the size of electorate, e.g 1832 reform act in Britain.
Some reforms were directed towards changing the voting system
that translates into collective decisions e.g plurality systems [5],
majority systems [6], proportional representation systems [7],
hybrid systems etc. These are often expressed in ‗first-pass-post',
‗winner-takes-all', 'alternate-votes' etc. Another area that has | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,601 |
witness significant transformation is the balloting method.
Historically, balloting started from the use of broken pieces of
pottery in ancient Greece, palm leaves in India, to modern day
paper system of balloting and more recently the use of electronic
devices. The variety of electronic devices used in balloting
includes, optical scan devices, punch card devices, mechanical
machine devices, direct recording systems, public network direct
recording machines etc. Most times equipped to bal | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,602 |
witness significant transformation is the balloting method.
Historically, balloting started from the use of broken pieces of
pottery in ancient Greece, palm leaves in India, to modern day
paper system of balloting and more recently the use of electronic
devices. The variety of electronic devices used in balloting
includes, optical scan devices, punch card devices, mechanical
machine devices, direct recording systems, public network direct
recording machines etc. Most times equipped to bal | [
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lot marking
devices are transmitting devices or tallies that act as central
tabulators.
Ingrained in every voting process are the sociological factors that
affect voters' trusts, response, turnout and ultimately the
legitimacy of the process [8]. Added to these are the idiosyncratic
factors such as social groupings, of the voters, habitats, cultural
beliefs, personalities, occupations, educational level, income level,
gender etc [9]. Other influencing factors are, level of elections,
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,604 |
lot marking
devices are transmitting devices or tallies that act as central
tabulators.
Ingrained in every voting process are the sociological factors that
affect voters' trusts, response, turnout and ultimately the
legitimacy of the process [8]. Added to these are the idiosyncratic
factors such as social groupings, of the voters, habitats, cultural
beliefs, personalities, occupations, educational level, income level,
gender etc [9]. Other influencing factors are, level of elections,
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e of voting system to be used, agenda of the election,
ideological polarity between contesting entities, frequency of
election etc. other semi intangible factors include partisan de-
alignment and cognitive mobilization [10]. Unfortunately, over
the years, election processes have been marred with several
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for
personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are
not made or distributed for profit or commer | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,606 |
cial advantage and that
copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights
for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be
honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior
specific permission and/or a fee.
Request permissions from [email protected].
ICEME 2019, July 15–17, 2019, Beijing, China.
© 2019 Association for Computing Machinery.
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503- | [
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"connect",
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"data",
"##sto",
"##re",
"and",
"have",
"an",
"internal",
"server",
"look",
"##up",
"table",
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"all",
"registered",
"servers",
"will",
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"recorded",
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"the",
"table",
"will",
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"dynamic",
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"Additionally",
",",
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",",
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",",
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".",
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".",
"2",
".",
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"##the",
"##nti",
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"As",
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",",
"the",
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"server",
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"an",
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",",
"hence",
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"the",
"election",
"diagram",
"in",
"Fi",
"##g",
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"Most",
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"be",
"authentic",
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",",
"this",
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"concerns",
"[",
"44",
"]",
"in",
"a",
"dynamic",
"211",
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".",
"Majority",
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"support",
"user",
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"##ation",
",",
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"restrict",
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".",
"g",
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"##com",
"##mer",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
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",",
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"The",
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".",
"This",
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".",
"This",
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",",
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",",
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"##A",
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"3",
".",
"3",
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".",
"3",
".",
"1",
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"-",
"Election",
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",",
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",",
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"all",
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".",
"The",
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";",
"•",
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"•",
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"3",
".",
"3",
".",
"2",
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"and",
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".",
"These",
"privileges",
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"as",
"well",
"as",
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".",
"However",
",",
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",",
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"time",
",",
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"size",
",",
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",",
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"##rification"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,607 |
cial advantage and that
copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights
for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be
honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or
republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior
specific permission and/or a fee.
Request permissions from [email protected].
ICEME 2019, July 15–17, 2019, Beijing, China.
© 2019 Association for Computing Machinery.
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503- | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,608 |
7219-0/19/07…$15.00.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3345035.3345080
207
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10002944&lid=0.10002944
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10011123&lid=0.10002944.10011123
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10011123&lid=0.10002944.10011123
anomalies e.g electorate manipulation, voter and agent
intimidation, vote buying, turnout buying, ballot tempering, proxy
voter misuse etc [11]. Majority of the transformations and novel
advances in the voting system have been geared t | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,609 |
7219-0/19/07…$15.00.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3345035.3345080
207
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10002944&lid=0.10002944
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10011123&lid=0.10002944.10011123
https://dl.acm.org/ccs/ccs.cfm?id=10011123&lid=0.10002944.10011123
anomalies e.g electorate manipulation, voter and agent
intimidation, vote buying, turnout buying, ballot tempering, proxy
voter misuse etc [11]. Majority of the transformations and novel
advances in the voting system have been geared t | [
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owards reducing
electoral fraud, increasing inclusiveness, improving security,
engendering privacy etc. With technology promising to
adequately address these myriad of issues, many countries or
organizations have adopted electronic voting systems either in full
or in part.
Again, these eVoting systems have proven to be vulnerable to so
many challenges such as security and conventional voting
vulnerabilities. More recently, the introduction of the blockchain
technology and its successful | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,612 |
implementation in the Bitcoin
technology has encouraged indepth research into its application in
numerous areas like government, AI, IoT etc[12]. Blockchain's
inherent characteristics of security, immutability, auditability,
transparency has prompted research in harnessing its potentials in
voting systems [13], [14]. A few startup companies have
developed blockchain eVoting systems e.g Agora, FollowMyVote
etc. In addition, there has been recent attempts in national election
in Estonia and | [
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".",
"Again",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"##cha",
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"##in",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"##in",
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",",
"limited"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,613 |
implementation in the Bitcoin
technology has encouraged indepth research into its application in
numerous areas like government, AI, IoT etc[12]. Blockchain's
inherent characteristics of security, immutability, auditability,
transparency has prompted research in harnessing its potentials in
voting systems [13], [14]. A few startup companies have
developed blockchain eVoting systems e.g Agora, FollowMyVote
etc. In addition, there has been recent attempts in national election
in Estonia and | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,614 |
at a micro scale in countries like South Korea and
Sierra Leone. Nevertheless, most implementations are for small
elections and in most circumstances, it is for boardroom elections.
Consequently, we propose a concept for the implementation of
blockchain eVoting system for national elections using a
decentralized architecture that consists of a group of decentralized
university and government libraries as trusted miners. Our
proposed technological arhitecture utilizes a series of server-clien | [
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"In"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,615 |
at a micro scale in countries like South Korea and
Sierra Leone. Nevertheless, most implementations are for small
elections and in most circumstances, it is for boardroom elections.
Consequently, we propose a concept for the implementation of
blockchain eVoting system for national elections using a
decentralized architecture that consists of a group of decentralized
university and government libraries as trusted miners. Our
proposed technological arhitecture utilizes a series of server-clien | [
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"Eli",
"##mina",
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".",
"In"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,616 |
t
models that supports online decentralized, remote elements with a
multichain blockchain as the backbone. The rest of the paper
consists of background and introduction to eVoting and
blockchain technology, part three is the Use Case Methodology of
the system, discussion on the several components and
implementation of the system. Part four is the limitation and
further research, while part five and six are the conclusion and
references used respectively.
2. INTRODUCTION TO eVOTING
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".",
"Any",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
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",",
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"##cha",
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",",
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"##ut",
"##lich",
"##ain",
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",",
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"V",
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",",
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".",
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",",
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".",
"3",
".",
"7",
".",
"6",
"De",
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"##loy",
"##ment",
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"We",
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"as",
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"[",
"48",
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")",
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",",
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"is",
"##su"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,617 |
t
models that supports online decentralized, remote elements with a
multichain blockchain as the backbone. The rest of the paper
consists of background and introduction to eVoting and
blockchain technology, part three is the Use Case Methodology of
the system, discussion on the several components and
implementation of the system. Part four is the limitation and
further research, while part five and six are the conclusion and
references used respectively.
2. INTRODUCTION TO eVOTING
SYSTE | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,618 |
MS
There has been significant debate over the origin of eVoting
systems as well as the actions behind its adoption [15], however,
recorded historical archives included the U.S patent 90,646 by
Thomas A. Edisson in 1869 for patent of an election ‗Recorder',
that was billed to be used by the US congress election [16].
eVoting refers to the use of computers and all the technological
elements of a computerized system to conduct and cast votes in an
election, survey, referendum or polls. eVoting | [
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"Figure"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,619 |
MS
There has been significant debate over the origin of eVoting
systems as well as the actions behind its adoption [15], however,
recorded historical archives included the U.S patent 90,646 by
Thomas A. Edisson in 1869 for patent of an election ‗Recorder',
that was billed to be used by the US congress election [16].
eVoting refers to the use of computers and all the technological
elements of a computerized system to conduct and cast votes in an
election, survey, referendum or polls. eVoting | [
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"-",
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"‖",
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"Figure",
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"spelled",
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".",
"Figure"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,620 |
systems permits
users(voters) to utilize an electronic ballot system to transmit
votes cast to election authorities for collation. This is often
conducted over an internet network. The electronic voting or
eVoting aggregates a set of technologies that ultimately tries to
address the challenges often faced while utilizing the conventional
manual election process. These issues range from security,
convenience, efficiency, cost etc[17]. These eVoting systems
present certain opportunities tha | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"4",
",",
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"89",
"##3"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,621 |
systems permits
users(voters) to utilize an electronic ballot system to transmit
votes cast to election authorities for collation. This is often
conducted over an internet network. The electronic voting or
eVoting aggregates a set of technologies that ultimately tries to
address the challenges often faced while utilizing the conventional
manual election process. These issues range from security,
convenience, efficiency, cost etc[17]. These eVoting systems
present certain opportunities tha | [
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".",
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",",
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"‖",
"The",
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"Journal",
",",
"vol",
".",
"20",
",",
"no",
".",
"4",
",",
"pp",
".",
"89",
"##3"
] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,622 |
t tend to foster ties in form of
increased democratic homogeneity between stakeholders such as
voters, electorates, politicians, civil societies etc [18][19][20].
The choice of an eVoting system is dependent on several factors
such as the type of election, i.e political or nonpolitical,
constitutional provisions of the country or as guided by some rules
and regulations. Others are scale of the elections, spread,
geographical disparity etc. Above is necessary because, the
processes require | [
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different security and technological
considerations. This is especially important in terms of physical
security as well as equipment, software and hardware security. In
addition to security considerations, the choice of electronic
equipment and system design is dependent on the following
factors.
Authenticity •Integrity •Accuracy •Privacy •Security • Democracy
• Mobility • Convenience • Practical • In-coercion • Verifiability •
Transparency •Uniqueness •Scalability • Reliability •Efficienc | [
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y
•Receipt freeness.
2.1 Design Considerations of the eVoting
System
The design considerations require that, the system should be
designed in such a way that, only eligible voters can have the
ability to cast their votes. Also, the system should be designed in
such a way that, the votes cannot be altered after they have been
cast i.e immutability. Additionally, the system should be designed
to have the ability to identify and accurately count all valid votes.
Furthermore, the system shou | [
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,625 |
y
•Receipt freeness.
2.1 Design Considerations of the eVoting
System
The design considerations require that, the system should be
designed in such a way that, only eligible voters can have the
ability to cast their votes. Also, the system should be designed in
such a way that, the votes cannot be altered after they have been
cast i.e immutability. Additionally, the system should be designed
to have the ability to identify and accurately count all valid votes.
Furthermore, the system shou | [
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ld be designed to have the ability of
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vote cast. Finally, the system should be designed to have the
ability to accommodate all eligible voters and the capability to
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ld be designed to have the ability of
allowing a voter cast his vote anonymously i.e votes cannot be
traced back to a specific voter. The system should provide the
adequate security that will prevent tampering or changing of any
vote cast. Finally, the system should be designed to have the
ability to accommodate all eligible voters and the capability to
prevent any voter from casting multiple votes. Factors like
mobility and convenience are mainly attributed to distributed or
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] | Development of a Distributed Blockchain eVoting System | 1,629 |
Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Future Generation Computer Systems
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fgcs
On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and
opportunities
Ana Reyna *, Cristian Martín, Jaime Chen, Enrique Soler, Manuel Díaz
Department of Languages and Computer Science, University of Málaga, Boulevar Louis Pasteur 35, 29071 Málaga, Spain
h i g h l i g h t s
• Challenges to address the integration of the IoT | [
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with blockchain.
• Analysis of blockchain potential benefits for the IoT.
• Blockchain IoT applications and platforms for the development of IoT solutions.
• Possible topologies to that integration.
• Evaluation of blockchain nodes in IoT devices.
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 21 December 2017
Received in revised form 3 April 2018
Accepted 21 May 2018
Available online 24 May 2018
Keywords:
Internet of Things
Blockchain
Smart contract
Trust
a b s t r a c t
In the Internet of Things | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,631 |
(IoT) vision, conventional devices become smart and autonomous. This vision
is turning into a reality thanks to advances in technology, but there are still challenges to address,
particularly in the security domain e.g., data reliability. Taking into account the predicted evolution of the
IoT in the coming years, it is necessary to provide confidence in this huge incoming information source.
Blockchain has emerged as a key technology that will transform the way in which we share information.
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,632 |
t in distributed environments without the need for authorities is a technological advance
that has the potential to change many industries, the IoT among them. Disruptive technologies such as
big data and cloud computing have been leveraged by IoT to overcome its limitations since its conception,
and we think blockchain will be one of the next ones. This paper focuses on this relationship, investigates
challenges in blockchain IoT applications, and surveys the most relevant work in order to analyze how
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,633 |
ockchain could potentially improve the IoT.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1. Introduction
The rapid evolution inminiaturization, electronics andwireless
communication technologies have contributed to unprecedented
advances in our society. This has resulted in an increase in the
number of suitable electronic devices for many areas, a reduction
in their production costs and a paradigm sh | [
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"-",
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"trust"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,634 |
ockchain could potentially improve the IoT.
© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1. Introduction
The rapid evolution inminiaturization, electronics andwireless
communication technologies have contributed to unprecedented
advances in our society. This has resulted in an increase in the
number of suitable electronic devices for many areas, a reduction
in their production costs and a paradigm sh | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,635 |
ift from the real world
into the digital world. Therefore, the way in which we interact
with each other and with the environment has changed, using
current technology to gain a better understanding of the world.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a set of technolo-
gies from Wireless Sensors Networks (WSN) to Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID), that provide the capabilities to sense, actuate
with and communicate over the Internet [1]. Nowadays, an IoT
device can be an electronic device from a | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,636 |
ift from the real world
into the digital world. Therefore, the way in which we interact
with each other and with the environment has changed, using
current technology to gain a better understanding of the world.
The Internet of Things (IoT) has emerged as a set of technolo-
gies from Wireless Sensors Networks (WSN) to Radio Frequency
Identification (RFID), that provide the capabilities to sense, actuate
with and communicate over the Internet [1]. Nowadays, an IoT
device can be an electronic device from a | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,637 |
wearable to a hardware
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Reyna), [email protected] (C. Martín),
[email protected] (J. Chen), [email protected] (E. Soler), [email protected] (M. Díaz).
development platform and the range of applications where it can
be used encompass many areas of the society. The IoT plays a
central role in turning current cities into smart cities, electrical
grids into smart grids and houses into smart homes, and this is only
the beginning. According to various researc | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,638 |
wearable to a hardware
* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Reyna), [email protected] (C. Martín),
[email protected] (J. Chen), [email protected] (E. Soler), [email protected] (M. Díaz).
development platform and the range of applications where it can
be used encompass many areas of the society. The IoT plays a
central role in turning current cities into smart cities, electrical
grids into smart grids and houses into smart homes, and this is only
the beginning. According to various researc | [
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h reports, the number
of connected devices is predicted to reach anywhere from 20 to 50
billion by 2020 [2] mainly due to the vast number of devices that
the IoT can place on the scene.
The IoT visualizes a totally connected world, where things are
able to communicate measured data and interact with each other.
This makes possible a digital representation of the real world,
through which many smart applications in a variety of industries
can be developed. These include: Smart homes,Weareables, Smart
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,640 |
h reports, the number
of connected devices is predicted to reach anywhere from 20 to 50
billion by 2020 [2] mainly due to the vast number of devices that
the IoT can place on the scene.
The IoT visualizes a totally connected world, where things are
able to communicate measured data and interact with each other.
This makes possible a digital representation of the real world,
through which many smart applications in a variety of industries
can be developed. These include: Smart homes,Weareables, Smart
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,641 |
es, Healthcare, Automotive, Environment, Smart water, Smart
grid, etc. IoT solutions are being deployed in many areas, opti-
mizing production and digitizing industries. IoT applications have
very specific characteristics, they generate large volumes of data
and require connectivity and power for long periods. This, together
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.05.046
0167-739X/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.o | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,642 |
es, Healthcare, Automotive, Environment, Smart water, Smart
grid, etc. IoT solutions are being deployed in many areas, opti-
mizing production and digitizing industries. IoT applications have
very specific characteristics, they generate large volumes of data
and require connectivity and power for long periods. This, together
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.05.046
0167-739X/© 2018 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.o | [
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rg/licenses/by/4.0/).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.05.046
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/fgcs
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/fgcs
http://crossmark.crossref.org/dialog/?doi=10.1016/j.future.2018.05.046&domain=pdf
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
mailto:[email protected]
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.future.2018.05.046
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,644 |
omputer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
with the limitations in memory, computer capacity, networks and
limited power supply pose a high number of challenges.
The huge expansion of the IoT has to be supported by stan-
dard mechanisms and protocols in order to reduce the existing
heterogeneity in the field. This heterogeneity leads to vertical silos
and reduces the adoption of the IoT. However, aside from the
heterogeneity and integration challenges present in the IoT, the
trustworthiness of its data is also a | [
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".",
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"##s",
",",
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",",
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"2",
".",
"1",
".",
"3",
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"P",
"##ri",
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"##cy",
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"A",
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".",
"In",
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"##in",
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",",
"audit",
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"traced",
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"'",
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".",
"This",
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"indeed",
"an",
"un",
"##hea",
"##rd",
"of",
"new",
"level",
"of",
"transparency",
"that",
"doubt",
"##lessly",
"helps",
"to",
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".",
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"-",
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",",
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"re",
"-",
"la",
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"##hip",
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"##wall",
"##ets",
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",",
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"an",
"##ony",
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"despite",
"the",
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"##co",
"##in"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,645 |
omputer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
with the limitations in memory, computer capacity, networks and
limited power supply pose a high number of challenges.
The huge expansion of the IoT has to be supported by stan-
dard mechanisms and protocols in order to reduce the existing
heterogeneity in the field. This heterogeneity leads to vertical silos
and reduces the adoption of the IoT. However, aside from the
heterogeneity and integration challenges present in the IoT, the
trustworthiness of its data is also a | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,646 |
n important issue to bear in
mind. Nowadays, we trust in the information of financial enti-
ties and the government among others, but can we be sure that
the information provided by them and by other external entities,
such as IoT companies, has not been tampered/altered/falsified
in any way? This is a difficult question to answer in centralized
architectures. Untrusted entities can alter information according
to their own interests, so the information they provide might not
be completely reliable. This b | [
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rings about the need to verify that the
information has never been modified.
Oneway to provide trustworthiness in IoT data is through a dis-
tributed service trusted by all its participants that guarantees that
the data remains immutable. If all participants have the data and
they have themeans to verify that the data have not been tampered
with since the first definition, trustworthiness can be achieved.
Moreover, having a system that guarantees data reliability would
allowgovernments to share and secur | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,648 |
rings about the need to verify that the
information has never been modified.
Oneway to provide trustworthiness in IoT data is through a dis-
tributed service trusted by all its participants that guarantees that
the data remains immutable. If all participants have the data and
they have themeans to verify that the data have not been tampered
with since the first definition, trustworthiness can be achieved.
Moreover, having a system that guarantees data reliability would
allowgovernments to share and secur | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,649 |
ely transfer informationwith
citizens.
In many areas where an exhaustive traceability of assets during
their life cycle is required by regulations, data immutability be-
comes a key challenge. Concretely, European Union (EU) regula-
tions require food producers to trace and identify all rawmaterials
used in the elaboration of their food products in addition to the
final destination of each of them. For example, in the case of a
large food company with thousands of manufacturing suppliers
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,650 |
clients, the information needs to be digitized and
its processing automated to comply with regulation. One example
of strong regulation in terms of traceability is the pork supply,
regulated in many countries. In this scenario, in addition to tracing
the raw material used in pig feed and treatments and the final
destination of the pork, the transportation of the animals between
factories must also be registered by law. These scenarios involve
many participants, some of them still relying on non-automated
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clients, the information needs to be digitized and
its processing automated to comply with regulation. One example
of strong regulation in terms of traceability is the pork supply,
regulated in many countries. In this scenario, in addition to tracing
the raw material used in pig feed and treatments and the final
destination of the pork, the transportation of the animals between
factories must also be registered by law. These scenarios involve
many participants, some of them still relying on non-automated
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information handling methods. In the case of food contamination,
which has been an important issue for the world population's
health throughout history, information that is lost or difficult to
find implies delays in the location of the problem's focus. This can
also result in the public's mistrust of the contaminated products
and a large decrease in their demand. According to the World
Health Organization (WHO), it is estimated that every year around
600 million people in the world suffer illness from ea | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,653 |
ting contam-
inated food, of which 420,000 die from the same cause [3]. So,
missing or inaccessible information can affect food security and
customer health. In these kinds of scenarios the IoT has the poten-
tial to transform and revolutionize the industry and society, digi-
tizing the knowledge so that it can be queried and controlled in real
time. This technology can be used to improve current processes in
many areas such as cities, industry, health and transportation.
Although the IoT can facilitate | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,654 |
ting contam-
inated food, of which 420,000 die from the same cause [3]. So,
missing or inaccessible information can affect food security and
customer health. In these kinds of scenarios the IoT has the poten-
tial to transform and revolutionize the industry and society, digi-
tizing the knowledge so that it can be queried and controlled in real
time. This technology can be used to improve current processes in
many areas such as cities, industry, health and transportation.
Although the IoT can facilitate | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,655 |
the digitization of the informa-
tion itself, the reliability of such information is still a key chal-
lenge. In this sense, a new technology that was born as the first
decentralized cryptocurrency has the potential to offer a solution
to the data reliability problem: Bitcoin, which has revolutionized
the mechanisms in money transfers. The Bitcoin cryptocurrency,
and many of its upcoming variants, can be globally transferred
without financial entities and foreign exchanges, with a digital
and nontransfera | [
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"successfully",
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".",
"This",
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"a",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"the",
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"one",
".",
"This",
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".",
"A",
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"##W",
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"##co",
"##in",
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".",
"The",
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"##co",
"##in",
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".",
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"##W",
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"-",
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"[",
"64",
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".",
"Certainly",
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"##W",
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"high",
"late",
"##ncy",
",",
"low",
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".",
"As",
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",",
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"10",
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".",
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"##W",
",",
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"Name",
"##C",
"##oi",
"##n",
",",
"Li",
"##te",
"##C",
"##oi",
"##n",
",",
"E",
"##ther",
"##eum",
",",
"Dog",
"##e",
"##C",
"##oi",
"##n",
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"Mon",
"-",
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"##o",
".",
"Prime",
"##co",
"##in",
",",
"for",
"instance",
",",
"mit",
"##igate",
"##s",
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"loss",
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"##ly",
"-",
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",",
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"as",
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"##num",
"##bers",
"search",
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"can",
"have",
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"alongside",
".",
"Not",
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"change",
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"##W",
"have",
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",",
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"under",
"##est",
"##imating",
"the",
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"this",
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"clear",
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"expose",
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"way",
"as",
"Po",
"##W",
".",
"The",
"most",
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"alternative",
"approach",
"to",
"consensus",
"in",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"is",
"the",
"Pro",
"##of",
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"St",
"##ake",
"(",
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"##S",
")",
".",
"It",
"is",
"based",
"on",
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"that",
"those",
"users",
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"own",
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",",
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"Basic",
"##ally",
",",
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"using",
"Po",
"##S",
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"##mo",
"##ve",
"the",
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"costs",
"from",
"outside",
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"to",
"inside",
"the",
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".",
"The",
"algorithm",
"randomly"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,656 |
the digitization of the informa-
tion itself, the reliability of such information is still a key chal-
lenge. In this sense, a new technology that was born as the first
decentralized cryptocurrency has the potential to offer a solution
to the data reliability problem: Bitcoin, which has revolutionized
the mechanisms in money transfers. The Bitcoin cryptocurrency,
and many of its upcoming variants, can be globally transferred
without financial entities and foreign exchanges, with a digital
and nontransfera | [
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"-",
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"Not",
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"##W",
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"way",
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"Po",
"##W",
".",
"The",
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"in",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"Pro",
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"Basic",
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"costs",
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".",
"The",
"algorithm",
"randomly"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,657 |
ble wallet. Bitcoin is supported by a protocol
that details the infrastructure responsible for ensuring that the
information remains immutable over time. This protocol is known
as the blockchain. It has been applied to many other areas, and
the information immutability is guaranteed in applications that go
beyond the cryptocurrencies. Blockchain has revolutionized trust-
worthiness of information aswell. For instance, this technology has
been used in voting systems by government entities, renting and
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"by"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,658 |
ble wallet. Bitcoin is supported by a protocol
that details the infrastructure responsible for ensuring that the
information remains immutable over time. This protocol is known
as the blockchain. It has been applied to many other areas, and
the information immutability is guaranteed in applications that go
beyond the cryptocurrencies. Blockchain has revolutionized trust-
worthiness of information aswell. For instance, this technology has
been used in voting systems by government entities, renting and
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,659 |
a storage among others [4].
In this paper the current challenges of IoT and blockchain and
the potential advantages of their combined use will be analyzed.
Disruptive applications in this area will be highlighted in addi-
tion to a review of the available blockchain platforms to address
these challenges.
The main contributions of the paper are:
1. Survey on blockchain technology, analyzing its unique fea-
tures and open challenges.
2. Identification and analysis of the different ways of integrat-
ing | [
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a storage among others [4].
In this paper the current challenges of IoT and blockchain and
the potential advantages of their combined use will be analyzed.
Disruptive applications in this area will be highlighted in addi-
tion to a review of the available blockchain platforms to address
these challenges.
The main contributions of the paper are:
1. Survey on blockchain technology, analyzing its unique fea-
tures and open challenges.
2. Identification and analysis of the different ways of integrat-
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IoT and blockchain.
3. Study of challenges, potential benefits and open issues of the
integration of blockchain and IoT.
4. Study of existing blockchain–IoT platforms and applications.
5. Evaluation and comparison of the performance of different
blockchains in an IoT device.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 intro-
duces the blockchain technology and analyzes its main challenges.
In Section 3 IoT and blockchain integration is addressed, analyzing
the challenges that this integr | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,662 |
ation involves. A state of the art in
blockchain platforms for IoT and IoT–blockchain applications is
presented in Section 4. Lastly, our conclusions and future work are
presented in Section 5.
2. Blockchain
The problem of trust in information systems is extremely com-
plex when no verification nor audit mechanisms are provided,
especially when they have to deal with sensitive information, such
as economic transactions with virtual currencies. In this context,
Satoshi Nakamoto, in 2008 [5] presented two | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,663 |
radical concepts that
have had a great repercussion. The first of these is Bitcoin, a virtual
cryptocurrency that maintains its value without support from any
centralized authority or financial entity. Rather, the coin is held
collectively and securely by a decentralized P2P network of actors
that make up an auditable and verifiable network. The second of
the concepts, whose popularity has gone even further than the
cryptocurrency itself, is blockchain.
Blockchain is themechanism that allows transaction | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,665 |
d together by a reference to the
previous block, forming a chain.
To support and operate with the blockchain, network peers
have to provide, the following functionality: routing, storage, wal-
let services and mining [6]. According to the functions they pro-
vide, different types of nodes can be part of the network. Table 1
summarizes the most common node types in the Bitcoin network.
The routing function is necessary to participate in the P2P net-
work, this includes transaction and block propagation. | [
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"##T",
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"In",
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"even",
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"computing",
",",
"to",
"complement",
"the",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"the",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
".",
"For",
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",",
"fog",
"computing",
"involves",
"fewer",
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"##ly",
"-",
"limited",
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"gateway",
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"it",
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"##T",
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"[",
"92",
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"93",
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".",
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"##o",
"##T",
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",",
"limited",
"-",
"resource",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
",",
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"##o",
"##T",
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"This",
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"I",
"##o",
"##T",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
"1",
".",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
"in",
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"##o",
"##T",
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".",
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",",
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"using",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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"this",
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"are",
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".",
"Despite",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
",",
"it",
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"make",
"no",
"sense",
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"it",
"in",
"##man",
"##y",
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",",
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"databases",
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"##c",
"-",
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"##ional",
"##ity",
".",
"Dec",
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"##cha",
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"will",
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",",
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",",
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"##cha",
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",",
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"op",
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"##mize",
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".",
"In",
"[",
"94",
"]",
"the",
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"present",
"a",
"methodology",
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"whether",
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"##in",
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"-",
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"Trust",
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"[",
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"between",
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"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"and",
"block"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,666 |
The storage
function is responsible for keeping a copy of the chain in the node
(the entire chain for full nodes, and only a part of it for light nodes).
Wallet services provide security keys that allow users to order
transactions, i.e., to operate with their Bitcoins. Finally the mining
function is responsible for creating new blocks by solving the proof
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 175
Table 1
Bitcoin nodes and functionality.
Wallet Storage Mining Routing
| [
7147,
1394,
119,
2907,
1175,
1132,
1126,
4138,
1295,
1104,
1260,
118,
4711,
1116,
1114,
6576,
3510,
7147,
1394,
9816,
1907,
1113,
1103,
12477,
1197,
118,
180,
2105,
1216,
1112,
164,
5556,
117,
5429,
117,
4573,
166,
119,
142,
1582,
2036,
17329,
19409,
164,
5556,
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13267,
1103,
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1104,
142,
8420,
14136,
1554,
15029,
1113,
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1216,
1112,
16890,
20080,
6614,
21902,
117,
4108,
8517,
1513,
9527,
2117,
1105,
152,
23632,
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119,
16890,
20080,
2728,
2007,
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5429,
166,
1105,
142,
1582,
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1643,
12324,
164,
5306,
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2438,
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119,
6589,
117,
1142,
2076,
1104,
2438,
1197,
1180,
1129,
4631,
1107,
6866,
4481,
1105,
1129,
1226,
1104,
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19534,
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16890,
20080,
2728,
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1145,
13267,
17364,
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1111,
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5255,
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1179,
119,
1249,
2202,
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16890,
20080,
2728,
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117,
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1169,
1129,
1694,
1113,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
117,
1133,
1122,
1156,
1129,
12277,
119,
15280,
1144,
1561,
170,
7623,
4579,
1111,
2218,
8172,
113,
15278,
9741,
13228,
114,
1105,
1122,
1110,
12277,
1106,
2222,
1122,
1113,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
119,
1337,
1110,
1103,
1514,
2255,
1725,
1175,
1110,
1376,
1250,
1113,
5463,
1111,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
119,
1247,
1110,
1253,
170,
1974,
1104,
1844,
1106,
1129,
1694,
1111,
12619,
170,
2043,
9111,
1104,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
1112,
3510,
7147,
1394,
5644,
119,
11389,
123,
2196,
170,
14940,
1104,
1103,
13186,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
1106,
1129,
1215,
1112,
1226,
1104,
3510,
7147,
1394,
6833,
119,
8896,
15029,
1538,
2984,
1103,
2072,
3510,
7147,
1394,
113,
1971,
1167,
1190,
4214,
1105,
3993,
17909,
1107,
27400,
2528,
1394,
1105,
142,
8420,
14136,
117,
3569,
114,
1111,
170,
1554,
9221,
1891,
1104,
14409,
1105,
5511,
117,
2456,
1147,
11180,
1169,
1129,
1304,
2609,
1107,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
119,
1249,
2202,
117,
5463,
1156,
1129,
12277,
1107,
1103,
146,
1186,
1942,
1496,
1106,
1157,
2747,
5420,
119,
1109,
10923,
11309,
1180,
1129,
8000,
1106,
11000,
1103,
10838,
1104,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
117,
1649,
1142,
1180,
13018,
1103,
2699,
1104,
1103,
3510,
7147,
1394,
10407,
1161,
118,
189,
1988,
119,
1188,
1180,
1129,
1215,
1107,
17619,
3510,
7147,
4935,
1187,
14255,
3792,
118,
28117,
1116,
19755,
1132,
8000,
119,
1130,
1103,
11180,
1104,
14939,
15029,
138,
119,
12952,
1605,
3084,
2393,
119,
120,
7549,
10617,
6701,
6475,
5385,
113,
1857,
114,
21121,
782,
11876,
20083,
11389,
123,
146,
1186,
1942,
5197,
1106,
1129,
1215,
1112,
3510,
7147,
1394,
5644,
119,
5313,
146,
1186,
1942,
4442,
18390,
8093,
7147,
1394,
142,
1582,
2036,
17329,
19409,
16890,
20080,
6614,
21902,
8896,
14372,
142,
8420,
14136,
4108,
8517,
1513,
2064,
4798,
2117,
152,
23632,
7874,
161,
2591,
1495,
120,
161,
2591,
1527,
17878,
1181,
4015
] | [
1,
1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
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1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
1,
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1,
1,
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0,
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,667 |
The storage
function is responsible for keeping a copy of the chain in the node
(the entire chain for full nodes, and only a part of it for light nodes).
Wallet services provide security keys that allow users to order
transactions, i.e., to operate with their Bitcoins. Finally the mining
function is responsible for creating new blocks by solving the proof
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 175
Table 1
Bitcoin nodes and functionality.
Wallet Storage Mining Routing
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7147,
1394,
119,
2907,
1175,
1132,
1126,
4138,
1295,
1104,
1260,
118,
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1114,
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1133,
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12277,
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15280,
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4579,
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2218,
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9741,
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1186,
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6833,
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8896,
15029,
1538,
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3510,
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1394,
113,
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1167,
1190,
4214,
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3993,
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1107,
27400,
2528,
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8420,
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5420,
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10923,
11309,
1180,
1129,
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1106,
11000,
1103,
10838,
1104,
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1186,
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117,
1649,
1142,
1180,
13018,
1103,
2699,
1104,
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,668 |
x x x x Bitcoin core
x x Full node
x x x Solo miner
x x Light wallet
of work. The nodes that perform the proof of work (or mining) are
known as miners, and they receive newly generated bitcoins, and
fees, as a reward. The concept of proof of work is one of the keys
to enable trustless consensus in blockchain network. The proof of
work consists of a computationally intensive task that is necessary
for the generation of blocks. This work must be complex to solve
and at the same time easily verifiable once | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,669 |
x x x x Bitcoin core
x x Full node
x x x Solo miner
x x Light wallet
of work. The nodes that perform the proof of work (or mining) are
known as miners, and they receive newly generated bitcoins, and
fees, as a reward. The concept of proof of work is one of the keys
to enable trustless consensus in blockchain network. The proof of
work consists of a computationally intensive task that is necessary
for the generation of blocks. This work must be complex to solve
and at the same time easily verifiable once | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,670 |
completed.
Once a miner completes the proof of work, it publishes the
new block in the network and the rest of the network verifies
its validity before adding it to the chain. Since the generation of
blocks is carried out concurrently in the network, the block chain
may temporarily fork in different branches (produced by different
miners). This discrepancy is solved by considering that the longest
branch of blocks is the one that will be considered as valid. This,
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"##T",
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"##cal",
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",",
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"##cha",
"##in",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
"In",
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"I",
"##o",
"##T",
",",
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",",
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"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
".",
"It",
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"that",
"some",
"current",
"block",
"##cha",
"##in",
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"##s",
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"only",
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"few",
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",",
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"this",
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",",
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"I",
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",",
"normal",
"##ize",
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"##press",
"I",
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"data",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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"in",
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"data",
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"the",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"provides",
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"benefit",
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"##lt",
"##ip",
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"Data",
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"light",
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"transmission",
",",
"processing",
"tasks",
"and",
"storage",
"of",
"the",
"high",
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"I",
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"##T",
"data",
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".",
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"behaviors",
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"usually",
"require",
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",",
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",",
"unlike",
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",",
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",",
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"-",
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"-",
"N",
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"[",
"11",
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"3",
".",
"1",
".",
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"Security",
"I",
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"##T",
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",",
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"-",
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"he",
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",",
"the",
"I",
"##o",
"##T",
"scenario",
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",",
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",",
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"I",
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"##T",
"is",
"beyond",
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"[",
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"I",
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"even",
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"to",
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"I",
"##o"
] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,671 |
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