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ustive traceability in multiple food products is a key aspect to
ensure food safety. Food traceability could require the involvement
of many participants: manufacturing, feeding, treatment, distribu-
tion, and so on. A data leak in any part of the chain could lead
to fraud and slow down the processes of the search for infection
which can seriously affect citizen's lives and incur huge economic
costs to companies, sectors and countries in the case of a foodborne
outbreak [78]. A better control in these are | [
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as would increase food
safety, improving the data sharing between participants and re-
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and smart cars, sharing reliable data could favor the inclusion of
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complement the IoT with reliable and secure information. This has
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,773 |
d as mentioned in [79], where blockchain
technology is identified as the key to solve scalability, privacy, and
reliability problems related to the IoT paradigm.
From our point of view IoT can greatly benefit from the func-
tionality provided by blockchain and will help to further develop
current IoT technologies. It is worth noting that there are still a
great number of research challenges and open issues that have
to be studied in order to seamlessly use these two technologies
together and this researc | [
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h topic is still in a preliminary stage.
More specifically, improvements that this integration can bring
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• decentralization and scalability: the shift from a central-
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• identity: using a common blockchain system participants
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,776 |
plications [81]. This
would represent an improvement in the IoT field and its
participants.
• autonomy: blockchain technology empowers next-gen ap-
plication features, making possible the development of
smart autonomous assets and hardware as a service [82,83].
With blockchain, devices are capable of interacting with
each other without the involvement of any servers. IoT
applications could benefit from this functionality to provide
device-agnostic and decoupled-applications.
• reliability: IoT informati | [
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on can remain immutable and dis-
tributed over time in blockchain [84]. Participants of the
system are capable of verifying the authenticity of the data
and have the certainty that they have not been tampered
with. Moreover, the technology enables sensor data trace-
ability and accountability. Reliability is the key aspect of the
blockchain to bring in the IoT.
• security: information and communications can be secured
if they are stored as transactions of the blockchain [85].
Blockchain can treat device | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,778 |
message exchanges as trans-
actions, validated by smart contracts, in this way securing
communications between devices. Current secure standard-
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• market of services: blockchain can accelerate the cre-
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out authorities. Microservices can be easily deployed and
micro-payments can be safety made in a trustless | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,779 |
environ-
ment [87–89]. It would improve IoT interconnection and the
access of IoT data in blockchain.
• secure code deployment: taking advantage of blockchain
secure-immutable storage, code can be safety and securely
pushed into devices [80,90]. Manufacturers can track states
180 A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
(a) IoT–IoT. (b) IoT–Blockchain. (c) Hybrid approach.
Fig. 1. Blockchain IoT interactions.
and updates with the highest confidence [85]. IoT mid-
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,780 |
res can use this functionality to securely update IoT
devices.
Another aspect to take into account is related to the IoT in-
teractions, i.e., the communication between the underlying IoT
infrastructure.When integrating blockchain, it needs to be decided
where these interactions will take place: inside the IoT, a hybrid
design involving IoT and blockchain, or through blockchain. Fog
computing [91] has also revolutionized the IoT with the inclusion
of a new layer between cloud computing and IoT devices an | [
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d could
also facilitate this integration. Below, these alternatives (shown in
Fig. 1) are described together with their advantages and disadvan-
tages:
• IoT–IoT: this approach could be the fastest one in terms of
latency, and security since it can work offline. IoT devices
have to be able to communicate with each other, which
usually involves discovery and routing mechanisms. Only a
part of IoT data is stored in blockchain whereas the IoT in-
teractions take place without using the blockchain (Fig. 1a). | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,782 |
This approach would be useful in scenarios with reliable IoT
data where the IoT interactions are taking place with low
latency.
• IoT–Blockchain: in this approach all the interactions go
through blockchain, enabling an immutable record of in-
teractions. This approach ensures that all the chosen inter-
actions are traceable as their details can be queried in the
blockchain, and moreover it increases the autonomy of IoT
devices. IoT applications that intend to trade or rent such as
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,783 |
this approach to provide their services.
Nevertheless, recording all the interactions in blockchain
would involve an increase in bandwidth and data, which is
one of thewell-known challenges in blockchain (Fig. 1b). On
the other hand, all IoT data associated with these transac-
tions should also be stored in blockchain.
• Hybrid approach: lastly, a hybrid design where only part
of the interactions and data take place in the blockchain
and the rest are directly shared between the IoT devices.
One of the ch | [
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allenges in this approach is choosing which
interactions should go through the blockchain andproviding
the way to decide this in run time. A perfect orchestration of
this approach would be the best way to integrate both tech-
nologies since it leverages the benefits of blockchain and the
benefits of real-time IoT interactions. In this approach fog
computing could come into play and even cloud computing,
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utationally-
limited devices such as gateways and it is a potential place
where mining can take place in the same way as other
initiatives that use IoT devices [92,93] (Fig. 1c).
In a typical IoT deployment, limited-resource devices are used
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. This is key to realize IoT autonomy, which comes at a cost
of a more sophisticated hardware and higher computational ex-
pense (in Section 4.1.1 an evaluation of the cost of using blockchain
in IoT devices is presented). Integrating gateways in these solutions
is also plausible, in the same way as traditional deployments do,
however the benefits of using blockchain in this way are fewer.
Despite the expansion of blockchain, it would make no sense to
use it inmany applications, where databases provide en | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,787 |
ough func-
tionality. Deciding when it is worth using a blockchain will mainly
depend on the requirements of the application. For instance, when
high performance is required, blockchain alone may not be the
right solution, but a hybrid approach could be applied to optimize
it. In [94] the authors present a methodology to identify whether a
blockchain is useful depending on problem requirements. Next we
focus on how this can be technically achieved for IoT devices.
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,788 |
ave started to ap-
pear, like the Trusted IoT Alliance [59], to bridge the gap between
the IoT and blockchain. Also there are an increasing number of de-
vices with integrated blockchain capabilities available on the mar-
ket such as [92,93,95]. EthEmbedded [92] enables the installation
of Ethereum full nodes on embedded devices such as Raspberry Pi,
Beaglebone Black and Odroid. Raspnode [93] and Ethraspbian [96]
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,789 |
[95] Antrouter R1-LTC [95] is a Wi-
Fi router that also enables mining Litecoin. Therefore, this type
of router could be installed in smart homes and be part of a fog
computing ecosystem. Raspnode also enables wallet support for
Bitcoin and Litecoin. As stated by Raspnode, mining can be done
on IoT devices, but it would be useless. Mining has become a
specialized task for certain hardware (ASIC chips) and it is useless
to try it on IoT devices. That is the main reason why there is little
work on mining f | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,790 |
or IoT devices. There is still a lot of research to be
done for enabling a wide integration of IoT devices as blockchain
components. Table 2 shows a summary of the surveyed IoT devices
to be used as part of blockchain platforms.
Full nodes must store the entire blockchain (currently more
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validation of transactions and blocks, thus their deployment can be
very limited in IoT devices. As stated, mining would be useless in
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,791 |
ts specific requirements. The consensus protocol
could be relaxed to facilitate the inclusion of IoT devices, however
this could compromise the security of the blockchain implementa-
tion. This could be used in consortium blockchains where consen-
sus protocols are relaxed. In the deployment of lightweight nodes
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 181
Table 2
IoT devices to be used as blockchain components.
Source IoT device Mode Blockchain
EthEmbedded
Raspberry P | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,792 |
i
Full node
Ethereum
BeagleBone Black
Odroid XU3/XU4
Wandboard
Ethcore Parity
Ethraspbian
Raspberry Pi
Raspnode
Bitcoin
Light node
Litecoin
Full node
Bitmain Antrouter R1-LTC Miner
the authenticity of the transactions is validated without having to
download the entire blockchain, therefore they can contribute to
blockchain and are easy to run and maintain in IoT devices. These
nodes can be used in the IoT to be part of the blockchain network,
reducing the gap between the two technologies. This alw | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,794 |
e the
IoT limitations of: processing, storage and access. However, cloud
computing usually provides a centralized architecture, which in
contrast to blockchain, complicates reliable sharing with many
participants. The integration between blockchain and the IoT is
intended to address previous limitations in addition tomaintaining
reliable data. Fog computing aims to distribute and bring the com-
puting closer to end devices, following a distributed approach like
blockchain. This can incorporate more powerf | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,795 |
ul devices than the
IoT such as gateways and edge nodes, which can then be reused as
blockchain components. Therefore, fog computing could ease the
integration of the IoT with blockchain.
3.1. Challenges in blockchain–IoT integration
This section studies the main challenges to be addressed when
applying blockchain technology to the IoT domain. The integration
of blockchain technology with the IoT is not trivial. Blockchain
was designed for an Internet scenario with powerful computers,
and this is far fr | [
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om the IoT reality. Blockchain transactions are
digitally signed, and therefore devices capable of operating with
the currencymust be equippedwith this functionality. Incorporat-
ing blockchain into the IoT is challenging. Some of the identified
challenges are presented in this section.
3.1.1. Storage capacity and scalability
As stated, storage capacity and scalability of blockchain are still
under debate, but in the context of IoT applications the inherent
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e challenges much
greater. In this sense, blockchain may appear to be unsuitable for
IoT applications, however there are ways in which these limita-
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devices can generate gigabytes (GBs) of data in real time, this limi-
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oT. Furthermore, blockchain is not
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challenges.
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literature different techniques to filter, normalize and compress
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,800 |
enabling a better transition to the IoT demonstrated by the case of
Bitcoin-NG [11].
3.1.2. Security
IoT applications have to dealwith security problems at different
levels, but with an additional complexity due to the lack of per-
formance and high heterogeneity of devices. In addition, the IoT
scenario comprises a set of properties that affect security, such as
mobility, wireless communication or scale. An exhaustive analysis
of security in IoT is beyond the scope of this paper but detailed
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,801 |
an be found in [97–100].
The increasing number of attacks on IoT networks, and their
serious effects, make it even more necessary to create an IoT with
more sophisticated security. Many experts see blockchain as a key
technology to provide the much needed security improvements in
IoT. However, one of the main challenges in the integration of the
IoT with blockchain is the reliability of the data generated by the
IoT. Blockchain can ensure that data in the chain are immutable and
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ormations, nevertheless when data arrives
already corrupted in the blockchain they stay corrupt. Corrupt IoT
data can arise from many situations apart from malicious ones.
The well-being of the IoT architecture is affected by many factors
such as the environment, participants, vandalism and the failure of
the devices. Sometimes the devices themselves and their sensors
and actuators fail to work properly from the start. This situation
cannot be detected until the device in question has been tested,
or some | [
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s to detect
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deployments. Therefore, run-time upgrading and reconfiguration
mechanisms should be placed in the IoT to keep it running over
time. Initiatives such as GUITAR [101] and REMOWARE [102] en-
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d firmware updates in run time and are essential
to ensure a secure integration of the IoTwith blockchain over time.
The IoT and blockchain integration can also have repercussions
on the IoT communications [86]. Currently, IoT application proto-
cols such as CoAP and MQTT make use of other security protocols
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secure protocols are complex and heavy in addition to requiring
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h PKI. In the blockchainnetwork each IoTdevicewould
182 A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
have its own GUID (Global Unique Identifier) and asymmetric key
pair installed once connected to the network. This would simplify
current security protocols which usually have to exchange PKI
certificates andwould allow them to be used in devices with lower
capabilities.
One notable IoT project in terms of security with a blockchain
adoption is Filament [83]. Filament is a ha | [
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rdware and software
solution that provides functionality for Bitcoin-based payments
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smart contracts to operate, and additionally Pennyback and Bit-
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can be used.
3.1.3. Anonymity and data privacy
Many IoT applications work with confidential data, for instance
when the device is linked to a person, such as in the e-health
scenario, it is essential to address the problem of data privacy and
anonymity. Blockchain is presented as the ideal solution to address
identity management in IoT, however as in Bitcoin, there may be
applications where anonymity needs to be guaranteed. This is the
case of awearablewith the ability to hide the identity of the perso | [
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n
when sending personal data, or smart vehicles that safeguard the
privacy of the itineraries of users.
The problem of data privacy in transparent and public
blockchains has already been discussed, together with some of the
existing solutions. However, the problem of data privacy in IoT
devices entails more difficulty, since it starts at data collection and
extends to the communications and application levels. Securing
the device so that data are stored securely and not accessed by
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ion is a challenge since it requires the in-
tegration of security cryptographic software into the device. These
improvements should take into account the limitation of resources
of the devices and the restrictions related to economic viability.
Many technologies have been used to secure communications
using encryption (IPsec, SSL/TLS, DTLS). IoT device limitations often
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dware could accelerate cryptographic operations and avoids
the overload of complex secure software protocols.
Protection of data and privacy are key challenges for IoT, using
blockchain technology the problem of identity management in IoT
can be alleviated. Trust is another key feature of the IoT where the
integration of blockchain can play a role. In [103] the importance
of trust in IoT systems is identified as one of the primary goals to
ensure its success. Data integrity techniques are another option
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,812 |
to ensure data access at the same time as they avoid overloading
blockchainwith the huge amount of data generated by the IoT. This
can result in public systems, but with an efficient and restricted
access control. MuR-DPA [104] provides dynamic data updates and
efficient verification though public auditing verification. In [105]
the authors ensure the data content through another privacy-
preserving public auditing system. For a broad review of integrity
verification techniques, refer to [106].
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not least, there are laws that regulate data privacy, such
as the EU's data protection directives that will need to be revised
to cover the new models that the technology makes possible. The
adoption of blockchain as a legal platform should address these
regulations so as to ensure data privacy following the law.
3.1.4. Smart contracts
Smart contracts have been identified as the killer application of
blockchain technology, but as mentioned there are several chal-
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fit from the use of smart
contracts, however theway they fit into IoT applications is diverse.
From a practical point of view, a contract is a collection of code
(functions) and data (states) that reside in a specific blockchain
address. Public functions in a contract can be called by devices.
Functions can also fire events, applications can listen for them in
order to properly react to the event fired. To change the state of
the contract, that is, to modify the blockchain, a transaction has to
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hed in the network. Transactions are signed by senders
and have to be accepted by the network.
The IoT has the ability to sense and actuate over the Internet in
many areas [1]. In the food traceability example, food packaging
would be equipped with sensors with the capability to measure
environmental conditions and connect to the blockchain (sign
transactions). In the blockchain a contract would provide functions
to start shipping, finish shipping and log and querymeasurements.
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,816 |
a predefined threshold, an event
would be fired. Management applications would be listening to
these events, and the shipping company, retailers, manufacturers
and clients would be informed. If no events were raised, then the
blockchain would guarantee that the shipment was carried out in
optimal conditions. Smart contracts would provide a secure and
reliable processing engine for the IoT, recording and managing all
their interactions. Actions would be the result of a reliable and
secure processing. Ther | [
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efore, smart contracts can securely model
the application logic of IoT applications. However, the following
challenges should be addressed in that integration.
On the one hand, working with smart contracts requires the
use of oracles which are special entities that provide real-world
data in a trustedmanner. Validating these smart contracts could be
compromised since the IoT can be unstable. Moreover, accessing
multiple data sources could overload these contracts. Nowadays,
smart contracts are distribute | [
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of large amounts of data simultaneously, allowing knowledge to
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,820 |
com-
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should be complemented by smart contracts to enable applications
to address the IoT depending on the context and requirements.
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. Legal issues
The vision of an unregulated blockchain is part of its essence,
and partly responsible for the success of Bitcoin. As seen,
blockchain, specifically in the context of virtual currencies, has
brought with it a lot of controversy regarding legality. The need,
or opportunity, to introduce control elements over the network
has come in the form of permissioned, private and consortium
blockchains.
The IoT domain is also affected by a country's laws or regu-
lations regarding data privacy, for i | [
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nstance the data protection
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 183
directive. Most of these laws are becoming obsolete and need
to be revised, especially since the emergence of new disruptive
technologies such as blockchain. The development of new laws
and standards can ease the certification of security features of
devices, and in this way help build the most secure and trusted
IoT network. In this sense, laws that deal with information privacy
and information hand | [
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ling are still a big challenge to be tackled
in IoT and will therefore be an even bigger challenge if used in
combination with blockchain.
As stated, the lack of regulation creates disadvantages, because
mechanisms for private key retrieval or reset, or transaction re-
version are not possible. Some IoT applications envision a global,
unique blockchain for devices, however it is unclear if this type
of network is intended to be managed by manufacturers or open
to users. In any case, it is expected it wil | [
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l require legal regulation.
These regulationswill have an influence on the future of blockchain
and IoT and as such could possibly disrupt the decentralized and
free nature of blockchain by introducing a controlling, centralized
participant such as a country.
3.1.6. Consensus
In the context of IoT applications, the limited-resource nature
of devices makes them unsuitable for taking part in consensus
mechanisms, such as PoW, directly. As stated, there are a wide
variety of proposals for consensus protoco | [
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ls, although they are,
in general, immature and have not been tested enough. Resource
requirements depend on the particular type of consensus protocol
in the blockchain network. Typically, solutions tend to delegate
these tasks to gateways, or any other unconstrained device, capa-
ble of providing this functionality. Optionally off-chain solutions,
whichmove information outside the blockchain to reduce the high
latency in blockchain, could provide the functionality
Although there are initiatives to incor | [
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ls, although they are,
in general, immature and have not been tested enough. Resource
requirements depend on the particular type of consensus protocol
in the blockchain network. Typically, solutions tend to delegate
these tasks to gateways, or any other unconstrained device, capa-
ble of providing this functionality. Optionally off-chain solutions,
whichmove information outside the blockchain to reduce the high
latency in blockchain, could provide the functionality
Although there are initiatives to incor | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,827 |
porate blockchain full
nodes into IoT devices [92,93], mining is still a key challenge in
the IoT due to its limitations. IoT is mainly composed of resource-
constrained devices but globally the IoT has a potentially huge
processing power, taking into account that it is expected that the
number of devices in it will reach anywhere between 20 and 50
billion by 2020. Research efforts should focus on this field and
leverage the distributed nature and global potential of the IoT to
adapt the consensus in the | [
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IoT.
In Babelchain [107] a novel consensus protocol called Proof of
Understanding (PoU) that aims to adapt PoW for IoT applications
is proposed. With less energy consumption, the protocol, instead
of using miners to solve hash puzzles, proposes translating from
different protocols. In this way the effort is more concentrated on
useful computation while simultaneously tackling a key problem
in IoT communications. Peers in the network instead of agreeing
on transaction status, agree on message meaning (for | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,829 |
mat, content
and action). Additionally, the blockchain data provide information
to learn, like a learning set.
4. Platforms and applications
Recently blockchain platforms and applications have emerged
from many diverse areas, due to the advantages that this technol-
ogy offers. This section surveys the most representative applica-
tions and platforms that combine the IoT and blockchain.
4.1. Blockchain platforms for IoT
Blockchain has been identified as a disruptive technology that
can strongly affect | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,830 |
many industries. The number of platforms is so
high and in constant change that it is impossible to analyze them
all, in this section we focus on the most popular and most suitable
for IoT domains.
Bitcoin was the first cryptocurrency and the first blockchain
platform. It provides a mechanism to carry out monetary trans-
actions in a fast, cheap and reliable way, which can be integrated
into applications as a secure payment system. In IoT domain,
autonomous devices can use Bitcoins to performmicro-payme | [
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nts,
working mainly as wallets. In general when the use of blockchain
is limited to micro-payments, applications are attached to the cur-
rency, which can be a drawback, since depreciation of the coin can
negatively affect the application. As stated using smart contracts is
a common solution when integrating blockchain with IoT. Bitcoin
includes a scripting language that allows specific conditions to be
set when carrying out transactions. However, the scripting is quite
limited compared with other smart c | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,832 |
ontract platforms.
As mentioned one of the platforms that has had an important
impact in recent times is Ethereum [8]. Ethereum was one of the
pioneer blockchains in including smart contracts. Ethereum can
be described both as a blockchain with a built-in programming
language (Solidity), and as a consensus-based virtual machine
running globally (Ethereum Virtual Machine EVM). The inclusion
of smart contracts moves the blockchain away from currencies
and facilitates the integration of this technology in n | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,833 |
ew areas.
This along with its active and broad community makes Ethereum
the most popular platform for developing applications. Most IoT
applications use Ethereum or are compatible with it (see Table 6).
The simplest approach is to define a smart contract where devices
can publish their measures and policies that react to changes.
Hyperledger [9] has also had a great impact. Hyperledger is
an open-source platform on which various projects related to
blockchain have been developed, among themHyperledger Fa | [
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bric,
a blockchain deprived of permissions and without cryptocurrency
on which commercial implementations like IBM's Blockchain plat-
form are based. It provides different components for consensus
and membership. Distributed application can be developed in the
blockchain using general purpose languages. IoT devices can sup-
ply data to the blockchain through the IBM Watson IoT Platform,
which manages devices and allows data analysis and filtering.
IBM's Bluemix platform eases the integration of blockchain | [
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TheMultichain platform allows the creation and deployment of
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a command-line tool for interacting with the
network, and different clients that can interact through JSON-RPC
with the network such as Node.js, Java, C # and Ruby. Multichain is
a fork of Bitcoin Core, its source code compiles for 64 bit architec-
tures. In [109] multichain blockchain cluster is deployed on three
nodes, one of them an arduino board, as a proof of concept of an
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Litecoin [12], as stated, is technically identical to Bitcoin, but
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,837 |
rmation times and improved stor-
age efficiency thanks to the reduction of the block generation time
(from 10 min to 2.5) and the proof of work, which is based on
scrypt, a memory intensive password-based key derivation func-
tion. This means that the computational requirements of Litecoin
nodes are lower, so it is more suitable for IoT.
Lisk [110] offers a blockchain platform in which sub-
blockchains or sidechains can be defined with decentralized
blockchain applications and a choice of cryptocurrencie | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,838 |
s to use
(e.g. Bitcoin, Ethereum, etc.). Known as the blockchain platform for
javascript developers, Lisk also offers support to create and deploy
decentralized applications within the platform to be used directly
by end users, creating an ecosystem of interoperable blockchain
184 A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
Table 3
Blockchain platforms for creating blockchain applications.
Platform Blockchain Consensus Crypto currency Smart contracts
Ethereum Public and pe | [
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rmission-based PoS Ether (ETH) yes
Hyperledger Fabric Permission-based PBTF/SIEVE None yes
Multichain Permission-based PBTF Multi-currency yes
Litecoin Public Scrypt litecoins (LTC) no
Lisk Public and permission-based DPoS LSK yes
Quorum Permission-based Multiple ETH yes
HDAC Permission-based ePoW,Trust-based Multiasset yes
services. The applications developed can use LSK currency or can
create custom tokens. Lisk uses Delegated proof of stake consen-
sus. Lisk is working with Chain of Things to examine | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,840 |
whether
blockchain technology can be effective in establishing security
within IoT.
Quorum [39] is a blockchain platform developed to provide the
financial services industry with a permissioned implementation
of Ethereum with support for transaction and contract privacy.
It allows multiple consensus mechanisms and achieves data pri-
vacy through cryptography and segmentation. The platform has
recently integrated ZeroCash technology to obscure all identifiable
information about a transaction. The Quorum p | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,841 |
latform has been
used by Chronicled [111] to create secure links between physical
assets and blockchain.
HDAC [76] is an IoT contract and M2M transaction platform
based on Blockchain currently under development. The HDAC sys-
tem uses a combination of public and private blockchains, and
quantum random number generation to secure these transactions.
The HDAC cryptocurrency-enabled public blockchain can be effec-
tively used with multiple private blockchains. Hdac IoT contract
proof of concept will be laun | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,842 |
ched this year.
Table 3 shows a comparison of the blockchain platforms for
creating IoT applications surveyed in this section. Smart contracts
are present in most platforms, thus enabling application logic
beyond cryptocurrency transactions. In the case of a blockchain
deployment, there is a dualism among blockchains with and with-
out a cryptocurrency. An established platform with a cryptocur-
rency like Ethereum can provide the needed infrastructure for a
blockchain application. This can be seen as dep | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,843 |
loying your own
cloud infrastructure or using AWS Amazon or Google Cloud Plat-
form. However, in the case of blockchain the distribution is the
linchpin of its trustworthiness. On the other hand, using a non-
cryptocurrency platform like Hyperledger Fabric requires joining
a consortium and infrastructure to start a blockchain. PBTF and
PoS are the most used consensuses. Permissions and privacy are in
most platforms, therefore consortium and global applications can
be created from them.
4.1.1. Evaluation
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To test the viability of running blockchain platforms on IoT
devices we installed and ran different nodes from different plat-
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and Linux kernel 4.9.59-v7+. To perform these experiments the
device was equipped with an SD card of 128GB (Samsung EVO
PLUS MB-MC128GA/EU). Raspberry was connected to the Inter-
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,845 |
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e task, and the bandwidth consumption
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is 100% for each core, so the maximum for our quad core device is
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Note that the different types of nodes implement different func-
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h as Bitcoin, Ethereum and Litecoin to test
the device in real working conditions. In addition, when connected
to the public network we had no control of the status of the
network,i.e., the number of transactions published during each
experiment were not the same. Therefore, this evaluation is not
intended to be an exhaustive comparison of the performance of
the different implementations, but rather to provide an idea of the
viability of using blockchain nodes on IoT and to state technical
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,849 |
han 4%, with respect to the Rasp-
berry base measurement (272.09 mA). Very similar to the values
obtained for the Litecoin light node (Electrum implementation)
which reached a 5% increase. The Ethereum light node was not
tested because it is currently under development. Regarding the
task performance, the CPU usage and virtual memory were also
quite similar for both light nodes. There wasmore difference in the
use of memory, where Bitcoin consumed 2% additional memory.
Bandwidth consumption mainly differe | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,850 |
d in received bytes, where
Litecoin downloaded almost 36 Kb more. Results show that these
light nodes run comfortably on the Raspberry Pi, they provide
the functionality to make secure transactions, which is enough to
benefit from blockchain features, and do not require an excessive
amount memory, nor high energy consumption. The next section
introduces several solutions where these types of nodes are used
in IoT–blockchain applications.
Next the experiments were performed with full nodes: the
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full node is not the same as the Bitcoin one. First of all, the different
consensus protocols, PoS and PoW, have radically different com-
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,852 |
her. To
evaluate the different consumption requirements, measurements
were taken during the synchronization and after it. At themoment
1 https://linux.die.net/man/1/top.
2 https://github.com/raboof/nethogs.
https://linux.die.net/man/1/top
https://github.com/raboof/nethogs
A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190 185
Table 4
Blockchain nodes evaluation on Raspberry Pi v3 (Synchronizing (s), after synchronization (as))
Avg energy (mA) Avg %CPU Avg %Mem Avg VIRT (MB) Total | [
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sent MB Total received MB
Bitcoin light node 283.45 2.19 9.6 288 0.074 0.068
Litecoin light node 275.53 2.05 7.6 209 0.081 0.104
Ethereum full node (s) 599.72 256.82 85.96 1490 78.9 490
Ethereum full node (as) 371.26 47.39 29.36 1280 15.3 80.3
Bitcoin full node (s) 429.05 55.47 27.55 405 48 912
Litecoin full node (s) 437.62 117.80 19.36 341 17.1 546
Litecoin full node (as) 280.04 7.01 51.7 679 1.22 2.06
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,854 |
r the Bitcoin chain. Note
that the full Bitcoin node after the synchronization could not be
tested since the current Bitcoin chain size exceeds the memory
of our test scenario. The Ethereum synchronization took about 5
days (with several reboots, due to system failures), and Litecoin
about 2 days. Moreover, after a couple of days of being close to
a full synchronization (fewer than 100 blocks to reach it), we
decided to evaluate the Ethereum full node in its current state,
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,855 |
n. We considered that 99.99% is a
good approximation for a full synchronization. The number of new
blocks generated and the limited capabilities of the Raspberry Pi
for that full node made it difficult to reach a full synchronization.
When compared with light nodes, the additional functionality
that full nodes implement, which ismainly the storage, is observed
in higher consumption values, both in memory and CPU. Most
values obtained after the synchronization were lower than during
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e Ethereum full node after synchronizing, the
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The energy consumption, when compared with the Rasp-
berry base measurement (272.09 mA), increased by 120% in the
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does it with 57% and Litecoin with 60%. These values after the
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,858 |
ncreased from 19% to 51% after synchronization.
This is probably due to its memory intensive consensus protocol.
As expected bandwidth values soared, when compared with light
nodes, since they stored the full chain. Whereas for light nodes
bandwidth values were in the order of Kb, for full nodes were
in the order of Mb. Bitcoin full node received 13 thousand times
more bytes than its light node, and the Litecoin full node during
synchronization, 5 thousand times more than its light version, and
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,859 |
times more after synchronization.
There are very few scenarios where it makes sense to use a full
node IoT. We have not found any application that uses it in IoT. It
could be used in private deployments and for test purposes, but we
understand that in final applications there would be other more
suitable devices to run these nodes. The evaluation results show
that the feasibility of using these nodes on the IoT is very limited.
As stated, light nodes are a far better fit for limited resource devices
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as those in the IoT.
The most noteworthy problems during the tests were the diffi-
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ations have been very useful for the
deployment of the aforementioned nodes.
4.2. Blockchain applications
In finances, there has been a notable emergence of alternative
cryptocurrencies (altcoins, 1486 according to coinmarketcap) that
have built a new market and have enabled new forms of payment
and investment. Examples of them are Ripple [74], Litecoin [12],
Nxt [65], Peercoin [112], Bitshares [66], Dogecoin [113], Name-
coin [114], Dash [32], and Monero [28]. This new market has also
led to the appear | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,862 |
ance of new applications for payment, exchange
and trading infrastructures for these new currencies.
Beyond finances, the distributed and trustless ledger of
blockchain has been identified as an ideal solution for traceability
systems. What were economic transactions in Bitcoin, have be-
come changes of the plotted objects. In this way the chain stores
the objects and all their changes, allowing a complete, open and
reliable traceability, only possible through this technology. There
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,863 |
ects from prominent companies such as
IBM, Unilever,Walmart andNestle collaborating for food traceabil-
ity [108] or Renault to track vehicle maintenance history [115].
Identity verification has also become a popular application of
the technology, blockchain provides an open trusted distributed
ledger that can be used to store identities. This makes the global
management of identities possible. In the field of e-government
many countries have proposed the use of blockchain technolo-
gies for instance: fo | [
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r passports in Dubai [116], e-identity in Esto-
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Additionally, the integration of smart contracts opens up a
world of possibilities formany industries: energy, insurance,mort-
gages, music royalty payments, real estate, gambling, betting, etc.
Cloud storage, education, or e-health are other areas in which
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,865 |
4.2.1. IoT–blockchain applications
Although the use of blockchain in the IoT is relatively recent,
there are already a large number of proposals where this technol-
ogy is used in different ways to improve current IoT technology. A
summary of some of these proposals is shown in Table 6.
In fact, IoT can join forces with blockchain in many scenarios.
Almost all traceability applications can benefit from the inclusion
of IoT devices, for instance, sensors that are attached to the prod-
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,866 |
can provide information during its distribution.
Similarly, many applications that digitize the world by providing
sensed data can be enriched with blockchain technology. It can
help to increase data legitimacy or reliability andmoreover provide
distributed identity, authentication and authorizationmechanisms
without the need for central authorities.
Blockchain could be a powerful candidate to make the smart
city concept a reality. The concept of the smart city is based on
smart IoT devices that can work | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,867 |
autonomously. Blockchain can
increase the autonomy of devices since it eases interaction and
186 A. Reyna et al. / Future Generation Computer Systems 88 (2018) 173–190
Table 5
Blockchain applications.
Application Classification
Ripple [74]
Cryptocurrency
Litecoin [12]
Nxt [65]
Peercoin [112]
Dogecoin [113]
Namecoin [114]
Dash [32]
Monero [28]
BitPay [120]
New payment infrastructures
Abra [121]
BitNation [122]
Identity verification
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Keybase [124]
ShoCard [125]
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[116]
e-government
e-identity [117]
Birth certificates [118]
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Follow my vote [126]
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IBM Food traceability [108]
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Synechron [136] Energy, insurance and mortgages
Ubitquity [137]
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[138]
Slock.it [85] Renting, sharing and selling
DAO.Casino [139]
Gambling and bettingPeerplays [140]
Wagerr [141]
Storj [142] Cloud storage
Sony education history [143] Education
Ujo [144]
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Resonate [145]
coordination by providing a distributed open ledger where devices
can query trusted information with reliability. Moreover, the au-
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marketplaces. [85,87–89].
As Table 6 shows, Ethereum is the most popular platf | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,870 |
orm
for IoT–blockchain applications. Ethereum provides more features
than Bitcoin, the inclusion of smart contracts greatly expands the
possible applications.
In LO3 Energy [87] an energy microgrid that uses blockchain
has been demonstrated in Brooklyn (USA), southern Germany and
South Australia. Microgrids are localized groupings of electricity
generation, energy storage, and electrical loads. The project builds
a community energy marketplace that creates a decentralized P2P
energy network that is coord | [
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] | On blockchain and its integration with IoT Challe | 1,871 |
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