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Keihanshin | Name | Name
The name Keihanshin is constructed by extracting a representative kanji from Kyoto , Osaka , and Kobe . For the characters taken from Osaka and Kobe, the Chinese reading is used instead of the corresponding native reading. For the character taken from Kyoto, the Kan-on Chinese reading is used instead of the usual Go-on Chinese reading. |
Keihanshin | Definitions | Definitions
thumb|Osaka Bay |
Keihanshin | Major Metropolitan Area | Major Metropolitan Area
thumb|upright=2|Osaka
thumb|left|Keihanshin MMA with core cities in dark blue: Osaka, Sakai, Kyoto, Kobe
The Japan Statistics Bureau defines a Major Metropolitan Area or MMA () as a set of municipalities where at least 1.5% of the resident population aged 15 and above commute to school or work in a designated city (defined as the core area).Japan Statistics Bureau - Definition of Major Metropolitan Area If multiple designated cities are close enough to have overlapping outlying areas, they are combined into a single multi-core area. In the 2005 census, the designated cities used to define the Keihanshin MMA were Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Sakai has subsequently become a designated city.
This region consists of the combination of the metropolitan areas of Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, and Himeji, and additionally includes several periurban areas (particularly in eastern Shiga Prefecture) that are not part of the four metropolitan areas.
, the entire Keihanshin region had a population of 19,302,746 over an area of . |
Keihanshin | Range of distance | Range of distance
The Japan Statistics Bureau defines the set of municipalities that are entirely or mostly within of the Municipal Office of Osaka as one measure of the metropolitan area. , the population for this region was 16,260,117.Japan Statistics Bureau - Basic Figures for Range of Distance |
Keihanshin | Urban Employment Area | Urban Employment Area
thumb|left|Keihanshin map with Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto Urban Employment Areas as of 2015.
The Urban Employment Area is a metropolitan area definition developed at the Faculty of Economics of the University of Tokyo. This definition is comparable to the Metropolitan Statistical Area in the United States. The basic building blocks are municipalities.
The core area is the set of municipalities that contain a densely inhabited district (DID) with a population of 10,000 or more. The Urban Employment Area is called Metropolitan Employment Area, when its core area has 50,000 DID population or more. Otherwise, the area is called Micropolitan Employment Area. A DID is a group of census enumeration districts inhabited at densities of 4,000 or more persons per km2. Outlying areas are those municipalities where 10% or more of the employed population work in the core area or in another outlying area. Overlaps are not allowed and an outlying area is assigned to the core area where it has the highest commuter ratio.
This definition assigns a Metropolitan Employment Area to the following cities of the Keihanshin region: Osaka, Kobe, Kyoto, Himeji, and Wakayama. The lists below indicate which cities belong to which metropolitan area. Towns and villages are not listed. |
Keihanshin | Osaka MEA | Osaka MEA
The Osaka Metropolitan Employment Area has a population () of 12,078,820 and consists of the following cities:
Core cities: Osaka, Sakai, Kadoma, Higashiōsaka
Outlying cities
Osaka Prefecture (entire prefecture)
Hyōgo Prefecture (southeastern part): Amagasaki, Nishinomiya, Ashiya, Itami, Takarazuka, Kawanishi, Sanda
Nara Prefecture (northern part): Nara, Tenri, Yamatotakada, Yamatokōriyama, Kashihara, Sakurai, Ikoma, Kashiba, Katsuragi
Other cities: Yawata (Kyoto), Hashimoto (Wakayama) |
Keihanshin | Kyoto MEA | Kyoto MEA
left|120px|A map of Kyoto metropolitan area as of 2015
The Kyoto Metropolitan Employment Area has a population () of 2,801,044 and consists of the following cities:
Core cities: Kyoto, Kusatsu
Outlying cities
Kyoto Prefecture (southern part): Uji, Kameoka, Joyo, Muko, Nagaokakyo, Kyotanabe
Shiga Prefecture (southwestern part): Otsu, Moriyama |
Keihanshin | Kobe MEA | Kobe MEA
left|120px|A map of Kobe metropolitan employment area as of 2015
The Kobe Metropolitan Employment Area has a population () of 2,565,501 and consists of the following cities:
Core cities: Kobe
Outlying cities
Hyōgo Prefecture (southern part): Akashi, Kakogawa, Takasago, Miki, and Ono
Hyōgo Prefecture (southeastern part): Amagasaki, Nishinomiya, Ashiya, Itami, Takarazuka, Kawanishi, Sanda
Hyōgo Prefecture (southern part): Akashi, Kakogawa, Takasago, Miki, and Ono |
Keihanshin | Himeji MEA | Himeji MEA
left|120px|A map of Himeji metropolitan employment area as of 2010
The Himeji Metropolitan Employment Area has a population () of 773,389 and consists of the following cities:
Core cities: Himeji
Outlying cities
Hyōgo Prefecture (southwestern part): Aioi, Tatsuno
Hyōgo Prefecture (southern part): Akashi, Kakogawa, Takasago, Miki, and Ono |
Keihanshin | Wakayama MEA | Wakayama MEA
left|120px|A map of Wakayama metropolitan employment area as of 2010
The Wakayama Metropolitan Employment Area has a population () of 569,758 and consists of the following cities:
Core cities: Wakayama
Outlying cities
Wakayama Prefecture (northwestern part): Kainan |
Keihanshin | Historical demographics of Keihanshin | Historical demographics of Keihanshin
Per Japanese census data, Keihanshin, also known as Greater Osaka, has had continuous population throughout the 20th century. From 1960 to 2010 the population nearly doubled from 10.6 million to 19.3 million. Beginning at around 2010, Keihanshin has experienced a small population decline.
+ Keihanshin Year Population 1950 7,005,000 1960 10,615,000 1970 15,272,000 1980 17,028,000 1990 18,389,000 2000 18,660,180 2010 19,341,976 2020 19,223,980 |
Keihanshin | Cities | Cities
thumb|Sakai |
Keihanshin | Core cities | Core cities
The core cities formed Keihanshin are government ordinance cities. These cities designated the three largest cities as special cities with Tokyo in 1889. Kobe designated the six largest cities as special cities in 1922, and adopted the ward system in 1931. Following World War II, the six largest cities was replaced by the government designated city system in 1956. Afterwards, Sakai became a government designated city in 2006.
The core cities of Keihanshin are:https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/file-download?statInfId=000031652963&fileKind=2
Osaka (population 2.75 million)
Kobe (population 1.53 million)
Kyoto (population 1.46 million)
Sakai (population 826,447) |
Keihanshin | Other cities within the area | Other cities within the area
thumb|Himeji
thumb|Ōtsu
thumb|Nara
thumb|Wakayama
The other cities in the prefectures of Osaka, Hyōgo, Kyoto and Nara include:
Aioi
Akashi
Amagasaki (pop 460,000)
Ashiya
Awaji
Daitō
Fujiidera
Habikino
Hannan
Higashiōsaka (pop 490,000)
Himeji (pop 530,000)
Hirakata (pop 400,000)
Ibaraki
Ikeda
Itami
Izumi
Izumiōtsu
Izumisano
Jōyō
Kadoma
Kaizuka
Kakogawa
Kameoka
Kasai
Kashiwara
Katano
Katō
Kawachinagano
Kawanishi
Kishiwada
Kizugawa
Kyōtanabe
Matsubara
Miki
Minoh
Moriguchi
Mukō
Nagaokakyō
Nantan
Neyagawa
Nishinomiya (pop 490,000)
Ono
Ōsakasayama
Sanda
Sasayama
Sennan
Settsu
Shijōnawate
Suita (pop 390,000)
Takaishi
Takarazuka
Takasago
Takatsuki (pop 350,000)
Tatsuno
Tondabayashi
Toyonaka (pop 400,000)
Uji
Yao
Yawata |
Keihanshin | Additional cities | Additional cities
In the major metropolitan area (MMA) definition used by the Japanese Statistics Bureau, the following cities in the prefectures of Mie, Shiga, Nara, Wakayama are included: |
Keihanshin | Mie Prefecture | Mie Prefecture
Nabari |
Keihanshin | Shiga Prefecture | Shiga Prefecture
Higashiōmi
Hikone
Kōka
Konan
Kusatsu
Moriyama
Ōtsu (pop 350,000)
Ōmihachiman
Rittō
Takashima
Yasu |
Keihanshin | Nara Prefecture | Nara Prefecture
Gojō
Gose
Ikoma
Kashiba
Kashihara
Katsuragi
Nara (pop 350,000)
Sakurai
Tenri
Uda
Yamatokōriyama
Yamatotakada |
Keihanshin | Wakayama Prefecture | Wakayama Prefecture
Wakayama (pop 360,000)
Hashimoto
Iwade
Katsuragi |
Keihanshin | Transportation | Transportation
thumb|Kansai International Airport
thumb|JR Central Tōkaidō Shinkansen arriving at Kyoto Station
thumb|The Akashi Kaikyō Bridge extends from Kobe to Awaji Island. |
Keihanshin | Air | Air
There are two major airports. The fairly centrally located Osaka International Airport, laid over the border between the cities of Itami and Toyonaka, serves primarily domestic routes.
Kansai International Airport opened in 1994 and is now the main international airport for the region. It sits on an artificial island well off-shore in Osaka Bay towards the Wakayama outlet. Kansai is the geographical term for the area of western Honshū surrounding Osaka. The airport island link to the mainland via the Sky Gate Bridge R, containing a six lane expressway and the Kansai Airport Line, a rail link connecting to the Hanwa Line, which connects Wakayama to Osaka. Limited express trains offer non-stop service to Osaka and onward to Kyoto. Local connections are made to other areas. Highway buses also offer service to many areas.
Kobe Airport, built on a reclaimed island south of Port Island opened in 2006, offering domestic flights. |
Keihanshin | Rail | Rail
Keihanshin has a very extensive network of railway lines, comparable to that of Greater Tokyo. Main rail terminals in the cities include, Umeda/Osaka, Namba, Tennoji, Sannomiya, and Kyoto. |
Keihanshin | High speed rail | High speed rail
JR Central and JR West operate high-speed trains on the Tōkaidō-Sanyō Shinkansen line. Shin-Ōsaka Station acts as the Shinkansen terminal station, though the two lines are physically joined, and many trains offer through service. This station is connected to Ōsaka Station at Umeda by the JR Kyoto Line and the subway Midōsuji Line. Shin-Osaka Station is the busiest high-speed station. The smaller stations of Kyoto Station, Shin-Kobe Station, Nishi-Akashi Station, Himeji Station, and Aioi Station also are within the Keihanshin area.
All trains on the two Shinkansen lines stop at Shin-Ōsaka Station and provide connections to other major cities in Japan. The Tokaido Shinkansen offers service to the east, stopping in such cities as Kyoto, Nagoya, Yokohama and Tokyo. From Tokyo connections can be made to other Shinkansen servicing areas north of Tokyo. The Sanyo Shinkansen offers service to the west, stopping in such cities as Kobe, Okayama, Hiroshima, and Fukuoka. Through service is also offered to the Kyushu Shinkansen extending service to such cities as Kumamoto and Kagoshima.
There are also numerous Limited Express services which operate on conventional lines, but are designed for comfortable long-distance travel. Many of these trains operate at speeds that most other countries would consider "high-speed". From Osaka and Kyoto, Limited Express services connect most major cities within the Keihanshin area and beyond, and are more popular than the Shinkansen for connections within the area due to service to more areas and more centrally located and well connected stations in areas also serviced by Shinkansen. Lower ticket prices also encourages usage, though they are more expensive than the regular/commuter trains which operate on the same lines. |
Keihanshin | Commuter rail | Commuter rail
Both JR West and private lines connect Keihanshin and its suburbs. The commuter rail network of JR West is called the Urban Network. Major stations on the JR Osaka Loop Line include Osaka (Umeda), Tennōji, Tsuruhashi, and Kyōbashi. JR West competes with such private rail operators as Keihan Electric Railway, Hankyu Railway, Hanshin Railway, Kintetsu Railway, and Nankai Electric Railway. The Keihan and Hankyu lines connect Osaka and Kyoto; the Hanshin and Hankyu lines connect Osaka and Kobe; the Kintetsu lines connect to Nara, Yoshino, Ise and Nagoya; and the Nankai lines connect to Osaka's southern suburbs and Kansai International Airport as well as Wakayama and Mt. Koya. Many lines in Keihanshin accept either ICOCA or PiTaPa contactless smart cards for payment. |
Keihanshin | Municipal subway | Municipal subway
Osaka, Kyoto and Kobe each have municipal subway systems. The Osaka Municipal Subway was privatized in 2018 and is now operated by Osaka Metro.
Other rapid transit systems in the region include Kobe New Transit which serves the artificial islands off the coast of Kobe including Kobe Airport, as well as Osaka Monorail that connects municipalities in Osaka Prefecture to Osaka International Airport. |
Keihanshin | Economy | Economy |
Keihanshin | GDP (purchasing power parity) 2015 | GDP (purchasing power parity) 2015
thumb|Umeda Sky Building
Compared with other urban regions of the world, the agglomeration of Osaka-Kobe is the ninth largest economy, in terms of gross metropolitan product at purchasing power parity (PPP), in 2015 according to a study by the Brookings Institution.Redefining Global Cities
Rank Metro area Country GDP(PPP) (in billion US$) 1 Tokyo 2 New York 3 Los Angeles 4 Seoul-Incheon 5 London 6 Paris 7 Shanghai 8 Moscow 9 Osaka-Kobe 10 Beijing |
Keihanshin | Metropolitan employment areas | Metropolitan employment areas
+ GDP based on PPP (in billion US$)Conversion rates - Exchange rates - OECD Data Area 1980 1985 1990 1995 2010 Osaka MEA 119.5 162.5 235.7 272.2 406.3 Kyoto MEA 23.7 34.0 45.7 53.9 90.6 Kobe MEA 22.0 31.0 44.0 48.7 75.5 Himeji MEA 7.3 10.1 13.7 17.3 26.4 Wakayama MEA 5.7 7.6 8.6 9.7 19.3 |
Keihanshin | Prefectures | Prefectures
thumb|Osaka Bay at night
2014 average exchange rate (1 US dollar = 110 yen)average currency exchange rates
Prefecture Gross Prefecture Product(in billion yen) Gross Prefecture Product(in billion US$) 22x20px Kyoto Kansai Region |
Keihanshin | GDP (nominal) 2014 | GDP (nominal) 2014
Kansai region and Top 20 Countries.World Economic Outlook Database October 2017
Rank Country GDP (in US$) 1 2 3 ･･･ 15 16 17 18 (Kansai Region) 19 20 |
Keihanshin | See also | See also
Hanshin Industrial Region (Osaka and Kobe area)
Kamigata
Kansai region
Kansai Science City
Keihanshin industrial region
List of metropolitan areas by population
List of metropolitan areas in Asia by population
List of metropolitan areas in Japan by population
Jing-Jin-Ji |
Keihanshin | References | References
Osaka-Kobe-Kyoto
Category:Kansai region
* |
Keihanshin | Table of Content | short description, Name, Definitions, Major Metropolitan Area, Range of distance, Urban Employment Area, Osaka MEA, Kyoto MEA, Kobe MEA, Himeji MEA, Wakayama MEA, Historical demographics of Keihanshin, Cities, Core cities, Other cities within the area, Additional cities, Mie Prefecture, Shiga Prefecture, Nara Prefecture, Wakayama Prefecture, Transportation, Air, Rail, High speed rail, Commuter rail, Municipal subway, Economy, GDP (purchasing power parity) 2015, Metropolitan employment areas, Prefectures, GDP (nominal) 2014, See also, References |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Short description | Edgar Nelson Rhodes, (January 5, 1877 – March 15, 1942), was a Canadian parliamentarian from Nova Scotia who served as Premier of Nova Scotia from 1925 to 1930. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Early life and career | Early life and career
He was first elected to the House of Commons of Canada in 1908 as a member of the Conservative Party. In January 1917, he became Speaker of the House of Commons of Canada when his predecessor, Albert Sévigny, was appointed to the Canadian Cabinet. Rhodes was retained in the position following the 1917 election that fall, becoming the third Speaker since James Cockburn to preside over more than one Parliament. In 1921, he was made a member of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada before retiring from politics to become president of the British-American Nickel Company, whose previous president had been James Hamet Dunn. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Premiership | Premiership
The company failed in 1925, and he returned to provincial politics. Prior to the 1925 provincial election, he was asked to become leader of the Nova Scotia Conservative Party after the leader of the party, W. L. Hall, was assaulted on the waterfront. Rhodes took over the party and led it to victory in the 1925 election. The Conservatives defeated a Liberal government that had been in power for forty-three years but had been, in its last years, wracked by an economic downturn and severe labour unrest among miners in Cape Breton.
Rhodes ran on a Maritime Rights platform, promising to curtail federal influence and stop the exodus of people from the province. The Tories more than doubled their seats in the Nova Scotia House of Assembly, winning forty out of forty-three seats. An important factor in their victory was the failure of the governing Liberals to resolve a long strike by the province's coal miners. When Cape Breton coal miner William Davis was killed by company police in a confrontation on June 11, voters looked to the Tories for solutions. Rhodes engineered a settlement of the dispute and appointed a royal commission. The new government later introduced pensions for teachers and allowances for widowed mothers.
During its first term, the government eliminated the requirement for newly-appointed ministers to run for re-election in 1927. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Abolition of the Legislative Council | Abolition of the Legislative Council
The Legislative Council, the province's appointed upper house, dated from 1838 and was meant to mimic the imperial House of Lords. It had, however, been the source of constant criticism from 1870, and every government since 1878 had promised or at least supported its abolition. The Council had been normally sized at 21 members prior to confederation, and the British North America Act 1867 provided for the continuation of provincial constitutions. Failing to further specify anything on such constitutions, the Act left doubt as to whether the Council was therefore limited to the customary 21 members, the 18 members actually empanelled at the time of the Act, or as many members as the Sovereign, however represented in Nova Scotia, wished. Further statutes of the provincial constitution continued this confusion. Similar equivocation existed as to whether appointments to the Council were for life or the mere pleasure of the Sovereign.
Partisan politics also played a role in this issue, with Liberals largely yielding to the Council's presence as it was able to help the party organization and Tories opposing it for that reason. Liberal George Henry Murray, premier from 1896 to 1923, nominally supported its abolition but introduced only half-hearted measures to that end, and when money was ample enough to afford the second chamber he and the Liberal press largely supported its continuation. By 1923, the communist J. B. McLachlan stoked enough fear that the Council was able to position itself as the last barrier to his activities. Murray's successor Armstrong reformed the Council by limiting future appointees to ten-year terms in 1925, but achieved little else.
By the time of Rhodes's assumption of office, only one Conservative was on the Council. The new government declined to fill vacancies in the Council lest the new officeholders become too attached to its continued existence. It appointed F. P. Bligh to represent it in the Council in 1926, making him its President in 1927, and appointed R. H. Butts to be the government leader; those were the only two appointments of the government to the Council that were not for the express purpose of securing its abolition. Rhodes attempted to pay off the councillors in 1926, with ten-year pensions to those appointed for life and five-year pensions to those appointed for ten years, but the offer was rejected. After this failure, Rhodes advised the Lieutenant-Governor James Cranswick Tory to appoint enough Councillors to vote the body out of existence, arguing that the Sovereign, duly represented by the Lieutenant-Governor in Nova Scotia, continued to have the right to appoint an unlimited number of persons to the Council. Tory referred the matter to the federal Governor General in Council, who told him to limit the appointments to 21 total councillors pending further judicial review.
After this second setback, the government introduced a bill in 1926, and another in 1927, to abolish the Council; unlikely to pass, they were to absolve the government of any blame for the Council's continued existence. After these setbacks, and considering taking the issue to a provincial referendum, the government ultimately appealed to the imperial Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, where it won a total victory; not only was the Sovereign, and by extension the Lieutenant Governor in Council, able to appoint as many Legislative Councillors as desired, but also that such councillors served at pleasure if appointed prior to the 1925 statute. Now at the mercy of Rhodes after having ironically declined a written constitution, the Council offered its abolition but Rhodes declined. The Council had at this point 17 members; six of them were appointed under the 1925 statute and were thus immune from the executive, whereas two were Conservatives, A. W. Redden and W. H. Owen, who were allowed to keep their seats despite Owen's lack of a formal pledge to support abolition. The remaining nine were Liberals who, despite their pledged support for abolition were ordered to resign or face dismissal; three resigned and six were dismissed.
The government appointed 14 new Tories, bringing the Council to 22 for the first time; in addition to the symbolism, this number allowed every county to take part of the abolition. Lest any appointees go rogue and become attached to their legislative role, the government ensured that very little legislative work would happen in 1928, whose session was primarily occupied by partying and feasting. Bligh gave the farewell speech, ending it with "sic transitur gloria mundi", which was drowned out by the revelry. The councillors adopted the motto of "let us eat and drink, for tomorrow we die" for their final day in office. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Second term | Second term
The Rhodes government was re-elected in 1928 with a reduced majority.
Having criticized prohibition in 1927, Rhodes scheduled a referendum on the topic for October 31, 1929. The referendum resulted in the discontinuance of outright prohibition in favour of government control of liquor sales.
John Francis Mahoney, the Minister for Natural Resources, died in a car accident on September 2, 1929. After that point, the government's majority was only two, and Rhodes opened a by-election in December to confirm the placement of George H. Murphy, Mahoney's successor as minister, in the seat that Mahoney had been narrowly elected to in the general election. Rhodes took the by-election as a referendum on his government's mandate, and had waited until December to drop the writ to capitalize on the success of the referendum and internal division in the Liberal leadership.
Murphy won the election, which happened on January 21, with a sizeable majority. Rhodes thus had the necessary confidence to retain office until the government's term expired in 1933. However, he himself would not be premier for that duration, as the Conservatives would regain federal office in August and have the new prime minister R. B. Bennett appoint him to be the new Minister of Fisheries at Ottawa. Rhodes chose Gordon Sidney Harrington as his successor at Halifax. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Federal government | Federal government
He returned to federal politics to become Minister of Fisheries under Prime Minister R.B. Bennett. From 1932 to 1935, he served as federal Finance Minister, and, despite the Great Depression, handed down austere budgets that increased taxes and reduced spending. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Senate and later life | Senate and later life
He was appointed to the Senate of Canada three months before the 1935 federal election that routed Bennett's government. He remained a Senator until his death in 1942 in Ottawa. He is buried in Ottawa's Beechwood Cemetery.
On July 12, 1905, he married Mary Grace Pipes, daughter of William Thomas Pipes, Rhodes' law partner and Premier of Nova Scotia from 1882 to 1884. They had one son, Edgar Nelson, and one daughter, Helen Sybil. |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Electoral Record | Electoral Record |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | References | References |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Works cited | Works cited |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | External links | External links
Edgar Nelson Rhodes fonds, Library and Archives Canada
Category:1877 births
Category:1942 deaths
Category:Canadian Baptists
Category:Ministers of finance of Canada
Category:Canadian senators from Nova Scotia
Category:Canadian people of English descent
Category:Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) MPs
Category:Conservative Party of Canada (1867–1942) senators
Category:Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Nova Scotia
Category:Members of the King's Privy Council for Canada
Category:Progressive Conservative Association of Nova Scotia MLAs
Category:People from Amherst, Nova Scotia
Category:Premiers of Nova Scotia
Category:Speakers of the House of Commons of Canada
Category:Unionist Party (Canada) MPs
Category:Nova Scotia political party leaders
Category:20th-century members of the Nova Scotia House of Assembly
Category:20th-century members of the House of Commons of Canada
Category:20th-century members of the Senate of Canada |
Edgar Nelson Rhodes | Table of Content | Short description, Early life and career, Premiership, Abolition of the Legislative Council, Second term, Federal government, Senate and later life, Electoral Record, References, Works cited, External links |
Iruma River | Redirect | The , is a river in Saitama Prefecture, Japan. It is long and has a watershed of .
The river rises from Mount Ōmochi in Hannō, Saitama and flows to the Arakawa River at Kawagoe, Saitama. |
Iruma River | References | References |
Iruma River | External links | External links
Category:Rivers of Saitama Prefecture
Category:Rivers of Japan |
Iruma River | Table of Content | Redirect, References, External links |
Japanese martial arts | Short description | thumb|right|200px|Late 19th-century photograph of a sohei fully robed and equipped, armed with a naginata (薙刀) and tachi (太刀)
Japanese martial arts refers to the variety of martial arts native to the country of Japan. At least three Japanese terms (budō, bujutsu, and bugei) are used interchangeably with the English phrase Japanese martial arts.
The usage of the term budō (武道) to mean martial arts is a modern one: historically the term meant a way of life encompassing physical, spiritual and moral dimensions with a focus on self-improvement, fulfillment or personal growth. The terms bujutsu (武術) and bugei (武芸) have different meanings from budō, at least historically speaking. Bujutsu refers specifically to the practical application of martial tactics and techniques in actual combat. Bugei refers to the adaptation or refinement of those tactics and techniques to facilitate systematic instruction and dissemination within a formal learning environment.
+Translations of Japanese martial artsTermTranslationmartial waymartial technique alternatively science, art or craft of warmartial art |
Japanese martial arts | History | History
thumb|left|300px|Disarming an attacker using a tachi-dori (太刀取り; "sword-taking") technique
Each child who grew up in a samurai family was expected to be a warrior when he grew up, so much of his childhood was spent practicing different martial arts. A complete samurai should be skilled at least in the use of the sword (kenjutsu), the bow and arrow (kyujutsu), the spear (sojutsu, yarijutsu), the halberd (naginatajutsu) and subsequently the use of firearms (houjutsu). Similarly, they were instructed in the use of these weapons while riding a horse. They were also expected to know how to swim and dive.Turnbull, Stephen. Samurai: The World of the Warrior. London. Osprey Publishing, 2003. . p. 14.
originates from the Sengoku period in the 15th century. The samurai developed , which was useful in case they were thrown overboard during naval conflicts. The samurai practiced , and to board enemy vessels. Activities included strokes with swords, bows and firearms. Hands were kept dry above the water to write messages with an ink brush on a paper scroll. This skill was useful for muskets which require dry gunpowder. Nihon Eiho is practiced by 28 schools and recognized by the Japan Swimming Federation.
During the feudal era of Japan, various types of martial arts flourished, known in Japanese under the name of .Ratti, Oscar; Westbrook, Adele (2001). Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Tuttle Publishing. . p. 24. The term jutsu can be translated as "method", "art" or "technique"Ratti, Oscar; Westbrook, Adele (2001). Secrets of the Samurai: The Martial Arts of Feudal Japan. Tuttle Publishing. . p. 23. and the name that each one has is indicative of the mode or weapon with which they are executed. The combat methods that were developed and perfected are very diverse, among which are:
Ordinarily, the development of combative techniques is intertwined with the tools used to execute those techniques. In a rapidly changing world, those tools are constantly changing, requiring that the techniques to use them be continuously reinvented. The history of Japan is somewhat unusual in its relative isolation. Compared with the rest of the world, the Japanese tools of war evolved slowly. Many people believe that this afforded the warrior class the opportunity to study their weapons in greater depth than other cultures. Nevertheless, the teaching and training of these martial arts did evolve. For example, in the early medieval period, the bow and the spear were emphasized, but during the Tokugawa period (1603–1867 CE), fewer large-scale battles took place, and the sword became the most prestigious weapon. Another trend that developed throughout Japanese history was that of increasing martial specialization as society became more stratified over time.
The martial arts developed or originating in Japan are extraordinarily diverse, with vast differences in training tools, methods, and philosophy across innumerable schools and styles. That said, Japanese martial arts may generally be divided into koryū and gendai budō based on whether they existed prior to or after the Meiji Restoration (1868), respectively. Since gendai budō and koryū often share the same historical origin, one will find various types of martial arts (such as jujutsu, kenjutsu, or naginatajutsu) on both sides of the divide.
A note on the organization of this article; it would be impossible to discuss Japanese martial arts in terms of the thousands of individual schools or styles, such as Ittō-ryū, Daitō-ryū, or Tenshin Shōden Katori Shintō-ryū. Instead, major sections are divided based on when the art originated (regardless of whether it is still practiced), and subsections are dedicated to the root type of martial art, such as jujutsu (the art of empty-handed combat through use of indirect application of force) or kendo (Japanese sport fencing), wherein notable styles or major differences between styles may be discussed. |
Japanese martial arts | Koryū | Koryū
, meaning "traditional school", or "old school", refers specifically to schools of martial arts, originating in Japan, either prior to the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, or the Haitōrei (Sword Abolishment Edict) in 1876. In modern usage, , meaning military art/science, is typified by its practical application of technique to real-world or battlefield situations.
The term also is used generally to indicate that a particular style or art is "traditional", rather than "modern". However, what it means for an art to be either "traditional" or "modern" is subject to some debate. As a rule of thumb, the primary purpose of a koryū martial art was for use in war. The most extreme example of a koryū school is one that preserves its traditional, and often ancient, martial practices even in the absence of continuing wars in which to test them. Other koryū schools may have made modifications to their practices that reflect the passage of time (which may or may not have resulted in the loss of "koryū" status in the eyes of its peers). This is as opposed to "modern" martial arts, whose primary focus is generally upon the self-improvement (mental, physical, or spiritual) of the individual practitioner, with varying degrees of emphasis on the practical application of the martial art for either sport or self-defence purposes.
The following subsections represent not individual schools of martial arts, but rather generic "types" of martial arts. These are generally distinguishable on the basis of their training methodology and equipment, though wide variation still exists within each. |
Japanese martial arts | Sumō | Sumō
, considered by many to be Japan's national sport, has its origins in the distant past. The earliest written records of Japan, which are dated from the 8th century AD, record the first sumo match in 23 BC, occurring specifically at the request of the emperor and continuing until one man was too wounded to continue. Beginning in 728 AD, the Emperor Shōmu (聖武天皇, 701–756) began holding official sumo matches at the annual harvest festivals. This tradition of having matches in the presence of the emperor continued, but gradually spread, with matches also held at Shintō festivals, and sumo training was eventually incorporated into military training. By the 17th century, sumo was an organized professional sport, open to the public, enjoyed by both the upper class and commoners.
Today, sumo retains much of its traditional trappings, including a referee dressed as a Shintō priest, and a ritual where the competitors clap hands, stomp their feet, and throw salt in the ring prior to each match. To win a match, competitors employ throwing and grappling techniques to force the other man to the ground; the first man to touch the ground with a part of the body other than the bottom of the feet, or touch the ground outside the ring with any part of the body, loses. Six grand tournaments are held annually in Japan, and each professional fighter's name and relative ranking is published after each tournament in an official list, called the banzuke, which is followed religiously by sumo fans. |
Japanese martial arts | Jūjutsu | Jūjutsu
thumb|left|300px|Jujutsu training at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920
, literally translates to "soft skills". However, more accurately, it means the art of using indirect force, such as joint locks or throwing techniques, to defeat an opponent, as opposed to direct force such as a punch or a kick. This is not to imply that jujutsu does not teach or employ strikes, but rather that the art's aim is the ability to use an attacker's force against them, and counter-attack where they are weakest or least defended.
Methods of combat included striking (kicking, punching), throwing (body throws, joint-lock throws, unbalance throws), restraining (pinning, strangulating, grappling, wrestling) and weaponry. Defensive tactics included blocking, evading, off balancing, blending and escaping. Minor weapons such as the tantō (短刀; dagger), ryufundo kusari (weighted chain), jutte (十手; helmet-smasher), and kakushi buki (隠武器; secret or disguised weapons) were almost always included in koryū jujutsu.
Most of these were battlefield-based systems to be practiced as companion arts to the more common and vital weapon systems. At the time, these fighting arts went by many different names, including kogusoku, yawara, kumiuchi, and hakuda. In reality, these grappling systems were not really unarmed systems of combat, but are more accurately described as means whereby an unarmed or lightly armed warrior could defeat a heavily armed and armored enemy on the battlefield. Ideally, the samurai would be armed and would not need to rely on such techniques.
In later times, other koryū developed into systems more familiar to the practitioners of the jujutsu commonly seen today. These systems are generally designed to deal with opponents neither wearing armor nor in a battlefield environment. For this reason, they include extensive use of atemi waza (当て身技; vital-striking technique). These tactics would be of little use against an armored opponent on a battlefield. They would, however, be quite valuable to anyone confronting an enemy or opponent during peacetime dressed in normal street attire. Occasionally, inconspicuous weapons such as knives or tessen (鉄扇; iron fans) were included in the curriculum.
Today, jujutsu is practiced in many forms, both ancient and modern. Various methods of jujutsu have been incorporated or synthesized into judo and aikido, as well as being exported throughout the world and transformed into sport wrestling systems, adopted in whole or part by schools of karate or other unrelated martial arts, still practiced as they were centuries ago, or all of the above. |
Japanese martial arts | Swordsmanship | Swordsmanship
thumb|right|300px|A matched set (daisho) of antique Japanese (samurai) swords and their individual mountings (koshirae), katana on top and wakisashi below, Edo period
Swordsmanship, the art of the sword, has an almost mythological ethos, and is believed by some to be the paramount martial art, surpassing all others. Regardless of the truth of that belief, the sword itself has been the subject of stories and legends through virtually all cultures in which it has been employed as a tool for violence. In Japan, the use of the katana is no different. Although originally the most important skills of the warrior class were proficiency at horse-riding and shooting the bow, this eventually gave way to swordsmanship. The earliest swords, which can be dated as far back as the Kofun era (3rd and 4th centuries) were primarily straight bladed. According to legend, curved swords made strong by the famous folding process were first forged by the smith Amakuni Yasutsuna (天國 安綱, c. 700 AD).
The primary development of the sword occurred between 987 AD and 1597 AD. This development is characterized by profound artistry during peaceful eras, and renewed focus on durability, utility, and mass production during the intermittent periods of warfare, most notably civil warfare during the 12th century and the Mongolian invasions during the 13th century (which in particular saw the transition from mostly horseback archery to hand-to-hand ground fighting).
This development of the sword is paralleled by the development of the methods used to wield it. During times of peace, the warriors trained with the sword, and invented new ways to implement it. During war, these theories were tested. After the war ended, those who survived examined what worked and what didn't, and passed their knowledge on. In 1600 AD, Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川 家康, 1543–1616) gained total control of all of Japan, and the country entered a period of prolonged peace that would last until the Meiji Restoration. During this period, the techniques to use the sword underwent a transition from a primarily utilitarian art for killing, to one encompassing a philosophy of personal development and spiritual perfection.
The terminology used in Japanese swordsmanship is somewhat ambiguous. Many names have been used for various aspects of the art or to encompass the art as a whole. |
Japanese martial arts | Kenjutsu | Kenjutsu
literally means "the art/science of the sword". Although the term has been used as a general term for swordsmanship as a whole, in modern times, kenjutsu refers more to the specific aspect of swordsmanship dealing with partnered sword training. It is the oldest form of training and, at its simplest level, consists of two partners with swords drawn, practicing combat drills. Historically practiced with wooden katana (bokken; 木剣), this most often consists of pre-determined forms, called kata (型), or sometimes called kumitachi (組太刀), and similar to the partner drills practiced in kendo. Among advanced students, kenjutsu training may also include increasing degrees of freestyle practice. |
Japanese martial arts | Battōjutsu | Battōjutsu
, literally meaning "the art/science of drawing a sword", and developed in the mid-15th century, is the aspect of swordsmanship focused upon the efficient draw of the sword, cutting down one's enemy, and returning the sword to its scabbard (saya; 鞘). The term came into use specifically during the Warring States Period (15th–17th centuries). Closely related to, but predating iaijutsu, battōjutsu training emphasizes defensive counter-attacking. Battōjutsu training technically incorporates kata, but generally consist of only a few moves, focusing on stepping up to an enemy, drawing, performing one or more cuts, and sheathing the weapon. Battōjutsu exercises tend to lack the elaborateness, as well as the aesthetic considerations of iaijutsu or iaidō kata. Finally, note that use of the name alone is not dispositive; what is battōjutsu to one school may be iaijutsu to another. |
Japanese martial arts | Iaijutsu | Iaijutsu
, approximately "the art/science of mental presence and immediate reaction", is also the Japanese art of drawing the sword. However, unlike battōjutsu, iaijutsu tends to be technically more complex, and there is a much stronger focus upon perfecting form. The primary technical aspects are smooth, controlled movements of drawing the sword from its scabbard, striking or cutting an opponent, removing blood from the blade, and then replacing the sword in the scabbard. |
Japanese martial arts | Naginatajutsu | Naginatajutsu
120px|thumb|A samurai wielding a naginata
is the Japanese art of wielding the naginata, a weapon resembling the medieval European glaive or guisarme. Most naginata practice today is in a modernized form (gendai budō) called the "way of naginata" (naginata-dō) or "new naginata" (atarashii naginata), in which competitions are also held.
However, many koryu maintain naginatajutsu in their curriculum. Also of note, during the late Edo period, naginata were used to train women and ladies in waiting. Thus, most naginatajutsu styles are headed by women and most naginata practitioners in Japan are women. This has led to the impression overseas that naginatajutsu is a martial art that was not used by male warriors. In fact, naginatajutsu was developed in early medieval Japan and for a time was widely used by samurai. |
Japanese martial arts | Sōjutsu | Sōjutsu
is the Japanese art of fighting with the spear (yari). For most of Japan's history, sōjutsu was practiced extensively by traditional schools. In times of war, it was a primary skill of many soldiers. Today it is a minor art taught in very few schools. |
Japanese martial arts | Shinobi no jutsu | Shinobi no jutsu
Shinobi no jutsu (aka Ninjutsu) was developed by groups of people mainly from Iga, Mie and Kōka, Shiga of Japan who became noted for their skills as infiltrators, scouts, secret agents, and spies. The training of these shinobi (忍; ninja) involves
espionage, sabotage, disguise, escape, concealment, assassination, archery, medicine, explosives, poisons, and more. |
Japanese martial arts | Other koryū martial arts | Other koryū martial arts
The early martial art schools of Japan were almost entirely "Sōgō bujutsu", composite martial systems made up of an eclectic collection of skills and tools. With the long peace of the Tokugawa shogunate there was an increase in specialization with many schools identifying themselves with particular major battlefield weapons. However, there were many additional weapons employed by the warriors of feudal Japan, and an art to wielding each. Usually they were studied as secondary or tertiary weapons within a school but there are exceptions, such as the art of wielding the short staff, (jōdō; 杖道) which was the primary art taught by the Shintō Musō-ryū.
Other arts existed to teach military skills other than the use of weaponry. Examples of these include marine skills such as swimming and river-fording (suijutsu; 水術), equestrianism (bajutsu; 馬術), arson and demolition (kajutsu). |
Japanese martial arts | Gendai budō | Gendai budō
, literally meaning "modern martial way", usually applies to arts founded after the beginning of the Meiji Restoration in 1868. Aikido and judo are examples of gendai budō that were founded in the modern era, while iaidō represents the modernization of a practice that has existed for centuries.
The core difference is, as was explained under "koryū", above, that koryū arts are practiced as they were when their primary utility was for use in warfare, while the primary purpose of gendai budō is for self-improvement, with self-defense as a secondary purpose. Additionally, many of the gendai budō have included a sporting element to them. Judo and kendo are both examples of this. |
Japanese martial arts | Judo | Judo
thumb|right|200px|Judoka executing a throw (o-soto-gari)
, literally meaning "gentle way" or "way of softness", is a grappling-based martial art, practiced primarily as a sport. It contains substantially the same emphasis on the personal, spiritual, and physical self-improvement of its practitioners as can be found throughout gendai budō.
Judo was created by Kano Jigoro (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō, 1860–1938) at the end of the 19th century. Kano took the koryū martial arts he learned (specifically Kitō-ryū and Tenjin Shin'yo-ryū jujutsu), and systematically reinvented them into a martial art with an emphasis on freestyle practice (randori) and competition, while removing harmful jujutsu techniques or limiting them to the kata. Kano devised a powerful system of new techniques and training methods, which famously culminated on June 11, 1886, in a tournament that would later be dramatized by celebrated Japanese filmmaker Akira Kurosawa (黒沢 明 Kurosawa Akira, 1910–1998), in the film "Sanshiro Sugata" (1943).
Judo became an Olympic sport in 1964, and has spread throughout the world. Kano Jigoro's original school, the "Kodokan", has students worldwide, and many other schools have been founded by Kano's students. |
Japanese martial arts | Kendo | Kendo
thumb|220px|Kendo training at an agricultural school in Japan around 1920
, meaning the "way of the sword", is based on Japanese sword-fighting. It is an evolution of the art of kenjutsu, and its exercises and practice are descended from several particular schools of swordsmanship. The primary technical influence in its development was the kenjutsu school of Ittō-ryū (founded c. 16th century), whose core philosophy revolved around the concept that all strikes in swordsmanship revolve around the technique kiri-oroshi (vertical downward cut). Kendo really began to take shape with the introduction of bamboo swords, called shinai (竹刀), and the set of lightweight wooden armour, called bōgu (防具), by Naganuma Sirōzaemon Kunisato (長沼 四郎左衛門 国郷, 1688–1767), which allowed for the practice of strikes at full speed and power without risk of injury to the competitors.
Today, virtually the entire practice of kendo is governed by the All Japan Kendo Federation, founded in 1951. Competitions are judged by points, with the first competitor to score two points on their opponent declared the winner. One point may be scored with a successful and properly executed strike to any of several targets: a thrust to the throat, or a strike to the top of the head, sides of the head, sides of the body, or forearms. Practitioners also compete in forms (kata) competitions, using either wooden or blunted metal swords, according to a set of forms promulgated by the AJKF. |
Japanese martial arts | Iaidō | Iaidō
, which would be "the way of mental presence and immediate reaction", is nominally the modernization of iaijutsu, but in practice is frequently identical to iaijutsu. The replacement of jutsu (術) with dō (道) is part of the 20th century emphasis upon personal and spiritual development; an evolution that took place in many martial arts. In the case of iaidō, some schools merely changed in name without altering the curriculum, and others embraced the wholesale change from a combat-orientation to spiritual growth. Similar to Kendō, Iaidō is largely practiced under the All Japan Kendo Federation and it's not unusual for a Kendō club to offer Iaidō practice as well. |
Japanese martial arts | Aikido | Aikido
thumb|220px|Aikido shihōnage technique
means "the way to harmony with ki". It is a Japanese martial art developed by Morihei Ueshiba (植芝 盛平 Ueshiba Morihei, 1883 – 1969). The art consists of "striking", "throwing" and "joint locking" techniques and is known for its fluidity and blending with an attacker, rather than meeting "force with force". Emphasis is upon joining with the rhythm and intent of the opponent in order to find the optimal position and timing, when the opponent can be led without force. Aikidō is also known for emphasizing the personal development of its students, reflecting the spiritual background of its founder.
Morihei Ueshiba developed aikido mainly from Daitō-ryū aiki-jūjutsu incorporating training movements such as those for the yari (槍; spear), jō (杖; a short quarterstaff), and perhaps also jūken (銃剣; bayonet). Arguably the strongest influence is that of kenjutsu and in many ways, an aikidō practitioner moves as an empty handed swordsman. |
Japanese martial arts | Kyūdō | Kyūdō
thumb|200px|right|A full draw (kai)
, which means "way of the bow", is the modern name for Japanese archery. Originally in Japan, kyujutsu, the "art of the bow", was a discipline of the samurai, the Japanese warrior class. The bow is a long range weapon that allowed a military unit to engage an opposing force while it was still far away. If the archers were mounted on horseback, they could be used to even more devastating effect as a mobile weapons platform. Archers were also used in sieges and sea battles.
However, from the 16th century onward, firearms slowly displaced the bow as the dominant battlefield weapon. As the bow lost its significance as a weapon of war, and under the influence of Buddhism, Shinto, Daoism and Confucianism, Japanese archery evolved into kyudō, the "way of the bow". In some schools kyudō is practiced as a highly refined contemplative practice, while in other schools it is practiced as a sport. |
Japanese martial arts | Karate | Karate
literally means "empty hand". It is also sometimes called . It was originally called 唐手 ("Chinese hand"), also pronounced 'karate'.
left|thumb|Karate in Naha before the war; before 1946
Karate originated in and, is technically, Okinawan, except for Kyokushin (an amalgamation of parts of Shotokan and Gojoryu), formerly known as the Ryūkyū Kingdom, but now a part of present-day Japan. Karate is a fusion of pre-existing Okinawan martial arts, called "te", and Chinese martial arts. It is an art that has been adopted and developed by practitioners on the Japanese main island of Honshu.
Karate's route to Honshu began with Gichin Funakoshi (船越 義珍 Funakoshi Gichin, 1868–1957), who is called the father of karate, and is the founder of Shotokan karate. Although some Okinawan karate practitioners were already living and teaching in Honshū, Funakoshi gave public demonstrations of karate in Tokyo at a physical education exhibition sponsored by the ministry of education in 1917, and again in 1922. As a result, karate training was subsequently incorporated into Japan's public school system. It was also at this time that the white uniforms and the kyū/dan ranking system (both originally implemented by judo's founder, Kano Jigoro) were adopted.
thumb|Bōgutsuki, a form of full-contact karate fought with armour, one of the competition formats for kumite
Karate practice is primarily characterized by linear punching and kicking techniques executed from a stable, fixed stance. Many styles of karate practiced today incorporate the forms (kata) originally developed by Funakoshi and his teachers and many different weapons traditionally concealed as farm implements by the peasants of Okinawa. Many karate practitioners also participate in light- and no-contact competitions while some (ex. kyokushin karate) still compete in full-contact competitions with little or no protective gear. |
Japanese martial arts | Shorinji Kempo | Shorinji Kempo
is a post-World War II system of self-defense and self-improvement training (行: gyo or discipline) known as the modified version of Shaolin Kung Fu. There are two primary technique categories such as gōhō (剛法; strikes, kicks and blocks) and jūhō (柔法; pins, joint locks and dodges). It was established in 1947 by who had been in Manchuria during World War II and who on returning to his native Japan after World War II saw the need to overcome the devastation and re-build self-confidence of the Japanese people on a massive scale.
Although Shorinji Kempo was originally introduced in Japan in the late 1940s and 1950s through large scale programmes involving employees of major national organizations (e.g. Japan Railways) it subsequently became popular in many other countries. Today, according to the World Shorinji Kempo Organization (WSKO), there are almost 1.5 million practitioners in 33 countries. |
Japanese martial arts | Sport Chanbara | Sport Chanbara
Chanbara Sport or "Spochan" consists of a fight between two participants with equal or different weapons, in a free manner but nevertheless having minimum rules. "Chanbara" is a form of Japanese onomatopoeia which expresses the sound of swords clashing in samurai combat.https://www.internationalsportschanbara.net/e/association2.html
European Chanbara Championship was held since 1998. 48th / 6th World Chanbara Championship (Men / Women) was held in 2024. World championship was started in 1970s for men and 2010s for women.https://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/index2.php?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.internationalsportschanbara.net%2Fjp%2Fhonbu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fresult.cgi%3Fdate%3D20241215%26nth%3D1#federation=archive.wikiwix.com&tab=url The 8th Asian Oceania Sports Chanbara Championship in New Caledonia in 2014.https://www.internationalsportschanbara.net/e/schedule/result.html |
Japanese martial arts | Philosophical and strategic concepts | Philosophical and strategic concepts |
Japanese martial arts | Aiki | Aiki
The principle of is particularly difficult to describe or explain. The most simple translation of aiki, as "joining energy", belies its philosophical depth. Generally, it is the principle of matching your opponent in order to defeat him. It is this concept of "matching", or "joining", or even "harmonizing" (all valid interpretations of ai) that contains the complexity. One may "match" the opponent in a clash of force, possibly even resulting in a mutual kill. This is not aiki. Aiki is epitomized by the notion of joining physically and mentally with the opponent for the express purpose of avoiding a direct clash of force. In practice, aiki is achieved by first joining with the motion of the opponent (the physical aspect) as well as the intent (the mental portion), then overcoming the will of the opponent, redirecting their motion and intent.
Historically, this principle was used for destructive purposes; to seize an advantage and kill one's opponent. The modern art of aikido is founded upon the principle that the control of the opponent achieved by the successful application of aiki may be used to defeat one's opponent without harming them. |
Japanese martial arts | Attitude | Attitude
Kokoro (心:こころ) is a concept that crosses through many martial arts, but has no single discrete meaning. Literally translating as "heart", in context it can also mean "character" or "attitude." Character is a central concept in karate, and in keeping with the dō nature of modern karate, there is a great emphasis on improving oneself. It is often said that the art of karate is for self-defense; not injuring one's opponent is the highest expression of the art. Some popularly repeated quotes implicating this concept include:
The ultimate aim of Karate lies not in victory or defeat, but in the perfection of the character of its participants.
—Gichin Funakoshi |
Japanese martial arts | Budō | Budō
A Japanese term for martial art, literally "martial way". Green, Thomas A. and Joseph R. Svinth (2010) Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation. Santa Barbara: ACB-CLIO. Page 390. |
Japanese martial arts | Bushidō | Bushidō
A code of honor for samurai way of life, in principle similar to chivalry but culturally very different. Literally "the way of the warrior", those dedicated to Bushido have exemplary skill with a sword or bow, and can withstand great pain and discomfort. It emphasizes courage, bravery, and loyalty to their lord (daimyō) above all. |
Japanese martial arts | Courtesy | Courtesy
Shigeru Egami:
Words that I have often heard are that "everything begins with rei and ends with rei". The word itself, however, can be interpreted in several ways; it is the rei of reigi meaning "etiquette, courtesy, politeness" and it is also the rei of keirei, "salutation" or "bow". The meaning of rei is sometimes explained in terms of kata or katachi ("formal exercises" and "form" or "shape"). It is of prime importance not only in karate but in all modern martial arts. For the purpose in modern martial arts, let us understand rei as the ceremonial bow in which courtesy and decorum are manifest.
He who would follow the way of karate must be courteous, not only in training but in daily life. While humble and gentle, he should never be servile. His performance of the kata should reflect boldness and confidence. This seemingly paradoxical combination of boldness and gentleness leads ultimately to harmony. It is true, as Master Funakoshi used to say, that the spirit of karate would be lost without courtesy. |
Japanese martial arts | Kiai | Kiai
A term describing 'fighting spirit'. In practical use this often refers to the scream or shout made during an attack, used for proper breathing as well as debilitating or distracting the enemy. |
Japanese martial arts | Hard and soft methods | Hard and soft methods
thumb|right|150 px|The "yin-yang" symbol (Chinese: taijitu)
There are two underlying strategic methodologies to the application of force in Japanese martial arts. One is the , and the other is the . Implicit in these concepts is their separate but equal and interrelated nature, in keeping with their philosophical relationship to the Chinese principles of yin and yang (Jp.: in and yō).
The hard method is characterized by the direct application of counter-force to an opposing force. In practice, this may be a direct attack, consisting of movement directly towards the opponent, coinciding with a strike towards the opponent. A defensive technique where the defender stands their ground to block or parry (directly opposing the attack by stopping it or knocking it aside) would be an example of a hard method of defense. Hard method techniques are generally conceptualized as being linear.
The soft method is characterized by the indirect application of force, which either avoids or redirects the opposing force. For example, receiving an attack by slipping past it, followed by adding force to the attacker's limb for the purpose of unbalancing an attacker is an example of soft method. Soft method techniques are generally conceptualized as being circular.
These definitions give rise to the often illusory distinction between "hard-style" and "soft-style" martial arts. In truth, most styles technically practice both, regardless of their internal nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one would render the practitioner's skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin and yang alone are each only half of a whole. |
Japanese martial arts | Openings, initiative and timing | Openings, initiative and timing
Openings, initiative, and timing are deeply interrelated concepts applicable to self-defense and competitive combat. They each denote different considerations relevant to successfully initiating or countering an attack.
are the foundation of a successful attack. Although possible to successfully injure an opponent who is ready to receive an attack, it is obviously preferable to attack when and where one's opponent is open. What it means to be open may be as blatant as an opponent becoming tired and lowering their guard (as in physically lowering their hands), or as subtle as a momentary lapse in concentration. In the classical form of combat between masters, each would stand almost entirely motionless until the slightest opening was spotted; only then would they launch as devastating an attack as they could muster, with the goal of incapacitating their opponent with a single blow.
In Japanese martial arts, is "the decisive moment when a killing action is initiated." There are two types of initiative in Japanese martial arts, , and . Each type of initiative complements the other, and has different advantages and weaknesses. Early initiative is the taking advantage of an opening in an opponent's guard or concentration (see suki, supra). To fully take the early initiative, the attack launched must be with total commitment and lacking in any hesitation, and virtually ignoring the possibility of a counter-attack by the opponent. Late initiative involves an active attempt to induce an attack by the opponent that will create a weakness in the opponent's defenses, often by faking an opening that is too enticing for the opponent to pass up.
All of the above concepts are integrated into the idea of the combat . Maai is a complex concept, incorporating not just the distance between opponents, but also the time it will take to cross the distance, and angle and rhythm of attack. It is specifically the exact "position" from which one opponent can strike the other, after factoring in the above elements. For example, a faster opponent's maai is farther away than a slower opponent. It is ideal for one opponent to maintain maai while preventing the other from doing so.
The Three Attacks
Go no sen: meaning "late attack" involves a defensive or counter movement in response to an attack.
Sen no sen: a defensive initiative launched simultaneously with the attack of the opponent.
Sensen no sen: an initiative launched in anticipation of an attack where the opponent is fully committed to their attack and thus psychologically beyond the point of no return. |
Japanese martial arts | Shuhari | Shuhari
The principle of Shuhari describes the three stages of learning. |
Japanese martial arts | States of mind: empty, immovable, remaining, and beginner's | States of mind: empty, immovable, remaining, and beginner's |
Japanese martial arts | Pedagogy | Pedagogy |
Japanese martial arts | Schools | Schools
Literally meaning "flow" in Japanese, a ryū is a particular school of an art. |
Japanese martial arts | Instructors | Instructors
is the title used for a teacher, in a similar manner to a college 'Professor' in the United States. translates as "headmaster" meaning the head of a ryu. |
Japanese martial arts | Seniors and juniors | Seniors and juniors
The relationship between and is one with its origins not in martial arts, but rather in Japanese and Asian culture generally. It underlies Japanese interpersonal relationships in many contexts, such as business, school, and sports. It has become part of the teaching process in Japanese martial arts schools. A senior student is senior to all students who either began training after him or her, or who they outrank. The role of the senior student is crucial to the indoctrination of the junior students to etiquette, work ethic, and other virtues important to the school. The junior student is expected to treat their seniors with respect, and plays an important role in giving the senior students the opportunity to learn leadership skills. Senior students may or may not teach formal classes, but in every respect their role is as a teacher to the junior students, by example and by providing encouragement. |
Japanese martial arts | Ranking systems | Ranking systems
There are ultimately two ranking systems in the Japanese martial arts, although some schools have been known to blend these two together. The older system, usual prior to 1868, was based a series of licenses or menkyo. There were generally very few levels culminating in the license of total transmission (menkyo kaiden; 免許皆伝).
In the modern system, first introduced in the martial arts through judo, students progress by promotion through a series of grades (kyū), followed by a series of degrees (dan), pursuant to formal testing procedures. Some arts use only white and black belts to distinguish between levels, while others use a progression of colored belts for kyū levels. |
Japanese martial arts | Forms | Forms
It has often been said that forms (kata) are the backbone of the martial arts. Nevertheless, different schools and styles put a varying amount of emphasis upon their practice. |
Japanese martial arts | See also | See also
Chanbara
List of Japanese martial arts
Okinawan martial arts |
Japanese martial arts | Sources | Sources
Hall, David A. Encyclopedia of Japanese Martial Arts. Kodansha USA, 2012. . |
Japanese martial arts | References | References
Category:Sports originating in Japan |
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Gottfried von Strassburg | Short description | thumb|250px|Portrait of Gottfried von Strassburg from the Codex Manesse (Folio 364r).
Gottfried von Strassburg (died c. 1210) is the author of the Middle High German courtly romance Tristan, an adaptation of the 12th-century Tristan and Iseult legend. Gottfried's work is regarded, alongside the Nibelungenlied and Wolfram von Eschenbach's Parzival, as one of the great narrative masterpieces of the German Middle Ages. He is probably also the composer of a small number of surviving lyrics. His work became a source of inspiration for Richard Wagner's opera Tristan und Isolde (1865). |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Life | Life
Other than an origin in or close association with Strasbourg, nothing is known of his life. It would seem, however, that he was a man of good birth and position, who filled an important municipal office in his native city of Strasbourg, but since he is always referred to in German as Meister (master) and not Herr (sir), it seems safe to assume he was not a knight, a conclusion supported by the rather dismissive attitude toward knightly exploits shown in Tristan.
Tristan ends abruptly, and according to the testimony of Ulrich von Türheim and Heinrich von Freiberg, two people who provided endings for Tristan, Gottfried died before finishing the work. References in the work suggest it was written during the first decade of the 13th century, and 1210 is taken, conventionally, as the date of Gottfried's death.
His thorough familiarity with Latin literature and rhetorical theory suggest someone who had enjoyed a high level of monastic education. He also shows detailed technical knowledge of music and hunting, far beyond anything found in the works of his contemporaries. Gottfried draws more on the learned tradition of medieval humanism than on the chivalric ethos shared by his major literary contemporaries. He also appears to have been influenced by the writings of contemporary Christian mystics, in particular Bernard of Clairvaux.
That his home was in Strasbourg is supported by the fact that the earliest manuscripts of Tristan, dating from the first half of the 13th century, show features of Alemannic and specifically Alsatian dialect. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Style | Style
Gottfried's rhetorical style is very distinct among his contemporaries.
It is incredibly complex, marked by the extensive use of symmetrical structure in his organization of Tristan as a whole, as well as in the structure of individual passages. Gottfried also uses detailed word and sound patterns, playing with such things as rhyme, alliteration, and assonance. See Batts (1971) for a detailed analysis.
One of the greatest hallmarks of Gottfried's style is his skillful use of irony, to both humorous and tragic effects. He may also have relied on irony to disguise his criticisms of contemporary society in order to avoid censure. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Sources | Sources
Gottfried states that the Tristan of Thomas of Britain, an Anglo-French work of around 1160, was the source of his work. He explains that he bases himself on Thomas because he "told the tale correctly", distancing himself from the less courtly versions of the story represented by Béroul in Old French and Eilhart von Oberge in Middle High German.
Unfortunately, Thomas's work, too, is fragmentary and there is little overlap with Gottfried's poem, making it difficult to evaluate Gottfried's originality directly. However, Thomas's Tristan was the source of a number of other versions, which makes it possible to get some idea of style and content. It is clear that while Gottfried's statement of his reliance on and debt to Thomas is correct, he both expanded on his source and refined the story psychologically. The discovery in 1995 of the Carlisle Fragment of Thomas's Tristan, which includes material from one of the central parts of the story, the Love Grotto episode, promises a better understanding of Gottfried's use of his source.
Thomas's source, in turn, is a now lost Old French Tristan story, reconstructed by Joseph Bédier, which derives ultimately from Celtic legend. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Text | Text
The text of Tristan is 19,548 lines long, and is written, like all courtly romances, in rhyming couplets.
The first section (ll. 1-44) of the prologue is written in quatrains and is referred to as the "strophic prologue", while pairs of quatrains, of sententious content, mark the main divisions of the story. The initial letters of the quatrains, indicated by large initials in some manuscripts, form an acrostic with the names Gotefrid-Tristan-Isolde, which runs throughout the poem. In addition, the initial letters of the quatrains in the prologue give the name Dieterich, which is assumed to have been the name of Gottfried's patron.
If Gottfried had completed Tristan it would probably have been around 24,000 lines long. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Story | Story
The story starts with the courtship of Tristan's parents. Riwalin, King of Parmenie, travels to the court of King Marke in Cornwall, where he and Marke's sister, Blanschefleur, fall in love. Blanschefleur becomes pregnant and the couple steal back to Parmenie, but Riwalin is killed in battle. When she hears the news, Blanschefleur dies, but the baby is delivered and survives. He is named Tristan because of the sorrowful circumstances of his birth.
Tristan grows up in Parmenie, passed off as the son of Riwalin's marshal Rual li Fointeant, becoming the perfect courtier. While on board a merchant ship which has docked in Parmenie, Tristan is abducted by the Norwegian crew. Once at sea, the ship is struck by a tempest, the crew conclude that they are being punished by God for abducting Tristan, so they set him ashore in a country that turns out to be Cornwall.
Tristan encounters a hunting party, whom he astonishes with his skill, and he accompanies them to Marke's court, where his many accomplishments make him popular, particularly with Marke. Eventually, after years of searching, Rual comes to Cornwall and finds Tristan, who is now revealed as Marke's nephew. Tristan is knighted.
Cornwall is being forced to pay tribute to the King of Ireland, Gurmun, collected by his brother, the monstrous Morold. Tristan challenges Morold to a duel and defeats him, though in the process he is wounded by Morold's poisoned sword. In order to seek a cure Tristan travels to Ireland incognito (under the name Tantris), and contrives to get himself cured by Gurmun's Queen Isolde (Isolde the Wise). He is struck by the beauty and accomplishments of her daughter, Isolde the Fair, and returns to Cornwall singing her praises.
Jealous of Tristan, Marke's councillors press him to marry, so that Tristan can be ousted as heir. Hoping that he will be killed in the process, they suggest Tristan be sent to Ireland to woo Isolde for Marke. Tristan travels to Ireland (as Tantris) and kills a dragon which has been threatening the countryside, thus winning Isolde's hand. However, observing that the splinter previously found in Morold's skull matches Tantris's sword, Isolde realises Tantris is in fact Tristan, and threatens to kill him as he sits in the bath. Her mother and her kinswoman Brangaene intervene and Tristan explains the purpose of his journey, which leads to a reconciliation between Ireland and Cornwall. Tristan leaves for Cornwall with Isolde as a bride for Marke.
Isolde the Wise has given Brangaene a magic potion to be drunk by Marke and Isolde on their wedding night to ensure their love. On the voyage, however, it is drunk by Tristan and Isolde by mistake. They avow their love for each other, but know that it cannot be made public, and they enjoy a brief idyll on board before arriving in Cornwall. This is followed by a series of intrigues in which the lovers attempt to dupe Marke, starting with the wedding night, when the virgin Brangaene substitutes for Isolde in the marriage bed. Marke is suspicious but is constantly outwitted by the lovers' guile.
Eventually, Marke resigns himself to their love and banishes them from court. They go off into the wilderness, to a Love Grotto, where they enjoy an idyllic life away from society. By accident, Marke discovers the grotto and sees them lying side by side. However, aware of his approach, Tristan has placed his sword between himself and Isolde, duping Marke into believing that perhaps they are not lovers after all.
With their secret hideaway discovered, the lovers return to court. However, Marke's suspicions return and finally he finds them together and can no longer doubt their adultery. Tristan flees to Normandy, where he encounters Isolde of the White Hands, daughter of the Duke of Arundel. Gottfried's poem ends with Tristan expressing his emotional confusion over the two Isoldes.
In Thomas's poem, which is preserved from around this point, Tristan marries Isolde of the White Hands, though the marriage is never consummated. Tristan creates a hall of statues, with statues of Isolde and Brangaene. Tristan is wounded with a poisoned spear by Estult li Orgillus, and sends for Isolde the Fair, who is the only one who can cure him. It is agreed that the ship sent for her will bear a white sail if it returns with her on board, but a black sail if not. However, the jealous Isolde of the White Hands lies about the colour of the sail, and Isolde the Fair arrives to find Tristan dead of grief. She kisses him and dies. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Interpretation | Interpretation
Gottfried's Tristan has proved problematic to interpret, probably in part because it was arguably left unfinished. Much of critics' difficulty in interpreting the work was entirely intentional on the part of Gottfried; his extensive use of irony in the text is clearly the greatest cause of disagreement over the meaning of his poem.
"Tristan" contrasts significantly with the works of Gottfried's contemporaries in three ways:
The hero of Tristan is a primarily an artist and trickster rather than a knight, that is, he lives on his wits rather than his martial prowess. While Tristan has all the accomplishments of a knight, questions of chivalric ethos are irrelevant to the story and the role of the fighting man in society, central to the works of Hartmann von Aue and Wolfram von Eschenbach, is never at issue.
Contemporary heroes fall in love with a lady because of her beauty and her moral worth. Tristan and Isolde, in spite of their physical beauty and many accomplishments, which cause them to be generally adored, fall in love not for any such explicable reason, but because the love potion leaves them no choice.
Where contemporaries look for balance in life and subordination of the will of the individual (whether to God, or society, or both), Gottfried appears to exalt love as the supreme value, regardless of social consequences and heedless of the sinful nature of Tristan and Isolde's adultery.
This "exaltation of love" has led some critics to see Tristan as effectively heretical, with Tristan and Isolde as "saints" of a religion of love, though how such a work could have been repeatedly read and copied at 13th century courts remains puzzling. Does the use of religious language imagery for the lovers mean that they represent an alternative religion, or is this simply a technique to communicate their exemplary role and the sublime nature of their love?
Alternatively, some critics see the work not as a pure exaltation of love, but rather as an exploration of the conflict between passionate love and courtly social order. That Tristan is not knightly represents a rejection of the norms of feudal society; he allows himself to be guided by love and physical passion rather than chivalry. The deaths of Tristan and Isolde would then seem inevitable, in that their love could not overcome the contemporary social order.
The role of the potion remains contentious - is it:
simply a narrative device, of no import in itself, but required to deflect moral criticism?
a symbol of their falling in love?
the cause of their love, indicating love's irrational and irresistible nature?
The story itself also raises problems. If the power of the love potion is irresistible, how can Tristan's marriage to Isolde of the White Hands be explained? If love is the supreme value, why do Tristan and Isolde leave their idyllic life in the Love Grotto, to return to a life of occasional secret trysts? Some have even argued that Gottfried abandoned the work, unable to solve these contradictions. |
Gottfried von Strassburg | Gottfried and his contemporaries | Gottfried and his contemporaries
One of the most important passages in Tristan, one which owes nothing to Thomas, is the so-called literary excursus, in which Gottfried names and discusses the merits of a number of contemporary lyric and narrative poets. This is the first piece of literary criticism in German.
Gottfried praises the Minnesänger Reinmar von Hagenau and Walther von der Vogelweide, and the narrative poets Hartmann von Aue, Heinrich von Veldeke and Bligger von Steinach, the former for their musicality, the latter for their clarity, both features which mark Gottfried's own style. Conversely, he criticises, without naming him directly, Wolfram von Eschenbach for the obscurity of his style and the uncouthness of his vocabulary. |
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