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anagement",
"Built environment", and "Natural environment". We explic-
itly excluded papers in the following categories: conceptual
discussions of blockchain and its trends, papers focusing
on aspects that are more generic and agnostic to sectors,
6 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publ | [
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on aspects that are more generic and agnostic to sectors,
6 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
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ications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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ications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
such as improving blockchain technology itself, ICT and
identity management, and other technical papers proposing
algorithms without an emphasis on explicit use ca | [
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ses in
the sectors we identified. We also excluded cryptocurrency
related use cases as that has been the focus of most of
the prior reviews and also is more concerned at the central
government level. However, we do include cases that use
cryptocurrency payments as part of the mechanism if they fit
our other selection criteria. The above process leads to a total
number of 159 non-duplicated papers across all the 9 sectors
for our first part, application-oriented use case review. For
the second part of our | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,376 |
review which dives deeper into system
component analysis, we further nail down to a subset of
papers that provide more details concerning our component-
based framework. That process renders 71 of the 159 papers
across 8 of the 9 sectors.
IV. RELATED WORK
Reviews of blockchain research in the recent years show that
the majority of scholarly work has focused on improvements
and challenges of current protocols, primarily for cryptocur-
rencies in general and for Bitcoin in particular [14], [47],
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,377 |
review which dives deeper into system
component analysis, we further nail down to a subset of
papers that provide more details concerning our component-
based framework. That process renders 71 of the 159 papers
across 8 of the 9 sectors.
IV. RELATED WORK
Reviews of blockchain research in the recent years show that
the majority of scholarly work has focused on improvements
and challenges of current protocols, primarily for cryptocur-
rencies in general and for Bitcoin in particular [14], [47],
[50], [51] | [
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. Little is on research that delves into purported
disruptive potential of blockchain [52]. While research on
some areas especially cryptocurrencies and payments are
well developed, comprehensive understanding regarding ap-
plication and use cases is generally missing [31].
Table 2 compares our work with the related systematic
literature review work we found. In addition to a more
updated list of papers examined, the focus of our work differs
from all of them. Our work explicitly excluded pure cryp-
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rrency systems and instead investigates general purpose
blockchain use cases, while [47], [48], [51] are all primarily
focused on Bitcoin and cryptocurrency literature. [53] is not
a general purpose blockchain use case review but partic-
ularly discussing the impact of blockchain characteristics
on service systems. [49] is a bibliometric study reporting
the number of blockchain papers in the surveyed set in
four categories: Internet of Things (IoT), Smart Contracts,
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,380 |
planation on each
category. Lastly, [31] proposes a conceptual framework for
blockchain research adapted from recognized social media
research agenda. It features an intersection of activities be-
tween user and blockchain developers at different levels of
analysis, and serves to stimulate multidisciplinary research
approaches on blockchain. The component-based framework
proposed and followed in this paper, however, takes on a very
different perspective that geared toward cross-sector analysis
for system | [
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design and implementations.
There are much more related work that center on specific
domains with various levels of depth and may or may not
adopt a systematic literature review approach, for instance,
on finance and cryptocurrencies [54]–[56], governance [24],
education [57], energy [58], IoT [59], healthcare [60]. Our
work differs from them in that we stress a use case study
across all sectors in the smart and sustainable city context,
and apply the proposed component-based analysis to drive
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,382 |
tor insights. To the authors' knowledge, we are the
first to provide a systematic blockchain use case review with
this methodology.
V. APPLICATION-ORIENTED USE CASE REVIEW BY
SECTORS
The 159 papers selected for our application-oriented review
in all sectors are shown in Table 3. Even though one use
case could involve aspects from multiple sectors, we place
each use case into only one primary sector to facilitate
the discussion. We will then relate use cases from various
different sectors in later section | [
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s.
A. GOVERNANCE AND CITIZEN ENGAGEMENT
Digital governance contributes to the crucial sustainable de-
velopment agenda [219], [220], for example, in reducing
corruption, lowering administrative costs, insuring document
integrity, connecting donors and disadvantaged groups like
refugees and displaced people [221], [222].
To look at how blockchain as a digital technology is likely
to have a significant impact on city governance, it is helpful
to start with the four ideal-typical conceptualizations of smar | [
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administration and (4) smart urban collaboration. These four
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more conservative to more radical. The "governance of a
smart city" model concerns about setting up the right policy
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t decision-making" model entails
restructuring of the decision-making process. An example
of this model is urban decision-making leveraging big-data
collected from IoT sensor networks. This model involves a
certain level of transformation in the process but not at the
government organization itself. The "smart administration"
model requires using sophisticated Information Technology
(IT) to interconnect information, processes, institutions, and
physical infrastructure to better serve citizens and com-
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ities [224]. It thus leads to re-structuring of existing
government organization to integrate traditional functions of
government and business [225]. Lastly, the "smart urban col-
laboration" model is the most transformative which requires
transformation at both internal and external of the govern-
ment organizations. It emphasizes truly citizen-centric opera-
tions and services based on collaboration across departments
and communities [226], a technology-enabled community-
based model of governance [227] | [
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and a pro-active, open-
minded governance structure where all actors work together
to maximize the urban sustainability and minimizes negative
externalities [228].
It is important to note that active engagement of citi-
zens and stakeholders in collaborative urban governance is
hardly political in nature [223]. That is because collaborative
urban governance taps into the intelligence of all urban
VOLUME 4, 2016 7
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic res | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,388 |
earch only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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earch only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,390 |
Related Work on Systematic Literature Review for Blockchain
Paper Cutoff
Time
Keyword Sources Unscreened
papers
Papers
Selected
% of Non-
Bitcoin
Questions Comments
[51] 2015
(esti-
mated)
cryptocurrency,
cryptocurren-
cies, crypto
AND currency,
crypto AND
currencies and
Bitcoin
ABI/Inform,
ACM, AIS
eLibrary,
IEEE, Certain
IS conferences
and IS journals
54 42 Mostly
Bitcoin
1. Which methods, concepts, ideas and
approaches of cryptocurrencies have
been researched in scientific literature?
2. Whic | [
131,
120,
120,
7001,
119,
188,
2528,
10306,
119,
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Related Work on Systematic Literature Review for Blockchain
Paper Cutoff
Time
Keyword Sources Unscreened
papers
Papers
Selected
% of Non-
Bitcoin
Questions Comments
[51] 2015
(esti-
mated)
cryptocurrency,
cryptocurren-
cies, crypto
AND currency,
crypto AND
currencies and
Bitcoin
ABI/Inform,
ACM, AIS
eLibrary,
IEEE, Certain
IS conferences
and IS journals
54 42 Mostly
Bitcoin
1. Which methods, concepts, ideas and
approaches of cryptocurrencies have
been researched in scientific literature?
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h IS research areas can be linked
to cryptocurrency research and what are
future research topics for cryptocurrency
related IS research?
Focus on Bitcoin and
crytpo currency
[47] 2016/5 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
ACM Digital
Library,
Springer,
ScienceDirect,
Ebsco, PLOS
One
121 41 80%
Bitcoin
1. What research topics have been
addressed in current research on
Blockchain?
2. What applications have been
developed with and for Blockchain
technology?
3. What are the current research gaps in
Blockchain researc | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,393 |
h IS research areas can be linked
to cryptocurrency research and what are
future research topics for cryptocurrency
related IS research?
Focus on Bitcoin and
crytpo currency
[47] 2016/5 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
ACM Digital
Library,
Springer,
ScienceDirect,
Ebsco, PLOS
One
121 41 80%
Bitcoin
1. What research topics have been
addressed in current research on
Blockchain?
2. What applications have been
developed with and for Blockchain
technology?
3. What are the current research gaps in
Blockchain researc | [
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h?
4. What are the future research directions
for Blockchain?
Focus primarily on
Bitcoin and its techni-
cal aspects especially
security and privacy
[48] 2016/12 blockchain Springer, PRL
and Google
Scholar
Not Avail-
able
54
English,
216
Chinese
83% on
Bitcoin
and cryp-
tocurrency
What are the research subjects (finan-
cial, credit, accounting, and others) and
research methods (qualitative vs. quanti-
tative) and future directions blockchain
related papers?
Focus on Bitcoin and
cryptocurrency
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2017 blockchain,
block chain,
peer-to-peer
database,
immutable
database,
consensus
database,
consensus
protocol,
distributed
ledger
Google Scholar Only the
first 50
search
results
of each
search are
analyzed
31 Not avail-
able
What are the characteristics of
blockchain technology and its impact on
service systems?
Focus on identifying
blockchain character-
istics on trust and
decentralization, and
their impact on ser-
vice systems.
[31] 2017/01 blockchain,
block chain
Web of
Science, IEEE
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,396 |
IS
Electronic
Library,
ScienceDirect,
and SSRN
3792 69 Mostly
non-
Bitcoin
What is the current state of knowledge
regarding blockchain, and how can it
purposefully be advanced?
Focus on a general
blockchain literature
review; propose
a blockchain
framework adapted
from well recognized
social media research
agenda to stimulate
multidisciplinary
research approaches
[49] 2017 blockchain IEEE Xplore,
Springer Link,
ScienceDirect,
the YMCA,
Google Scholar
Not avail-
able
190 (in-
cluding
both
English
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,397 |
Por-
tuguese
papers)
60% non-
Bitcoin
blockchain
and 40%
Bitcoin
1. What is the evolution over the
years in the number of publications on
blockchain?
2. What are the main features of research
analyzed in research on blockchain?
3. What are the application areas of
blockchain technology?
4. What are the limitations in current
research in blockchain research?
5. What are the future trends and chal-
lenges to search for blockchain?
Focus on reporting
the number of
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,398 |
Contracts,
E-governance, and
Others, with brief
discussion on each.
This
paper
2018/6 blockchain ACM, ASCE,
IEEEXplore,
EGRL, JSTOR,
ScienceDirect,
Scopus,
Springer, Web
of Science,
Wiley.
3827 159 & 71 Mostly
non-
Bitcoin
1. What are the blockchain use cases
studied by the research community in the
sectors central to smart and sustainable
cities?
2. What could be a unified framework
to examine those use cases regardless of
their sector?
3. How do we evaluate the impact of the
use cases on urban sust | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,399 |
ainability?
4. How do we evaluate the blockchain
applicability of the found use cases?
5. What appropriate taxonomies of
blockchain applications can be derived to
facilitate cross-sector use case analysis?
Focus on an
application oriented
use case review
under a sustainable
and smart city
context; propose
component-based
analysis framework
and business model-
based taxonomies for
cross-sector use case
analysis
8 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for | [
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academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Revi | [
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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",",
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,401 |
ew
TABLE 3. Paper List for Application-oriented Use Case Review
Sector List of Papers No. of
Papers
Governance and citizen engagement [5], [61]–[78] 19
Education, culture, science and innovation [79]–[102] 24
Well-being, health and safety [103]–[130] 28
Economy [131]–[150] 20
Transportation [151]–[172] 22
Energy [173]–[206] 34
Water and waste management [207] 1
Built environment [208]–[214] 7
Natural environment [215]–[218] 4
Total number of papers 159
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,402 |
ew
TABLE 3. Paper List for Application-oriented Use Case Review
Sector List of Papers No. of
Papers
Governance and citizen engagement [5], [61]–[78] 19
Education, culture, science and innovation [79]–[102] 24
Well-being, health and safety [103]–[130] 28
Economy [131]–[150] 20
Transportation [151]–[172] 22
Energy [173]–[206] 34
Water and waste management [207] 1
Built environment [208]–[214] 7
Natural environment [215]–[218] 4
Total number of papers 159
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motivate knowledge generation, exchange and innovation by
citizens [229]. This way, the citizens themselves become the
best regulators of cities [219]. Open data offers an example
of strengthening collective intelligence of city stakeholders
to derive innovations, even though at the same time govern-
ments should carefully decide how and to which actors this
data is opened up [230] and how to protect the confidentiality,
privacy and intellectual property rights for data and model
development [22 | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,404 |
5].
The blockchain use cases in the surveyed papers tend
to discuss solutions on the more progressive side of the
digital governance spectrum. In particular, using innovative
IT to transform existing processes and better serve citizens
(the "smart administration" model) and collaborative urban
governance (the "smart urban collaboration" model).
1) Innovative IT Transformation for Existing Processes
Under this category, blockchain-based systems have been
proposed to transform the government document sha | [
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and businesses, [62] designs a system for business to share
information with government organizations in a way that
helps business both ensure the confidentiality of the infor-
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system, where the requesting agency first looks up a pre-
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There are also blockchain systems targeting at transform-
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voting system is to achieve anonymity, privacy and trans-
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voting mechanism cannot not be tampered with. Design of
blockchain systems for voting are found in a number of
literatures [64]–[69]. Some also produced prototypes [70]–
[72]. However, an issue with all these systems is that the
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of an E-
voting system is to achieve anonymity, privacy and trans-
parency [64]. Anonymity ensures the non-traceability of the
voter's vote. Privacy allows the transaction of the vote to
stay hidden, and transparency ensures the public that the
voting mechanism cannot not be tampered with. Design of
blockchain systems for voting are found in a number of
literatures [64]–[69]. Some also produced prototypes [70]–
[72]. However, an issue with all these systems is that the
authentication of voters at the per | [
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"?"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,409 |
sonal level has to be ensured
outside the blockchain.
In the area of taxation, blockchain solutions enable tax
authorities to have more control over the tax system. [73]
describes a private blockchain that can be managed by the
tax authority to monitor value-added-tax invoices and keep an
immutable record on the taxable transactions, thus preventing
tax revenue losses. The system in [74] tackles a different
scenario by using the blockchain to track the dividend paid to
stakeholders, in order to overcome | [
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the problem of duplicated
tax refund due to forged dividend payment claims.
2) Citizen-centric Collaborative Urban Governance
While the urban collaboration perspective is the dominance
of transformational ideas in literature on smart city gov-
ernance [223], an inherent issue is that the e-governance
models associated with smart city initiatives typically rely on
Internet-based online tools which are increasingly monopo-
lised by a few companies serving as de facto central author-
ities [231]. Lack of t | [
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ransparency and trust on a centralized
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participatory manner [232], and become an important infras-
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,412 |
ransparency and trust on a centralized
network infrastructure could be a key factor that hinders the
true realization of the citizen participatory governance model.
Researchers believe that blockchain has the ability to re-
decentralize the Internet [231], enable a decentralized deliv-
ery model that allows rethinking complex systems in a more
participatory manner [232], and become an important infras-
tructure for e-government [233]. Blockchain helps build so-
cietal trust with an intrinsic checks and b | [
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regulations and standards are not up to meeting the ur-
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"and",
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"##oc",
"##ation",
"Using",
"Block",
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"##in"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,414 |
sm
makes it possible to truly deliver and execute urban codes
bottom-up. A blockchain system [5], [75]–[77] was proposed
as a connecting mechanism to create the people's layer of
the governance systems that connects urban technologies. In
the case of policies and codes, citizens submit their urban
needs to the blockchain, which will be prioritized by a
blockchain consensus mechanism for the authorities to draft
policies. These drafts will be ratified through the blockchain
validation capabilities. Further | [
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transform of these plans into
physical forms (e.g., construction of infrastructure projects)
can be approved via voting mechanisms on the blockchain as
well. The plans and regulations can also be standardized for
replicability and scalability purpose, using the same bottom-
up approach for citizen participatory standardization.
VOLUME 4, 2016 9
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistrib | [
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ution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
Another related blockchain project shows a citizen-
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,417 |
rt framework under the health-
care context [78]. It runs an agent-based simulation model on
the blockchain, incorporating rules from expert stakeholders,
open data and anonymized volunteer participants data. The
project illustrates how such a framework can be helpful in
an infectious disease spread scenario, through improving
transparent and ethical management of individual data and
promoting evidence-based collective decision making.
B. EDUCATION, CULTURE, SCIENCE AND INNOVATION
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ng Activities
Blockchain systems have been proposed to help maintain an
immutable record of the educational process. There are pro-
posals that record creative works or ideas to establish schol-
arly reputation [79], create continuous log of the learner's
activities across different learning organizations [80], enable
global higher educational institutions to award course credits
to students who completed courses [81], and allow issuance
and revocation of educational certificates [82]. Education and
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activities across different learning organizations [80], enable
global higher educational institutions to award course credits
to students who completed courses [81], and allow issuance
and revocation of educational certificates [82]. Education and
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records can be inputs to a general personal archive
management system and used by companies and services for
verification [85].
A related topic is recording of broader learning activities
such as volunteer services. [83] describes a blockchain based
system for life-long volunteering. Unlike other systems that
focus on scheduling and allocation of tasks, it fosters an open
volunteering marketplace supporting intelligent matchmak-
ing, gamification, and goal-oriented personal development.
Blockchain serve | [
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records can be inputs to a general personal archive
management system and used by companies and services for
verification [85].
A related topic is recording of broader learning activities
such as volunteer services. [83] describes a blockchain based
system for life-long volunteering. Unlike other systems that
focus on scheduling and allocation of tasks, it fosters an open
volunteering marketplace supporting intelligent matchmak-
ing, gamification, and goal-oriented personal development.
Blockchain serve | [
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for volunteering activities, assessments and acquired quali-
fications, and also gives data sovereignty to the volunteers
themselves. [84] is another system that discusses using
blockchain to record volunteer service time and activity
information.
2) Science, Innovation and IP Protection
Scientific researchers are also using blockchains to solve
problems associated with the academic community. The use
cases cover the whole life cycle from research methodology, | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,423 |
peer review, manuscript publishing to intellectual property
protection. First, at the experimentation stage, to prevent
experimental integrity from being damaged by negligence or
intentional wrong-doings, [86] proposes a system to record
research datasets and results to blockchain and release them
when necessary, e.g., upon approval of multiple specified
signatories, thus providing an audit trail of research data.
[87] suggests using adaptable blockchain-based choreogra-
phies for collaborative, reproduc | [
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ible in silico experiments
towards both Robust Accountable Reproducible Explained
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stage, [88] presents a blockchain platform that preserves and
measures author contributions based on the edits that authors
commit. Third, at the peer-review stage, blockchain system
can also stimulate a timely and sustainable review process.
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ible in silico experiments
towards both Robust Accountable Reproducible Explained
(RARE) research [235] and Findable Accessible Interoper-
able Reusable (FAIR) results. Second, at paper authoring
stage, [88] presents a blockchain platform that preserves and
measures author contributions based on the edits that authors
commit. Third, at the peer-review stage, blockchain system
can also stimulate a timely and sustainable review process.
As described in [89], a system can reward cryptocurrency to
reviewers | [
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when a quality review is accepted by the editor.
These rewarded currencies could later be used to pay for
publishing the reviewer's own authored paper in journals,
forming a closed loop incentive mechanism. Forth, at the
publishing stage, [90] leverages prior work of semantic web
technologies to allow authors to collaborate on an evolution-
ary version of the research progress, which could be open
for reviews or submitting to conferences or journals. This
provides the possibility for a decentralized publi | [
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shing system
(in contrast to the existing system centered on major pub-
lishers). By ensuring a single version of truth throughout the
paper life cycle, the system can solve the trust issues among
the different actors in the publishing ecosystem, including
authors, reviewers, publishers and relevant personnels who
use bibliometrics to evaluate performance. Last but not least,
on intellectual properties, [91] reports a blockchain system
that automatically creates a publicly verifiable timestamp
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bmitted manuscript, facilitating its origin time
record protection. Use of blockchain for intellectual property
protection extends to software as well. [92] and [93] present
design of a software licensing validation system for publish-
ers, enterprises and end users. Using ownership of crypto-
tokens to represent software entitlement, the blockchain en-
ables license validation, software updates, license transfers
and related functions. [94] discusses a system for licensing
of 3D printing models. It links | [
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the model to license data on
the blockchain in order to secure the authenticity of printing
data and prevent its unauthorized use.
3) Media, Culture and Entertainment
Intellectual property protection for digital media is also a
common blockchain application [95]. The system in [96]
proposes to register self-embedding watermarking processed
images on the blockchain in order to preserve transaction
trails and content modification histories, and provide tamper
detection for digital image management and dis | [
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tribution. [97]
reports a system for multi-media rights management, allow-
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to play the designated videos. Blockchain technology appli-
cation transforms the roles of third party intermediaries in
the media industry, making artists' careers more sustainable
by improved overall transparency of the value chain [98]. But
there are also cautions on the feasibility of blockchain in the
copyright sphere [99]. [100] argues that using blockchain as
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,431 |
tribution. [97]
reports a system for multi-media rights management, allow-
ing the licensor to control permission of particular licensee
to play the designated videos. Blockchain technology appli-
cation transforms the roles of third party intermediaries in
the media industry, making artists' careers more sustainable
by improved overall transparency of the value chain [98]. But
there are also cautions on the feasibility of blockchain in the
copyright sphere [99]. [100] argues that using blockchain as
a fi | [
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nancialisation tool through media rights enforcement is
unlikely to empower artists but instead will curtail the critical
potential of the digital as a mode of production and artistic
expression.
Examples for blockchain in cultural and entertainment
area include [101] which implements a blockchain system
that can securely manage transfer, re-selling, validation of
concert event tickets to prevent ticket fraud, and [102], a
decentralized lottery system to ensure fairness, transparency
and privacy of the l | [
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"re"
] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,433 |
nancialisation tool through media rights enforcement is
unlikely to empower artists but instead will curtail the critical
potential of the digital as a mode of production and artistic
expression.
Examples for blockchain in cultural and entertainment
area include [101] which implements a blockchain system
that can securely manage transfer, re-selling, validation of
concert event tickets to prevent ticket fraud, and [102], a
decentralized lottery system to ensure fairness, transparency
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10 VOLUME 4, 2016
2169-3536 (c) 2018 IEEE. Translations and content mining are permitted for academic research only. Personal use is also permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See
http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,435 |
DOI
10.1109/ACCESS.2018.2880744, IEEE Access
Shen et al.: Blockchain for Cities - A Systematic Literature Review
C. WELL-BEING, HEALTH AND SAFETY
Healthcare is a prominent area where blockchain could
found many use cases that help establish an infrastructure
to ensure transparency of medical data, analytical methods,
reproducibility of results and improved trust in translational
medical value chain [60]. As such, they have the potential
of significantly reducing the cost of developing new drugs,
diagno | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,436 |
stic tools, and clinical regimes [236]. The following
main categories of use cases are found in the research papers.
1) Clinical Trials and Medical Records
Blockchain systems have been proposed to improve the
clinical trials process, from keeping track of each steps,
such as patient consent and any revision of the clinical trial
protocol [103], [104], to managing complex clinical trial data
and preventing them from unauthorized manipulation [105].
Many papers presented concepts and designs of systems
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at target at enabling secure, interoperable, and efficient
access to medical records by patients, providers, and third
parties. They place emphasis on access control challenges
associated with sensitive data storage [106], preserving data
privacy and integrity [107], storage and retrieval [108] and
cross-domain medical image data sharing [109]. Blockchain
prototypes of such systems have been reported both for
general purpose medical records [110], [111] and for par-
ticular medical areas such as oncology | [
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at target at enabling secure, interoperable, and efficient
access to medical records by patients, providers, and third
parties. They place emphasis on access control challenges
associated with sensitive data storage [106], preserving data
privacy and integrity [107], storage and retrieval [108] and
cross-domain medical image data sharing [109]. Blockchain
prototypes of such systems have been reported both for
general purpose medical records [110], [111] and for par-
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patient care [112]. In
addition, [113] presents a system specifically for medical data
access control between cloud service providers. The effort
in [114] ensures data access accuracy for public reference
biomedical databases by providing query notary.
Some proposed systems also include collecting medical
data in mobile environment. The systems in [115] and [116]
generate health record data from patient's smart devices
and register them to the blockchain network for tamper-
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patient care [112]. In
addition, [113] presents a system specifically for medical data
access control between cloud service providers. The effort
in [114] ensures data access accuracy for public reference
biomedical databases by providing query notary.
Some proposed systems also include collecting medical
data in mobile environment. The systems in [115] and [116]
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,442 |
lying blockchain in pervasive
social network based healthcare is explored in [117].
2) Drug and Food Supply Chain
Medical supply chain may benefit from blockchain technol-
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the origins of drugs by logging time series drug transaction
data generated by IoT sensors to a blockchain to prevent
counterfeits [118]. The recording of drug transactions among
manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, pharmacies, hospitals,
and consumers, can turn the drug suppl | [
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[121] built a system using IoT sensors to collect those
transport condition parameters and log the readings to a
blockchain for public verifiability. Blockchain is also a hot
topic for tracing of food and agricultural products [122],
[123]. Researchers have focused on secure data storage
scheme for blockchain-based agricultural product tracking
systems [124], presented customized blockchain for agricul-
tural resource supply chain [125], and discussed case study of
blockchain agriculture and f | [
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t process.
[121] built a system using IoT sensors to collect those
transport condition parameters and log the readings to a
blockchain for public verifiability. Blockchain is also a hot
topic for tracing of food and agricultural products [122],
[123]. Researchers have focused on secure data storage
scheme for blockchain-based agricultural product tracking
systems [124], presented customized blockchain for agricul-
tural resource supply chain [125], and discussed case study of
blockchain agriculture and f | [
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ood traceability in China [126].
3) Insurance
Improving the insurance sector is also what people be-
lieve blockchain can be helpful. [127] discusses applying
blockchain to the insurance life cycle, from seeking a quo-
tation to binding a policy contract, to the claiming process,
which could help reduce fraudulent insurance claims. Ex-
perimental prototypes have been created to offer fine-grained
insurance policy control [128].
There are specific subjects of insurance that received more
attention. [129] | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,448 |
implemented a micro-insurance use case
for managing and analyzing data in a pay-as-you-go car
insurance, which allows drivers who rarely use cars to only
pay insurance premium for particular trips they would like to
travel. [130] built a blockchain-based prototype for cyber in-
surance. The system aims to provide an automated, real-time,
and immutable feedback loop among the involved parties,
providing a secure distributed infrastructure for assessing
cyber risks.
D. ECONOMY
While we do not consider pur | [
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e cryptocurrency use cases in
this paper, nor do we discuss Initial Coin Offerings [237], we
list the following important areas we found in the surveyed
literature that blockchain is affecting the broader economy
domain.
1) Collaborative Business Processes and Service
Exchanges
Blockchain has great potential in business process manage-
ment toward building a distributed, trustworthy infrastructure
to promote inter-organizational processes [238]. [131] de-
scribes a decentralized social manufacturing plat | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,450 |
form where
prosumers publish service demands and the manufacturing
community works to satisfy the demands. Similarly, [132]
presents a case on collaborative fulfillment of industrial
product design. Another system is discussed in [133] which
provides a platform for software development and automatic
payments, incorporating trusted Oracles for automatic soft-
ware code verification.
Blockchain facilitated collaboration can be performed not
only by human, but also by autonomous agents | [
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form where
prosumers publish service demands and the manufacturing
community works to satisfy the demands. Similarly, [132]
presents a case on collaborative fulfillment of industrial
product design. Another system is discussed in [133] which
provides a platform for software development and automatic
payments, incorporating trusted Oracles for automatic soft-
ware code verification.
Blockchain facilitated collaboration can be performed not
only by human, but also by autonomous agents | [
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] | Blockchain for Cities A Systematic Literature Review | 1,452 |
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain-Enabled Vehicular Networks
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by ContractTheory in Blockchain-enabled Vehicular Networks
Jiawen Kang, Zehui Xiong, Dusit Niyato, Fellow, IEEESchool of Computer Science and Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Email: {kavinkang, zexiong002, dniyato} @ ntu.edu.sg
Dong In Kim, Fellow, IEEESchool of Information & Communication Engineering
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,453 |
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain-Enabled Vehicular Networks
Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by ContractTheory in Blockchain-enabled Vehicular Networks
Jiawen Kang, Zehui Xiong, Dusit Niyato, Fellow, IEEESchool of Computer Science and Engineering
Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Email: {kavinkang, zexiong002, dniyato} @ ntu.edu.sg
Dong In Kim, Fellow, IEEESchool of Information & Communication Engineering
Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, South Korea | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,454 |
Email: dikim @ skku.ac.kr
Abstract — The burgeoning vehicular networks generate a hugeamount of sensing data. Data sharing among vehicles enables anumber of valuable vehicular applications to improve drivingsafety and enhance vehicular services. To ensure security andtraceability of data sharing, an efficient Delegated Proof-of-Stake(DPoS) consensus algorithm is utilized to establish Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs). Miners in DPoS includeactive miners and standby miners. The active miners | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,455 |
Email: dikim @ skku.ac.kr
Abstract — The burgeoning vehicular networks generate a hugeamount of sensing data. Data sharing among vehicles enables anumber of valuable vehicular applications to improve drivingsafety and enhance vehicular services. To ensure security andtraceability of data sharing, an efficient Delegated Proof-of-Stake(DPoS) consensus algorithm is utilized to establish Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs). Miners in DPoS includeactive miners and standby miners. The active miners | [
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are respon-sible for block generation and block verification. However, due tothe limited number of active miners in DPoS, the compromisedactive miners may collude with each other to generate maliciouslymanipulated results of block verification. To prevent the internalcollusion among the active miners, a newly generated blockcan be further verified and audited by the standby miners. Toincentivize the participation of the miners in block verification,we adopt the contract theory to model the interactions be | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,457 |
tweenactive miners and standby miners, where both block verificationsecurity and delay are taken into consideration. Numerical resultsdemonstrate the security and efficiency of our schemes for datasharing in BEVENs.
Index Terms — Vehicular networks, blockchain, delegatedproof-of-stake, contract theory, security protection
I. INTRODUCTION
With the rapid development of wireless communication
technologies, vehicular networks are evolved to be an indis-
pensable platform with information interaction among veh | [
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i-
cles, road-side infrastructures and humans. Vehicles generate
a huge amount and diverse types of data through advanced on-
board devices. The vehicles share their data to improve driving
safety and enhance vehicular services, which significantly
facilitates the realization of the Intelligent Transportation Sys-
tem [1], [2]. However, there exist critical security and privacy
challenges for data sharing in vehicular networks. On the one
hand, the vehicles may not be willing to upload data to road-
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i-
cles, road-side infrastructures and humans. Vehicles generate
a huge amount and diverse types of data through advanced on-
board devices. The vehicles share their data to improve driving
safety and enhance vehicular services, which significantly
facilitates the realization of the Intelligent Transportation Sys-
tem [1], [2]. However, there exist critical security and privacy
challenges for data sharing in vehicular networks. On the one
hand, the vehicles may not be willing to upload data to road-
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,460 |
infrastructures with a centralized management architec-
ture because of the concern on the single point of failure and
personal data manipulation. On the other hand, although Peer-
to-Peer (P2P) data sharing among the vehicles can solve the
issues of the centralized management architecture, it is facing
the problems of data access without authorization and security
protection in a decentralized architecture. These challenges
adversely affect the circulation of vehicle data and thus hinder
the future devel | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,461 |
infrastructures with a centralized management architec-
ture because of the concern on the single point of failure and
personal data manipulation. On the other hand, although Peer-
to-Peer (P2P) data sharing among the vehicles can solve the
issues of the centralized management architecture, it is facing
the problems of data access without authorization and security
protection in a decentralized architecture. These challenges
adversely affect the circulation of vehicle data and thus hinder
the future devel | [
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opment of vehicular networks [3].
Recently, integrating blockchain technology with vehicular
networks has attracted increasing attention of researchers
and developers because of decentralization, anonymity, and
trust characteristics of blockchain. A secure, decentralized
and trusted intelligent transport ecosystem is established by
blockchain to solve vehicle data sharing problems [3], [4],
[5]. Nevertheless, there exists an exorbitant cost to establish
a blockchain in resource-limited vehicles using comp | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,463 |
opment of vehicular networks [3].
Recently, integrating blockchain technology with vehicular
networks has attracted increasing attention of researchers
and developers because of decentralization, anonymity, and
trust characteristics of blockchain. A secure, decentralized
and trusted intelligent transport ecosystem is established by
blockchain to solve vehicle data sharing problems [3], [4],
[5]. Nevertheless, there exists an exorbitant cost to establish
a blockchain in resource-limited vehicles using comp | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,464 |
utation-
intensive Proof-of-Work (PoW) or unfair stake-based PoS [1],
[6]. Existing research attempts cannot neatly address the P2P
vehicle data sharing problem in vehicular networks [7].
In this paper, we utilize the efficient Delegated Proof-of-
Stake (DPoS) consensus scheme to develop a secure P2P data
sharing system for vehicular networks. Previous study has
demonstrated that the DPoS scheme is particularly suitable
and practical for vehicular networks [4], which performs the
consensus process on pre- | [
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selected miners with moderate cost
[8]. RoadSide Units (RSUs) as edge computing infrastructures,
which are widely deployed over the road networks and easily
reachable by vehicles, can be the miners because of having
sufficient computation and storage resources [1], [9], [7], [10],
[11]. These miners play significant roles in publicly auditing,
verifying and storing vehicle data and data sharing records in
Blockchain-Enabled VEhicular Networks (BEVENs).
However, the BEVENs based on DPoS suffers from a
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"[UNK]"
] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,466 |
ntial attack named Block Verification Collusion: A minerdistributed along the road without sufficient security protection
may be vulnerable to be directly compromised by attackers [1],
[7]. The malicious miners may internally collude with each
other to generate maliciously manipulated results in the block
verification, even to launch double-spending attack, which
is also challenging [6], [12]. Therefore, it is necessary to
design an enhanced DPoS consensus scheme with secure block
verification to defend a | [
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ntial attack named Block Verification Collusion: A minerdistributed along the road without sufficient security protection
may be vulnerable to be directly compromised by attackers [1],
[7]. The malicious miners may internally collude with each
other to generate maliciously manipulated results in the block
verification, even to launch double-spending attack, which
is also challenging [6], [12]. Therefore, it is necessary to
design an enhanced DPoS consensus scheme with secure block
verification to defend a | [
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gainst the block verification collusion
attack in BEVENs [6].
Note that the more participating miners can lead to the
more secure block verification [13]. A miner group in DPoS
includes active miners and standby miners, e.g., 21 active
miners and 150 standby miners in Enterprise Operation System
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,469 |
iners take turn to act as the
block manager to generate and distribute unverified blocks.
To incentivize the standby miners to participate in the block
978-1-5386-8088-9 / 19 / $31.00 © 2019 IEEE
verification, we utilize contract theory to model interactions
among the block manager and miners to prevent the collusion
attacks. The block manager works as a contract designer.
Meanwhile, the miners including active and standby miners
are followers to finish block verification for obtaining a part
of transac | [
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tion fee according to verification contribution [13].
The main contributions of this work are summarized as
follows.
• We propose to utilize the efficient DPoS consensusscheme to establish blockchain-enabled vehicular net-
works for secure vehicle data sharing.
• We present a potential attack named block verificationcollusion attack in the DPoS consensus scheme, whereinthe active miners may collude with each other to generate
maliciously manipulated block verification results.
• To defend against this att | [
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] | Incentivizing Secure Block Verification by Contract Theory in Blockchain Enabled Vehicular Networks | 1,471 |
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