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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga	Saxifraga	["1 Description","2 Taxonomy","2.1 Subdivision","2.2 Selected species","2.3 Formerly placed here","2.4 Other \"saxifragous\" plants","3 Ecology","4 Cultivation","4.1 Award of Garden Merit","5 Uses","6 References","7 Bibliography","8 External links"]	Genus of flowering plants in the family Saxifragaceae (saxifrages) This article is about a plant genus. For other plants called saxifrage, and other uses, see Saxifrage (disambiguation). Saxifraga Saxifraga cochlearis Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Order: Saxifragales Family: Saxifragaceae Genus: SaxifragaTourn. ex L. (1753) Type species Saxifraga granulataL. Sections See text Synonyms Synonyms Adenogyna Raf. (1836), nom. superfl. Antiphylla Haw. (1821) Aphomonix Raf. (1837) Boecherarctica Á.Löve (1984) Chondrosea Haw. (1821) Ciliaria Haw. (1821) Cymbalariella Nappi (1903) Dactyloides Nieuwl. (1915), nom. superfl. Diptera Borkh. (1794), nom. superfl. Ditriclita Raf. (1836), nom. nud. Evaiezoa Raf. (1837) Geryonia Schrank ex Hoppe (1818) Geum Mill. (1754), nom. illeg. Hirculus Haw. (1821) Kingstonia Gray (1821 publ. 1822) Leptasea Haw. (1821) Ligularia Duval (1809), nom. superfl. Lobaria Haw. (1821), nom. illeg. Miscopetalum Haw. (1812) Muscaria Haw. (1821) Oreosplenium Zahlbr. ex Endl.(1839), pro syn. Ponista Raf. (1837) Robertsonia Haw. (1812) Rupifraga L. ex Raf. (1837), nom. superfl. Saxifragella Engl. (1891) Sekika Medik. (1791) Tridactylites Haw. (1821) Tristylea Jord. & Fourr. (1870) Tulorima Raf. (1837) Zahlbrucknera Rchb. (1832) Saxifraga is the largest genus in the family Saxifragaceae, containing about 473 species of holarctic perennial plants, known as saxifrages or rockfoils. The Latin word saxifraga means literally "stone-breaker", from Latin saxum ("rock" or "stone") + frangere ("to break"). It is usually thought to indicate a medicinal use for treatment of urinary calculi (known as kidney or bladder stones), rather than breaking rocks apart. Description Most saxifrages are small perennial, biennial (e.g. S. adscendens) or annual (e.g. S. tridactylites) herbaceous plants whose basal or cauline leaves grow close to the ground, often in a rosette. The leaves typically have a more or less incised margin; they may be succulent, needle-like and/or hairy, reducing evaporation. The inflorescence or single flower clusters rise above the main plant body on naked stalks. The small actinomorphic hermaphrodite flowers have five petals and sepals and are usually white, but red to yellow in some species. Stamens, usually 10, rarely 8, insert at the junction of the floral tube and ovary wall, with filaments subulate or clavate. As in other primitive eudicots, some of the 5 or 10 stamens may appear petal-like. and it lives in tundral ecosystems. Taxonomy A genus of about 473 species. The former monotypic genus Saxifragella has been submersed within Saxifraga, the largest genus in Saxifragaceae, as Saxifraga bicuspidata. Also the genus Saxifragopsis (strawberry saxifrage) was previously included in Saxifraga. Subdivision Based on morphological criteria, up to 15 sections were recognised. Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies reduced this to 13 sections with 9 subsections. The former sections Micranthes and Merkianae are more closely related to the Boykinia and Heuchera clades. Modern floras separate these groups as the genus Micranthes. The thirteen sections (with subsections) are: Irregulares Saxifragella Pseudocymbalaria Bronchiales Ciliatae Cymbalaria Cotylea Gymnopera Mesogyne Trachyphyllum Ligulatae Porphyrion Squarrosae Mutatae Oppositifoliae Florulentae Kabschia Saxifraga Tridactylites Androsaceae Arachnoideae Saxifraga Selected species Main article: List of Saxifraga species Saxifraga adscendens – ascending saxifrage Saxifraga aizoides – Yellow mountain saxifrage, yellow saxifrage Saxifraga aizoon – Aizoon rockfoil Saxifraga algisii Saxifraga anadyrensis Saxifraga androsacea Saxifraga aquatica Saxifraga arachnoidea Saxifraga × arendsii – mossy saxifrage, mossy rockfoil Saxifraga aspera L. – rough saxifrage, stiff-haired saxifrage Saxifraga bicuspidata Saxifraga biflora Saxifraga bronchialis L. – matte saxifrage Saxifraga bryoides L. – mossy saxifrage Saxifraga burseriana L. – AGM Saxifraga caesia – blue green saxifrage Saxifraga callosa Sm. – limestone saxifrage Saxifraga canaliculata Saxifraga carpatica Saxifraga cernua – drooping saxifrage, nodding saxifrage, bulblet saxifrage Saxifraga cervicornis Saxifraga cespitosa – tufted saxifrage Saxifraga ciliata Saxifraga cochlearis – spoon-leaved saxifrage Saxifraga columnaris Schmalh. Saxifraga corsica Saxifraga consanguinea W.W.Sm. Saxifraga cotyledon L. – great alpine rockfoil, greater evergreen saxifrage Saxifraga crustata Vest. – crusted-leaved saxifraga, silver saxifrage, encrusted saxifrage Saxifraga cuneifolia – shield-leaved saxifrage, lesser London pride Saxifraga cymbalaria – celandine saxifrage Saxifraga decipiens Saxifraga dinnikii Schmalh. Saxifraga eschscholtzii – cushion saxifrage Saxifraga exarata – furrowed saxifrage Saxifraga flagellaris Willd. ex Sternb. – whiplash saxifrage, spider saxifrage, "spider plant" Saxifraga florulenta Saxifraga forbesei Saxifraga fortunei Hook.f. – fortune saxifrage Saxifraga × geum – Robertsoniana saxifrage (S. hirsuta x S. umbrosa) Saxifraga globulifera – Gibraltar saxifrage Saxifraga granulata L. – meadow saxifrage, bulbous saxifrage, fair maids of France (type species) Saxifraga grisebachii - Engleria saxifrage Saxifraga groenlandica Saxifraga hederacea Saxifraga hirculus L. – yellow marsh saxifrage, marsh saxifrage, "bog saxifrage" Saxifraga hirsuta – kidney saxifrage Saxifraga hyperborea – pygmy saxifrage Saxifraga hypnoides – mossy saxifrage, Dovedale moss Saxifraga juniperifolia Saxifraga korshinskii Kom. Saxifraga lactea Turcz. Saxifraga longifolia – Pyrenean saxifrage Saxifraga maderensis – Madeira saxifrage, Madeira breakstone Saxifraga mertensiana – Mertens' saxifrage Saxifraga montana Saxifraga moschata – musky saxifrage, mossy saxifrage Saxifraga moschata ssp. basaltica Saxifraga muscoides Saxifraga mutata Saxifraga nathorstii (Dusén) Hayek – East Greenland saxifrage Saxifraga nipponica Saxifraga oppositifolia – purple saxifrage, purple mountain saxifrage Saxifraga osloensis Knaben – Oslo saxifrage, a natural hybrid species Saxifraga paniculata – lifelong saxifrage, white mountain saxifrage Saxifraga paradoxa Sternb. – Fragile saxifraga Saxifraga petraea Saxifraga platysepala (= S. flagellaris auct. non Willd.) – broadsepal saxifrage Saxifraga porophylla Saxifraga redofskii – many-flower saxifrage Saxifraga rivularis – alpine brook saxifrage, brook saxifrage, highland saxifrage Saxifraga rosacea – Irish saxifrage Saxifraga rotundifolia L. – round-leaved saxifrage Saxifraga roylei Saxifraga rudolphiana Saxifraga rufopilosa – redhair saxifrage Saxifraga sancta Saxifraga serpyllifolia – thymeleaf saxifrage Saxifraga sibirica – Siberian saxifrage Saxifraga spathularis – Saint Patrick's cabbage Saxifraga squarrosa – Dolomites saxifrage Saxifraga stolonifera – creeping saxifrage, strawberry saxifrage, creeping rockfoil, strawberry begonia, strawberry geranium, Aaron's beard Saxifraga stolonifera f. aptera (Makino) H.Hara – hoshizaki-yukinoshita (Japanese) Saxifraga stolonifera 'Cuscutiformis' (Saxifraga cuscutiformis Lodd.) – Dodder-like saxifrage Saxifraga subverticillata Saxifraga svalbardensis Saxifraga taygetea Saxifraga taylorii – Taylor's saxifrage Saxifraga tenella Saxifraga tombeanensis Saxifraga tricuspidata Rottb. – prickly saxifrage Saxifraga tridactylites – rue-leaved saxifrage, "nailwort" Saxifraga trifurcata Saxifraga × urbium – London pride (S. spathularis × S. umbrosa) Saxifraga umbrosa – Pyrenean saxifrage Saxifraga vandelli Saxifraga wahlenbergii Formerly placed here Plants formerly placed in Saxifraga are mainly but not exclusively Saxifragaceae. They include: Astilboides tabularis, as S. tabularis Bergenia crassifolia, as S. cordifolia, S. crassifolia Bergenia pacumbis, as S. ligulata, S. pacumbis Bergenia purpurascens, as S. delavayi, S. purpurascens Boykinia jamesii, as S. jamesii Boykinia occidentalis (Coastal Brookfoam), as S. elata Boykinia richardsonii (Richardson's Brookfoam), as S. richardsonii Darmera peltata (Indian Rhubarb), as S. peltata Leptarrhena pyrolifolia, as S. pyrolifolia Luetkea pectinata (Partridgefoot), as S. pectinata Micranthes, including: Micranthes integrifolia (wholeleaf saxifrage) Micranthes howellii (Howell's saxifrage), as S. howellii Micranthes stellaris (Starry saxifrage), as S. stellaris Mukdenia rossii (Mukdenia), as S. rossii Other "saxifragous" plants Several plant genera have names referring to saxifrages, although they might not be close relatives of Saxifraga. They include: Golden-saxifrages, Chrysosplenium Burnet-saxifrages, Pimpinella Pepper-saxifrage, Silaum silaus. The name "silaum" comes from the Latin word sil, which means yellow ochre. This refers to the sulphurous yellow colour of the flowers. Some plants refer to Saxifraga in their generic names or specific epithets, either because they are also "rock-breaking" or because they resemble members of the saxifrage genus: Campanula saxifraga Celmisia saxifraga (Benth.) W.M.Curtis Cineraria saxifraga DC. Dryopteris saxifraga Petrorhagia saxifraga – Tunicflower Pimpinella saxifraga – Burnet saxifrage Ptychotis saxifraga Saxifragella Saxifragodes Saxifragopsis Small Ecology This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia), whose sticky leaves seem to catch small invertebrates Saxifrages are typical inhabitants of Arctic–alpine ecosystems, and are hardly ever found outside the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere; most members of this genus are found in subarctic climates. A good number of species grow in glacial habitats, such as S. biflora which can be found some 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level in the Alps, or the East Greenland saxifrage (S. nathorstii). The genus is also abundant in the Eastern and Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. Though the archetypal saxifrage is a small plant huddling between rocks high up on a mountain, many species do not occur in such a habitat and are larger (though still rather delicate) plants found on wet meadows. Various Saxifraga species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some butterflies and moths, such as the Phoebus Apollo (Parnassius phoebus). Charles Darwin – erroneously believing Saxifraga to be allied to the sundew family (Droseraceae) – suspected the sticky-leaved round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia), rue-leaved saxifrage (S. tridactylites) and Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa) to be protocarnivorous plants, and conducted some experiments whose results supported his observations, but the matter has apparently not been studied since his time. Cultivation Saxifraga urumoffii at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Numerous species and cultivars of saxifrage are cultivated as ornamental garden plants, valued particularly as groundcover or as cushion plants in rock gardens and alpine gardens. Many require alkaline or neutral soil to thrive. S. × urbium (London pride), a hybrid between Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa) and St. Patrick's cabbage (S. spathularis), is commonly grown as an ornamental plant. Another horticultural hybrid is Robertsoniana saxifrage (S. × geum), derived from kidney saxifrage (S. hirsuta) and Pyrenean saxifrage. Some wild species are also used in gardening. Cambridge University Botanic Garden hosts the United Kingdom's national collection of saxifrages. Award of Garden Merit The following species and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:- 'Angelina Johnson' (fortunei) 'Blackberry and Apple Pie' (fortunei) S. callosa (limestone saxifrage) 'Conwy Snow' (fortunei) 'Coolock Kate' 'Cumulus' S. fortunei 'Gregor Mendel' (× apiculata) 'Lagraveana' (paniculata) 'Lutea' 'Minor' 'Moe' (fortunei) 'Monarch' 'Mount Nachi' (fortunei) 'Peach Melba' 'Reginald Farrer' (Silver Farreri Group) 'Rokujo' (fortunei) 'Rosea' 'Shiranami' (fortunei) 'Slack's Ruby Southside' (Southside Seedling Group) 'Snowflake' (Silver Farreri Group) 'Southside Star' (Southside Seedling Group) S. stolonifera (strawberry saxifrage) 'Sue Drew' (fortunei) Sugar Plum Fairy='Toujya' (fortunei) 'Theoden' 'Tumbling Waters' S. × urbium (London pride) 'Venetia' (paniculata) 'Whitehill' Uses The leaves of some saxifrage species, such as creeping saxifrage (S. stolonifera) and S. pensylvanica, are edible. The former is a food in Korea and Japan. The flowers of purple saxifrage (S. oppositifolia) are eaten in Nunavut, Canada and the leaves and stems brewed as a tea. Species are also used in traditional medicine, such as creeping saxifrage in East Asia and round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia) in Europe. Two species—purple saxifrage and creeping saxifrage—are popular floral emblems. They are official flowers for: Nunavut, Canada - purple saxifrage County Londonderry, Northern Ireland - purple saxifrage Tsukuba, Japan - creeping saxifrage, "hoshizaki" form (S. stolonifera Curtis f. aptera) Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa), ancestor to horticultural hybrid saxifrages Saxifraga caesia Lesser London pride (Saxifraga cuneifolia) Saxifraga decipiens Irish saxifrage (Saxifraga rosacea) Prickly saxifrage (Saxifraga tricuspidata) flowers References ^ a b c "Saxifraga Tourn. ex L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 13 April 2024. ^ a b c d "Saxifraga". National Plant Collections. Cambridge University Botanic Garden. Retrieved October 3, 2011. ^ Roger Spencer, ed. Horticultural Flora of South-Eastern Australia. UNSW Press, 2002. p. 81. ISBN 9780868401676 ^ D. A. Webb & R. J. Gornall (1989). Saxifrages of Europe. Christopher Helm. p. 19. ISBN 0-7470-3407-9. ^ a b c Gornall 2011. ^ a b c Brouillet & Elvander 2008. ^ a b RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965. ^ Jintang et al 2004. ^ Deng et al 2015. ^ "Saxifraga L." Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. February 9, 2005. Retrieved January 20, 2009. ^ Gornall 1987. ^ Soltis et al 1996. ^ Flora of China ^ Tkach et al 2015. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x Umberto Quattrocchi. CRC World Dictionary of Plant Names: Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms. Synonyms, and Etymology. CRC Press, 1999. p.2395-2396. ISBN 9780849326738 ^ Knaben, G. (1934). "Saxifraga osloensis n. sp., a tetraploid species of the Tridactylites section". Nytt Magasin for Botanikk: 117–138. ^ Reader's Digest Nature Lover's Library Wild Flowers of Britain, page 192, published 1988 ^ Ivo Novák (1980). A Field Guide in Colour to Butterflies and Moths. Octopus Books. ISBN 0-7064-1293-1. ^ Charles Darwin (1875). "Drosophyllum – Roridula – Byblis – glandular hairs of other plants – concluding remarks on the Droseraceae". Insectivorous Plants (1st ed.). London: J. Murray. pp. 332–367. ^ "AGM Plants - Ornamental" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 95. Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Angelina Johnson'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Blackberry and Apple Pie'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga callosa". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Conwy Snow'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Coolock Kate'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Cumulus'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga fortunei". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Gregor Mendel' (× fortunei)". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Lagraveana'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Lutea'". Retrieved 2 June 2013. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Minor'". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Moe'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Monarch'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Mount Nachi'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Peach Melba'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Reginald Farrer'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Rokujo' (fortunei)". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Rosea'". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Shiranami'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Southside Seedling Group) 'Slack's Ruby Southside'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Snowflake'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - (Southside seedling Group) 'Southside Star'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga stolonifera". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Sue Drew'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga Sugar Plum Fairy='Toujya'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Theoden'". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Tumbling Waters'". Retrieved 5 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga × urbium". Retrieved 8 March 2021. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Venetia' (paniculata)". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ "RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Whitehill'". Retrieved 1 November 2018. ^ Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) . The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 780. ISBN 0-394-50432-1. ^ Chon, Sang-Uk; Heo, Buk-Gu; Park, Yong-Seo; Cho, Ja-Yong; Gorinstein, Shela (2008). "Characteristics of the leaf parts of some traditional Korean salad plants used for food". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 88 (11): 1963–1968. Bibcode:2008JSFA...88.1963C. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3304. ISSN 1097-0010. ^ Official Flower of Nunavut, Nunavut, Canada ^ Ji-xian Guo, Ki Sung Chung, Paul Pui-hay But, Takeatsu Kimura (1996). International Collation Of Traditional And Folk Medicine, Vol 2: Northeast Asia Part 2. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 65.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Pieroni, Andrea; Quave, Cassandra L., eds. (2014). Ethnobotany and Biocultural Diversities in the Balkans. New York: Springer. ^ "The Official Flower of Nunavut: Purple Saxifrage". Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2011. ^ County flowers in Britain Archived 14 February 2006 at the Wayback Machine www.plantlife.org.uk ^ "City flower, bird and tree" (in Japanese). City of Tsukuba. Retrieved 17 June 2021. Bibliography Books Gornall, RJ (2011) . "Saxifraga". In Cullen, James; Knees, Sabina G.; Cubey, H. Suzanne (eds.). The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. Vol. III Angoiospermae - Dicotyledons (Resedaceae - Cyrillaceae) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–131. ISBN 978-0-521-76155-0. Soltis, D E (2007). "Saxifragaceae". In Kubitzki, Klaus (ed.). Flowering Plants. Eudicots: Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Vol. IX. Springer. pp. 418–435. ISBN 978-3-540-32219-1. Articles Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Saxifrage" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 264. Deng, Jia-bin; Drew, Bryan T.; Mavrodiev, Evgeny V.; Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E. (February 2015). "Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of the angiosperm family Saxifragaceae". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 83: 86–98. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.011. PMID 25479063. Gornall, Richard J. (December 1987). "An outline of a revised classification of Saxifraga L.". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 95 (4): 273–292. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x. Gornall, Richard J.; Ohba, Hideaki; Jintang, Pan (2000). "New Taxa, Names, and Combinations in the Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) for the Flora of China". Novon. 10 (4): 375–377. doi:10.2307/3392990. JSTOR 3392990. Soltis, Douglas E.; Kuzoff, Robert K.; Conti, Elena; Gornall, Richard; Ferguson, Keith (March 1996). "matK and rbcL Gene Sequence Data Indicate that Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) is Polyphyletic". American Journal of Botany. 83 (3): 371. doi:10.2307/2446171. JSTOR 2446171. Tkach, Natalia; Röser, Martin; Miehe, Georg; Muellner-Riehl, Alexandra N.; Ebersbach, Jana; Favre, Adrien; Hoffmann, Matthias H. (31 December 2015). "Molecular phylogenetics, morphology and a revised classification of the complex genus Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)". Taxon. 64 (6): 1159–1187. doi:10.12705/646.4. Websites POWO (2019). "Saxifraga Tourn. ex L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 1 December 2019. WFO (2020). "Saxifraga L." World Flora Online. Retrieved 9 January 2020. "The Saxifrage Society". 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2020. Floras Jintang, Pan; Gornall, Richard; Ohba, Hideaki (2004). "Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753 (虎耳草属hu er cao shu)". p. 280. Retrieved 9 January 2020., in Flora of China online vol. 8 see also PDF Brouillet, Luc; Elvander, Patrick E. (2008). "Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753; Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 189. 1754". Flora of North America vol. 8. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–146. Retrieved 9 January 2020. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Saxifraga. Wikispecies has information related to Saxifraga. Taxon identifiersSaxifraga Wikidata: Q156146 Wikispecies: Saxifraga APDB: 194653 APNI: 65184 BOLD: 126447 CoL: 7CVF EoL: 34618 EPPO: 1SXFG FNA: 129353 FoC: 129353 GBIF: 2987833 GRIN: 10791 iNaturalist: 55434 IPNI: 30002955-2 IRMNG: 1339068 ITIS: 24213 NBN: NHMSYS0000463238 NCBI: 3798 NZOR: fbb8cadd-d77b-48bb-bd32-88a5f4cc036a Open Tree of Life: 1035571 PLANTS: SAXIF POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002955-2 Tropicos: 40030609 VASCAN: 1655 VicFlora: 430afd2f-212c-48c6-8f11-ba58827a85d4 WFO: wfo-4000034203 WoRMS: 425934 Authority control databases: National Israel Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saxifrage (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifrage_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus"},{"link_name":"Saxifragaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragaceae"},{"link_name":"species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species"},{"link_name":"holarctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holarctic"},{"link_name":"perennial plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial_plant"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-powo-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"saxum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/saxum"},{"link_name":"frangere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/frangere"},{"link_name":"urinary calculi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urinary_calculi"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"This article is about a plant genus. For other plants called saxifrage, and other uses, see Saxifrage (disambiguation).Saxifraga is the largest genus in the family Saxifragaceae, containing about 473 species of holarctic perennial plants, known as saxifrages[1][2] or rockfoils.[3] The Latin word saxifraga means literally \"stone-breaker\", from Latin saxum (\"rock\" or \"stone\") + frangere (\"to break\"). It is usually thought to indicate a medicinal use for treatment of urinary calculi (known as kidney or bladder stones), rather than breaking rocks apart.[2][4]","title":"Saxifraga"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"perennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perennial"},{"link_name":"biennial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biennial_plant"},{"link_name":"S. adscendens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_adscendens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"annual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_plant"},{"link_name":"S. tridactylites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_tridactylites"},{"link_name":"herbaceous plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous_plants"},{"link_name":"cauline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cauline"},{"link_name":"leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaf"},{"link_name":"rosette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosette_(botany)"},{"link_name":"succulent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succulent"},{"link_name":"evaporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evaporation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGornall2011-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrouilletElvander2008-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RHSAZ-7"},{"link_name":"inflorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflorescence"},{"link_name":"actinomorphic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinomorphic_flower"},{"link_name":"hermaphrodite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite"},{"link_name":"petals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petal"},{"link_name":"sepals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepal"},{"link_name":"Stamens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamens"},{"link_name":"eudicots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudicot"},{"link_name":"stamens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamen"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGornall2011-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJintang_et_al2004-8"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrouilletElvander2008-6"}],"text":"Most saxifrages are small perennial, biennial (e.g. S. adscendens) or annual (e.g. S. tridactylites) herbaceous plants whose basal or cauline leaves grow close to the ground, often in a rosette. The leaves typically have a more or less incised margin; they may be succulent, needle-like and/or hairy, reducing evaporation.[5][6][7]The inflorescence or single flower clusters rise above the main plant body on naked stalks. The small actinomorphic hermaphrodite flowers have five petals and sepals and are usually white, but red to yellow in some species. Stamens, usually 10, rarely 8, insert at the junction of the floral tube and ovary wall, with filaments subulate or clavate. As in other primitive eudicots, some of the 5 or 10 stamens may appear petal-like.[citation needed] and it lives in tundral ecosystems.[5][8][6]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-powo-1"},{"link_name":"monotypic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotypic"},{"link_name":"Saxifragaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragaceae"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeng_et_al2015-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGornall2011-5"},{"link_name":"Saxifragopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragopsis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usda2005-10"}],"text":"A genus of about 473 species.[1] The former monotypic genus Saxifragella has been submersed within Saxifraga, the largest genus in Saxifragaceae, as Saxifraga bicuspidata.[9][5] Also the genus Saxifragopsis (strawberry saxifrage) was previously included in Saxifraga.[10]","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGornall1987-11"},{"link_name":"molecular phylogenetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_phylogenetic"},{"link_name":"Boykinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boykinia"},{"link_name":"Heuchera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuchera"},{"link_name":"clades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clades"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoltis_et_al1996-12"},{"link_name":"floras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floras"},{"link_name":"Micranthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micranthes"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrouilletElvander2008-6"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTETkach_et_al2015-14"}],"sub_title":"Subdivision","text":"Based on morphological criteria, up to 15 sections were recognised.[11] Subsequent molecular phylogenetic studies reduced this to 13 sections with 9 subsections. The former sections Micranthes and Merkianae are more closely related to the Boykinia and Heuchera clades.[12] Modern floras separate these groups as the genus Micranthes.[13][6]The thirteen sections (with subsections) are:[14]Irregulares\nSaxifragella\nPseudocymbalaria\nBronchiales\nCiliatae\nCymbalaria\nCotylea\nGymnopera\nMesogyne\nTrachyphyllum\nLigulatae\nPorphyrion\nSquarrosae\nMutatae\nOppositifoliae\nFlorulentae\nKabschia\nSaxifraga\nTridactylites\nAndrosaceae\nArachnoideae\nSaxifraga","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saxifraga adscendens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_adscendens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga aizoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_aizoides"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga aizoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_aizoon"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga algisii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_algisii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga anadyrensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_anadyrensis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga androsacea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_androsacea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga aquatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_aquatica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga arachnoidea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_arachnoidea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga × arendsii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_%C3%97_arendsii"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga aspera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_aspera"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga bicuspidata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_bicuspidata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga biflora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_biflora&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga bronchialis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_bronchialis"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga bryoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_bryoides"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga burseriana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_burseriana"},{"link_name":"AGM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award_of_Garden_Merit"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga caesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_caesia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga callosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_callosa"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga canaliculata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_canaliculata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga carpatica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_carpatica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cernua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cernua"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cervicornis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_cervicornis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cespitosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cespitosa"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga ciliata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_ciliata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cochlearis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cochlearis"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga columnaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_columnaris&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga corsica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_corsica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga consanguinea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_consanguinea"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cotyledon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cotyledon"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga crustata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_crustata"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cuneifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cuneifolia"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cymbalaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_cymbalaria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga decipiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_decipiens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga dinnikii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_dinnikii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga eschscholtzii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_eschscholtzii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga exarata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_exarata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga flagellaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_flagellaris"},{"link_name":"spider plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider_plant_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga florulenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_florulenta&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga forbesei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_forbesei&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga fortunei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_fortunei"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga × geum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_%C3%97_geum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga globulifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_globulifera"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga granulata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_granulata"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga grisebachii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_grisebachii"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga groenlandica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_groenlandica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga hederacea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_hederacea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga hirculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_hirculus"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga hirsuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_hirsuta&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga hyperborea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_hyperborea"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga hypnoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_hypnoides"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga juniperifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_juniperifolia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga korshinskii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_korshinskii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga lactea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_lactea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga longifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_longifolia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga maderensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_maderensis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga mertensiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_mertensiana"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_montana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga moschata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_moschata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga muscoides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_muscoides&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga mutata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_mutata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga nathorstii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_nathorstii"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga nipponica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_nipponica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga oppositifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_oppositifolia"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga osloensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_osloensis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"hybrid species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_speciation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga paniculata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_paniculata"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga paradoxa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_paradoxa"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga petraea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_petraea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga platysepala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_platysepala"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga porophylla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_porophylla&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga redofskii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_redofskii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rivularis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rivularis"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rosacea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rosacea"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rotundifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rotundifolia"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga roylei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_roylei&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rudolphiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rudolphiana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rufopilosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_rufopilosa&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga sancta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_sancta&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga serpyllifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_serpyllifolia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga sibirica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_sibirica&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga spathularis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_spathularis"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga squarrosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_squarrosa"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga stolonifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_stolonifera"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_(language)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga subverticillata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_subverticillata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga svalbardensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_svalbardensis"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga taygetea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_taygetea&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga taylorii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_taylorii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga tenella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_tenella&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga tombeanensis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_tombeanensis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga tricuspidata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_tricuspidata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga tridactylites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_tridactylites"},{"link_name":"nailwort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nailwort_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga trifurcata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_trifurcata&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga × urbium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_%C3%97_urbium"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga umbrosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_umbrosa"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga vandelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_vandelli&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga wahlenbergii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_wahlenbergii&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"sub_title":"Selected species","text":"Saxifraga adscendens – ascending saxifrage\nSaxifraga aizoides – Yellow mountain saxifrage,[15] yellow saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga aizoon – Aizoon rockfoil\nSaxifraga algisii\nSaxifraga anadyrensis\nSaxifraga androsacea\nSaxifraga aquatica\nSaxifraga arachnoidea\nSaxifraga × arendsii – mossy saxifrage, mossy rockfoil\nSaxifraga aspera L. – rough saxifrage,[15] stiff-haired saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga bicuspidata\nSaxifraga biflora\nSaxifraga bronchialis L. – matte saxifrage\nSaxifraga bryoides L. – mossy saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga burseriana L. – AGM\nSaxifraga caesia – blue green saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga callosa Sm. – limestone saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga canaliculata\nSaxifraga carpatica\nSaxifraga cernua – drooping saxifrage, nodding saxifrage, bulblet saxifrage\nSaxifraga cervicornis\nSaxifraga cespitosa – tufted saxifrage\nSaxifraga ciliata\nSaxifraga cochlearis – spoon-leaved saxifrage\nSaxifraga columnaris Schmalh.\nSaxifraga corsica\nSaxifraga consanguinea W.W.Sm.\nSaxifraga cotyledon L. – great alpine rockfoil, greater evergreen saxifrage\nSaxifraga crustata Vest. – crusted-leaved saxifraga, silver saxifrage, encrusted saxifrage\nSaxifraga cuneifolia – shield-leaved saxifrage,[15] lesser London pride\nSaxifraga cymbalaria – celandine saxifrage\nSaxifraga decipiens\nSaxifraga dinnikii Schmalh.\nSaxifraga eschscholtzii – cushion saxifrage\nSaxifraga exarata – furrowed saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga flagellaris Willd. ex Sternb. – whiplash saxifrage, spider saxifrage, \"spider plant\"\nSaxifraga florulenta\nSaxifraga forbesei\nSaxifraga fortunei Hook.f. – fortune saxifrage\nSaxifraga × geum – Robertsoniana saxifrage (S. hirsuta x S. umbrosa)\nSaxifraga globulifera – Gibraltar saxifrage\nSaxifraga granulata L. – meadow saxifrage,[15] bulbous saxifrage,[15] fair maids of France[15] (type species)\nSaxifraga grisebachii - Engleria saxifrage\nSaxifraga groenlandica\nSaxifraga hederacea\nSaxifraga hirculus L. – yellow marsh saxifrage, marsh saxifrage, \"bog saxifrage\"\nSaxifraga hirsuta – kidney saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga hyperborea – pygmy saxifrage\nSaxifraga hypnoides – mossy saxifrage,[15] Dovedale moss\nSaxifraga juniperifolia\nSaxifraga korshinskii Kom.\nSaxifraga lactea Turcz.\nSaxifraga longifolia – Pyrenean saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga maderensis – Madeira saxifrage,[15] Madeira breakstone[15]\nSaxifraga mertensiana – Mertens' saxifrage\nSaxifraga montana\nSaxifraga moschata – musky saxifrage, mossy saxifrage\nSaxifraga moschata ssp. basaltica\nSaxifraga muscoides\nSaxifraga mutata\nSaxifraga nathorstii (Dusén) Hayek – East Greenland saxifrage\nSaxifraga nipponica\nSaxifraga oppositifolia – purple saxifrage,[15] purple mountain saxifrage\nSaxifraga osloensis Knaben – Oslo saxifrage, a natural hybrid species[16]\nSaxifraga paniculata – lifelong saxifrage,[15] white mountain saxifrage\nSaxifraga paradoxa Sternb. – Fragile saxifraga\nSaxifraga petraea\nSaxifraga platysepala (= S. flagellaris auct. non Willd.) – broadsepal saxifrage\nSaxifraga porophylla\nSaxifraga redofskii – many-flower saxifrage\nSaxifraga rivularis – alpine brook saxifrage, brook saxifrage, highland saxifrage\nSaxifraga rosacea – Irish saxifrage\nSaxifraga rotundifolia L. – round-leaved saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga roylei\nSaxifraga rudolphiana\nSaxifraga rufopilosa – redhair saxifrage\nSaxifraga sancta\nSaxifraga serpyllifolia – thymeleaf saxifrage\nSaxifraga sibirica – Siberian saxifrage\nSaxifraga spathularis – Saint Patrick's cabbage\nSaxifraga squarrosa – Dolomites saxifrage\nSaxifraga stolonifera – creeping saxifrage, strawberry saxifrage, creeping rockfoil, strawberry begonia, strawberry geranium,[15] Aaron's beard\nSaxifraga stolonifera f. aptera (Makino) H.Hara – hoshizaki-yukinoshita (Japanese)\nSaxifraga stolonifera 'Cuscutiformis' (Saxifraga cuscutiformis Lodd.) – Dodder-like saxifrage[15]\nSaxifraga subverticillata\nSaxifraga svalbardensis\nSaxifraga taygetea\nSaxifraga taylorii – Taylor's saxifrage\nSaxifraga tenella\nSaxifraga tombeanensis\nSaxifraga tricuspidata Rottb. – prickly saxifrage\nSaxifraga tridactylites – rue-leaved saxifrage, \"nailwort\"\nSaxifraga trifurcata\nSaxifraga × urbium – London pride (S. spathularis × S. umbrosa)\nSaxifraga umbrosa – Pyrenean saxifrage\nSaxifraga vandelli\nSaxifraga wahlenbergii","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saxifragaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragaceae"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Astilboides tabularis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astilboides_tabularis"},{"link_name":"Bergenia crassifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergenia_crassifolia"},{"link_name":"Bergenia pacumbis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bergenia_pacumbis&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bergenia purpurascens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bergenia_purpurascens"},{"link_name":"Boykinia jamesii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Boykinia_jamesii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Boykinia occidentalis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boykinia_occidentalis"},{"link_name":"Boykinia richardsonii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boykinia_richardsonii"},{"link_name":"Richardson's Brookfoam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Richardson%27s_Brookfoam&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Darmera peltata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmera_peltata"},{"link_name":"Leptarrhena pyrolifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leptarrhena_pyrolifolia"},{"link_name":"Luetkea pectinata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luetkea_pectinata"},{"link_name":"Micranthes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micranthes"},{"link_name":"Micranthes integrifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micranthes_integrifolia"},{"link_name":"Micranthes howellii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micranthes_howellii"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Micranthes stellaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micranthes_stellaris"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Quattrocchi-15"},{"link_name":"Mukdenia rossii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mukdenia_rossii"}],"sub_title":"Formerly placed here","text":"Plants formerly placed in Saxifraga are mainly but not exclusively Saxifragaceae. They include:[citation needed]Astilboides tabularis, as S. tabularis\nBergenia crassifolia, as S. cordifolia, S. crassifolia\nBergenia pacumbis, as S. ligulata, S. pacumbis\nBergenia purpurascens, as S. delavayi, S. purpurascens\nBoykinia jamesii, as S. jamesii\nBoykinia occidentalis (Coastal Brookfoam), as S. elata\nBoykinia richardsonii (Richardson's Brookfoam), as S. richardsonii\nDarmera peltata (Indian Rhubarb), as S. peltata\nLeptarrhena pyrolifolia, as S. pyrolifolia\nLuetkea pectinata (Partridgefoot), as S. pectinata\nMicranthes, including:\nMicranthes integrifolia (wholeleaf saxifrage)\nMicranthes howellii (Howell's saxifrage),[15] as S. howellii\nMicranthes stellaris (Starry saxifrage),[15] as S. stellaris\nMukdenia rossii (Mukdenia), as S. rossii","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"genera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genera"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Chrysosplenium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysosplenium"},{"link_name":"Pimpinella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimpinella"},{"link_name":"Silaum silaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silaum_silaus"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"specific epithets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_name_(botany)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Campanula saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campanula_saxifraga&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Celmisia saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celmisia_saxifraga"},{"link_name":"Cineraria saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cineraria_saxifraga&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Dryopteris saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dryopteris_saxifraga&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Petrorhagia saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrorhagia_saxifraga"},{"link_name":"Tunicflower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tunicflower&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Pimpinella saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimpinella_saxifraga"},{"link_name":"Ptychotis saxifraga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ptychotis_saxifraga&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifragella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifragella&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saxifragodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragodes"},{"link_name":"Saxifragopsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifragopsis"}],"sub_title":"Other \"saxifragous\" plants","text":"Several plant genera have names referring to saxifrages, although they might not be close relatives of Saxifraga. They include:[citation needed]Golden-saxifrages, Chrysosplenium\nBurnet-saxifrages, Pimpinella\nPepper-saxifrage, Silaum silaus. The name \"silaum\" comes from the Latin word sil, which means yellow ochre. This refers to the sulphurous yellow colour of the flowers.[17]Some plants refer to Saxifraga in their generic names or specific epithets, either because they are also \"rock-breaking\" or because they resemble members of the saxifrage genus:[citation needed]Campanula saxifraga\nCelmisia saxifraga (Benth.) W.M.Curtis\nCineraria saxifraga DC.\nDryopteris saxifraga\nPetrorhagia saxifraga – Tunicflower\nPimpinella saxifraga – Burnet saxifrage\nPtychotis saxifraga\nSaxifragella\nSaxifragodes\nSaxifragopsis Small","title":"Taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_rotundifolia_a1.jpg"},{"link_name":"S. rotundifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rotundifolia"},{"link_name":"invertebrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertebrate"},{"link_name":"Arctic–alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic%E2%80%93alpine"},{"link_name":"ecosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem"},{"link_name":"temperate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperateness"},{"link_name":"subarctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarctic"},{"link_name":"glacial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial"},{"link_name":"S. biflora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_biflora&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"S. nathorstii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_nathorstii"},{"link_name":"Eastern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Himalayan_alpine_shrub_and_meadows"},{"link_name":"Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Himalayan_alpine_shrub_and_meadows"},{"link_name":"huddling between rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushion_plant"},{"link_name":"habitat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat"},{"link_name":"meadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meadow"},{"link_name":"caterpillars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caterpillar"},{"link_name":"butterflies and moths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lepidoptera"},{"link_name":"Parnassius phoebus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parnassius_phoebus"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Charles Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"Droseraceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droseraceae"},{"link_name":"S. rotundifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rotundifolia"},{"link_name":"S. tridactylites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_tridactylites"},{"link_name":"S. umbrosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_umbrosa"},{"link_name":"protocarnivorous plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocarnivorous_plant"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia), whose sticky leaves seem to catch small invertebratesSaxifrages are typical inhabitants of Arctic–alpine ecosystems, and are hardly ever found outside the temperate parts of the Northern Hemisphere; most members of this genus are found in subarctic climates. A good number of species grow in glacial habitats, such as S. biflora which can be found some 4,000 m (13,000 ft) above sea level in the Alps, or the East Greenland saxifrage (S. nathorstii). The genus is also abundant in the Eastern and Western Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows. Though the archetypal saxifrage is a small plant huddling between rocks high up on a mountain, many species do not occur in such a habitat and are larger (though still rather delicate) plants found on wet meadows.Various Saxifraga species are used as food plants by the caterpillars of some butterflies and moths, such as the Phoebus Apollo (Parnassius phoebus).[18]Charles Darwin – erroneously believing Saxifraga to be allied to the sundew family (Droseraceae) – suspected the sticky-leaved round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia), rue-leaved saxifrage (S. tridactylites) and Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa) to be protocarnivorous plants, and conducted some experiments whose results supported his observations,[19] but the matter has apparently not been studied since his time.","title":"Ecology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_urumoffii,_Royal_Botanic_Garden_Edinburgh,_Scotland,_GB,_IMG_3765_edit.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga urumoffii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_urumoffii&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Garden_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"groundcover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groundcover"},{"link_name":"cushion plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cushion_plant"},{"link_name":"rock gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_garden"},{"link_name":"alpine gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_gardens"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RHSAZ-7"},{"link_name":"S. × urbium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_%C3%97_urbium"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"link_name":"S. umbrosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_umbrosa"},{"link_name":"S. spathularis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_spathularis"},{"link_name":"ornamental plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornamental_plant"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-2"},{"link_name":"horticultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticultural"},{"link_name":"S. × geum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_%C3%97_geum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"S. hirsuta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_hirsuta&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Botanic Garden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Botanic_Garden"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cam-2"}],"text":"Saxifraga urumoffii at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.Numerous species and cultivars of saxifrage are cultivated as ornamental garden plants, valued particularly as groundcover or as cushion plants in rock gardens and alpine gardens. Many require alkaline or neutral soil to thrive.[7]S. × urbium (London pride), a hybrid between Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa) and St. Patrick's cabbage (S. spathularis), is commonly grown as an ornamental plant.[2] Another horticultural hybrid is Robertsoniana saxifrage (S. × geum), derived from kidney saxifrage (S. hirsuta) and Pyrenean saxifrage.[citation needed] Some wild species are also used in gardening. Cambridge University Botanic Garden hosts the United Kingdom's national collection of saxifrages.[2]","title":"Cultivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"cultivars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultivars"},{"link_name":"Royal Horticultural Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society"},{"link_name":"Award of Garden Merit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Award_of_Garden_Merit"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"S. callosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_callosa"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Conwy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conwy"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Coolock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coolock"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Cumulus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumulus"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"S. fortunei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_fortunei"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Gregor Mendel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregor_Mendel"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Peach Melba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peach_Melba"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Reginald Farrer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reginald_Farrer"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"S. stolonifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_stolonifera"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"Theoden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoden"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"S. × urbium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_%C3%97_urbium"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Award of Garden Merit","text":"The following species and cultivars have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:-[20]'Angelina Johnson' (fortunei)[21]\n'Blackberry and Apple Pie' (fortunei)[22]\nS. callosa (limestone saxifrage)[23]\n'Conwy Snow' (fortunei)[24]\n'Coolock Kate'[25]\n'Cumulus'[26]\nS. fortunei[27]\n'Gregor Mendel' (× apiculata)[28]\n'Lagraveana' (paniculata)[29]\n'Lutea'[30]\n'Minor'[31]\n'Moe' (fortunei)[32]\n'Monarch'[33]\n'Mount Nachi' (fortunei)[34]\n'Peach Melba'[35]\n'Reginald Farrer' (Silver Farreri Group)[36]\n'Rokujo' (fortunei)[37]\n'Rosea'[38]\n'Shiranami' (fortunei)[39]\n'Slack's Ruby Southside' (Southside Seedling Group)[40]\n'Snowflake' (Silver Farreri Group)[41]\n'Southside Star' (Southside Seedling Group)[42]\nS. stolonifera (strawberry saxifrage)[43]\n'Sue Drew' (fortunei)[44]\nSugar Plum Fairy='Toujya' (fortunei)[45]\n'Theoden'[46]\n'Tumbling Waters' [47]\nS. × urbium (London pride)[48]\n'Venetia' (paniculata)[49]\n'Whitehill'[50]","title":"Cultivation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"S. stolonifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_stolonifera"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"S. oppositifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_oppositifolia"},{"link_name":"Nunavut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunavut"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nunavut-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"S. rotundifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rotundifolia"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"floral emblems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floral_emblem"},{"link_name":"Nunavut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nunavut"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"County Londonderry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Londonderry"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Tsukuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukuba"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_umbrosa_a3.jpg"},{"link_name":"S. umbrosa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_umbrosa"},{"link_name":"horticultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horticultural"},{"link_name":"hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_caesia_a1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga caesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_caesia&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_cuneifolia3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga cuneifolia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_cuneifolia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_decipiens_White_V08_H3990.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga decipiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_decipiens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_rosacea_01.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga rosacea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxifraga_rosacea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saxifraga_tricuspidata_upernavik_2007-07-15_1_filtered.jpg"},{"link_name":"Saxifraga tricuspidata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Saxifraga_tricuspidata&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"The leaves of some saxifrage species, such as creeping saxifrage (S. stolonifera) and S. pensylvanica,[51] are edible. The former is a food in Korea[52] and Japan.[citation needed] The flowers of purple saxifrage (S. oppositifolia) are eaten in Nunavut, Canada and the leaves and stems brewed as a tea.[53]Species are also used in traditional medicine, such as creeping saxifrage in East Asia[54] and round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia) in Europe.[55]Two species—purple saxifrage and creeping saxifrage—are popular floral emblems. They are official flowers for:Nunavut, Canada - purple saxifrage[56]\nCounty Londonderry, Northern Ireland - purple saxifrage[57]\nTsukuba, Japan - creeping saxifrage, \"hoshizaki\" form (S. stolonifera Curtis f. aptera)[58]Pyrenean saxifrage (S. umbrosa), ancestor to horticultural hybrid saxifrages\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaxifraga caesia\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLesser London pride (Saxifraga cuneifolia)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaxifraga decipiens\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIrish saxifrage (Saxifraga rosacea)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPrickly saxifrage (Saxifraga tricuspidata) flowers","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. Vol. III Angoiospermae - Dicotyledons (Resedaceae - Cyrillaceae)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=n2fHDGuqz6wC"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-521-76155-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76155-0"},{"link_name":"Soltis, D E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Soltis"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifragaceae\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/262006159"},{"link_name":"Kubitzki, Klaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Kubitzki"},{"link_name":"Flowering Plants. Eudicots: Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=PdSL7jBNX9EC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-32219-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-32219-1"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifrage\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Saxifrage"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"Soltis, Pamela S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_S._Soltis"},{"link_name":"Soltis, Douglas E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_E._Soltis"},{"link_name":"\"Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of the angiosperm family Saxifragaceae\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/269188706"},{"link_name":"Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolution"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2014.11.011"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"25479063","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25479063"},{"link_name":"Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/j.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x"},{"link_name":"\"New Taxa, Names, and Combinations in the Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) for the Flora of China\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/novon/Gornalletal10-4.htm"},{"link_name":"Novon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novon"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/3392990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F3392990"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3392990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3392990"},{"link_name":"Soltis, Douglas E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Soltis"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Botany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Botany"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2446171","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2446171"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2446171","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2446171"},{"link_name":"\"Molecular phylogenetics, morphology and a revised classification of the complex genus Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.researchgate.net/publication/288903690"},{"link_name":"Taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_(journal)"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.12705/646.4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.12705%2F646.4"},{"link_name":"POWO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_of_the_World_Online"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002955-2"},{"link_name":"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifraga L.\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000034203"},{"link_name":"\"The Saxifrage Society\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.saxifraga.org/"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753 (虎耳草属hu er cao shu)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=129353"},{"link_name":"Flora of China online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_of_China_(series)"},{"link_name":"see also PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/PDF/PDF08/SAXIFRAGA.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753; Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 189. 1754\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=129353"},{"link_name":"Flora of North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"}],"text":"Books\nGornall, RJ (2011) [1984]. \"Saxifraga\". In Cullen, James; Knees, Sabina G.; Cubey, H. Suzanne (eds.). The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. Vol. III Angoiospermae - Dicotyledons (Resedaceae - Cyrillaceae) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–131. ISBN 978-0-521-76155-0.\nSoltis, D E (2007). \"Saxifragaceae\". In Kubitzki, Klaus (ed.). Flowering Plants. Eudicots: Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Vol. IX. Springer. pp. 418–435. ISBN 978-3-540-32219-1.\nArticles\nChisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Saxifrage\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 264.\nDeng, Jia-bin; Drew, Bryan T.; Mavrodiev, Evgeny V.; Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E. (February 2015). \"Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of the angiosperm family Saxifragaceae\". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 83: 86–98. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.011. PMID 25479063.\nGornall, Richard J. (December 1987). \"An outline of a revised classification of Saxifraga L.\". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 95 (4): 273–292. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x.\nGornall, Richard J.; Ohba, Hideaki; Jintang, Pan (2000). \"New Taxa, Names, and Combinations in the Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) for the Flora of China\". Novon. 10 (4): 375–377. doi:10.2307/3392990. JSTOR 3392990.\nSoltis, Douglas E.; Kuzoff, Robert K.; Conti, Elena; Gornall, Richard; Ferguson, Keith (March 1996). \"matK and rbcL Gene Sequence Data Indicate that Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) is Polyphyletic\". American Journal of Botany. 83 (3): 371. doi:10.2307/2446171. JSTOR 2446171.\nTkach, Natalia; Röser, Martin; Miehe, Georg; Muellner-Riehl, Alexandra N.; Ebersbach, Jana; Favre, Adrien; Hoffmann, Matthias H. (31 December 2015). \"Molecular phylogenetics, morphology and a revised classification of the complex genus Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)\". Taxon. 64 (6): 1159–1187. doi:10.12705/646.4.\nWebsites\nPOWO (2019). \"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\" Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 1 December 2019.\nWFO (2020). \"Saxifraga L.\" World Flora Online. Retrieved 9 January 2020.\n\"The Saxifrage Society\". 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2020.\nFloras\nJintang, Pan; Gornall, Richard; Ohba, Hideaki (2004). \"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753 (虎耳草属hu er cao shu)\". p. 280. Retrieved 9 January 2020., in Flora of China online vol. 8 see also PDF\nBrouillet, Luc; Elvander, Patrick E. (2008). \"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753; Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 189. 1754\". Flora of North America vol. 8. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–146. Retrieved 9 January 2020.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"Round-leaved saxifrage (S. rotundifolia), whose sticky leaves seem to catch small invertebrates","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Saxifraga_rotundifolia_a1.jpg/220px-Saxifraga_rotundifolia_a1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Saxifraga urumoffii at the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Saxifraga_urumoffii%2C_Royal_Botanic_Garden_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland%2C_GB%2C_IMG_3765_edit.jpg/220px-Saxifraga_urumoffii%2C_Royal_Botanic_Garden_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland%2C_GB%2C_IMG_3765_edit.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\" Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 13 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002955-2","url_text":"\"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_of_the_World_Online","url_text":"Plants of the World Online"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew","url_text":"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew"}]},{"reference":"\"Saxifraga\". National Plant Collections. Cambridge University Botanic Garden. Retrieved October 3, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Plant.aspx?p=27&ix=11&pid=2763&prcid=4&ppid=2763","url_text":"\"Saxifraga\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Botanic_Garden","url_text":"Cambridge University Botanic Garden"}]},{"reference":"D. A. Webb & R. J. Gornall (1989). Saxifrages of Europe. Christopher Helm. p. 19. ISBN 0-7470-3407-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7470-3407-9","url_text":"0-7470-3407-9"}]},{"reference":"RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN 978-1405332965.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1405332965","url_text":"978-1405332965"}]},{"reference":"\"Saxifraga L.\" Germplasm Resources Information Network. United States Department of Agriculture. February 9, 2005. Retrieved January 20, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?10791","url_text":"\"Saxifraga L.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm_Resources_Information_Network","url_text":"Germplasm Resources Information Network"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture","url_text":"United States Department of Agriculture"}]},{"reference":"Knaben, G. (1934). \"Saxifraga osloensis n. sp., a tetraploid species of the Tridactylites section\". Nytt Magasin for Botanikk: 117–138.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ivo Novák (1980). A Field Guide in Colour to Butterflies and Moths. Octopus Books. ISBN 0-7064-1293-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octopus_Books","url_text":"Octopus Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7064-1293-1","url_text":"0-7064-1293-1"}]},{"reference":"Charles Darwin (1875). \"Drosophyllum – Roridula – Byblis – glandular hairs of other plants – concluding remarks on the Droseraceae\". Insectivorous Plants (1st ed.). London: J. Murray. pp. 332–367.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin","url_text":"Charles Darwin"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/insectivorousplant00darw","url_text":"Insectivorous Plants"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/insectivorousplant00darw/page/332","url_text":"332"}]},{"reference":"\"AGM Plants - Ornamental\" (PDF). Royal Horticultural Society. July 2017. p. 95. Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf","url_text":"\"AGM Plants - Ornamental\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Angelina Johnson'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/328870/i-Saxifraga-i-Angelina-Johnson-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Angelina Johnson'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Blackberry and Apple Pie'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/135777/i-Saxifraga-i-Blackberry-and-Apple-Pie-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Blackberry and Apple Pie'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga callosa\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/16558/Saxifraga-callosa-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga callosa\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Conwy Snow'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/195374/i-Saxifraga-i-Conwy-Snow-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Conwy Snow'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Coolock Kate'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/179269/i-Saxifraga-i-Coolock-Kate-(7)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Coolock Kate'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Cumulus'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/104323/i-Saxifraga-i-Cumulus-(7)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Cumulus'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga fortunei\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/16615/Saxifraga-fortunei-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga fortunei\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Gregor Mendel' (× fortunei)\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/71455/i-Saxifraga-i-Gregor-Mendel-(%C3%97-i-apiculata-i-)-(7)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Gregor Mendel' (× fortunei)\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Lagraveana'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/51081/i-Saxifraga-i-Lagraveana-(-i-paniculata-i-)-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Lagraveana'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Lutea'\". Retrieved 2 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://apps.rhs.org.uk/plantselector/plant?plantid=4112","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Lutea'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Minor'\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98968/Saxifraga-Minor-(cochlearis)-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Minor'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Moe'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/328882/i-Saxifraga-i-Moe-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Moe'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Monarch'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/204222/i-Saxifraga-i-Monarch-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Monarch'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Mount Nachi'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/96144/i-Saxifraga-i-Mount-Nachi-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Mount Nachi'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Peach Melba'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/195379/i-Saxifraga-i-Peach-Melba-(7)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Peach Melba'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Reginald Farrer'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/172923/i-Saxifraga-i-(Silver-Farreri-Group)-Reginald-Farrer-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Reginald Farrer'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Rokujo' (fortunei)\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/89829/i-Saxifraga-i-Rokujo-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Rokujo' (fortunei)\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Rosea'\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/95360/Saxifraga-Rosea-(paniculata)-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Rosea'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Shiranami'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/328887/i-Saxifraga-i-Shiranami-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Shiranami'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Southside Seedling Group) 'Slack's Ruby Southside'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/215621/i-Saxifraga-i-(Southside-Seedling-Group)-Slack-s-Ruby-Southside-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Southside Seedling Group) 'Slack's Ruby Southside'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Snowflake'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/92308/i-Saxifraga-i-(Silver-Farreri-Group)-Snowflake-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga (Silver Farreri Group) 'Snowflake'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - (Southside seedling Group) 'Southside Star'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/215667/i-Saxifraga-i-(Southside-Seedling-Group)-Southside-Star-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - (Southside seedling Group) 'Southside Star'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga stolonifera\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/98506/Saxifraga-stolonifera-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga stolonifera\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Sue Drew'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/252010/i-Saxifraga-i-Sue-Drew-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Sue Drew'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga Sugar Plum Fairy='Toujya'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/148163/i-Saxifraga-i-Font-Face-times-New-Roman-Sugar-Plum-Fairy-FONT-Toujya-(-i-fortunei-i-)-(5)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga Sugar Plum Fairy='Toujya'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Theoden'\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/56377/Saxifraga-Theoden-(oppositifolia)-(7)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Theoden'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Tumbling Waters'\". Retrieved 5 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/92908/Saxifraga-Tumbling-Waters-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga 'Tumbling Waters'\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga × urbium\". Retrieved 8 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/77470/Saxifraga-x-urbium-(11)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plant Selector - Saxifraga × urbium\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Venetia' (paniculata)\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/91882/i-Saxifraga-i-Venetia-(-i-paniculata-i-)-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Venetia' (paniculata)\""}]},{"reference":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Whitehill'\". Retrieved 1 November 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/Plants/86835/i-Saxifraga-i-Whitehill-(8)/Details","url_text":"\"RHS Plantfinder - Saxifraga 'Whitehill'\""}]},{"reference":"Niering, William A.; Olmstead, Nancy C. (1985) [1979]. The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Wildflowers, Eastern Region. Knopf. p. 780. ISBN 0-394-50432-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Niering","url_text":"Niering, William A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-50432-1","url_text":"0-394-50432-1"}]},{"reference":"Chon, Sang-Uk; Heo, Buk-Gu; Park, Yong-Seo; Cho, Ja-Yong; Gorinstein, Shela (2008). \"Characteristics of the leaf parts of some traditional Korean salad plants used for food\". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 88 (11): 1963–1968. Bibcode:2008JSFA...88.1963C. doi:10.1002/jsfa.3304. ISSN 1097-0010.","urls":[{"url":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/jsfa.3304","url_text":"\"Characteristics of the leaf parts of some traditional Korean salad plants used for food\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008JSFA...88.1963C","url_text":"2008JSFA...88.1963C"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjsfa.3304","url_text":"10.1002/jsfa.3304"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1097-0010","url_text":"1097-0010"}]},{"reference":"Ji-xian Guo, Ki Sung Chung, Paul Pui-hay But, Takeatsu Kimura (1996). International Collation Of Traditional And Folk Medicine, Vol 2: Northeast Asia Part 2. World Scientific Publishing Company. p. 65.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Pieroni, Andrea; Quave, Cassandra L., eds. (2014). Ethnobotany and Biocultural Diversities in the Balkans. New York: Springer.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"The Official Flower of Nunavut: Purple Saxifrage\". Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. 2011. Retrieved July 31, 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.assembly.nu.ca/about-legislative-assembly/official-flower-nunavut","url_text":"\"The Official Flower of Nunavut: Purple Saxifrage\""}]},{"reference":"\"City flower, bird and tree\" (in Japanese). City of Tsukuba. Retrieved 17 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.city.tsukuba.lg.jp/shisei/joho/profile/1002223.html","url_text":"\"City flower, bird and tree\""}]},{"reference":"Gornall, RJ (2011) [1984]. \"Saxifraga\". In Cullen, James; Knees, Sabina G.; Cubey, H. Suzanne (eds.). The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. Vol. III Angoiospermae - Dicotyledons (Resedaceae - Cyrillaceae) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 102–131. ISBN 978-0-521-76155-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=n2fHDGuqz6wC","url_text":"The European Garden Flora Flowering Plants: A Manual for the Identification of Plants Cultivated in Europe, Both Out-of-Doors and Under Glass. Vol. III Angoiospermae - Dicotyledons (Resedaceae - Cyrillaceae)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76155-0","url_text":"978-0-521-76155-0"}]},{"reference":"Soltis, D E (2007). \"Saxifragaceae\". In Kubitzki, Klaus (ed.). Flowering Plants. Eudicots: Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae. The Families and Genera of Vascular Plants. Vol. IX. Springer. pp. 418–435. ISBN 978-3-540-32219-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Soltis","url_text":"Soltis, D E"},{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262006159","url_text":"\"Saxifragaceae\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klaus_Kubitzki","url_text":"Kubitzki, Klaus"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PdSL7jBNX9EC","url_text":"Flowering Plants. Eudicots: Berberidopsidales, Buxales, Crossosomatales, Fabales p.p., Geraniales, Gunnerales, Myrtales p.p., Proteales, Saxifragales, Vitales, Zygophyllales, Clusiaceae Alliance, Passifloraceae Alliance, Dilleniaceae, Huaceae, Picramniaceae, Sabiaceae"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-32219-1","url_text":"978-3-540-32219-1"}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Saxifrage\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 264.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Saxifrage","url_text":"\"Saxifrage\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Deng, Jia-bin; Drew, Bryan T.; Mavrodiev, Evgeny V.; Gitzendanner, Matthew A.; Soltis, Pamela S.; Soltis, Douglas E. (February 2015). \"Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of the angiosperm family Saxifragaceae\". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 83: 86–98. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.011. PMID 25479063.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamela_S._Soltis","url_text":"Soltis, Pamela S."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_E._Soltis","url_text":"Soltis, Douglas E."},{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269188706","url_text":"\"Phylogeny, divergence times, and historical biogeography of the angiosperm family Saxifragaceae\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolution","url_text":"Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2014.11.011","url_text":"10.1016/j.ympev.2014.11.011"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25479063","url_text":"25479063"}]},{"reference":"Gornall, Richard J. (December 1987). \"An outline of a revised classification of Saxifraga L.\". Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society. 95 (4): 273–292. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_Journal_of_the_Linnean_Society","url_text":"Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x","url_text":"10.1111/j.1095-8339.1987.tb01860.x"}]},{"reference":"Gornall, Richard J.; Ohba, Hideaki; Jintang, Pan (2000). \"New Taxa, Names, and Combinations in the Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) for the Flora of China\". Novon. 10 (4): 375–377. doi:10.2307/3392990. JSTOR 3392990.","urls":[{"url":"http://flora.huh.harvard.edu/china/novon/Gornalletal10-4.htm","url_text":"\"New Taxa, Names, and Combinations in the Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) for the Flora of China\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novon","url_text":"Novon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3392990","url_text":"10.2307/3392990"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3392990","url_text":"3392990"}]},{"reference":"Soltis, Douglas E.; Kuzoff, Robert K.; Conti, Elena; Gornall, Richard; Ferguson, Keith (March 1996). \"matK and rbcL Gene Sequence Data Indicate that Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae) is Polyphyletic\". American Journal of Botany. 83 (3): 371. doi:10.2307/2446171. JSTOR 2446171.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Soltis","url_text":"Soltis, Douglas E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Botany","url_text":"American Journal of Botany"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2446171","url_text":"10.2307/2446171"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2446171","url_text":"2446171"}]},{"reference":"Tkach, Natalia; Röser, Martin; Miehe, Georg; Muellner-Riehl, Alexandra N.; Ebersbach, Jana; Favre, Adrien; Hoffmann, Matthias H. (31 December 2015). \"Molecular phylogenetics, morphology and a revised classification of the complex genus Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)\". Taxon. 64 (6): 1159–1187. doi:10.12705/646.4.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/288903690","url_text":"\"Molecular phylogenetics, morphology and a revised classification of the complex genus Saxifraga (Saxifragaceae)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon_(journal)","url_text":"Taxon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.12705%2F646.4","url_text":"10.12705/646.4"}]},{"reference":"POWO (2019). \"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\" Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 1 December 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plants_of_the_World_Online","url_text":"POWO"},{"url":"https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002955-2","url_text":"\"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Botanic_Gardens,_Kew","url_text":"Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew"}]},{"reference":"WFO (2020). \"Saxifraga L.\" World Flora Online. Retrieved 9 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldfloraonline.org/taxon/wfo-4000034203","url_text":"\"Saxifraga L.\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Saxifrage Society\". 2020. Retrieved 9 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.saxifraga.org/","url_text":"\"The Saxifrage Society\""}]},{"reference":"Jintang, Pan; Gornall, Richard; Ohba, Hideaki (2004). \"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753 (虎耳草属hu er cao shu)\". p. 280. Retrieved 9 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=129353","url_text":"\"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753 (虎耳草属hu er cao shu)\""}]},{"reference":"Brouillet, Luc; Elvander, Patrick E. (2008). \"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1: 398. 1753; Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 189. 1754\". Flora of North America vol. 8. New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 43–146. Retrieved 9 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=129353","url_text":"\"Saxifraga Linnaeus, Sp. 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Pl. ed. 5, 189. 1754\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flora_of_North_America","url_text":"Flora of North America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press","url_text":"Oxford University Press"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:30002955-2","external_links_name":"\"Saxifraga Tourn. ex L.\""},{"Link":"http://www.botanic.cam.ac.uk/Botanic/Plant.aspx?p=27&ix=11&pid=2763&prcid=4&ppid=2763","external_links_name":"\"Saxifraga\""},{"Link":"http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/genus.pl?10791","external_links_name":"\"Saxifraga L.\""},{"Link":"http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=10800","external_links_name":"Flora of China"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/insectivorousplant00darw","external_links_name":"Insectivorous Plants"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/insectivorousplant00darw/page/332","external_links_name":"332"},{"Link":"https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-ornamentals.pdf","external_links_name":"\"AGM Plants - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-Hydroxy-3-nitrobenzenearsonic_acid	Roxarsone	["1 Production and applications","2 Marketing approval in the United States","3 Controversy","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]	Roxarsone Names Preferred IUPAC name (4-Hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl)arsonic acid Identifiers CAS Number 121-19-7 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive imageInteractive image Beilstein Reference 1976533 ChEBI CHEBI:35817 Y ChEMBL ChEMBL1321154 ChemSpider 4925 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.004.049 EC Number 204-453-7 Gmelin Reference 1221211 KEGG D05771 Y MeSH Roxarsone PubChem CID 5104 RTECS number CY5250000 UNII H5GU9YQL7L Y UN number 3465 CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID9020956 InChI InChI=1S/C6H6AsNO6/c9-6-2-1-4(7(10,11)12)3-5(6)8(13)14/h1-3,9H,(H2,10,11,12) YKey: XMVJITFPVVRMHC-UHFFFAOYSA-N YInChI=1/C6H6AsNO6/c9-6-2-1-4(7(10,11)12)3-5(6)8(13)14/h1-3,9H,(H2,10,11,12)Key: XMVJITFPVVRMHC-UHFFFAOYAF SMILES Oc1ccc(cc1(=O))(O)(O)=OOC1=CC=C(C=C1()=O)(O)(O)=O Properties Chemical formula C6AsNH6O6 Molar mass 263.0365 g mol−1 Melting point > 300 °C (572 °F; 573 K) Hazards GHS labelling: Pictograms Signal word Danger Hazard statements H301, H331, H410 Precautionary statements P261, P273, P301+P310, P311, P501 Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). Y verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound Roxarsone is an organoarsenic compound that has been used in poultry production as a feed additive to increase weight gain and improve feed efficiency, and as a coccidiostat. As of June 2011, it was approved for chicken feed in the United States, Canada, Australia, and 12 other countries. The drug was also approved in the United States and elsewhere for use in pigs. Its use in the United States was voluntarily ended by the manufacturers in June 2011 and has been illegal since 2013. Its use was immediately suspended in Malaysia. It was banned in Canada in August 2011. In Australia, its use in chicken feed was discontinued in 2012. Roxarsone has been banned in the European Union since 1999. Production and applications Roxarsone is a derivative of phenylarsonic acid (C6H5As(O)(OH)2). It was first reported in a 1923 British patent that described the nitration and diazotization of arsanilic acid. When blended with calcite powder, it is used in poultry feed premixes in some parts of the world. Where available, it can be purchased in 5%, 20% and 50% concentrations. Roxarsone was marketed as 3-Nitro by Zoetis, a former subsidiary of Pfizer now a publicly traded company. In 2006, approximately one million kilograms of roxarsone were produced in the U.S. Marketing approval in the United States Roxarsone is one of four arsenical animal drugs that had been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in poultry and swine, along with nitarsone, arsanilic acid, and carbarsone. In September 2013, the FDA announced that Zoetis and Fleming Laboratories would voluntarily withdraw current roxarsone, arsanilic acid, and carbarsone approvals, leaving only nitarsone approvals in place. In 2015, the FDA withdrew the approval of using nitarsone in animal feeds. The ban came into effect at the end of 2015. Controversy Roxarsone has attracted attention as a source of arsenic contamination of poultry and other foods. In June 2011, the manufacturers suspended sales of roxarsone in the U.S. and Canada in response to a study by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The FDA found that roxarsone use was associated with elevated levels of inorganic arsenic in chicken livers. An FDA press release stated that the findings raised "concerns of a very low but completely avoidable exposure to a carcinogen." A 2013 market basket study conducted in the United States linked the use of roxarsone and other arsenical feed additives to increased levels of inorganic arsenic in chicken breast meat, albeit at concentrations well below danger levels set in federal safety standards. Breast meat from chickens exposed to arsenical feed additives contained inorganic arsenic at the level of about two parts per billion. Organic chickens not exposed to arsenical feed additives contained about half a part per billion. Federal standards permitted concentrations of 500 parts per billion of total arsenic. The study was performed on chickens raised prior to the voluntary withdrawal of Roxarsone from the market by its manufacturer in June 2011. References ^ a b c U.S. Food and Drug Administration (June 8, 2011). "Questions and Answers Regarding 3-Nitro (Roxarsone)". ^ a b Harris, Gardiner; Grady, Denise (9 June 2011). "Pfizer Suspends Sales of Chicken Drug". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ a b U.S. Food and Drug Administration (September 20, 2011). "FDA Response to Citizen Petition on Arsenic-based Animal Drugs". ^ "Arsenic in Chicken: Does chicken meat contain arsenic?". Chicken Check In. 21 July 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2018. ^ "Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society". Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ "Sales halted after arsenic found in chicken drug". The Globe and Mail. 3 May 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ "Roxarsone not used in the Australian chicken industry" (PDF). Australian Meat Chicken Federation. 24 May 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ Philpott, Tom (11 June 2011). "Some Arsenic With That Supermarket Chicken?". Mother Jones. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ GB 226255 19230718 ^ Hileman, B. (April 9, 2007). "Arsenic in Chicken Production". Chemical and Engineering News. pp. 34–35. ^ U.S. Food and Drug Administration (April 1, 2015). "FDA Announces Pending Withdrawal of Approval of Nitarsone". ^ Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy (April 4, 2006). "Playing Chicken: Avoiding Arsenic in Your Meat". {{cite news}}: \|author= has generic name (help) ^ Consumer Reports (November 2012). "Arsenic in your food". ^ a b U.S. Food and Drug Administration (June 8, 2011). "FDA: Pfizer will voluntarily suspend sale of animal drug 3-Nitro". ^ AGCanada (7 July 2011). "Poultry antibiotic pulled in Canada". AGCanada. Retrieved 19 October 2018. ^ Cevallos, M. (June 9, 2011). "Arsenic-containing drug in chicken feed to be pulled from U.S". LA Times. ^ KE Nachman; PA Baron; G Raber; KA Francesconi; A Navas-Acien; DC Love (2013). "Roxarsone, Inorganic Arsenic, and Other Arsenic Species in Chicken: A U.S.-Based Market Basket Sample" (PDF). Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (7): 818–824. doi:10.1289/ehp.1206245. PMC 3701911. PMID 23694900. ^ Sabrina Tavernise (May 11, 2013). "Study Finds an Increase in Arsenic Levels in Chicken". New York Times. Further reading J. R. Garbarino; A. J. Bednar; D. W. Rutherford; R. S. Beyer & R. L. Wershaw (2003). "Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter. I. Degradation of Roxarsone during Composting". Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 (8): 1509–1514. Bibcode:2003EnST...37.1509G. doi:10.1021/es026219q. PMID 12731831. Chiou P. W.-S.; Chen K.-L.; Yu B. (1997). "Effects of roxarsone on performance, toxicity, tissue accumulation and residue of eggs and excreta in laying". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 74 (2): 229–236. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<229::AID-JSFA793>3.0.CO;2-F. R. L. Wershaw; J. R. Garbarino & M. R. Burkhardt (1999). Roxarsone in Natural Water Systems (PDF). Effects of Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment. Fort Collins, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-06-06. KB Kerr; JR Narveson; FA Lux (1969). "Toxicity of an organic arsenical, 3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid. Residues in chicken tissues". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 17 (6): 1400. doi:10.1021/jf60166a021. External links No Arsenic In Pardoned Turkeys, But It Might Be In Yours at NPR	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"organoarsenic compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organoarsenic_compound"},{"link_name":"poultry production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poultry_production"},{"link_name":"feed efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio"},{"link_name":"coccidiostat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coccidiostat"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDA-1"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2011-2"},{"link_name":"pigs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swine_production"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDA-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT2011-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-withdrawn-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Malaysia-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Canada-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Chemical compoundRoxarsone is an organoarsenic compound that has been used in poultry production as a feed additive to increase weight gain and improve feed efficiency, and as a coccidiostat.[1] As of June 2011, it was approved for chicken feed in the United States, Canada, Australia, and 12 other countries.[2] The drug was also approved in the United States and elsewhere for use in pigs.[1][2]Its use in the United States was voluntarily ended by the manufacturers in June 2011 and has been illegal since 2013.[3][4] Its use was immediately suspended in Malaysia.[5] It was banned in Canada in August 2011.[6] In Australia, its use in chicken feed was discontinued in 2012.[7] Roxarsone has been banned in the European Union since 1999.[8]","title":"Roxarsone"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phenylarsonic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylarsonic_acid"},{"link_name":"nitration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitration"},{"link_name":"diazotization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diazotization"},{"link_name":"arsanilic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsanilic_acid"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Zoetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetis"},{"link_name":"Pfizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfizer"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Roxarsone is a derivative of phenylarsonic acid (C6H5As(O)(OH)2). It was first reported in a 1923 British patent that described the nitration and diazotization of arsanilic acid.[9] When blended with calcite powder, it is used in poultry feed premixes in some parts of the world. Where available, it can be purchased in 5%, 20% and 50% concentrations.[citation needed]Roxarsone was marketed as 3-Nitro by Zoetis, a former subsidiary of Pfizer now a publicly traded company. In 2006, approximately one million kilograms of roxarsone were produced in the U.S.[10]","title":"Production and applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arsenical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenical"},{"link_name":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"nitarsone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitarsone"},{"link_name":"arsanilic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsanilic_acid"},{"link_name":"carbarsone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbarsone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDA-1"},{"link_name":"Zoetis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoetis"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-withdrawn-3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nitarsone-11"}],"text":"Roxarsone is one of four arsenical animal drugs that had been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in poultry and swine, along with nitarsone, arsanilic acid, and carbarsone.[1] In September 2013, the FDA announced that Zoetis and Fleming Laboratories would voluntarily withdraw current roxarsone, arsanilic acid, and carbarsone approvals, leaving only nitarsone approvals in place.[3] In 2015, the FDA withdrew the approval of using nitarsone in animal feeds. The ban came into effect at the end of 2015.[11]","title":"Marketing approval in the United States"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arsenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Food and Drug Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDA2-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AGCanada-15"},{"link_name":"inorganic arsenic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_arsenic"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDA2-14"},{"link_name":"market basket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_basket"},{"link_name":"chicken breast meat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poultry#Cuts_of_poultry"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Roxarsone has attracted attention as a source of arsenic contamination of poultry and other foods.[12][13] In June 2011, the manufacturers suspended sales of roxarsone in the U.S. and Canada in response to a study by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA).[14][15] The FDA found that roxarsone use was associated with elevated levels of inorganic arsenic in chicken livers.[16] An FDA press release stated that the findings raised \"concerns of a very low but completely avoidable exposure to a carcinogen.\"[14]A 2013 market basket study conducted in the United States linked the use of roxarsone and other arsenical feed additives to increased levels of inorganic arsenic in chicken breast meat, albeit at concentrations well below danger levels set in federal safety standards.[17][18] Breast meat from chickens exposed to arsenical feed additives contained inorganic arsenic at the level of about two parts per billion. Organic chickens not exposed to arsenical feed additives contained about half a part per billion. Federal standards permitted concentrations of 500 parts per billion of total arsenic. The study was performed on chickens raised prior to the voluntary withdrawal of Roxarsone from the market by its manufacturer in June 2011.[citation needed]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2003EnST...37.1509G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003EnST...37.1509G"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1021/es026219q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1021%2Fes026219q"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"12731831","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12731831"},{"link_name":"Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_Science_of_Food_and_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<229::AID-JSFA793>3.0.CO;2-F","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-0010%28199706%2974%3A2%3C229%3A%3AAID-JSFA793%3E3.0.CO%3B2-F"},{"link_name":"Roxarsone in Natural Water Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//water.usgs.gov/owq/AFO/proceedings/afo/pdf/Wershaw.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1021/jf60166a021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf60166a021"}],"text":"J. R. Garbarino; A. J. Bednar; D. W. Rutherford; R. S. Beyer & R. L. Wershaw (2003). \"Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter. I. Degradation of Roxarsone during Composting\". Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 (8): 1509–1514. Bibcode:2003EnST...37.1509G. doi:10.1021/es026219q. PMID 12731831.\nChiou P. W.-S.; Chen K.-L.; Yu B. (1997). \"Effects of roxarsone on performance, toxicity, tissue accumulation and residue of eggs and excreta in laying\". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 74 (2): 229–236. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<229::AID-JSFA793>3.0.CO;2-F.\nR. L. Wershaw; J. R. Garbarino & M. R. Burkhardt (1999). Roxarsone in Natural Water Systems (PDF). Effects of Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment. Fort Collins, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-06-06.\nKB Kerr; JR Narveson; FA Lux (1969). \"Toxicity of an organic arsenical, 3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid. Residues in chicken tissues\". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 17 (6): 1400. doi:10.1021/jf60166a021.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Roxarsone.png/121px-Roxarsone.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Roxarsone-3D-spacefill.png/130px-Roxarsone-3D-spacefill.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (June 8, 2011). \"Questions and Answers Regarding 3-Nitro (Roxarsone)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/ProductSafetyInformation/ucm258313.htm","url_text":"\"Questions and Answers Regarding 3-Nitro (Roxarsone)\""}]},{"reference":"Harris, Gardiner; Grady, Denise (9 June 2011). \"Pfizer Suspends Sales of Chicken Drug\". The New York Times. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/09/business/09arsenic.html","url_text":"\"Pfizer Suspends Sales of Chicken Drug\""}]},{"reference":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (September 20, 2011). \"FDA Response to Citizen Petition on Arsenic-based Animal Drugs\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/SafetyHealth/ProductSafetyInformation/ucm370568.htm","url_text":"\"FDA Response to Citizen Petition on Arsenic-based Animal Drugs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Arsenic in Chicken: Does chicken meat contain arsenic?\". Chicken Check In. 21 July 2017. Retrieved 20 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chickencheck.in/faq/arsenic-chicken/","url_text":"\"Arsenic in Chicken: Does chicken meat contain arsenic?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society\". Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.mps.org.my/newsmaster.cfm?&menuid=36&action=view&retrieveid=3448","url_text":"\"Malaysian Pharmaceutical Society\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sales halted after arsenic found in chicken drug\". The Globe and Mail. 3 May 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/health-and-fitness/sales-halted-after-arsenic-found-in-chicken-drug/article591962/","url_text":"\"Sales halted after arsenic found in chicken drug\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roxarsone not used in the Australian chicken industry\" (PDF). Australian Meat Chicken Federation. 24 May 2018. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.chicken.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/New_ACMF_Position-Statement_Roxarsone_180222F-3.pdf","url_text":"\"Roxarsone not used in the Australian chicken industry\""}]},{"reference":"Philpott, Tom (11 June 2011). \"Some Arsenic With That Supermarket Chicken?\". Mother Jones. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.motherjones.com/tom-philpott/2011/06/arsenic-chicken-fda-roxarsone-pfizer","url_text":"\"Some Arsenic With That Supermarket Chicken?\""}]},{"reference":"Hileman, B. (April 9, 2007). \"Arsenic in Chicken Production\". Chemical and Engineering News. pp. 34–35.","urls":[{"url":"http://pubs.acs.org/cen/government/85/8515gov2.html","url_text":"\"Arsenic in Chicken Production\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_and_Engineering_News","url_text":"Chemical and Engineering News"}]},{"reference":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (April 1, 2015). \"FDA Announces Pending Withdrawal of Approval of Nitarsone\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fda.gov/AnimalVeterinary/NewsEvents/CVMUpdates/ucm440668.htm","url_text":"\"FDA Announces Pending Withdrawal of Approval of Nitarsone\""}]},{"reference":"Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy (April 4, 2006). \"Playing Chicken: Avoiding Arsenic in Your Meat\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.iatp.org/documents/playing-chicken-avoiding-arsenic-in-your-meat","url_text":"\"Playing Chicken: Avoiding Arsenic in Your Meat\""}]},{"reference":"Consumer Reports (November 2012). \"Arsenic in your food\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2012/11/arsenic-in-your-food/index.htm","url_text":"\"Arsenic in your food\""}]},{"reference":"U.S. Food and Drug Administration (June 8, 2011). \"FDA: Pfizer will voluntarily suspend sale of animal drug 3-Nitro\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm258342.htm","url_text":"\"FDA: Pfizer will voluntarily suspend sale of animal drug 3-Nitro\""}]},{"reference":"AGCanada (7 July 2011). \"Poultry antibiotic pulled in Canada\". AGCanada. Retrieved 19 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.agcanada.com/daily/poultry-antibiotic-pulled-in-canada","url_text":"\"Poultry antibiotic pulled in Canada\""}]},{"reference":"Cevallos, M. (June 9, 2011). \"Arsenic-containing drug in chicken feed to be pulled from U.S\". LA Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.latimes.com/health/boostershots/la-heb-arsenic-chicken-pfizer-20110608,0,6568583.story","url_text":"\"Arsenic-containing drug in chicken feed to be pulled from U.S\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LA_Times","url_text":"LA Times"}]},{"reference":"KE Nachman; PA Baron; G Raber; KA Francesconi; A Navas-Acien; DC Love (2013). \"Roxarsone, Inorganic Arsenic, and Other Arsenic Species in Chicken: A U.S.-Based Market Basket Sample\" (PDF). Environmental Health Perspectives. 121 (7): 818–824. doi:10.1289/ehp.1206245. PMC 3701911. PMID 23694900.","urls":[{"url":"http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/wp-content/uploads/121/5/ehp.1206245.pdf","url_text":"\"Roxarsone, Inorganic Arsenic, and Other Arsenic Species in Chicken: A U.S.-Based Market Basket Sample\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Health_Perspectives","url_text":"Environmental Health Perspectives"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1289%2Fehp.1206245","url_text":"10.1289/ehp.1206245"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3701911","url_text":"3701911"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23694900","url_text":"23694900"}]},{"reference":"Sabrina Tavernise (May 11, 2013). \"Study Finds an Increase in Arsenic Levels in Chicken\". New York Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2013/05/11/health/study-finds-an-increase-in-arsenic-levels-in-chicken.html","url_text":"\"Study Finds an Increase in Arsenic Levels in Chicken\""}]},{"reference":"J. R. Garbarino; A. J. Bednar; D. W. Rutherford; R. S. Beyer & R. L. Wershaw (2003). \"Environmental Fate of Roxarsone in Poultry Litter. I. Degradation of Roxarsone during Composting\". Environ. Sci. Technol. 37 (8): 1509–1514. Bibcode:2003EnST...37.1509G. doi:10.1021/es026219q. PMID 12731831.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003EnST...37.1509G","url_text":"2003EnST...37.1509G"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fes026219q","url_text":"10.1021/es026219q"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12731831","url_text":"12731831"}]},{"reference":"Chiou P. W.-S.; Chen K.-L.; Yu B. (1997). \"Effects of roxarsone on performance, toxicity, tissue accumulation and residue of eggs and excreta in laying\". Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 74 (2): 229–236. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<229::AID-JSFA793>3.0.CO;2-F.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_Science_of_Food_and_Agriculture","url_text":"Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F%28SICI%291097-0010%28199706%2974%3A2%3C229%3A%3AAID-JSFA793%3E3.0.CO%3B2-F","url_text":"10.1002/(SICI)1097-0010(199706)74:2<229::AID-JSFA793>3.0.CO;2-F"}]},{"reference":"R. L. Wershaw; J. R. Garbarino & M. R. Burkhardt (1999). Roxarsone in Natural Water Systems (PDF). Effects of Confined Animal Feeding Operations (CAFOs) on Hydrologic Resources and the Environment. Fort Collins, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-06-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://water.usgs.gov/owq/AFO/proceedings/afo/pdf/Wershaw.pdf","url_text":"Roxarsone in Natural Water Systems"}]},{"reference":"KB Kerr; JR Narveson; FA Lux (1969). \"Toxicity of an organic arsenical, 3-nitro-4-hydroxyphenylarsonic acid. Residues in chicken tissues\". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 17 (6): 1400. doi:10.1021/jf60166a021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjf60166a021","url_text":"10.1021/jf60166a021"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=121-19-7","external_links_name":"121-19-7"},{"Link":"https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=Oc1ccc%28cc1%5BN%2B%5D%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D%29%5BAs%5D%28O%29%28O%29%3DO","external_links_name":"Interactive image"},{"Link":"https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=OC1%3DCC%3DC%28C%3DC1%5BN%2B%5D%28%5BO-%5D%29%3DO%29%5BAs%5D%28O%29%28O%29%3DO","external_links_name":"Interactive 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictine_Military_School	Benedictine Military School	["1 History","2 Academics","3 Student life","3.1 Athletics","3.2 Student traditions","4 Notable alumni","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Coordinates: 32°0′34″N 81°5′33″W / 32.00944°N 81.09250°W / 32.00944; -81.09250For other schools with similar names, see Benedictine High School (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Benedictine Military School" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Private, day, college-prep, military school in Savannah, Georgia, United StatesBenedictine Military SchoolAddress6502 Seawright DriveSavannah, Georgia 31406United StatesCoordinates32°0′34″N 81°5′33″W / 32.00944°N 81.09250°W / 32.00944; -81.09250InformationTypePrivate, day, college-prep, militaryMottoForward always forwardReligious affiliation(s)Roman CatholicEstablished1902 (122 years ago) (1902)Sister schoolSt. Vincent's AcademyAuthoritySavannah PrioryCEEB code112675PrincipalJacob HorneSAILieutenant Colonel Stephen A. Suhr, U.S. Army (Retired)HeadmasterChaplain (Colonel) Frank Ziemkiewicz, U.S. Army (Retired)Grades9–12GenderBoysEnrollment400Color(s)Maroon, white, grey Athletics conferenceGHSA Region 3 – Class AAAASports13 sports + color guard and drill teamMascotCadetsTeam nameCadetsAccreditationSouthern Association of Colleges and SchoolsYearbookThe SabreAffiliationSaint Vincent Archabbey National Catholic Educational AssociationWebsitewww.thebc400.com Benedictine Military School (also referred to as Benedictine or BC) is a Catholic military high school for boys located in Savannah, Georgia, United States. It was founded in 1902 by the Benedictine monks of Savannah Priory, which still operates the school under the auspices of the Diocese of Savannah. History Starting in 1874, Benedictine monks had gone to Georgia from St. Vincent Abbey in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, at the invitation of William Hickley Gross, C.Ss.R., at that time the Roman Catholic Bishop of Savannah. He was acting in response to a mandate given to all the Catholic bishops of the nation at the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in 1866, to establish missions to the newly emancipated African American slaves. Two separate attempts were made to establish such a mission. By about 1900, both had failed. Having decided to place themselves under the authority of Leo Haid, O.S.B., the Abbot Nullius of Belmont Abbey in North Carolina, ten monks established a monastery in the city at 31st and Habersham Streets, where they served Sacred Heart Parish. Recognizing the need for a Catholic boys' school, they established Benedictine College in 1902. In 1906, the groundbreaking ceremony was performed on the ground that would become the school's campus on Bull Street. In 1920, the school changed its name to Benedictine School because of the confusion that Benedictine was a college. However, the nickname "BC" stuck. In 1963, the school moved to its current campus located on Seawright Drive on the south side of Savannah. Shortly after moving to the new location, the priory elected to return to the authority of St. Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe. Along with this change came the removal of the four year mandatory military program, with reduction to two years mandatory. Academics This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Benedictine's curriculum is College Preparatory. Advanced Placement classes are offered in Language, Literature, Calculus, Environmental Science, Human Geography, Biology, Government, American History, Economics and European History, in conjunction with a religious curriculum that caters to Catholic and Jewish demographics. The JROTC program at Benedictine, with over 350 cadets, is one of the largest in the Sixth ROTC Brigade. Student life This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Benedictine Military School" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Athletics Up until 2004, BC had always competed in Georgia's highest classification. In 2004, the school dropped to AAA. In 2008, to AA. In 2010, BC returned to Region 3-AAAAA. Currently, BC is in Region 3-AAAA of the GHSA. The Cadet baseball team won state championships in 1961, 2014, and 2018. The Cadet golf team won state championships in 1983, 1985, and 1993. The Cadet football team won state championships in 2014 (AA), 2016 (AA), 2021 (AAAA), and 2022 (AAAA). The Cadet soccer program won state championships in 2017 and 2018. Student traditions The Corps of Cadets has marched in every St. Patrick's Day parade in Savannah since 1903. There has been a football rivalry with Savannah High School since the 1920s; a past tradition of many decades was the Thanksgiving Day contest between the two schools. However, they have not played since 2011 due to region alignments. The Cadets have begun a rivalry with various Savannah area high schools, such as Islands, since joining Region 3-AAAA in 2019. George K. Gannam, a 1938 Benedictine graduate, was killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor and was the first Savannah resident to die during World War II. The school holds a military review and formal ceremony on or around Pearl Harbor Day (December 7) each year to commemorate Staff Sergeant Gannam. The American Legion Post 184, named in his honor, presents the Gannam Award to the most outstanding sophomore cadet, and the God and Country Award to an outstanding senior cadet. The school presents the Gannam family an American flag which, in turn, the Gannam family gives back to the school to fly on the flagpole for the following year. The Benedictine fight song is sung to the tune of the Washington and Lee Swing. Upperclassmen expect freshmen to correctly recite the fight song within the first days of a new school year. The song is sung by students, alumni, and friends at almost every athletic and school sponsored events. Notable alumni This article's list of alumni may not follow Wikipedia's verifiability policy. Please improve this article by removing names that do not have independent reliable sources showing they merit inclusion in this article AND are alumni, or by incorporating the relevant publications into the body of the article through appropriate citations. (January 2023) LTC Thomas Nugent Courvousie (1934), lieutenant colonel, United States Army. Mentor to author Pat Conroy and basis for the character Thomas "The Bear" Berrineau in Conroy's novel The Lords of Discipline. LTG John N. McLaughlin, USMC (1936), lieutenant general, United States Marine Corps. John "Hook" Dillon (1941) - basketball player Ken "Hawk" Harrelson (1959), former Major League Baseball player (1963–71) and former television broadcaster for the Chicago White Sox Mike Fitzgerald (1983), former Major League Baseball player for the St. Louis Cardinals. Selected by the San Francisco Giants in the first round of the 1983 MLB January Draft-Regular Phase, before electing to attend Middle Georgia State College. Was again selected the first round of the 1984 MLB June Draft-Secondary Phase by the St. Louis Cardinals and signed with the team Peter Roe Nugent, mayor of Savannah Barry Wilson, American football coach See also National Catholic Educational Association References ^ AdvancED. "AdvancED-Find Accredited Institutions". Archived from the original on 2015-09-15. Retrieved 2015-09-24. ^ NCEA. "NCEA School Locator". Archived from the original on 2015-09-25. Retrieved 2015-09-24. ^ "About Us: History". Benedictine Military School. ^ "Benedictine Military School History \| Catholic School in GA". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ "Curriculum - Benedictine Military School". bcsav.net. Retrieved October 30, 2013. ^ "Curriculum Detail". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ "Academic Curriculum at Benedictine Military School in GA". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ "- no title available -". Retrieved November 1, 2013. ^ admin (2014-06-10). "Cadets grab first baseball title since 1961". ITG Next. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Sulkowski, Frank (2018-05-22). "STATE CHAMPS! Benedictine sweeps Berrien to claim GHSA Class AA Title". WJCL. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ "Congratulations to the 2014-15 Football State Champions \| GHSA.net". www.ghsa.net. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Knight, Dennis. "Benedictine beats Fitzgerald 49-26 for Class 2A state football title". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ WTOC Staff (2021-12-11). "Benedictine wins 4A State Championship over Carver-Columbus". www.wtoc.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Fisher, Jeff (2021-12-11). "Benedictine Military captures Georgia 4A state title". High School Football America. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Knight, Dennis. "Benedictine notches 1st soccer state title, defeating Coosa 4-1 in GHSA Class 2A finals". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Gunn, Robin Wright. "BC JROTC takes parade in stride". Connect Savannah. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ Barnidge, Noell. "BC vs. Savannah High: A game of historic proportions". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12. ^ "Remembering Sergeant Gannam: the life and times of a World War II Purple Heart winner" (PDF). Southern Cross. 2003-04-17. p. 3. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2010-12-14. Retrieved 2009-07-08. ^ http://benedictinealumni.com/index.php/virtual-alumni-hall ^ "Ken Harrelson". statistics and biographic information. Baseball Reference.com. Retrieved 26 November 2010. High School: Benedictine (Savannah, GA) ^ Clayton, Ward (August 21, 1990). "Battle tested: Wilson ready to guide Duke's troops". The Herald Sun. pp. D3, D19. Retrieved July 22, 2023 – via Newspapers.com. External links Official website Articles related to Benedictine Military School vteSaint Vincent ArchabbeyLatrobe, PennsylvaniaArchabbots Boniface Wimmer Andrew Hintenach Leander Schnerr Rembert Weakland Douglas R. Nowicki Martin de Porres Bartel Schools Saint Vincent College Saint Vincent Seminary Benedictine Military School Related St. Vincent Archabbey Gristmill Saint Vincent Beer vteEducation in Savannah, GeorgiaColleges and universities Armstrong Georgia Southern Georgia Tech Savannah Medical College of Georgia Mercer University School of Medicine Savannah State Savannah Tech SCAD Skidaway Institute of Oceanography South University Savannah-Chatham Countypublic high schools Beach Groves Islands Jenkins Johnson New Hampstead Savannah Savannah Arts Windsor Forest Private high schools Benedictine Calvary Day Memorial Day St Andrew's St. Vincent's Savannah Christian Savannah Country Day vteGHSA Class AAAA Region 3 Central Lions Griffin Bears Harris County Tigers Jonesboro Cardinals Mundy's Mill Tigers Northside Patriots Starr's Mill Panthers vteBenedictine high schools in the United States Maur Hill–Mount Academy, Atchison, KS Marmion Academy, Aurora, IL Linton Hall School, Bristow, VA St. Scholastica, Chicago, IL Benedictine High School, Cleveland, OH Saint John's Preparatory School, Collegeville, MN St. Bernard Preparatory School, Cullman, AL Delbarton School, Morristown, NJ Benedictine Academy, Elizabeth, NJ Mount Michael Benedictine School. Elkhorn, NE Cistercian Preparatory School, Irving, TX Benet Academy, Lisle, IL Saint Benedict's Preparatory School, Newark, NJ St. Bede Academy, Peru, IL Portsmouth Abbey School, Portsmouth, RI Saint Gertrude High School, Richmond, VA Benedictine Military School, Savannah, GA Saint Louis Priory School, St. Louis, MO Subiaco Abbey and Academy, Subiaco, AR Villa Madonna Academy, Villa Hills, KY St. Anselm's Abbey School, Washington, DC Woodside Priory School, Portola Valley, CA Catholicism portal vteRoman Catholic Diocese of SavannahOrdinaries Bishops Francis Xavier Gartland John Barry Augustin Verot Ignatius Persico William Hickley Gross Thomas Albert Andrew Becker Benjamin Joseph Keiley Michael Joseph Keyes Gerald Patrick Aloysius O'Hara Thomas Joseph McDonough Gerard Louis Frey Raymond W. Lessard J. Kevin Boland Gregory John Hartmayer Stephen D. Parkes Churches Cathedral Cathedral Basilica of St. John the Baptist Education High schools Aquinas High School Benedictine Military School Mount de Sales Academy Pacelli High School St. Vincent's Academy Catholicism portal vteSingle-gender schools in GeorgiaPublic boys' schools The B.E.S.T. Academy (Atlanta) Ivy Preparatory Young Men’s Leadership Academy (Atlanta) Public girls' schools Coretta Scott King Young Women's Leadership Academy (Atlanta) Ivy Preparatory Academy at Gwinnett (Norcross) Ivy Preparatory Academy at Kirkwood for Girls (Atlanta)Became coed Girls High School (Atlanta) Private boys' schools Benedictine Military School (Savannah) Private girls' schools Atlanta Girls' School St. Vincent's Academy (Savannah) Became coed Mount de Sales Academy Other private schools Pinecrest Academy (Cumming) - Puts boys and girls in separate classes Portals: Catholicism Georgia (U.S. state) Schools Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benedictine High School (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictine_High_School_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Savannah, Georgia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah,_Georgia"},{"link_name":"Benedictine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedictines"},{"link_name":"Savannah Priory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savannah_Priory"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah"}],"text":"For other schools with similar names, see Benedictine High School (disambiguation).Private, day, college-prep, military school in Savannah, Georgia, United StatesBenedictine Military School (also referred to as Benedictine or BC) is a Catholic military high school for boys located in Savannah, Georgia, United States. It was founded in 1902 by the Benedictine monks of Savannah Priory, which still operates the school under the auspices of the Diocese of Savannah.","title":"Benedictine Military School"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benedictine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_St._Benedict"},{"link_name":"St. Vincent Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Vincent_Archabbey"},{"link_name":"Latrobe, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrobe,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"William Hickley Gross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Hickley_Gross"},{"link_name":"C.Ss.R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redemptorists"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Bishop of Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah"},{"link_name":"Second Plenary Council of Baltimore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plenary_Councils_of_Baltimore#Second_Plenary_Council_of_Baltimore_(1866)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Leo Haid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leo_Michael_Haid"},{"link_name":"Abbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot"},{"link_name":"Nullius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_abbey"},{"link_name":"Belmont Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belmont_Abbey,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Sacred Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacred_Heart"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"college","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Starting in 1874, Benedictine monks had gone to Georgia from St. Vincent Abbey in Latrobe, Pennsylvania, at the invitation of William Hickley Gross, C.Ss.R., at that time the Roman Catholic Bishop of Savannah. He was acting in response to a mandate given to all the Catholic bishops of the nation at the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore, held in 1866, to establish missions to the newly emancipated African American slaves. Two separate attempts were made to establish such a mission. By about 1900, both had failed.[3]Having decided to place themselves under the authority of Leo Haid, O.S.B., the Abbot Nullius of Belmont Abbey in North Carolina, ten monks established a monastery in the city at 31st and Habersham Streets, where they served Sacred Heart Parish. Recognizing the need for a Catholic boys' school, they established Benedictine College in 1902. In 1906, the groundbreaking ceremony was performed on the ground that would become the school's campus on Bull Street. In 1920, the school changed its name to Benedictine School because of the confusion that Benedictine was a college. However, the nickname \"BC\" stuck.In 1963, the school moved to its current campus located on Seawright Drive on the south side of Savannah. Shortly after moving to the new location, the priory elected to return to the authority of St. Vincent Archabbey in Latrobe. Along with this change came the removal of the four year mandatory military program, with reduction to two years mandatory.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"College Preparatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_preparatory_course"},{"link_name":"Advanced Placement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_placement"},{"link_name":"Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature"},{"link_name":"Calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calculus"},{"link_name":"Environmental Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Science"},{"link_name":"Human Geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_Geography"},{"link_name":"Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"Government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government"},{"link_name":"American History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_History"},{"link_name":"Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"European History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_History"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Benedictine's curriculum is College Preparatory. Advanced Placement classes are offered in Language, Literature, Calculus, Environmental Science, Human Geography, Biology, Government, American History, Economics and European History,[5] in conjunction with a religious curriculum that caters to Catholic and Jewish demographics.[6][7]The JROTC program at Benedictine, with over 350 cadets, is one of the largest in the Sixth ROTC Brigade.[8]","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Athletics","text":"Up until 2004, BC had always competed in Georgia's highest classification. In 2004, the school dropped to AAA. In 2008, to AA. In 2010, BC returned to Region 3-AAAAA. Currently, BC is in Region 3-AAAA of the GHSA.[citation needed]The Cadet baseball team won state championships in 1961, 2014,[9] and 2018.[10]The Cadet golf team won state championships in 1983, 1985, and 1993.The Cadet football team won state championships in 2014 (AA),[11] 2016 (AA),[12] 2021 (AAAA),[13] and 2022 (AAAA).[14]The Cadet soccer program won state championships in 2017[15] and 2018.","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St. Patrick's Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Patrick%27s_Day"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"attack on Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"American Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Legion"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Washington and Lee Swing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_and_Lee_Swing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Student traditions","text":"The Corps of Cadets has marched in every St. Patrick's Day parade in Savannah since 1903.[16]There has been a football rivalry with Savannah High School since the 1920s; a past tradition of many decades was the Thanksgiving Day contest between the two schools. However, they have not played since 2011 due to region alignments. The Cadets have begun a rivalry with various Savannah area high schools, such as Islands, since joining Region 3-AAAA in 2019.[17]George K. Gannam, a 1938 Benedictine graduate, was killed during the attack on Pearl Harbor and was the first Savannah resident to die during World War II.[18] The school holds a military review and formal ceremony on or around Pearl Harbor Day (December 7) each year to commemorate Staff Sergeant Gannam. The American Legion Post 184, named in his honor, presents the Gannam Award to the most outstanding sophomore cadet, and the God and Country Award to an outstanding senior cadet. The school presents the Gannam family an American flag which, in turn, the Gannam family gives back to the school to fly on the flagpole for the following year.[citation needed]The Benedictine fight song is sung to the tune of the Washington and Lee Swing. Upperclassmen expect freshmen to correctly recite the fight song within the first days of a new school year. The song is sung by students, alumni, and friends at almost every athletic and school sponsored events.[citation needed]","title":"Student life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"LTC Thomas Nugent Courvousie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Nugent_Courvousie"},{"link_name":"The Lords of Discipline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lords_of_Discipline"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"LTG John N. McLaughlin, USMC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._McLaughlin"},{"link_name":"John \"Hook\" Dillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_Dillon"},{"link_name":"Ken \"Hawk\" Harrelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Harrelson"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"Chicago White Sox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_White_Sox"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Mike Fitzgerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Fitzgerald_(first_baseman)"},{"link_name":"Major League Baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_League_Baseball"},{"link_name":"St. Louis Cardinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Giants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Giants"},{"link_name":"Middle Georgia State College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Georgia_State_College"},{"link_name":"St. Louis Cardinals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Cardinals"},{"link_name":"Peter Roe Nugent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Roe_Nugent"},{"link_name":"Barry Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Wilson_(American_football)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hs-19900821-21"}],"text":"LTC Thomas Nugent Courvousie (1934), lieutenant colonel, United States Army. Mentor to author Pat Conroy and basis for the character Thomas \"The Bear\" Berrineau in Conroy's novel The Lords of Discipline.[19]\nLTG John N. McLaughlin, USMC (1936), lieutenant general, United States Marine Corps.\nJohn \"Hook\" Dillon (1941) - basketball player\nKen \"Hawk\" Harrelson (1959), former Major League Baseball player (1963–71) and former television broadcaster for the Chicago White Sox[20]\nMike Fitzgerald (1983), former Major League Baseball player for the St. Louis Cardinals. Selected by the San Francisco Giants in the first round of the 1983 MLB January Draft-Regular Phase, before electing to attend Middle Georgia State College. Was again selected the first round of the 1984 MLB June Draft-Secondary Phase by the St. Louis Cardinals and signed with the team\nPeter Roe Nugent, mayor of Savannah\nBarry Wilson, American football coach[21]","title":"Notable alumni"}]	[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah.svg/80px-Roman_Catholic_Diocese_of_Savannah.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"National Catholic Educational Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Catholic_Educational_Association"}]	[{"reference":"AdvancED. \"AdvancED-Find Accredited Institutions\". Archived from the original on 2015-09-15. Retrieved 2015-09-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150915085513/http://www.advanc-ed.org/oasis2/u/par/search","url_text":"\"AdvancED-Find Accredited Institutions\""},{"url":"http://www.advanc-ed.org/oasis2/u/par/search","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"NCEA. \"NCEA School Locator\". Archived from the original on 2015-09-25. Retrieved 2015-09-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110407/http://www.ncea.org/data-information/school-diocesan-locator","url_text":"\"NCEA School Locator\""},{"url":"http://www.ncea.org/data-information/school-diocesan-locator","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"About Us: History\". Benedictine Military School.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thebc400.com/pages/about-us/history","url_text":"\"About Us: History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Benedictine Military School History \| Catholic School in GA\". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebc400.com/about/history#:~:text=Begun%20as%20a%20boy%27s%20preparatory,the%20beginning%20of%20Benedictine%20College.","url_text":"\"Benedictine Military School History \| Catholic School in GA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Curriculum - Benedictine Military School\". bcsav.net. Retrieved October 30, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bcsav.net/benedictine/curriculum/","url_text":"\"Curriculum - Benedictine Military School\""}]},{"reference":"\"Curriculum Detail\". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebc400.com/curriculum-detail?fromId=279285&LevelNum=1840&DepartmentId=32640#","url_text":"\"Curriculum Detail\""}]},{"reference":"\"Academic Curriculum at Benedictine Military School in GA\". www.thebc400.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebc400.com/academics/curriculum","url_text":"\"Academic Curriculum at Benedictine Military School in GA\""}]},{"reference":"\"- no title available -\". Retrieved November 1, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bcsav.net/","url_text":"\"- no title available -\""}]},{"reference":"admin (2014-06-10). \"Cadets grab first baseball title since 1961\". ITG Next. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://itgnext.com/cadets-grab-first-baseball-title-since-1961/","url_text":"\"Cadets grab first baseball title since 1961\""}]},{"reference":"Sulkowski, Frank (2018-05-22). \"STATE CHAMPS! Benedictine sweeps Berrien to claim GHSA Class AA Title\". WJCL. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wjcl.com/article/state-champs-benedictine-sweeps-berrien-to-claim-ghsa-class-aa-title/20867175","url_text":"\"STATE CHAMPS! Benedictine sweeps Berrien to claim GHSA Class AA Title\""}]},{"reference":"\"Congratulations to the 2014-15 Football State Champions \| GHSA.net\". www.ghsa.net. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ghsa.net/congratulations-2014-15-football-state-champions","url_text":"\"Congratulations to the 2014-15 Football State Champions \| GHSA.net\""}]},{"reference":"Knight, Dennis. \"Benedictine beats Fitzgerald 49-26 for Class 2A state football title\". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2016/12/10/benedictine-beats-fitzgerald-49-26-class-2a-state-football-title/13906304007/","url_text":"\"Benedictine beats Fitzgerald 49-26 for Class 2A state football title\""}]},{"reference":"WTOC Staff (2021-12-11). \"Benedictine wins 4A State Championship over Carver-Columbus\". www.wtoc.com. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wtoc.com/2021/12/11/benedictine-wins-4a-state-championship-over-carver-columbus/","url_text":"\"Benedictine wins 4A State Championship over Carver-Columbus\""}]},{"reference":"Fisher, Jeff (2021-12-11). \"Benedictine Military captures Georgia 4A state title\". High School Football America. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://highschoolfootballamerica.com/benedictine-military-captures-georgia-4a-state-title/","url_text":"\"Benedictine Military captures Georgia 4A state title\""}]},{"reference":"Knight, Dennis. \"Benedictine notches 1st soccer state title, defeating Coosa 4-1 in GHSA Class 2A finals\". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2017/05/13/benedictine-notches-1st-soccer-state-title-defeating-coosa-4-1/13883127007/","url_text":"\"Benedictine notches 1st soccer state title, defeating Coosa 4-1 in GHSA Class 2A finals\""}]},{"reference":"Gunn, Robin Wright. \"BC JROTC takes parade in stride\". Connect Savannah. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.connectsavannah.com/savannah/bc-jrotc-takes-parade-in-stride/Content?oid=2159107","url_text":"\"BC JROTC takes parade in stride\""}]},{"reference":"Barnidge, Noell. \"BC vs. Savannah High: A game of historic proportions\". Savannah Morning News. Retrieved 2023-04-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2010/09/17/bc-vs-savannah-high-game-historic-proportions/13392602007/","url_text":"\"BC vs. Savannah High: A game of historic proportions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Remembering Sergeant Gannam: the life and times of a World War II Purple Heart winner\" (PDF). Southern Cross. 2003-04-17. p. 3. Archived from the original (pdf) on 2010-12-14. Retrieved 2009-07-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101214092027/http://www.diosav.org/files/archives/S8316p03.pdf","url_text":"\"Remembering Sergeant Gannam: the life and times of a World War II Purple Heart winner\""},{"url":"http://www.diosav.org/files/archives/S8316p03.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Ken Harrelson\". statistics and biographic information. Baseball Reference.com. Retrieved 26 November 2010. High School: Benedictine (Savannah, GA)","urls":[{"url":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/h/harreke01.shtml?redir","url_text":"\"Ken Harrelson\""}]},{"reference":"Clayton, Ward (August 21, 1990). \"Battle tested: Wilson ready to guide Duke's troops\". The Herald Sun. pp. D3, D19. Retrieved July 22, 2023 – via Newspapers.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659048/","url_text":"\"Battle tested: Wilson ready to guide Duke's troops\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Herald_Sun","url_text":"The Herald Sun"},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659048/","url_text":"D3"},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659109/","url_text":"D19"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspapers.com","url_text":"Newspapers.com"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Benedictine_Military_School&params=32_0_34_N_81_5_33_W_type:edu_region:US-GA","external_links_name":"32°0′34″N 81°5′33″W / 32.00944°N 81.09250°W / 32.00944; -81.09250"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine Military School\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Benedictine_Military_School&params=32_0_34_N_81_5_33_W_type:edu_region:US-GA","external_links_name":"32°0′34″N 81°5′33″W / 32.00944°N 81.09250°W / 32.00944; -81.09250"},{"Link":"https://www.thebc400.com/","external_links_name":"www.thebc400.com"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine Military School\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Benedictine+Military+School%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Benedictine_Military_School&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150915085513/http://www.advanc-ed.org/oasis2/u/par/search","external_links_name":"\"AdvancED-Find Accredited Institutions\""},{"Link":"http://www.advanc-ed.org/oasis2/u/par/search","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150925110407/http://www.ncea.org/data-information/school-diocesan-locator","external_links_name":"\"NCEA School Locator\""},{"Link":"http://www.ncea.org/data-information/school-diocesan-locator","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.thebc400.com/pages/about-us/history","external_links_name":"\"About Us: History\""},{"Link":"https://www.thebc400.com/about/history#:~:text=Begun%20as%20a%20boy%27s%20preparatory,the%20beginning%20of%20Benedictine%20College.","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine Military School History \| Catholic School in GA\""},{"Link":"http://www.bcsav.net/benedictine/curriculum/","external_links_name":"\"Curriculum - Benedictine Military School\""},{"Link":"https://www.thebc400.com/curriculum-detail?fromId=279285&LevelNum=1840&DepartmentId=32640#","external_links_name":"\"Curriculum Detail\""},{"Link":"https://www.thebc400.com/academics/curriculum","external_links_name":"\"Academic Curriculum at Benedictine Military School in GA\""},{"Link":"http://www.bcsav.net/","external_links_name":"\"- no title available -\""},{"Link":"https://itgnext.com/cadets-grab-first-baseball-title-since-1961/","external_links_name":"\"Cadets grab first baseball title since 1961\""},{"Link":"https://www.wjcl.com/article/state-champs-benedictine-sweeps-berrien-to-claim-ghsa-class-aa-title/20867175","external_links_name":"\"STATE CHAMPS! Benedictine sweeps Berrien to claim GHSA Class AA Title\""},{"Link":"https://www.ghsa.net/congratulations-2014-15-football-state-champions","external_links_name":"\"Congratulations to the 2014-15 Football State Champions \| GHSA.net\""},{"Link":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2016/12/10/benedictine-beats-fitzgerald-49-26-class-2a-state-football-title/13906304007/","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine beats Fitzgerald 49-26 for Class 2A state football title\""},{"Link":"https://www.wtoc.com/2021/12/11/benedictine-wins-4a-state-championship-over-carver-columbus/","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine wins 4A State Championship over Carver-Columbus\""},{"Link":"https://highschoolfootballamerica.com/benedictine-military-captures-georgia-4a-state-title/","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine Military captures Georgia 4A state title\""},{"Link":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2017/05/13/benedictine-notches-1st-soccer-state-title-defeating-coosa-4-1/13883127007/","external_links_name":"\"Benedictine notches 1st soccer state title, defeating Coosa 4-1 in GHSA Class 2A finals\""},{"Link":"https://www.connectsavannah.com/savannah/bc-jrotc-takes-parade-in-stride/Content?oid=2159107","external_links_name":"\"BC JROTC takes parade in stride\""},{"Link":"https://www.savannahnow.com/story/sports/high-school/2010/09/17/bc-vs-savannah-high-game-historic-proportions/13392602007/","external_links_name":"\"BC vs. Savannah High: A game of historic proportions\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20101214092027/http://www.diosav.org/files/archives/S8316p03.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Remembering Sergeant Gannam: the life and times of a World War II Purple Heart winner\""},{"Link":"http://www.diosav.org/files/archives/S8316p03.pdf","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://benedictinealumni.com/index.php/virtual-alumni-hall","external_links_name":"http://benedictinealumni.com/index.php/virtual-alumni-hall"},{"Link":"https://www.baseball-reference.com/players/h/harreke01.shtml?redir","external_links_name":"\"Ken Harrelson\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659048/","external_links_name":"\"Battle tested: Wilson ready to guide Duke's troops\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659048/","external_links_name":"D3"},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-herald-sun-battle-tested-wilson-rea/128659109/","external_links_name":"D19"},{"Link":"https://www.thebc400.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000405460874","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/250824234","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2012038397","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Regulations_2015	National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015	["1 Contents","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References","5 External links"]	United Kingdom legislationNational Minimum Wage Regulations 2015Statutory InstrumentParliament of the United KingdomCitationSI 2015/621Territorial extent England and Wales; Scotland; Northern IrelandStatus: Current legislationText of statute as originally enactedText of the National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015 as in force today (including any amendments) within the United Kingdom, from legislation.gov.uk. The National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015 (SI 2015/6221) are a statutory instrument under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998 that elaborate rules on how to calculate whether someone is being paid the minimum wage, who gets it, and how to enforce it. Contents This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (July 2019) See also vteSources on wagesNational Minimum Wage Act 1998National Minimum Wage Regulations 1999Employment Act 2008 ss 8-12Edmonds v Lawson James v Redcats (Brands) Ltd British Nursing Assn v Inland Revenue Scottbridge Construction Ltd v Wright Walton v Ind Living Organisation MacCartney v Oversley House Management Leisure Employment Ltd v HMRC Nerva v United Kingdom (2003) 36 EHRR 4see Minimum wage in the United Kingdom vteSources on working timeDirective 2003/88/ECWorking Time Regulations 1998 (SI 1998/1833)SIMAP v CSCGV (2000) C-303/98Pfeiffer v Deutsches Rotes Kreuz (2005) C-397/01Commission v United Kingdom (2006) C-484/04R v DTI ex parte BECTU (2001) C-173/99Robinson-Steele v RD Retail Services Ltd (2006) C-131/04HM Revenue and Customs v Stringer (2009) C-520/06Landeshauptstadt Kiel v Jaeger (2003) C-151/02Barber v RJB Mining (UK) Ltd ICR 679Employment Rights Act 1996 ss 50-70Russell v Transocean International Resources Ltd UKSC 57Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009 (c 22)see Working time in the United Kingdom UK labour law Tax Credits and Child tax credit, Working tax credit Wage regulation Notes References External links vteUK legislationPre-parliamentary legislation List of English statutes Charter of Liberties Magna Carta Acts of parliaments of states precedingthe Kingdom of Great BritainParliament of England 1225–1267 1275–1307 1308–1325 Temp. incert. 1327–1376 1377–1397 1399–1411 1413–1421 1422–1460 1461 1463 1464 1467 1468 1472 1474 1477 1482 1483 1485–1503 1509–1535 1536 1539–1540 1541 1542 1543 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1551 1553 1554 1555 1557 1558–1575 1580 1584 1586 1588 1592 1597 1601 1603 1605 1606 1609 1620 1623 1625 1627 Petition of Right 1640 Interregnum (1642–1660) 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1670 1672 1675 1677 1678 1679 Habeas Corpus Act 1680 1685 1688 1689 Bill of Rights 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 Parliament of Scotland to 1707 Acts of Parliament of theKingdom of Great Britain 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715–1719 1720–1724 1725–1729 1730–1734 1735–1739 1740–1744 1745–1749 1750–1754 1755–1759 1760–1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 Acts of the Parliament of Ireland to 1700 1701–1750 1751–1800 Acts of Parliament of the United Kingdom ofGreat Britain and Ireland and the UnitedKingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Halsbury's Statutes Legislation.gov.uk Short titles relating to the European Union (formerly European Communities) 1972 to date Church of England measures List Church of England Assembly (Powers) Act 1919 Legislation of devolved institutions Acts of the Scottish Parliament List Acts of Senedd Cymru and Measures of the National Assembly for Wales List Acts of the Northern Ireland Assembly Acts of the Parliament of Northern Ireland Orders in Council 1994 to date for Northern Ireland 1972–2009/2015–16 Secondary legislation United Kingdom statutory instruments Scottish statutory instruments Acts of Sederunt Acts of Adjournal Church of England instruments	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SI 2015/6221","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/621/contents/made"},{"link_name":"National Minimum Wage Act 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998"}],"text":"United Kingdom legislationThe National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015 (SI 2015/6221) are a statutory instrument under the National Minimum Wage Act 1998 that elaborate rules on how to calculate whether someone is being paid the minimum wage, who gets it, and how to enforce it.","title":"National Minimum Wage Regulations 2015"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Contents"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"}]	[]	[{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Clist_wage"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_wage"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_wage"},{"title":"National Minimum Wage Act 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Act_1998"},{"title":"National Minimum Wage Regulations 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Minimum_Wage_Regulations_1999"},{"title":"Employment Act 2008","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Act_2008"},{"title":"Edmonds v Lawson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmonds_v_Lawson"},{"title":"James v Redcats (Brands) Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_v_Redcats_(Brands)_Ltd"},{"title":"British Nursing Assn v Inland Revenue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Nursing_Assn_v_Inland_Revenue"},{"title":"Scottbridge Construction Ltd v Wright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottbridge_Construction_Ltd_v_Wright"},{"title":"Walton v Ind Living Organisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walton_v_Ind_Living_Organisation"},{"title":"MacCartney v Oversley House Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacCartney_v_Oversley_House_Management"},{"title":"Leisure Employment Ltd v HMRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leisure_Employment_Ltd_v_HMRC"},{"title":"Nerva v United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nerva_v_United_Kingdom&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"title":"Minimum wage in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_wage_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"title":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Clist_time"},{"title":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Clist_time"},{"title":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Clist_time"},{"title":"Directive 2003/88/EC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Directive_2003/88/EC"},{"title":"Working Time Regulations 1998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_Time_Regulations_1998"},{"title":"SI 1998/1833","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1998/1833/contents/made"},{"title":"SIMAP v CSCGV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sindicato_de_M%C3%A9dicos_de_Asistencia_P%C3%BAblica_v_Conselleria_de_Sanidad_y_Consumo_de_la_Generalidad_Valenciana"},{"title":"C-303/98","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:61998CJ0303"},{"title":"Pfeiffer v Deutsches Rotes Kreuz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pfeiffer_v_Deutsches_Rotes_Kreuz"},{"title":"C-397/01","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62001CJ0397"},{"title":"Commission v United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commission_v_United_Kingdom_(2006)"},{"title":"C-484/04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62004CJ0484"},{"title":"R v DTI ex parte BECTU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_v_DTI_ex_parte_BECTU"},{"title":"C-173/99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:61999CJ0173"},{"title":"Robinson-Steele v RD Retail Services Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson-Steele_v_RD_Retail_Services_Ltd"},{"title":"C-131/04","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62004CJ0131"},{"title":"HM Revenue and Customs v Stringer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_Revenue_and_Customs_v_Stringer"},{"title":"C-520/06","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62006CJ0350"},{"title":"Landeshauptstadt Kiel v Jaeger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landeshauptstadt_Kiel_v_Jaeger"},{"title":"C-151/02","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/ALL/?uri=CELEX:62002CJ0151"},{"title":"Barber v RJB Mining (UK) Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barber_v_RJB_Mining_(UK)_Ltd"},{"title":"Employment Rights Act 1996","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employment_Rights_Act_1996"},{"title":"ss 50-70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/18/contents"},{"title":"Russell v Transocean International Resources Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell_v_Transocean_International_Resources_Ltd"},{"title":"UKSC 57","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2011/57.html"},{"title":"Apprenticeships, Skills, Children and Learning Act 2009","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apprenticeships,_Skills,_Children_and_Learning_Act_2009"},{"title":"c 22","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2009/22/contents"},{"title":"Working time in the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_time_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"title":"UK labour law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_labour_law"},{"title":"Tax Credits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax_credits"},{"title":"Child tax credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_tax_credit"},{"title":"Working tax credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Working_tax_credit"},{"title":"Wage regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wage_regulation"}]	[]	[{"Link":"http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/621/contents/made","external_links_name":"Text of statute as originally enacted"},{"Link":"https://www.legislation.gov.uk/id?title=National+Minimum+Wage+Regulations+2015","external_links_name":"Text of the National Minimum Wage Regulations 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._F._Th._van_der_Heijden	A. F. Th. van der Heijden	["1 Awards and honors","2 Bibliography","3 De slag om de Blauwbrug","4 References","5 External links"]	Dutch author (born 1951) A. F. Th. van der Heijden (1996) Adrianus Franciscus Theodorus van der Heijden (born 15 October 1951) is a Dutch writer. Van der Heijden was born in Geldrop, and studied psychology and philosophy in Nijmegen. After moving to Amsterdam he turned to writing. His first two books appeared under the pseudonym Patrizio Canaponi: the short story collection Een gondel in de Herengracht ("A Gondola in the Herengracht", 1978, Anton Wachter Prize, 1979) and the novel De draaideur ("The Revolving Door", 1979). Van der Heijden then began publishing under his own name in the 80s. Van der Heijden has won many awards, including all the big Dutch literary awards: the 2013 P. C. Hooft Award for his entire oeuvre, the 2012 Libris Literatuur Prijs for Tonio, and the 2007 AKO Literatuurprijs for Het schervengericht and the 1997 AKO Literatuurprijs for Onder het plaveisel het moeras. Some of Van der Heijden's books have been translated into German, Russian, Finnish, Swedish, Spanish and Bulgarian. Van der Heijden (or A.F.Th. as he is called among book lovers) is most known for his multi-novel saga De tandeloze tijd ("The Toothless Time") about his alter-ego Albert Egberts. The saga describes his youth in Geldrop, his student days in Nijmegen and his life afterward in Amsterdam in the seventies and eighties. In 2003 Van der Heijden started a new saga: Homo Duplex, based on characters of the Greek tragedies in a contemporary setting. Awards and honors This section appears to be slanted towards recent events. Please try to keep recent events in historical perspective and add more content related to non-recent events. (March 2015) 2013 P.C. Hooft-prijs 2012 Libris Literatuur Prijs, winner, Tonio 2011 Constantijn Huygens Prize 2009 De Inktaap, winner, Het schervengericht 2008 Tzumprijs voor de beste literaire zin, winner, Mim 2007 AKO Literatuurprijs, winner, Het schervengericht 2003 Schrijversprijs der Brabantse Letteren 1997 Golden Owl, winner, Het Hof van Barmhartigheid & Onder het Plaveisel het Moeras 1997 AKO Literatuurprijs, winner, Onder het plaveisel het moeras 1986 Ferdinand Bordewijk Prijs, winner, De gevarendriehoek 1986 Multatuliprijs, winner, De gevarendriehoek 1979 Anton Wachterprijs, winner, Bouwval Bibliography Overview of significant publications: Een gondel in de Herengracht (1978; stories) De draaideur (1979, novel) De slag om de Blauwbrug De tandeloze tijd Prologue (1983, novel) Vallende ouders De tandeloze tijd Volume 1 ("Parents Falling"; 1983, novel) De gevarendriehoek De tandeloze tijd Volume 2 (1985, novel) De sandwich (1986, novel) Het leven uit een dag (1988, novel) Advocaat van de Hanen De tandeloze tijd Volume 4 (1990, novel) – film adaptation as Punk Lawyer Weerborstels De tandeloze tijd Intermezzo (1992, short story) Asbestemming. Een requiem (1994, novel) Het Hof van Barmhartigheid De tandeloze tijd Volume 3 Book 1 ("The Court of Mercy"; 1996, novel) Onder het plaveisel het moeras De tandeloze tijd Volume 3 Book 2 ("Under the Pavement the Swamp"; 1996, novel) De Movo tapes Homo duplex Volume 0 (2003, novel) Engelenplaque (2003, Diary-notes 1966 -2003) Drijfzand koloniseren Homo duplex ("Colonizing quicksand"; 2006, novel) Het schervengericht Homo duplex (2007, novel) Mim (2007, short story) – inspired on De versierde mens by Harry Mulisch on the celebration of his 80th birthday Gentse lente (2008, stories) Doodverf (2009, novel) Tonio (2011, novel) Made into a Dutch-language movie in 2016 by director Paula van der Oest. Zogkoorts De tandeloze tijd Volume 13 (2023, novel) De slag om de Blauwbrug De slag om de Blauwbrug ("Battle at the Blue Bridge") is the prologue to De tandeloze tijd and is one of the most controversial books in contemporary Dutch literature. The novel focuses on the events surrounding the coronation of Queen Beatrix on 30 April 1980. The whole event is seen through the eyes of a social reject and ex-convict who is walking in the streets of Amsterdam at that particular day. He witnesses violent clashes between police and anti-monarchist anarchist squatters who provoke riots during the coronation, protesting against poor housing conditions and using the occasion to tackle the institution of monarchy and the idea of government authority in general. The novel's main character is only observing the brutal clashes without participating or taking sides. The riots cause flashbacks to the important political events into his memory: from the Vietnam War to the R.A.F. terrorist attacks in the 1970s. References ^ "P.C. Hooft-prijs voor A.F.Th. van der Heijden". de Volkskrant (in Dutch). 11 December 2012. Retrieved 11 December 2012. ^ (in Dutch) www.schrijversinfo.nl, website on Dutch writers ^ "A.F.Th. van der Heijden krijgt P.C. Hooft-prijs". De Standaard (in Dutch). 11 December 2012. Retrieved 13 December 2012. ^ (in Dutch) biography on publishers website Querido.nl Archived 3 July 2009 at the Wayback Machine External links A. F. Th. van der Heijden, official website. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Germany Belgium United States Czech Republic Netherlands People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A.F.Th._van_der_Heijden_1996.jpg"},{"link_name":"Geldrop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geldrop"},{"link_name":"Nijmegen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nijmegen"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"P. C. Hooft Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P._C._Hooft_Award"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Libris Literatuur Prijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libris_Literatuur_Prijs"},{"link_name":"AKO Literatuurprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKO_Literatuurprijs"},{"link_name":"AKO Literatuurprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKO_Literatuurprijs"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"alter-ego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alter-ego"}],"text":"A. F. Th. van der Heijden (1996)Adrianus Franciscus Theodorus van der Heijden (born 15 October 1951) is a Dutch writer.Van der Heijden was born in Geldrop, and studied psychology and philosophy in Nijmegen. After moving to Amsterdam he turned to writing. His first two books appeared under the pseudonym Patrizio Canaponi: the short story collection Een gondel in de Herengracht (\"A Gondola in the Herengracht\", 1978, Anton Wachter Prize, 1979) and the novel De draaideur (\"The Revolving Door\", 1979). Van der Heijden then began publishing under his own name in the 80s. Van der Heijden has won many awards, including all the big Dutch literary awards: the 2013 P. C. Hooft Award for his entire oeuvre,[1] the 2012 Libris Literatuur Prijs for Tonio, and the 2007 AKO Literatuurprijs for Het schervengericht and the 1997 AKO Literatuurprijs for Onder het plaveisel het moeras. Some of Van der Heijden's books have been translated into German, Russian, Finnish, Swedish, Spanish and Bulgarian.[2]Van der Heijden (or A.F.Th. as he is called among book lovers) is most known for his multi-novel saga De tandeloze tijd (\"The Toothless Time\") about his alter-ego Albert Egberts. The saga describes his youth in Geldrop, his student days in Nijmegen and his life afterward in Amsterdam in the seventies and eighties.In 2003 Van der Heijden started a new saga: Homo Duplex, based on characters of the Greek tragedies in a contemporary setting.","title":"A. F. Th. van der Heijden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"P.C. Hooft-prijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P.C._Hooft-prijs"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Libris Literatuur Prijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libris_Literatuur_Prijs"},{"link_name":"Constantijn Huygens Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantijn_Huygens_Prize"},{"link_name":"De Inktaap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=De_Inktaap&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tzumprijs voor de beste literaire zin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tzumprijs_voor_de_beste_literaire_zin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AKO Literatuurprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKO_Literatuurprijs"},{"link_name":"Schrijversprijs der Brabantse Letteren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schrijversprijs_der_Brabantse_Letteren&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Golden Owl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Owl"},{"link_name":"AKO Literatuurprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AKO_Literatuurprijs"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Bordewijk Prijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Bordewijk_Prijs"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Multatuliprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multatuliprijs"},{"link_name":"Anton Wachterprijs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anton_Wachterprijs&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"2013 P.C. Hooft-prijs[3]\n2012 Libris Literatuur Prijs, winner, Tonio\n2011 Constantijn Huygens Prize\n2009 De Inktaap, winner, Het schervengericht\n2008 Tzumprijs voor de beste literaire zin, winner, Mim\n2007 AKO Literatuurprijs, winner, Het schervengericht\n2003 Schrijversprijs der Brabantse Letteren\n1997 Golden Owl, winner, Het Hof van Barmhartigheid & Onder het Plaveisel het Moeras\n1997 AKO Literatuurprijs, winner, Onder het plaveisel het moeras\n1986 Ferdinand Bordewijk Prijs, winner, De gevarendriehoek[4]\n1986 Multatuliprijs, winner, De gevarendriehoek\n1979 Anton Wachterprijs, winner, Bouwval","title":"Awards and honors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Punk Lawyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punk_Lawyer"},{"link_name":"Harry Mulisch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Mulisch"},{"link_name":"movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonio_(film)"},{"link_name":"Paula van der Oest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paula_van_der_Oest"}],"text":"Overview of significant publications:Een gondel in de Herengracht (1978; stories)\nDe draaideur (1979, novel)\nDe slag om de Blauwbrug De tandeloze tijd Prologue (1983, novel)\nVallende ouders De tandeloze tijd Volume 1 (\"Parents Falling\"; 1983, novel)\nDe gevarendriehoek De tandeloze tijd Volume 2 (1985, novel)\nDe sandwich (1986, novel)\nHet leven uit een dag (1988, novel)\nAdvocaat van de Hanen De tandeloze tijd Volume 4 (1990, novel) – film adaptation as Punk Lawyer\nWeerborstels De tandeloze tijd Intermezzo (1992, short story)\nAsbestemming. Een requiem (1994, novel)\nHet Hof van Barmhartigheid De tandeloze tijd Volume 3 Book 1 (\"The Court of Mercy\"; 1996, novel)\nOnder het plaveisel het moeras De tandeloze tijd Volume 3 Book 2 (\"Under the Pavement the Swamp\"; 1996, novel)\nDe Movo tapes Homo duplex Volume 0 (2003, novel)\nEngelenplaque (2003, Diary-notes 1966 -2003)\nDrijfzand koloniseren Homo duplex (\"Colonizing quicksand\"; 2006, novel)\nHet schervengericht Homo duplex (2007, novel)\nMim (2007, short story) – inspired on De versierde mens by Harry Mulisch on the celebration of his 80th birthday\nGentse lente (2008, stories)\nDoodverf (2009, novel)\nTonio (2011, novel)\nMade into a Dutch-language movie in 2016 by director Paula van der Oest.\nZogkoorts De tandeloze tijd Volume 13 (2023, novel)","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Queen Beatrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrix_of_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"squatters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squatters"},{"link_name":"flashbacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flashback_(psychological_phenomenon)"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"R.A.F. terrorist attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army_Faction"}],"text":"De slag om de Blauwbrug (\"Battle at the Blue Bridge\") is the prologue to De tandeloze tijd and is one of the most controversial books in contemporary Dutch literature. The novel focuses on the events surrounding the coronation of Queen Beatrix on 30 April 1980. The whole event is seen through the eyes of a social reject and ex-convict who is walking in the streets of Amsterdam at that particular day. He witnesses violent clashes between police and anti-monarchist anarchist squatters who provoke riots during the coronation, protesting against poor housing conditions and using the occasion to tackle the institution of monarchy and the idea of government authority in general. The novel's main character is only observing the brutal clashes without participating or taking sides. The riots cause flashbacks to the important political events into his memory: from the Vietnam War to the R.A.F. terrorist attacks in the 1970s.","title":"De slag om de Blauwbrug"}]	[{"image_text":"A. F. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_wine	Canadian wine	["1 History","1.1 Cellared in Canada","2 Market share","2.1 Global market","3 Production","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]	This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Canadian wine" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message)Wine making in Canada Part of a series onCanadian cuisine Regional cuisines Pacific Northwest Rocky Mountain Toronto Québec Maritime Indigenous Beverages Beer Québec spruce Bog Labrador tea Caesar Caribou Moose milk Ice cider Newfoundland Screech Whisky Yukon Jack Wine British Columbia Ontario Prince Edward County Québec Nova Scotia London fog Ingredients Atlantic cod Caribou Cloudberry cheese Dulse Fiddlehead fern Harp seal Maple syrup McIntosh (apple) Red Fife wheat Red Gold potato Saskatoon berry Sockeye salmon Spartan (apple) Steak spice Winnipeg goldeye Yukon Gold potato Styles and dishes All-dressed Bannock B.C. roll Bûche de Noël Buffalo burger Bumbleberry pie Butter tart Canadian cheddar Date square Donair Figgy duff Fish and brewis Flapper pie Fried dough Fricot Garlic fingers Ginger beef Hodge Podge Hot chicken Johnnycake Lobster roll Montreal bagel smoked meat Nanaimo bar Oreilles de crisse Pâté chinois Peameal bacon Pemmican Pierogi Pizza Pizza cake Pizza-ghetti Sushi Ploye Pouding chômeur Poutchine au sac Poutine Poutine râpée Rappie pie Rubaboo Schmoo torte St. Catherine's taffy Steamies Sxusem Tourtière Touton White bread Religious and ethnic Acadian Canadian-Chinese Country food Inuit Tlingit Rituals and festivals Pancake breakfast Jiggs dinner Kitchener-Waterloo Oktoberfest Réveillon Summerlicious and Winterlicious Taste of the Danforth Thanksgiving Canada portal Food portalvte Canadian wine is wine produced in Canada. Ontario and British Columbia are the two largest wine-producing provinces in Canada, with two-thirds of Canada's vineyard acreage situated in Ontario. However, wine producing regions are also present in other provinces, including Alberta, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia. In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine, with 62 per cent of that total originating from Ontario. The second largest wine-producing province, British Columbia, constitutes 33 per cent of Canada's wine production. Between 2006 and 2011, 68 per cent of Canadian wine exports came from Ontario-based wineries; with 14 per cent of exports originating from British Columbia, 12 per cent from Quebec, and six per cent from Alberta. Ice wine can be produced reliably in most Canadian wine-producing regions. As a result, Canada is the world's leading icewine producer, with more icewine produced in Canada than all other countries combined. More than 90 per cent of Canadian icewines originates from Ontario, although the product is also produced in British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia. In addition to standard grape wines, and icewines, the country is also home to several fruit wineries and meaderies, found in provinces such as Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, whose local climate is not favourable for grape production. History Further information: Alcohol in New France A vineyard in Canada, 1905. The first commercial winery was opened in Canada in the mid-19th century. Canadian wine has been produced for over 400 years. In 1611, Louis Hérbert planted a hillside vineyard near what is today, Bear River, Nova Scotia. He and other settlers tried to cultivate Vitis vinifera grapes from Europe with limited success. They found it necessary to focus on the native species of Vitis labrusca and Vitis riparia along with various hybrids. However, the market was limited for such wines because of their peculiar taste which was often called "foxy". However, this became less apparent when the juice was made into Port- and Sherry-styled wines. In 1866, the first commercial winery opened in Canada, situated on Pelee Island in Ontario. During the first half of the twentieth century, the temperance movement and later consumer demand for fortified and sweet wines hampered the development of a quality table wine industry. Consumer demand did not shift from sweet and fortified wines to drier and lower alcohol table wines until the 1960s. At the same time, there were significant improvements in wine-making technology, access to better grape varieties and disease-resistant clones, and systematic research into viticulture. After the repeal of alcohol prohibition in Canada in 1927, provinces strictly limited the number of licences to produce wine. A nearly 50-year moratorium on issuing new winery licences was finally dropped in 1974. During the same decade, demonstration planting began to show that Vitis vinifera could be successfully grown in Canada. Other growers found that high quality wines could be produced if Vitis vinifera vines were grown with reduced yields, new trellising techniques, and appropriate canopy management. A Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) label on a Canadian bottle of wine. The VQA was established in 1988 as a regulatory and appellation system for British Columbia and Ontario wines. In 1988, three important events occurred: free trade with the United States, the establishment of the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) standard, and a major grape vine replacement/upgrading program. The VQA acts as the regulatory and appellation system that intends to ensure "high quality" and "authenticity of origin" for Canadian wines from the provinces of British Columbia, and Ontario. Each of these events served in one way or another to improve the viability of the wine industry in Canada. During the 1990s, Canadian vintners continued to demonstrate that fine grape varieties in cooler growing conditions could potentially possess complex flavours, delicate yet persistent aromas, tightly focused structure and longer ageing potential than their counterparts in warmer growing regions of the world. Cellared in Canada Main article: Cellared in Canada Cellared in Canada was a former indicator from 1994 to 2018 for wine products from Canadian wineries, whose grape must originated from outside of Canada. Canadian wineries are able to import pre-fermented grape must from other countries, and use it to produce wine under their own products. The maximum quantity of foreign wine used in Cellared in Canada wine products depended on the province the wine originated from; with certain provinces requiring a minimum amount of local grapes be used in order for it to qualify as Cellared in Canada wine. In Ontario, 30 per cent of the grapes in Cellared in Canada wine had to originate from local wineries. Conversely British Columbia did not stipulate the use of local grapes in the production of its Cellared in Canada wine products. In late 2009, local and international criticism of the Cellared in Canada practice and the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) emerged. Grape growers in Ontario began protesting the practice as a threat to their livelihood claiming that thousands of tons of Canadian grapes are left rotting on the vine because producers are using imported grapes to make wine labelled as "Canadian". Wine producers who do not use the "Cellared in Canada" designation criticized the practice as tarnishing the reputation of Canadian wines and misleading consumers. Producers and growers in Canada have petitioned the government for several changes in the practices such as making the origin of grapes more clear on the wine label and increasing the visibility of 100 per cent Canadian wines produced by members of the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) in province run liquor stores. As of August 2009, the province stores of the LCBO featured less than 2.5 per cent Canadian wine produced by VQA members with the vast majority of its wines produced under the "Cellared in Canada" designation with up to 70 per cent foreign grapes. In March 2018, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency announced the Cellared in Canada designation replaced by two new designations, dependent on the quantity of foreign wine mixed into the product. Products that are primarily made of foreign grapes are designated "International blend from imported and domestic wines"; whereas primarily domestic wines that contain foreign grapes are designated "International blend from domestic and imported wines". Market share A Niagara-based winery's grapes freezing over, a process that allows for the creation of icewine. Wineries in Ontario constitute the majority of Canada's icewine exports. As of 2015, the province of Quebec is Canada's largest consumer of wine, with each resident consuming an average of 23 litres a year. However, Canadian wines make up less than 50 per cent share of the Canadian wine market, making Canada one of the few wine-producing countries where domestically produced wines do not hold a dominant share. Wine in general has been increasing its market share against other alcoholic beverages (beer and spirits). Since the late 1990s wine has increased its market share from 21 per cent to 28 per cent and since 2007 wine sales have increased by 9.5 per cent to C$5 billion. While there are many small Canadian wineries, the domestic wine market has long been dominated by two companies, Arterra Wines Canada (formerly Vincor International) and Andrew Peller Limited (formerly Andres Wines). In 2006, Vincor International, which had grown aggressively in previous years by acquiring wineries in California, Australia and New Zealand, was itself acquired by Constellation Brands, a U.S.-based company and one of the primary consolidators of the global wine business. In 2016, the Canadian branch of Constellation Brands was acquired by the Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan, and renamed Arterra Wines Canada. Global market In 2017, Canadian wineries exported 2.1 million litres of wine (valued at C$39.6 million), and constitutes 0.1 per cent of global exports. The largest export markets for Canadian wine are China, the United States, South Korea, the Netherlands, and Japan. Between 2006 and 2011, 68 per cent of Canadian wine exports came from Ontario-based wineries; with 14 per cent of exports originating from British Columbia, 12 per cent from Quebec, and six per cent from Alberta. Icewine is a major export product for Canadian wineries. Ontario is the largest exporter of icewine, exporting a value of C$21.3 million, followed by British Columbia, which exported a value of C$3.2 million. The majority of icewines exported to France and Switzerland originate from Ontario and Quebec. Conversely, majority of Canadian sparkling wine imported in Switzerland originates from British Columbia. Production Further information: British Columbia wine, Nova Scotia wine, Ontario wine, and Quebec wine Wine regions of Canada, 2006. In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine; 62 per cent of which originated from Ontario. The second largest wine-producing province, British Columbia, constitutes 33 per cent of Canada's wine production. In particular, Canada is the largest producer of icewine, with Canada producing a greater volume of icewine than all other countries combined. Icewine is made in every wine-producing region of Canada, although the majority of Canadian icewine is produced in Ontario, whose wineries constitute over 90 per cent of Canadian icewine production. In 2015, there are 548 wineries in Canada, spread over 12,150 hectares (30,000 acres). Ontario holds the largest acreage of vineyards in Canada, with 150 vineyards spread across 6,900 hectares (17,000 acres). There are three VQA designated viticultural areas in Ontario, the Niagara Peninsula (which includes ten different sub-appellations), Prince Edward County, and the north shore of Lake Erie. Small but fast-growing wine industries can also be found in the Lambton and Huron County regions of Southwestern Ontario. Vitis vinifera is the most common grapevine grown in Ontario-based vineyards, with a focus on cultivating Chardonnay, Riesling, pinot noir, and Cabernet Franc. British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout 4,152 hectares (10,260 acres). Wineries in British Columbia primarily grow vitis vinifera, with the top planted grapes being Chardonnay, Merlot, pinot gris, and pinot noir. There are five VQA designated viticultural regions in British Columbia, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, the Fraser Valley, Similkameen Valley, and the Okanagan Valley. A vineyard in Gaspereau, Nova Scotia. Vineyards in Nova Scotia take up 290 hectares (720 acres) of land. There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage 808 hectares (2,000 acres) of vineyards in the province. Vineyards in Quebec are primarily located to the north, and southeast of Montreal, as well as the surrounding area of Quebec City. Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages 290 hectares (720 acres) of vineyards in the province. Wine-producing areas in the province are primarily located along the shores of the Northumberland Strait, as well as Annapolis Valley. Most wineries in Nova Scotia are specialized towards the production of sparkling wine. The provinces Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, also contain fruit wineries and meaderies. See also Wine portalCanada portal Agriculture in Canada Canadian beer Canadian whisky List of breweries, wineries, and distilleries in Manitoba Winemaking References ^ a b c d e f g h "Market Analysis Report: A Global Export Market Overview for British Columbia's Wine Industry" (PDF). Government of British Columbia. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-07. Retrieved 2019-03-09. ^ a b c Lupescu, Mihai (7 April 2017). "The Wine Market in the Province of Quebec". USDA Foreign Agricultural Service. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k "Canada On the World Map" (PDF). Wine Marketing Association of Ontario. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2019. ^ "Canada's Wine Regions". www.winesofcanada.com. Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ Aspler, Tony (1995). Vintage Canada: The complete reference to Canadian wines. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ^ Logan, Nick (13 April 2016). "The Canadian wine you buy might not be as Canadian as you think". Global News. Corus Entertainment Inc. Retrieved 11 March 2019. ^ Ejbich, Konrad. "Protest Mounts Over "Cellared in Canada" Wines". Wine Spectator. Wine Spectator Online. Retrieved 11 March 2019. ^ K. Ejbich "Protest Mounts Over "Cellared in Canada" Wines" Wine Spectator, August 28, 2009 ^ Bregolisse, Doris Maria (13 May 2018). "Canadian winemakers celebrate misleading wine labeling change". Global News. Corus Entertainment Inc. Retrieved 11 March 2019. ^ "Red, red wine: Health pros and cons". Retrieved 27 May 2017. ^ a b "Industry Statistics". Canadian Vinters Association. 2017. Archived from the original on 16 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019. Further reading Aspler, Tony (1999). Vintage Canada: The Complete Reference to Canadian Wines. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-0708-6043-2. Phillips, Rod (2017). The wines of Canada. Infinite Ideas. ISBN 978-1-9109-0258-5. Schreiner, John (2005). The wines of Canada: Mitchell Beazley Classic Wine Library. Octopus Books. ISBN 1-8453-3628-3. 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Historiography Historians Surveys Canada portal Category Authority control databases: National Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"provinces in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"New Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Brunswick"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Que-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"Ice wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_wine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"fruit wineries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit_wine"},{"link_name":"meaderies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mead"},{"link_name":"Saskatchewan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saskatchewan"},{"link_name":"Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Wine making in CanadaCanadian wine is wine produced in Canada. Ontario and British Columbia are the two largest wine-producing provinces in Canada, with two-thirds of Canada's vineyard acreage situated in Ontario.[1] However, wine producing regions are also present in other provinces, including Alberta, Quebec, New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine, with 62 per cent of that total originating from Ontario. The second largest wine-producing province, British Columbia, constitutes 33 per cent of Canada's wine production.[2] Between 2006 and 2011, 68 per cent of Canadian wine exports came from Ontario-based wineries; with 14 per cent of exports originating from British Columbia, 12 per cent from Quebec, and six per cent from Alberta.[1]Ice wine can be produced reliably in most Canadian wine-producing regions. As a result, Canada is the world's leading icewine producer, with more icewine produced in Canada than all other countries combined.[1] More than 90 per cent of Canadian icewines originates from Ontario,[3] although the product is also produced in British Columbia, Quebec, and Nova Scotia.[1] In addition to standard grape wines, and icewines, the country is also home to several fruit wineries and meaderies, found in provinces such as Alberta, Saskatchewan and Manitoba, whose local climate is not favourable for grape production.[4]","title":"Canadian wine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alcohol in New France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_in_New_France"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canada_-_its_history,_productions_and_natural_resources_(1905)_(14592705550).jpg"},{"link_name":"Louis Hérbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_H%C3%A9bert"},{"link_name":"Bear River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_River,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Vitis vinifera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis_vinifera"},{"link_name":"Vitis labrusca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis_labrusca"},{"link_name":"Vitis riparia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitis_riparia"},{"link_name":"foxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foxiness"},{"link_name":"Port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_wine"},{"link_name":"Sherry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherry"},{"link_name":"Pelee Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelee_Island"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"temperance movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperance_movement"},{"link_name":"fortified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortified_wine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"alcohol prohibition in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"trellising techniques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trellising_techniques"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VQA_label_on_Canadian_Ice_Wine.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vintners Quality Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintners_Quality_Alliance"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia_wine"},{"link_name":"Ontario wines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_wine"},{"link_name":"free trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada-United_States_Free_Trade_Agreement"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Vintners Quality Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintners_Quality_Alliance"},{"link_name":"appellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Further information: Alcohol in New FranceA vineyard in Canada, 1905. The first commercial winery was opened in Canada in the mid-19th century.Canadian wine has been produced for over 400 years. In 1611, Louis Hérbert planted a hillside vineyard near what is today, Bear River, Nova Scotia.[5] He and other settlers tried to cultivate Vitis vinifera grapes from Europe with limited success. They found it necessary to focus on the native species of Vitis labrusca and Vitis riparia along with various hybrids. However, the market was limited for such wines because of their peculiar taste which was often called \"foxy\". However, this became less apparent when the juice was made into Port- and Sherry-styled wines. In 1866, the first commercial winery opened in Canada, situated on Pelee Island in Ontario.[1]During the first half of the twentieth century, the temperance movement and later consumer demand for fortified and sweet wines hampered the development of a quality table wine industry. Consumer demand did not shift from sweet and fortified wines to drier and lower alcohol table wines until the 1960s. At the same time, there were significant improvements in wine-making technology, access to better grape varieties and disease-resistant clones, and systematic research into viticulture.[citation needed]After the repeal of alcohol prohibition in Canada in 1927, provinces strictly limited the number of licences to produce wine. A nearly 50-year moratorium on issuing new winery licences was finally dropped in 1974. During the same decade, demonstration planting began to show that Vitis vinifera could be successfully grown in Canada. Other growers found that high quality wines could be produced if Vitis vinifera vines were grown with reduced yields, new trellising techniques, and appropriate canopy management.[citation needed]A Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) label on a Canadian bottle of wine. The VQA was established in 1988 as a regulatory and appellation system for British Columbia and Ontario wines.In 1988, three important events occurred: free trade with the United States, the establishment of the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) standard, and a major grape vine replacement/upgrading program. The VQA acts as the regulatory and appellation system that intends to ensure \"high quality\" and \"authenticity of origin\" for Canadian wines from the provinces of British Columbia, and Ontario. Each of these events served in one way or another to improve the viability of the wine industry in Canada.[citation needed]During the 1990s, Canadian vintners continued to demonstrate that fine grape varieties in cooler growing conditions could potentially possess complex flavours, delicate yet persistent aromas, tightly focused structure and longer ageing potential than their counterparts in warmer growing regions of the world.[citation needed]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"must","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Must"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Liquor Control Board of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor_Control_Board_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Vintners Quality Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vintners_Quality_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Spectator-8"},{"link_name":"Canadian Food Inspection Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Food_Inspection_Agency"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Cellared in Canada","text":"Cellared in Canada was a former indicator from 1994 to 2018 for wine products from Canadian wineries, whose grape must originated from outside of Canada.[6] Canadian wineries are able to import pre-fermented grape must from other countries, and use it to produce wine under their own products. The maximum quantity of foreign wine used in Cellared in Canada wine products depended on the province the wine originated from; with certain provinces requiring a minimum amount of local grapes be used in order for it to qualify as Cellared in Canada wine. In Ontario, 30 per cent of the grapes in Cellared in Canada wine had to originate from local wineries. Conversely British Columbia did not stipulate the use of local grapes in the production of its Cellared in Canada wine products.[7]In late 2009, local and international criticism of the Cellared in Canada practice and the Liquor Control Board of Ontario (LCBO) emerged. Grape growers in Ontario began protesting the practice as a threat to their livelihood claiming that thousands of tons of Canadian grapes are left rotting on the vine because producers are using imported grapes to make wine labelled as \"Canadian\". Wine producers who do not use the \"Cellared in Canada\" designation criticized the practice as tarnishing the reputation of Canadian wines and misleading consumers. Producers and growers in Canada have petitioned the government for several changes in the practices such as making the origin of grapes more clear on the wine label and increasing the visibility of 100 per cent Canadian wines produced by members of the Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) in province run liquor stores. As of August 2009, the province stores of the LCBO featured less than 2.5 per cent Canadian wine produced by VQA members with the vast majority of its wines produced under the \"Cellared in Canada\" designation with up to 70 per cent foreign grapes.[8]In March 2018, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency announced the Cellared in Canada designation replaced by two new designations, dependent on the quantity of foreign wine mixed into the product. Products that are primarily made of foreign grapes are designated \"International blend from imported and domestic wines\"; whereas primarily domestic wines that contain foreign grapes are designated \"International blend from domestic and imported wines\".[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ice_wine_grapes.jpg"},{"link_name":"Niagara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"icewine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icewine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Que-2"},{"link_name":"beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer"},{"link_name":"spirits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distilled_beverage"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"A Niagara-based winery's grapes freezing over, a process that allows for the creation of icewine. Wineries in Ontario constitute the majority of Canada's icewine exports.As of 2015, the province of Quebec is Canada's largest consumer of wine, with each resident consuming an average of 23 litres a year.[2] However, Canadian wines make up less than 50 per cent share of the Canadian wine market, making Canada one of the few wine-producing countries where domestically produced wines do not hold a dominant share. Wine in general has been increasing its market share against other alcoholic beverages (beer and spirits). Since the late 1990s wine has increased its market share from 21 per cent to 28 per cent and since 2007 wine sales have increased by 9.5 per cent to C$5 billion.[10]While there are many small Canadian wineries, the domestic wine market has long been dominated by two companies, Arterra Wines Canada (formerly Vincor International) and Andrew Peller Limited (formerly Andres Wines). In 2006, Vincor International, which had grown aggressively in previous years by acquiring wineries in California, Australia and New Zealand, was itself acquired by Constellation Brands, a U.S.-based company and one of the primary consolidators of the global wine business. In 2016, the Canadian branch of Constellation Brands was acquired by the Ontario Teachers’ Pension Plan, and renamed Arterra Wines Canada.[citation needed]","title":"Market share"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"South Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVA-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"Icewine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icewine"},{"link_name":"C$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_dollar"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CVA-11"},{"link_name":"sparkling wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparkling_wine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"}],"sub_title":"Global market","text":"In 2017, Canadian wineries exported 2.1 million litres of wine (valued at C$39.6 million), and constitutes 0.1 per cent of global exports. The largest export markets for Canadian wine are China, the United States, South Korea, the Netherlands, and Japan.[11] Between 2006 and 2011, 68 per cent of Canadian wine exports came from Ontario-based wineries; with 14 per cent of exports originating from British Columbia, 12 per cent from Quebec, and six per cent from Alberta.[1]Icewine is a major export product for Canadian wineries. Ontario is the largest exporter of icewine, exporting a value of C$21.3 million, followed by British Columbia, which exported a value of C$3.2 million.[11] The majority of icewines exported to France and Switzerland originate from Ontario and Quebec. Conversely, majority of Canadian sparkling wine imported in Switzerland originates from British Columbia.[1]","title":"Market share"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Columbia wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia_wine"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia_wine"},{"link_name":"Ontario wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_wine"},{"link_name":"Quebec wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_wine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canadawineregions.png"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Que-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BCW-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"Niagara Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Prince Edward County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_County,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Lake Erie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Erie"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"grapevine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapevine"},{"link_name":"Chardonnay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chardonnay"},{"link_name":"Riesling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riesling"},{"link_name":"pinot noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinot_noir"},{"link_name":"Cabernet Franc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabernet_Franc"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"Merlot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merlot"},{"link_name":"pinot gris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinot_gris"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"Vancouver Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver_Island"},{"link_name":"Gulf Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_Islands"},{"link_name":"Fraser Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fraser_Valley"},{"link_name":"Similkameen Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Similkameen_Valley"},{"link_name":"Okanagan Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okanagan_Valley"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Luckett_Vineyards_Gaspereau_Valley_Nova_Scotia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gaspereau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspereau,_Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"Nova Scotia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"Quebec City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_City"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"Northumberland Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland_Strait"},{"link_name":"Annapolis Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapolis_Valley"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ont-3"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Further information: British Columbia wine, Nova Scotia wine, Ontario wine, and Quebec wineWine regions of Canada, 2006.In 2015, Canada produced 56.2 million litres of wine; 62 per cent of which originated from Ontario. The second largest wine-producing province, British Columbia, constitutes 33 per cent of Canada's wine production.[2] In particular, Canada is the largest producer of icewine, with Canada producing a greater volume of icewine than all other countries combined.[1] Icewine is made in every wine-producing region of Canada, although the majority of Canadian icewine is produced in Ontario, whose wineries constitute over 90 per cent of Canadian icewine production.[3]In 2015, there are 548 wineries in Canada, spread over 12,150 hectares (30,000 acres). Ontario holds the largest acreage of vineyards in Canada, with 150 vineyards spread across 6,900 hectares (17,000 acres). There are three VQA designated viticultural areas in Ontario, the Niagara Peninsula (which includes ten different sub-appellations), Prince Edward County, and the north shore of Lake Erie.[3] Small but fast-growing wine industries can also be found in the Lambton and Huron County regions of Southwestern Ontario. Vitis vinifera is the most common grapevine grown in Ontario-based vineyards, with a focus on cultivating Chardonnay, Riesling, pinot noir, and Cabernet Franc.[3]British Columbia holds 240 wineries, spread throughout 4,152 hectares (10,260 acres).[3] Wineries in British Columbia primarily grow vitis vinifera, with the top planted grapes being Chardonnay, Merlot, pinot gris, and pinot noir.[3] There are five VQA designated viticultural regions in British Columbia, Vancouver Island, the Gulf Islands, the Fraser Valley, Similkameen Valley, and the Okanagan Valley.[3]A vineyard in Gaspereau, Nova Scotia. Vineyards in Nova Scotia take up 290 hectares (720 acres) of land.There are 138 wineries in Quebec, which manage 808 hectares (2,000 acres) of vineyards in the province.[3] Vineyards in Quebec are primarily located to the north, and southeast of Montreal, as well as the surrounding area of Quebec City.[3] Nova Scotia holds 20 wineries, which manages 290 hectares (720 acres) of vineyards in the province.[3] Wine-producing areas in the province are primarily located along the shores of the Northumberland Strait, as well as Annapolis Valley. Most wineries in Nova Scotia are specialized towards the production of sparkling wine.[3] The provinces Alberta, Manitoba, and Saskatchewan, also contain fruit wineries and meaderies.[citation needed]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-0708-6043-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-0708-6043-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-9109-0258-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-9109-0258-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-8453-3628-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-8453-3628-3"}],"text":"Aspler, Tony (1999). Vintage Canada: The Complete Reference to Canadian Wines. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-0708-6043-2.\nPhillips, Rod (2017). The wines of Canada. Infinite Ideas. ISBN 978-1-9109-0258-5.\nSchreiner, John (2005). The wines of Canada: Mitchell Beazley Classic Wine Library. Octopus Books. ISBN 1-8453-3628-3.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"A vineyard in Canada, 1905. The first commercial winery was opened in Canada in the mid-19th century.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Canada_-_its_history%2C_productions_and_natural_resources_%281905%29_%2814592705550%29.jpg/220px-Canada_-_its_history%2C_productions_and_natural_resources_%281905%29_%2814592705550%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) label on a Canadian bottle of wine. The VQA was established in 1988 as a regulatory and appellation system for British Columbia and Ontario wines.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/VQA_label_on_Canadian_Ice_Wine.jpg/220px-VQA_label_on_Canadian_Ice_Wine.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Niagara-based winery's grapes freezing over, a process that allows for the creation of icewine. Wineries in Ontario constitute the majority of Canada's icewine exports.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Ice_wine_grapes.jpg/220px-Ice_wine_grapes.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wine regions of Canada, 2006.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Canadawineregions.png/220px-Canadawineregions.png"},{"image_text":"A vineyard in Gaspereau, Nova Scotia. Vineyards in Nova Scotia take up 290 hectares (720 acres) of land.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Luckett_Vineyards_Gaspereau_Valley_Nova_Scotia.jpg/220px-Luckett_Vineyards_Gaspereau_Valley_Nova_Scotia.jpg"}]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_bottle_and_glass_of_wine.svg"},{"title":"Wine portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Wine"},{"title":"Canada portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Canada"},{"title":"Agriculture in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Canada"},{"title":"Canadian beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_beer"},{"title":"Canadian whisky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_whisky"},{"title":"List of breweries, wineries, and distilleries in Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_breweries,_wineries,_and_distilleries_in_Manitoba"},{"title":"Winemaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winemaking"}]	[{"reference":"\"Market Analysis Report: A Global Export Market Overview for British Columbia's Wine Industry\" (PDF). Government of British Columbia. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-07. Retrieved 2019-03-09.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20181107193740/https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/statistics/exports/global_export_market_bcwine_industry.pdf","url_text":"\"Market Analysis Report: A Global Export Market Overview for British Columbia's Wine Industry\""},{"url":"https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/farming-natural-resources-and-industry/agriculture-and-seafood/statistics/exports/global_export_market_bcwine_industry.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Lupescu, Mihai (7 April 2017). \"The Wine Market in the Province of Quebec\". USDA Foreign Agricultural Service.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/canada-wine-market-province-quebec","url_text":"\"The Wine Market in the Province of Quebec\""}]},{"reference":"\"Canada On the World Map\" (PDF). Wine Marketing Association of Ontario. 2015. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 June 2016. Retrieved 8 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160616014030/http://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf","url_text":"\"Canada On the World Map\""},{"url":"https://www.winecountryontario.ca/sites/default/files/attachments/canada_postcard_english_2015_-_2up_for_web_0.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Canada's Wine Regions\". www.winesofcanada.com. Retrieved 27 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.winesofcanada.com/regions.html","url_text":"\"Canada's Wine Regions\""}]},{"reference":"Aspler, Tony (1995). Vintage Canada: The complete reference to Canadian wines. McGraw-Hill Ryerson.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Logan, Nick (13 April 2016). \"The Canadian wine you buy might not be as Canadian as you think\". Global News. Corus Entertainment Inc. Retrieved 11 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://globalnews.ca/news/2634246/the-canadian-wine-you-buy-might-not-be-as-canadian-as-you-think/","url_text":"\"The Canadian wine you buy might not be as Canadian as you think\""}]},{"reference":"Ejbich, Konrad. \"Protest Mounts Over \"Cellared in Canada\" Wines\". Wine Spectator. Wine Spectator Online. Retrieved 11 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.winespectator.com/webfeature/show/id/40551","url_text":"\"Protest Mounts Over \"Cellared in Canada\" Wines\""}]},{"reference":"Bregolisse, Doris Maria (13 May 2018). \"Canadian winemakers celebrate misleading wine labeling change\". Global News. Corus Entertainment Inc. Retrieved 11 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://globalnews.ca/news/4079221/canadian-winemakers-celebrate-misleading-wine-labeling-change/","url_text":"\"Canadian winemakers celebrate misleading wine labeling change\""}]},{"reference":"\"Red, red wine: Health pros and cons\". Retrieved 27 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2008/07/04/f-redwine-proscons.html","url_text":"\"Red, red wine: Health pros and cons\""}]},{"reference":"\"Industry Statistics\". Canadian Vinters Association. 2017. Archived from the original on 16 March 2019. Retrieved 8 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190316220419/http://www.canadianvintners.com/industry-statistics/","url_text":"\"Industry Statistics\""},{"url":"https://www.canadianvintners.com/industry-statistics/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Aspler, Tony (1999). Vintage Canada: The Complete Reference to Canadian Wines. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-0708-6043-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-0708-6043-2","url_text":"0-0708-6043-2"}]},{"reference":"Phillips, Rod (2017). The wines of Canada. Infinite Ideas. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablo	Tablo	["1 Life and career","1.1 1980–2003: Early life and career beginnings","1.2 2003–10: Success with Epik High and Pieces of You","1.3 2010–11: Musical hiatus and Stanford controversy","1.4 2011-current: Return, solo career and Epik High comeback","2 Personal life","3 Musical style","4 Writing","5 Podcast","6 Discography","7 Filmography","7.1 Films","7.2 Television","7.3 Music videos","8 Awards","9 References","10 External links"]	Korean-Canadian rapper, record producer, and author This article is about the musician. For the DVR, see Tablo (DVR). Not to be confused with Tableau. In this Korean name, the family name is Lee. Tablo타블로Tablo in September 2014BornDaniel Lee (1980-07-22) July 22, 1980 (age 43)Seoul, South KoreaNationalityCanadianOther namesLee Seon-woongTabloEducationStanford University (BA, MA)OccupationsRapperlyricistcomposerrecord producerSpouse Kang Hye-jung (m. 2009)Children1Musical careerGenresHip hopInstrument(s)VocalskeyboardssynthesizersamplersequencerviolinYears active1997–presentLabelsWoollimHIGHGRNDWilliam MorrisOurs Musical artist Korean nameHangul이선웅Hanja李善雄Revised RomanizationI Seon-ungMcCune–ReischauerYi Sŏnung Daniel Armand Lee (Korean: Lee Seon-woong; Hangul: 이선웅; born July 22, 1980), better known by his stage name Tablo (Hangul: 타블로), is a Korean-Canadian hip hop recording artist, lyricist, composer and record producer. Tablo is best known as the leader and producer of veteran Korean hip-hop group Epik High, and the founder of independent music label HIGHGRND (High Ground), which housed bands Hyukoh and The Black Skirts. Tablo became employed as a lyricist while still in high school. Under the supervision of Tobias Wolff, Tablo graduated from Stanford University with honors in English literature and creative writing. He then moved to Korea, where, in 2001, he formed Epik High alongside DJ Tukutz and Mithra Jin. The group has since released 10 full-length albums and 1 EP, with Tablo having produced and co-written all the songs. His debut solo album, Fever's End, was released in 2011. Outside of Epik High, Tablo is a record producer and songwriter for other artists and involved in collaborative projects such as Borderline, Eternal Morning, and Anyband. His music incorporates numerous styles, ranging from trance, trip hop, to rock. Tablo is also the author of the best-selling book Pieces of You, published in both English and Korean, and Blonote. He made his film debut acting in Nonstop (2005). In 2016, Tablo left his radio show, MBC FM4U's Tablo's Dreaming Radio, after eleven years to focus on YG's music sub-label HIGHGRND. Life and career 1980–2003: Early life and career beginnings Tablo moved to Jakarta, Indonesia in 1980 shortly after his birth. Due to his father's work, he spent around 3 years living in Jakarta before his family relocated again several times to Switzerland and Hong Kong for his father's career until Tablo was six, when they returned to South Korea briefly. His family moved again to Canada when he was eight. Tablo attended St. George's School in Vancouver, British Columbia. He then transferred to Seoul International School. As a coterminal student at Stanford University, Tablo simultaneously attained a Bachelor's Degree in English literature and a Master's Degree in creative writing in four years. Tablo started playing piano at the age of six but later switched to violin, which he played for 10 years. His music teacher, who had been a pupil of Isaac Stern, used to lecture him saying: "Music is communism, but you're playing democracy". Tablo wrote the lyrics to legendary singer Kim Gun-mo's song "Rainy Christmas" when he was sixteen years old, as Kim took an interest in Tablo after reading a poem of his. During his early life, Tablo suffered from bouts of depression. Whenever he faced hardship, hip hop music served as an outlet. However, Tablo's father disapproved of his career choice, so as a teenager, he frequently ran away from home. Ostensibly, Tablo asked a friend to live out his dream, but when that friend died of cancer, it became an impetus for him to re-enter the music industry. Tablo later admitted his family forced him to enroll in Stanford, and even after the release of his second album, was still persuading him to return to the United States to attend Law School. While he was at Stanford, Tablo associated with an underground hip hop group, 4n Objectz. 2003–10: Success with Epik High and Pieces of You Tablo met future bandmates Mithra Jin and DJ Tukutz while active in the underground hip-hop scene. The three came together to form Epik High, with Tablo as their leader. Under the tutelage of Movement crew members, especially the trio CB Mass, they attempted to record their first studio album alongside hip-hop duo and close friends TBNY (composed of Yankie and TopBob); however, CB Mass member Curbin allegedly embezzled Epik High and TBNY's funds for the album, effectively causing the disbandment of CB Mass (and the creation of Dynamic Duo without Curbin). Tablo and Epik High were finally signed by Woollim Entertainment, which at the time focused on underground hip hop and modern rock, and the group officially debuted in 2003. The group's first album, Map of the Human Soul, was released on October 21 of that year; however, due to hip hop's lack of popularity in South Korea at the time, the album was a commercial failure. It wasn't until the release of their second album, High Society, that the group started to gain popularity. Epik High's third album, Swan Songs, was originally intended to be their last album; however, upon release, the album reached the top of numerous charts, and swept the year-end hip-hop awards. One of the lead singles from the album, "Fly", was featured on the soundtrack of the video game FIFA 07. Due to the numerous offers to remake "Fly", as well as "Paris", the second single from the album, a CD sampler was released in Japan. Tablo at Map the Soul Concert, San Francisco (2009) In 2007, the group released their fourth studio album, Remapping the Human Soul, and managed to push Epik High to the number one spot for best upcoming artist after selling almost 90,000 copies in the first month of release. The album ended up becoming South Korea's third best-selling album of 2007. However, many songs from the album were banned from several TV channels, and the album buying age was restricted to 19+ due to some songs dealing with issues the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in South Korea deemed inappropriate for younger listeners. The group later went on to release their next album, Pieces, Part One, which was also a commercial success. In late 2008, Tablo published a book entitled Pieces of You. Although the stories were originally written in English, the book was first published in Korean. The Korean translation sold 50,000 copies in its first week of release and topped the bestseller's list in Korea. The original English version was released in February 2009 and also met with moderate success. The book garnered a positive reception from critics, with Tablo's writing praised for a first-time author. After the group's contract with Woolim Entertainment expired in 2008, Tablo, alongside his group members, founded their own independent label, Map the Soul, and went on to release an album of the same name. Through their independent label, the group went on to release two more albums; in 2009, and Epilogue in 2010. In November 2013, Tablo revealed in his interview with HiphopLE that "Map the Soul" was shut down due to one of its executive member embezzling the label's funds. 2010–11: Musical hiatus and Stanford controversy In 2010, it was announced that Epik High would go on hiatus after DJ Tukutz enlisted in his mandatory military service, whilst Tablo and Mithra would be working on solo careers until DJ Tukutz's return. However, in mid-2010, a group of Internet users raised doubts about the academic background of Tablo, who majored in English and Creative Writing at Stanford University. Led by two fan sites, most notably "We Demand the Truth from Tablo" (Hangul: "타블로에게 진실을 요구합니다"; also known as "Tajinyo", Hangul: "타진요"), some netizens claimed that Tablo could not have graduated from Stanford University with both a bachelor's degree and master's degree in English and Creative Writing, respectively, in just three and a half years. It became front-page news in Korea in June 2010 when one of the fansite's managers, who went by the username whatbecomes, claimed that Tablo's academic record was "not making any sense" and showed what he believed to be inconsistencies in Tablo's transcripts. Even though Tablo posted his official transcript and other legal documents online, many netizens refused to believe him, and called for other documents such as his immigration statement and diploma to be released. Tablo visited Stanford University in late August to disprove these allegations by having the university registrar re-print his documents on camera, and many of Tablo's acquaintances and former professors from Stanford attested to the validity of his academic background on camera. The documentary was shown in two parts: "Tablo Goes to Stanford" and "Tablo and South Korea Online", which aired on MBC October 1 and 8. However, despite the documentary and Stanford's administration clearly siding with Tablo, membership at "We Demand the Truth from Tablo" increased to as many as 190,000 within a few days, as numerous netizens refused to believe Tablo or the documentary. Tablo and members of his family received death threats and he became a virtual recluse. Tablo ultimately left Woollim Entertainment during the Tajinyo incident, not wanting to spread harm to the agency or to Infinite, who had only recently debuted when the controversy broke out. On October 9, however, police confirmed that Tablo had indeed graduated from Stanford, having requested information beyond what Tablo had already provided, directly from Stanford University. South Korean police filed an arrest warrant domestically and with Interpol for the arrest of whatbecomes, who was revealed to be a 57-year-old Korean-American named Eungsuk Kim living in the United States. In addition, twenty-two netizens received summons indicating they had been sued by Tablo for criminal defamation. The fansite was shut down soon after by its host site, Naver, following the results of the investigation, which also revealed that whatbecomes had fraudulently used a friend's ID number to create the website, violating Naver's terms of service. However, many members of the fansite joined another community called "We Demand the Truth from Tablo 2" (Hangul: "타블로에게 진실을 요구합니다2", or "타진요 2"; "Tajinyo-i" for short), which has a membership of over 33,000 netizens despite proof provided by both the university and the police that Tablo did indeed graduate from Stanford University. 2011-current: Return, solo career and Epik High comeback On September 27, 2011, YG Entertainment announced that Tablo would be signing a 4-year contract with them and that his first solo album would be released on November 1. Although Tablo signed as a solo singer under YG Entertainment, he indicated that it did not mean that Epik High disbanded, nor that they would necessarily sign with YG as a group. On October 14, 2011, Tablo released the song "Airbag" from his new upcoming album. On October 21, 2011, YG announced that the new album, titled Fever's End (Hangul: 열꽃), had been split into two parts. The first part was released along with the recent announcement, and the second part was released on the planned release date. On September 27, 2012, YG officially announced through yg-life.com that Epik High would have their comeback in October 2012, after a three-year hiatus as a group. Their first single, "춥다" ("It's Cold"), featured SBS's K-pop Star finalist Lee Hi and was released on October 9, while their comeback album, titled 99, was released on the 19th. On December 30, 2012, during the SBS Gayo Daejun, Tablo joined fellow Epik High bandmate Mithra Jin, Dynamic Duo and Simon D for Cypher 2012, a remix of popular hip hop tracks of the year, to much acclaim. In October 2013, Tablo joined KBS variety show The Return of Superman with his daughter Haru. On April 21, 2014, Tablo returned as radio DJ. His show's name is Tablo's Dreaming Radio. He was the DJ for this same program until 2016. In March 2014, Tablo carried out a collaboration with China's top female singer Bibi Zhou. On October 18, 2014, Epik High released their music video for "Born Hater", after the video was delayed by YG due to the Pangyo Techno Valley Festival Tragedy. The track is from their eighth album, SHOEBOX, and features a myriad of hip hop artists including Beenzino, Verbal Jint, Mino of WINNER, along with B.I and Bobby of iKON. 2015 North American Tour, New York City On August 31, 2015, Tablo released a teaser clip for a collaboration track with American rapper and co-founder of Pro Era, Joey Badass. Their collaborated song, "Hood," was released September 5, 2015. On January 26, 2017, he collaborated with Gallant and Eric Nam on the single release of "Cave Me In", and music video which was shot in Hong Kong. "Cave Me In" premiered worldwide on Zane Lowe's Beats 1 Radio Show and was trending globally on YouTube and Facebook for over 72 hours upon releasing. In September 2022, he collaborated with Jackson Wang for a new track "Imagine" on the hip-pop competition series, Rap Of China. Personal life Tablo married Korean actress Kang Hye-jung on October 26, 2009. Their daughter, Haru, was born on May 2, 2010. Tablo has an older sister, Lee Sun-joo, who graduated from Cornell University and an older brother, Lee Sun-Min, who graduated from Brown University and Columbia University. Musical style Tablo has been a long-time fan of hip hop music, citing an almost lifelong affair with the culture itself. While listening to hip hop at an early age through artists such as Run-D.M.C. and acquiring Cold Crush tapes, he concurrently gained recognition as a rhymer. His major and enduring love affair with making hip hop music was sparked later in life, however; after hearing Drunken Tiger rapping, the group Epik High was formed in 2000 at an early time in the culture's local evolution. Tablo has since claimed to be the first emcee to have used the "rhyming rifle" technique. With the hip hop scene in Korea and Korean emcees being known for their fickle tendencies, Tablo has through the years kept alive his legacy and career through numerous shows, appearances on influential overseas (American most notably) hip hop artists work, such as EPMD. Writing In 2008, Tablo published a collection of short stories he had written, titled Pieces of You. The English translation was published in 2009. In 2016, his second book "BloNote" was published in Korea with a pink book cover. The English version, translated by Tablo himself and with a black cover, was published on December 21, 2016. Podcast On June 8, 2019, Tablo posted on his personal Instagram posing the question: "What if Tablo had an English-language podcast?". The podcast premiered with the release of three episodes on August 8, 2019. The Tablo Podcast is produced by Dive Studios. The last episode of The Tablo Podcast aired on September 4, 2020, though two follow-up episodes were released in 2021 to promote the release of Epik High Is Here. Discography Main article: Tablo discography See also: Epik High discography Filmography Films Year Title Role Notes 2007 Fantastic Parasuicides Min-ho Main role August Rush Clarinet player Cameo appearance; uncredited Television Year Title Role Notes 2004 Epik High's Love and Delusion Himself Series regular 2005 Nonstop Tablo Main role; season 5 2007 High Kick! Teacher Cameo appearance (Episode 150) 2008 Woman of Matchless Beauty Himself Cameo appearance (Episodes 7 & 8) Music Bank Co-host Alongside Kim Sung-eun and Min Seo-hyun 2009 Mnet Director's Cut Himself Television movie Come To Play Himself Ep 262 - Movement Special 2010 Happy Birthday Himself Series regular 2013 The Return of Superman Himself Series Regular 2014 Show Me the Money 3 Himself Producer/Judge 2015 Show Me the Money 4 Himself Producer/Judge 2024 The Rap of China 2024 Himself Producer/Judge Music videos Year Music video Length Album 2011 Bad (나쁘다) 4:07 Fever's End: Part 1 (열꽃) Tomorrow (Feat. Taeyang) 4:14 Fever's End: Part 2 (열꽃) 2023 Megaverse 4:09 '樂-STAR'(Stray Kids) Awards This list is incomplete; you can help by adding missing items. (January 2015) Year Award-Giving Body Category Work Result 2011 Mnet Asian Music Awards Best Rap Performance "Bad" Nominated References ^ http://book.naver.com/bookdb/book_detail.php?bid=5348341 Naver Book Review ^ a b "Tablo interview on music" (in Korean). 2007-02-28. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ "Tablo's Dreaming Radio" (in Korean). Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ "Tablo is replacing HaHa". Allkpop. 2008-02-14. Archived from the original on 2008-05-31. Retrieved 2008-05-26. ^ "interview" (in Indonesian). cnnindonesia.com. Retrieved 2017-08-17. ^ a b "Tablo biography & interview" (in Korean). YonhapNews.co.kr. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ "Tablo's homepage" (in Korean). Archived from the original on 2013-02-18. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ Lah, Jung (May 24, 2002). "Straight Outta...Seoul?". The Stanford Daily. Archived from the original on May 19, 2008. ^ a b c d e f Abbott, Kate (September 27, 2010). "Korean pop star battles attacks on Stanford record". The Stanford Daily. ^ a b c d e f g Davis, Joshua (July–August 2011). "The Persecution of Daniel Lee". Stanford Magazine. Stanford University. ^ "interview on degrees" (in Korean). 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ Lim, Woojin (2021-02-23). "Epik High's Tablo: Compelled to Make Hip Hop". The International Wave. Retrieved 2022-03-21. ^ a b "Tablo on YSMM". YouTube. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ 1. God-Blo, 2022-02-24, retrieved 2022-03-21 ^ "interview" (in Korean). Hankooki.com. Retrieved 2008-05-25. ^ "Epik High: Albums". Map the Soul, Inc. October 5, 2005. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009. ^ "Epik High to expand into Japan with sample CD". Arirang TV. March 12, 2007. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ "2007 total sales" (in Korean). eDaily. January 2008. Archived from the original on 2009-02-03. ^ "Epik High Soars to New Heights". The Korea Times. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ Hip-hop star leaps into short fiction to express his art. Retrieved on 2009-04-13 ^ http://www.libro.co.kr/Product/BookDetail.libro?goods_id=0100008184662#review Libro Book Review ^ "Epik High - Hon: Map the Soul". KoME U.S.A. Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ ease Date: September 16, 2009, from http://nuel92.wordpress.com/2009/09/18/album-epik-high-e-hip-hip-released-september-16-2009/ ^ "Woollim Entertainment". Archived from the original on 2008-05-04. Retrieved 2008-04-30. ^ "YESASIA: Epik High Special Album - Epilogue CD - Epik High, Mnet Media - Korean Music - Free Shipping - North America Site". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ Melo. "인터뷰". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ Netizens file injunction against Tablo program 09-29, 2010 The Korea Herald ^ "Prosecution looks into Tablo allegations". The Korea Herald. 2010-08-27. ^ Transcript 2<Joongangdaily> ^ Transcript 1<Joonganddaily> ^ a b Davis, Joshua (April 24, 2012). "The Stalking of Korean Hip Hop Star Daniel Lee". Wired. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ "Tablo explains 'Born Hater' was not meant to criticize former label, Woollim Entertainment". Allkpop. October 30, 2014. Retrieved October 1, 2015. ^ " 타블로에게 진실을 요구합니다(두번째) : 네이버 카페". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ "Tablo Signs With YG For November Comeback". HanCinema. Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ "Epik High's Tablo Joins YG Family". Asia Pacific Arts. 2011-09-28. ^ "Tablo reveals "Airbag" ft/ Naul". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ "Tablo releases Part 1 of "Fever's End" album". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ "Epik High to return this September". allkpop. 2012-07-25. ^ "Tablo to Babysit Haru on 'Superman is Back'". Retrieved 11 March 2015. ^ "Tablo to return as radio DJ". The Korea Times. 2014-04-15. ^ "Korea-China collaboration: TABLO works with top artist Bibi Zhou". YG LIFE. 2014-04-10. ^ Kuang, Robert. "YG Entertainment Delays Epik High's 'Born Hater' Music Video Release Due To Pangyo Techno Valley Festival Tragedy". KpopStarz. Retrieved 21 October 2014. ^ James, Lily. "YG Entertainment Launches Promotions For New K-Pop Group iKON Following The Success Of Reality TV Survival Band WINNER". KpopStarz. Retrieved 21 October 2014. ^ Lifson, Samantha Marie. "Tablo And Joey Bada$$ Announce Upcoming Collaboration 'Hood'". KpopStarz. ^ Bilian (2017-01-27). "Hype's Now Playing: Gallant x Tablo x Eric Nam – Cave Me In". Hype Malaysia. Retrieved 2020-06-15. ^ Bandwagon (2022-09-03). "Jackson Wang and EPIK HIGH's Tablo team up in 'Imagine' for 'Rap f China' - watch". Bandwagon Asia. Retrieved 2023-02-22. ^ "Tablo and Kang Hye Jung release wedding photos". Allkpop. October 26, 2009. Archived from the original on January 2, 2012. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ "Tablo and Kang Hye Jung become parents of a baby daughter". Allkpop. May 2, 2010. Retrieved March 31, 2012. ^ "Twitter". mobile.twitter.com. Retrieved 2019-11-17. ^ Cho, Jae-hyon (2009-11-24). "Tablo's Brother Under Fire". The Korea Times. Retrieved 2019-11-18. ^ "에픽하이 타블로 \| Tablo of Epik High on Instagram: "The King of Not Saying That I Will"". Instagram. Archived from the original on 2021-12-26. Retrieved 2019-10-19. ^ "Tablo releases the first 3 episodes of 'The Tablo Podcast'". Epik High Facebook. Retrieved 2020-03-12. ^ "Dive Studios is trying to turn K-Pop fans into podcast listeners by grabbing their attention on social media". Business Insider. Archived from the original on 2019-12-02. ^ "The Tablo Podcast – DIVE Studios". Retrieved 2019-10-19. ^ "Tablo brings this era of the podcast to a close". September 4, 2020. ^ "2011Mnet Asian Music Awards part 1". MAMA. Retrieved 2015-01-20. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Tablo. Epik High's Official Site (in Korean) vteEpik High Tablo Mithra Jin DJ Tukutz Studio albums Map of the Human Soul High Society Swan Songs Remapping the Human Soul Pieces, Part One 99 Shoebox We've Done Something Wonderful Epik High Is Here Special albums Black Swan Songs Map The Soul Epilogue Extended plays Lovescream Sleepless in __________ Strawberry Singles "Born Hater" Related articles AnyBand Discography Category Commons vteYG EntertainmentExecutives Yang Hyun-suk (founder) Yang Min-suk (Co-CEO) Hwang Bo-kyung (Co-CEO) ArtistsSoloists Eun Ji-won Kang Seung-yoon Mino Jinu Lee Su-hyun Lee Chan-hyuk Groups AKMU Winner Blackpink Treasure BabyMonster SublabelsThe Black Label Zion.T Somi Loren Vince Taeyang Park Bo-gum YGX Viini Leejung Lee Actors Cha Seung-won Claudia Kim Jang Hyun-sung Jang Ki-yong Jin Kyung Jung Hye-young Kal So-won Kim Hee-ae Kyung Soo-jin Lee Soo-hyuk Lee Sung-kyung Park So-yi Park Yoo-na Seo Jeong-yeon Son Na-eun Yoo In-na Yoo Seung-ho Lee Ho-jung Lee Joo-myung Producers Teddy Park Choice37 Future Bounce Former artists Jinusean 1TYM Wheesung Big Mama Lexy Gummy Se7en Masta Wu Big Bang Minzy Park Bom 2NE1 Nam Tae-hyun Stephanie Lee Koo Hye-sun Jung Eugene Lee Jong-suk Katie Kim Psy Epik High Hyoni Kang Code Kunst Tablo Go Joon-hee Seungri Oh Sang-jin Yoo Byung-jae Kim Hee-jung B.I One CL Im Ye-jin Kim Sae-ron Lee Hi Wang Ji-won Taebin Hi Suhyun MOBB Sechs Kies Nam Joo-hyuk Ahn Young-mi Blue.D Sandara Park Son Ho-jun Anda T.O.P Hwang Seung-eon Jo Hye-joo Bang Ye-dam Mashiho Daesung Gang Dong-won iKon G-Dragon Jennie Rosé Lisa Jisoo Choi Ji-woo Concert tours Power World Tour Related articles Discography YGKPlus Category vteShow Me the MoneySeasons Season 3 Season 4 Season 5 Season 6 Season 7 Season 8 Season 9 Season 10 Season 11 Winners Loco Bobby Basick Bewhy Hangzoo Nafla Punchnello Lil Boi Jo Gwang-il Lee Young-ji Runners-up Zizo Iron Mino C Jamm Nucksal Loopy Young B Mushvenom Since Other contestants B.I Baechigi Be'O Black Nut Boi B Cheetah Coogie D.Ark DinDin Don Malik Flowsik G2 Giriboy #Gun Hanhae Hash Swan Innovator J'Kyun Ja Mezz Jo Woo-chan Junoflo Kanto Khundi Panda Kid Milli Killagramz Lexy Mad Clown Microdot Mirani Mudd the Student Olltii One Outsider Penomeco pH-1 Reddy Sanchez Sik-K Sleepy Sokodomo Swervy Swings Vasco Wonstein Woo Won-jae ₩uNo Yuk Ji-dam Related articles Show Me the Money discography Unpretty Rapstar High School Rapper Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Australia Korea Artists MusicBrainz People Trove	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tablo (DVR)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tablo_(DVR)"},{"link_name":"Tableau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tableau"},{"link_name":"Korean name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_name"},{"link_name":"Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_(Korean_surname)"},{"link_name":"Korean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_language"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_music"},{"link_name":"Epik High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik_High"},{"link_name":"Hyukoh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyukoh"},{"link_name":"The Black Skirts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Black_Skirts"},{"link_name":"Tobias Wolff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobias_Wolff"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"DJ Tukutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Tukutz"},{"link_name":"Mithra Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra_Jin"},{"link_name":"Anyband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anyband"},{"link_name":"trance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trance_music"},{"link_name":"trip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trip_hop"},{"link_name":"rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_music"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-interview4-2"},{"link_name":"Pieces of You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieces_of_You_(book)"},{"link_name":"Nonstop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonstop_(South_Korean_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"MBC FM4U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munhwa_Broadcasting_Corporation"},{"link_name":"YG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YG_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"This article is about the musician. For the DVR, see Tablo (DVR).Not to be confused with Tableau.In this Korean name, the family name is Lee.Daniel Armand Lee (Korean: Lee Seon-woong; Hangul: 이선웅; born July 22, 1980), better known by his stage name Tablo (Hangul: 타블로), is a Korean-Canadian hip hop recording artist, lyricist, composer and record producer. Tablo is best known as the leader and producer of veteran Korean hip-hop group Epik High, and the founder of independent music label HIGHGRND (High Ground), which housed bands Hyukoh and The Black Skirts.Tablo became employed as a lyricist while still in high school. Under the supervision of Tobias Wolff, Tablo graduated from Stanford University with honors in English literature and creative writing. He then moved to Korea,[1] where, in 2001, he formed Epik High alongside DJ Tukutz and Mithra Jin. The group has since released 10 full-length albums and 1 EP, with Tablo having produced and co-written all the songs. His debut solo album, Fever's End, was released in 2011.Outside of Epik High, Tablo is a record producer and songwriter for other artists and involved in collaborative projects such as Borderline, Eternal Morning, and Anyband. His music incorporates numerous styles, ranging from trance, trip hop, to rock.[2] Tablo is also the author of the best-selling book Pieces of You, published in both English and Korean, and Blonote. He made his film debut acting in Nonstop (2005). In 2016, Tablo left his radio show, MBC FM4U's Tablo's Dreaming Radio, after eleven years to focus on YG's music sub-label HIGHGRND.[3][4]","title":"Tablo"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jakarta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta"},{"link_name":"Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VIDEO:_Indonesia_yang_Bikin_Tablo_Selalu_Ingin_Kembali-5"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-6"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"St. George's School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._George%27s_School_(Vancouver)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-homepage-7"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Seoul International School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul_International_School"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-6"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-article-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"Bachelor's Degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bachelor%27s_Degree"},{"link_name":"English literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_literature"},{"link_name":"Master's Degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master%27s_Degree"},{"link_name":"creative writing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creative_writing"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"piano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano"},{"link_name":"violin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-interview4-2"},{"link_name":"Isaac Stern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Stern"},{"link_name":"Kim Gun-mo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Gun-mo"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-early-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-early-13"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"1980–2003: Early life and career beginnings","text":"Tablo moved to Jakarta, Indonesia in 1980 shortly after his birth. Due to his father's work, he spent around 3 years living in Jakarta[5] before his family relocated again several times to Switzerland and Hong Kong [citation needed] for his father's career until Tablo was six, when they returned to South Korea briefly.[6] His family moved again to Canada when he was eight. Tablo attended St. George's School[7] in Vancouver, British Columbia. He then transferred to Seoul International School.[6] As a coterminal student at Stanford University,[8][9][10] Tablo simultaneously attained a Bachelor's Degree in English literature and a Master's Degree in creative writing in four years.[9][10][11]Tablo started playing piano at the age of six but later switched to violin, which he played for 10 years.[2] His music teacher, who had been a pupil of Isaac Stern, used to lecture him saying: \"Music is communism, but you're playing democracy\". Tablo wrote the lyrics to legendary singer Kim Gun-mo's song \"Rainy Christmas\" when he was sixteen years old, as Kim took an interest in Tablo after reading a poem of his.[12]During his early life, Tablo suffered from bouts of depression. Whenever he faced hardship, hip hop music served as an outlet. However, Tablo's father disapproved of his career choice, so as a teenager, he frequently ran away from home. Ostensibly, Tablo asked a friend to live out his dream, but when that friend died of cancer, it became an impetus for him to re-enter the music industry.[13][14] Tablo later admitted his family forced him to enroll in Stanford, and even after the release of his second album, was still persuading him to return to the United States to attend Law School.[13] While he was at Stanford, Tablo associated with an underground hip hop group, 4n Objectz. [citation needed]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mithra Jin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mithra_Jin"},{"link_name":"DJ Tukutz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DJ_Tukutz"},{"link_name":"Epik High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik_High"},{"link_name":"Dynamic Duo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_Duo_(South_Korean_duo)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-interview-15"},{"link_name":"Map of the Human Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_of_the_Human_Soul"},{"link_name":"High Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Society_(Epik_High_album)"},{"link_name":"Swan Songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan_Songs_(Epik_High_album)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"FIFA 07","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIFA_07"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tablo_at_MaptheSoul_Concert_SanFrancisco_2009.jpg"},{"link_name":"Remapping the Human Soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remapping_the_Human_Soul"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Pieces, Part One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieces,_Part_One"},{"link_name":"Pieces of You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieces_of_You_(book)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"of the same name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_the_Soul"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E_(Epik_High_album)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Epilogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epilogue_(Epik_High_album)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"HiphopLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HiphopLE&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"2003–10: Success with Epik High and Pieces of You","text":"Tablo met future bandmates Mithra Jin and DJ Tukutz while active in the underground hip-hop scene. The three came together to form Epik High, with Tablo as their leader. Under the tutelage of Movement crew members, especially the trio CB Mass, they attempted to record their first studio album alongside hip-hop duo and close friends TBNY (composed of Yankie and TopBob); however, CB Mass member Curbin allegedly embezzled Epik High and TBNY's funds for the album, effectively causing the disbandment of CB Mass (and the creation of Dynamic Duo without Curbin). Tablo and Epik High were finally signed by Woollim Entertainment, which at the time focused on underground hip hop and modern rock, and the group officially debuted in 2003.[15] The group's first album, Map of the Human Soul, was released on October 21 of that year; however, due to hip hop's lack of popularity in South Korea at the time, the album was a commercial failure. It wasn't until the release of their second album, High Society, that the group started to gain popularity. Epik High's third album, Swan Songs, was originally intended to be their last album; however, upon release, the album reached the top of numerous charts, and swept the year-end hip-hop awards.[16] One of the lead singles from the album, \"Fly\", was featured on the soundtrack of the video game FIFA 07. Due to the numerous offers to remake \"Fly\", as well as \"Paris\", the second single from the album, a CD sampler was released in Japan.[17]Tablo at Map the Soul Concert, San Francisco (2009)In 2007, the group released their fourth studio album, Remapping the Human Soul, and managed to push Epik High to the number one spot for best upcoming artist after selling almost 90,000 copies in the first month of release. The album ended up becoming South Korea's third best-selling album of 2007.[18] However, many songs from the album were banned from several TV channels, and the album buying age was restricted to 19+ due to some songs dealing with issues the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in South Korea deemed inappropriate for younger listeners.[19] The group later went on to release their next album, Pieces, Part One, which was also a commercial success.In late 2008, Tablo published a book entitled Pieces of You. Although the stories were originally written in English, the book was first published in Korean. The Korean translation sold 50,000 copies in its first week of release and topped the bestseller's list in Korea.[20] The original English version was released in February 2009 and also met with moderate success. The book garnered a positive reception from critics, with Tablo's writing praised for a first-time author.[21] After the group's contract with Woolim Entertainment expired in 2008, Tablo, alongside his group members, founded their own independent label, Map the Soul, and went on to release an album of the same name.[22] Through their independent label, the group went on to release two more albums; [e] in 2009,[23] and Epilogue in 2010.[24][25] In November 2013, Tablo revealed in his interview with HiphopLE that \"Map the Soul\" was shut down due to one of its executive member embezzling the label's funds.[26]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"fan sites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fan_sites"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"netizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netizens"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"registrar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registrar_(education)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"MBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munhwa_Broadcasting_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordDaily2010-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-31"},{"link_name":"Infinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_(band)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-32"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StanfordPersecution-10"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davis-31"},{"link_name":"criminal defamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defamation#Online_defamation"},{"link_name":"Naver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naver"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"sub_title":"2010–11: Musical hiatus and Stanford controversy","text":"In 2010, it was announced that Epik High would go on hiatus after DJ Tukutz enlisted in his mandatory military service, whilst Tablo and Mithra would be working on solo careers until DJ Tukutz's return. However, in mid-2010, a group of Internet users raised doubts about the academic background of Tablo, who majored in English and Creative Writing at Stanford University.[9][10] Led by two fan sites, most notably \"We Demand the Truth from Tablo\" (Hangul: \"타블로에게 진실을 요구합니다\"; also known as \"Tajinyo\", Hangul: \"타진요\"), some netizens claimed that Tablo could not have graduated from Stanford University with both a bachelor's degree and master's degree in English and Creative Writing, respectively, in just three and a half years.[27][28][9]It became front-page news in Korea in June 2010 when one of the fansite's managers, who went by the username whatbecomes, claimed that Tablo's academic record was \"not making any sense\" and showed what he believed to be inconsistencies in Tablo's transcripts. Even though Tablo posted his official transcript and other legal documents online, many netizens refused to believe him, and called for other documents such as his immigration statement and diploma to be released.[29][30] Tablo visited Stanford University in late August to disprove these allegations by having the university registrar re-print his documents on camera, and many of Tablo's acquaintances and former professors from Stanford attested to the validity of his academic background on camera.[9][10] The documentary was shown in two parts: \"Tablo Goes to Stanford\" and \"Tablo and South Korea Online\", which aired on MBC October 1 and 8. However, despite the documentary and Stanford's administration clearly siding with Tablo,[9][10] membership at \"We Demand the Truth from Tablo\" increased to as many as 190,000 within a few days, as numerous netizens refused to believe Tablo or the documentary. Tablo and members of his family received death threats and he became a virtual recluse.[31] Tablo ultimately left Woollim Entertainment during the Tajinyo incident, not wanting to spread harm to the agency or to Infinite, who had only recently debuted when the controversy broke out.[32]On October 9, however, police confirmed that Tablo had indeed graduated from Stanford, having requested information beyond what Tablo had already provided, directly from Stanford University.[10] South Korean police filed an arrest warrant domestically and with Interpol for the arrest of whatbecomes, who was revealed to be a 57-year-old Korean-American named Eungsuk Kim living in the United States.[10][31] In addition, twenty-two netizens received summons indicating they had been sued by Tablo for criminal defamation. The fansite was shut down soon after by its host site, Naver, following the results of the investigation, which also revealed that whatbecomes had fraudulently used a friend's ID number to create the website, violating Naver's terms of service. However, many members of the fansite joined another community called \"We Demand the Truth from Tablo 2\" (Hangul: \"타블로에게 진실을 요구합니다2\", or \"타진요 2\"; \"Tajinyo-i\" for short), which has a membership of over 33,000 netizens despite proof provided by both the university and the police that Tablo did indeed graduate from Stanford University.[33]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"YG Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YG_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"YG Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YG_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"Epik High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik_High"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Hangul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hangul"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Epik High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik_High"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"K-pop Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K-pop_Star"},{"link_name":"Lee Hi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Hi"},{"link_name":"99","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/99_(Epik_High_album)"},{"link_name":"The Return of Superman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Return_of_Superman_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Bibi Zhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibi_Zhou"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Born Hater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_Hater"},{"link_name":"Pangyo Techno Valley Festival Tragedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangyo_Techno_Valley#Pangyo_Techno_Valley_Festival_Incident"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"SHOEBOX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoebox_(album)"},{"link_name":"Beenzino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beenzino"},{"link_name":"Verbal Jint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verbal_Jint"},{"link_name":"Mino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Song_Min-ho"},{"link_name":"WINNER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winner_(band)"},{"link_name":"B.I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B.I_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"Bobby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"iKON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IKON_(South_Korean_band)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EpikHigh_061215_100_(18769657962)_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Pro Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pro_Era"},{"link_name":"Joey Badass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joey_Badass"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"2011-current: Return, solo career and Epik High comeback","text":"On September 27, 2011, YG Entertainment announced that Tablo would be signing a 4-year contract with them and that his first solo album would be released on November 1.[34] Although Tablo signed as a solo singer under YG Entertainment, he indicated that it did not mean that Epik High disbanded, nor that they would necessarily sign with YG as a group.[35] On October 14, 2011, Tablo released the song \"Airbag\" from his new upcoming album.[36] On October 21, 2011, YG announced that the new album, titled Fever's End (Hangul: 열꽃), had been split into two parts. The first part was released along with the recent announcement, and the second part was released on the planned release date.[37]On September 27, 2012, YG officially announced through yg-life.com that Epik High would have their comeback in October 2012, after a three-year hiatus as a group.[38] Their first single, \"춥다\" (\"It's Cold\"), featured SBS's K-pop Star finalist Lee Hi and was released on October 9, while their comeback album, titled 99, was released on the 19th. On December 30, 2012, during the SBS Gayo Daejun, Tablo joined fellow Epik High bandmate Mithra Jin, Dynamic Duo and Simon D for Cypher 2012, a remix of popular hip hop tracks of the year, to much acclaim.In October 2013, Tablo joined KBS variety show The Return of Superman with his daughter Haru.[39]On April 21, 2014, Tablo returned as radio DJ.[40] His show's name is Tablo's Dreaming Radio. He was the DJ for this same program until 2016.In March 2014, Tablo carried out a collaboration with China's top female singer Bibi Zhou.[41]On October 18, 2014, Epik High released their music video for \"Born Hater\", after the video was delayed by YG due to the Pangyo Techno Valley Festival Tragedy.[42] The track is from their eighth album, SHOEBOX, and features a myriad of hip hop artists including Beenzino, Verbal Jint, Mino of WINNER, along with B.I and Bobby of iKON.[43]2015 North American Tour, New York CityOn August 31, 2015, Tablo released a teaser clip for a collaboration track with American rapper and co-founder of Pro Era, Joey Badass. Their collaborated song, \"Hood,\" was released September 5, 2015.[44]On January 26, 2017, he collaborated with Gallant and Eric Nam on the single release of \"Cave Me In\", and music video which was shot in Hong Kong.[45] \"Cave Me In\" premiered worldwide on Zane Lowe's Beats 1 Radio Show and was trending globally on YouTube and Facebook for over 72 hours upon releasing.In September 2022, he collaborated with Jackson Wang for a new track \"Imagine\" on the hip-pop competition series, Rap Of China.[46]","title":"Life and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kang Hye-jung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kang_Hye-jung"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"Brown University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_University"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"Tablo married Korean actress Kang Hye-jung on October 26, 2009.[47] Their daughter, Haru, was born on May 2, 2010.[48] Tablo has an older sister, Lee Sun-joo, who graduated from Cornell University and an older brother, Lee Sun-Min, who graduated from Brown University and Columbia University.[49][50]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Run-D.M.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Run-D.M.C."},{"link_name":"Drunken Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drunken_Tiger"},{"link_name":"emcee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Ceremonies"},{"link_name":"EPMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPMD"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Tablo has been a long-time fan of hip hop music, citing an almost lifelong affair with the culture itself. While listening to hip hop at an early age through artists such as Run-D.M.C. and acquiring Cold Crush tapes, he concurrently gained recognition as a rhymer. His major and enduring love affair with making hip hop music was sparked later in life, however; after hearing Drunken Tiger rapping, the group Epik High was formed in 2000 at an early time in the culture's local evolution. Tablo has since claimed to be the first emcee to have used the \"rhyming rifle\" technique. With the hip hop scene in Korea and Korean emcees being known for their fickle tendencies, Tablo has through the years kept alive his legacy and career through numerous shows, appearances on influential overseas (American most notably) hip hop artists work, such as EPMD.[citation needed]","title":"Musical style"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pieces of You","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pieces_of_You_(book)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 2008, Tablo published a collection of short stories he had written, titled Pieces of You. The English translation was published in 2009. In 2016, his second book \"BloNote\" was published in Korea with a pink book cover. The English version, translated by Tablo himself and with a black cover, was published on December 21, 2016.[citation needed]","title":"Writing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Dive Studios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dive_Studios"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"text":"On June 8, 2019, Tablo posted on his personal Instagram posing the question: \"What if Tablo had an English-language podcast?\".[51] The podcast premiered with the release of three episodes on August 8, 2019.[52][53] The Tablo Podcast is produced by Dive Studios.[54] The last episode of The Tablo Podcast aired on September 4, 2020,[55] though two follow-up episodes were released in 2021 to promote the release of Epik High Is Here.","title":"Podcast"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Epik High discography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epik_High_discography"}],"text":"See also: Epik High discography","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Films","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Music videos","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Awards"}]	[{"image_text":"Tablo at Map the Soul Concert, San Francisco (2009)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Tablo_at_MaptheSoul_Concert_SanFrancisco_2009.jpg/220px-Tablo_at_MaptheSoul_Concert_SanFrancisco_2009.jpg"},{"image_text":"2015 North American Tour, New York City","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/EpikHigh_061215_100_%2818769657962%29_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-EpikHigh_061215_100_%2818769657962%29_%28cropped%29.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Tablo interview on music\" (in Korean). 2007-02-28. Retrieved 2008-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hiphopplaya.com/magazine/article/view.html?category=&category2=&page=1&sort=&num=2383&keyfield=&key=epik+high","url_text":"\"Tablo interview on music\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo's Dreaming Radio\" (in Korean). Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved March 31, 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.imbc.com/broad/radio/fm4u/dream/","url_text":"\"Tablo's Dreaming Radio\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munhwa_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation"}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo is replacing HaHa\". Allkpop. 2008-02-14. Archived from the original on 2008-05-31. Retrieved 2008-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080531012935/http://www.allkpop.com/index.php/news_rumors_full/tablo_is_replacing_haha","url_text":"\"Tablo is replacing HaHa\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allkpop","url_text":"Allkpop"},{"url":"http://www.allkpop.com/index.php/news_rumors_full/tablo_is_replacing_haha","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"interview\" (in Indonesian). cnnindonesia.com. Retrieved 2017-08-17.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnnindonesia.com/hiburan/20170814203728-238-234752/video-indonesia-yang-bikin-tablo-selalu-ingin-kembali/","url_text":"\"interview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo biography & interview\" (in Korean). YonhapNews.co.kr. Retrieved 2008-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=106&oid=001&aid=0000936611","url_text":"\"Tablo biography & interview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo's homepage\" (in Korean). Archived from the original on 2013-02-18. 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The Stanford Daily.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stanforddaily.com/2010/09/27/korean-pop-star-battles-attacks-on-stanford-record/","url_text":"\"Korean pop star battles attacks on Stanford record\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Stanford_Daily","url_text":"The Stanford Daily"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Joshua (July–August 2011). \"The Persecution of Daniel Lee\". Stanford Magazine. Stanford University.","urls":[{"url":"http://alumni.stanford.edu/get/page/magazine/article/?article_id=40913","url_text":"\"The Persecution of Daniel Lee\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University","url_text":"Stanford University"}]},{"reference":"\"interview on degrees\" (in Korean). 2007-08-15. Retrieved 2008-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=106&oid=038&aid=0000394615","url_text":"\"interview on degrees\""}]},{"reference":"Lim, Woojin (2021-02-23). \"Epik High's Tablo: Compelled to Make Hip Hop\". The International Wave. 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Hankooki.com. Retrieved 2008-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.naver.com/main/read.nhn?mode=LSD&mid=sec&sid1=106&oid=038&aid=0000379584","url_text":"\"interview\""}]},{"reference":"\"Epik High: Albums\". Map the Soul, Inc. October 5, 2005. Archived from the original on August 5, 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090805122040/http://mapthesoul.com/store/view.html?num=3&category=albums&category2=epikhigh","url_text":"\"Epik High: Albums\""},{"url":"http://mapthesoul.com/store/view.html?num=3&category=albums&category2=epikhigh","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Epik High to expand into Japan with sample CD\". Arirang TV. March 12, 2007. Archived from the original on May 13, 2012. 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Retrieved 11 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allkpop.com/2011/10/tablo-releases-part-1-of-fevers-end-album","url_text":"\"Tablo releases Part 1 of \"Fever's End\" album\""}]},{"reference":"\"Epik High to return this September\". allkpop. 2012-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allkpop.com/2012/07/epik-high-to-return-this-september","url_text":"\"Epik High to return this September\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo to Babysit Haru on 'Superman is Back'\". Retrieved 11 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://mwave.interest.me/enewsworld/en/article/48287","url_text":"\"Tablo to Babysit Haru on 'Superman is Back'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo to return as radio DJ\". The Korea Times. 2014-04-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/culture/2014/04/386_155440.html","url_text":"\"Tablo to return as radio DJ\""}]},{"reference":"\"Korea-China collaboration: TABLO works with top artist Bibi Zhou\". 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Retrieved 2019-10-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://divestudios.io/show/thetablopodcast/","url_text":"\"The Tablo Podcast – DIVE Studios\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tablo brings this era of the podcast to a close\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dianne_Dorland	Dianne Dorland	["1 Early life","2 Education and career","2.1 STEM education advocacy","2.2 AIChE","3 Personal life","4 Awards and recognition","5 References"]	American chemical engineer Dianne DorlandCitizenshipAmericanEducationSouth Dakota School of Mines and Technology (BS, MS) West Virginia University (PhD)Occupation(s)Chemical engineerLicensed Professional EngineerKnown forChemical engineering and STEM education leadership Dianne Dorland is an American chemical engineer and STEM education advocate. She served as the first female president of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers. She is also the former chair of the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Minnesota Duluth and the former dean of the Henry M. Rowan College of Engineering at Rowan University. Early life Raised in Belle Fourche, South Dakota, Dorland was the second eldest of six children. Her father was an optometrist, and her mother was a homemaker. Dorland cites her mother as being a key influence for her entry into engineering, once advocating for Dorland's admittance into her school's technical drafting class. In high school, Dorland excelled in science and math and was a member of the Junior Engineering Technology Society. Education and career Dorland enrolled in the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology in 1965 and majored in chemical engineering. Here, she worked as an undergraduate technician at the Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, where she discovered her interest in clouds and weather patterns. In 1969, she earned her B.S. in chemical engineering with a minor in meteorology, and in 1970, she earned her M.S. in chemical engineering. Combining her interests in meteorology and chemical engineering, Dorland's master's thesis explored “the importance of liquid water content on nucleation efficiencies of a wide variety of cloud seeding generators at temperatures between -5C to -20C.” After receiving these degrees, Dorland moved to West Virginia to pursue a career in industry. She first worked as a research and development engineer at Union Carbide Corporation in South Charleston. She then worked as a process engineer at DuPont in Belle. While at DuPont, Dorland worked with para-diaminodicyclohexylmethane (PACM), the precursor to Qiana Nylon. Contributing to the design and expansion of this chemical's manufacturing process, she provided operational and technical support for new equipment. Dorland pivoted into academia in 1981, when she began teaching evening classes at West Virginia Institute of Technology. She was eventually offered a full-time position as an assistant professor there before attending West Virginia University to pursue a Ph.D. in chemical Engineering in 1983. During her Ph.D., Dorland studied coal processing methods under chemical engineering professor Al Stiller. After receiving her PhD in 1985, Dorland briefly worked for the U.S. Department of Energy before joining the Department of Chemical Engineering at University of Minnesota Duluth as a teaching professor in 1986. She also worked for the university's Sea Grant as an environmental engineer, researching pollution prevention and hazardous waste management. Four years after joining the University of Minnesota Duluth, Dorland was appointed as the head of the school's chemical engineering department. During her time at University of Minnesota Duluth, Dorland advised many state environmental remediation efforts. She served on the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Great Lakes Initiative advisory committee, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources taconite enhancement committee, and the Governor's Task Force on Mining and Minerals for Northeastern Minnesota. She was also the chair of the toxic technical advisory committee for the St. Louis Watershed Remedial Action Plan. In 2000, Dorland assumed the role of dean at Rowan University's College of Engineering and maintained this position until her retirement in 2010. As dean, she worked to provide greater industry experience and connection for engineering students at Rowan. STEM education advocacy Dorland has given presentations on STEM education across the world. She has advocated for the integration of hands-on learning experiences into engineering curriculums. As dean of Rowan University's College of Engineering, she played a key role in advancing the school's engineering clinics, multidisciplinary classes designed for undergraduates to collaborate with certified engineers. As dean, Dorland was also an active member of the American Society for Engineering Education and was elected to its executive committee of Engineering Deans Council in 2006. Drawing from her experience as a department chair and university dean, Dorland co-authored A Toolkit for Deans and A Toolkit for Provosts. In these informative guides, she offered advice and resources for effective leadership within academic institutions. An advocate for youth STEM education, Dorland served as the New Jersey State Affiliate for Project Lead the Way, a nonprofit that develops STEM curriculums for preschool through grade 12. She also represented Rowan on the New Jersey Consortium for Engineering Education, a working group focused on promoting STEM education and establishing engineering curriculum standards within high schools and other secondary education institutions. Dorland has also supported female participation in STEM fields. While at the University of Minnesota Duluth, she helped develop a peer mentorship program for women within the College of Science and Engineering. AIChE Dorland joined the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) in 1969. During her early years in AIChE, she was a member of the Planning Process Team and the Program Committee's executive board. She also served as meeting program chair of the 1997 Annual Meeting in Los Angeles. Later, she became a member of AIChE's board of directors. In 2002, she served as president-elect, and in 2003, she became the first female president of AIChE. AlChE was not the only engineering society with a female president in 2003. For the first time in history, all presidents of the major engineering societies were women: Dianne Dorland as the first female president of AIChE, Susan Skemp as the second female president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Teresa Helmlinger as the first female president of the National Society of Professional Engineers, LeEarl Bryant as the first female president of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and Patricia Galloway as the first female president of the American Society of Civil Engineers. To celebrate this historical event, Patricia Galloway contacted author Sybil Hatch to write a book celebrating female engineers. Dorland, along with the other engineering society presidents, collaborated with Galloway to procure funding and publicize the book. In 2006, this book, titled Changing Our World: True Stories of Women Engineers, was released as part of the Extraordinary Women Engineers Project. Dorland, Galloway, and hundreds of other female engineers were celebrated in this book. Personal life Dorland is known for her adventurous spirit. During graduate school, she had a private pilot's license and Cessna-172 airplane, which she would fly with her colleagues. She was also an avid scuba diver. Dorland's hobbies include gardening, reading, and birding. She has two children. Awards and recognition Gloucester County Woman of Achievement (2010) ConocoPhillips Lecturer (2008) Delaware Valley Engineers Week Council Engineer of the Year (2008) - first time female recipient Southern New Jersey Development Council Distinguished Leadership Award for Leadership in Business (2005) South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Distinguished Alumni Award (2001) References ^ a b "Institute Milestones". www.aiche.org. 2013-04-04. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ a b c "Chemical and Biomedical Engineering \| Dianne Dorland". cbe.statler.wvu.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ a b c d e f g h Barsotti, D.A. (Winter 2001). "Dianne Dorland" (PDF). Chemical Engineering Education. 35 (1): 2–7 – via University of Florida Digital Collections. ^ Dorland, Dianne (1970-01-01). "The Effect of Liquid Water Content on Nucleation Efficiency in a Cold Chamber". South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Rapid City Institute of Atmospheric Sciences. Defense Technical Information Center. ^ Dorland, Dianne (1985). Low Temperature Dissolution of Coal (Thesis). West Virginia University. ProQuest 303421214 – via ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global. ^ "South Dakota School of Mines and Technology". South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ a b c d e "Dean Dorland named Engineer of the Year". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ "Engineering Clinics". engineering.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ a b "Gloucester County organizations honor Helene Reed, Dianne Dorland". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ Dorland, Dianne; Mosto, Patricia (2014). A Toolkit for Deans. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1475808353. ^ Mosto, Patricia; Simmons, Gail; McGee, Brian; Dorland, Dianne (2020). A Toolkit for Provosts. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1475848076. ^ Deneen, Linda; Dorland, Dianne (2006). "Students Mentoring Students: Recruiting and Retaining Women in Science and Engineering". Proceedings of the 1992 Women in Engineering Conference: Increasing Enrollment and Retention – via Pennsylvania State University: Women in Engineering ProActive Network. ^ "Dianne Dorland". www.aiche.org. 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ "Rowan?s Dorland Elected to VP Post". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ a b Hatch, Sybil (2006). Changing Our World: True Stories of Women Engineers. American Society of Civil Engineers. ISBN 978-0784408414. ^ Paciolla, Christina (2006-03-08). "Rowan prof recognized for engineering efforts". Trentonian. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ Times, Carly Q. Romalino/ South Jersey (2008-02-19). "Engineered for Success". NJ.com. Retrieved 2023-12-04. ^ Anodide, Tessa, ed. (2008). "SWE Outlook: The Philadelphia Section ~ Region E" (PDF). ^ Enright, Cicely; Young, Cass (Fall 2005). Quigley, Patricia (ed.). "Development Council Honors Engineering Dean" (PDF). Rowan University Engineering News. 8 (1): 2. ^ "Distinguished Alumni Past Award Recipients". South Dakota Mines Center Center for Alumni Relations & Advancement.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chemical engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_engineer"},{"link_name":"American Institute of Chemical Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Chemical_Engineers"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"University of Minnesota Duluth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Duluth"},{"link_name":"Rowan University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowan_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-2"}],"text":"Dianne Dorland is an American chemical engineer and STEM education advocate. She served as the first female president of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.[1] She is also the former chair of the Department of Chemical Engineering at the University of Minnesota Duluth and the former dean of the Henry M. Rowan College of Engineering at Rowan University.[2]","title":"Dianne Dorland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belle Fourche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle_Fourche,_South_Dakota"},{"link_name":"Junior Engineering Technology Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Junior_Engineering_Technical_Society"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"}],"text":"Raised in Belle Fourche, South Dakota, Dorland was the second eldest of six children. Her father was an optometrist, and her mother was a homemaker. Dorland cites her mother as being a key influence for her entry into engineering, once advocating for Dorland's admittance into her school's technical drafting class. In high school, Dorland excelled in science and math and was a member of the Junior Engineering Technology Society.[3]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"South Dakota School of Mines and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dakota_School_of_Mines_and_Technology"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"cloud seeding generators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_seeding"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Union Carbide Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Carbide"},{"link_name":"South Charleston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Charleston,_West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"DuPont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DuPont"},{"link_name":"Belle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belle,_West_Virginia"},{"link_name":"para-diaminodicyclohexylmethane (PACM)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4,4%27-Diaminodicyclohexylmethane"},{"link_name":"Qiana Nylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qiana"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"West Virginia Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia_University_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"West Virginia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Virginia_University"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"U.S. Department of Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy"},{"link_name":"Sea Grant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Sea_Grant_College_Program"},{"link_name":"environmental engineer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_engineering_science"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-2"},{"link_name":"Minnesota Pollution Control Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Pollution_Control_Agency"},{"link_name":"Minnesota Department of Natural Resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Department_of_Natural_Resources"},{"link_name":"taconite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taconite"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Dorland enrolled in the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology in 1965 and majored in chemical engineering. Here, she worked as an undergraduate technician at the Institute of Atmospheric Sciences, where she discovered her interest in clouds and weather patterns. In 1969, she earned her B.S. in chemical engineering with a minor in meteorology, and in 1970, she earned her M.S. in chemical engineering.[3] Combining her interests in meteorology and chemical engineering, Dorland's master's thesis explored “the importance of liquid water content on nucleation efficiencies of a wide variety of cloud seeding generators at temperatures between -5C to -20C.”[4]After receiving these degrees, Dorland moved to West Virginia to pursue a career in industry. She first worked as a research and development engineer at Union Carbide Corporation in South Charleston. She then worked as a process engineer at DuPont in Belle. While at DuPont, Dorland worked with para-diaminodicyclohexylmethane (PACM), the precursor to Qiana Nylon. Contributing to the design and expansion of this chemical's manufacturing process, she provided operational and technical support for new equipment.[3]Dorland pivoted into academia in 1981, when she began teaching evening classes at West Virginia Institute of Technology. She was eventually offered a full-time position as an assistant professor there before attending West Virginia University to pursue a Ph.D. in chemical Engineering in 1983. During her Ph.D., Dorland studied coal processing methods under chemical engineering professor Al Stiller.[3][5]After receiving her PhD in 1985, Dorland briefly worked for the U.S. Department of Energy before joining the Department of Chemical Engineering at University of Minnesota Duluth as a teaching professor in 1986. She also worked for the university's Sea Grant as an environmental engineer, researching pollution prevention and hazardous waste management.[3] Four years after joining the University of Minnesota Duluth, Dorland was appointed as the head of the school's chemical engineering department.[2]During her time at University of Minnesota Duluth, Dorland advised many state environmental remediation efforts. She served on the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency Great Lakes Initiative advisory committee, the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources taconite enhancement committee, and the Governor's Task Force on Mining and Minerals for Northeastern Minnesota. She was also the chair of the toxic technical advisory committee for the St. Louis Watershed Remedial Action Plan.[2]In 2000, Dorland assumed the role of dean at Rowan University's College of Engineering and maintained this position until her retirement in 2010. As dean, she worked to provide greater industry experience and connection for engineering students at Rowan.[3][6]","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"American Society for Engineering Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Society_for_Engineering_Education"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Project Lead the Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Lead_the_Way"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"STEM education advocacy","text":"Dorland has given presentations on STEM education across the world.[7] She has advocated for the integration of hands-on learning experiences into engineering curriculums. As dean of Rowan University's College of Engineering, she played a key role in advancing the school's engineering clinics, multidisciplinary classes designed for undergraduates to collaborate with certified engineers.[3][8]As dean, Dorland was also an active member of the American Society for Engineering Education and was elected to its executive committee of Engineering Deans Council in 2006.[9]Drawing from her experience as a department chair and university dean, Dorland co-authored A Toolkit for Deans and A Toolkit for Provosts. In these informative guides, she offered advice and resources for effective leadership within academic institutions.[10][11]An advocate for youth STEM education, Dorland served as the New Jersey State Affiliate for Project Lead the Way, a nonprofit that develops STEM curriculums for preschool through grade 12.[7] She also represented Rowan on the New Jersey Consortium for Engineering Education, a working group focused on promoting STEM education and establishing engineering curriculum standards within high schools and other secondary education institutions.[7]Dorland has also supported female participation in STEM fields. While at the University of Minnesota Duluth, she helped develop a peer mentorship program for women within the College of Science and Engineering.[12]","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Susan Skemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Skemp"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"Extraordinary Women Engineers Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ749668"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"AIChE","text":"Dorland joined the American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) in 1969.[13] During her early years in AIChE, she was a member of the Planning Process Team and the Program Committee's executive board. She also served as meeting program chair of the 1997 Annual Meeting in Los Angeles. Later, she became a member of AIChE's board of directors. In 2002, she served as president-elect, and in 2003, she became the first female president of AIChE.[1][14]AlChE was not the only engineering society with a female president in 2003. For the first time in history, all presidents of the major engineering societies were women: Dianne Dorland as the first female president of AIChE, Susan Skemp as the second female president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Teresa Helmlinger as the first female president of the National Society of Professional Engineers, LeEarl Bryant as the first female president of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, and Patricia Galloway as the first female president of the American Society of Civil Engineers.[15]To celebrate this historical event, Patricia Galloway contacted author Sybil Hatch to write a book celebrating female engineers. Dorland, along with the other engineering society presidents, collaborated with Galloway to procure funding and publicize the book. In 2006, this book, titled Changing Our World: True Stories of Women Engineers, was released as part of the Extraordinary Women Engineers Project. Dorland, Galloway, and hundreds of other female engineers were celebrated in this book.[15][16]","title":"Education and career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cessna-172 airplane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cessna_172"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-3"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Dorland is known for her adventurous spirit. During graduate school, she had a private pilot's license and Cessna-172 airplane, which she would fly with her colleagues. She was also an avid scuba diver.[3]Dorland's hobbies include gardening, reading, and birding. She has two children.[17]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-7"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Gloucester County Woman of Achievement (2010)[9]\nConocoPhillips Lecturer (2008)[7]\nDelaware Valley Engineers Week Council Engineer of the Year (2008) - first time female recipient[7][18]\nSouthern New Jersey Development Council Distinguished Leadership Award for Leadership in Business (2005)[19]\nSouth Dakota School of Mines and Technology Distinguished Alumni Award (2001)[20]","title":"Awards and recognition"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Institute Milestones\". www.aiche.org. 2013-04-04. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiche.org/about/institute-milestones","url_text":"\"Institute Milestones\""}]},{"reference":"\"Chemical and Biomedical Engineering \| Dianne Dorland\". cbe.statler.wvu.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://cbe.statler.wvu.edu/alumni-friends/academy-of-chemical-engineers/dianne-dorland","url_text":"\"Chemical and Biomedical Engineering \| Dianne Dorland\""}]},{"reference":"Barsotti, D.A. (Winter 2001). \"Dianne Dorland\" (PDF). Chemical Engineering Education. 35 (1): 2–7 – via University of Florida Digital Collections.","urls":[{"url":"https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/00/03/83/00149/AA00000383_00149.pdf","url_text":"\"Dianne Dorland\""}]},{"reference":"Dorland, Dianne (1970-01-01). \"The Effect of Liquid Water Content on Nucleation Efficiency in a Cold Chamber\". South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Rapid City Institute of Atmospheric Sciences. Defense Technical Information Center.","urls":[{"url":"https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0727183","url_text":"\"The Effect of Liquid Water Content on Nucleation Efficiency in a Cold Chamber\""}]},{"reference":"Dorland, Dianne (1985). Low Temperature Dissolution of Coal (Thesis). West Virginia University. ProQuest 303421214 – via ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.proquest.com/docview/303421214","url_text":"Low Temperature Dissolution of Coal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ProQuest_(identifier)","url_text":"ProQuest"},{"url":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/303421214","url_text":"303421214"}]},{"reference":"\"South Dakota School of Mines and Technology\". South Dakota School of Mines and Technology. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sdsmt.edu/news","url_text":"\"South Dakota School of Mines and Technology\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dean Dorland named Engineer of the Year\". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2008/01/dean-dorland-named-engineer-year.html","url_text":"\"Dean Dorland named Engineer of the Year\""}]},{"reference":"\"Engineering Clinics\". engineering.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://engineering.rowan.edu/academics/clinics_new.html","url_text":"\"Engineering Clinics\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gloucester County organizations honor Helene Reed, Dianne Dorland\". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2010/10/gloucester-county-organizations-honor-helene-reed-dianne-dorland.html","url_text":"\"Gloucester County organizations honor Helene Reed, Dianne Dorland\""}]},{"reference":"Dorland, Dianne; Mosto, Patricia (2014). A Toolkit for Deans. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1475808353.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1475808353","url_text":"978-1475808353"}]},{"reference":"Mosto, Patricia; Simmons, Gail; McGee, Brian; Dorland, Dianne (2020). A Toolkit for Provosts. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1475848076.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1475848076","url_text":"978-1475848076"}]},{"reference":"Deneen, Linda; Dorland, Dianne (2006). \"Students Mentoring Students: Recruiting and Retaining Women in Science and Engineering\". Proceedings of the 1992 Women in Engineering Conference: Increasing Enrollment and Retention – via Pennsylvania State University: Women in Engineering ProActive Network.","urls":[{"url":"https://journals.psu.edu/wepan/article/view/57598/57286","url_text":"\"Students Mentoring Students: Recruiting and Retaining Women in Science and Engineering\""}]},{"reference":"\"Dianne Dorland\". www.aiche.org. 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.aiche.org/community/bio/dianne-dorland","url_text":"\"Dianne Dorland\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rowan?s Dorland Elected to VP Post\". today.rowan.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2001/12/rowans-dorland-elected-vp-post.html","url_text":"\"Rowan?s Dorland Elected to VP Post\""}]},{"reference":"Hatch, Sybil (2006). Changing Our World: True Stories of Women Engineers. American Society of Civil Engineers. ISBN 978-0784408414.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0784408414","url_text":"978-0784408414"}]},{"reference":"Paciolla, Christina (2006-03-08). \"Rowan prof recognized for engineering efforts\". Trentonian. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.trentonian.com/2006/03/08/rowan-prof-recognized-for-engineering-efforts/","url_text":"\"Rowan prof recognized for engineering efforts\""}]},{"reference":"Times, Carly Q. Romalino/ South Jersey (2008-02-19). \"Engineered for Success\". NJ.com. Retrieved 2023-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.nj.com/southjerseylife/2008/02/engineered_for_success.html","url_text":"\"Engineered for Success\""}]},{"reference":"Anodide, Tessa, ed. (2008). \"SWE Outlook: The Philadelphia Section ~ Region E\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://philadelphia.swe.org/uploads/2/3/6/6/23664278/fy08.4.pdf","url_text":"\"SWE Outlook: The Philadelphia Section ~ Region E\""}]},{"reference":"Enright, Cicely; Young, Cass (Fall 2005). Quigley, Patricia (ed.). \"Development Council Honors Engineering Dean\" (PDF). Rowan University Engineering News. 8 (1): 2.","urls":[{"url":"https://engineering.rowan.edu/_docs/newsletter/2005-fall_newsletter.pdf","url_text":"\"Development Council Honors Engineering Dean\""}]},{"reference":"\"Distinguished Alumni Past Award Recipients\". South Dakota Mines Center Center for Alumni Relations & Advancement.","urls":[{"url":"https://cara.sdsmt.edu/awards/past-distinguished-alumni-recipients","url_text":"\"Distinguished Alumni Past Award Recipients\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ749668","external_links_name":"Extraordinary Women Engineers Project"},{"Link":"https://www.aiche.org/about/institute-milestones","external_links_name":"\"Institute Milestones\""},{"Link":"https://cbe.statler.wvu.edu/alumni-friends/academy-of-chemical-engineers/dianne-dorland","external_links_name":"\"Chemical and Biomedical Engineering \| Dianne Dorland\""},{"Link":"https://ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/AA/00/00/03/83/00149/AA00000383_00149.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Dianne Dorland\""},{"Link":"https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/citations/AD0727183","external_links_name":"\"The Effect of Liquid Water Content on Nucleation Efficiency in a Cold Chamber\""},{"Link":"https://www.proquest.com/docview/303421214","external_links_name":"Low Temperature Dissolution of Coal"},{"Link":"https://search.proquest.com/docview/303421214","external_links_name":"303421214"},{"Link":"https://www.sdsmt.edu/news","external_links_name":"\"South Dakota School of Mines and Technology\""},{"Link":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2008/01/dean-dorland-named-engineer-year.html","external_links_name":"\"Dean Dorland named Engineer of the Year\""},{"Link":"https://engineering.rowan.edu/academics/clinics_new.html","external_links_name":"\"Engineering Clinics\""},{"Link":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2010/10/gloucester-county-organizations-honor-helene-reed-dianne-dorland.html","external_links_name":"\"Gloucester County organizations honor Helene Reed, Dianne Dorland\""},{"Link":"https://journals.psu.edu/wepan/article/view/57598/57286","external_links_name":"\"Students Mentoring Students: Recruiting and Retaining Women in Science and Engineering\""},{"Link":"https://www.aiche.org/community/bio/dianne-dorland","external_links_name":"\"Dianne Dorland\""},{"Link":"https://today.rowan.edu/news/2001/12/rowans-dorland-elected-vp-post.html","external_links_name":"\"Rowan?s Dorland Elected to VP Post\""},{"Link":"https://www.trentonian.com/2006/03/08/rowan-prof-recognized-for-engineering-efforts/","external_links_name":"\"Rowan prof recognized for engineering efforts\""},{"Link":"http://blog.nj.com/southjerseylife/2008/02/engineered_for_success.html","external_links_name":"\"Engineered for Success\""},{"Link":"https://philadelphia.swe.org/uploads/2/3/6/6/23664278/fy08.4.pdf","external_links_name":"\"SWE Outlook: The Philadelphia Section ~ Region E\""},{"Link":"https://engineering.rowan.edu/_docs/newsletter/2005-fall_newsletter.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Development Council Honors Engineering Dean\""},{"Link":"https://cara.sdsmt.edu/awards/past-distinguished-alumni-recipients","external_links_name":"\"Distinguished Alumni Past Award Recipients\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pram_(boat)	Pram (boat)	[]	This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Pram" boat – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A Norwegian pram A pram is a small utility dinghy with a transom bow rather than a pointed bow. This type of pram provides a more efficient use of space than does a traditional skiff of the same size. The Mirror and Optimist sailboats are examples of this form. Modern prams are often 8 to 10 feet long and built of plywood, fibreglass, plastic or aluminum. They are usually oar powered. The Norwegian pram is commonly made of solid timber with much fore and aft rocker with a U-shaped cross section. In New Zealand and Australia the most common pram is an arc or v bottom rowboat commonly made of 6mm marine plywood often sealed with paint and/or epoxy resin. In the past often used as a tender; it has been replaced in this role by the small inflatable. There is an unrelated type of ship called "pram" or "pramm". This article about a type of ship or boat is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Norwegian_pram.jpg"},{"link_name":"dinghy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinghy"},{"link_name":"transom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transom_(nautical)"},{"link_name":"skiff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiff"},{"link_name":"Mirror","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirror_(dinghy)"},{"link_name":"Optimist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optimist_(dinghy)"},{"link_name":"type of ship called \"pram\" or \"pramm\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pram_(ship)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FS_Etoile-icon.jpg"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pram_(boat)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Ship-type-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Ship-type-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ship-type-stub"}],"text":"A Norwegian pramA pram is a small utility dinghy with a transom bow rather than a pointed bow. This type of pram provides a more efficient use of space than does a traditional skiff of the same size. The Mirror and Optimist sailboats are examples of this form. Modern prams are often 8 to 10 feet long and built of plywood, fibreglass, plastic or aluminum. They are usually oar powered. The Norwegian pram is commonly made of solid timber with much fore and aft rocker with a U-shaped cross section. In New Zealand and Australia the most common pram is an arc or v bottom rowboat commonly made of 6mm marine plywood often sealed with paint and/or epoxy resin. In the past often used as a tender; it has been replaced in this role by the small inflatable.There is an unrelated type of ship called \"pram\" or \"pramm\".This article about a type of ship or boat is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Pram (boat)"}]	[{"image_text":"A Norwegian pram","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Norwegian_pram.jpg/220px-Norwegian_pram.jpg"}]	null	[]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Pram%22+boat","external_links_name":"\"Pram\" boat"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Pram%22+boat+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Pram%22+boat&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Pram%22+boat+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Pram%22+boat","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Pram%22+boat&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pram_(boat)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_senators_from_Colorado	List of United States senators from Colorado	["1 List of senators","2 See also","3 Notes","4 References"]	Current delegationMichael Bennet (D)John Hickenlooper (D) Colorado was admitted to the Union on August 1, 1876 and elects U.S. senators to Senate class 2 and class 3. Both of Colorados current U.S. senators are Democrats Michael Bennet (serving since 2009) and John Hickenlooper (serving since 2021). Colorado is one of fifteen states alongside Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, South Dakota and Utah to have a younger senior senator and an older junior senator. Henry M. Teller was Colorado's longest-serving senator (1876–1882; 1885–1909). List of senators Class 2Class 2 U.S. senators belong to the electoral cycle that has recently been contested in 2002, 2008, 2014, and 2020. The next election will be in 2026. C Class 3Class 3 U.S. senators belong to the electoral cycle that has recently been contested in 2004, 2010, 2016, and 2022. The next election will be in 2028. # Senator Party Dates in office Electoral history T T Electoral history Dates in office Party Senator # Vacant Aug 1, 1876 –Nov 15, 1876 Colorado did not elect its senators until three months after statehood. 1 44th 1 Colorado did not elect its senators until three months after statehood. Aug 1, 1876 –Nov 15, 1876 Vacant 1 Henry M. Teller Republican Nov 15, 1876 –Apr 17, 1882 Elected in 1876. Elected in 1876.Retired. Nov 15, 1876 –Mar 3, 1879 Republican Jerome B. Chaffee 1 Elected to next term in 1876 or 1877.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Interior. 2 45th 46th 2 Elected in 1879.Lost re-nomination. Mar 4, 1879 –Mar 3, 1885 Republican Nathaniel P. Hill 2 47th 2 George M. Chilcott Republican Apr 17, 1882 –Jan 27, 1883 Appointed to continue Teller's term.Did not run to finish the term. 3 Horace Tabor Republican Jan 27, 1883 –Mar 3, 1883 Elected to finish Teller's term.Retired. 4 Thomas M. Bowen Republican Mar 4, 1883 –Mar 3, 1889 Election date unknown.Unknown if retired or lost re-election. 3 48th 49th 3 Elected in 1885. Mar 4, 1885 –Mar 3, 1909 Republican Henry M. Teller 3 50th 5 Edward O. Wolcott Republican Mar 4, 1889 –Mar 3, 1901 Elected in 1889. 4 51st 52nd 4 Re-elected in 1891. 53rd Re-elected in 1895.Lost re-election. 5 54th 55th 5 Re-elected in 1897. Silver Republican 56th 6 Thomas M. Patterson Democratic Mar 4, 1901 –Mar 3, 1907 Elected in 1901.Retired. 6 57th 58th 6 Re-elected in 1903.Retired. Democratic 59th 7 Simon Guggenheim Republican Mar 4, 1907 –Mar 3, 1913 Elected in 1907.Retired. 7 60th 61st 7 Elected in 1909.Died. Mar 4, 1909 –Jan 11, 1911 Democratic Charles J. Hughes Jr. 4 Jan 11, 1911 –Jan 15, 1913 Vacant 62nd Elected to finish Hughes's term. Jan 15, 1913 –Mar 3, 1921 Democratic Charles S. Thomas 5 8 John F. Shafroth Democratic Mar 4, 1913 –Mar 3, 1919 Elected in 1913.Lost re-election. 8 63rd 64th 8 Re-elected in 1914.Lost re-election. 65th 9 Lawrence C. Phipps Republican Mar 4, 1919 –Mar 3, 1931 Elected in 1918. 9 66th 67th 9 Elected in 1920.Died. Mar 4, 1921 –Mar 24, 1923 Republican Samuel D. Nicholson 6 68th Mar 24, 1923 –May 17, 1923 Vacant Appointed to continue Nicholson's term.Retired. May 17, 1923 –Nov 30, 1924 Democratic Alva B. Adams 7 Elected to finish Nicholson's term.Lost renomination. Dec 1, 1924 –Mar 3, 1927 Republican Rice W. Means 8 Re-elected in 1924.Retired. 10 69th 70th 10 Elected in 1926.Died. Mar 4, 1927 –Aug 27, 1932 Republican Charles W. Waterman 9 71st 10 Edward P. Costigan Democratic Mar 4, 1931 –Jan 3, 1937 Elected in 1930.Retired. 11 72nd Aug 27, 1932 –Sep 26, 1932 Vacant Appointed to continue Waterman's term.Lost election to finish Waterman's term. Sep 26, 1932 –Dec 6, 1932 Democratic Walter Walker 10 Elected to finish Waterman's term.Lost election to next term. Dec 7, 1932 –Mar 3, 1933 Republican Karl C. Schuyler 11 73rd 11 Elected in 1932. Mar 4, 1933 –Dec 1, 1941 Democratic Alva B. Adams 12 74th 11 Edwin C. Johnson Democratic Jan 3, 1937 –Jan 3, 1955 Elected in 1936. 12 75th 76th 12 Re-elected in 1938.Died. 77th Dec 1, 1941 –Dec 20, 1941 Vacant Appointed to continue Adams's term.Elected in 1942 to finish Adams's term. Dec 20, 1941 –Jan 3, 1957 Republican Eugene Millikin 13 Re-elected in 1942. 13 78th 79th 13 Re-elected in 1944. 80th Re-elected in 1948.Retired to run for Governor. 14 81st 82nd 14 Re-elected in 1950.Retired 83rd 12 Gordon Allott Republican Jan 3, 1955 –Jan 3, 1973 Elected in 1954. 15 84th 85th 15 Elected in 1956.Lost re-election. Jan 3, 1957 –Jan 3, 1963 Democratic John A. Carroll 14 86th Re-elected in 1960. 16 87th 88th 16 Elected in 1962. Jan 3, 1963 –Jan 3, 1975 Republican Peter H. Dominick 15 89th Re-elected in 1966.Lost re-election. 17 90th 91st 17 Re-elected in 1968.Lost re-election. 92nd 13 Floyd Haskell Democratic Jan 3, 1973 –Jan 3, 1979 Elected in 1972.Lost re-election. 18 93rd 94th 18 Elected in 1974. Jan 3, 1975 –Jan 3, 1987 Democratic Gary Hart 16 95th 14 William L. Armstrong Republican Jan 3, 1979 –Jan 3, 1991 Elected in 1978. 19 96th 97th 19 Re-elected in 1980.Retired. 98th Re-elected in 1984.Retired. 20 99th 100th 20 Elected in 1986.Retired. Jan 3, 1987 –Jan 3, 1993 Democratic Tim Wirth 17 101st 15 Hank Brown Republican Jan 3, 1991 –Jan 3, 1997 Elected in 1990.Retired. 21 102nd 103rd 21 Elected in 1992.Changed parties on March 3, 1995. Jan 3, 1993 –Jan 3, 2005 Democratic Ben Nighthorse Campbell 18 104th Republican 16 Wayne Allard Republican Jan 3, 1997 –Jan 3, 2009 Elected in 1996. 22 105th 106th 22 Re-elected in 1998.Retired. 107th Re-elected in 2002.Retired. 23 108th 109th 23 Elected in 2004.Resigned to become U.S. Secretary of the Interior. Jan 3, 2005 –Jan 20, 2009 Democratic Ken Salazar 19 110th 17 Mark Udall Democratic Jan 3, 2009 –Jan 3, 2015 Elected in 2008.Lost re-election. 24 111th Appointed to finish Salazar's term. Jan 21, 2009 –present Democratic Michael Bennet 20 112th 24 Elected to a full term in 2010. 113th 18 Cory Gardner Republican Jan 3, 2015 –Jan 3, 2021 Elected in 2014.Lost re-election. 25 114th 115th 25 Re-elected in 2016. 116th 19 John Hickenlooper Democratic Jan 3, 2021 –present Elected in 2020. 26 117th 118th 26 Re-elected in 2022. 119th To be determined in the 2026 election. 27 120th 121st 27 To be determined in the 2028 election. # Senator Party Years in office Electoral history T C T Electoral history Years in office Party Senator # Class 2 Class 3 See also United States portalColorado portalPolitics portal United States congressional delegations from Colorado List of United States representatives from Colorado Elections in Colorado Notes ^ "Teller in Colorado". The New York Times. January 21, 1897. p. 2. ^ Byrd, p. 86. References Byrd, Robert C. (October 1, 1993). Wolff, Wendy (ed.). The Senate, 1789-1989: Historical Statistics, 1789-1992. United States Senate Historical Office (volume 4 Bicentennial ed.). Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. ISBN 9780160632563. vteUnited States senators from ColoradoClass 2 Teller Chilcott Tabor Bowen Wolcott Patterson Guggenheim Shafroth Phipps Costigan Johnson Allott Haskell Armstrong Brown Allard Udall Gardner Hickenlooper Class 3 Chaffee Hill Teller Hughes Thomas Nicholson Adams Means Waterman Walker Schuyler Adams Millikin Carroll Dominick Hart Wirth Campbell Salazar Bennet vteColorado's current delegation to the United States CongressSenators ▌Michael Bennet (D) ▌John Hickenlooper (D) Representatives (ordered by district) ▌Diana DeGette (D) ▌Joe Neguse (D) ▌Lauren Boebert (R) ▌Vacant ▌Doug Lamborn (R) ▌Jason Crow (D) ▌Brittany Pettersen (D) ▌Yadira Caraveo (D) vteLists of United States congressional delegationsStates Alabama H S Alaska H S Arizona H S Arkansas H S California H S Colorado H S Connecticut H S Delaware H S Florida H S Georgia H S Hawaii H S Idaho H S Illinois H S Indiana H S Iowa H S Kansas H S Kentucky H S Louisiana H S Maine H S Maryland H S Massachusetts H S Michigan H S Minnesota H S Mississippi H S Missouri H S Montana H S Nebraska H S Nevada H S New Hampshire H S New Jersey H S New Mexico H S New York H S North Carolina H S North Dakota H S Ohio H S Oklahoma H S Oregon H S Pennsylvania H S Rhode Island H S South Carolina H S South Dakota H S Tennessee H S Texas H S Utah H S Vermont H S Virginia H S Washington H S West Virginia H S Wisconsin H S Wyoming H S Others American Samoa District of Columbia Guam Northern Mariana Islands Puerto Rico U.S. Virgin Islands Proposed (Cherokee) Obsolete Dakota Territory Northwest Territory Orleans Territory Philippines Southwest Territory Lists of former House members List of former senators vteState of ColoradoDenver (capital)Topics Bibliography Index Outline Climate change Colleges Coloradans Elections Federal lands Geography Government Historic places History Images Indian reservations Law Lists Military Mountains Municipalities Museums National Forests National Parks Paleontology Prehistoric sites Prehistory Protected areas Railroads Rivers Slavery Statistical areas Symbols Timeline Tourist attractions Towns Trails Transportation Wildernesses Society Abortion Crime Culture Demographics Economy Education Gun laws Homelessness LGBT rights Politics Religion Sports Cities Alamosa Arvada Aspen Aurora Black Hawk Boulder Brighton Broomfield Brush Burlington Cañon City Castle Pines Centennial Central City Cherry Hills Village Colorado Springs Commerce City Cortez Craig Cripple Creek Dacono Delta Denver Durango Edgewater Englewood Evans Federal Heights Florence Fort Collins Fort Lupton Fort Morgan Fountain Fruita Glendale Glenwood Springs Golden Grand Junction Greeley Greenwood Village Gunnison Holyoke Idaho Springs La Junta Lafayette Lakewood Lamar Las Animas Leadville Littleton Lone Tree Longmont Louisville Loveland Manitou Springs Monte Vista Montrose Northglenn Ouray Pueblo Rifle Rocky Ford Salida Sheridan Steamboat Springs Sterling Thornton Trinidad Victor Walsenburg Westminster Wheat Ridge Woodland Park Wray Yuma Counties Adams Alamosa Arapahoe Archuleta Baca Bent Boulder Broomfield Chaffee Cheyenne Clear Creek Conejos Costilla Crowley Custer Delta Denver Dolores Douglas Eagle El Paso Elbert Fremont Garfield Gilpin Grand Gunnison Hinsdale Huerfano Jackson Jefferson Kiowa Kit Carson La Plata Lake Larimer Las Animas Lincoln Logan Mesa Mineral Moffat Montezuma Montrose Morgan Otero Ouray Park Phillips Pitkin Prowers Pueblo Rio Blanco Rio Grande Routt Saguache San Juan San Miguel Sedgwick Summit Teller Washington Weld Yuma Regions Central Colorado Eastern Plains Colorado Mineral Belt Colorado Piedmont Colorado Plateau Colorado Western Slope Denver Metropolitan Area Four Corners Region Front Range Urban Corridor High Plains North Central Colorado Urban Area Northwestern Colorado San Luis Valley South-Central Colorado South Central Colorado Urban Area Southern Rocky Mountains Southwest Colorado Colorado portal vte Lists of people from ColoradoBy city Arvada Aspen Aurora Colorado Springs Denver mayors Englewood Golden Highlands Ranch La Junta Lakewood Las Animas Littleton mayors Westminster Wheat Ridge By office Governors Lieutenant Governors Secretaries of State Attorneys General Treasurers Supreme Court justices U.S. Senators U.S. Representatives By alma mater Colorado College Colorado School of Mines Colorado State University United States Air Force Academy University of Colorado Boulder University of Denver	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michael_Bennet_Official_Photo_(cropped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Michael Bennet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Bennet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_Hickenlooper,_official_portrait,_117th_Congress_(cropped).jpeg"},{"link_name":"John 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Dakota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Dakota"},{"link_name":"Utah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utah"},{"link_name":"not verified in body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Henry M. Teller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_M._Teller"}],"text":"Current delegationMichael Bennet (D)John Hickenlooper (D)Colorado was admitted to the Union on August 1, 1876 and elects U.S. senators to Senate class 2 and class 3.Both of Colorados current U.S. senators are Democrats Michael Bennet (serving since 2009) and John Hickenlooper (serving since 2021). Colorado is one of fifteen states alongside Arizona, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada, South Dakota and Utah to have a younger senior senator and an older junior senator.[not verified in body]Henry M. Teller was Colorado's longest-serving senator (1876–1882; 1885–1909).","title":"List of United States senators from Colorado"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of senators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Teller in Colorado\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//nyti.ms/2dYTnh8"},{"link_name":"The New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEByrd86_2-0"},{"link_name":"Byrd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFByrd"}],"text":"^ \"Teller in Colorado\". The New York Times. January 21, 1897. p. 2.\n\n^ Byrd, p. 86.","title":"Notes"}]	[]	[{"title":"United States portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States"},{"title":"Colorado portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Colorado"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg"},{"title":"Politics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Politics"},{"title":"United States congressional delegations from Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_delegations_from_Colorado"},{"title":"List of United States representatives from Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_representatives_from_Colorado"},{"title":"Elections in Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elections_in_Colorado"}]	[{"reference":"\"Teller in Colorado\". The New York Times. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Weir_Lock	Bell Weir Lock	["1 History","2 Access to the lock","3 Reach above the lock","3.1 Thames Path","4 Literature and the media","5 See also","6 External links","7 References"]	Coordinates: 51°26′18″N 0°32′16″W / 51.43833°N 0.53778°W / 51.43833; -0.53778Lock on the River Thames in England Bell Weir LockBell Weir Lock with the M25 crossing beyondWaterwayRiver ThamesCountySurreyMaintained byEnvironment AgencyOperationHydraulicFirst built1817Latest built1877Length78.51 m (257 ft 7 in) Width7.44 m (24 ft 5 in)Fall1.82 m (6 ft 0 in)Above sea level47'Distance to Teddington Lock17 milesPower is available out of hours vteBell Weir Lock Legend River Thames Ham Lane bridge Old Windsor Lock moorings Friary Island Pats Croft Eyot Magna Carta Island The Island weir weir Bell Weir Lock River Thames Bell Weir Lock is a lock on the River Thames in England by the right bank, Runnymede which is a water meadow associated with Egham of importance for the constitutional Magna Carta. It is upstream of the terrace of a hotel and the a bridge designed by Edwin Lutyens who designed an ornamental park gate house along the reach. The bridge has been widened and carries the M25 and A30 road across the river in a single span. The lock was first built by the Thames Navigation Commission in 1817; it has one weir which is upstream. The lock is the eighth lowest of forty-five on the river and is named after the founder of the forerunner of the adjoining hotel who took charge of the lock and weir on its construction. Bell Weir Lock with the weir behind History A proposed location for a pound lock (impounded water as opposed to a flash lock) in 1811 was across the next bend upstream. The lock and embankments were built at its present site in the winter of 1817–1818. It was known as Egham Lock, but took its name from Charles "Charlie" Bell who founded in the 18th century an inn by the site, The Anglers Retreat, which he continued to operate when entrusted with keeping the lock and weir. The weir collapsed under weight of ice in 1827, so too the lock in 1866. Lock and weir were rebuilt in 1867. The lock had to be rebuilt in stone in 1877. A new weir was completed in 1904. Access to the lock The lock can be reached on foot from the A308 road and is behind the Runnymede Hotel. Reach above the lock The meadow and riverside at Runnymede with a Lutyens gatehouse, as seen from the Kennedy Memorial The reach runs through Runnymede to Old Windsor. Immediately on the left bank (right heading upstream) is a water input and management facility at the Hythe End part of Wraysbury that supplies the Staines Reservoirs followed by low-rise housing with gardens as on "The Island"; woods facing Magna Carta Island tucked close followed by Pats Croft Eyot; and more riverside dwellings at Wraysbury and on Friary Island. The right bank has riverside houses and a greater recreation area then the Runnymead meadows and Arts and Crafts architecture (Edwin Lutyens) gate houses. The Bells of Ouseley public house commemorates bells of Osney Abbey, Oxford which at the abbey's dissolution disappeared into the mud in official records. A longer built-up stretch follows at Old Windsor. There are no bridges or ferries. The reach is home to Wraysbury Skiff and Punting Club. Egham Regatta is held near Hythe End in June; Wraysbury and Old Windsor Regatta is held in August. Pleasure boats from the recreation ground can be launched upstream. The refreshment terraces of a hotel and spa adjoin the lock; hot-tub tugs and others with awnings operate. Its restaurants are The Lock and the Left Bank. Thames Path The Thames Path, having changed sides at Staines Bridge runs along the right bank to Old Windsor Lock. Literature and the media In Three Men in a Boat, Jerome K Jerome records Harris and I began to think that Bell Weir lock must have been done away with ... It was half-past seven when we were through .... We had originally intended to go on to Magna Carta Island....But somehow we did not feel that we yearned for the picturesque nearly so much now as we had earlier in the day. A bit of water between a coal barge and a gasworks would have quite satisfied us for that night See also Locks on the River Thames Rowing on the River Thames External links Bell Weir Lock at visitthames.co.uk Next lock upstream River Thames Next lock downstream Old Windsor Lock4.94 km (3.07 mi) Bell Weir LockGrid reference: TQ017720 Penton Hook Lock4.33 km (2.69 mi) References ^ a b c "Environment Agency Dimensions of locks on the River Thames". web page. Environmental Agency. 8 November 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2012. Dimensions given in metres ^ The Thames Path, page 85, Leigh Hatts, Cicerone Press Limited, 3rd Ed. 2016 (1st. Ed. 1998) ^ Fred. S. Thacker The Thames Highway: Volume II Locks and Weirs 1920 - republished 1968 David & Charles ^ http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/c58b30f0-710c-4870-960a-5be2aa9db911 National Archives, catalogue entry of photograph of 1883 of lock and the demolished former inn along with path by the Thames, Photographer: Henry W Taunt ^ http://jewishnews.timesofisrael.com/honey-thats-what-i-want/ "Honey, that’s what I want!", Times of Israel Jewish News, Caron Kemp, August 10 2017 ^ Runnymede Hotel beside Bell Weir Lock ^ a b "Environment Agency Distances between locks on the River Thames". web page. Environmental Agency. 19 November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012. Distances given in km. 51°26′18″N 0°32′16″W / 51.43833°N 0.53778°W / 51.43833; -0.53778	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BellWeirLock01.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"Surrey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrey"},{"link_name":"Environment Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_Agency"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EnvAgency-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EnvAgency-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EnvAgency-1"},{"link_name":"Teddington Lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teddington_Lock"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Bell_Weir_Lock_map"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Bell_Weir_Lock_map"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Bell_Weir_Lock_map"},{"link_name":"Legend","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Waterways_legend"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"Old Windsor Lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Windsor_Lock"},{"link_name":"Friary Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friary_Island"},{"link_name":"Pats Croft Eyot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pats_Croft_Eyot"},{"link_name":"Magna Carta Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta_Island"},{"link_name":"The Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Island,_Hythe_End"},{"link_name":"Bell Weir Lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_(water_transport)"},{"link_name":"River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Thames"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"right bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_(geography)"},{"link_name":"Runnymede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runnymede"},{"link_name":"water meadow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_meadow"},{"link_name":"Egham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egham"},{"link_name":"Magna Carta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta"},{"link_name":"a bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M25_Runnymede_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Edwin Lutyens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens"},{"link_name":"M25","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M25_motorway"},{"link_name":"A30 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A30_road"},{"link_name":"span","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Span_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"Thames Navigation Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Navigation_Commission"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BellWeirLock02.JPG"}],"text":"Lock on the River Thames in EnglandBell Weir LockBell Weir Lock with the M25 crossing beyondWaterwayRiver ThamesCountySurreyMaintained byEnvironment AgencyOperationHydraulicFirst built1817Latest built1877Length78.51 m (257 ft 7 in) [1]Width7.44 m (24 ft 5 in)[1]Fall1.82 m (6 ft 0 in)[1]Above sea level47'Distance to Teddington Lock17 milesPower is available out of hours\n\n\n\nvteBell Weir Lock\n\n\nLegend\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRiver Thames\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nHam Lane bridge\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nOld Windsor Lock\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nmoorings\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFriary Island\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPats Croft Eyot\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nMagna Carta Island\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Island\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nweir\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nweir\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBell Weir Lock\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nRiver ThamesBell Weir Lock is a lock on the River Thames in England by the right bank, Runnymede which is a water meadow associated with Egham of importance for the constitutional Magna Carta. It is upstream of the terrace of a hotel and the a bridge designed by Edwin Lutyens who designed an ornamental park gate house along the reach. The bridge has been widened and carries the M25 and A30 road across the river in a single span. The lock was first built by the Thames Navigation Commission in 1817; it has one weir which is upstream. The lock is the eighth lowest of forty-five on the river and is named after the founder of the forerunner of the adjoining hotel who took charge of the lock and weir on its construction.Bell Weir Lock with the weir behind","title":"Bell Weir Lock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flash lock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flash_lock"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"A proposed location for a pound lock (impounded water as opposed to a flash lock) in 1811 was across the next bend upstream. The lock and embankments were built at its present site in the winter of 1817–1818. It was known as Egham Lock, but took its name from Charles \"Charlie\" Bell who founded in the 18th century an inn by the site, The Anglers Retreat, which he continued to operate when entrusted with keeping the lock and weir.[2] The weir collapsed under weight of ice in 1827, so too the lock in 1866. Lock and weir were rebuilt in 1867. The lock had to be rebuilt in stone in 1877. A new weir was completed in 1904.[3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"A308 road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A308_road"}],"text":"The lock can be reached on foot from the A308 road and is behind the Runnymede Hotel.","title":"Access to the lock"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Runnymede_from_Kennedy_Memorial.JPG"},{"link_name":"Runnymede","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runnymede"},{"link_name":"Old Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Windsor"},{"link_name":"left bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bank_(geography)"},{"link_name":"Hythe End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hythe_End"},{"link_name":"Wraysbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wraysbury"},{"link_name":"Staines Reservoirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staines_Reservoirs"},{"link_name":"low-rise housing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-rise_building"},{"link_name":"The Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Island,_Hythe_End"},{"link_name":"Magna Carta Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magna_Carta_Island"},{"link_name":"Pats Croft Eyot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pats_Croft_Eyot"},{"link_name":"Wraysbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wraysbury"},{"link_name":"Friary Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friary_Island"},{"link_name":"Arts and Crafts architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arts_and_Crafts_architecture"},{"link_name":"Edwin Lutyens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Lutyens"},{"link_name":"Osney Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osney_Abbey"},{"link_name":"Old Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Windsor"},{"link_name":"Wraysbury Skiff and Punting Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wraysbury_Skiff_and_Punting_Club"},{"link_name":"Egham Regatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egham_Regatta"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The meadow and riverside at Runnymede with a Lutyens gatehouse, as seen from the Kennedy MemorialThe reach runs through Runnymede to Old Windsor. Immediately on the left bank (right heading upstream) is a water input and management facility at the Hythe End part of Wraysbury that supplies the Staines Reservoirs followed by low-rise housing with gardens as on \"The Island\"; woods facing Magna Carta Island tucked close followed by Pats Croft Eyot; and more riverside dwellings at Wraysbury and on Friary Island. The right bank has riverside houses and a greater recreation area then the Runnymead meadows and Arts and Crafts architecture (Edwin Lutyens) gate houses. The Bells of Ouseley public house commemorates bells of Osney Abbey, Oxford which at the abbey's dissolution disappeared into the mud in official records. A longer built-up stretch follows at Old Windsor.There are no bridges or ferries.The reach is home to Wraysbury Skiff and Punting Club. Egham Regatta is held near Hythe End in June; Wraysbury and Old Windsor Regatta is held in August. Pleasure boats from the recreation ground can be launched upstream. The refreshment terraces of a hotel and spa adjoin the lock; hot-tub tugs and others with awnings operate. Its restaurants are The Lock and the Left Bank.[5][6]","title":"Reach above the lock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Thames Path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thames_Path"}],"sub_title":"Thames Path","text":"The Thames Path, having changed sides at Staines Bridge runs along the right bank to Old Windsor Lock.","title":"Reach above the lock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Three Men in a Boat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Men_in_a_Boat"},{"link_name":"Jerome K Jerome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerome_K_Jerome"}],"text":"In Three Men in a Boat, Jerome K Jerome recordsHarris and I began to think that Bell Weir lock must have been done away with ... It was half-past seven when we were through .... We had originally intended to go on to Magna Carta Island....But somehow we did not feel that we yearned for the picturesque nearly so much now as we had earlier in the day. A bit of water between a coal barge and a gasworks would have quite satisfied us for that night","title":"Literature and the media"}]	[{"image_text":"Bell Weir Lock with the weir behind","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/BellWeirLock02.JPG/220px-BellWeirLock02.JPG"},{"image_text":"The meadow and riverside at Runnymede with a Lutyens gatehouse, as seen from the Kennedy Memorial","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Runnymede_from_Kennedy_Memorial.JPG/220px-Runnymede_from_Kennedy_Memorial.JPG"}]	[{"title":"Locks on the River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locks_on_the_River_Thames"},{"title":"Rowing on the River Thames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing_on_the_River_Thames"}]	[{"reference":"\"Environment Agency Dimensions of locks on the River Thames\". web page. Environmental Agency. 8 November 2012. Retrieved 18 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/135271.aspx","url_text":"\"Environment Agency Dimensions of locks on the River Thames\""}]},{"reference":"\"Environment Agency Distances between locks on the River Thames\". web page. Environmental Agency. 19 November 2012. Retrieved 21 November 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/131811.aspx","url_text":"\"Environment Agency Distances between locks on the River Thames\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bell_Weir_Lock&params=51_26_18_N_0_32_16_W_type:landmark_region:GB","external_links_name":"51°26′18″N 0°32′16″W / 51.43833°N 0.53778°W / 51.43833; -0.53778"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070927223423/http://www.visitthames.co.uk/poi_detail/139/2160/poi_detail.html","external_links_name":"Bell Weir Lock"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bell_Weir_Lock&params=51.437875_N_0.538237_W_region:GB_scale:25000","external_links_name":"TQ017720"},{"Link":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/135271.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Environment Agency Dimensions of locks on the River Thames\""},{"Link":"http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/c58b30f0-710c-4870-960a-5be2aa9db911","external_links_name":"http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/c58b30f0-710c-4870-960a-5be2aa9db911"},{"Link":"https://jewishnews.timesofisrael.com/honey-thats-what-i-want/","external_links_name":"http://jewishnews.timesofisrael.com/honey-thats-what-i-want/"},{"Link":"http://www.runnymedehotel.com/","external_links_name":"Runnymede Hotel"},{"Link":"http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/homeandleisure/recreation/131811.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Environment Agency Distances between locks on the River Thames\""},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Bell_Weir_Lock&params=51_26_18_N_0_32_16_W_type:landmark_region:GB","external_links_name":"51°26′18″N 0°32′16″W / 51.43833°N 0.53778°W / 51.43833; -0.53778"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99drzej_Kitowicz	Jędrzej Kitowicz	["1 References","1.1 Citations","1.2 Works cited","2 External links"]	Polish historian and diarist This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Jędrzej Kitowicz, anonymous painter, c. 1800 Jędrzej Kitowicz (November 25, 1728; April 3, 1804) was a Polish historian and diarist. According to Roman Pollak , a historian of Polish literature, Kitowicz was born into a bourgeois family in the region of Greater Poland, and was later employed in the service of wealthy priests. He was a rotmistrz of the Confederation of Bar in Greater Poland. In 1771 he joined a religious seminary, while he remained in service of the bishop of Kujawy Antoni Ostrowski (who later became the primate of Poland). In 1777 he took Holy Orders and in 1781 he became the provost of Rzeczyca where he spent the rest of his life. He is best known as the author of two unfinished treatises. Description of Customs during the reign of August III (Opis obyczajów za panowania Augusta III, published in 1840) was an attempt to portray the culture of Poland during the first half of the 18th century. Memoires, or History of Poland (Pamiętniki, czyli Historia polska, published partially in 1840, complete edition in 1971) was a chronicle of the years 1743–1798, with special attention to the Confederation of Bar. Kitowicz's works, especially Opis obyczajów... have a significant literary and historical value, although he could not keep himself objective, speaking out against Stanisław August Poniatowski and the reformists. He died in Rzeczyca. References Literatura polska. Przewodnik encyklopedyczny, Warszawa 1984 Citations ^ ks. Henryk Linarcik. "Jędrzej Kitowicz – ksiądz, historyk, pamiętnikarz – Akt chrztu". kitowicz.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2017-06-09. Works cited External links Works by Kitowicz at Polona, including the Pamiętniki and Opis obyczajów Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii Other IdRef This biographical article about a historian from Poland is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This biographical article about a Polish religious figure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a Catholic clergyman is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ks_jedrzej_kitowicz_portret.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Roman Pollak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roman_Pollak&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"pl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Pollak"},{"link_name":"bourgeois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois"},{"link_name":"Greater Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Poland"},{"link_name":"rotmistrz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotmistrz"},{"link_name":"Confederation of Bar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confederation_of_Bar"},{"link_name":"seminary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seminary"},{"link_name":"bishop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bishop"},{"link_name":"Kujawy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kujawy"},{"link_name":"Antoni Ostrowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoni_Kazimierz_Ostrowski"},{"link_name":"primate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate_(bishop)"},{"link_name":"Holy Orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Orders"},{"link_name":"provost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provost_(religion)"},{"link_name":"Rzeczyca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzeczyca,_Gmina_Rzeczyca"},{"link_name":"culture of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Poland"},{"link_name":"Stanisław August Poniatowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanis%C5%82aw_August_Poniatowski"},{"link_name":"Rzeczyca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzeczyca,_Gmina_Rzeczyca"}],"text":"Jędrzej Kitowicz, anonymous painter, c. 1800Jędrzej Kitowicz (November 25, 1728;[1] April 3, 1804) was a Polish historian and diarist.According to Roman Pollak [pl], a historian of Polish literature, Kitowicz was born into a bourgeois family in the region of Greater Poland, and was later employed in the service of wealthy priests. He was a rotmistrz of the Confederation of Bar in Greater Poland. In 1771 he joined a religious seminary, while he remained in service of the bishop of Kujawy Antoni Ostrowski (who later became the primate of Poland). In 1777 he took Holy Orders and in 1781 he became the provost of Rzeczyca where he spent the rest of his life.He is best known as the author of two unfinished treatises. Description of Customs during the reign of August III (Opis obyczajów za panowania Augusta III, published in 1840) was an attempt to portray the culture of Poland during the first half of the 18th century. Memoires, or History of Poland (Pamiętniki, czyli Historia polska, published partially in 1840, complete edition in 1971) was a chronicle of the years 1743–1798, with special attention to the Confederation of Bar. Kitowicz's works, especially Opis obyczajów... have a significant literary and historical value, although he could not keep himself objective, speaking out against Stanisław August Poniatowski and the reformists. He died in Rzeczyca.","title":"Jędrzej Kitowicz"}]	[{"image_text":"Jędrzej Kitowicz, anonymous painter, c. 1800","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Ks_jedrzej_kitowicz_portret.jpg/200px-Ks_jedrzej_kitowicz_portret.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"ks. Henryk Linarcik. \"Jędrzej Kitowicz – ksiądz, historyk, pamiętnikarz – Akt chrztu\". kitowicz.pl (in Polish). Retrieved 2017-06-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.kitowicz.pl/akt-chrztu","url_text":"\"Jędrzej Kitowicz – ksiądz, historyk, pamiętnikarz – Akt chrztu\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.kitowicz.pl/akt-chrztu","external_links_name":"\"Jędrzej Kitowicz – ksiądz, historyk, pamiętnikarz – Akt chrztu\""},{"Link":"https://polona.pl/search/?filters=creator:%22Kitowicz,_J%C4%99drzej_(1728--1804)%22,public:1&sort=date%20asc","external_links_name":"Works by Kitowicz"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/84814/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000108568168","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/40235069","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJycKqpgGJj4DgwTWp3hHC","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12770771j","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12770771j","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/121443558","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007273606905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n82000649","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=js2013769118&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p07061508X","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810624497205606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA14285849?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/15869662X","external_links_name":"IdRef"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C4%99drzej_Kitowicz&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C4%99drzej_Kitowicz&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=J%C4%99drzej_Kitowicz&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_J._Benners	William J. Benners	["1 Biography","2 Family","3 Archive","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "William J. Benners" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) William James Benners, Jr. (1863-1940) was a writer, publisher and historian of dime novels which was a class of popular fiction that flourished in the mid- and late-nineteenth century and into the early twentieth century. Benners was also a poet, actor, and an avid traveler, who maintained correspondence with many dime novel authors and aimed to compile a directory of popular writers and bought and sold stories and publishing rights and also penned some dime novels of his own. Biography Benners was born in Philadelphia on September 27, 1863, the son of William, Sr. and Frances Ann. He had two brothers, Harry H. and A. Eugene, and a sister Novella. At an early age Benners showed an affinity for the literary arts but was not much interested in working at his family's lumber business. Benners was an avid reader of dime novels from age eight and read romance novels later in life. At ten he wrote his first poem and at 25 began writing some serials for George Munro's New York Fireside Companion and later for the Chicago Ledger. His professional writing career did not last long, but he was a devoted letter writer for much of his life. It was when Benners was about thirty that he began his "vast letter correspondence with the popular writers of the day" according to Ralph Adimari, a dime novel historian. The romance novelists Emma Burke Collins, Alex McVeigh Miller, and Mary R. Estey were his most faithful correspondents. After his death the bulk of Benners's correspondence was destroyed by his nieces because of concern over their personal (read: sexual) content. Ralph F. Cummings, the Dime Novel Round-Up editor, who nursed Benners in his last years and referred to the man as Uncle Billee, wrote to Adimari that Benners's nieces "didn't believe in his letters falling into other hands. They were putting stuff on the fire when I discovered what they were doing. I sure was lucky to get what I really did." Benners planned to create a directory of dime novel and romance novel authors which was a formidable task considering that so many writers published under pseudonyms. Different writers often used the same pseudonym. The project never went beyond the research stage. Benners did, however, begin enterprising as a literary agent and a buyer and seller of stories and publishing rights. Adimari recounts that in 1902 Benners purchased the entire output of the Frank Leslie Company which was a publisher of the juvenile magazines Frank Leslie's Boys and Girls Weekly, Frank Leslie's Young American, and Frank Leslie's Boys of America. Two months later he sold the Leslie material to William H. Gannett for $950. It is not known how much of that sum was profit, but we do know that Benners profited handsomely selling the stories of romance writer Charlotte M. Brame, who wrote under the pseudonym Bertha M. Clay. According to Adimari, who consulted Benners's accounting books, "he was paid from $15 for a short story up to $300 for a serial. So that sales may have reached higher than $10,000... When Ralph Cummings gave me part of the William J. Benners collection, at least one-third of the notes were devoted to Clay-Brame productions and in many letters to others he lauds her stories to the skies." Brame penned some 200 titles as Bertha Clay. Indeed, the Clay brand was so lucrative that several other authors went on to produce hundreds of stories using this pen name, including Benners himself. Family Ralph Adimari notes that though "Benners had many sweethearts he never married." He was engaged to Laura Jean Libbey, a romance writer, from 1891 to 1893, but they were not wed. In a 1958 letter to Adimari from Ralph Cummings, Cummings writes that, "according to what Uncle Billee told me, was that Laura Jean Libby wanted his $3 or $5000.00 ring to wear, and he wouldn't let her have it, so that was the end of there romance, so he told me, as he has been going with her for quite some time." After a long illness, Benners died on April 4, 1940, in his native Philadelphia. Archive The William J. Benners Papers are housed in the Fales Library and Special Collections at New York University's Bobst Library. The papers consist of: letters to Benners from family members, various authors, and publishers; fragments of dime novel manuscripts; several research and accounting notebooks; and miscellany such as scrapbooks and photos. They were donated by Edward G. Levy, the noted dime novel collector, in 1966. Levy had acquired them from Ralph Adimari in 1964; Adimari had received them throughout the 1950s from Ralph Cummings. See also biography portal Dime novel References ^ https://www.worldcat.org/title/william-j-benners-papers-1850-1940/oclc/1052469265 ^ The Magazine of Poetry and Literary Review, Volume 6, edited by Charles Wells Moulton, p. 228. ^ Dime Novel Round-Up ^ a b c d Ralph Adimari. "William J. Benners: The First Historian of the Dime Novel," Dime Novel Round-Up, Vol. 26, No. 9, September 15, 1958. ^ Fales Library and Special Collections, New York University External links The Fales Library Guide to the William Benners Papers Dime Novel Round-Up Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National United States Other SNAC ^ https://www.worldcat.org/title/william-j-benners-papers-1850-1940/oclc/1052469265	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"dime novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dime_novels"},{"link_name":"popular fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_fiction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"William James Benners, Jr. (1863-1940) was a writer, publisher and historian of dime novels which was a class of popular fiction that flourished in the mid- and late-nineteenth century and into the early twentieth century. Benners was also a poet, actor, and an avid traveler, who maintained correspondence with many dime novel authors and aimed to compile a directory of popular writers and bought and sold stories and publishing rights and also penned some dime novels of his own. [1]","title":"William J. 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Estey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Eastey"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ralph_Adimari-4"},{"link_name":"pseudonyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudonyms"},{"link_name":"Frank Leslie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Leslie"},{"link_name":"Charlotte M. Brame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_M._Brame"},{"link_name":"pen name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pen_name"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ralph_Adimari-4"}],"text":"Benners was born in Philadelphia on September 27, 1863, the son of William, Sr. and Frances Ann. He had two brothers, Harry H. and A. Eugene, and a sister Novella. At an early age Benners showed an affinity for the literary arts but was not much interested in working at his family's lumber business.[2]Benners was an avid reader of dime novels from age eight and read romance novels later in life. At ten he wrote his first poem and at 25 began writing some serials for George Munro's New York Fireside Companion and later for the Chicago Ledger. His professional writing career did not last long, but he was a devoted letter writer for much of his life. It was when Benners was about thirty that he began his \"vast letter correspondence with the popular writers of the day\" according to Ralph Adimari, a dime novel historian.[3]The romance novelists Emma Burke Collins, Alex McVeigh Miller, and Mary R. Estey were his most faithful correspondents. After his death the bulk of Benners's correspondence was destroyed by his nieces because of concern over their personal (read: sexual) content. Ralph F. Cummings, the Dime Novel Round-Up editor, who nursed Benners in his last years and referred to the man as Uncle Billee, wrote to Adimari that Benners's nieces \"didn't believe in his letters falling into other hands. They were putting stuff on the fire when I discovered what they were doing. I sure was lucky to get what I really did.\"[4]Benners planned to create a directory of dime novel and romance novel authors which was a formidable task considering that so many writers published under pseudonyms. Different writers often used the same pseudonym. The project never went beyond the research stage. Benners did, however, begin enterprising as a literary agent and a buyer and seller of stories and publishing rights. Adimari recounts that in 1902 Benners purchased the entire output of the Frank Leslie Company which was a publisher of the juvenile magazines Frank Leslie's Boys and Girls Weekly, Frank Leslie's Young American, and Frank Leslie's Boys of America. Two months later he sold the Leslie material to William H. Gannett for $950. It is not known how much of that sum was profit, but we do know that Benners profited handsomely selling the stories of romance writer Charlotte M. Brame, who wrote under the pseudonym Bertha M. Clay.According to Adimari, who consulted Benners's accounting books, \"he was paid from $15 for a short story up to $300 for a serial. So that sales may have reached higher than $10,000... When Ralph Cummings gave me part of the William J. Benners collection, at least one-third of the notes were devoted to Clay-Brame productions and in many letters to others he lauds her stories to the skies.\" Brame penned some 200 titles as Bertha Clay. Indeed, the Clay brand was so lucrative that several other authors went on to produce hundreds of stories using this pen name, including Benners himself.[4]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ralph Adimari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Adimari"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ralph_Adimari-4"},{"link_name":"Laura Jean Libbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Jean_Libbey"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ralph_Adimari-4"}],"text":"Ralph Adimari notes that though \"Benners had many sweethearts he never married.\"[4] He was engaged to Laura Jean Libbey, a romance writer, from 1891 to 1893, but they were not wed. In a 1958 letter to Adimari from Ralph Cummings, Cummings writes that, \"according to what Uncle Billee [Benners] told me, was that Laura Jean Libby wanted his $3 or $5000.00 ring to wear, and he wouldn't let her have it, so that was the end of there [sic] romance, so he told me, as he has been going with her for quite some time.\"[4]After a long illness, Benners died on April 4, 1940, in his native Philadelphia.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bobst Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobst_Library"},{"link_name":"Edward G. Levy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Edward_G._Levy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The William J. Benners Papers are housed in the Fales Library and Special Collections at New York University's Bobst Library. The papers consist of: letters to Benners from family members, various authors, and publishers; fragments of dime novel manuscripts; several research and accounting notebooks; and miscellany such as scrapbooks and photos. They were donated by Edward G. Levy, the noted dime novel collector, in 1966. Levy had acquired them from Ralph Adimari in 1964; Adimari had received them throughout the 1950s from Ralph Cummings.[5]","title":"Archive"}]	[]	[{"title":"biography portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biography"},{"title":"Dime novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dime_novel"}]	[]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22William+J.+Benners%22","external_links_name":"\"William J. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynthia_Moss	Cynthia Moss	["1 Life and work","1.1 Early life and education","1.2 Career","1.3 Awards","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	American ethologist and conservationist Cynthia MossBornCynthia Jane Moss (1940-07-24) July 24, 1940 (age 83)Ossining, New YorkEducationSmith College (1962)Years active1972-presentKnown forStudy of African savanna elephants, conservation, animal welfare Cynthia Jane Moss (born July 24, 1940) is an American ethologist and conservationist, wildlife researcher, and writer. Her studies have concentrated on the demography, behavior, social organization, and population dynamics of the African elephants of Amboseli. She is the director of the Amboseli Elephant Research Project, and is the program director and trustee for the Amboseli Trust for Elephants (ATE). Life and work Early life and education Cynthia Jane Moss was born in Ossining (town), New York on July 24, 1940. Her father, Julian, was a publisher of several small-town newspapers, and her mother, Lillian, left her work as a legal secretary to raise Cynthia and her older sister, Carolyn. Moss’s appreciation for nature began early as her love for horseback riding allowed her to explore and observe the outdoors. She began riding horses at the age of 7, and by age 12, she had her own horse, Kelly. Her passion for horseback riding led her to attend Southern Seminary, a private boarding school with a distinguished riding program during her junior and senior years. She attended Smith College where she took many classes in arts and literature, and where she earned her B.A. in philosophy in 1962. Career In 1964, she was hired as a news researcher and reporter for Newsweek, where she did interviews on religion and theater. In 1967, Moss took a leave of absence so she could see the African continent herself, which had been described to her in letters by her college friend, Penny Naylor, who had recently moved to Africa. It was on this trip that Moss visited British elephant researcher Dr. Iain Douglas-Hamilton’s camp in Lake Manyara National Park in northern Tanzania, which is where she “became completely hooked on elephants.” While she enjoyed working for Newsweek, the following year, she quit her job and moved to Africa to become a research assistant for Douglas-Hamilton, because "the pull of Africa was stronger". In these studies, they discovered that elephants could be identified by their ears because no two elephant’s ear shapes, or combinations of markings and veins, were alike, which Moss describes in her first book Portraits in the Wild. She continued to work with Douglas-Hamilton until the fall of 1968, when his project ended and he returned to England. Although her work with Douglas-Hamilton had ended, Moss was determined to stay in Africa and continue studying and working with the wildlife. To gain the experience and credentials she needed to begin her own study of elephants, she worked with Sue and Tony Harthoorn in Nairobi, Kenya as a veterinary assistant, assisted in research on plains animals and elephant feeding behavior in Tsavo National Park, and became an editor for the newsletter of the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Wildlife News. In 1972, Moss was encouraged by ecologist David "Jonah" Western to consider studying the last undisturbed elephant herd in Africa, in the Amboseli National Park in Kenya. So in September, Moss teamed up with Harvey Croze, and they began the Amboseli Elephant Research Project (AERP). The first step they took was to catalog pictures of the elephants which would aid them in keeping track of and recognizing different elephants. In 1974, their budget was scarce and Harvey Croze left for other work. In 1975, Moss published her book Portraits in the Wild, which gave her respect in the field, and aided her in receiving a $5,000 grant from the AWF, thus allowing her to devote nearly all of her time to the study of the elephants of Amboseli. That year, Moss set up camp in the park and began to gather information on the elephant’s behavior, daily movements, and relationships. The TC and TD family units are the main subjects of her book Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family (1988). 1975 also marked the beginning of a period of very low rainfall in the Amboseli region, which took a significant toll on the elephants, but also gave Moss a clear view of elephant behavior in times of drought. Moss focused on elephant conservation in the late 1980s as she saw the elephant population halved by poaching for ivory and loss of habitat. And thanks to her work combined with many others and conservation groups, the African Elephant was placed on the Endangered species list in October of 1989 and in January of 1990, the sale of ivory was prohibited. In 2001, she created the Amboseli Trust for Elephants (ATE), which is a non-profit trust, which focuses on elephant conservation, management, and policy-setting. Moss is most famous for her study of Echo, an elephant matriarch who has been the subject of Moss’s book Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family (1993) along with several documentaries. Moss's studies have given a remarkable insight into the way elephants live, showing that they live in a highly organized, multi-tiered society that is led by a matriarch. The studies and findings of Moss and her team are reported and summarized in The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mammal. Awards Moss has received many awards in recognition of her dedication to the study of elephants in Amboseli including the Smith College Medal for Alumnae Achievement (1985), MacArthur Genius Fellowship (2001), and the Conservation Award from the Friends of the National Zoo and the Audubon Society. In addition, she has made four award-winning documentaries about elephants including An Apology to Elephants (2013) – HBO, Echo: An Elephant to Remember (2010) – PBS, Nature, Echo and Other Elephants (2008) – BBC, David Attenborough, and Echo of the Elephants (2005) – PBS, Nature. In 2019 she received an honorary doctorate from Yale University. See also Ethology Elephant cognition References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Pringle, Laurence (November 1, 1997). Elephant Woman. Atheneum. ISBN 9780689801426. ^ a b c "Dr. Cynthia Moss". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017. ^ a b c Yount, Lisa (1999). A Biographical Dictionary A to Z of Women in Science and Math. New York: Facts on File, Inc. pp. 156–158. ISBN 0816037973. ^ Buzzeo, Toni (September 29, 2015). A Passion for Elephants: The Real Life Adventure of Field Scientist Cynthia Moss. Dial Books. ISBN 9780399187254. ^ a b Robinson, Simon. "Free As The Wind Blows". Time. Time Inc. Retrieved 3 December 2017. ^ Murphy, Kate (30 May 2015). "Cynthia Moss". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2017. ^ a b Moss, Cynthia (February 12, 1976). Portraits in the Wild: Animal Behaviour in East Africa. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. p. 363. ISBN 9780241024539. ^ Moss, Cynthia. "Note from the Director". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017. ^ Moss, Cynthia (1988). Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226148533. ^ "African Elephants". www.fws.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03. ^ Moss, Cynthia. "Amboseli & Us". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017. ^ Moss, Cynthia (1993). Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family. William Morrow & Co. ISBN 9780688121037. ^ Moss, Cynthia (2011). The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mammal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226542232. ^ "Cynthia Moss Wins 2001 MacArthur Fellowship". African Wildlife Foundation. 2001-10-24. Retrieved 2017-12-03. External links Cynthia Moss, profile — Amboseli Trust for Elephants Cynthia Moss, director of the Amboseli Elephant Research Project in Kenya — Elephant Encyclopedia Authority control databases International FAST VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Netherlands Academics CiNii Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ethologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethologist"},{"link_name":"African elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_elephant"},{"link_name":"Amboseli Elephant Research Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amboseli_Elephant_Research_Project"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Trust-2"}],"text":"Cynthia Jane Moss (born July 24, 1940) is an American ethologist and conservationist, wildlife researcher, and writer. Her studies have concentrated on the demography, behavior, social organization, and population dynamics of the African elephants of Amboseli. She is the director of the Amboseli Elephant Research Project, and is the program director and trustee for the Amboseli Trust for Elephants (ATE).[1][2]","title":"Cynthia Moss"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ossining (town), New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ossining_(town),_New_York"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A_to_Z-3"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A_to_Z-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Smith College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smith_College"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-free-5"}],"sub_title":"Early life and education","text":"Cynthia Jane Moss was born in Ossining (town), New York on July 24, 1940. Her father, Julian, was a publisher of several small-town newspapers, and her mother, Lillian, left her work as a legal secretary to raise Cynthia and her older sister, Carolyn.[1][3][unreliable source?]Moss’s appreciation for nature began early as her love for horseback riding allowed her to explore and observe the outdoors. She began riding horses at the age of 7, and by age 12, she had her own horse, Kelly. Her passion for horseback riding led her to attend Southern Seminary, a private boarding school with a distinguished riding program during her junior and senior years.[1][3][4]She attended Smith College where she took many classes in arts and literature, and where she earned her B.A. in philosophy in 1962.[1][5]","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Newsweek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newsweek"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"Iain Douglas-Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iain_Douglas-Hamilton"},{"link_name":"Lake Manyara National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Manyara_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Tanzania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanzania"},{"link_name":"Douglas-Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas-Hamilton"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-A_to_Z-3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NY_Times-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Portraits-7"},{"link_name":"Douglas-Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas-Hamilton"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Portraits-7"},{"link_name":"Nairobi, Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nairobi,_Kenya"},{"link_name":"African Wildlife Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Wildlife_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"Amboseli National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amboseli_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Kenya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya"},{"link_name":"Amboseli Elephant Research Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amboseli_Elephant_Research_Project"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Trust-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"Endangered species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endangered_species"},{"link_name":"ivory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Trust-2"},{"link_name":"Echo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_(Elephant)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-free-5"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Career","text":"In 1964, she was hired as a news researcher and reporter for Newsweek, where she did interviews on religion and theater.[1]In 1967, Moss took a leave of absence so she could see the African continent herself, which had been described to her in letters by her college friend, Penny Naylor, who had recently moved to Africa. It was on this trip that Moss visited British elephant researcher Dr. Iain Douglas-Hamilton’s camp in Lake Manyara National Park in northern Tanzania, which is where she “became completely hooked on elephants.” While she enjoyed working for Newsweek, the following year, she quit her job and moved to Africa to become a research assistant for Douglas-Hamilton, because \"the pull of Africa was stronger\".[1][3][6]In these studies, they discovered that elephants could be identified by their ears because no two elephant’s ear shapes, or combinations of markings and veins, were alike, which Moss describes in her first book Portraits in the Wild.[7] She continued to work with Douglas-Hamilton until the fall of 1968, when his project ended and he returned to England.[1][7]Although her work with Douglas-Hamilton had ended, Moss was determined to stay in Africa and continue studying and working with the wildlife. To gain the experience and credentials she needed to begin her own study of elephants, she worked with Sue and Tony Harthoorn in Nairobi, Kenya as a veterinary assistant, assisted in research on plains animals and elephant feeding behavior in Tsavo National Park, and became an editor for the newsletter of the African Wildlife Foundation (AWF), Wildlife News.[1]In 1972, Moss was encouraged by ecologist David \"Jonah\" Western to consider studying the last undisturbed elephant herd in Africa, in the Amboseli National Park in Kenya. So in September, Moss teamed up with Harvey Croze, and they began the Amboseli Elephant Research Project (AERP). The first step they took was to catalog pictures of the elephants which would aid them in keeping track of and recognizing different elephants.[1][8][2]In 1974, their budget was scarce and Harvey Croze left for other work. In 1975, Moss published her book Portraits in the Wild, which gave her respect in the field, and aided her in receiving a $5,000 grant from the AWF, thus allowing her to devote nearly all of her time to the study of the elephants of Amboseli. That year, Moss set up camp in the park and began to gather information on the elephant’s behavior, daily movements, and relationships. The TC and TD family units are the main subjects of her book Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family (1988).[9]\n1975 also marked the beginning of a period of very low rainfall in the Amboseli region, which took a significant toll on the elephants, but also gave Moss a clear view of elephant behavior in times of drought.[1]Moss focused on elephant conservation in the late 1980s as she saw the elephant population halved by poaching for ivory and loss of habitat. And thanks to her work combined with many others and conservation groups, the African Elephant was placed on the Endangered species list in October of 1989 and in January of 1990, the sale of ivory was prohibited.[1][10]In 2001, she created the Amboseli Trust for Elephants (ATE), which is a non-profit trust, which focuses on elephant conservation, management, and policy-setting.[1][11][2]Moss is most famous for her study of Echo, an elephant matriarch who has been the subject of Moss’s book Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family (1993)[12] along with several documentaries. Moss's studies have given a remarkable insight into the way elephants live, showing that they live in a highly organized, multi-tiered society that is led by a matriarch.[5]The studies and findings of Moss and her team are reported and summarized in The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mammal.[13]","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"MacArthur Genius Fellowship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacArthur_Fellows_Program"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Elephant_Woman-1"},{"link_name":"An Apology to Elephants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Apology_to_Elephants"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"PBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Broadcasting_Service"},{"link_name":"Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"BBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC"},{"link_name":"David Attenborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Attenborough"}],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"Moss has received many awards in recognition of her dedication to the study of elephants in Amboseli including the Smith College Medal for Alumnae Achievement (1985),[1] MacArthur Genius Fellowship (2001),[14] and the Conservation Award from the Friends of the National Zoo and the Audubon Society.[1] In addition, she has made four award-winning documentaries about elephants including An Apology to Elephants (2013) – HBO, Echo: An Elephant to Remember (2010) – PBS, Nature, Echo and Other Elephants (2008) – BBC, David Attenborough, and Echo of the Elephants (2005) – PBS, Nature. In 2019 she received an honorary doctorate from Yale University.","title":"Life and work"}]	[]	[{"title":"Ethology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethology"},{"title":"Elephant cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant_cognition"}]	[{"reference":"Pringle, Laurence (November 1, 1997). Elephant Woman. Atheneum. ISBN 9780689801426.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/elephantwomancyn00prin","url_text":"Elephant Woman"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780689801426","url_text":"9780689801426"}]},{"reference":"\"Dr. Cynthia Moss\". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elephanttrust.org/index.php/meet-the-team/item/dr-cynthia-moss","url_text":"\"Dr. Cynthia Moss\""}]},{"reference":"Yount, Lisa (1999). A Biographical Dictionary A to Z of Women in Science and Math. New York: Facts on File, Inc. pp. 156–158. ISBN 0816037973.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tozofwomeninscie00youn/page/156","url_text":"A Biographical Dictionary A to Z of Women in Science and Math"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tozofwomeninscie00youn/page/156","url_text":"156–158"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0816037973","url_text":"0816037973"}]},{"reference":"Buzzeo, Toni (September 29, 2015). A Passion for Elephants: The Real Life Adventure of Field Scientist Cynthia Moss. Dial Books. ISBN 9780399187254.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780399187254","url_text":"9780399187254"}]},{"reference":"Robinson, Simon. \"Free As The Wind Blows\". Time. Time Inc. Retrieved 3 December 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,996234,00.html","url_text":"\"Free As The Wind Blows\""}]},{"reference":"Murphy, Kate (30 May 2015). \"Cynthia Moss\". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/31/opinion/sunday/cynthia-moss.html","url_text":"\"Cynthia Moss\""}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia (February 12, 1976). Portraits in the Wild: Animal Behaviour in East Africa. Hamish Hamilton Ltd. p. 363. ISBN 9780241024539.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780241024539","url_text":"9780241024539"}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia. \"Note from the Director\". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elephanttrust.org/index.php","url_text":"\"Note from the Director\""}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia (1988). Elephant Memories: Thirteen Years in the Life of an Elephant Family. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226148533.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226148533","url_text":"9780226148533"}]},{"reference":"\"African Elephants\". www.fws.gov. Retrieved 2017-12-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.fws.gov/international/animals/african-elephants.html","url_text":"\"African Elephants\""}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia. \"Amboseli & Us\". Amboseli Trust for Elephants. Retrieved 10 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.elephanttrust.org/index.php/amboseli-us","url_text":"\"Amboseli & Us\""}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia (1993). Echo of the Elephants: The Story of an Elephant Family. William Morrow & Co. ISBN 9780688121037.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780688121037","url_text":"9780688121037"}]},{"reference":"Moss, Cynthia (2011). The Amboseli Elephants: A Long-Term Perspective on a Long-Lived Mammal. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226542232.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226542232","url_text":"9780226542232"}]},{"reference":"\"Cynthia Moss Wins 2001 MacArthur Fellowship\". African Wildlife Foundation. 2001-10-24. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Babcock	John Babcock	["1 Early life","2 World War I","2.1 Experiences","3 After the First World War","4 Last surviving Canadian veteran","5 See also","6 References"]	Canadian World War I veteran (1900–2010) For other people named John Babcock, see John Babcock (disambiguation). John BabcockBabcock in 1920Nickname(s)JackBorn(1900-07-23)July 23, 1900Holleford, South Frontenac, Ontario, CanadaDiedFebruary 18, 2010(2010-02-18) (aged 109)Spokane, Washington, U.S.Allegiance Canada (World War I) United States (Post-World War I) Service/branch Canadian Expeditionary Force United States Army Years of service1916–1918Rank Acting lance corporal (Canadian Army) Sergeant (United States Army) Unit 146th Battalion, CEF (Canada) Young Soldiers Battalion (Canada) Homeguard (USA) Battles/warsWorld War IOther workFollowing the First World War, he became trained as an electrician, and later emigrated to the United States, where he eventually enlisted in the United States Army.Signature John Henry Foster Babcock (July 23, 1900 – February 18, 2010) was, at age 109, the last known surviving veteran of the Canadian military to have served in the First World War and, after the death of Harry Patch, was the conflict's oldest surviving veteran. Babcock first attempted to join the army at the age of fifteen, but was turned down and sent to work in Halifax until he was placed in the Young Soldiers Battalion in August 1917. Babcock was then transferred to the United Kingdom, where he continued his training until the end of the war. Having never seen combat, Babcock did not consider himself a veteran and moved to the United States in the 1920s, where he joined the United States Army and eventually became an electrician. In May 2007, following the death of Dwight Wilson, he became the last surviving veteran of the First World War who served with the Canadian forces. From that point he received international attention, including 109th birthday greetings from Queen Elizabeth II, the Governor General of Canada and the Canadian Prime Minister, until his death on February 18, 2010. Early life Babcock was born on July 23, 1900, into a family of thirteen children on a farm in Frontenac County, Ontario. According to Babcock, the barn where he was born (which no longer exists) was located off Highway 38 in South Frontenac Township. His father died in 1906 after a tree-cutting accident, when Babcock was only six years old. As described in his account given to Maclean's, while his father was cutting down one tree, another dead tree fell on his shoulder. Although he was brought into the house on bobsleigh, he only survived another two hours. Babcock said that this was an "awful blow" to the family. School was never a concern for Babcock, and he did not earn his high school diploma until the age of 95. On growing up in the area, Babcock claims that he "didn't do very much," although he admits that "t was a fun place to grow up." Babcock partook in fishing, hunting, and swimming—especially around the local Sydenham Lake—in order to pass the time with the other kids his age. He would return to the area in 1919, after his wartime experiences, but soon after left for the United States. Nevertheless, Babcock's relatives continue to work at the Crater Dairy farm (named after the Holleford crater, a remnant of a meteor strike) and the community grew to greatly respect John. World War I At the age of fifteen and a half, Babcock was impressed at Perth Road by two recruiting officers, one a lieutenant and one a sergeant, who quoted from the poem "The Charge of the Light Brigade". He was also enticed by the offered salary, which was $1.10 per day, as opposed to the 50 cents he could have made through physical labour. Babcock was recruited in Sydenham, Ontario and joined the 146th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force. He was then sent to Valcartier, Quebec. There Babcock underwent a physical, where it was discovered that he was underage. He was designated status A-4: physically fit, but underage. At the time, the minimum age for combat was eighteen. Babcock was turned down, but managed to make it all the way to Halifax by train before he was stopped by the company commander. In Halifax he was sent to Wellington Barracks, the city's peacetime barracks, where he wrestled freight onto large army vehicles and dug ditches. Tired of the work, Babcock took the opportunity to volunteer for the Royal Canadian Regiment when fifty recruits were called on, claiming that his age was 18. Officials quickly discovered that he was only 16, however, and they placed him in a reserve battalion known as the Boys (or Young Soldiers) Battalion in August 1917. Babcock then undertook an ocean voyage to England and, in Liverpool, he was stationed with the 26th Reserve and sent to Bexhill-on-Sea where he trained with about 1,300 others, about a third of whom were veterans from battles in France. The Young Soldiers Battalion trained the recruits for eight hours a day. In his spare time Babcock went on leave to Scotland, where he met his first girlfriend, a woman from the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. He was also introduced to the pleasures of beer and the horrors of war that some of the older veterans had come across. Babcock asserts that he would have fought in the conflict, given the chance, but the war ended before he could be brought to the front lines. For this reason, Babcock claims that he never felt like "a real soldier" and rarely talked of his experiences until his centenary. He also never joined any veterans associations. Experiences Babcock's brother Manley enlisted after John and served with the Canadian Military Engineers as a sapper. Manley suffered a nervous breakdown after the war. This, in Babcock's eyes, was one of many psychological problems that occurred during and after the war. He recalled at least one instance where a soldier shot himself with a .45 after his comrades discovered that he had emigrated from Germany, while another ran himself through with a bayonet after a pack drill. Babcock also recounted the importance of honesty in the Canadian Army. In one case, one of his comrades stole a dollar watch and received nine months in prison and Babcock cited that as an example of the strict discipline in the military structure. By March 1918 he had been promoted to acting corporal, but was reduced to the rank of private for neglect of duty. By October of that year, however, he had been restored to acting lance corporal. Soldiers holding acting ranks in the Canadian forces receive the salary and allowances of the rank, but can be restored to a previous rank at any time due to their lack of the necessary training or experience to hold that position permanently. In Canada during wartime, individuals could be promoted to acting ranks in order to meet service requirements. After the First World War With relatives in the United States, Babcock paid the $7 head tax and moved there in 1921. He received a Canadian Army pension that totaled $750 shortly after the conflict and took advantage of veteran vocational training in his native country to become an electrician. He ran a small light plant in his home neighbourhood of Sydenham, and later had a career as an industrial supply salesman in the United States. He became a United States citizen in 1946 after serving in the United States Army and achieving the rank of sergeant. In so doing, he lost his Canadian citizenship, as Canadian law prior to 1977 limited dual citizenship. After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he attempted to sign up for active duty with the army's flying service (the United States Air Force was not formed until 1947), but was turned down for being too old. He therefore spent World War II in the United States Army and among his duty stations was Fort Lewis, located in Tacoma, Washington. At the age of 65, Babcock became a pilot. As of 2006 he was in good mental and physical health, displayed by his ability to quickly recite the alphabet backwards, spell out his name in Morse Code, and take daily walks with his wife to keep in shape. At the age of 100 he wrote an autobiography titled Ten Decades of John Foster Babcock. It was distributed only to family and friends. Babcock was married twice, first to Elsie, then to Dorothy, a woman nearly thirty years his junior whom he met when she was taking care of his first wife while she was dying. Babcock had one son (Jack Jr.) and one daughter (Sandra). One grandchild, Matt, was an army dentist in Iraq during the Iraq War. John and Dorothy resided in Spokane, Washington, where Babcock lived from 1932 until his death. Babcock was not the only centenarian in his family; his younger sister Lucy died in July 2007 at the age of 102. Last surviving Canadian veteran From the death of Dwight Wilson on May 9, 2007, Babcock was the last known Canadian veteran of the First World War. He was proud of his status as the last surviving Canadian World War I veteran, although he did not feel the need to be honoured in a specific state funeral. Instead, he was of the opinion that "they should commemorate all of them, instead of just one." He was also quoted as saying "I'm sure that all the attention I'm getting isn't because of anything spectacular I've done. It's because I'm the last one." Nevertheless, Babcock received much attention on the occasion of his 107th birthday, with wishes from Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada (who Babcock joked is a "nice looking gal"), Governor General Michaëlle Jean, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and Foreign Affairs Minister Peter MacKay. James Moore, a Member of Parliament from British Columbia, visited Babcock personally to deliver gifts and greetings. For his birthday, Babcock and his wife went to Rosauers for his favourite meal of hamburgers and French fries. Among the gifts he received was a necktie adorned with a poppy pattern, a symbol of the First World War. In his hometown of South Frontenac, mayor Gary Davison sent a letter of congratulations, while the local coffee shop named their local blend, "The Jack," after him. Babcock was invited to the opening of a Pentagon exhibit on March 6, 2008, featuring photos of nine First World War veterans, but was unable to attend. At the time he was one of only two of the veterans pictured to be alive, along with American Frank Buckles, who did participate in the event. In 2008, he was visited by Canadian officials and wrote to Prime Minister Stephen Harper that he was interested in regaining his Canadian citizenship in a letter that was hand-delivered to him in a cabinet meeting. The request was approved by the Prime Minister and the paperwork was signed by Governor General Michaëlle Jean, after which officials from Citizenship and Immigration Canada were flown to Spokane to complete the swearing in ceremony. That same year, Babcock participated in the Canadian Remembrance Day ceremonies, appearing via video to symbolically pass the torch of remembrance, urging people to "hold it high". Babcock credited his longevity to the intense physical training that he received in both the United States and Canadian armies. Babcock died on February 18, 2010, at the age of 109, having been housebound since October 2009 following a case of pneumonia. He was cremated and his remains were scattered across the Pacific Northwest. Governor General Jean and Prime Minister Harper made statements of condolence shortly after his death and, on the anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge (April 9), Canada's monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, issued a statement marking the two events, stating: "As proud and grateful Canadians, we pause today to mark not only the ninety-third anniversary of this Nation's victory at Vimy Ridge but also to pay tribute to the passing of a truly remarkable generation who helped to end the most terrible conflict the world had ever known." The local Royal Canadian Legion in Sydenham, Ontario has a collection of First World War items on display, including a roll call with Babcock's name on it, in his honour. See also List of last surviving Canadian war veterans List of last surviving World War I veterans by country List of veterans of World War I who died in 2009–12 References ^ Bonner, Susan (May 9, 2007). "Canadian WWI veteran dies at 106". CBC News. Retrieved September 30, 2007. ^ "Canada's last WWI vet turns 109". CBC.ca. July 23, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2010. ^ a b c "Canada's last known WWI veteran dies at 109". CTVglobemedia. February 18, 2010. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved February 18, 2010. ^ "Last Known Canadian First World War Veteran – The First World War – History – Remembrance – Veterans Affairs Canada". Veterans Affairs Canada. February 14, 2019. Archived from the original on November 15, 2017. Retrieved July 22, 2019. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Interview with A/Lance-Corporal John Babcock, Veteran of the First World War". Veterans Affairs Canada. November 1, 2006. Archived from the original on March 4, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2007. ^ a b c d e Warmington, Joe (September 10, 2007). "Rural Ontario area bursts with pride at the part they play in the adventurous life of 107-year-old WWI vet 'Jack'". Toronto Sun. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p MacQueen, Ken (June 11, 2007). "Babcock, John (Interview)". Maclean's Magazine. Archived from the original on September 30, 2007. Retrieved April 30, 2017. ^ a b c d Elliot, Ian (February 19, 2010). "Last vet dies". Kingston Whig-Standard. ^ McClare, Dale; Percy Winthrop McClare (2000). The letters of a young Canadian soldier during World War I: P. Winthrop McClare, of Mount Uniacke, N.S. Brook House Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 1-896986-02-1. ^ a b c d e f g Cannata, Amy (July 19, 2007). "Last Canadian WWI vet celebrates 107". Spokesman Review. Archived from the original on September 26, 2007. Retrieved September 30, 2007. ^ Brown, Chris (July 18, 2007). "Last WWI vet celebrates 107th birthday". CBC News. Retrieved September 30, 2007. ^ "Rank and Responsibility". Organization. canadiansoldiers.com. 2009. Retrieved February 22, 2010. ^ Proceedings, Parts 3–4. Western European Union. 1974. p. 143. ^ a b c van Rijn, Nicolaas (February 18, 2010). "Canada's last World War I vet, John Babcock, dies". Toronto Star. Retrieved February 18, 2010. ^ a b Tobin Dalrymple (May 8, 2008). "First World War vet regains Canadian citizenship". Canada.com. Archived from the original on May 30, 2008. Retrieved May 12, 2008. ^ "History of citizenship legislation". Government of Canada. July 6, 2015. Retrieved July 24, 2019. ^ a b c "Canada's sole surviving WWI vet marks birthday". CTV. July 18, 2007. Retrieved October 4, 2007. ^ a b "John Babcock, last surviving Canadian WWI vet, celebrates 107th birthday". kxly.com. July 18, 2007. ^ "Last doughboy gets Presidential 'Thank You'". abcnews.com. March 6, 2008. Retrieved March 7, 2008. ^ "Countrywide ceremonies honour dead from all wars". Canada in Afghanistan. CTV News. November 11, 2008. Archived from the original on December 24, 2008. Retrieved January 1, 2009. ^ Elizabeth II (April 9, 2010), Office of the Governor General of Canada (ed.), Message from Her Majesty The Queen — End of an Era, Ottawa, Ontario: Queen's Printer for Canada, retrieved August 13, 2010 Wikimedia Commons has media related to John Babcock.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"John Babcock (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Babcock_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Harry Patch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Patch"},{"link_name":"Dwight Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight_Wilson_(veteran)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wilson-1"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109th-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death-3"}],"text":"Canadian World War I veteran (1900–2010)For other people named John Babcock, see John Babcock (disambiguation).John Henry Foster Babcock (July 23, 1900 – February 18, 2010) was, at age 109, the last known surviving veteran of the Canadian military to have served in the First World War and, after the death of Harry Patch, was the conflict's oldest surviving veteran. Babcock first attempted to join the army at the age of fifteen, but was turned down and sent to work in Halifax until he was placed in the Young Soldiers Battalion in August 1917. Babcock was then transferred to the United Kingdom, where he continued his training until the end of the war.Having never seen combat, Babcock did not consider himself a veteran and moved to the United States in the 1920s, where he joined the United States Army and eventually became an electrician. In May 2007, following the death of Dwight Wilson, he became the last surviving veteran of the First World War who served with the Canadian forces.[1] From that point he received international attention, including 109th birthday greetings from Queen Elizabeth II, the Governor General of Canada and the Canadian Prime Minister,[2] until his death on February 18, 2010.[3]","title":"John Babcock"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CAVeterans-4"},{"link_name":"Frontenac County, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frontenac_County,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"Highway 38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway_38_(Ontario)"},{"link_name":"South Frontenac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Frontenac,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toronto-6"},{"link_name":"Maclean's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maclean%27s"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toronto-6"},{"link_name":"Sydenham Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydenham_Lake"},{"link_name":"Holleford crater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holleford_crater"},{"link_name":"meteor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteoroid"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toronto-6"}],"text":"Babcock was born on July 23, 1900,[4] into a family of thirteen children on a farm in Frontenac County, Ontario.[5] According to Babcock, the barn where he was born (which no longer exists) was located off Highway 38 in South Frontenac Township.[6] His father died in 1906 after a tree-cutting accident, when Babcock was only six years old. As described in his account given to Maclean's, while his father was cutting down one tree, another dead tree fell on his shoulder. Although he was brought into the house on bobsleigh, he only survived another two hours. Babcock said that this was an \"awful blow\" to the family.[7]School was never a concern for Babcock, and he did not earn his high school diploma until the age of 95.[7] On growing up in the area, Babcock claims that he \"didn't do very much,\" although he admits that \"[i]t was a fun place to grow up.\"[6] Babcock partook in fishing, hunting, and swimming—especially around the local Sydenham Lake—in order to pass the time with the other kids his age. He would return to the area in 1919, after his wartime experiences, but soon after left for the United States. Nevertheless, Babcock's relatives continue to work at the Crater Dairy farm (named after the Holleford crater, a remnant of a meteor strike) and the community grew to greatly respect John.[6]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lieutenant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant"},{"link_name":"sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant#United_States"},{"link_name":"The Charge of the Light Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Charge_of_the_Light_Brigade_(poem)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whig-8"},{"link_name":"Sydenham, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydenham,_Frontenac_County,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"146th Battalion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/146th_Battalion,_CEF"},{"link_name":"Canadian Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"Valcartier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valcartier"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Age-9"},{"link_name":"Halifax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Halifax"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"Wellington Barracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wellington_Barracks,_Halifax&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death-3"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Regiment"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool,_England"},{"link_name":"Bexhill-on-Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bexhill-on-Sea"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"Women's Army Auxiliary Corps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women%27s_Army_Auxiliary_Corps_(Britain)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBC-11"},{"link_name":"centenary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centenarian"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"}],"text":"At the age of fifteen and a half, Babcock was impressed at Perth Road by two recruiting officers, one a lieutenant and one a sergeant, who quoted from the poem \"The Charge of the Light Brigade\".[7] He was also enticed by the offered salary, which was $1.10 per day, as opposed to the 50 cents he could have made through physical labour.[8] Babcock was recruited in Sydenham, Ontario and joined the 146th Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force.[5] He was then sent to Valcartier, Quebec. There Babcock underwent a physical, where it was discovered that he was underage. He was designated status A-4: physically fit, but underage.[7] At the time, the minimum age for combat was eighteen.[9] Babcock was turned down, but managed to make it all the way to Halifax by train before he was stopped by the company commander.[7]In Halifax he was sent to Wellington Barracks, the city's peacetime barracks, where he wrestled freight onto large army vehicles[7] and dug ditches.[3] Tired of the work, Babcock took the opportunity to volunteer for the Royal Canadian Regiment when fifty recruits were called on, claiming that his age was 18.[7] Officials quickly discovered that he was only 16, however, and they placed him in a reserve battalion known as the Boys (or Young Soldiers) Battalion in August 1917.[5] Babcock then undertook an ocean voyage to England and, in Liverpool, he was stationed with the 26th Reserve and sent to Bexhill-on-Sea where he trained with about 1,300 others, about a third of whom were veterans from battles in France.[7]The Young Soldiers Battalion trained the recruits for eight hours a day. In his spare time Babcock went on leave to Scotland, where he met his first girlfriend, a woman from the Women's Army Auxiliary Corps. He was also introduced to the pleasures of beer and the horrors of war that some of the older veterans had come across.[7] Babcock asserts that he would have fought in the conflict, given the chance,[10] but the war ended before he could be brought to the front lines. For this reason, Babcock claims that he never felt like \"a real soldier\"[11] and rarely talked of his experiences until his centenary.[10] He also never joined any veterans associations.[5]","title":"World War I"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Canadian Military Engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Military_Engineers"},{"link_name":"sapper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sapper"},{"link_name":"nervous breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_breakdown"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":".45","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.45"},{"link_name":"bayonet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayonet"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"Canadian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Army"},{"link_name":"prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prison"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"corporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporal"},{"link_name":"private","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_(rank)"},{"link_name":"lance corporal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance_corporal"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whig-8"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ranks-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Proceedings-13"}],"sub_title":"Experiences","text":"Babcock's brother Manley enlisted after John and served with the Canadian Military Engineers as a sapper. Manley suffered a nervous breakdown after the war. This, in Babcock's eyes, was one of many psychological problems that occurred during and after the war.[7] He recalled at least one instance where a soldier shot himself with a .45 after his comrades discovered that he had emigrated from Germany, while another ran himself through with a bayonet after a pack drill.[7] Babcock also recounted the importance of honesty in the Canadian Army. In one case, one of his comrades stole a dollar watch and received nine months in prison and Babcock cited that as an example of the strict discipline in the military structure.[7] By March 1918 he had been promoted to acting corporal, but was reduced to the rank of private for neglect of duty. By October of that year, however, he had been restored to acting lance corporal.[8] Soldiers holding acting ranks in the Canadian forces receive the salary and allowances of the rank, but can be restored to a previous rank at any time due to their lack of the necessary training or experience to hold that position permanently.[12] In Canada during wartime, individuals could be promoted to acting ranks in order to meet service requirements.[13]","title":"World War I"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death2-14"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whig-8"},{"link_name":"United States citizen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_citizen"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"sergeant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergeant#Army_4"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letter-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Citizenship-16"},{"link_name":"attack on Pearl Harbor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor"},{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Whig-8"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Fort Lewis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Lewis_(Washington)"},{"link_name":"Tacoma, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacoma,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"Morse Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse_Code"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTV-17"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTV-17"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death2-14"},{"link_name":"Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"Spokane, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokane,_Washington"},{"link_name":"centenarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centenarian"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CTV-17"}],"text":"With relatives in the United States, Babcock paid the $7 head tax[7] and moved there in 1921.[14] He received a Canadian Army pension that totaled $750 shortly after the conflict and took advantage of veteran vocational training in his native country to become an electrician. He ran a small light plant in his home neighbourhood of Sydenham,[7] and later had a career as an industrial supply salesman in the United States.[8]He became a United States citizen in 1946[10] after serving in the United States Army and achieving the rank of sergeant. In so doing, he lost his Canadian citizenship,[15] as Canadian law prior to 1977 limited dual citizenship.[16] After the attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, he attempted to sign up for active duty with the army's flying service (the United States Air Force was not formed until 1947), but was turned down for being too old.[8] He therefore spent World War II in the United States Army and among his duty stations was Fort Lewis, located in Tacoma, Washington.[10]At the age of 65, Babcock became a pilot.[5] As of 2006 he was in good mental and physical health, displayed by his ability to quickly recite the alphabet backwards, spell out his name in Morse Code, and take daily walks with his wife to keep in shape.[5] At the age of 100 he wrote an autobiography titled Ten Decades of John Foster Babcock. It was distributed only to family and friends.[5][10]Babcock was married twice, first to Elsie, then to Dorothy, a woman nearly thirty years his junior[17] whom he met when she was taking care of his first wife while she was dying.[5] Babcock had one son (Jack Jr.)[17] and one daughter (Sandra).[14] One grandchild, Matt, was an army dentist in Iraq during the Iraq War.[7] John and Dorothy resided in Spokane, Washington, where Babcock lived from 1932 until his death. Babcock was not the only centenarian in his family; his younger sister Lucy died in July 2007 at the age of 102.[17]","title":"After the First World War"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"state funeral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_funeral#Canada"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mclean-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_II"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KXLY-18"},{"link_name":"Governor General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Michaëlle Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micha%C3%ABlle_Jean"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Stephen Harper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Harper"},{"link_name":"Foreign Affairs Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister_of_Foreign_Affairs_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Peter MacKay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_MacKay"},{"link_name":"James Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Moore_(Canadian_politician)"},{"link_name":"Member","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Rosauers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosauers"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KXLY-18"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Review-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toronto-6"},{"link_name":"Pentagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon"},{"link_name":"Frank Buckles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_Buckles"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABCNews-19"},{"link_name":"Stephen Harper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Harper"},{"link_name":"Citizenship and Immigration Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship_and_Immigration_Canada"},{"link_name":"Spokane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spokane"},{"link_name":"swearing in ceremony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oath_of_Citizenship_(Canada)#Administration_of_the_oath"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letter-15"},{"link_name":"Remembrance Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remembrance_Day"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RDay08-20"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VAC-5"},{"link_name":"pneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death2-14"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Death-3"},{"link_name":"Battle of Vimy Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Vimy_Ridge"},{"link_name":"Canada's monarch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Legion"},{"link_name":"roll call","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/roll_call"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Toronto-6"}],"text":"From the death of Dwight Wilson on May 9, 2007, Babcock was the last known Canadian veteran of the First World War. He was proud of his status as the last surviving Canadian World War I veteran, although he did not feel the need to be honoured in a specific state funeral. Instead, he was of the opinion that \"they should commemorate all of them, instead of just one.\"[7] He was also quoted as saying \"I'm sure that all the attention I'm getting isn't because of anything spectacular I've done. It's because I'm the last one.\"[10]Nevertheless, Babcock received much attention on the occasion of his 107th birthday, with wishes from Queen Elizabeth II as Queen of Canada (who Babcock joked is a \"nice looking gal\"),[18] Governor General Michaëlle Jean, Prime Minister Stephen Harper, and Foreign Affairs Minister Peter MacKay. James Moore, a Member of Parliament from British Columbia, visited Babcock personally to deliver gifts and greetings. For his birthday, Babcock and his wife went to Rosauers for his favourite meal of hamburgers and French fries.[18] Among the gifts he received was a necktie adorned with a poppy pattern, a symbol of the First World War.[10] In his hometown of South Frontenac, mayor Gary Davison sent a letter of congratulations, while the local coffee shop named their local blend, \"The Jack,\" after him.[6]Babcock was invited to the opening of a Pentagon exhibit on March 6, 2008, featuring photos of nine First World War veterans, but was unable to attend. At the time he was one of only two of the veterans pictured to be alive, along with American Frank Buckles, who did participate in the event.[19] In 2008, he was visited by Canadian officials and wrote to Prime Minister Stephen Harper that he was interested in regaining his Canadian citizenship in a letter that was hand-delivered to him in a cabinet meeting. The request was approved by the Prime Minister and the paperwork was signed by Governor General Michaëlle Jean, after which officials from Citizenship and Immigration Canada were flown to Spokane to complete the swearing in ceremony.[15] That same year, Babcock participated in the Canadian Remembrance Day ceremonies, appearing via video to symbolically pass the torch of remembrance, urging people to \"hold it high\".[20] Babcock credited his longevity to the intense physical training that he received in both the United States and Canadian armies.[5]Babcock died on February 18, 2010, at the age of 109, having been housebound since October 2009 following a case of pneumonia. He was cremated and his remains were scattered across the Pacific Northwest.[14] Governor General Jean and Prime Minister Harper made statements of condolence shortly after his death and,[3] on the anniversary of the Battle of Vimy Ridge (April 9), Canada's monarch, Queen Elizabeth II, issued a statement marking the two events, stating: \"As proud and grateful Canadians, we pause today to mark not only the ninety-third anniversary of this Nation's victory at Vimy Ridge but also to pay tribute to the passing of a truly remarkable generation who helped to end the most terrible conflict the world had ever known.\"[21] The local Royal Canadian Legion in Sydenham, Ontario has a collection of First World War items on display, including a roll call with Babcock's name on it, in his honour.[6]","title":"Last surviving Canadian veteran"}]	[]	[{"title":"List of last surviving Canadian war veterans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_Canadian_war_veterans"},{"title":"List of last surviving World War I veterans by country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_last_surviving_World_War_I_veterans_by_country"},{"title":"List of veterans of World War I who died in 2009–12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_veterans_of_World_War_I_who_died_in_2009%E2%80%9312"}]	[{"reference":"Bonner, Susan (May 9, 2007). \"Canadian WWI veteran dies at 106\". CBC News. Retrieved September 30, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/canadian-wwi-veteran-dies-at-106-1.661025","url_text":"\"Canadian WWI veteran dies at 106\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBC_News","url_text":"CBC News"}]},{"reference":"\"Canada's last WWI vet turns 109\". CBC.ca. July 23, 2009. Retrieved February 18, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2009/07/23/ww1-vet-babcock-birthday837.html","url_text":"\"Canada's last WWI vet turns 109\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBC.ca","url_text":"CBC.ca"}]},{"reference":"\"Canada's last known WWI veteran dies at 109\". CTVglobemedia. February 18, 2010. Archived from the original on February 22, 2010. Retrieved February 18, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100222193919/http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20100218/Vet_Passes_100218/20100218?hub=TopStoriesV2","url_text":"\"Canada's last known WWI veteran dies at 109\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CTVglobemedia","url_text":"CTVglobemedia"},{"url":"http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20100218/Vet_Passes_100218/20100218?hub=TopStoriesV2","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Last Known Canadian First World War Veteran – The First World War – History – Remembrance – Veterans Affairs Canada\". Veterans Affairs Canada. February 14, 2019. Archived from the original on November 15, 2017. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rikke_Olsen	Rikke Olsen	["1 Career","2 Achievements","2.1 World Championships","2.2 World Cup","2.3 European Championships","2.4 World Junior Championships","2.5 European Junior Championships","2.6 IBF World Grand Prix","2.7 IBF International","3 References","4 External links"]	Danish badminton player Badminton playerRikke OlsenPersonal informationCountryDenmarkBorn (1975-04-19) 19 April 1975 (age 49)Roskilde, DenmarkHeight1.79 m (5 ft 10 in)Weight65 kg (143 lb)HandednessRightWomen's & mixed doublesHighest ranking2 (WD) 1 (XD) Medal record Women's badminton Representing Denmark World Championships 2003 Birmingham Women's doubles 2003 Birmingham Mixed doubles 2001 Seville Mixed doubles 1999 Copenhagen Mixed doubles 1997 Glasgow Mixed doubles 1995 Lausanne Women's doubles World Cup 1996 Jakarta Mixed doubles 1995 Jakarta Women's doubles Sudirman Cup 1999 Copenhagen Mixed team 2003 Eindhoven Mixed team 2001 Seville Mixed team 1997 Glasgow Mixed team 1995 Lausanne Mixed team Uber Cup 2000 Kuala Lumpur Women's team 2004 Jakarta Women's team 1998 Hong Kong Women's team 1996 Hong Kong Women's team European Championships 2000 Glasgow Mixed doubles 1998 Sofia Women's doubles 1998 Sofia Mixed doubles 1996 Herning Mixed doubles 2004 Geneva Women's doubles 2004 Geneva Mixed doubles 2000 Glasgow Women's doubles 1996 Herning Women's doubles 2002 Malmö Mixed doubles European Mixed Team Championships 2004 Geneva Mixed team 2002 Malmö Mixed team 2000 Glasgow Mixed team 1998 Sofia Mixed team 1996 Herning Mixed team World Junior Championships 1992 Jakarta Mixed doubles European Junior Championships 1993 Sofia Girls' doubles 1993 Sofia Mixed team 1993 Sofia Girls' singles BWF profile Rikke Olsen Siegemund (born 19 April 1975) is a retired badminton player from Denmark. She won the mixed doubles title at the World Junior Championships in 1992 and the girls' doubles title at the European Junior Championships in 1993. Born in Søndre Roskilde, Olsen came from the badminton family, and started playing at the age of six. She trained in Kastrup-Magleby BK and played for the team for eight seasons, won fourteen National titles, seven World Championships bronze medals, three times runner-up in All England Open, and reached in to the bronze medal match at the Olympic Games in 1996, 2000 and 2004. During her career, she was ranked as world No. 1 in the mixed doubles and No. 2 in the women's doubles. After retiring from the tournament, she became the national junior coach. She is currently performance manager at Badminton New Zealand. Her sister Lotte Olsen also played badminton at the 1996 Summer Olympics. She is married to German badminton player Björn Siegemund and settled in Solrød Strand. The pair has two kids. Career Olsen competed in badminton at the 2004 Summer Olympics in women's doubles with partner Ann-Lou Jørgensen. They had a bye in the first round and defeated Nicole Grether and Juliane Schenk of Germany in the second. In the quarterfinals, Olsen and Jørgensen lost to Huang Sui and Gao Ling of China 15-6, 15-7. She also competed in mixed doubles with partner Jonas Rasmussen. They had a bye in the first round and defeated Daniel Shirley and Sara Petersen of New Zealand in the second. In the quarterfinals, Olsen and Rasmussen beat Kim Dong-moon and Ra Kyung-min of Korea 17-14, 15-8, to advance to the semifinals. There, they lost to Nathan Robertson and Gail Emms of Great Britain 15-6, 15-12. In the bronze medal match, they were defeated by fellow Danish pair Jens Eriksen and Mette Schjoldager 15-5, 15-5, to finish in fourth place. In February 2018, Olsen Siegemund left her job as Danish Under 19s national coach to start a four year contract as combined sports manager and national coach for New Zealand. Achievements World Championships Women's doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 2003 National Indoor Arena, Birmingham, United Kingdom Ann-Lou Jørgensen Gao Ling Huang Sui 2–15, 15–8, 7–15 Bronze 1995 Malley Sports Centre, Lausanne, Switzerland Helene Kirkegaard Finarsih Lili Tampi 8–15, 16–17 Bronze Mixed doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 2003 National Indoor Arena, Birmingham, United Kingdom Jonas Rasmussen Zhang Jun Gao Ling 3–15, 15–17 Bronze 2001 Palacio de Deportes de San Pablo, Seville, Spain Michael Søgaard Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min 7–15, 9–15 Bronze 1999 Brøndby Arena, Copenhagen, Denmark Michael Søgaard Simon Archer Joanne Goode 5–15, 9–15 Bronze 1997 Scotstoun Centre, Glasgow, Scotland Michael Søgaard Liu Yong Ge Fei 10–15, 9–15 Bronze World Cup Women's doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 1995 Istora Senayan, Jakarta, Indonesia Helene Kirkegaard Eliza Nathanael Zelin Resiana 10–15, 9–15 Bronze Mixed doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 1996 Istora Senayan, Jakarta, Indonesia Michael Søgaard Sandiarto Minarti Timur 6–15, 15–13, 8–15 Bronze European Championships Women's doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 2004 Queue d’Arve Sport Center,Geneva, Switzerland Ann-Lou Jørgensen Lotte Bruil Mia Audina 10–15, 1–15 Silver 2000 Kelvin Hall International Sports Arena,Glasgow, Scotland Helene Kirkegaard Donna Kellogg Joanne Goode 15–7, 10–15, 8–15 Silver 1998 Winter Sports Palace,Sofia, Bulgaria Marlene Thomsen Majken Vange Ann Jørgensen 15–2, 15–10 Gold 1996 Herning Badminton Klub,Herning, Denmark Helene Kirkegaard Lisbeth Stuer-Lauridsen Marlene Thomsen 15–6, 12–15, 10–15 Silver Mixed doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 2004 Queue d’Arve Sport Center,Geneva, Switzerland Jonas Rasmussen Nathan Robertson Gail Emms 3–15, 15–8, 5–15 Silver 2002 Baltiska hallen,Malmö, Sweden Michael Søgaard Nathan Robertson Gail Emms 8–6, 2–7, 1–7, 5–7 Bronze 2000 Kelvin Hall International Sports Arena,Glasgow, Scotland Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Mette Schjoldager 15–7, 15–12 Gold 1998 Winter Sports Palace,Sofia, Bulgaria Michael Søgaard Michael Keck Erica van den Heuvel 15–7, 6–15, 15–11 Gold 1996 Herning Badminton Klub,Herning, Denmark Michael Søgaard Simon Archer Julie Bradbury 18–16, 15–2 Gold World Junior Championships Mixed doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 1992 Istora Senayan,Jakarta, Indonesia Jim Laugesen Kim Dong-moon Kim Shin-young 15–11, 18–17 Gold European Junior Championships Girls' singles Year Venue Opponent Score Result 1993 Hristo Botev Hall, Sofia, Bulgaria Mette Sørensen 3–11, 4–11 Bronze Girls' doubles Year Venue Partner Opponent Score Result 1993 Hristo Botev Hall,Sofia, Bulgaria Mette Sørensen Lone Sørensen Sara Runesten 15–10, 15–5 Gold IBF World Grand Prix The World Badminton Grand Prix sanctioned by International Badminton Federation (IBF) since 1983. Women's doubles Year Tournament Partner Opponent Score Result 2003 Korea Open Ann-Lou Jørgensen Lee Kyung-won Ra Kyung-min 5–11, 5–11 Runner-up 2002 German Open Ann-Lou Jørgensen Lotte Jonathans Mia Audina 2–11, 2–11 Runner-up 2002 Dutch Open Ann-Lou Jørgensen Sathinee Chankrachangwong Saralee Thungthongkam 11–3, 11–5 Winner 2001 Denmark Open Helene Kirkegaard Ann-Lou Jørgensen Mette Schjoldager 7–2, 7–2, 7–3 Winner 2001 German Open Helene Kirkegaard Ann-Lou Jørgensen Mette Schjoldager 7–0, 8–7, 7–0 Winner 2001 Swiss Open Helene Kirkegaard Lee Kyung-won Ra Kyung-min 3–7, 6–8, 7–2, 4–7 Runner-up 2000 Dutch Open Helene Kirkegaard Chen Lin Jiang Xuelian 15–6, 15–7 Winner 2000 Chinese Taipei Open Helene Kirkegaard Chung Jae-hee Ra Kyung-min 6–15, 7–15 Runner-up 1999 Indonesia Open Helene Kirkegaard Eliza Nathanael Deyana Lomban 15–12, 15–7 Winner 1999 Swiss Open Mette Sørensen Ann Jørgensen Majken Vange 15–2, 15–0 Winner 1999 Chinese Taipei Open Helene Kirkegaard Huang Nanyan Yang Wei 15–13, 15–4 Winner 1998 World Grand Prix Finals Marlene Thomsen Ge Fei Gu Jun Walkover Runner-up 1998 Indonesia Open Marlene Thomsen Eliza Nathanael Deyana Lomban 15–7, 15–17, 7–15 Runner-up 1998 Brunei Open Marlene Thomsen Huang Nanyan Yang Wei 11–15, 14–17 Runner-up 1998 Malaysia Open Marlene Thomsen Eliza Nathanael Zelin Resiana 15–8, 15–4 Winner 1998 Swiss Open Marlene Thomsen Ge Fei Gu Jun 7–15, 4–15 Runner-up 1997 German Open Helene Kirkegaard Lisbet Stuer-Lauridsen Marlene Thomsen 4–15, 15–5, 15–8 Winner 1997 Russian Open Helene Kirkegaard Ann Jørgensen Majken Vange 15–2, 15–9 Winner 1996 Denmark Open Helene Kirkegaard Julie Bradbury Joanne Goode 15–6, 15–2 Winner 1996 Russian Open Helene Kirkegaard Marina Andrievskaya Christine Gandrup 15–12, 10–15, 15–5 Winner 1996 Indonesia Open Helene Kirkegaard Eliza Nathanael Zelin Resiana 7–15, 4–15 Runner-up 1996 All England Open Helene Kirkegaard Ge Fei Gu Jun 3–15, 7–15 Runner-up 1996 Swedish Open Helene Kirkegaard Kim Mee-hyang Kim Shin-young 13–18, 15–12, 15–10 Winner 1996 Swiss Open Helene Kirkegaard Lisbet Stuer-Lauridsen Marlene Thomsen 10–15, 10–15 Runner-up 1995 Denmark Open Helene Kirkegaard Lisbet Stuer-Lauridsen Marlene Thomsen 11–15, 11–15 Runner-up 1995 Swiss Open Helene Kirkegaard Marlene Thomsen Anne-Mette van Dijk 10–15, 15–5, 17–14 Winner 1995 Chinese Taipei Open Helene Kirkegaard Gillian Gowers Lisbet Stuer-Lauridsen 15–5, 15–5 Winner 1994 Scottish Open Helene Kirkegaard Katrin Schmidt Kerstin Ubben 12–15, 18–15, 9–15 Runner-up 1994 U.S. Open Helene Kirkegaard Liu Guimei Peng Yun 15–4, 15–11 Winner 1994 Canadian Open Helene Kirkegaard Liu Guimei Peng Yun 15–12, 15–9 Winner 1994 French Open Helene Kirkegaard Eny Oktaviani Nonong Denis Zanati 15–1, 15–7 Winner Mixed doubles Year Tournament Partner Opponent Score Result 2004 German Open Carsten Mogensen Chen Qiqiu Zhao Tingting 12–15, 15–8, 15–9 Winner 2002 German Open Jonas Rasmussen Anggun Nugroho Eny Widiowati 11–0, 11–6 Winner 2002 Korea Open Michael Søgaard Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min 1–7, 3–7, 5–7 Runner-up 2001 German Open Michael Søgaard Michael Lamp Ann-Lou Jørgensen 7–1, 7–4, 7–1 Winner 2001 China Open Michael Søgaard Liu Yong Chen Lin 7–4, 7–8, 7–8, 5–7 Runner-up 2001 Singapore Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Mette Schjoldager 2–7, 7–4, 5–7, 5–7 Runner-up 2001 Swiss Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Mette Schjoldager 4–7, 7–2, 5–7, 2–7 Runner-up 2001 All England Open Michael Søgaard Zhang Jun Gao Ling 15–10, 8–15, 9–15 Runner-up 2000 Denmark Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Mette Schjoldager 15–10, 8–15, 15–10 Winner 2000 Indonesia Open Michael Søgaard Simon Archer Joanne Goode 13–15, 15–11, 4–15 Runner-up 2000 Chinese Taipei Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Mette Schjoldager 15–5, 15–9 Winner 1999 Singapore Open Michael Søgaard Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min 4–15, 8–15 Runner-up 1999 Thailand Open Michael Søgaard Liu Yong Ge Fei 12–15, 6–15 Runner-up 1999 Malaysia Open Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 15–4, 15–7 Winner 1999 Swiss Open Michael Søgaard Simon Archer Joanne Goode 5–15, 4–15 Runner-up 1998 Hong Kong Open Michael Søgaard Simon Archer Joanne Goode 8–15, 15–7, 15–8 Winner 1998 Indonesia Open Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 15–10, 8–15, 8–15 Runner-up 1998 Denmark Open Michael Søgaard Jon Holst-Christensen Ann Jørgensen 6–15, 14–15 Runner-up 1998 Singapore Open Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 10–15, 8–15 Runner-up 1998 Brunei Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 13–15, 6–15 Runner-up 1998 Malaysia Open Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 8–15, 18–15, 15–18 Runner-up 1998 Swiss Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 13–18, 15–8, 15–3 Winner 1998 All England Open Michael Søgaard Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min 2–15, 15–11, 5–15 Runner-up 1997 Thailand Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 15–5, 15–3 Winner 1997 Denmark Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 6–15, 14–18 Runner-up 1997 German Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 11–15, 15–12, 6–15 Runner-up 1996 World Grand Prix Finals Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 15–10, 15–11 Winner 1996 Hong Kong Open Michael Søgaard Jens Eriksen Marlene Thomsen 15–8, 15–11 Winner 1996 China Open Michael Søgaard Chen Xingdong Peng Xinyong 10–15, 4–15 Runner-up 1996 Denmark Open Michael Søgaard Thomas Stavngaard Ann Jørgensen 15–5, 15–1 Winner 1996 Russian Open Michael Søgaard Chen Xingdong Peng Xinyong 15–11, 12–15, 8–15 Runner-up 1996 Malaysia Open Michael Søgaard Tri Kusharjanto Minarti Timur 7–15, 5–15 Runner-up 1996 Chinese Taipei Open Michael Søgaard Liu Jianjun Sun Man 15–3, 7–15, 15–12 Winner 1995 All England Open Jon Holst-Christensen Thomas Lund Marlene Thomsen 7–15, 7–15 Runner-up 1995 Swiss Open Jon Holst-Christensen Thomas Lund Marlene Thomsen 11–15, 14–18 Runner-up 1995 Chinese Taipei Open Jens Eriksen Kim Dong-moon Ra Kyung-min 15–10, 15–5 Winner 1994 U.S. Open Jens Eriksen Zheng Yushen Xu Huaiwen 15–3, 15–4 Winner 1994 Canadian Open Jens Eriksen Jürgen Koch Irina Serova 7–15, 2–15 Runner-up 1994 Singapore Open Jon Holst-Christensen Thomas Lund Marlene Thomsen 1–15, 15–18 Runner-up IBF International Women's doubles Year Tournament Partner Opponent Score Result 2002 BMW International Ann-Lou Jørgensen Lotte Jonathans Mia Audina 11–5, 5–11, 8–11 Runner-up 1995 Irish International Mette Schjoldager Pernille Harder Majken Vange 10–15, 15–4, 9–15 Runner-up 1995 Hamburg Cup Lotte Olsen Eline Coene Erica van den Heuvel 15–6, 12–15, 15–13 Winner 1994 Irish International Helene Kirkegaard Maria Bengtsson Margit Borg 15–11, 15–12 Winner 1994 Hamburg Cup Helene Kirkegaard Marlene Thomsen Anne-Mette van Dijk 11–15, 12–15 Runner-up 1994 Amor International Charlotte Madsen Ann Jørgensen Majken Vange 12–15, 9–15 Runner-up 1994 Portugal International Helene Kirkegaard Andrea Dakó Andrea Harsági 15–6, 15–0 Winner 1993 Norwegian International Helene Kirkegaard Catrine Bengtsson Kristin Evernas Walkover Runner-up 1993 Uppsala International Helene Kirkegaard Trine Pedersen Lone Sørensen 15–7, 18–17 Winner 1993 Polish International Helene Kirkegaard Anne Søndergaard Lotte Thomsen 15–17, 15–9, 7–15 Runner-up Mixed doubles Year Tournament Partner Opponent Score Result 2002 BMW International Mathias Boe Nathan Robertson Gail Emms 9–11, 11–3, 9–11 Runner-up 1995 Hamburg Cup Thomas Stavngaard Kai Mitteldorf Katrin Schmidt 15–10, 17–18, 7–15 Runner-up 1994 Portugal International Martin Lundgaard Hansen Thomas Damgaard Helene Kirkegaard 15–12, 15–7 Winner 1993 Norwegian International Rikard Ronnblom Trond Wåland Camilla Wright 14–17, 8–15 Runner-up References ^ "Rikke Olsen" (in Danish). Badminton Denmark. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2019. ^ a b c Hansen, Jørgen (6 October 2016). "Landstræner nu også træner i Greve" (in Danish). Sjællandske Medier. Retrieved 10 April 2019. ^ a b "Rikke Olsen siger farvel" (in Danish). Ekstra Bladet. 25 March 2001. Retrieved 10 April 2019. ^ Eriksen, Jørn (12 April 2007). "Højgravid skifter til VEB" (in Danish). Nordjyske Medier. Retrieved 10 April 2019. ^ "About Us - Badminton New Zealand". ^ "sn.dk - Sjællandske Nyheder - Alt det vi taler om". 4 November 2017. External links Rikke Olsen at Olympics at Sports-Reference.com (archived) BWF player profile vteWorld Badminton Grand Prix Finals mixed doubles champions 1986: Nigel Tier & Gillian Gowers (ENG) 1987: Stefan Karlsson & Maria Bengtsson (SWE) 1988: Wang Pengren & Shi Fangjing (CHN) 1989: Eddy Hartono & Verawaty Fadjrin (INA) 1990: Thomas Lund & Pernille Dupont (DEN) 1991: Thomas Lund & Pernille Dupont (DEN) 1992: Thomas Lund & Pernille Dupont (DEN) 1993: Thomas Lund (DEN) & Catrine Bengtsson (SWE) 1994: Thomas Lund & Marlene Thomsen (DEN) 1995: Tri Kusharjanto & Minarti Timur (INA) 1996: Michael Søgaard & Rikke Olsen (DEN) 1997: Liu Yong & Ge Fei (CHN) 1998: Kim Dong-moon & Ra Kyung-min (KOR) 1999: Kim Dong-moon & Ra Kyung-min (KOR) 2000: Jens Eriksen & Mette Schjoldager (DEN) vteEuropean badminton women's doubles champions 1968: Margaret Boxall & Susan Whetnall (ENG) 1970: Margaret Boxall & Susan Whetnall (ENG) 1972: Gillian Gilks & Judy Hashman (ENG) 1974: Margaret Beck & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1976: Gillian Gilks & Susan Whetnall (ENG) 1978: Nora Perry & Anne Statt (ENG) 1980: Nora Perry & Jane Webster (ENG) 1982: Gillian Clark & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1984: Karen Chapman & Gillian Clark (ENG) 1986: Gillian Clark & Gillian Gowers (ENG) 1988: Dorte Kjær & Nettie Nielsen (DEN) 1990: Dorte Kjær & Nettie Nielsen (DEN) 1992: Lim Xiaoqing & Christine Magnusson (SWE) 1994: Lim Xiaoqing & Christine Magnusson (SWE) 1996: Lisbeth Stuer-Lauridsen & Marlene Thomsen (DEN) 1998: Rikke Olsen & Marlene Thomsen (DEN) 2000: Joanne Goode & Donna Kellogg (ENG) 2002: Jane F. Bramsen & Ann-Lou Jørgensen (DEN) 2004: Mia Audina & Lotte Bruil-Jonathans (NED) 2006: Gail Emms & Donna Kellogg (ENG) 2008: Lena Frier Kristiansen & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2010: Valeria Sorokina & Nina Vislova (RUS) 2012: Christinna Pedersen & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2014: Christinna Pedersen & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2016: Christinna Pedersen & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2017: Christinna Pedersen & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2018: Gabriela Stoeva & Stefani Stoeva (BUL) 2021: Gabriela Stoeva & Stefani Stoeva (BUL) 2022: Gabriela Stoeva & Stefani Stoeva (BUL) 2024: Margot Lambert & Anne Tran (FRA) vteEuropean badminton mixed doubles champions 1968: Anthony D. Jordan & Susan Whetnall (ENG) 1970: David Eddy & Susan Whetnall (ENG) 1972: Derek Talbot & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1974: Derek Talbot & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1976: Derek Talbot & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1978: Mike Tredgett & Nora Perry (ENG) 1980: Mike Tredgett & Nora Perry (ENG) 1982: Martin Dew & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1984: Martin Dew & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1986: Martin Dew & Gillian Gilks (ENG) 1988: Steen Fladberg (DEN) & Gillian Clark (ENG) 1990: Jon Holst-Christensen & Grete Mogensen (DEN) 1992: Thomas Lund & Pernille Dupont (DEN) 1994: Michael Søgaard (DEN) & Catrine Bengtsson (SWE) 1996: Michael Søgaard & Rikke Olsen (DEN) 1998: Michael Søgaard & Rikke Olsen (DEN) 2000: Michael Søgaard & Rikke Olsen (DEN) 2002: Jens Eriksen & Mette Schjoldager (DEN) 2004: Nathan Robertson & Gail Emms (ENG) 2006: Thomas Laybourn & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2008: Anthony Clark & Donna Kellogg (ENG) 2010: Thomas Laybourn & Kamilla Rytter Juhl (DEN) 2012: Robert Mateusiak & Nadieżda Zięba (POL) 2014: Joachim Fischer Nielsen & Christinna Pedersen (DEN) 2016: Joachim Fischer Nielsen & Christinna Pedersen (DEN) 2017: Chris Adcock & Gabby Adcock (ENG) 2018: Chris Adcock & Gabby Adcock (ENG) 2021: Rodion Alimov & Alina Davletova (RUS) 2022: Mark Lamsfuß & Isabel Lohau (GER) 2024: Thom Gicquel & Delphine Delrue (FRA)	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"badminton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_IBF_World_Junior_Championships"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eb-3"},{"link_name":"National","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_National_Badminton_Championships"},{"link_name":"World Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BWF_World_Championships"},{"link_name":"All England Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_England_Open_Badminton_Championships"},{"link_name":"Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_at_the_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eb-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Lotte Olsen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotte_Olsen"},{"link_name":"badminton at the 1996 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_at_the_1996_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Björn Siegemund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Siegemund"},{"link_name":"Solrød Strand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solr%C3%B8d_Strand"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sn-2"}],"text":"Badminton playerRikke Olsen Siegemund (born 19 April 1975) is a retired badminton player from Denmark. She won the mixed doubles title at the World Junior Championships in 1992 and the girls' doubles title at the European Junior Championships in 1993.[1]Born in Søndre Roskilde, Olsen came from the badminton family, and started playing at the age of six.[2] She trained in Kastrup-Magleby BK and played for the team for eight seasons,[3] won fourteen National titles, seven World Championships bronze medals, three times runner-up in All England Open, and reached in to the bronze medal match at the Olympic Games in 1996, 2000 and 2004.[4] During her career, she was ranked as world No. 1 in the mixed doubles and No. 2 in the women's doubles.[3] After retiring from the tournament, she became the national junior coach.[2] She is currently performance manager at Badminton New Zealand.[5]Her sister Lotte Olsen also played badminton at the 1996 Summer Olympics. She is married to German badminton player Björn Siegemund and settled in Solrød Strand.[2] The pair has two kids.","title":"Rikke Olsen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"badminton at the 2004 Summer Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_at_the_2004_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Ann-Lou Jørgensen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ann-Lou_J%C3%B8rgensen"},{"link_name":"Nicole Grether","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Grether"},{"link_name":"Juliane Schenk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juliane_Schenk"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Huang Sui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang_Sui"},{"link_name":"Gao Ling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gao_Ling"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Republic_of_China"},{"link_name":"Jonas Rasmussen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonas_Rasmussen"},{"link_name":"Daniel Shirley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Shirley"},{"link_name":"Sara Petersen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Petersen_(badminton)"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"Kim Dong-moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Dong-moon"},{"link_name":"Ra Kyung-min","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ra_Kyung-min"},{"link_name":"Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Korea"},{"link_name":"Nathan Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathan_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Gail Emms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gail_Emms"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Jens Eriksen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jens_Eriksen"},{"link_name":"Mette Schjoldager","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mette_Schjoldager"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Olsen competed in badminton at the 2004 Summer Olympics in women's doubles with partner Ann-Lou Jørgensen. They had a bye in the first round and defeated Nicole Grether and Juliane Schenk of Germany in the second. In the quarterfinals, Olsen and Jørgensen lost to Huang Sui and Gao Ling of China 15-6, 15-7.She also competed in mixed doubles with partner Jonas Rasmussen. They had a bye in the first round and defeated Daniel Shirley and Sara Petersen of New Zealand in the second. In the quarterfinals, Olsen and Rasmussen beat Kim Dong-moon and Ra Kyung-min of Korea 17-14, 15-8, to advance to the semifinals. There, they lost to Nathan Robertson and Gail Emms of Great Britain 15-6, 15-12. In the bronze medal match, they were defeated by fellow Danish pair Jens Eriksen and Mette Schjoldager 15-5, 15-5, to finish in fourth place.In February 2018, Olsen Siegemund left her job as Danish Under 19s national coach to start a four year contract as combined sports manager and national coach for New Zealand.[6]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"World Championships","text":"Women's doublesMixed doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"World Cup","text":"Women's doublesMixed doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"European Championships","text":"Women's doublesMixed doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"World Junior Championships","text":"Mixed doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"European Junior Championships","text":"Girls' singlesGirls' doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"IBF World Grand Prix","text":"The World Badminton Grand Prix sanctioned by International Badminton Federation (IBF) since 1983.Women's doublesMixed doubles","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"IBF International","text":"Women's doublesMixed doubles","title":"Achievements"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Rikke Olsen\" (in Danish). Badminton Denmark. Archived from the original on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 10 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080413144344/http://www.badminton.dk/Elite%20uk/Profiler%20uk/Gamle%20stjerner/Profiler%20gamle%20stjerner/Rikke%20Olsen.aspx","url_text":"\"Rikke Olsen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badminton_Denmark","url_text":"Badminton Denmark"},{"url":"http://www.badminton.dk/Elite%20uk/Profiler%20uk/Gamle%20stjerner/Profiler%20gamle%20stjerner/Rikke%20Olsen.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hansen, Jørgen (6 October 2016). \"Landstræner nu også træner i Greve\" (in Danish). Sjællandske Medier. Retrieved 10 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://sn.dk/Sydkysten/Landstraener-nu-ogsaa-traener-i-Greve/artikel/605383","url_text":"\"Landstræner nu også træner i Greve\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%A6llandske_Medier","url_text":"Sjællandske Medier"}]},{"reference":"\"Rikke Olsen siger farvel\" (in Danish). Ekstra Bladet. 25 March 2001. Retrieved 10 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://ekstrabladet.dk/sport/anden_sport/anden_sport/article4795875.ece","url_text":"\"Rikke Olsen siger farvel\""}]},{"reference":"Eriksen, Jørn (12 April 2007). \"Højgravid skifter til VEB\" (in Danish). Nordjyske Medier. Retrieved 10 April 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://nordjyske.dk/nyheder/hoejgravid-skifter-til-veb/9bcd417c-72fd-4d7d-a469-51ab00fd8a3e","url_text":"\"Højgravid skifter til VEB\""}]},{"reference":"\"About Us - Badminton New Zealand\".","urls":[{"url":"https://badminton.org.nz/about-us/","url_text":"\"About Us - Badminton New Zealand\""}]},{"reference":"\"sn.dk - Sjællandske Nyheder - Alt det vi taler om\". 4 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://sn.dk/Greve/Hun-skal-traene-New-Zealand/artikel/697080","url_text":"\"sn.dk - Sjællandske Nyheder - Alt det vi taler om\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://bwf.tournamentsoftware.com/player-profile/243383A8-8A19-4865-8729-ACBF5C8001A9","external_links_name":"BWF profile"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080413144344/http://www.badminton.dk/Elite%20uk/Profiler%20uk/Gamle%20stjerner/Profiler%20gamle%20stjerner/Rikke%20Olsen.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Rikke Olsen\""},{"Link":"http://www.badminton.dk/Elite%20uk/Profiler%20uk/Gamle%20stjerner/Profiler%20gamle%20stjerner/Rikke%20Olsen.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://sn.dk/Sydkysten/Landstraener-nu-ogsaa-traener-i-Greve/artikel/605383","external_links_name":"\"Landstræner nu også træner i Greve\""},{"Link":"https://ekstrabladet.dk/sport/anden_sport/anden_sport/article4795875.ece","external_links_name":"\"Rikke Olsen siger farvel\""},{"Link":"https://nordjyske.dk/nyheder/hoejgravid-skifter-til-veb/9bcd417c-72fd-4d7d-a469-51ab00fd8a3e","external_links_name":"\"Højgravid skifter til VEB\""},{"Link":"https://badminton.org.nz/about-us/","external_links_name":"\"About Us - Badminton New Zealand\""},{"Link":"https://sn.dk/Greve/Hun-skal-traene-New-Zealand/artikel/697080","external_links_name":"\"sn.dk - Sjællandske Nyheder - Alt det vi taler om\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161204/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ol/rikke-olsen-1.html","external_links_name":"Rikke Olsen"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070929125213/http://www.internationalbadminton.org/playerinfo.asp?playerid=4789","external_links_name":"BWF player profile"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus_the_Younger	Carl Linnaeus the Younger	["1 Biography","2 References","3 External links"]	Swedish naturalist (1741–1783) "L.f." redirects here. For other uses, see Lf. Carl Linnaeus the YoungerCarl von Linné den yngrePortrait by Jonas ForsslundBorn(1741-01-20)20 January 1741Falun, Kopparberg County, SwedenDied1 November 1783(1783-11-01) (aged 42)Uppsala, SwedenOther namesCarolus Linnaeus the YoungerLinnaeus filiusParentsCarl LinnaeusSara Elisabeth MoræaFamilyLinné family Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Carolus Linnaeus the Younger, Carl von Linné den yngre (Swedish; abbreviated Carl von Linné d. y.), or Linnaeus filius (Latin for Linnaeus the son; abbreviated L.fil. (outdated) or L.f. (modern) as a botanical authority; 20 January 1741 – 1 November 1783) was a Swedish naturalist. His names distinguish him from his father, the pioneering taxonomist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778). Biography Carl Linnaeus the Younger was enrolled at the University of Uppsala at the age of 9 and was taught science by his father's students, including Pehr Löfling, Daniel Solander, and Johan Peter Falk. In 1763, aged just 22, he succeeded his father as the head of Practical Medicine at Uppsala. His promotion to professor — without taking exams or defending a thesis — caused resentment among his colleagues. His work was modest in comparison to that of his father. His best-known work is the Supplementum Plantarum systematis vegetabilium of 1781, which contains botanical descriptions by the elder Linnaeus and his colleagues, edited and with additions by the son. He took a two-year trip to England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark between 1781 and 1783. In London he became ill with jaundice and, shortly after his return, he suffered from fever and a stroke from which he died aged 42. Together with his parents, Carl Linnaeus the Younger was buried in the family grave of Uppsala Cathedral. While still alive, Carl Linnaeus the Younger had inherited his father's extensive scientific collections of books, specimens, and correspondence, and he had worked to preserve them. In October 1784 his mother, Sara Elisabeth (1716–1806), sold the library and herbarium to the English botanist Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828). After his death his widow, Pleasance Smith (1773–1877), sold the collection to the Linnean Society of London. The standard author abbreviation L.f. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name. References ^ a b c "Karl von Linné d. y." Nordisk familjebok. 1912. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ a b "Carl Linnaeus fil". Swedish Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ "Carl von Linnés grav". Uppsala Cathedral. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ "Linnés familjeliv". Uppsala University. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ "Carl Linnaeus the Younger in London". The Linnean Society of London. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ "Protecting Linnaeus: Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828) as Linnean critic and defender". Chicago Botanic Garden. Archived from the original on 31 July 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2018. ^ International Plant Names Index. L.f. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Carl von Linné the Younger. Latin Wikisource has original text related to this article: Supplementum Plantarum Wikispecies has information related to Carl Linnaeus the Younger. Carl Linnaeus fil. Botanical History. Archived 18 August 2000 at the Wayback Machine. Swedish Museum of Natural History. vteCarl LinnaeusPublished works Linnaeus bibliography Systema Naturae (1735) Fundamenta Botanica (1736) Bibliotheca Botanica (1736) Musa Cliffortiana (1736) Critica Botanica (1737) Flora Lapponica (1737) Genera Plantarum (1737) Hortus Cliffortianus (1737) Classes Plantarum (1738) Flora Svecica (1745) Fauna Svecica (1746) Philosophia Botanica (1751) Species Plantarum (1753) Centuria Insectorum (1763) Mantissa Plantarum Altera (1771) Systema Vegetabilium (1774) General Taxonomy (biology) Linnaean taxonomy (Linnaean classification) Botanical nomenclature Zoological nomenclature Binomial nomenclature Taxa named by Linnaeus‎ Natural history History of biology History of botany Scientific racism Apostles of Linnaeus Adam Afzelius Andreas Berlin Johan Peter Falk Peter Forsskål Pehr Kalm Pehr Löfling Pehr Osbeck Daniel Rolander Göran Rothman Daniel Solander Anders Sparrman Carl Peter Thunberg Related people Family (Carl Linnaeus the Younger (son) Elisabeth Christina von Linné (daughter)) Students of Linnaeus Gaspard Bauhin Johann Bauhin Peter Artedi Herman Boerhaave Johannes Burman George Clifford III Recognitions Expedition Linné Linnaea Linnaean Garden (including the Linnaeus Museum) Linnaeite Linnaemya Linnaemyini 7412 Linnaeus Linnaeus Arboretum Linnaeus University Linnaeus's Hammarby Linné (crater) Linnéa Linnean Medal Linnean Society of London Swedish Linnaeus Society Linnean Society of New South Wales Linnean Tercentenary Medal Linneus, Maine Linneus, Missouri Category Wikiquote Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Catalonia Germany Israel United States Sweden Australia Netherlands Portugal Academics International Plant Names Index People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef Te Papa (New Zealand)	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lf_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"naturalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"},{"link_name":"taxonomist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomist"},{"link_name":"Carl Linnaeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kvl-1"}],"text":"\"L.f.\" redirects here. For other uses, see Lf.Carl Linnaeus the Younger, Carolus Linnaeus the Younger, Carl von Linné den yngre (Swedish; abbreviated Carl von Linné d. y.), or Linnaeus filius (Latin for Linnaeus the son; abbreviated L.fil. (outdated) or L.f. (modern) as a botanical authority; 20 January 1741 – 1 November 1783) was a Swedish naturalist. His names distinguish him from his father, the pioneering taxonomist Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778).[1]","title":"Carl Linnaeus the Younger"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Uppsala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Uppsala"},{"link_name":"students","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_students_of_Linnaeus"},{"link_name":"Pehr Löfling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pehr_L%C3%B6fling"},{"link_name":"Daniel Solander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Solander"},{"link_name":"Johan Peter Falk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Peter_Falk"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clf-2"},{"link_name":"Supplementum Plantarum systematis vegetabilium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supplementum_Plantarum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kvl-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-clf-2"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/England"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"jaundice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaundice"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kvl-1"},{"link_name":"Uppsala Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uppsala_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Sara Elisabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sara_Elisabeth_Mor%C3%A6a"},{"link_name":"English botanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanist"},{"link_name":"James Edward Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Edward_Smith_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"Pleasance Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleasance_Smith"},{"link_name":"Linnean Society of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_London"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"author abbreviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_botanists_by_author_abbreviation_(A)"},{"link_name":"citing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author_citation_(botany)"},{"link_name":"botanical name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_name"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Carl Linnaeus the Younger was enrolled at the University of Uppsala at the age of 9 and was taught science by his father's students, including Pehr Löfling, Daniel Solander, and Johan Peter Falk. In 1763, aged just 22, he succeeded his father as the head of Practical Medicine at Uppsala. His promotion to professor — without taking exams or defending a thesis — caused resentment among his colleagues.[2]His work was modest in comparison to that of his father. His best-known work is the Supplementum Plantarum systematis vegetabilium of 1781, which contains botanical descriptions by the elder Linnaeus and his colleagues, edited and with additions by the son.[1][2]He took a two-year trip to England, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark between 1781 and 1783. In London he became ill with jaundice and, shortly after his return, he suffered from fever and a stroke from which he died aged 42.[1] Together with his parents, Carl Linnaeus the Younger was buried in the family grave of Uppsala Cathedral.[3]While still alive, Carl Linnaeus the Younger had inherited his father's extensive scientific collections of books, specimens, and correspondence, and he had worked to preserve them. In October 1784 his mother, Sara Elisabeth (1716–1806), sold the library and herbarium to the English botanist Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828). After his death his widow, Pleasance Smith (1773–1877), sold the collection to the Linnean Society of London.[4][5][6]The standard author abbreviation L.f. is used to indicate this person as the author when citing a botanical name.[7]","title":"Biography"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Karl von Linné d. y.\" Nordisk familjebok. 1912. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://runeberg.org/nfbp/0383.html","url_text":"\"Karl von Linné d. y.\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carl Linnaeus fil\". Swedish Museum of Natural History. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nrm.se/en/forskningochsamlingar/botanik/botaniskhistoria/carlvonlinnedy.533.html","url_text":"\"Carl Linnaeus fil\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carl von Linnés grav\". Uppsala Cathedral. Archived from the original on 26 March 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170326230752/http://www.uppsalacathedral.com/setupups/local/linne.htm","url_text":"\"Carl von Linnés grav\""},{"url":"http://www.uppsalacathedral.com/setupups/local/linne.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Linnés familjeliv\". Uppsala University. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www2.linnaeus.uu.se/online/liv/8_2.html","url_text":"\"Linnés familjeliv\""}]},{"reference":"\"Carl Linnaeus the Younger in London\". The Linnean Society of London. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.linnean.org/the-society/news/2014/12/18/18th-december-2014-carl-linnaeus-the-younger-in-london","url_text":"\"Carl Linnaeus the Younger in London\""}]},{"reference":"\"Protecting Linnaeus: Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828) as Linnean critic and defender\". Chicago Botanic Garden. Archived from the original on 31 July 2014. Retrieved 1 December 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140731210512/https://www.chicagobotanic.org/library/stories/protecting_linnaeus","url_text":"\"Protecting Linnaeus: Sir James Edward Smith (1759–1828) as Linnean critic and defender\""},{"url":"https://www.chicagobotanic.org/library/stories/protecting_linnaeus","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"International Plant Names Index. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_Meteorological_Institute	Finnish Meteorological Institute	["1 Services","2 Observations","3 Research","3.1 Air quality activities","3.2 Space Research","4 Staff","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Dynamicum, the building where the Finnish Meteorological Institute is located in Helsinki. The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI; Finnish: Ilmatieteen laitos; Swedish: Meteorologiska institutet) is the government agency responsible for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts in Finland. It is a part of the Ministry of Transport and Communications but it operates semi-autonomously. The Institute is an impartial research and service organisation with expertise covering a wide range of atmospheric science activities other than gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts. The headquarters of the Institute is in Kumpula Campus, Helsinki, Finland. C-Band Doppler weather radar at Korpo, Pargas, Finland. Design, planning, maintenance and operation by Finnish Meteorological Institute. Services FMI provides weather forecasts for aviation, traffic, shipping and media as well as private citizens via internet and mobile devices. It also has air quality services. For sea areas, it provides information about ice cover, sea level changes and waves. In 2013 FMI made openly available data sets such as weather, sea and climate observation data, time series and model data. The open data is targeted to benefit application developers who want to develop new services, applications and products. In 2009, researchers from VTT published a study assessing the benefits generated by the services offered by the Finnish Meteorological Institute. They concluded in sum in range of 260-290 million euros, while the annual budget of the institute was around 50 – 60 million Euros. This leads to estimate for annual benefit-cost ratio for the services to be at least 5:1. Observations Finnish Meteorological Institute makes observations of the atmosphere, sea and space at over 400 stations around Finland. Its weather radar network consists of 10 C-band Doppler weather radars. Research The research areas of FMI include meteorology, air quality, climate change, earth observation, marine and arctic research. Scientific research at FMI is mainly organized around three centers; "Weather, Sea and Climate Service Center", "Observing and Information Service Systems Center", "Space and Earth Observation Center", and two programs; "Meteorological and Marine Research Program", "Climate Research Program". Every year FMI's researchers publish about 300 peer-reviewed articles. Air quality activities The Finnish Meteorological Institute has investigated air quality processes and air pollution prevention techniques since the early 1970s. Their staff members have comprehensive competence within the areas of meteorology, physics, chemistry, biology and engineering. Integrated work is done in cooperation with many other European research institutes and universities. The air quality activities conducted by the Institute include: Research, testing and development of air quality measuring methods and equipment. Development of air pollutant emission inventories. Development of air pollution dispersion models Performing chemical analyses of air quality. Study and development of air pollution prevention techniques. The suite of local-scale (0 – 30 km) dispersion models available at the Institute includes: An urban area, multiple-source dispersion model. Vehicular pollution line-source dispersion models. Dispersion models for hazardous materials. Dispersion models for odorous compounds. Dispersion models for larger scales (30 to 3000 km) are also available. Space Research The Finnish Meteorological Institute is one of the few places in Finland where space research takes place. The institute has been a part of several high-profile NASA and ESA missions, such as Phoenix, Mars Science Laboratory, Rosetta and BepiColombo, in addition to leading a lander mission of their own, MetNet. They worked with Spain and the United States to contribute to the Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) on Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity). The Finnish Meteorological Institute has designed and produced parts to the robotic space probe Rosetta and robotic lander Philae, which sent some data from comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014-2015. The electric solar wind sail, invented 2006 by FMi scientist Pekka Janhunen, got the 2010 Finnish Quality Innovation Prize among Potential innovations. It was tested in ESTCube-1 satellite. Staff This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (August 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The number of full-time staff of the Finnish Meteorological Institute is about 540. Permanent staff members account for about 2/3 of the Institute's personnel and those with contractual posts account for the remainder. The Institute operates in on a round-the-clock basis and about 30 percent of the full-time staff work in shifts. 54 percent of the staff have university degrees and 15 percent have a licentiate or PhD degree. The average age of the staff is 43 years. See also Climate change in Finland Atmospheric dispersion modeling Foreca List of atmospheric dispersion models National Center for Atmospheric Research National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark NILU, the Norwegian Institute for Air Research Roadway air dispersion modeling Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute TA Luft UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison Committee UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau University Corporation for Atmospheric Research References ^ Services and products FMI ^ Finnish Meteorological Institute makes its data sets public Ministry of Transport and Communications (Finland) ^ Leviäkangas, Pekka; Hautala, Raine (2009). "Benefits and value of meteorological information services – the case of the Finnish Meteorological Institute". Meteorol. Appl. 16 (2009): 369–379. Bibcode:2009MeApp..16..369L. doi:10.1002/met.135. Retrieved 15 February 2016. ^ Observations FMI ^ FMI Radar network FMI ^ Science News FMI ^ Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X. www.crcpress.com Archived November 5, 2007, at the Wayback Machine ^ Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. ISBN 0-9644588-0-2. www.air-dispersion.com ^ "FMI-SPACE". ^ Finnish Space Technology On Board Rosetta And Philae InooConnections 2014 ^ "E-sail". www.electric-sailing.fi. ^ "ESTCube-1 ceased working after 2 years in orbit \| Estonian Space Office". Archived from the original on 2016-02-23. Retrieved 2016-02-15. External links Finnish Meteorological Institute Public GIS Map Database Ministry of Transport and Communications Finland vteNational meteorological organizationsAfrica Algeria Ghana Mozambique South Africa Americas Argentina Bermuda Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Ecuador Guatemala Mexico United States Uruguay Asia Afghanistan Bangladesh Bhutan China (PRC) China (ROC) India Indonesia Iran Israel Japan Korea (DPRK) Korea (ROK) Malaysia Pakistan Palestine Philippines Russia Saudi Arabia Singapore Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Vietnam Europe Austria Belgium Croatia Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Iceland Ireland Italy Latvia Lithuania Montenegro Netherlands Norway Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey United Kingdom Ukraine Oceania Australia Fiji New Zealand Tonga Tuvalu Regional: Caribbean Institute for Meteorology and Hydrology European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts European Severe Storms Laboratory Global: World Meteorological Organization vteGovernment agencies and public bodies of FinlandParliament Parliamentary Office Office of the Parliamentary Ombudsman Institute of International Affairs National Audit Office Prime Minister's Office Office of the Chancellor of Justice Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry National Land Survey Natural Resources Institute Food Authority Ministry of Defence Construction Establishment of Defence Administration Defence Forces Ministry of Education and Culture Governing Body of Suomenlinna National Archives Academy of Finland Heritage Agency Institute for the Languages of Finland Arts Promotion Centre National Audiovisual Institute Library for the Print Disabled National Repository Library National Agency for Education Lecturers abroad Lycée franco-finlandais d'Helsinki Suomalais-venäläinen koulu Maritime Safety Training Centre European School of Helsinki European Schools Valteri School Sámi Education Institute Ministry of Economic Affairs and Employment Development and Administration Centre for the ELY Centres and TE Offices Energy Authority Geological Survey Patent and Registration Office Business Finland Safety and Chemicals Agency Competition and Consumer Authority Ministry of the Environment Housing Finance and Development Centre Finnish Environment Institute Ministry of Finance Population Register Centre State Treasury Finnish Customs Finnish Tax Administration VATT Institute for Economic Research Government Shared Services Centre for Finance and HR Financial Stability Authority Government ICT Centre Valtori Statistics Finland Ministry for Foreign Affairs Ministry for Foreign Affairs' missions Ministry of the Interior Immigration Service Border Guard Security Intelligence Service Emergency Services Academy Emergency Response Centre Agency Crisis Management Centre National Police Board National Bureau of Investigation Police University College Ministry of Justice Prosecution Service Legal Register Centre Criminal Sanctions Agency European Institute for Crime Prevention and Control Office of the Data Protection Ombudsman Safety Investigation Authority Office of the Ombudsman for Children Office of the Ombudsman for Equality Office of the Non-Discrimination Ombudsman Enforcement Office of Bankruptcy Ombudsman National Administrative Office for Enforcement Ministry of Social Affairs and Health Radiation and Nuclear Safety Authority Medicines Agency Fimea National Supervisory Authority for Welfare and Health Social Security Appeal Board Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare Old Vaasa Hospital Niuvanniemi Hospital Valtion koulukodit Health Care Services for Prisoners Ministry of Transport and Communications Transport Infrastructure Agency Transport and Communications Agency Traficom Meteorological Institute Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Norway Germany Israel Finland 2 United States Academics CiNii Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finnish_language"},{"link_name":"Swedish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_language"},{"link_name":"government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government"},{"link_name":"reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reporting_(data)"},{"link_name":"weather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Transport and Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Transport_and_Communications_(Finland)"},{"link_name":"atmospheric science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_science"},{"link_name":"Kumpula Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kumpula_Campus"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C-Band_Doppler_tutka,_Korppoo,_L%C3%A4nsi-Turunmaa.JPG"},{"link_name":"Korpo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korpo"},{"link_name":"Pargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pargas"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"}],"text":"The Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI; Finnish: Ilmatieteen laitos; Swedish: Meteorologiska institutet) is the government agency responsible for gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts in Finland. It is a part of the Ministry of Transport and Communications but it operates semi-autonomously.The Institute is an impartial research and service organisation with expertise covering a wide range of atmospheric science activities other than gathering and reporting weather data and forecasts. The headquarters of the Institute is in Kumpula Campus, Helsinki, Finland.C-Band Doppler weather radar at Korpo, Pargas, Finland. Design, planning, maintenance and operation by Finnish Meteorological Institute.","title":"Finnish Meteorological Institute"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"open data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_data"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"VTT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VTT_Technical_Research_Centre_of_Finland"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"FMI provides weather forecasts for aviation, traffic, shipping and media as well as private citizens via internet and mobile devices. It also has air quality services. For sea areas, it provides information about ice cover, sea level changes and waves.[1]In 2013 FMI made openly available data sets such as weather, sea and climate observation data, time series and model data. The open data is targeted to benefit application developers who want to develop new services, applications and products.[2]In 2009, researchers from VTT published a study assessing the benefits generated by the services offered by the Finnish Meteorological Institute. They concluded in sum in range of 260-290 million euros, while the annual budget of the institute was around 50 – 60 million Euros. This leads to estimate for annual benefit-cost ratio for the services to be at least 5:1.[3]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Doppler weather radars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather_radar"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Finnish Meteorological Institute makes observations of the atmosphere, sea and space at over 400 stations around Finland.[4] Its weather radar network consists of 10 C-band Doppler weather radars.[5]","title":"Observations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology"},{"link_name":"air quality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"earth observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_observation"},{"link_name":"marine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceanography"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The research areas of FMI include meteorology, air quality, climate change, earth observation, marine and arctic research. Scientific research at FMI is mainly organized around three centers; \"Weather, Sea and Climate Service Center\", \"Observing and Information Service Systems Center\", \"Space and Earth Observation Center\", and two programs; \"Meteorological and Marine Research Program\", \"Climate Research Program\".Every year FMI's researchers publish about 300 peer-reviewed articles.[6]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"air quality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_quality"},{"link_name":"air pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution"},{"link_name":"meteorology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorology"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"air pollutant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollutant"},{"link_name":"emission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas"},{"link_name":"air pollution dispersion models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"chemical analyses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_analysis"},{"link_name":"air pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution"},{"link_name":"line-source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution_dispersion_terminology"}],"sub_title":"Air quality activities","text":"The Finnish Meteorological Institute has investigated air quality processes and air pollution prevention techniques since the early 1970s. Their staff members have comprehensive competence within the areas of meteorology, physics, chemistry, biology and engineering. Integrated work is done in cooperation with many other European research institutes and universities.The air quality activities conducted by the Institute include:Research, testing and development of air quality measuring methods and equipment.\nDevelopment of air pollutant emission inventories.\nDevelopment of air pollution dispersion models[7][8]\nPerforming chemical analyses of air quality.\nStudy and development of air pollution prevention techniques.The suite of local-scale (0 – 30 km) dispersion models available at the Institute includes:An urban area, multiple-source dispersion model.\nVehicular pollution line-source dispersion models.\nDispersion models for hazardous materials.\nDispersion models for odorous compounds.Dispersion models for larger scales (30 to 3000 km) are also available.","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"space research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_research"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"ESA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESA"},{"link_name":"Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_Lander"},{"link_name":"Mars Science Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"Rosetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"BepiColombo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BepiColombo"},{"link_name":"MetNet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MetNet"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FMIEO-9"},{"link_name":"Rover Environmental Monitoring Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rover_Environmental_Monitoring_Station"},{"link_name":"Rosetta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosetta_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"Philae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philae_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"electric solar wind sail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_sail"},{"link_name":"Pekka Janhunen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pekka_Janhunen"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"ESTCube-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESTCube-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Space Research","text":"The Finnish Meteorological Institute is one of the few places in Finland where space research takes place. The institute has been a part of several high-profile NASA and ESA missions, such as Phoenix, Mars Science Laboratory, Rosetta and BepiColombo, in addition to leading a lander mission of their own, MetNet.[9] They worked with Spain and the United States to contribute to the Rover Environmental Monitoring Station (REMS) on Mars Science Laboratory (Curiosity).The Finnish Meteorological Institute has designed and produced parts to the robotic space probe Rosetta and robotic lander Philae, which sent some data from comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko in 2014-2015.[10]The electric solar wind sail, invented 2006 by FMi scientist Pekka Janhunen, got the 2010 Finnish Quality Innovation Prize among Potential innovations.[11] It was tested in ESTCube-1 satellite.[12]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The number of full-time staff of the Finnish Meteorological Institute is about 540. Permanent staff members account for about 2/3 of the Institute's personnel and those with contractual posts account for the remainder. The Institute operates in on a round-the-clock basis and about 30 percent of the full-time staff work in shifts.54 percent of the staff have university degrees and 15 percent have a licentiate or PhD degree. The average age of the staff is 43 years.","title":"Staff"}]	[{"image_text":"Dynamicum, the building where the Finnish Meteorological Institute is located in Helsinki.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Dynamicum.jpg/220px-Dynamicum.jpg"},{"image_text":"C-Band Doppler weather radar at Korpo, Pargas, Finland. Design, planning, maintenance and operation by Finnish Meteorological Institute.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/C-Band_Doppler_tutka%2C_Korppoo%2C_L%C3%A4nsi-Turunmaa.JPG/220px-C-Band_Doppler_tutka%2C_Korppoo%2C_L%C3%A4nsi-Turunmaa.JPG"}]	[{"title":"Climate change in Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change_in_Finland"},{"title":"Atmospheric dispersion modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_dispersion_modeling"},{"title":"Foreca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreca"},{"title":"List of atmospheric dispersion models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_atmospheric_dispersion_models"},{"title":"National Center for Atmospheric Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Center_for_Atmospheric_Research"},{"title":"National Environmental Research Institute of Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Environmental_Research_Institute_of_Denmark"},{"title":"NILU, the Norwegian Institute for Air Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NILU"},{"title":"Roadway air dispersion modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roadway_air_dispersion_modeling"},{"title":"Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Meteorological_and_Hydrological_Institute"},{"title":"TA Luft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TA_Luft"},{"title":"UK Atmospheric Dispersion Modelling Liaison Committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Atmospheric_Dispersion_Modelling_Liaison_Committee"},{"title":"UK Dispersion Modelling Bureau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Dispersion_Modelling_Bureau"},{"title":"University Corporation for Atmospheric Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Corporation_for_Atmospheric_Research"}]	[{"reference":"Leviäkangas, Pekka; Hautala, Raine (2009). \"Benefits and value of meteorological information services – the case of the Finnish Meteorological Institute\". Meteorol. Appl. 16 (2009): 369–379. Bibcode:2009MeApp..16..369L. doi:10.1002/met.135. Retrieved 15 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/38288770","url_text":"\"Benefits and value of meteorological information services – the case of the Finnish Meteorological Institute\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009MeApp..16..369L","url_text":"2009MeApp..16..369L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fmet.135","url_text":"10.1002/met.135"}]},{"reference":"Turner, D.B. (1994). Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling (2nd ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 1-56670-023-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/workbookofatmosp0000turn","url_text":"Workbook of atmospheric dispersion estimates: an introduction to dispersion modeling"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56670-023-X","url_text":"1-56670-023-X"}]},{"reference":"Beychok, Milton R. (2005). Fundamentals Of Stack Gas Dispersion (4th ed.). author-published. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Barnes_Wollen	William Barnes Wollen	["1 Career","2 Paintings","2.1 Gallery","3 Written works","4 Notes","5 References","6 Bibliography","7 External links"]	English painter This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "William Barnes Wollen" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) William Barnes WollenRoyal Institute of Painters in Water ColoursAn 1892 illustration of Wollen in The Illustrated London NewsBornWilliam Barnes Wollem6 October 1857Leipzig, GermanyDied28 March 1936 (aged 78)London, EnglandStyleWatercolor painting, oil painting William Barnes Wollen RI ROI (6 October 1857 – 28 March 1936) was an English painter mostly known for his paintings of battle and historical scenes and sporting events. Career Born in Leipzig on 6 October 1857, he was educated at University College School in London from 1871 to 1873 and also at the Slade School. From 1879 until 1922, he exhibited pictures at the Royal Academy, National Watercolour Society and elsewhere. His first picture exhibited at the Royal Academy was entitled "Football" but he followed this up with his first military painting in 1881 entitled "The rescue of Private Andrews by Captain Garnet J. Wolseley, H.M. 90th L.I. at the storming of the Motee Mahail, Lucknow". He was elected a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1888. "Defeat of the Prussian Guard, Ypres, 1914" In 1900, he was commissioned by the new illustrated weekly newspaper, The Sphere to act as one of its special artists in South Africa to cover the Boer War. His experiences during this war resulted in several paintings including "The Imperial Light Horse at Waggon Hill, January 6, 1900", "The Victoria Cross", and "The 1st Battalion South Lancashire Regiment storming the Boer trenches at Pieter's Hill". The artist also exhibited several scenes during and shortly after World War I depicting that conflict. "The Black Watch (42nd Highlanders) at Bay, Quatre Bras" "The last stand of the survivors of Her Majesty's 44th Foot at Gandamak" He lived in London during his career in Camden Square and Bedford Park, and died in London, on 28 March 1936 aged 78. Paintings News (Trooper, 1645) (National Army Museum) Sergeant Ewart capturing the Eagle of the 45th (National War Museum, Edinburgh) The Black Watch (42nd Highlanders_ at Bay, Quatre Bras (1894 – Black Watch Museum, Perth) The Battle of the Roses (1895 – Twickenham Stadium) The Battle of Abu Klea, 1885 (1896 – National Army Museum) Charge of the 6th Inniskilling Dragoons at the Battle of Tournay (1897 – Royal Dragoon Guards) The Last Stand of the 44th Regiment at Gundamuck, 1842 (1898 – Essex Regiment Association, on loan National Army Museum The 21st (Empress of India's) Lancers at Omdurman (1899 – Staff College, Camberley) The Victoria Cross (Colesberg, South Africa, 1900) (1901 – Durban Art Museum) The Imperial Light Horse at Elandslaagte (1902 – Light Horse Regiment Association, Johannesburg, on loan Africana Museum) The 1st Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment storming the Boer Trenches at Pieter's Hill (1903 – Queen's Lancashire Regiment) Guardians of the Law (English dragoons in Scotland) (Nuneaton Museum and Art Gallery) The Scouts (A patrol of the 10th Light Dragoons, Peninsular War) (1905 – HorsePower: The Museum of the King's Royal Hussars) Ambushed (English cavalry on road, 18th century) (1907 – Sunderland Art Gallery) Britain's Watchdogs, 1805 (Napoleon with officers on coast) (1909 – Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield) The First Fight for Independence, Lexington Common, April 19, 1775 (1910 – National Army Museum) The Flag, Albuera, May 16, 1811 (1912 – National Army Museum) Landrecies, 25 August 1914 (1915 – National Army Museum Defeat of the Prussian Guard, Ypres, 1914 (1915 – Royal Green Jackets) The Canadians at Ypres (1915 – Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Calgary) The London Territorials at Pozieres (1917 – National Army Museum A Canadian Battalion capturing a German Trench at Vimy (1917 – Royal Canadian Military Institute) Semper Fidelis: The last stand of the 2nd Devons at Bois des Buttes, May 27, 1918 (1920 – Devon and Dorset Regiment) Gallery "The Flag Battle of Albuera, Albuera, May 16, 1811" "The Battle of Abu Klea" "Coldstream Guards on parade in ceremonial uniform" "Coldstream Guards in France, 1914" "The Charge of the CIV's and Coldstreams at the Battle of Diamond Hill" Written works Wollen, W.B., "Christmas at the Front: A reminiscence of Christmas at Modder River," Cassell's Magazine, Dec. 1900 – May 1901, pp. 112–115. Notes ^ Formerly Buffs Regimental Museum, City Art Gallery, Canterbury. References ^ "William Barnes Wollen ( 1857 - 1936) Archives". Antique Print Map Room. Retrieved 14 December 2023. ^ "Military Prints by William B Wollen". www.military-prints.com. Retrieved 14 December 2023. Bibliography Harrington, Peter. (1993). British Artists and War: The Face of Battle in Paintings and Prints, 1700–1914. London: Greenhill. "War Pictures. How they are painted," The Regiment, 15 February 1902, pp. 308–309. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to William Barnes Wollen. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Belgium United States Australia Poland 2 Artists New Zealand Artists Musée d'Orsay RKD Artists ULAN People Trove Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_Painters_in_Water_Colours"},{"link_name":"ROI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_Oil_Painters"},{"link_name":"painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"William Barnes Wollen RI ROI (6 October 1857 – 28 March 1936) was an English painter mostly known for his paintings of battle and historical scenes and sporting events.[1]","title":"William Barnes Wollen"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Leipzig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leipzig"},{"link_name":"University College School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_College_School"},{"link_name":"Slade School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slade_School"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy"},{"link_name":"National Watercolour Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Watercolor_Society"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy"},{"link_name":"Garnet J. Wolseley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garnet_J._Wolseley"},{"link_name":"storming of the Motee Mahail, Lucknow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Lucknow"},{"link_name":"Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Institute_of_Painters_in_Water_Colours"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2nd_Ox_%26_Bucks,_Nonne_Bosschen,_defeating_the_Prussian_Guard_1914_by_W.B._Wollen.jpeg"},{"link_name":"The Sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sphere_(newspaper)"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Boer War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Boer_War"},{"link_name":"South Lancashire Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Lancashire_Regiment"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wollen,_Battle_of_Quatre_Bras.jpg"},{"link_name":"Black Watch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Watch"},{"link_name":"Quatre Bras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Quatre_Bras"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Last_Stand,_by_William_Barnes_Wollen_(1898).jpg"},{"link_name":"The last stand of the survivors of Her Majesty's 44th Foot at Gandamak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_last_stand_of_the_survivors_of_Her_Majesty%27s_44th_Foot_at_Gandamak"},{"link_name":"Camden Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camden_Square"},{"link_name":"Bedford Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedford_Park,_London"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"}],"text":"Born in Leipzig on 6 October 1857, he was educated at University College School in London from 1871 to 1873 and also at the Slade School. From 1879 until 1922, he exhibited pictures at the Royal Academy, National Watercolour Society and elsewhere.[2] His first picture exhibited at the Royal Academy was entitled \"Football\" but he followed this up with his first military painting in 1881 entitled \"The rescue of Private Andrews by Captain Garnet J. Wolseley, H.M. 90th L.I. at the storming of the Motee Mahail, Lucknow\". He was elected a member of the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours in 1888.\"Defeat of the Prussian Guard, Ypres, 1914\"In 1900, he was commissioned by the new illustrated weekly newspaper, The Sphere to act as one of its special artists in South Africa to cover the Boer War. His experiences during this war resulted in several paintings including \"The Imperial Light Horse at Waggon Hill, January 6, 1900\", \"The Victoria Cross\", and \"The 1st Battalion South Lancashire Regiment storming the Boer trenches at Pieter's Hill\". The artist also exhibited several scenes during and shortly after World War I depicting that conflict.\"The Black Watch (42nd Highlanders) at Bay, Quatre Bras\"\"The last stand of the survivors of Her Majesty's 44th Foot at Gandamak\"He lived in London during his career in Camden Square and Bedford Park, and died in London, on 28 March 1936 aged 78.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Army Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Army_Museum"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Black Watch Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Watch_Museum"},{"link_name":"Perth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perth,_Scotland"},{"link_name":"The Battle of the Roses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Battle_of_the_Roses"},{"link_name":"Twickenham Stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twickenham_Stadium"},{"link_name":"National Army 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Jackets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Green_Jackets"},{"link_name":"Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Patricia%27s_Canadian_Light_Infantry"},{"link_name":"Calgary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calgary"},{"link_name":"National Army Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Army_Museum"},{"link_name":"Royal Canadian Military Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Military_Institute"},{"link_name":"Devon and Dorset Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devon_and_Dorset_Regiment"}],"text":"News (Trooper, 1645) (National Army Museum)\nSergeant Ewart capturing the Eagle of the 45th (National War Museum, Edinburgh)\nThe Black Watch (42nd Highlanders_ at Bay, Quatre Bras (1894 – Black Watch Museum, Perth)\nThe Battle of the Roses (1895 – Twickenham Stadium)\nThe Battle of Abu Klea, 1885 (1896 – National Army Museum)\nCharge of the 6th Inniskilling Dragoons at the Battle of Tournay (1897 – Royal Dragoon Guards)\nThe Last Stand of the 44th Regiment at Gundamuck, 1842 (1898 – Essex Regiment Association, on loan National Army Museum\nThe 21st (Empress of India's) Lancers at Omdurman (1899 – Staff College, Camberley)\nThe Victoria Cross (Colesberg, South Africa, 1900) (1901 – Durban Art Museum)\nThe Imperial Light Horse at Elandslaagte (1902 – Light Horse Regiment Association, Johannesburg, on loan Africana Museum)\nThe 1st Battalion, South Lancashire Regiment storming the Boer Trenches at Pieter's Hill (1903 – Queen's Lancashire Regiment)\nGuardians of the Law (English dragoons in Scotland) (Nuneaton Museum and Art Gallery)\nThe Scouts (A patrol of the 10th Light Dragoons, Peninsular War) (1905 – HorsePower: The Museum of the King's Royal Hussars)\nAmbushed (English cavalry on road, 18th century) (1907 – Sunderland Art Gallery)\nBritain's Watchdogs, 1805 (Napoleon with officers on coast) (1909 – Mappin Art Gallery, Sheffield)\nThe First Fight for Independence, Lexington Common, April 19, 1775 (1910 – National Army Museum)\nThe Flag, Albuera, May 16, 1811 (1912 – National Army Museum[a])\nLandrecies, 25 August 1914 (1915 – National Army Museum\nDefeat of the Prussian Guard, Ypres, 1914 (1915 – Royal Green Jackets)\nThe Canadians at Ypres (1915 – Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry, Calgary)\nThe London Territorials at Pozieres (1917 – National Army Museum\nA Canadian Battalion capturing a German Trench at Vimy (1917 – Royal Canadian Military Institute)\nSemper Fidelis: The last stand of the 2nd Devons at Bois des Buttes, May 27, 1918 (1920 – Devon and Dorset Regiment)","title":"Paintings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Albuhera,_by_William_Barnes_Wollen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Albuera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Albuera"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Abu_Klea,_William_Barnes_Wollen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Abu Klea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Klea"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coldstream_Guards_by_W.B._Wollen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coldstream Guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldstream_Guards"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coldstream_Guards,_Western_Front,_1914_by_W._B._Wollen.jpg"},{"link_name":"Coldstream Guards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coldstream_Guards"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Coldstreams_Guards_at_Diamond_Hill.jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Diamond Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Diamond_Hill"}],"sub_title":"Gallery","text":"\"The Flag Battle of Albuera, Albuera, May 16, 1811\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"The Battle of Abu Klea\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"Coldstream Guards on parade in ceremonial uniform\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"Coldstream Guards in France, 1914\"\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\"The Charge of the CIV's and Coldstreams at the Battle of Diamond Hill\"","title":"Paintings"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Wollen, W.B., \"Christmas at the Front: A reminiscence of Christmas at Modder River,\" Cassell's Magazine, Dec. 1900 – May 1901, pp. 112–115.","title":"Written works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Buffs Regimental Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffs_Regimental_Museum"},{"link_name":"Canterbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canterbury"}],"text":"^ Formerly Buffs Regimental Museum, City Art Gallery, Canterbury.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Harrington, Peter. (1993). British Artists and War: The Face of Battle in Paintings and Prints, 1700–1914. London: Greenhill.\n\"War Pictures. How they are painted,\" The Regiment, 15 February 1902, pp. 308–309.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"\"Defeat of the Prussian Guard, Ypres, 1914\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/2nd_Ox_%26_Bucks%2C_Nonne_Bosschen%2C_defeating_the_Prussian_Guard_1914_by_W.B._Wollen.jpeg/220px-2nd_Ox_%26_Bucks%2C_Nonne_Bosschen%2C_defeating_the_Prussian_Guard_1914_by_W.B._Wollen.jpeg"},{"image_text":"\"The Black Watch (42nd Highlanders) at Bay, Quatre Bras\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Wollen%2C_Battle_of_Quatre_Bras.jpg/220px-Wollen%2C_Battle_of_Quatre_Bras.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"The last stand of the survivors of Her Majesty's 44th Foot at Gandamak\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/The_Last_Stand%2C_by_William_Barnes_Wollen_%281898%29.jpg/220px-The_Last_Stand%2C_by_William_Barnes_Wollen_%281898%29.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"William Barnes Wollen ( 1857 - 1936) Archives\". Antique Print Map Room. Retrieved 14 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://antiqueprintmaproom.com/biographies/william-barnes-wollen-1857-1936/","url_text":"\"William Barnes Wollen ( 1857 - 1936) Archives\""}]},{"reference":"\"Military Prints by William B Wollen\". www.military-prints.com. Retrieved 14 December 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.military-prints.com/william_b_wollen.htm","url_text":"\"Military Prints by William B Wollen\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22","external_links_name":"\"William Barnes Wollen\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22William+Barnes+Wollen%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://antiqueprintmaproom.com/biographies/william-barnes-wollen-1857-1936/","external_links_name":"\"William Barnes Wollen ( 1857 - 1936) Archives\""},{"Link":"https://www.military-prints.com/william_b_wollen.htm","external_links_name":"\"Military Prints by William B Wollen\""},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000067034900","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/6890153","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJcwFqCtC7D4C6jHY3rDv3","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1043029087","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14448571","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb99085244","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an36001192","external_links_name":"Australia"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810706860505606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810713135705606","external_links_name":"2"},{"Link":"https://findnzartists.org.nz/artist/18527/","external_links_name":"New Zealand Artists"},{"Link":"https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/ressources/repertoire-artistes-personnalites/121614","external_links_name":"Musée d'Orsay"},{"Link":"https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/85424","external_links_name":"RKD Artists"},{"Link":"https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500006646","external_links_name":"ULAN"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1179680","external_links_name":"Trove"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/17447931X","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Kirkpatrick_(East_India_Company_officer)	William Kirkpatrick (East India Company officer)	["1 Life","2 Works","3 Family","4 References","4.1 Works cited","5 External links"]	William KirkpatrickBorn1754Died22 August 1812Allegiance United KingdomService/branchEast India CompanyYears of service1771–1812RankMajor-General William Kirkpatrick (1754–1812) was an East India Company officer, diplomat and orientalist active in Colonial India during the period of Company rule. Life Calcutta military orphan school, converted in 1782 from a rum distillery by William Fitzpatrick of the Bengal fund He was the eldest son of Colonel James Kirkpatrick, Madras army, and grandson of James Kirkpatrick, M.D. the author. His father was in command of the troops at Fort Marlborough, Sumatra, in 1777, and returned home in 1779. He married Katherine, daughter of Alexander Monro, by whom he had three sons—William, George, in the Bombay civil service, and James Achilles. He died at Hollydale, Kent, in 1818, aged 89. William Kirkpatrick, the eldest son, became a cadet in 1771, was appointed ensign in the Bengal infantry on 17 January 1773, lieutenant 9 April 1777, captain 3 April 1781, and major 1 March 1794. He was Persian interpreter to Giles Stibbert, who was commander-in-chief in Bengal in 1777–9 and 1780–5, and prepared a Persian translation of the articles of war (printed 1782). Afterwards he was resident with Mahadji Scindia at Gwalior, and served on Lord Cornwallis's staff as Persian interpreter in the Third Anglo-Mysore War of 1790–1. In 1793, after disputes between Nepal and Tibet, a Chinese army crossed Tibet and took up position near Kathmandu. The Nepalese sought the support of the East India Company, Cornwallis offered to mediate, and Kirkpatrick was sent on a mission to meet the Nepal's envoys at Patna. They went on to Nayakote, where the rulers of Nepal held court, and the British officers of the mission were the first to visit what was then an unknown mountain country. In 1795 Kirkpatrick was appointed resident with the Nizam of Hyderabad, but in 1797 was invalided to the Cape, being replaced by his brother James Achilles Kirkpatrick. In Cape Town Kirkpatrick met Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who took him back to India with him as confidential military secretary. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel 12th native infantry 1 January 1798, lieutenant-colonel commandant 8th native infantry 30 June 1804, colonel 6th native infantry 25 April 1808, major-general 4 June 1811. In a despatch dated 10 January 1802, Wellesley declared himself indebted to Kirkpatrick for help against Tipu Sultan. Kirkpatrick was appointed one of the commissioners for the partition of Mysore after the fall of Seringapatam, for which he received a sum of ten thousand pagodas. In 1801 he was made resident at Pune, but left India later that year, in poor health. Kirkpatrick died on 22 August 1812, aged 58. He was survived by his ex-wife Maria, and his Indian lover Dhoolaury Bibi, both of whom received a substantial legacy in his will. Kirkpatrick suggested and promoted the Bengal Military Fund, and helped to select the India Library that went to the India Office. His knowledge of the subcontinent was praised by Richard Wellesley, but his brother Arthur Wellesley was less impressed with the Kirkpatrick family. Works Kirkpatrick wrote Grammar of the Hindoo Dialect and an Arabic and Persian Vocabulary (1782), published with East India Company support. He translated works from the Persian, and also published a translation of the Diary and Letters of Tippoo Sultaun (London, 1804), and an Account of the Mission to Nepaul in 1793 (London, 1811). Family Kirkpatrick married Maria Pawson, a member of the Yorkshire gentry, in September 1785 after a short courtship. She subsequently accompanied him back to India. Their relationship resulted in four children, but quickly became strained and fell apart. Maria returned to England with her children in 1788. From then on, Kirkpatrick attempted to keep in contact with her, but they grew increasingly distant and legally separated in 1797. The children were consequently put into the care of William's family, whereas Maria went back to India with her new lover. In contrast, Kirkpatrick had a much longer-lasting relationship with Dhoolaury Bibi, an Indian woman. They were together from before 1777 until his marriage with Maria in 1785, and resumed their affair when his wife left India in 1788. Kirkpatrick had four daughters with Maria: Clementina, who married Admiral Sir John Louis, 2nd Baronet; Barbara, who married Charles Buller, M.P.; Julia, who married Edward Strachey (1774–1832), son of Sir Henry Strachey, 1st Baronet, and was mother of Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Baronet; and Eliza, who died unmarried. In addition, he fathered two children with Dhoolaury Bibi who he legally acknowledged. Both were educated in England: Robert (*1777) Cecilia References ^ a b c d e f g h i Lee, Sidney, ed. (1892). "Kirkpatrick, William (1754-1812)" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 31. London: Smith, Elder & Co. ^ Dalrymple (2003), pp. 73, 186. ^ Carnduff, Brendan. "Kirkpatrick, William". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/15676. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ Dalrymple (2003), pp. 72–73. ^ Dalrymple (2003), pp. 186–187. ^ Dalrymple (2003), p. 186. Works cited Dalrymple, William (2003) . White Mughals: love and betrayal in eighteenth-century India. Flamingo (HarperCollins). ISBN 9780006550969. External links Attribution This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Lee, Sidney, ed. (1892). "Kirkpatrick, William (1754-1812)". Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 31. London: Smith, Elder & Co. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Italy Israel United States Netherlands People Trove Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"East India Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_India_Company"},{"link_name":"Colonial India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_India"},{"link_name":"Company rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_rule_in_India"}],"text":"William Kirkpatrick (1754–1812) was an East India Company officer, diplomat and orientalist active in Colonial India during the period of Company rule.","title":"William Kirkpatrick (East India Company officer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Levett%27s_distillery_later_the_Military_Orphan_School_Calcutta_by_William_Baillie.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sumatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumatra"},{"link_name":"James Achilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Achilles_Kirkpatrick"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Giles Stibbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giles_Stibbert"},{"link_name":"Mahadji Scindia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadji_Scindia"},{"link_name":"Gwalior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwalior"},{"link_name":"Lord Cornwallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Cornwallis"},{"link_name":"Third Anglo-Mysore War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_Anglo-Mysore_War"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Kathmandu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathmandu"},{"link_name":"Patna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patna"},{"link_name":"Nayakote","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nayakote&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Nizam of Hyderabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizam_of_Hyderabad"},{"link_name":"Cape Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Town"},{"link_name":"Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Wellesley,_1st_Marquess_Wellesley"},{"link_name":"Tipu Sultan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tipu_Sultan"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Mysore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore"},{"link_name":"Seringapatam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seringapatam"},{"link_name":"pagodas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagoda_(coin)"},{"link_name":"Pune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pune"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalrymple200373,_186-2"},{"link_name":"India Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India_Office"},{"link_name":"Arthur Wellesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Wellesley,_1st_Duke_of_Wellington"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"}],"text":"Calcutta military orphan school, converted in 1782 from a rum distillery by William Fitzpatrick of the Bengal fundHe was the eldest son of Colonel James Kirkpatrick, Madras army, and grandson of James Kirkpatrick, M.D. the author. His father was in command of the troops at Fort Marlborough, Sumatra, in 1777, and returned home in 1779. He married Katherine, daughter of Alexander Monro, by whom he had three sons—William, George, in the Bombay civil service, and James Achilles. He died at Hollydale, Kent, in 1818, aged 89.[1]William Kirkpatrick, the eldest son, became a cadet in 1771, was appointed ensign in the Bengal infantry on 17 January 1773, lieutenant 9 April 1777, captain 3 April 1781, and major 1 March 1794. He was Persian interpreter to Giles Stibbert, who was commander-in-chief in Bengal in 1777–9 and 1780–5, and prepared a Persian translation of the articles of war (printed 1782). Afterwards he was resident with Mahadji Scindia at Gwalior, and served on Lord Cornwallis's staff as Persian interpreter in the Third Anglo-Mysore War of 1790–1.[1]In 1793, after disputes between Nepal and Tibet, a Chinese army crossed Tibet and took up position near Kathmandu. The Nepalese sought the support of the East India Company, Cornwallis offered to mediate, and Kirkpatrick was sent on a mission to meet the Nepal's envoys at Patna. They went on to Nayakote, where the rulers of Nepal held court, and the British officers of the mission were the first to visit what was then an unknown mountain country.[1]In 1795 Kirkpatrick was appointed resident with the Nizam of Hyderabad, but in 1797 was invalided to the Cape, being replaced by his brother James Achilles Kirkpatrick. In Cape Town Kirkpatrick met Richard Wellesley, 1st Marquess Wellesley, who took him back to India with him as confidential military secretary. He was promoted lieutenant-colonel 12th native infantry 1 January 1798, lieutenant-colonel commandant 8th native infantry 30 June 1804, colonel 6th native infantry 25 April 1808, major-general 4 June 1811. In a despatch dated 10 January 1802, Wellesley declared himself indebted to Kirkpatrick for help against Tipu Sultan.[1]Kirkpatrick was appointed one of the commissioners for the partition of Mysore after the fall of Seringapatam, for which he received a sum of ten thousand pagodas. In 1801 he was made resident at Pune, but left India later that year, in poor health.[1]Kirkpatrick died on 22 August 1812, aged 58.[1] He was survived by his ex-wife Maria, and his Indian lover Dhoolaury Bibi, both of whom received a substantial legacy in his will.[2] Kirkpatrick suggested and promoted the Bengal Military Fund, and helped to select the India Library that went to the India Office. His knowledge of the subcontinent was praised by Richard Wellesley, but his brother Arthur Wellesley was less impressed with the Kirkpatrick family.[1]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"}],"text":"Kirkpatrick wrote Grammar of the Hindoo Dialect and an Arabic and Persian Vocabulary (1782), published with East India Company support.[3] He translated works from the Persian, and also published a translation of the Diary and Letters of Tippoo Sultaun (London, 1804), and an Account of the Mission to Nepaul in 1793 (London, 1811).[1]","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalrymple200372%E2%80%9373-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalrymple2003186%E2%80%93187-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNB-1"},{"link_name":"Sir John Louis, 2nd Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_John_Louis,_2nd_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Charles Buller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Buller"},{"link_name":"Sir Henry Strachey, 1st Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Henry_Strachey,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Baronet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Edward_Strachey,_3rd_Baronet"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalrymple2003186-6"}],"text":"Kirkpatrick married Maria Pawson, a member of the Yorkshire gentry, in September 1785 after a short courtship. She subsequently accompanied him back to India. Their relationship resulted in four children, but quickly became strained and fell apart. Maria returned to England with her children in 1788. From then on, Kirkpatrick attempted to keep in contact with her, but they grew increasingly distant and legally separated in 1797. The children were consequently put into the care of William's family, whereas Maria went back to India with her new lover.[4] In contrast, Kirkpatrick had a much longer-lasting relationship with Dhoolaury Bibi, an Indian woman. They were together from before 1777 until his marriage with Maria in 1785, and resumed their affair when his wife left India in 1788.[5]Kirkpatrick had four daughters with Maria:[1]Clementina, who married Admiral Sir John Louis, 2nd Baronet;\nBarbara, who married Charles Buller, M.P.;\nJulia, who married Edward Strachey (1774–1832), son of Sir Henry Strachey, 1st Baronet, and was mother of Sir Edward Strachey, 3rd Baronet; and\nEliza, who died unmarried.In addition, he fathered two children with Dhoolaury Bibi who he legally acknowledged. Both were educated in England:[6]Robert (*1777)\nCecilia","title":"Family"}]	[{"image_text":"Calcutta military orphan school, converted in 1782 from a rum distillery by William Fitzpatrick of the Bengal fund","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Levett%27s_distillery_later_the_Military_Orphan_School_Calcutta_by_William_Baillie.jpg/220px-Levett%27s_distillery_later_the_Military_Orphan_School_Calcutta_by_William_Baillie.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Lee, Sidney, ed. (1892). \"Kirkpatrick, William (1754-1812)\" . Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 31. London: Smith, Elder & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Lee","url_text":"Lee, Sidney"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography,_1885-1900/Kirkpatrick,_William_(1754-1812)","url_text":"\"Kirkpatrick, William (1754-1812)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Carnduff, Brendan. \"Kirkpatrick, William\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/15676.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F15676","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/15676"}]},{"reference":"Dalrymple, William (2003) [1st pub. 2002]. White Mughals: love and betrayal in eighteenth-century India. Flamingo (HarperCollins). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/463d_Troop_Carrier_Wing	463rd Airlift Group	["1 Mission","2 Units","3 History","3.1 Cold War","3.2 Post Cold War","4 Lineage","4.1 Assignments","4.2 Components","4.3 Stations","4.4 Aircraft","5 See also","6 References","6.1 Citations","6.2 Bibliography","7 External links"]	This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (July 2022) 463rd Airlift GroupA U.S. Air Force C-130 Hercules from Little Rock, Air Force Base, Ark., lands at McChord Air Force Base, Wash., for Rodeo 2007 on 21 July 2007Active1953–1971; 1972–1993; 1997–2008Country United StatesBranch United States Air ForceRoleAirliftPart ofAir Mobility CommandEngagementsOperation Urgent Fury (Grenada)Operation Just Cause (Panama)Decorations Air Force Outstanding Unit Award with Combat "V" Device (3x) Air Force Outstanding Unit Award (10x) Republic of Vietnam Gallantry Cross with Palm InsigniaEmblem of the 463rd Airlift Group (Approved 30 August 1954)Military unit The United States Air Force's 463rd Airlift Group was a theater airlift unit last stationed at Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas. It was inactivated on October 1, 2008. Mission The 463rd was a unit with over 1,200 Airmen. The unit employed 30 C-130 aircraft that perform airlift missions worldwide. It provided direct support to warfighting combatant commanders with theater combat aerial delivery of personnel and their resupply worldwide. Units The unit comprised eight squadrons: five flying, two maintenance, and one support. 30th Airlift Squadron (C-130H) Cheyenne Regional Airport (Associate Unit) 41st Airlift Squadron (C-130J) "Black Cats" (Silver tail Stripe) 50th Airlift Squadron (C-130H) "Red Devils" (Red tail Stripe) 53rd Airlift Squadron (C-130E) "Blackjacks" (Gold tail Stripe) 61st Airlift Squadron (C-130E) "Green Hornets" (Green tail Stripe) 463rd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron 463rd Maintenance Squadron 463rd Operations Support Squadron History When active, the 463rd Airlift Group is entitled to display the awards earned by the 463rd Bombardment Group prior to 16 January 1953, unless that group is assigned to another headquarters. Cold War Two C-130 Hercules aircraft of the 463rd get airborne as the remaining 16 aircraft wait on the runway during a Minimum Interval Takeoff at the start of a mass airdrop exercise at Dyess The group was first constituted as the 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium and activated at Memphis Airport, Tennessee, on 16 January 1953, when it assumed the mission, equipment and personnel of the 516th Troop Carrier Wing, a reserve unit called to active duty for the Korean War, which was simultaneously inactivated. Assigned to Tactical Air Command (TAC) and equipped with Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars. On 1 September, the wing moved to Ardmore Air Force Base, Oklahoma. In December 1957, it began replacing its C-119s with the new Lockheed C-130A Hercules turboprop transport. In 1959 Ardmore closed and the 463rd transferred to Sewart Air Force Base, Tennessee, to join the 314th TCW, making Sewart the only US C-130 troop carrier base. The wing moved again in 1964, this time to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, where it replaced a TAC refueling wing that was being discontinued. The 463rd airlifted and airdropped troops and cargo to support operations and exercises worldwide, supporting deployments during the following crises: Lebanon (July 1958), Taiwan (August 1958), Berlin (September 1961), Cuba (October–November 1962), the Gulf of Tonkin (August–December 1964), Southeast Asia (February and April–November 1965), and the Dominican Republic (April–September 1965). The wing moved to Pacific Air Forces in November 1965 and was assigned to the 315th Air Division. Wing headquarters was at Mactan Air Base in Mactan Island in the Philippines and two squadrons were based at Clark until November 1968 when the wing and the two Mactan squadrons transferred to Clark. In PACAF, the wing initially provided airlift in Thailand then provided airplanes and crews to a 315th Air Division detachment at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam. In December 1965, began furnishing aircraft and crews to fly missions in Southeast Asia. The Tan Son Nhut operation was part of 315th Air Division until October 1966 when 834th Air Division activated. The 463rd was one of three C-130 wings that provided airplanes and crews to 834th Air Division detachments. In the spring of 1969 the 463rd detachment transferred from Tan Son Nhut to Cam Ranh Air Base, where it remained until the wing ceased aircraft operations in Southeast Asia on 25 October 1971. Redesignated as the 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing in August 1967. On 31 December 1971 the 463rd was inactivated. Reactivated at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, in June 1972, the 463rd began participating in operations and exercises worldwide for TAC. In 1974, all tactical airlift was transferred to Military Airlift Command, then to Air Mobility Command (AMC) in 1992 when MAC was inactivated. The wing's tactical components deployed frequently to Europe, the Pacific, and the Canal Zone to provide air transportation as needed. On 1 November 1991, the wing implemented the Objective Wing organization and was redesignated as the 463rd Airlift Wing. Post Cold War The wing was inactivated on 1 October 1993 and most of its personnel and equipment was absorbed by the incoming 7th Wing at Dyess. The 7th was a composite wing which incorporated Dyess' C-130s, which were transferred from Air Mobility Command to Air Combat Command (ACC). When the US-based C-130 force was realigned in 1997 from ACC back to AMC, the 314th Airlift Wing at Little Rock Air Force Base was split into two pieces. The wing and training units went to Air Education and Training Command. AMC reactivated the 463rd as the 463rd Airlift Group on 1 April 1997 to control the two operational C-130 squadrons. From Little Rock, the 463rd provided worldwide airlift, delivering combat, humanitarian, and other supplies. On 1 October 2008, the 463rd Airlift Group was inactivated and its personnel and equipment transferred to the 19th Airlift Wing. Lineage Established as the 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium on 1 December 1952. Activated on 16 January 1953 Redesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Assault on 1 October 1962 Redesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium on 15 May 1965 Redesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing on 8 December 1965 Redesignated 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 August 1967 Inactivated on 31 December 1971 Activated on 1 June 1972 Redesignated 463rd Airlift Wing on 1 November 1991 Inactivated on 1 October 1993 Redesignated 463rd Airlift Group on 31 March 1997 Activated 1 April 1997 Inactivated on 1 October 2008 Assignments Eighteenth Air Force, 16 January 1953 Ninth Air Force, 1 September 1957 838th Air Division, 25 September 1957 839th Air Division, 15 January 1959 838th Air Division, 1 October 1963 840th Air Division, 9 November 1964 315th Air Division (Combat Cargo), 23 November 1965 6th Air Division, 1 November 1968 Thirteenth Air Force, 15 December 1969 – 31 December 1971 834th Air Division, 1 June 1972 Twenty-Second Air Force, 31 December 1974 Fifteenth Air Force, 1 July – 1 October 1993 Twenty-First Air Force, 1 April 1997 Eighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003 – 1 October 2008 Components Wings 456th Troop Carrier: attached 10 March – 9 July 1956 (not operational). Groups 309th Troop Carrier Group: attached 8 July 1955 – c. 21 May 1956 419th Troop Carrier Group: attached 9 July 1956 – 25 September 1957 463rd Troop Carrier Group (later 463rd Operations Group): 16 January 1953 – 25 September 1957; 1 November 1991 – 1 October 1993 Squadrons 16th Troop Carrier Squadron: attached 14 November 1954 – 8 July 1955 18th Tactical Airlift Training: 1 June – 31 August 1972 (not operational, 25–31 August 1972) 20th Operations: 17 February 1970 – 31 December 1971 29th Troop Carrier (later, 29 Tactical Airlift) Squadron: attached 30 January – 24 March 1966, assigned 25 March 1966 – 31 October 1970 (not operational 1 July – 31 October 1970) 47th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 6 July – 1 August 1973 50th Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008 61st Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008 360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 24 November 1972 – 1 July 1973 (not operational) 772nd Bombardment Squadron (later 772nd Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 23 November 1965; 7 February 1966 – 15 June 1971 (not operational 1–15 June 1971); 1 June 1972 – 1 November 1991 (detached 9 July – 15 September 1972; 10 November 1972 – 10 January 1973; 6 May – 4 June 1973; 5 February – 8 April 1974; 5 January – 15 March 1975; 30 November 1975 – 15 January 1976; 3 August – 15 October 1976; 3 November 1977 – 7 January 1978; 3 April – 5 June 1979; 3 August – 5 October 1980; 3 December 1981 – 13 February 1982; 4 April – 7 June 1983; 10 October – 7 December 1985; 5 June – 12 August 1987; 1 August – 13 October 1988; 1 October – 14 December 1989) 773rd Troop Carrier Squadron (later 773rd Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 31 October 1971 (detached 15 November 1954 – 19 May 1955 and 3 January – 6 March 1961; not operational 15–31 October 1971); 1 June 1972 – 1 November 1991 (detached 1 June – 8 July 1972; 16 September – 16 November 1972; 23 February – 12 May 1973; 3 July – 16 September 1973; 5 May – 17 July 1974; 3 May – 16 July 1975; 3 February – 9 April 1976; 7 November 1976 – 15 January 1977; 3 August – 5 October 1977; 19 September – 1 December 1978; 3 February – 5 April 1980; 3 June – 14 August 1981; 3 October – 7 December 1982; 8 February – 10 April 1984; 6 April – 4 June 1985; 9 December 1986 – 3 February 1987; 1 February – 16 April 1988; 1 April – 14 June 1989; 2 June – 14 August 1990). 774th Troop Carrier Squadron (later 774th Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 31 December 1971 (detached 21 March – 19 June 1961; not operational 26 December 1962 – 1 April 1963); 1 August 1973 – 1 October 1986 (detached 3 October – 16 December 1973; 3 September – 16 November 1974; 4 August – 15 October 1975; 3 May – 7 July 1976; 3 June – 5 August 1977; 3 March – 5 May 1978; 28 September – 5 December 1979; 3 February – 7 April 1981; 5 April – 15 June 1982; 4 August – 10 October 1983; 5 June – 4 August 1984; 3 December 1984 – 9 February 1985; 5 April – 12 June 1986) Troop Carrier Squadron Provisional, 4480th: attached 3 January – 1 April 1963 6485th Operations: 1 September – 1 December 1968 Stations Memphis Municipal Airport, Tennessee, 16 January 1953 Ardmore Air Force Base, Oklahoma, 1 September 1953 Sewart Air Force Base, Tennessee, 15 January 1959 Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, 1 July 1963 – 22 November 1965 Mactan Island Airfield, Philippines, 23 November 1965 Clark Air Base, Luzon, Philippines, 15 July 1968 – 31 December 1971 Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, 1 June 1972 – 1 October 1993 Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas, 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008 Aircraft Curtiss C-46 Commando (1953) Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar (1953–1957) Chase C-122A Avitruc (1955) (YC-122, 1954–1955) Fairchild C-123B Provider (1955–1957) Lockheed C-130 Hercules C-130A (1956–1959) C-130B (1959–1971) C-130E (1972–1975, 1997–2008) C-130H (1975–1993, 1997–2008) Douglas C-124C Globemaster II (1970–1971) Douglas C-118A Liftmaster (1968, 1970–1971) DeHavilland Canada C-7A Caribou (1972) See also List of Lockheed C-130 Hercules operators References Citations ^ a b Bailey, Carl E. (28 December 2007). "Factsheet 463 Airlift Group (AMC)". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 9 September 2015. ^ a b c d e f Lineage, including assignments, components, stations and aircraft through 2007 in Bailey, Factsheet 463 Airlift Group except as indicated Bibliography This article incorporates public domain material from the Air Force Historical Research Agency Endicott, Judy G. (1998). Active Air Force Wings as of 1 October 1995 and USAF Active Flying, Space, and Missile Squadrons as of 1 October 1995 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ASIN B000113MB2. Retrieved 2 July 2014. Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1983) . Air Force Combat Units of World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-02-1. LCCN 61060979. Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982) . Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-405-12194-6. LCCN 70605402. OCLC 72556. Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-12-9. Rogers, Brian. (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publications. ISBN 1-85780-197-0. External links Little Rock AFB Official Website Joe's USAF Blue Book 463rd Bomb Group Historical Society Website "C-130 Dyess timeline". Abilene Reporter News. 23 April 2011. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2014. vte Air Mobility CommandNumbered Air Forces Eighteenth (Transportation) CommandOrganizations 618th Air and Space Operations Center (Tanker Airlift Control Center) USAF Expeditionary Center Special Air Mission Bases Andrews Charleston Dover Dyess Fairchild Hickam Little Rock MacDill McChord McConnell McGuire Pope Ramstein Scott Travis Group 43d Air Mobility Operations 317th Airlift Group WingsAir Base 87th 628th Air Mobility 60th 305th 375th Air Refueling (Tanker) 6th 22d 92d Airlift 19th 62d 89th 436th 437th Air Mobility Operations 515th 521st Contingency Response 621st vteUnited States Air ForceLeadership Department of the Air Force Secretary of the Air Force Under Secretary of the Air Force Air Staff Chief of Staff Vice Chief of Staff Director of Staff Chief Master Sergeant of the Air Force Four-star generals Three-star generals 1940–1959 2000–2009 2010–2019 2020–present House Armed Services Committee House Subcommittee on Tactical Air and Land Forces House Armed Services Subcommittee on Strategic Forces Senate Committee on Armed Services Senate Subcommittee on Airland Senate Armed Services Subcommittee on Strategic Forces StructureCommands Reserve Air National Guard Field Operating Agencies Installations Direct Reporting Units District of Washington Operational Test and Evaluation Center USAF Academy Major commands ACC AETC AFGSC AFMC AFRC AFSOC AMC PACAF USAFE–AFAFRICA Numbered Air Forces First Second Third Fourth Fifth Seventh Eighth Ninth Tenth Eleventh Twelfth Thirteenth Expeditionary Fifteenth Sixteenth Eighteenth Nineteenth Twentieth Twenty-Second Wings ANG Groups ANG Squadrons ANG Security Forces Civilian auxiliary: Civil Air Patrol Personnel and training Personnel Rank officers cadets enlisted Specialty Code Aeronautical ratings Judge Advocate General's Corps RED HORSE Security Forces Medical Service Chief of Chaplains Chief Scientist Training: Air Force Academy Officer Training School Reserve Officer Training Corps Basic Training Airman Leadership School SERE Fitness Assessment Uniforms and equipment Awards and decorations Badges Equipment Aircraft Uniforms History and traditions History Aeronautical Division / Aviation Section / Division of Military Aeronautics / Army Air Service / Army Air Corps / Army Air Forces "The U.S. Air Force" Air Force Band Airman's Creed Core Values Flag Symbol Memorial National Museum Women Airforce Service Pilots Air Force One / Air Force Two Honor Guard Thunderbirds Service numbers Air & Space Forces Association Category vte Military Airlift Command (MAC)Air Forces Twenty-First Twenty-Second Twenty-Third Air DivisionsNamed Units 2d 76th 322d 834th Air Weather Service Aerospace Rescue and Recovery Service Special Air Mission Air Photographic Service Aeromedical Transport WingsMAW 60th 62d 63d 436th 437th 438th 443d TAW 314th 316th 317th 433d 463d Bases Altus AFB Andrews AFB Charleston AFB Dover AFB Dyess AFB Hurlburt Field Kelly AFB Langley AFB Little Rock AFB McChord AFB McGuire AFB Norton AFB Pope AFB Scott AFB Sewart AFB Travis AFB Aircraft C-5 Galaxy C-9 Nightingale C-47 Skytrain C-54 Skymaster C-119 Flying Boxcar C-121 Constellation C-130 Hercules C-133 Cargomaster C-135 Stratolifter C-141 Starlifter VC-25 vte Pacific Air ForcesAir Forces Fifth Seventh (Air Forces Korea) Eleventh Thirteenth Expeditionary Bases Andersen Eielson Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson (Elmendorf Air Force Base) Joint Base Pearl Harbor–Hickam (Hickam Air Force Base) Kadena Kunsan Misawa Osan Yokota Wings 3rd 8th Fighter 15th 18th 35th Fighter 36th 51st Fighter 354th Fighter 374th Airlift vte Tactical Air Command (TAC)Air Forces First Ninth Twelfth Eighteenth Nineteenth Air Divisions 20th (ADTAC) 21st (ADTAC) 23d (ADTAC) 24th (ADTAC) 25th (ADTAC) 26th (ADTAC) 28th (ADTAC) 831st 832d 833d 834th 835th 836th 837th 838th 839th 840th Named units Air Forces Panama Air Forces Iceland Air Defense, Tactical Air Command WingsTFW 1st 4th 12th 15th 20th 23d 27th 32d 33d 37th 50th 56th 312th 323d 347th 354th 355th Other 1st SOW 57th FWW 63d TAW 64th TAW 67th TRW 75th TRW 85th TFTW 317th TAW 363d TRW 405th TFTW 461st TBW 4505th ARW FormerbasesActive(MAJCOM) Altus (AETC) Brooks (AFMC) Cannon (AFSOC) Charleston (AMC) Creech (ACC) Davis–Monthan (ACC) Dover (AMC) Dyess (ACC) Eglin (AFMC) Hill (AMFC) Holloman (ACC) Hurlburt Field (AFSOC) Langley (ACC) Little Rock (AETC) Luke (AETC) MacDill (AMC) McChord (AMC) McConnell (AMC) Moody (ACC) Mountain Home (ACC) Nellis (ACC) Pope (AMC) Seymour Johnson (ACC) Shaw (ACC) Tonopah (ACC) Tyndall (AETC) Whiteman (ACC) Inactive Bergstrom Blythville Donaldson England Forbes George Howard Grenier Myrtle Beach Orlando Sewart Turner Williams Inactive,but with a military presence Bunker Hill Biggs Dow Godman Homestead Lockbourne March Otis Aircraft A-1 A-7 A-10 A-37 AC-47 AC-119 AC-130 B-26 B-57 B-66 C-7 C-47 C-82 C-119 C-123 C-130 E-3 E-8 EF-111 EC-135 F-4 F-5 F-15 F-16 F-47 F-51 F-80 F-82 F-84 F-86 F-89 F-100 F-101 F-102 F-104 F-105 F-106 F-111 F-117 H-1 H-5 H-6 H-19 H-43 H-60 H-53 KB-29 KB-50 KC-97 O-1 O-2 OH-23 OV-10 P-40 P-38 R-4 S-62 T-6 T-28 T-29 T-33 T-38 United States Air Force In South Vietnam Air Bases Bien Hoa Binh Thuy Cam Ranh Da Nang Nha Trang Phù Cát Pleiku Phan Rang Tan Son Nhut Tuy Hoa Wings 3d TFW 12th TFW 14th ACW/SOW 31st TFW 35th TFW 37th TFW 315th TAW 366th TFW 377th ABW	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"airlift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airlift"},{"link_name":"Little Rock Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Air_Force_Base"}],"text":"Military unitThe United States Air Force's 463rd Airlift Group was a theater airlift unit last stationed at Little Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas. It was inactivated on October 1, 2008.","title":"463rd Airlift Group"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The 463rd was a unit with over 1,200 Airmen. The unit employed 30 C-130 aircraft that perform airlift missions worldwide. It provided direct support to warfighting combatant commanders with theater combat aerial delivery of personnel and their resupply worldwide.","title":"Mission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"30th Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30th_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"Cheyenne Regional Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheyenne_Regional_Airport"},{"link_name":"41st Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/41st_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"50th Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"53rd Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/53rd_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"61st Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61st_Airlift_Squadron"}],"text":"The unit comprised eight squadrons: five flying, two maintenance, and one support.30th Airlift Squadron (C-130H) Cheyenne Regional Airport (Associate Unit)\n41st Airlift Squadron (C-130J) \"Black Cats\" (Silver tail Stripe)\n50th Airlift Squadron (C-130H) \"Red Devils\" (Red tail Stripe)\n53rd Airlift Squadron (C-130E) \"Blackjacks\" (Gold tail Stripe)\n61st Airlift Squadron (C-130E) \"Green Hornets\" (Green tail Stripe)\n463rd Aircraft Maintenance Squadron\n463rd Maintenance Squadron\n463rd Operations Support Squadron","title":"Units"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"463rd Bombardment Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/463rd_Operations_Group"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts-1"}],"text":"When active, the 463rd Airlift Group is entitled to display the awards earned by the 463rd Bombardment Group prior to 16 January 1953, unless that group is assigned to another headquarters.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C-130_Hercules,_463rd_Tactical_Airlifift_Wing_for_a_mass_airdrop_exercise._Dyess_Air_Force_Base.jpg"},{"link_name":"Minimum Interval Takeoff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimum_Interval_Takeoff"},{"link_name":"Memphis Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"516th Troop Carrier Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/516th_Troop_Carrier_Wing"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War"},{"link_name":"Tactical Air Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_C-119_Flying_Boxcar"},{"link_name":"Ardmore Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardmore_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Lockheed C-130A Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_C-130A_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Sewart Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sewart_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Langley Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebanon"},{"link_name":"Taiwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taiwan"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"Gulf of Tonkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_of_Tonkin"},{"link_name":"Dominican Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic"},{"link_name":"Pacific Air Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Air_Forces"},{"link_name":"315th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/315th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"Tan Son Nhut Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tan_Son_Nhut_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Cam Ranh Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cam_Ranh_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Dyess Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyess_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Military Airlift Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Airlift_Command"},{"link_name":"Air Mobility Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Mobility_Command"}],"sub_title":"Cold War","text":"Two C-130 Hercules aircraft of the 463rd get airborne as the remaining 16 aircraft wait on the runway during a Minimum Interval Takeoff at the start of a mass airdrop exercise at DyessThe group was first constituted as the 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium and activated at Memphis Airport, Tennessee, on 16 January 1953, when it assumed the mission, equipment and personnel of the 516th Troop Carrier Wing, a reserve unit called to active duty for the Korean War, which was simultaneously inactivated. Assigned to Tactical Air Command (TAC) and equipped with Fairchild C-119 Flying Boxcars. On 1 September, the wing moved to Ardmore Air Force Base, Oklahoma. In December 1957, it began replacing its C-119s with the new Lockheed C-130A Hercules turboprop transport. In 1959 Ardmore closed and the 463rd transferred to Sewart Air Force Base, Tennessee, to join the 314th TCW, making Sewart the only US C-130 troop carrier base. The wing moved again in 1964, this time to Langley Air Force Base, Virginia, where it replaced a TAC refueling wing that was being discontinued.The 463rd airlifted and airdropped troops and cargo to support operations and exercises worldwide, supporting deployments during the following crises: Lebanon (July 1958), Taiwan (August 1958), Berlin (September 1961), Cuba (October–November 1962), the Gulf of Tonkin (August–December 1964), Southeast Asia (February and April–November 1965), and the Dominican Republic (April–September 1965).The wing moved to Pacific Air Forces in November 1965 and was assigned to the 315th Air Division. Wing headquarters was at Mactan Air Base in Mactan Island in the Philippines and two squadrons were based at Clark until November 1968 when the wing and the two Mactan squadrons transferred to Clark. In PACAF, the wing initially provided airlift in Thailand then provided airplanes and crews to a 315th Air Division detachment at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, South Vietnam. In December 1965, began furnishing aircraft and crews to fly missions in Southeast Asia. The Tan Son Nhut operation was part of 315th Air Division until October 1966 when 834th Air Division activated. The 463rd was one of three C-130 wings that provided airplanes and crews to 834th Air Division detachments. In the spring of 1969 the 463rd detachment transferred from Tan Son Nhut to Cam Ranh Air Base, where it remained until the wing ceased aircraft operations in Southeast Asia on 25 October 1971. Redesignated as the 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing in August 1967. On 31 December 1971 the 463rd was inactivated.Reactivated at Dyess Air Force Base, Texas, in June 1972, the 463rd began participating in operations and exercises worldwide for TAC. In 1974, all tactical airlift was transferred to Military Airlift Command, then to Air Mobility Command (AMC) in 1992 when MAC was inactivated. The wing's tactical components deployed frequently to Europe, the Pacific, and the Canal Zone to provide air transportation as needed. On 1 November 1991, the wing implemented the Objective Wing organization and was redesignated as the 463rd Airlift Wing.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"7th Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7th_Wing"},{"link_name":"Air Combat Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Combat_Command"},{"link_name":"314th Airlift Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/314th_Airlift_Wing"},{"link_name":"Little Rock Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Rock_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Air Education and Training Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Education_and_Training_Command"},{"link_name":"19th Airlift Wing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/19th_Airlift_Wing"}],"sub_title":"Post Cold War","text":"The wing was inactivated on 1 October 1993 and most of its personnel and equipment was absorbed by the incoming 7th Wing at Dyess. The 7th was a composite wing which incorporated Dyess' C-130s, which were transferred from Air Mobility Command to Air Combat Command (ACC).When the US-based C-130 force was realigned in 1997 from ACC back to AMC, the 314th Airlift Wing at Little Rock Air Force Base was split into two pieces. The wing and training units went to Air Education and Training Command. AMC reactivated the 463rd as the 463rd Airlift Group on 1 April 1997 to control the two operational C-130 squadrons.From Little Rock, the 463rd provided worldwide airlift, delivering combat, humanitarian, and other supplies. On 1 October 2008, the 463rd Airlift Group was inactivated and its personnel and equipment transferred to the 19th Airlift Wing.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"}],"text":"Established as the 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium on 1 December 1952.Activated on 16 January 1953\nRedesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Assault on 1 October 1962\nRedesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing, Medium on 15 May 1965\nRedesignated 463rd Troop Carrier Wing on 8 December 1965\nRedesignated 463rd Tactical Airlift Wing on 1 August 1967\nInactivated on 31 December 1971Activated on 1 June 1972Redesignated 463rd Airlift Wing on 1 November 1991\nInactivated on 1 October 1993Redesignated 463rd Airlift Group on 31 March 1997Activated 1 April 1997[2]\nInactivated on 1 October 2008","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eighteenth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighteenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Ninth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"838th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/838th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"839th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/839th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"840th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/840th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"6th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"Thirteenth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirteenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"834th Air Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/834th_Air_Division"},{"link_name":"Twenty-Second Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-Second_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Fifteenth Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifteenth_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Twenty-First Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twenty-First_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"}],"sub_title":"Assignments","text":"Eighteenth Air Force, 16 January 1953\nNinth Air Force, 1 September 1957\n838th Air Division, 25 September 1957\n839th Air Division, 15 January 1959\n838th Air Division, 1 October 1963\n840th Air Division, 9 November 1964\n315th Air Division (Combat Cargo), 23 November 1965\n6th Air Division, 1 November 1968\nThirteenth Air Force, 15 December 1969 – 31 December 1971\n\n\n834th Air Division, 1 June 1972\nTwenty-Second Air Force, 31 December 1974\nFifteenth Air Force, 1 July – 1 October 1993\nTwenty-First Air Force, 1 April 1997\nEighteenth Air Force, 1 October 2003 – 1 October 2008[2]","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"309th Troop Carrier Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/309th_Troop_Carrier_Group"},{"link_name":"419th Troop Carrier Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/419th_Operations_Group"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"},{"link_name":"16th Troop Carrier Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"29th Troop Carrier (later, 29 Tactical Airlift) Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/29th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"47th Tactical Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/47th_Tactical_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"50th Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/50th_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"61st Airlift Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61st_Airlift_Squadron"},{"link_name":"360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/360th_Tactical_Electronic_Warfare_Squadron"},{"link_name":"772nd Bombardment Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/772nd_Bombardment_Squadron"},{"link_name":"773rd Troop Carrier Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=773rd_Troop_Carrier_Squadron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"774th Troop Carrier Squadron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/774th_Troop_Carrier_Squadron"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"}],"sub_title":"Components","text":"Wings456th Troop Carrier: attached 10 March – 9 July 1956 (not operational).Groups309th Troop Carrier Group: attached 8 July 1955 – c. 21 May 1956\n419th Troop Carrier Group: attached 9 July 1956 – 25 September 1957\n463rd Troop Carrier Group (later 463rd Operations Group): 16 January 1953 – 25 September 1957; 1 November 1991 – 1 October 1993[2]Squadrons16th Troop Carrier Squadron: attached 14 November 1954 – 8 July 1955\n18th Tactical Airlift Training: 1 June – 31 August 1972 (not operational, 25–31 August 1972)\n20th Operations: 17 February 1970 – 31 December 1971\n29th Troop Carrier (later, 29 Tactical Airlift) Squadron: attached 30 January – 24 March 1966, assigned 25 March 1966 – 31 October 1970 (not operational 1 July – 31 October 1970)\n47th Tactical Airlift Squadron: 6 July – 1 August 1973\n50th Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008\n61st Airlift Squadron: 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008\n360th Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron: 24 November 1972 – 1 July 1973 (not operational)\n772nd Bombardment Squadron (later 772nd Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 23 November 1965; 7 February 1966 – 15 June 1971 (not operational 1–15 June 1971); 1 June 1972 – 1 November 1991 (detached 9 July – 15 September 1972; 10 November 1972 – 10 January 1973; 6 May – 4 June 1973; 5 February – 8 April 1974; 5 January – 15 March 1975; 30 November 1975 – 15 January 1976; 3 August – 15 October 1976; 3 November 1977 – 7 January 1978; 3 April – 5 June 1979; 3 August – 5 October 1980; 3 December 1981 – 13 February 1982; 4 April – 7 June 1983; 10 October – 7 December 1985; 5 June – 12 August 1987; 1 August – 13 October 1988; 1 October – 14 December 1989)\n773rd Troop Carrier Squadron (later 773rd Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 31 October 1971 (detached 15 November 1954 – 19 May 1955 and 3 January – 6 March 1961; not operational 15–31 October 1971); 1 June 1972 – 1 November 1991 (detached 1 June – 8 July 1972; 16 September – 16 November 1972; 23 February – 12 May 1973; 3 July – 16 September 1973; 5 May – 17 July 1974; 3 May – 16 July 1975; 3 February – 9 April 1976; 7 November 1976 – 15 January 1977; 3 August – 5 October 1977; 19 September – 1 December 1978; 3 February – 5 April 1980; 3 June – 14 August 1981; 3 October – 7 December 1982; 8 February – 10 April 1984; 6 April – 4 June 1985; 9 December 1986 – 3 February 1987; 1 February – 16 April 1988; 1 April – 14 June 1989; 2 June – 14 August 1990).\n774th Troop Carrier Squadron (later 774th Tactical Airlift Squadron): 25 September 1957 – 31 December 1971 (detached 21 March – 19 June 1961; not operational 26 December 1962 – 1 April 1963); 1 August 1973 – 1 October 1986 (detached 3 October – 16 December 1973; 3 September – 16 November 1974; 4 August – 15 October 1975; 3 May – 7 July 1976; 3 June – 5 August 1977; 3 March – 5 May 1978; 28 September – 5 December 1979; 3 February – 7 April 1981; 5 April – 15 June 1982; 4 August – 10 October 1983; 5 June – 4 August 1984; 3 December 1984 – 9 February 1985; 5 April – 12 June 1986)\nTroop Carrier Squadron Provisional, 4480th: attached 3 January – 1 April 1963\n6485th Operations: 1 September – 1 December 1968[2]","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Langley Air Force Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Langley_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"Mactan Island Airfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mactan_Island_Airfield"},{"link_name":"Clark Air Base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Air_Base"},{"link_name":"Luzon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzon"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"}],"sub_title":"Stations","text":"Memphis Municipal Airport, Tennessee, 16 January 1953\nArdmore Air Force Base, Oklahoma, 1 September 1953\nSewart Air Force Base, Tennessee, 15 January 1959\nLangley Air Force Base, Virginia, 1 July 1963 – 22 November 1965\nMactan Island Airfield, Philippines, 23 November 1965\nClark Air Base, Luzon, Philippines, 15 July 1968 – 31 December 1971\nDyess Air Force Base, Texas, 1 June 1972 – 1 October 1993\nLittle Rock Air Force Base, Arkansas, 1 April 1997 – 1 October 2008[2]","title":"Lineage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Curtiss C-46 Commando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtiss_C-46_Commando"},{"link_name":"Chase C-122A Avitruc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YC-122_Avitruc"},{"link_name":"Fairchild C-123B Provider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairchild_C-123B_Provider"},{"link_name":"Lockheed C-130 Hercules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lockheed_C-130_Hercules"},{"link_name":"Douglas C-124C Globemaster II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_C-124C_Globemaster_II"},{"link_name":"Douglas C-118A Liftmaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_C-118A_Liftmaster"},{"link_name":"DeHavilland Canada C-7A Caribou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeHavilland_Canada_C-7A_Caribou"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-463AGfacts2-2"}],"sub_title":"Aircraft","text":"Curtiss C-46 Commando (1953)\nFairchild C-119 Flying Boxcar (1953–1957)\nChase C-122A Avitruc (1955) (YC-122, 1954–1955)\nFairchild C-123B Provider (1955–1957)\nLockheed C-130 Hercules\nC-130A (1956–1959)\nC-130B (1959–1971)\nC-130E (1972–1975, 1997–2008)\nC-130H (1975–1993, 1997–2008)\nDouglas C-124C Globemaster II (1970–1971)\nDouglas C-118A Liftmaster (1968, 1970–1971)\nDeHavilland Canada C-7A Caribou (1972)[2]","title":"Lineage"}]	[{"image_text":"Two C-130 Hercules aircraft of the 463rd get airborne as the remaining 16 aircraft wait on the runway during a Minimum Interval Takeoff at the start of a mass airdrop exercise at Dyess","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/C-130_Hercules%2C_463rd_Tactical_Airlifift_Wing_for_a_mass_airdrop_exercise._Dyess_Air_Force_Base.jpg/220px-C-130_Hercules%2C_463rd_Tactical_Airlifift_Wing_for_a_mass_airdrop_exercise._Dyess_Air_Force_Base.jpg"}]	[{"title":"List of Lockheed C-130 Hercules operators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Lockheed_C-130_Hercules_operators"}]	[{"reference":"Bailey, Carl E. (28 December 2007). \"Factsheet 463 Airlift Group (AMC)\". Air Force Historical Research Agency. Retrieved 9 September 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.afhra.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/433977/463-airlift-group-amc/","url_text":"\"Factsheet 463 Airlift Group (AMC)\""}]},{"reference":"Endicott, Judy G. (1998). Active Air Force Wings as of 1 October 1995 and USAF Active Flying, Space, and Missile Squadrons as of 1 October 1995 (PDF). Air Force History and Museums Program. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ASIN B000113MB2. Retrieved 2 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/virtual_disk_library/index.cgi/4908883/FID1533/wings_cd.pdf","url_text":"Active Air Force Wings as of 1 October 1995 and USAF Active Flying, Space, and Missile Squadrons as of 1 October 1995"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000113MB2","url_text":"B000113MB2"}]},{"reference":"Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1983) [1961]. Air Force Combat Units of World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-02-1. LCCN 61060979.","urls":[{"url":"http://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/21/2001330256/-1/-1/0/AFD-100921-044.pdf","url_text":"Air Force Combat Units of World War II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912799-02-1","url_text":"0-912799-02-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/61060979","url_text":"61060979"}]},{"reference":"Maurer, Maurer, ed. (1982) [1969]. Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II (PDF) (reprint ed.). Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-405-12194-6. LCCN 70605402. OCLC 72556.","urls":[{"url":"http://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/02/2001329899/-1/-1/0/AFD-101202-002.pdf","url_text":"Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-405-12194-6","url_text":"0-405-12194-6"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/70605402","url_text":"70605402"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/72556","url_text":"72556"}]},{"reference":"Ravenstein, Charles A. (1984). Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History. ISBN 0-912799-12-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave","url_text":"Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-912799-12-9","url_text":"0-912799-12-9"}]},{"reference":"Rogers, Brian. (2005). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978. Hinkley, UK: Midland Publications. ISBN 1-85780-197-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85780-197-0","url_text":"1-85780-197-0"}]},{"reference":"\"C-130 Dyess timeline\". Abilene Reporter News. 23 April 2011. Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110812041123/http://www.reporternews.com/news/2011/apr/23/no-headline---c-130_timeline_dyess/?print=1","url_text":"\"C-130 Dyess timeline\""},{"url":"http://www.reporternews.com/news/2011/apr/23/no-headline---c-130_timeline_dyess/?print=1","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.afhra.af.mil/About-Us/Fact-Sheets/Display/Article/433977/463-airlift-group-amc/","external_links_name":"\"Factsheet 463 Airlift Group (AMC)\""},{"Link":"https://www.afhra.af.mil/","external_links_name":"Air Force Historical Research Agency"},{"Link":"http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/virtual_disk_library/index.cgi/4908883/FID1533/wings_cd.pdf","external_links_name":"Active Air Force Wings as of 1 October 1995 and USAF Active Flying, Space, and Missile Squadrons as of 1 October 1995"},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B000113MB2","external_links_name":"B000113MB2"},{"Link":"http://media.defense.gov/2010/Sep/21/2001330256/-1/-1/0/AFD-100921-044.pdf","external_links_name":"Air Force Combat Units of World War II"},{"Link":"https://lccn.loc.gov/61060979","external_links_name":"61060979"},{"Link":"http://media.defense.gov/2010/Dec/02/2001329899/-1/-1/0/AFD-101202-002.pdf","external_links_name":"Combat Squadrons of the Air Force, World War II"},{"Link":"https://lccn.loc.gov/70605402","external_links_name":"70605402"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/72556","external_links_name":"72556"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/airforcecombatwi0000rave","external_links_name":"Air Force Combat Wings, Lineage & Honors Histories 1947–1977"},{"Link":"http://www.littlerock.af.mil/","external_links_name":"Little Rock AFB Official Website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050207211432/http://www.zianet.com/jpage/airforce/","external_links_name":"Joe's USAF Blue Book"},{"Link":"http://www.463rd.org/","external_links_name":"463rd Bomb Group Historical Society Website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110812041123/http://www.reporternews.com/news/2011/apr/23/no-headline---c-130_timeline_dyess/?print=1","external_links_name":"\"C-130 Dyess timeline\""},{"Link":"http://www.reporternews.com/news/2011/apr/23/no-headline---c-130_timeline_dyess/?print=1","external_links_name":"the original"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Dinwiddie_(golfer)	Robert Dinwiddie (golfer)	["1 Early years","2 Professional career","3 Amateur wins","4 Professional wins (3)","4.1 Challenge Tour wins (3)","5 Results in major championships","6 Team appearances","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]	English golfer (born 1982) Robert DinwiddieOpen Qualifying, Woburn 2015Personal informationFull nameRobert Maitland DinwiddieBorn (1982-12-29) 29 December 1982 (age 41)Dumfries, ScotlandHeight6 ft 1 in (1.85 m)Weight182 lb (83 kg; 13.0 st)Sporting nationality EnglandResidenceBarnard Castle, England London, EnglandCareerCollegeTennessee State UniversityTurned professional2006Current tour(s)Challenge TourFormer tour(s)European TourProfessional wins3Number of wins by tourChallenge Tour3Best results in major championshipsMasters TournamentDNPPGA ChampionshipDNPU.S. OpenT36: 2008The Open ChampionshipT53: 2022 Robert Maitland Dinwiddie (born 29 December 1982) is an English professional golfer. Early years Dinwiddie was born in Dumfries, Scotland. He was assisted by College Prospects of America to gain a golf scholarship at Tennessee State University, and was the number one ranked English golfer. Dinwiddie won Welsh and Scottish Amateur Open Stroke Play Championships in 2005, and when he also claimed the English Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, otherwise known as the Brabazon Trophy, in 2006, he became the first person to hold all three titles at the same time. Professional career Dinwiddie turned professional towards the end of 2006 and joined the Challenge Tour. He had an immediate impact, finishing tied 11th in just his second tournament. He went on to end the season in 8th place on the rankings, aided by back to back victories in August at the Scottish Challenge and the Rolex Trophy, which was enough to gain automatic promotion to the European Tour. In his first season on the European Tour, Dinwiddie had five top ten finishes, including tied 3rd at the BMW Asian Open and tied 6th at the Barclays Scottish Open, on his way to 72nd on the final Order of Merit. He also qualified for the U.S. Open at Torrey Pines, through final qualifying at Walton Heath. He made an impressive major championship début, finishing in a tie for 36th place. After a difficult 2009 season, Dinwiddie returned to the Challenge Tour for 2010, where he promptly won the Kenya Open, the second event of the year. He followed this with a string of top ten finishes to ensure a return to the main tour for 2011. Amateur wins 2005 Welsh Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, Scottish Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, Simon Bolivar Cup 2006 Brabazon Trophy Professional wins (3) Challenge Tour wins (3) No. Date Tournament Winning score Margin ofvictory Runner-up 1 12 Aug 2007 Scottish Challenge −20 (70-63-68-67=268) 4 strokes Jamie McLeary 2 19 Aug 2007 Rolex Trophy −18 (70-68-68-64=270) 3 strokes Ross McGowan 3 28 Mar 2010 Kenya Open −12 (68-69-70-65=272) 3 strokes Julio Zapata Results in major championships Tournament 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 U.S. Open T36 CUT The Open Championship CUT CUT Tournament 2020 2021 2022 U.S. Open The Open Championship NT T53 Did not play CUT = missed the half-way cut "T" = tied NT = No tournament due to the COVID-19 pandemic Note: Dinwiddie only played in the U.S. Open and The Open Championship. Team appearances Amateur Walker Cup (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2005 St Andrews Trophy (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2006 (winners) Simon Bolivar Cup (representing England): 2005 See also 2007 Challenge Tour graduates 2010 Challenge Tour graduates 2013 Challenge Tour graduates References ^ "Teenager earns Walker Cup call". BBC Sport. 4 July 2005. Retrieved 7 April 2009. ^ "Dinwiddie beats the rain to complete title treble". English Golf Union. 21 May 2006. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2009. ^ "Payday joy for former amateur". The Journal. 26 November 2007. Retrieved 7 April 2009. ^ Dixon, Peter (3 June 2008). "Robert Dinwiddie's burst wins place in US Open". The Times. London. Retrieved 7 April 2009. ^ Daily Nation, 28 March 2010: Kenya Open: Top prize goes to Englishman Dinwiddie External links Official website Robert Dinwiddie at the European Tour official site Robert Dinwiddie at the Official World Golf Ranking official site	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"professional golfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_golfer"}],"text":"Robert Maitland Dinwiddie (born 29 December 1982) is an English professional golfer.","title":"Robert Dinwiddie (golfer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dumfries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumfries"},{"link_name":"Tennessee State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennessee_State_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Brabazon Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brabazon_Trophy"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Dinwiddie was born in Dumfries, Scotland. He was assisted by College Prospects of America to gain a golf scholarship at Tennessee State University, and was the number one ranked English golfer.[1]Dinwiddie won Welsh and Scottish Amateur Open Stroke Play Championships in 2005, and when he also claimed the English Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, otherwise known as the Brabazon Trophy, in 2006, he became the first person to hold all three titles at the same time.[2][3]","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Challenge Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Challenge_Tour"},{"link_name":"Scottish Challenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Challenge"},{"link_name":"Rolex Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolex_Trophy"},{"link_name":"European Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGA_European_Tour"},{"link_name":"BMW Asian Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMW_Asian_Open"},{"link_name":"Barclays Scottish Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"U.S. Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Open_(golf)"},{"link_name":"Torrey Pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torrey_Pines_Golf_Course"},{"link_name":"Walton Heath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walton_Heath_Golf_Club"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"major championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Men%27s_major_golf_championships"},{"link_name":"Kenya Open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenya_Open"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Dinwiddie turned professional towards the end of 2006 and joined the Challenge Tour. He had an immediate impact, finishing tied 11th in just his second tournament. He went on to end the season in 8th place on the rankings, aided by back to back victories in August at the Scottish Challenge and the Rolex Trophy, which was enough to gain automatic promotion to the European Tour.In his first season on the European Tour, Dinwiddie had five top ten finishes, including tied 3rd at the BMW Asian Open and tied 6th at the Barclays Scottish Open, on his way to 72nd on the final Order of Merit. He also qualified for the U.S. Open at Torrey Pines, through final qualifying at Walton Heath.[4] He made an impressive major championship début, finishing in a tie for 36th place.After a difficult 2009 season, Dinwiddie returned to the Challenge Tour for 2010, where he promptly won the Kenya Open,[5] the second event of the year. He followed this with a string of top ten finishes to ensure a return to the main tour for 2011.","title":"Professional career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scottish Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Amateur_Open_Stroke_Play_Championship"},{"link_name":"Brabazon Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brabazon_Trophy"}],"text":"2005 Welsh Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, Scottish Amateur Open Stroke Play Championship, Simon Bolivar Cup\n2006 Brabazon Trophy","title":"Amateur wins"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Professional wins (3)"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Challenge Tour wins (3)","title":"Professional wins (3)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"}],"text":"Did not playCUT = missed the half-way cut\n\"T\" = tied\nNT = No tournament due to the COVID-19 pandemic\nNote: Dinwiddie only played in the U.S. Open and The Open Championship.","title":"Results in major championships"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Walker Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walker_Cup"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_Walker_Cup"},{"link_name":"St Andrews Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews_Trophy"}],"text":"AmateurWalker Cup (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2005\nSt Andrews Trophy (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2006 (winners)\nSimon Bolivar Cup (representing England): 2005","title":"Team appearances"}]	[]	[{"title":"2007 Challenge Tour graduates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007_Challenge_Tour_graduates"},{"title":"2010 Challenge Tour graduates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Challenge_Tour_graduates"},{"title":"2013 Challenge Tour graduates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2013_Challenge_Tour_graduates"}]	[{"reference":"\"Teenager earns Walker Cup call\". BBC Sport. 4 July 2005. Retrieved 7 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/golf/4648887.stm","url_text":"\"Teenager earns Walker Cup call\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Sport","url_text":"BBC Sport"}]},{"reference":"\"Dinwiddie beats the rain to complete title treble\". English Golf Union. 21 May 2006. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 7 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716210535/http://www.englishgolfunion.org/newsdesk.asp?code=000100020001000300010001&showcal=1&showall=1&selecteddate=01%2FJul%2F2006&id=1164","url_text":"\"Dinwiddie beats the rain to complete title treble\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Golf_Union","url_text":"English Golf Union"},{"url":"http://www.englishgolfunion.org/newsdesk.asp?code=000100020001000300010001&showcal=1&showall=1&selecteddate=01/Jul/2006&id=1164","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Payday joy for former amateur\". The Journal. 26 November 2007. Retrieved 7 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.journallive.co.uk/newcastle-sports/golf-north-east/2007/11/26/payday-joy-for-former-amateur-61634-20160673/","url_text":"\"Payday joy for former amateur\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_(Newcastle_upon_Tyne_newspaper)","url_text":"The Journal"}]},{"reference":"Dixon, Peter (3 June 2008). \"Robert Dinwiddie's burst wins place in US Open\". The Times. London. Retrieved 7 April 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/golf/article4054301.ece","url_text":"\"Robert Dinwiddie's burst wins place in US Open\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times","url_text":"The Times"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/golf/4648887.stm","external_links_name":"\"Teenager earns Walker Cup call\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716210535/http://www.englishgolfunion.org/newsdesk.asp?code=000100020001000300010001&showcal=1&showall=1&selecteddate=01%2FJul%2F2006&id=1164","external_links_name":"\"Dinwiddie beats the rain to complete title treble\""},{"Link":"http://www.englishgolfunion.org/newsdesk.asp?code=000100020001000300010001&showcal=1&showall=1&selecteddate=01/Jul/2006&id=1164","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.journallive.co.uk/newcastle-sports/golf-north-east/2007/11/26/payday-joy-for-former-amateur-61634-20160673/","external_links_name":"\"Payday joy for former amateur\""},{"Link":"http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/golf/article4054301.ece","external_links_name":"\"Robert Dinwiddie's burst wins place in US Open\""},{"Link":"http://www.nation.co.ke/sports/golf/Top%20prize%20goes%20to%20Englishman%20Dinwidie/-/1104/888656/-/78itg6/-/index.html","external_links_name":"Kenya Open: Top prize goes to Englishman Dinwiddie"},{"Link":"http://www.robdinwiddie.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://www.europeantour.com/players/34911/","external_links_name":"Robert Dinwiddie"},{"Link":"https://www.owgr.com/playerprofile/11894","external_links_name":"Robert Dinwiddie"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_(room)	Toilet (room)	["1 Names","2 Other items in the room","3 History","4 Society and culture","5 Gallery","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References"]	Room for privately accessing a toilet, and often handwashing sink This article is about rooms in private residences. For facilities outside the home, see Public toilet. A small room with a flush toilet. A toilet brush (hidden in a decorative holder) and a toilet roll holder for toilet paper can be seen to the right of the flush toilet. A toilet is a small room used for privately accessing the sanitation fixture (toilet) for urination and defecation. Toilet rooms often include a sink (basin) with soap/handwash for handwashing, as this is important for personal hygiene. These rooms are typically referred to in North America as half-bathrooms (half-baths; half of a whole or full-bathroom) in a private residence. This room is commonly known as a "bathroom" in American English, a "lavatory" or "loo" in the United Kingdom, a "washroom" in Canadian English, and by many other names across the English-speaking world. Names See also: Toilet § Names "Toilet" originally referred to personal grooming and came by metonymy to be used for the personal rooms used for bathing, dressing, and so on. It was then euphemistically used for the similarly private rooms used for urination and defecation. By metonymy, it then came to refer directly to the fixtures in such rooms. At present, the word refers primarily to such fixtures and using "toilet" to refer to the room or activity ("use the toilet") is somewhat blunt and may be considered indiscreet. It is, however, a useful term since it is quickly understood by English-speakers across the world, whereas more polite terms vary by region. "Lavatory" (from the Latin lavatorium, "wash basin" or "washroom") was common in the 19th century and is still broadly understood, although it is taken as quite formal in American English, and more often refers to public toilets in Britain. The contraction "lav" is commonly used in British English. In American English, the most common term for a private toilet is "bathroom", regardless of whether a bathtub or shower is present. In British English, "bathroom" is a common term but is typically reserved for private rooms primarily used for bathing; a room without a bathtub or shower is more often known as a "WC", an abbreviation for water closet, "lavatory", or "loo". Other terms are also used, some as part of a regional dialect. Some forms of jargon have their own terms for toilets, including "lavatory" on commercial airplanes, "head" on ships, and "latrine" in military contexts. Larger houses often have a secondary room with a toilet and sink for use by guests. These are typically known as "powder rooms" or "half-baths" (half-bathroom) in North America, and "cloakrooms" in Britain. Other items in the room The main item in the room is the sanitation fixture itself, the toilet. This may be the flushing sort, which is plumbed into a cistern (tank) operated by a ballcock (float valve). Or it may be a dry model, which does not need water. The toilet room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to remove blockages from the toilet drain. Toilets often have a wall mirror above the sink for grooming, checking one's appearance and/or makeup. Some toilets have a cupboard where cleaning supplies and personal hygiene products may be kept. If it is a flush toilet, then the room usually also includes a toilet brush for cleaning the bowl. Methods of anal cleansing vary between cultures. If the norm is to use paper, then typically the room will have a toilet roll holder, with the toilet paper hanging either next to or away from the wall. If instead, people are used to cleaning themselves with water, then the room may include a bidet shower (health faucet) or a bidet. Toilets such as the Washlet, popular in Japan, provide an automatic washing function. A sink (hand basin), with soap, is usually present in the room or immediately outside it, to ensure easy handwashing. Above the sink there may be a mirror, either mounted on the wall, or on a medicine cabinet. This cabinet (which is more typically located in the household's main bathroom) typically contains prescription and over the counter drugs, first aid supplies, and grooming equipment for shaving or makeup. History Main articles: History of water supply and sanitation and Toilet § History Into the modern era, humans typically practised open defecation or employed latrines or outhouses over a pit toilet in rural areas and used chamber pots emptied into streets or drains in urban ones. The Indus Valley civilization had particularly advanced sanitation, which included common use of private flush toilets. The ancient Greeks and Romans had public toilets and, in some cases, indoor plumbing connected to rudimentary sewer systems. The latrines of medieval monasteries were known as reredorters; in some cases, these were connected to sophisticated water systems that swept its effluent away without affecting the community's drinking, cooking, or washing water. In the early modern period, "night soil" from municipal outhouses became an important source of nitrates for creating gunpowder. 19th century refinements of the outhouse included the privy midden and the pail closet. Indoor toilets were at first a luxury of the rich and only gradually spread to the lower classes. As late as the 1890s, building regulations in London did not require working-class housing to have indoor toilets; into the early 20th century, some English homes were built with an upstairs toilet for use by the owners and an outhouse for use by the servants. In some cases, there was a transitional stage where toilets were built into the house but accessible only from the outside. After World War I, all new housing in London and its suburbs had indoor toilets. Bathrooms became standard later than toilets, but entered working-class houses at around the same time. For plumbing reasons, flush toilets have usually been located in or near residences' bathrooms. (Both were initially located above the kitchen and scullery on the same account.) In upper-class homes, the first modern lavatories were washrooms with sinks located near the bedrooms; in lower-class homes, there was often only a collapsible tub for bathing. In Britain, there was long a prejudice against having the toilet located in the bathroom proper: in 1904, Hermann Muthesius noted that "a lavatory is practically never found in an English bathroom; indeed it is considered downright inadmissible to have one there". When toilets were placed within bathrooms, the original reason was cost savings. In 1876 Edward William Godwin, a progressive architect-designer, drew up affordable housing with the toilet in the bathroom, and faced criticism for it. America and most European countries now combine their toilets and bathrooms. Separate toilets remain common in British homes and remain a builder's option even in places where the norm is for the toilet to be in the bathroom. In France, Japan, and some other countries, separate toilets remain the norm for reasons of hygiene and privacy. In modern homes outside of France, such separate toilets typically contain a sink. In Japan, the toilet sometimes has a built-in sink (whose waste water is used for the next flush) to allow users to clean themselves immediately. Japanese toilets also often provide special slippers—apart from those worn in the rest of the house—for use within the toilet. Society and culture In English, all terms for toilets were originally euphemisms. It is generally considered coarse or even offensive to use such direct terms as "shitter", although they are used in some areas. Formerly, broadcast censorship even banned mentions of the euphemisms: Jack Paar temporarily quit the Tonight Show in February 1960 when NBC broadcast news footage in place of a joke he had taped involving the term "WC". Gallery A toilet room with an older style flush toilet. The chain (on the upper right) is pulled to empty the elevated cistern (tank). A Delftware-style toilet A toilet room in Greece constructed in the 70's with a modern style flush toilet A Japanese temple hotel, with squat toilet and toilet slippers Smart toilet in Japan (see also Toilets in Japan). See also Bathroom (for personal hygiene, with or without a toilet inside) Community toilet scheme EToilet Passenger train toilet Sanisette Sanitation Unisex public toilet Notes ^ In British contexts, it is considered non-U, with the upper class generally preferring "loo", "lavatory", and "bog". ^ For other synonyms for toilet, see "bathroom" at Wikisaurus. References ^ Zalvino, Evette (12 March 2020). "What is a Half Bath? The Mystery Behind Fractional Bathrooms, Solved". HomeLight. ^ "toilet, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ a b Campbell, Lyle (2006), Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed., Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 263, ISBN 978-0-262-53267-9. ^ "What Are the Important Differences between Canadian and American (USA) English?", Stack Exchange, 9 December 2010. ^ "lavatory, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "lav., n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "lav", Collins English Dictionary ^ "bathroom, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Kovecses, Zoltan (2000), American English: An Introduction, Petersborough: Broadview, p. 253, ISBN 978-1-55111-229-9. ^ "W, n." & "water closet, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "loo, n.⁴", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "head, n.¹", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "latrine, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ a b Thompson, John; et al. (2009), An Uncommon History of Common Things, Washington: National Geographic Society, p. 140, ISBN 978-1-4262-0420-3. ^ "half-, comb. form", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ "'cloak-room, n.", Oxford English Dictionary. ^ Wright, Geoffrey N. (2004), Discovering Abbeys and Priories (4th ed.), Princes Risborough: Shire, p. 27, ISBN 978-0-7478-0589-2. ^ Greene, J. Patrick (1992), Medieval Monasteries, Archaeology of Medieval Britain, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7185-1296-5. ^ Chase, Kenneth, Firearms: A Global History to 1700. ^ Muthesius, Stefan (1982), The English Terraced House, New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 60, ISBN 978-0-300-02871-3. ^ As in plates 86 and 87 depicting homes in Leeds and Halifax, Muthesius, p. 121. ^ a b Jackson, Alan A. (1973), Semi-Detached London: Suburban Development, Life and Transport, 1900–39, London: Allen & Unwin, p. 145, ISBN 978-0-04-902003-0. ^ Muthesius, pp. 61–62, 100, 137. ^ a b Schmidt, William E. (3 January 1992), "English Bathrooms: Out of the Closet", The New York Times. ^ Muthesius, Hermann (1904), Das englische Haus: Entwicklung, Bedingungen, Anlage, Aufbau, Einrichtung und Innenraum, Vol. II, Berlin: Wasmuth, OCLC 3437464. (in German) ^ Seligman, Janet (1979), The English House, London: Granada, p. 236, ISBN 978-0-258-97101-7. ^ Long, Helen C. (1993), The Edwardian House: The Middle-Class Home in Britain, 1880-1914, Studies in Design and Material Culture, Manchester: Manchester University Press, p. 193, ISBN 978-0-7190-3728-3. ^ Muthesius, quoted in translation by Seligman in Long. ^ Grant, Sandra. "The Architects: Edward W Godwin". The Bedford Park Society. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016. ^ a b c Léger, Jean-Michel (1990), Derniers Domiciles Connus: Enquête sur les Nouveaux Logements, 1970–1990, Paris: Créaphis, p. p. 129, ISBN 978-2-907150-18-7. (in French) ^ Harrison, Henry (1998), Houses: The Illustrated Guide to Construction, Design, and Systems, 3rd ed., Chicago: Real Estate Education Co., pp. 64–65, ISBN 978-0-7931-2967-6. ^ Taylor, Sally Adamson (2003), Culture Shock!: France, 2nd ed., Portland: Graphic Arts Center, p. 199, ISBN 9781558687677, OCLC 30753428. ^ Goldman, Alan (1994), Doing Business With the Japanese: A Guide to Successful Communication, Management and Diplomacy, SUNY Series in Speech Communication, Albany: State University of New York Press, p. 73, ISBN 978-0-7914-1946-5. ^ a b "Toilets", Encyclopedia of Contemporary Japanese Culture, London: Routledge, 2002, pp. 527 f, ISBN 978-0-415-14344-8. ^ Molotch, Harvey Luskin (2003), Where Stuff Comes From: How Toasters, Toilets, Cars, Computers, and Many Other Things Come to Be As They Are, London: Routledge, p. pp. 101–02, ISBN 978-0-415-94400-7. ^ Phillips, Jennifer (2003), "Personal Hygiene", In the Know in Japan: The Indispensable Cross-cultural Guide to Working and Living in Japan, New York: Terra Cognita, ISBN 978-0-609-61114-2. ^ Horvat, Andrew (2000), Japanese Beyond Words: How to Walk and Talk Like a Native Speaker, Berkeley: Stone Bridge, pp. 28–29, ISBN 978-1-880656-42-6. ^ "shitter, n.", Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press. vteRooms and spaces of a houseShared rooms Bonus room Common room Den Dining room Family room Garret Great room Home cinema Kitchen dirty kitchen kitchenette Living room Gynaeceum harem Andron man cave Recreation room billiard room Shrine Study Sunroom Private rooms Bathroom toilet Bedroom / Guest room closet Bedsit / Miniflat Boudoir Cabinet Nursery Spaces Atrium Balcony Breezeway Conversation pit Cubby-hole Deck Elevator dumbwaiter Entryway/Genkan Fireplace hearth Foyer Hall Hallway Inglenook Lanai Loft Loggia Overhang Patio Porch screened sleeping Ramp Secret passage Stairs/Staircase Terrace Veranda Vestibule Technical, utility and storage Attic Basement Carport Cloakroom Closet Crawl space Electrical room Equipment room Furnace room / Boiler room Garage Janitorial closet Larder Laundry room / Utility room / Storage room Mechanical room / floor Pantry Root cellar Semi-basement Storm cellar / Safe room Studio Wardrobe Wine cellar Wiring closet Workshop Great house areas Antechamber Ballroom Kitchen-related butler's pantry buttery saucery scullery spicery still room Conservatory / Orangery Courtyard Drawing room Great chamber Great hall Library Long gallery Lumber room Parlour Sauna Servants' hall Servants' quarters Smoking room Solar State room Swimming pool Turret Undercroft Other Furniture Hidden room House house plan styles types Multi-family residential Secondary suite Duplex Terraced Detached Semi-detached Townhouse Studio apartment Architecturalelements Arch Baluster Belt course Bressummer Ceiling Chimney Colonnade / Portico Column Cornice / Eaves Dome Door Ell Floor Foundation Gable Gate Portal Lighting Ornament Plumbing Quoins Roof Roof lantern Sill plate Style list Skylight Threshold Transom Vault Wall Window Related Backyard Driveway Front yard Garden Home Home improvement Home repair Shed Tree house Architecture portal Housing portal Category: Rooms vteToiletsEquipment Ballcock Bedpan Bidet Bidet shower Brush Cistern Commode Electronic bidet Flushometer Seat Toilet seat riser Toilet Toilet cleaner Toilet paper Holder/dispenser Orientation Toilet rim block Trap (U-bend) Types Aircraft Arborloo Blair Bucket Cathole Chemical Composting Container-based Dry Dual flush EToilet Flush Freezing Head (boat) Hudo (Scouting) Incinerating Intelligent Latrine Low-flush On-board Passenger train Pay Pig Pit Portable Potty Public Sanisette (self-cleaning) Sink Space Squat Telescopic Treebog Urine-diverting dry Vacuum Vermifilter Washlet (combined toilet and bidet) Cultural andpolicy aspects Accessible Adult diaper Bathroom privileges Bathroom reading Honeywagon (vehicle) Incontinence pad Islamic toilet etiquette Istinja Latrinalia Privatization of public toilets Swachh Bharat Mission Toilet god Toilet humour Skibidi Toilet episodes Toilet plume Toilet-related injuries and deaths Toilet Revolution in China Toilet Twinning Unisex public Vacuum truck Jobs and activities Manual scavenging Restroom attendant Sanitation worker Slopping out Toilet training Toileting Urine-related aspects Female urinal Female urination device Interactive urinal Pissoir Pee curl Pollee Sanistand Urinal Urinal deodorizer block Urinal (health care) Urination Urine collection device Urine deflector Urine diversion Feces-related aspects Anal hygiene Defecation Defecation postures Fecal sludge management Flying toilet Open defecation Scatology Places Haewoojae Hundertwasser Toilets Madison Museum of Bathroom Tissue Modern Toilet Restaurant National Poo Museum Outhouse Public toilets in Bratislava Rest area Shit Museum Sulabh International Museum of Toilets Toilet (room) Toilet History Museum Toilets in Japan Toilets in New York City Bryant Park restroom Historical terms Aphedron Chamber pot Close stool Dansker Garderobe Gong farmer Groom of the Stool Night soil Pail closet Privy midden Reredorter See also Ecological sanitation History of water supply and sanitation Human right to water and sanitation Improved sanitation Infection prevention and control Public health Reuse of human excreta Sanitation Sewage treatment Sustainable sanitation Waste management World Toilet Day Workers' right to access the toilet Authority control databases: National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Public toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_toilet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Australian_Toilet.JPG"},{"link_name":"flush toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flush_toilet"},{"link_name":"toilet roll holder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_roll_holder"},{"link_name":"toilet 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names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Names"},{"link_name":"English-speaking world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"}],"text":"This article is about rooms in private residences. For facilities outside the home, see Public toilet.A small room with a flush toilet. A toilet brush (hidden in a decorative holder) and a toilet roll holder for toilet paper can be seen to the right of the flush toilet.A toilet is a small room used for privately accessing the sanitation fixture (toilet) for urination and defecation. Toilet rooms often include a sink (basin) with soap/handwash for handwashing, as this is important for personal hygiene. These rooms are typically referred to in North America as half-bathrooms (half-baths; half of a whole or full-bathroom) in a private residence.[1]This room is commonly known as a \"bathroom\" in American English, a \"lavatory\" or \"loo\" in the United Kingdom, a \"washroom\" in Canadian English, and by many other names across the English-speaking world.","title":"Toilet (room)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toilet § Names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet#Names"},{"link_name":"personal grooming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_grooming"},{"link_name":"metonymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"euphemistically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphemism"},{"link_name":"fixtures in such rooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lyle-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cancan-4"},{"link_name":"[n 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"English-speakers across the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-speaking_world"},{"link_name":"Lavatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lavatory"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"wash basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wash_basin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"public toilets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_toilet"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"bathroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathroom"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"British English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_English"},{"link_name":"water closet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_closet"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"a regional dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_dialects_of_the_English_language"},{"link_name":"jargon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon"},{"link_name":"lavatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_lavatory"},{"link_name":"head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_(watercraft)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"latrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrine"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[n 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Common140-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"See also: Toilet § Names\"Toilet\" originally referred to personal grooming and came by metonymy to be used for the personal rooms used for bathing, dressing, and so on. It was then euphemistically used for the similarly private rooms used for urination and defecation. By metonymy, it then came to refer directly to the fixtures in such rooms.[2][3] At present, the word refers primarily to such fixtures and using \"toilet\" to refer to the room or activity (\"use the toilet\") is somewhat blunt and may be considered indiscreet.[4][n 1] It is, however, a useful term since it is quickly understood by English-speakers across the world, whereas more polite terms vary by region.\"Lavatory\" (from the Latin lavatorium, \"wash basin\" or \"washroom\")[5] was common in the 19th century and is still broadly understood, although it is taken as quite formal in American English, and more often refers to public toilets in Britain.[citation needed] The contraction \"lav\"[6] is commonly used in British English.[7]In American English, the most common term for a private toilet is \"bathroom\", regardless of whether a bathtub or shower is present.[8][9] In British English, \"bathroom\" is a common term but is typically reserved for private rooms primarily used for bathing; a room without a bathtub or shower is more often known as a \"WC\", an abbreviation for water closet,[10] \"lavatory\", or \"loo\".[11] Other terms are also used, some as part of a regional dialect.Some forms of jargon have their own terms for toilets, including \"lavatory\" on commercial airplanes, \"head\" on ships,[12] and \"latrine\" in military contexts.[13][n 2] Larger houses often have a secondary room with a toilet and sink for use by guests.[14] These are typically known as \"powder rooms\" or \"half-baths\" (half-bathroom) in North America,[15] and \"cloakrooms\" in Britain.[16]","title":"Names"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet"},{"link_name":"the flushing sort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flush_toilet"},{"link_name":"cistern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistern"},{"link_name":"ballcock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballcock"},{"link_name":"a dry model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_toilet"},{"link_name":"plunger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plunger"},{"link_name":"toilet brush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_brush"},{"link_name":"anal cleansing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anal_cleansing"},{"link_name":"toilet roll holder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_roll_holder"},{"link_name":"toilet paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_paper"},{"link_name":"either next to or away from","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_paper_orientation"},{"link_name":"bidet shower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidet_shower"},{"link_name":"bidet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bidet"},{"link_name":"Washlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washlet"},{"link_name":"popular in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilets_in_Japan"},{"link_name":"handwashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handwashing"},{"link_name":"medicine cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicine_cabinet"},{"link_name":"bathroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathroom"},{"link_name":"first aid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_aid"}],"text":"The main item in the room is the sanitation fixture itself, the toilet. This may be the flushing sort, which is plumbed into a cistern (tank) operated by a ballcock (float valve). Or it may be a dry model, which does not need water.The toilet room may also include a plunger, a rubber or plastic tool mounted on a handle, which is used to remove blockages from the toilet drain. Toilets often have a wall mirror above the sink for grooming, checking one's appearance and/or makeup. Some toilets have a cupboard where cleaning supplies and personal hygiene products may be kept. If it is a flush toilet, then the room usually also includes a toilet brush for cleaning the bowl.Methods of anal cleansing vary between cultures. If the norm is to use paper, then typically the room will have a toilet roll holder, with the toilet paper hanging either next to or away from the wall. If instead, people are used to cleaning themselves with water, then the room may include a bidet shower (health faucet) or a bidet. Toilets such as the Washlet, popular in Japan, provide an automatic washing function.A sink (hand basin), with soap, is usually present in the room or immediately outside it, to ensure easy handwashing. Above the sink there may be a mirror, either mounted on the wall, or on a medicine cabinet. This cabinet (which is more typically located in the household's main bathroom) typically contains prescription and over the counter drugs, first aid supplies, and grooming equipment for shaving or makeup.","title":"Other items in the room"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modern era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_era"},{"link_name":"open defecation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_defecation"},{"link_name":"latrines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrine"},{"link_name":"outhouses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outhouse"},{"link_name":"pit toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pit_toilet"},{"link_name":"chamber pots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamber_pot"},{"link_name":"Indus Valley civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization"},{"link_name":"particularly advanced sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation"},{"link_name":"ancient Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation_in_ancient_Rome"},{"link_name":"public toilets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_toilet"},{"link_name":"indoor plumbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indoor_plumbing"},{"link_name":"sewer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitary_sewer"},{"link_name":"reredorters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reredorter"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"early modern period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period"},{"link_name":"night soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night_soil"},{"link_name":"nitrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_nitrate"},{"link_name":"gunpowder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_powder"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"privy midden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Privy_midden"},{"link_name":"pail closet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pail_closet"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jackson-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times-26"},{"link_name":"bathrooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathroom"},{"link_name":"kitchen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchen"},{"link_name":"scullery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scullery_(room)"},{"link_name":"sinks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink"},{"link_name":"Hermann Muthesius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Muthesius"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jackson-24"},{"link_name":"Edward William Godwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_William_Godwin"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leger-32"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Times-26"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leger-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley-36"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Common140-16"},{"link_name":"hygiene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygiene"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-leger-32"},{"link_name":"sink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sink"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buckley-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Into the modern era, humans typically practised open defecation or employed latrines or outhouses over a pit toilet in rural areas and used chamber pots emptied into streets or drains in urban ones. The Indus Valley civilization had particularly advanced sanitation, which included common use of private flush toilets. The ancient Greeks and Romans had public toilets and, in some cases, indoor plumbing connected to rudimentary sewer systems. The latrines of medieval monasteries were known as reredorters; in some cases, these were connected to sophisticated water systems that swept its effluent away without affecting the community's drinking, cooking, or washing water.[17][18] In the early modern period, \"night soil\" from municipal outhouses became an important source of nitrates for creating gunpowder.[19] 19th century refinements of the outhouse included the privy midden and the pail closet.Indoor toilets were at first a luxury of the rich and only gradually spread to the lower classes. As late as the 1890s, building regulations in London did not require working-class housing to have indoor toilets; into the early 20th century, some English homes were built with an upstairs toilet for use by the owners and an outhouse for use by the servants.[20] In some cases, there was a transitional stage where toilets were built into the house but accessible only from the outside.[21] After World War I, all new housing in London and its suburbs had indoor toilets.[22]Bathrooms became standard later than toilets, but entered working-class houses at around the same time.[23][24] For plumbing reasons, flush toilets have usually been located in or near residences' bathrooms. (Both were initially located above the kitchen and scullery on the same account.) In upper-class homes, the first modern lavatories were washrooms with sinks located near the bedrooms; in lower-class homes, there was often only a collapsible tub for bathing. In Britain, there was long a prejudice against having the toilet located in the bathroom proper: in 1904, Hermann Muthesius noted that \"a lavatory [i.e., toilet] is practically never found in an English bathroom; indeed it is considered downright inadmissible to have one there\".[28] When toilets were placed within bathrooms, the original reason was cost savings.[22] In 1876 Edward William Godwin, a progressive architect-designer, drew up affordable housing with the toilet in the bathroom, and faced criticism for it.[29]America and most European countries now combine their toilets and bathrooms.[30] Separate toilets remain common in British homes[24] and remain a builder's option even in places where the norm is for the toilet to be in the bathroom.[31] In France,[30][32] Japan,[33][34] and some other countries,[14] separate toilets remain the norm for reasons of hygiene and privacy. In modern homes outside of France,[30] such separate toilets typically contain a sink. In Japan, the toilet sometimes has a built-in sink (whose waste water is used for the next flush) to allow users to clean themselves immediately.[35] Japanese toilets also often provide special slippers—apart from those worn in the rest of the house—for use within the toilet.[34][36][37]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lyle-3"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Jack Paar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Paar"},{"link_name":"Tonight Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonight_Starring_Jack_Paar"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"a joke he had taped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonight_Starring_Jack_Paar#Highly_emotional"}],"text":"In English, all terms for toilets were originally euphemisms.[3] It is generally considered coarse or even offensive to use such direct terms as \"shitter\",[38] although they are used in some areas. Formerly, broadcast censorship even banned mentions of the euphemisms: Jack Paar temporarily quit the Tonight Show in February 1960 when NBC broadcast news footage in place of a joke he had taped involving the term \"WC\".","title":"Society and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Old_toilet_with_elevated_cistern_and_chain.jpg"},{"link_name":"flush toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flush_toilet"},{"link_name":"cistern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistern#Toilet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Notariskantoor_Valkenswaard_10.JPG"},{"link_name":"Delftware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delftware"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toilet_room_in_Greece.jpg"},{"link_name":"flush toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flush_toilet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JapaneseSquatToilet.jpg"},{"link_name":"squat toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squat_toilet"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Japan_toilet.jpg"},{"link_name":"Toilets in Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilets_in_Japan"}],"text":"A toilet room with an older style flush toilet. The chain (on the upper right) is pulled to empty the elevated cistern (tank).\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Delftware-style toilet\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA toilet room in Greece constructed in the 70's with a modern style flush toilet\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA Japanese temple hotel, with squat toilet and toilet slippers\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSmart toilet in Japan (see also Toilets in Japan).","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"non-U","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U_and_non-U_English"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"bathroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wikisaurus:bathroom"},{"link_name":"Wikisaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Wikisaurus"}],"text":"^ In British contexts, it is considered non-U, with the upper class generally preferring \"loo\", \"lavatory\", and \"bog\".\n\n^ For other synonyms for toilet, see \"bathroom\" at Wikisaurus.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"A small room with a flush toilet. A toilet brush (hidden in a decorative holder) and a toilet roll holder for toilet paper can be seen to the right of the flush toilet.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Australian_Toilet.JPG/220px-Australian_Toilet.JPG"}]	[{"title":"Bathroom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathroom"},{"title":"Community toilet scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_toilet_scheme"},{"title":"EToilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EToilet"},{"title":"Passenger train toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passenger_train_toilet"},{"title":"Sanisette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanisette"},{"title":"Sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation"},{"title":"Unisex public toilet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unisex_public_toilet"}]	[{"reference":"Zalvino, Evette (12 March 2020). \"What is a Half Bath? The Mystery Behind Fractional Bathrooms, Solved\". HomeLight.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.homelight.com/blog/buyer-what-is-a-half-bath/","url_text":"\"What is a Half Bath? The Mystery Behind Fractional Bathrooms, Solved\""}]},{"reference":"\"toilet, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"Campbell, Lyle (2006), Historical Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd ed., Cambridge: MIT Press, p. 263, ISBN 978-0-262-53267-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge,_Massachusetts","url_text":"Cambridge"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=EjXrrOJhex8C&pg=PA263","url_text":"263"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-53267-9","url_text":"978-0-262-53267-9"}]},{"reference":"\"What Are the Important Differences between Canadian and American (USA) English?\", Stack Exchange, 9 December 2010","urls":[{"url":"http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/6521/what-are-the-important-differences-between-canadian-and-american-usa-english","url_text":"\"What Are the Important Differences between Canadian and American (USA) English?\""}]},{"reference":"\"lavatory, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"lav., n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"lav\", Collins English Dictionary","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/lav","url_text":"\"lav\""}]},{"reference":"\"bathroom, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"Kovecses, Zoltan (2000), American English: An Introduction, Petersborough: Broadview, p. 253, ISBN 978-1-55111-229-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peterborough,_Ontario","url_text":"Petersborough"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=1-sL6hIbW-MC&pg=PA253","url_text":"253"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55111-229-9","url_text":"978-1-55111-229-9"}]},{"reference":"\"W, n.\" & \"water closet, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"loo, n.⁴\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"head, n.¹\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"latrine, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"Thompson, John; et al. (2009), An Uncommon History of Common Things, Washington: National Geographic Society, p. 140, ISBN 978-1-4262-0420-3","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC","url_text":"Washington"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bcaXzXPP8ooC&pg=PA140","url_text":"140"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4262-0420-3","url_text":"978-1-4262-0420-3"}]},{"reference":"\"half-, comb. form\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"'cloak-room, n.\", Oxford English Dictionary","urls":[]},{"reference":"Wright, Geoffrey N. (2004), Discovering Abbeys and Priories (4th ed.), Princes Risborough: Shire, p. 27, ISBN 978-0-7478-0589-2","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lWAYvsIPbMwC&pg=PA27","url_text":"27"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7478-0589-2","url_text":"978-0-7478-0589-2"}]},{"reference":"Greene, J. Patrick (1992), Medieval Monasteries, Archaeology of Medieval Britain, Leicester: Leicester University Press, ISBN 978-0-7185-1296-5","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=oWYPiRBkkicC&pg=PA121","url_text":"Medieval Monasteries"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1296-5","url_text":"978-0-7185-1296-5"}]},{"reference":"Chase, Kenneth, Firearms: A Global History to 1700","urls":[]},{"reference":"Muthesius, Stefan (1982), The English Terraced House, New Haven: Yale University Press, p. 60, ISBN 978-0-300-02871-3","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/englishterracedh0000muth/page/60","url_text":"The English Terraced House"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/englishterracedh0000muth/page/60","url_text":"60"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-02871-3","url_text":"978-0-300-02871-3"}]},{"reference":"Jackson, Alan A. (1973), Semi-Detached London: Suburban Development, Life and Transport, 1900–39, London: Allen & Unwin, p. 145, ISBN 978-0-04-902003-0","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/semidetachedlond0000jack/page/145","url_text":"Semi-Detached London: Suburban Development, Life and Transport, 1900–39"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/semidetachedlond0000jack/page/145","url_text":"145"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-04-902003-0","url_text":"978-0-04-902003-0"}]},{"reference":"Schmidt, William E. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Chesham_and_Amersham_by-election	2021 Chesham and Amersham by-election	["1 Background","1.1 Constituency","1.2 History","2 Campaign","2.1 Candidates","2.2 Tactical proposal","2.3 Writ and polls","3 Results","3.1 Response","4 Previous result","5 References"]	2021 UK parliament by-election 2021 Chesham and Amersham by-election ← 2019 17 June 2021 2024 → Chesham and Amersham constituencyTurnout52.1% First party Second party Con Candidate Sarah Green Peter Fleet Party Liberal Democrats Conservative Last election 26.3% 55.4% Popular vote 21,517 13,489 Percentage 56.7% 35.5% Swing 30.4pp 19.9pp MP before election Cheryl Gillan Conservative Elected MP Sarah Green Liberal Democrats A by-election was held in the United Kingdom Parliament constituency of Chesham and Amersham on 17 June 2021, following the death of the sitting member, Dame Cheryl Gillan, on 4 April 2021. Gillan had served as MP for the constituency since 1992. The by-election was the third to the 58th Parliament, which was elected in 2019. The Liberal Democrat candidate, Sarah Green, won the by-election with 56.7% of the vote and a swing from the Conservatives of 25.2%. This is the first time a non-Conservative candidate has won this seat since its formation in 1974. This was the first of four by-elections won by the Liberal Democrats in this parliament; they subsequently won the by-elections in North Shropshire, in December 2021, in Tiverton and Honiton, in June 2022, and in Somerton and Frome, in July 2023. Background Constituency Chesham and Amersham, named after the market towns of Chesham and Amersham in the constituency, was held by the Conservative Party since its creation at the February 1974 election until the by-election. The local authority is Buckinghamshire Council and the seat is coterminous with the abolished Chiltern District. The area is in the London commuter belt, and is home to many affluent professionals. History In June 2016, 55% of voters in the coterminous Chiltern District voted to remain in the European Union (EU) in the EU membership referendum. The estimated turnout of 83.6% was the highest figure for any constituency in the UK, with only Gibraltar reporting a higher percentage. At the 2019 European Parliament elections, the pro-EU Liberal Democrats were the most popular party in the Chiltern District with 31.9%, with the pro-Leave Brexit Party in second place with 30%. Despite the seat voting Remain, Gillan, a supporter of Brexit, was re-elected with over half the vote in both the general elections following the referendum. Following the 2019 election, it was the Liberal Democrats' 51st target going into the next election, requiring a swing of 14.6 to win. Campaign Candidates Liberal Democrats – Sarah Green, a training and communications professional. Green was the party's candidate in Ynys Môn in the 2005 general election, coming fifth with 6.8% of the vote (while serving as Chair of MIDR Cymru (now Welsh Young Liberals)), and Arfon in North Wales in 2010, coming fourth, with 14.1% of the vote. Conservative Party – Peter Fleet, Chairman of the Retail Automotive Alliance and former president of Ford Asia Pacific. Fleet was the Conservative candidate for Southampton Itchen in the 1997 general election, and came second with 28.4% of the vote. Green Party – Carolyne Culver, Green Party group leader on West Berkshire Council. Breakthrough Party – Carla Gregory, a charity worker from the local area. Labour Party – Natasa Pantelic, elected member of Slough Borough Council, and its lead member for health and wellbeing. Freedom Alliance – Adrian Oliver, former member of the Green Party, elected as a councillor for the Greens in Camden in the 2006 election. Reform UK – Alex Wilson, who previously worked for HS2 Ltd. Rejoin EU – Brendan Donnelly, a former Conservative Member of European Parliament. Tactical proposal On 9 May, former Conservative MP Phillip Lee, who joined the Liberal Democrats before the 2019 election, urged the Labour and Green parties not to stand candidates in the by-election to avoid vote splitting. Lee argued that the Conservative Party would be more likely to lose if the anti-Conservative vote went to the Liberal Democrat candidate alone. Writing in The Guardian on 14 May, columnist Polly Toynbee also called for an electoral alliance of the Liberal Democrats, Labour and the Green Party to beat the Conservatives. However, all three parties contested the by-election. Writ and polls On 12 May, the writ for the by-election was moved in the House of Commons by Government Chief Whip Mark Spencer. On 30 May, The Independent reported that internal party polling by the Liberal Democrats put the Conservatives on 45.5% and the Liberal Democrats on 35.1%, a swing of 9.35% to them. The same survey also found 60% of Labour and Green voters were willing to vote tactically. Further internal party polling by the Liberal Democrats, reported by City A.M., found a closer margin, with the Conservatives on 45% and the Liberal Democrats on 41%. Despite these figures, YouGov's director of political research said "the by-election will be tough to win for the Lib Dems" due to the party putting itself up against a "popular government", unlike when it had won by-elections in the past. Lib Dem leader Ed Davey said that he visited the constituency 16 times during the campaign. Results Bar chart of the election result. 2021 by-election: Chesham and Amersham Party Candidate Votes % ±% Liberal Democrats Sarah Green 21,517 56.7 +30.4 Conservative Peter Fleet 13,489 35.5 –19.9 Green Carolyne Culver 1,480 3.9 –1.6 Labour Natasa Pantelic 622 1.6 –11.2 Reform UK Alex Wilson 414 1.1 N/A Breakthrough Party Carla Gregory 197 0.5 N/A Freedom Alliance Adrian Oliver 134 0.4 N/A Rejoin EU Brendan Donnelly 101 0.3 N/A Majority 8,028 21.2 N/A Registered electors 72,828 Turnout 37,954 52.1 –24.7 Liberal Democrats gain from Conservative Swing 25.2 Response The results shocked the political landscape, as politicians and pundits had predicted a Conservative win in the run-up to the by-election. John Curtice, Professor of Politics at the University of Strathclyde, expressed the view that the Liberal Democrats overperformed and compared the by-election to the 1991 Ribble Valley by-election, in which the Liberal Democrats gained a Conservative seat because of local issues. He relayed some locals were "hearing the Conservatives talking endlessly, talking about 'levelling up' – wondering really, well what is, quite, in it for us?" Some commentators suggested the result may indicate wider difficulties for the Conservative Party across the south of England, drawing comparisons to the Labour Party's problems holding on to many of its older bases of support. This was the lowest ever share of the vote in a Westminster election by a Labour Party candidate. Previous result General election 2019: Chesham and Amersham Party Candidate Votes % ±% Conservative Cheryl Gillan 30,850 55.4 –5.3 Liberal Democrats Dan Gallagher 14,627 26.3 +13.3 Labour Matt Turmaine 7,166 12.9 –7.7 Green Alan Booth 3,042 5.5 +2.5 Majority 16,223 29.1 –11.0 Turnout 55,978 76.8 –0.3 Conservative hold Swing –9.3 References ^ "Election timetable and notices". Buckinghamshire Council. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021. ^ Smith, Mikey (5 April 2021). 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"Conservatives name man who could replace Dame Cheryl Gillan as MP". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. ^ "Fleet wins the Conservative selection for the Chesham and Amersham by-election". ConservativeHome. 6 May 2021. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. ^ Arnold, Matthew (25 April 2002). "PROFILE: Big blue – Peter Fleet, Director of marketing, Ford of Britain". Campaign. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 6 May 2021. In 1997, he stood as a Conservative MP for Southampton Itchen, getting a 28.4% share of the vote. ^ Sheth Trivedi, Shruti (7 May 2021). "Green Party announces candidate in the running to replace late Dame Cheryl Gillan as MP". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 8 May 2021. ^ Sheth Trivedi, Shruti (25 May 2021). "Single mum-of-two joins the race to become next Chesham and Amersham MP". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 25 May 2021. ^ "Why this local woman is taking the fight to the established parties in an upcoming by-election". nationalworld.com. Archived from the original on 21 May 2021. Retrieved 21 May 2021. ^ Joy, Matt (18 May 2021). "Slough Councillor selected as Labour candidate for by-election". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021. ^ Chappell, Elliot (18 May 2021). "Labour selects Slough councillor to fight Chesham and Amersham by-election". LabourList. Archived from the original on 18 May 2021. Retrieved 18 May 2021. ^ "Peeps", Camden New Journal, 10 June 2021 (no 2029), pp. 12–3. ^ a b "HS2: Chesham and Amersham by-election candidates' policies". BBC News. 14 June 2021. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021. ^ Sheth Trivedi, Shruti (13 May 2021). "Tory defector urges Labour and Green Party NOT to stand in upcoming by-election 'so Tories will lose'". Bucks Free Press. 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Retrieved 15 June 2021. ^ BBC Breakfast (18 June 2021). ""The Conservatives are doing well in the polls but the lead is fragile" Lib Dem leader Sir Ed Davey tells #BBCBreakfast he visited the Chesham and Amersham constituency 16-times during the by-election campaign. More: https://bbc.in/3wCxkBk" (Tweet). Archived from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021 – via Twitter. ^ "Election results for Chesham & Amersham, 17 June 2021". Buckinghamshire Council. 17 June 2021. Archived from the original on 18 June 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ Hughes, David (17 June 2021). "Polls close in 'knife-edge' Chesham and Amersham by-election". Evening Standard. Archived from the original on 9 July 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2021. ^ a b GB News (18 June 2021). "John Curtice: By-election result is 'warning for Conservatives'". YouTube. Archived from the original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 18 June 2021. ^ Rea, Ailbhe (17 June 2021). "Are the Conservatives about to suffer defeat in the "Blue Wall"?". www.newstatesman.com. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021. ^ Savage, Michael; Helm, Toby; Tapper, James (19 June 2021). "The blue wall: what next for the Tories after a shock byelection defeat?". the Guardian. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021. ^ Jeffrey, Luke (18 June 2021). "Crumbling in the Blue Wall: The picture after Chesham and Amersham". Politics.co.uk. Archived from the original on 19 June 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021. ^ "Chesham & Amersham Parliamentary constituency". BBC News. BBC. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021. vte« 57th Parliament « By-elections to the 58th Parliament of the United Kingdom » — »2021 May: Hartlepool Airdrie and Shotts June: Chesham and Amersham July: Batley and Spen December: Old Bexley and Sidcup North Shropshire 2022 February: Southend West March: Birmingham Erdington June: Tiverton and Honiton Wakefield December: City of Chester Stretford and Urmston 2023 February: West Lancashire July: Selby and Ainsty Somerton and Frome Uxbridge and South Ruislip October: Rutherglen and Hamilton West Mid Bedfordshire Tamworth 2024 February: Kingswood Wellingborough Rochdale May: Blackpool South Lists of UK by-elections 1801–1806 1806–1818 1818–1832 1832–1847 1847–1857 1857–1868 1868–1885 1885–1900 1900–1918 1918–1931 1931–1950 1950–1979 1979–2010 2010–present Northern Ireland Hereditary peers	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"by-election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK_Parliamentary_by-elections"},{"link_name":"Chesham and Amersham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesham_and_Amersham_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Dame Cheryl Gillan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheryl_Gillan"},{"link_name":"1992","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Liberal Democrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Sarah Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Green_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"North Shropshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_North_Shropshire_by-election"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Tiverton and Honiton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Tiverton_and_Honiton_by-election"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Somerton and Frome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_Somerton_and_Frome_by-election"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"A by-election was held in the United Kingdom Parliament constituency of Chesham and Amersham on 17 June 2021, following the death of the sitting member, Dame Cheryl Gillan, on 4 April 2021. Gillan had served as MP for the constituency since 1992.[2] The by-election was the third to the 58th Parliament, which was elected in 2019.[3]The Liberal Democrat candidate, Sarah Green, won the by-election with 56.7% of the vote and a swing from the Conservatives of 25.2%. This is the first time a non-Conservative candidate has won this seat since its formation in 1974.[4]This was the first of four by-elections won by the Liberal Democrats in this parliament; they subsequently won the by-elections in North Shropshire, in December 2021,[5] in Tiverton and Honiton, in June 2022,[6] and in Somerton and Frome, in July 2023.[7]","title":"2021 Chesham and Amersham by-election"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chesham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesham"},{"link_name":"Amersham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amersham"},{"link_name":"February 1974 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/February_1974_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Buckinghamshire Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckinghamshire_Council"},{"link_name":"Chiltern District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiltern_District"},{"link_name":"commuter belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_belt"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-govlabourmarketstats-8"}],"sub_title":"Constituency","text":"Chesham and Amersham, named after the market towns of Chesham and Amersham in the constituency, was held by the Conservative Party since its creation at the February 1974 election until the by-election. The local authority is Buckinghamshire Council and the seat is coterminous with the abolished Chiltern District. The area is in the London commuter belt, and is home to many affluent professionals.[8]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"EU membership referendum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Results_of_the_2016_United_Kingdom_European_Union_membership_referendum#South_East_England"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"2019 European Parliament elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_European_Parliament_election_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Brexit Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brexit_Party"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"2019 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"History","text":"In June 2016, 55% of voters in the coterminous Chiltern District voted to remain in the European Union (EU) in the EU membership referendum. The estimated turnout of 83.6% was the highest figure for any constituency in the UK, with only Gibraltar reporting a higher percentage.[9] At the 2019 European Parliament elections, the pro-EU Liberal Democrats were the most popular party in the Chiltern District with 31.9%, with the pro-Leave Brexit Party in second place with 30%.[10] Despite the seat voting Remain, Gillan, a supporter of Brexit, was re-elected with over half the vote in both the general elections following the referendum. Following the 2019 election, it was the Liberal Democrats' 51st target going into the next election, requiring a swing of 14.6 to win.[11]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Liberal Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Democrats_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Sarah Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarah_Green_(politician)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-libdem_green-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_green-13"},{"link_name":"Ynys Môn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynys_M%C3%B4n_(UK_Parliament_constituency)#Elections_in_the_2000s"},{"link_name":"2005 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2005_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"MIDR Cymru (now Welsh Young Liberals)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Young_Liberals#List_of_Chairs"},{"link_name":"Arfon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arfon_(UK_Parliament_constituency)#Elections_in_the_2010s"},{"link_name":"2010","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"Conservative Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_fleet-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conhome_fleet-15"},{"link_name":"Southampton Itchen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southampton_Itchen_(UK_Parliament_constituency)#Elections_in_the_1990s"},{"link_name":"1997 general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1997_United_Kingdom_general_election"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fleet_itchen-16"},{"link_name":"Green Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_England_and_Wales"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_culver-17"},{"link_name":"West Berkshire Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Berkshire_Council"},{"link_name":"Breakthrough Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakthrough_Party"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_gregory-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"Slough Borough Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slough_Borough_Council"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_pantelic-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-labourlist_pantelic-21"},{"link_name":"Camden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Borough_of_Camden"},{"link_name":"2006 election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2006_Camden_London_Borough_Council_election"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Reform UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reform_UK"},{"link_name":"Alex Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Wilson_(British_politician)"},{"link_name":"HS2 Ltd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Speed_2"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-23"},{"link_name":"Brendan Donnelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brendan_Donnelly_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Member of European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_European_Parliament"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-23"}],"sub_title":"Candidates","text":"Liberal Democrats – Sarah Green, a training and communications professional.[12][13] Green was the party's candidate in Ynys Môn in the 2005 general election, coming fifth with 6.8% of the vote (while serving as Chair of MIDR Cymru (now Welsh Young Liberals)), and Arfon in North Wales in 2010, coming fourth, with 14.1% of the vote.\nConservative Party – Peter Fleet, Chairman of the Retail Automotive Alliance and former president of Ford Asia Pacific.[14][15] Fleet was the Conservative candidate for Southampton Itchen in the 1997 general election, and came second with 28.4% of the vote.[16]\nGreen Party – Carolyne Culver,[17] Green Party group leader on West Berkshire Council.\nBreakthrough Party – Carla Gregory,[18] a charity worker from the local area.[19]\nLabour Party – Natasa Pantelic, elected member of Slough Borough Council,[20] and its lead member for health and wellbeing.[21]\nFreedom Alliance – Adrian Oliver, former member of the Green Party, elected as a councillor for the Greens in Camden in the 2006 election.[22]\nReform UK – Alex Wilson, who previously worked for HS2 Ltd.[23]\nRejoin EU – Brendan Donnelly, a former Conservative Member of European Parliament.[23]","title":"Campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Phillip Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_Lee_(politician)"},{"link_name":"vote splitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vote_splitting"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bfp_votesplitting-24"},{"link_name":"The Guardian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian"},{"link_name":"Polly Toynbee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polly_Toynbee"},{"link_name":"electoral alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_alliance_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Tactical proposal","text":"On 9 May, former Conservative MP Phillip Lee, who joined the Liberal Democrats before the 2019 election, urged the Labour and Green parties not to stand candidates in the by-election to avoid vote splitting. Lee argued that the Conservative Party would be more likely to lose if the anti-Conservative vote went to the Liberal Democrat candidate alone.[24] Writing in The Guardian on 14 May, columnist Polly Toynbee also called for an electoral alliance of the Liberal Democrats, Labour and the Green Party to beat the Conservatives.[25] However, all three parties contested the by-election.","title":"Campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"writ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writ_of_election"},{"link_name":"Government Chief Whip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Whip_of_the_Conservative_Party"},{"link_name":"Mark Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Spencer_(British_politician)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-writ_parllive-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-writ_hansard-27"},{"link_name":"The Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Independent"},{"link_name":"tactically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactical_voting"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"City A.M.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_A.M."},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Ed Davey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ed_Davey"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"non-primary source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:No_original_research#Primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_sources"}],"sub_title":"Writ and polls","text":"On 12 May, the writ for the by-election was moved in the House of Commons by Government Chief Whip Mark Spencer.[26][27]On 30 May, The Independent reported that internal party polling by the Liberal Democrats put the Conservatives on 45.5% and the Liberal Democrats on 35.1%, a swing of 9.35% to them. The same survey also found 60% of Labour and Green voters were willing to vote tactically.[28] Further internal party polling by the Liberal Democrats, reported by City A.M., found a closer margin, with the Conservatives on 45% and the Liberal Democrats on 41%. Despite these figures, YouGov's director of political research said \"the by-election will be tough to win for the Lib Dems\" due to the party putting itself up against a \"popular government\", unlike when it had won by-elections in the past.[29] Lib Dem leader Ed Davey said that he visited the constituency 16 times during the campaign.[30][non-primary source needed]","title":"Campaign"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2021_Chesham_and_Amersham_by-election.svg"}],"text":"Bar chart of the election result.","title":"Results"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"John Curtice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Curtice"},{"link_name":"University of Strathclyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Strathclyde"},{"link_name":"1991 Ribble Valley by-election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991_Ribble_Valley_by-election"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-profjc-33"},{"link_name":"wider difficulties for the Conservative Party across the south of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_wall_(British_politics)"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"lowest ever share of the vote in a Westminster election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_by-election_records#Lowest_share_of_the_vote"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-profjc-33"}],"sub_title":"Response","text":"The results shocked the political landscape, as politicians and pundits had predicted a Conservative win in the run-up to the by-election.[32] John Curtice, Professor of Politics at the University of Strathclyde, expressed the view that the Liberal Democrats overperformed and compared the by-election to the 1991 Ribble Valley by-election, in which the Liberal Democrats gained a Conservative seat because of local issues. He relayed some locals were \"hearing the Conservatives talking endlessly, talking about 'levelling up' – wondering really, well what is, quite, in it for us?\"[33] Some commentators suggested the result may indicate wider difficulties for the Conservative Party across the south of England, drawing comparisons to the Labour Party's problems holding on to many of its older bases of support.[34][35][36]This was the lowest ever share of the vote in a Westminster election by a Labour Party candidate.[33]","title":"Results"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Previous result"}]	[{"image_text":"Bar chart of the election result.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/2021_Chesham_and_Amersham_by-election.svg/320px-2021_Chesham_and_Amersham_by-election.svg.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Election timetable and notices\". Buckinghamshire Council. Archived from the original on 17 May 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.buckinghamshire.gov.uk/your-council/council-and-democracy/election-and-voting/election-timetable-and-notices/","url_text":"\"Election timetable and notices\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210517022522/https://www.buckinghamshire.gov.uk/your-council/council-and-democracy/election-and-voting/election-timetable-and-notices/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Mikey (5 April 2021). \"Tory MP Dame Cheryl Gillan dies aged 68\". Daily Mirror. Reach plc. Archived from the original on 5 April 2021. Retrieved 5 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/breaking-tory-mp-dame-cheryl-23856534","url_text":"\"Tory MP Dame Cheryl Gillan dies aged 68\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Mirror","url_text":"Daily Mirror"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reach_plc","url_text":"Reach plc"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210405141445/https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/politics/breaking-tory-mp-dame-cheryl-23856534","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"By-elections since the 2019 General Election\". UK Parliament. Archived from the original on 9 May 2021. 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Retrieved 18 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jun/18/lib-dems-win-chesham-and-amersham-byelection-in-stunning-upset","url_text":"\"Lib Dems win Chesham and Amersham byelection in stunning upset\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210618151512/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jun/18/lib-dems-win-chesham-and-amersham-byelection-in-stunning-upset","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tories lose North Shropshire seat they held for nearly 200 years\". BBC News. 17 December 2021. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 30 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-shropshire-59693102","url_text":"\"Tories lose North Shropshire seat they held for nearly 200 years\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211217084843/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-shropshire-59693102","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Walker, Peter (24 June 2022). \"Tories lose two key byelections on same night in Wakefield and Tiverton and Honiton\". The Guardian. Retrieved 30 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2022/jun/24/tories-lose-byelections-wakefield-tiverton-honiton-labour-lib-dems","url_text":"\"Tories lose two key byelections on same night in Wakefield and Tiverton and Honiton\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"Somerton win means there are 10 Lib Dem women MPs in Commons\". BBC News. 21 July 2023. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 22 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66266685","url_text":"\"Somerton win means there are 10 Lib Dem women MPs in Commons\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211217084843/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-66266685","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"April 2021 constituency reports: Chesham and Amersham\". Nomis: Official Labour Market Statistics. Office for National Statistics. Archived from the original on 2 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210602220309/http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/lmp/wpca/1929379942/report.aspx#tabwab","url_text":"\"April 2021 constituency reports: Chesham and Amersham\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_for_National_Statistics","url_text":"Office for National Statistics"},{"url":"http://www.nomisweb.co.uk/reports/lmp/wpca/1929379942/report.aspx#tabwab","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"EU Referendum Results and Turnout\". Electoral Commission. 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Retrieved 6 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.libdemvoice.org/sarah-green-selected-for-chesham-amersham-67612.html","url_text":"\"Sarah Green selected for Chesham & Amersham\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210506032423/https://www.libdemvoice.org/sarah-green-selected-for-chesham-amersham-67612.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sheth Trivedi, Shruti (10 May 2021). \"Lib Dem candidate joins race to replace late MP Dame Cheryl Gillan\". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 10 May 2021. Retrieved 10 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/news/19291149.chesham-amersham-by-election-lib-dems-announce-candidate-replace-late-mp-dame-cheryl-gillan/","url_text":"\"Lib Dem candidate joins race to replace late MP Dame Cheryl Gillan\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210510132401/https://www.bucksfreepress.co.uk/news/19291149.chesham-amersham-by-election-lib-dems-announce-candidate-replace-late-mp-dame-cheryl-gillan/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sheth Trivedi, Shruti (6 May 2021). \"Conservatives name man who could replace Dame Cheryl Gillan as MP\". Bucks Free Press. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. 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do\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210514014954/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/may/13/labour-party-deals-seats-chesham-amersham-byelection","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://parliamentlive.tv/event/index/68a53c44-3b1e-4ecc-ad47-72a2aa5c0cba?in=11:35:15&out=11:36:15","external_links_name":"\"House of Commons – Wednesday 12 May 2021\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210512134429/https://parliamentlive.tv/event/index/68a53c44-3b1e-4ecc-ad47-72a2aa5c0cba?in=11:35:15&out=11:36:15","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2021-05-12/debates/7BF80026-702F-4671-9D71-F8EF581C6842/Speaker%E2%80%99SStatement","external_links_name":"\"Speaker's Statement – Wednesday 12 May 2021 – Hansard\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210513124401/https://hansard.parliament.uk/commons/2021-05-12/debates/7BF80026-702F-4671-9D71-F8EF581C6842/Speaker%E2%80%99SStatement","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chesham-amersham-byelection-libdems-davey-b1856301.html","external_links_name":"\"Discontent in Tory shires over PM's focus on 'Red Wall' fuels Lib Dem hopes of by-election breakthrough\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210530003510/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chesham-amersham-byelection-libdems-davey-b1856301.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.cityam.com/exclusive-polling-puts-lib-dems-four-points-behind-tories-in-chesham-and-amersham-by-election","external_links_name":"\"Exclusive: Lib Dems and Tories neck-and-neck in Chesham and Amersham by-election poll\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210615171022/https://www.cityam.com/exclusive-polling-puts-lib-dems-four-points-behind-tories-in-chesham-and-amersham-by-election/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://x.com/BBCBreakfast/status/1405770178785210368","external_links_name":"\"\"The Conservatives are doing well in the polls but the lead is fragile\" Lib Dem leader Sir Ed Davey tells #BBCBreakfast he visited the Chesham and Amersham constituency 16-times during the by-election campaign. More: https://bbc.in/3wCxkBk\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20210618094655/https://twitter.com/BBCBreakfast/status/1405770178785210368","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://buckinghamshire.moderngov.co.uk/mgElectionAreaResults.aspx?ID=50","external_links_name":"\"Election results for Chesham & Amersham, 17 June 2021\""},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20210618094542/https://buckinghamshire.moderngov.co.uk/mgElectionAreaResults.aspx?ID=50","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/chesham-liberal-democrats-amersham-polls-cheryl-gillan-b941268.html","external_links_name":"\"Polls close in 'knife-edge' Chesham and Amersham by-election\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182305/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/uk/chesham-liberal-democrats-amersham-polls-cheryl-gillan-b941268.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwpkgaFPZnU&t=294s","external_links_name":"\"John Curtice: By-election result is 'warning for Conservatives'\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210624211116/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AwpkgaFPZnU&t=294s","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/elections/2021/06/are-conservatives-about-suffer-defeat-blue-wall","external_links_name":"\"Are the Conservatives about to suffer defeat in the \"Blue Wall\"?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210619181703/https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/elections/2021/06/are-conservatives-about-suffer-defeat-blue-wall","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jun/19/the-blue-wall-what-next-for-the-tories-after-a-shock-byelection-defeat","external_links_name":"\"The blue wall: what next for the Tories after a shock byelection defeat?\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210619174107/https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2021/jun/19/the-blue-wall-what-next-for-the-tories-after-a-shock-byelection-defeat","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.politics.co.uk/comment/2021/06/18/crumbling-in-the-blue-wall-the-picture-after-chesham-and-amersham/","external_links_name":"\"Crumbling in the Blue Wall: The picture after Chesham and Amersham\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210619104941/https://www.politics.co.uk/comment/2021/06/18/crumbling-in-the-blue-wall-the-picture-after-chesham-and-amersham/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000631","external_links_name":"\"Chesham & Amersham Parliamentary constituency\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210503150437/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/politics/constituencies/E14000631","external_links_name":"Archived"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_City_Daily_Globe	Dodge City Daily Globe	["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	Newspaper in Dodge City, Kansas Dodge City Daily GlobeTypeDaily newspaperFormatBroadsheetOwner(s)CherryRoad MediaPublisherDena SattlerEditorVincent MarshallFounded1878, as Ford County GlobeHeadquarters705 Second Avenue,Dodge City, Kansas 67801, United StatesCirculation2,149ISSN0889-3489WebsiteDodgeGlobe.com The Dodge City Daily Globe is a daily newspaper based in Dodge City, Kansas, United States, and owned by CherryRoad Media. History The paper was founded in 1878 as the Ford County Globe. It was retitled as the Globe Live Stock Journal in 1884, and merged with the Ford County Republican in 1889 to become the Globe-Republican. Jess C. Denious (b. July 14, 1879, d. Dec. 1, 1953) acquired the paper in 1910 and changed the name to the Daily Globe. He remained as publisher until his death in 1953. Denious also served in the Kansas Senate (1933–40) and as the 29th Lieutenant Governor of Kansas from 1943 to 1947. The paper remained in the family until July 1988, when it was sold to Stauffer Communications (of Topeka, Kansas). Martha E. Muncy (daughter of J.C. and Juilet Denious), who had served as publisher since 1973, retired at the time of the sale. In 1994, Morris Communications acquired Stauffer, which was then operating 20 daily newspapers (including the Daily Globe) and eight weeklies, in addition to a number of television and radio stations. In 2007, GateHouse Media acquired the paper from Morris Publishing Group as part of a larger sale of papers. See also List of newspapers in Kansas References ^ "Browse Full Member Database \| Kansas Press Association". kspress.com. Retrieved 2023-04-10. ^ a b c Stauffer to buy Kansas paper, Lawrence Journal-World (Associated Press), May 27, 1988 ^ a b The Kansas historical quarterly, Volume 22 (1956) ^ Juliet Denious, 93, Former Publisher, The Wichita Eagle, January 8, 1986 (noting that Juliet served as publisher from 1969-72) ^ Morris buys Stauffer, Fort Scott Tribune, July 27, 1994 ^ GateHouse Media completes acquisition of Morris Publications, Wichita Business Journal, December 4, 2007 ^ Morris Selling Several Kansas Newspapers, WIBW-TV (Associated Press), October 24, 2007 External links Official website vteGannettPeople John Jeffry Louis III (chairman) National assets USA Today Golfweek MMA Junkie Reviewed USA Today Sports Weekly vteGannett regional daily newspapers in the United States Abilene Reporter-News The Advocate Akron Beacon Journal Alice Echo-News Journal The Alliance Review Amarillo Globe-News The American News Ames Tribune Anderson Independent-Mail Alamogordo Daily News The Ardmoreite Argus Leader 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Leader The News Journal The News-Press The Newton Kansan Northwest Florida Daily News The Oak Ridger Observer-Dispatch The Oklahoman Olney Daily Mail Old Colony Memorial Oshkosh Northwestern Palladium-Item Palm Beach Daily News The Palm Beach Post The Patriot Ledger Pekin Daily Times Pensacola News Journal Petoskey News-Review Pocono Record The Portsmouth Herald The Post-Crescent Poughkeepsie Journal Press & Sun-Bulletin The Progress-Index The Providence Journal Public Opinion The Pueblo Chieftain The Record Redding Record Searchlight The Register-Mail Reno Gazette-Journal Record-Courier The Record Herald The Reporter The Repository Rockford Register Star The Rolla Daily News The St. Augustine Record St. Cloud Times The Salina Journal The Salinas Californian San Angelo Standard-Times Sarasota Herald-Tribune Savannah Morning News The Shawnee News-Star The Sheboygan Press The Shelby Star Siskiyou Daily News South Bend Tribune Southwest Times Record Spartanburg Herald-Journal The Spectrum Springfield News-Leader The Standard-Times Star-Banner Star Courier Star-Gazette Star-News The Star Press The State Journal-Register Statesman Journal Stuart News Sturgis Journal Sun Journal (New Bern, North Carolina) Taunton Daily Gazette Telegram & Gazette The Tennessean The Times (Shreveport) The Times Herald Times Herald-Record Times-News (Hendersonville) The Times-News (Burlington) Times Record News Times Recorder The Times-Reporter The Times Telegram The Topeka Capital-Journal Treasure Coast Newspapers The Tribune-Democrat The Tuscaloosa News Ventura County Star Vero Beach Press Journal Watertown Public Opinion Wausau Daily Herald The Wayne Independent The Wellington Daily News Wellsville Daily Reporter Wisconsin Rapids Daily Tribune York Daily Record vteBridgeTower Media business publications in the United States Arizona Capitol Times Casual Living Central Penn Business Journal Charleston Regional Business Journal Columbia Regional Business Report The Countian – Jefferson County The Countian – St. Louis Daily Journal of Commerce (Oregon) Daily Journal of Commerce (Louisiana) Daily Record (Baltimore) The Daily Record (Rochester) The Daily Record – Kansas City The Daily Reporter Designers Today Finance & Commerce Furniture Today GSA Business Gifts & Decorative Accessories Home Accents Today Home Furnishings News Home Textiles Today Idaho Business Review The Journal Record Lehigh Valley Business Long Island Business News Massachusetts Lawyers Weekly The Mecklenburg Times Michigan Lawyers Weekly Minnesota Lawyer Missouri Lawyers Weekly NJBIZ New Orleans CityBusiness North Carolina Lawyers Weekly Pet Age Rhode Island Lawyers Weekly Rochester Business Journal SCBIZ South Carolina Lawyers Weekly St. Charles County Business Record St. Louis Daily Record Virginia Lawyers Weekly Wisconsin Law Journal vteNewsquest daily newspapers in the United Kingdom The Argus, Brighton The Bolton News Telegraph & Argus, Bradford Daily Gazette, Colchester Bournemouth Daily Echo Dorset Echo Echo, Basildon, Essex Evening Times Greenock Telegraph The Herald, Glasgow News Shopper, South East London & North West Kent Lancashire Telegraph Oxford Mail The National, Scotland * The National, Wales The Northern Echo Darlington & Stockton Times The Press, York Southern Daily Echo, Southampton South Wales Argus Swindon Advertiser Worcester News Predecessors Archant GateHouse Media American Consolidated Media Calkins Media Community Newspaper Company Halifax Media Group Hathaway Publishing Local Media Group Schurz Communications Stephens Media Journal Media Group	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"daily newspaper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_newspaper"},{"link_name":"Dodge City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodge_City,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"CherryRoad Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CherryRoad_Media"}],"text":"The Dodge City Daily Globe is a daily newspaper based in Dodge City, Kansas, United States, and owned by CherryRoad Media.","title":"Dodge City Daily Globe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88hist1-2"},{"link_name":"Jess C. Denious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jess_C._Denious"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-quarter1-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88hist1-2"},{"link_name":"Kansas Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_Senate"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Governor of Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Governor_of_Kansas"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-quarter1-3"},{"link_name":"Stauffer Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stauffer_Communications"},{"link_name":"Topeka, Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topeka,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-juliet-4"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88hist1-2"},{"link_name":"Morris Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_Communications"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1994sale-5"},{"link_name":"GateHouse Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GateHouse_Media"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97sale1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97saleibw-7"}],"text":"The paper was founded in 1878 as the Ford County Globe. It was retitled as the Globe Live Stock Journal in 1884, and merged with the Ford County Republican in 1889 to become the Globe-Republican.[2]Jess C. Denious (b. July 14, 1879, d. Dec. 1, 1953)[3] acquired the paper in 1910 and changed the name to the Daily Globe. He remained as publisher until his death in 1953.[2] Denious also served in the Kansas Senate (1933–40) and as the 29th Lieutenant Governor of Kansas from 1943 to 1947.[3] The paper remained in the family until July 1988, when it was sold to Stauffer Communications (of Topeka, Kansas). Martha E. Muncy (daughter of J.C. and Juilet Denious[4]), who had served as publisher since 1973, retired at the time of the sale.[2]In 1994, Morris Communications acquired Stauffer, which was then operating 20 daily newspapers (including the Daily Globe) and eight weeklies, in addition to a number of television and radio stations.[5] In 2007, GateHouse Media acquired the paper from Morris Publishing Group as part of a larger sale of papers.[6][7]","title":"History"}]	[]	[{"title":"List of newspapers in Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Kansas"}]	[{"reference":"\"Browse Full Member Database \| Kansas Press Association\". kspress.com. Retrieved 2023-04-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://kspress.com/directory/browse-full-member-database","url_text":"\"Browse Full Member Database \| Kansas Press Association\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0889-3489","external_links_name":"0889-3489"},{"Link":"http://www.dodgeglobe.com/","external_links_name":"DodgeGlobe.com"},{"Link":"https://kspress.com/directory/browse-full-member-database","external_links_name":"\"Browse Full Member Database \| Kansas Press Association\""},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=otMzAAAAIBAJ&sjid=cuYFAAAAIBAJ&pg=4927,6995059","external_links_name":"Stauffer to buy Kansas paper"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dy8UAAAAYAAJ&q=%22jess+denious%22+governor","external_links_name":"The Kansas historical quarterly, Volume 22"},{"Link":"http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=WE&s_site=kansas&p_multi=WE&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EADB2C1B8C23925&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM","external_links_name":"Juliet Denious, 93, Former Publisher"},{"Link":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=mfYfAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nfwEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1368,3973284&dq=dodge+city+daily+globe+morris&hl=en","external_links_name":"Morris buys Stauffer"},{"Link":"http://www.bizjournals.com/wichita/stories/2007/12/03/daily3.html","external_links_name":"GateHouse Media completes acquisition of Morris Publications"},{"Link":"http://www.wibw.com/home/headlines/10765406.html","external_links_name":"Morris Selling Several Kansas Newspapers"},{"Link":"http://www.dodgeglobe.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Damaskinos	Michael Damaskinos	["1 Life and work","2 San Giorgio dei Greci","3 Gallery","3.1 Traditional","3.2 Venetian Cretan School","4 Notable works","5 See also","6 External links","7 References","8 Bibliography"]	For other people with the same name, see Damaskinos (disambiguation). Greek painter Michael DamaskinosMichael DamaskinosBorn1530/35CreteDied1592/93CreteNationalityGreekMovementCretan SchoolPatron(s)San Giorgio dei Greci Years active1550-1593EraItalian RenaissanceStyleManiera Greca Michael Damaskenos or Michail Damaskenos (also Damaskinos) (Greek: Μιχαήλ Δαμασκηνός, 1530/35–1592/93) was a leading post-Byzantine Cretan painter. He is a major representative of the Cretan School of painting that flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries. Painters Georgios Klontzas and Damaskenos were major contributors to the Cretan School during the same period. Damaskinos traveled all over the Venetian Empire painting. He remained loyal to his Greek roots stylistically but incorporated some Italian elements in his work. He was strongly influenced by the Venetian school. He painted parts of the Cathedral of San Giorgio dei Greci. Damaskenos has 100 known works. He influenced the works of Theodore Poulakis. Life and work The Crucifixion of St Andrew late 1500s Damaskinos was born in Candia (Herakleion), his father was George Damaskinos. According to legend, Damaskinos spent some time living and working in Vrontisi Monastery, where six of his icons were kept until 1800. Damaskinos moved to Venice in the 1560s, while he was there he learned miniature painting. He traveled extensively throughout Italy. From contracts we know he briefly stayed in Sicily from 1569 to 1571. Afterward, he traveled back to Venice. He was a member of the Greek Brotherhood of Venice from 1577 to 1582. He painted icons for the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of San Giorgio dei Greci in Venice. He tried to become a member of the council of the confraternity. He was unsuccessful. During the same period, he worked for both Catholic institutions and executed private commissions. He became friends with sculptor Alessandro Vittoria. He sold a collection of drawings to him which he amassed from other Italian artists. Namely the Mannerist Parmigianino. He was also familiar with Palma Giovane and may have had some contact with the workshop of Tintoretto. Some of his works are clearly influenced by Paolo Veronese, Tintoretto and Titian. Many of the Greek painters were influenced by the Venetian school. He returned to Candia around 1583. His only daughter Antonia married painter Ioannis Mavrikas-Mandouphos or Yannas Mantoufos. Damaskinos stayed in Greece and worked mainly in Crete and the Ionian Islands. He was invited to return to Venice by the Greek Orthodox Confraternity. They wanted to commission him to paint the dome of San Giorgio dei Greci. He declined the invitations for personal reasons. Extensive work was later completed at the church San Giorgio dei Greci by famous painter Emmanuel Tzane-Bounialis. He was influenced by Damaskinos. Damaskinos works were characteristic of the traditional Byzantine style. He used a particular rose color that characterized his paintings, his figure dimensions were defined by only a few brush strokes. He drew on wood but never marble thrones which was typical in the Cretan School. Damaskinos was also the first artist to introduce paler flesh tones to post-Byzantine painting and it was one of the stylistic features of his work which proved highly influential from the second half of the sixteenth century and onwards. Damaskinos signed his works: ΧΕΙΡ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΤΟΥ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ or ΧΕΙΡ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ, ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΧΕΙΡ or even ΠΟΙΗΜΑ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΤΟΥ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ (creation of Michael Damaskinos). Damaskinos worked extensively on the Ionian Islands. He contributed to the fusion of the Cretan and the Heptanese School of painting. He influenced the works of Theodore Poulakis. Famous Greek Painter and theorist Panagiotis Doxaras in his book The Art of Painting published in 1720 considered Damaskinos to be one of the most important painters. San Giorgio dei Greci Iconostasis of San Giorgio dei Greci Twenty-five of his major paintings are located in Venice. Damaskinos completed works for the church San Giorgio dei Greci between 1560 and 1583. Twenty of his works are part of the church San Giorgio dei Greci. Eighteen of his paintings are part of the iconostasis. The Archangel Michael is portrayed in one of the icons. The dodekaorto also known as the Great feasts in the Eastern Orthodox Church is featured in nine of the paintings. Two of his paintings are behind the iconostasis within the holy sanctuary. The Hellenic Institute of Venice has four of his paintings. The research facility and museum are associated with San Giorgio dei Greci. One of his paintings Wedding at Cana is part of the collection at the Museo Correr in Venice. Gallery Traditional Four military saints John the Angel of Desert Saint George and Saint Demetrius Saint Athanasius Saint Luke and the Virgin Mary Divine Liturgy The First Council of Nicea Arius - detail of Byzantine icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea Venetian Cretan School The Wedding of Cana The Beheading of St John the Baptist The Last Supper Saints Sergius, Bacchus and Justina Notable works The Last Supper (Damaskinos) Wedding at Cana (Damaskinos) Crucifixion of Saint Andrew (Damaskinos) Adoration of the Kings (Damaskinos) Stoning of Stephen (Damaskinos) Virgin of the Burning Bush (Damaskinos) Tribute to the Eucharist (Damaskinos) See also Cretan School Heptanese School Byzantine art Maniera greca External links Museum of St. Catherine/Museum of Christian Art in Heraklion The painter Michael Damaskenos Cretan Icon Painting up to the Fall of Candia The work of Michael Damaskinos by S. Peponakis-in Greek Istituto Ellenico di Studi Byzantini and Postbyzantini di Venezia Collection of Agia Aikaterini of Sinai Byzantium: faith and power (1261-1557), an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Damaskinos (see index) References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Michael Damaskinos. ^ Patrick Comerford (June 27, 2009). "The Cretan School of Icons and its contribution to Western Art". An Online journal on Anglicanism, Theology, Spirituality. Retrieved May 25, 2021. ^ Speake, Graham (2021). Michael Damaskinos Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. London And New York: Rutledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 443-444. ^ Eugenia Drakopoulou (June 18, 2021). "Damaskinos Michail". Institute for Neohellenic Research. Retrieved June 18, 2021. ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ Greek Icon Painting (1927) J. Stuart Hay, Leonard Bower The Burlington Magazine for Connoisseurs, 51,(292);pp: 8-9 and 12-14 ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443 ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ 2000_ΑΥΓΟΥΣΤΟΣ-ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΣ Archived 2007-09-28 at the Wayback Machine ^ A winged St John the Baptist icon in the British Museum (2003) Angeliki Lymberopoulou Apollo ^ "Cretan portable icons". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-07-31. ^ Speake, 2021, p. 443-444 ^ Drakopoulou 2010, p. 238. Bibliography Drakopoulou, Evgenia (2010). Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830). Τόμος 3: Αβέρκιος - Ιωσήφ . Athens, Greece: Center for Modern Greek Studies, National Research Foundation. ISBN 978-960-7916-94-5. Tselenti-Papadopoulou, Niki G. (2002). Οι Εικονες της Ελληνικης Αδελφοτητας της Βενετιας απο το 16ο εως το Πρωτο Μισο του 20ου Αιωνα: Αρχειακη Τεκμηριωση . Athens: Ministry of Culture Publication of the Archaeological Bulletin No. 81. ISBN 960-214-221-9. vteCretan RenaissancePrincipal proponents El Greco Georgios Klontzas Michael Damaskinos Andreas Pavias Angelos Akotantos Andreas Ritzos Nikolaos Tzafouris Michael Fokas Other artists Thomas Bathas Markos Bathas Theophanes the Cretan Frangos Katelanos Ioannis Permeniates Angelos Pitzamanos Nikolaos Lampoudis Antonios Papadopoulos Ioannis Apakas Euphrosynos Nikolaos Ritzos Nikolaos Philanthropinos Major works The Virgin Eleousa (1425–1457) Saint Anne with the Virgin (1425–1457) Christ the Vine (1425–1457) The Virgin Pantanassa (1436–1492) Jesus Hominum Salvator (1436–1492) The Crucifixion (Pavias) (c. 1440–1512) Christ Bearing the Cross (1487–1501) Madre della Consolazione (1490) Nursing Madonna and Child (Permeniates) (1520–1530) Madonna of Constantinople (1530) Adoration of the Magi (El Greco) (1565–1567) Dormition of the Virgin (El Greco) (1565–1566) Modena Triptych (1568) In Thee Rejoiceth (Klontzas) (1560–1608) Adoration of the Kings (Damaskinos) (c. 1587–1591) The Last Supper (Damaskinos) (1587–1591) The Last Judgement Triptych (Klontzas) 1560–1608 Beheading of John the Baptist (Damaskinos) (1590) Virgin Nikopoios (1594) Stoning of Stephen (Damaskinos) (1591) Vision of the Apocalypse (Bathas) (1596) Portrait of Gabriel Severus (1577–1599) Related Hellenic Institute Venice Manolis Hatzidakis Institute of Neohellenic Research vteMichael DamaskinosPaintings Wedding at Cana (c. 1560–1570) Tribute to the Eucharist (c. 1550–1593) Crucifixion of Saint Andrew (c. 1545–1593) Virgin of the Burning Bush (c. 1586–1591) Adoration of the Kings (c. 1586–1591) Beheading of John the Baptist (c. 1590) The Last Supper (c. 1591) Stoning of Stephen (c. 1591) Churchs San Giorgio dei Greci Related Cretan School Venetian painting Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National Spain Germany Artists RKD Artists ULAN People Italian People Deutsche Biographie	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Damaskinos (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damaskinos_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Cretan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"painter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Venetian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Theodore Poulakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Poulakis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-core-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"For other people with the same name, see Damaskinos (disambiguation).Greek painterMichael Damaskenos or Michail Damaskenos (also Damaskinos) (Greek: Μιχαήλ Δαμασκηνός, 1530/35–1592/93) was a leading post-Byzantine Cretan painter. He is a major representative of the Cretan School of painting that flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries. Painters Georgios Klontzas and Damaskenos were major contributors to the Cretan School during the same period. Damaskinos traveled all over the Venetian Empire painting. He remained loyal to his Greek roots stylistically but incorporated some Italian elements in his work. He was strongly influenced by the Venetian school. He painted parts of the Cathedral of San Giorgio dei Greci. Damaskenos has 100 known works. He influenced the works of Theodore Poulakis.[1][2][3]","title":"Michael Damaskinos"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Crucifixion_of_St_Andrew_by_Michael_Damaskenos_(Byzantine_museum).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Crucifixion of St Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Andrew_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Herakleion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herakleion"},{"link_name":"George Damaskinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_Damaskinos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Vrontisi Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vrontisi_Monastery"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"miniature painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_miniature"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Greek Brotherhood of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scuola_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Greek Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Orthodox"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Alessandro Vittoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandro_Vittoria"},{"link_name":"Parmigianino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parmigianino"},{"link_name":"Palma Giovane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palma_Giovane"},{"link_name":"Tintoretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto"},{"link_name":"Paolo Veronese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Veronese"},{"link_name":"Tintoretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tintoretto"},{"link_name":"Titian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titian"},{"link_name":"Venetian school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Tzane-Bounialis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Tzanes"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Cretan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Heptanese School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanese_School_(painting)"},{"link_name":"Theodore Poulakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Poulakis"},{"link_name":"Panagiotis Doxaras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panagiotis_Doxaras"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Crucifixion of St Andrew late 1500sDamaskinos was born in Candia (Herakleion), his father was George Damaskinos. According to legend, Damaskinos spent some time living and working in Vrontisi Monastery, where six of his icons were kept until 1800. Damaskinos moved to Venice in the 1560s, while he was there he learned miniature painting.[4]He traveled extensively throughout Italy.[5] From contracts we know he briefly stayed in Sicily from 1569 to 1571. Afterward, he traveled back to Venice. He was a member of the Greek Brotherhood of Venice from 1577 to 1582. He painted icons for the Greek Orthodox Cathedral of San Giorgio dei Greci in Venice. He tried to become a member of the council of the confraternity. He was unsuccessful. During the same period, he worked for both Catholic institutions and executed private commissions.[6]He became friends with sculptor Alessandro Vittoria. He sold a collection of drawings to him which he amassed from other Italian artists. Namely the Mannerist Parmigianino. He was also familiar with Palma Giovane and may have had some contact with the workshop of Tintoretto. Some of his works are clearly influenced by Paolo Veronese, \nTintoretto and Titian. Many of the Greek painters were influenced by the Venetian school. He returned to Candia around 1583.[7]His only daughter Antonia married painter Ioannis Mavrikas-Mandouphos or Yannas Mantoufos. Damaskinos stayed in Greece and worked mainly in Crete and the Ionian Islands. He was invited to return to Venice by the Greek Orthodox Confraternity. They wanted to commission him to paint the dome of San Giorgio dei Greci. He declined the invitations for personal reasons.[8] Extensive work was later completed at the church San Giorgio dei Greci by famous painter Emmanuel Tzane-Bounialis. He was influenced by Damaskinos.[9]Damaskinos works were characteristic of the traditional Byzantine style. He used a particular rose color that characterized his paintings, his figure dimensions were defined by only a few brush strokes.[10] He drew on wood but never marble thrones which was typical in the Cretan School.[11] Damaskinos was also the first artist to introduce paler flesh tones to post-Byzantine painting and it was one of the stylistic features of his work which proved highly influential from the second half of the sixteenth century and onwards.[12]Damaskinos signed his works: ΧΕΙΡ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΤΟΥ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ or ΧΕΙΡ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ, ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΧΕΙΡ or even ΠΟΙΗΜΑ ΜΙΧΑΗΛ ΤΟΥ ΔΑΜΑΣΚΗΝΟΥ (creation of Michael Damaskinos).[13] Damaskinos worked extensively on the Ionian Islands. He contributed to the fusion of the Cretan and the Heptanese School of painting. He influenced the works of Theodore Poulakis. Famous Greek Painter and theorist Panagiotis Doxaras in his book The Art of Painting published in 1720 considered Damaskinos to be one of the most important painters.[14]","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chiesa_di_San_Giorgio_dei_Greci,_Venice_(31253923676).jpg"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Great feasts in the Eastern Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_feasts_in_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Hellenic Institute of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Institute_of_Byzantine_and_Post-Byzantine_Studies_in_Venice"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Wedding at Cana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_at_Cana_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Museo Correr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museo_Correr"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrakopoulou2010238-15"}],"text":"Iconostasis of San Giorgio dei GreciTwenty-five of his major paintings are located in Venice. Damaskinos completed works for the church San Giorgio dei Greci between 1560 and 1583. Twenty of his works are part of the church San Giorgio dei Greci. Eighteen of his paintings are part of the iconostasis. The Archangel Michael is portrayed in one of the icons. The dodekaorto also known as the Great feasts in the Eastern Orthodox Church is featured in nine of the paintings. Two of his paintings are behind the iconostasis within the holy sanctuary. The Hellenic Institute of Venice has four of his paintings. The research facility and museum are associated with San Giorgio dei Greci. One of his paintings Wedding at Cana is part of the collection at the Museo Correr in Venice.[15]","title":"San Giorgio dei Greci"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Damaskenos_Michael_-_Four_military_saints_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:John_the_Angel_of_Desert,_circle_of_Michael_Damaskenos_(16th_c.,_Pushkin_museum).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Damaskenos_Saint-George-and-Saint-Demetrius.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:S.Athanasius_by_M.Damaskenos_(late_16th_c.).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saint-Luke-Painting-the-Blessed-Virgin.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:TheiaLeitourgia_MihDamaskinos_MouseioArhiepiskKritis.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%9C%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AE%CE%BB_%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82_-_%CE%91%CE%84_%CE%9F%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%A3%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%BF%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%82_7741.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ariusz.JPG"}],"sub_title":"Traditional","text":"Four military saints\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tJohn the Angel of Desert\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaint George and Saint Demetrius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaint Athanasius\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaint Luke and the Virgin Mary\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDivine Liturgy\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe First Council of Nicea\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tArius - detail of Byzantine icon depicting the First Council of Nicaea","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Le_nozze_di_Cana_-_Michele_Damaskinos_-_Google_Cultural_Institute.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Michael_Damaskinos_The_Beheading_of_St_John_the_Baptist.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%9C%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%B1%CE%AE%CE%BB_%CE%94%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B7%CE%BD%CF%8C%CF%82_-_%CE%9C%CF%85%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82_%CE%94%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%80%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_0631.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Micheal_Damaskinos_Saints_Sergius,_Bacchus_and_Justina_of_Padua.png"}],"sub_title":"Venetian Cretan School","text":"The Wedding of Cana\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Beheading of St John the Baptist\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe Last Supper\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSaints Sergius, Bacchus and Justina","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Last Supper (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Wedding at Cana (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_at_Cana_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Crucifixion of Saint Andrew (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Andrew_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Adoration of the Kings (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration_of_the_Kings_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Stoning of Stephen (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoning_of_Stephen_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Virgin of the Burning Bush (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_of_the_Burning_Bush_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Tribute to the Eucharist (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_to_the_Eucharist_(Damaskinos)"}],"text":"The Last Supper (Damaskinos)\nWedding at Cana (Damaskinos)\nCrucifixion of Saint Andrew (Damaskinos)\nAdoration of the Kings (Damaskinos)\nStoning of Stephen (Damaskinos)\nVirgin of the Burning Bush (Damaskinos)\nTribute to the Eucharist (Damaskinos)","title":"Notable works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830). Τόμος 3: Αβέρκιος - Ιωσήφ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//helios-eie.ekt.gr/EIE/handle/10442/14845"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-960-7916-94-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-7916-94-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"960-214-221-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-214-221-9"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cretan_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Cretan_Renaissance&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cretan_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Cretan Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"El Greco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Greco"},{"link_name":"Georgios Klontzas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Klontzas"},{"link_name":"Michael Damaskinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Andreas Pavias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Pavias"},{"link_name":"Angelos Akotantos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_Akotantos"},{"link_name":"Andreas Ritzos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Ritzos"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Tzafouris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Tzafouris"},{"link_name":"Michael Fokas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Fokas"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bathas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Bathas"},{"link_name":"Markos Bathas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markos_Bathas"},{"link_name":"Theophanes the Cretan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophanes_the_Cretan"},{"link_name":"Frangos Katelanos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frangos_Katelanos"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Permeniates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Permeniates"},{"link_name":"Angelos Pitzamanos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelos_Pitzamanos"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Lampoudis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Lampoudis"},{"link_name":"Antonios Papadopoulos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antonios_Papadopoulos_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Apakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Apakas"},{"link_name":"Euphrosynos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrosynos"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Ritzos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Ritzos"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Philanthropinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Philanthropinos"},{"link_name":"The Virgin Eleousa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Virgin_Eleousa"},{"link_name":"Saint Anne with the Virgin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Anne_with_the_Virgin"},{"link_name":"Christ the Vine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_the_Vine_(Angelo)"},{"link_name":"The Virgin Pantanassa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Virgin_Pantanassa_(Ritzos)"},{"link_name":"Jesus Hominum Salvator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Hominum_Salvator_(Ritzos)"},{"link_name":"The Crucifixion (Pavias)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Crucifixion_(Pavias)"},{"link_name":"Christ Bearing the Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Bearing_the_Cross"},{"link_name":"Madre della Consolazione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madre_della_Consolazione"},{"link_name":"Nursing Madonna and Child (Permeniates)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_and_Child_enthroned_with_St._John_the_Baptist_and_St._Augustine_(Permeniates)"},{"link_name":"Madonna of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madonna_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Adoration of the Magi (El Greco)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration_of_the_Magi_(El_Greco)"},{"link_name":"Dormition of the Virgin (El Greco)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dormition_of_the_Virgin_(El_Greco)"},{"link_name":"Modena Triptych","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modena_Triptych"},{"link_name":"In Thee Rejoiceth (Klontzas)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_Thee_Rejoiceth_(Klontzas)"},{"link_name":"Adoration of the Kings (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration_of_the_Kings_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"The Last Supper (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"The Last Judgement Triptych (Klontzas)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Judgement_Triptych_(Klontzas)"},{"link_name":"Beheading of John the Baptist (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beheading_of_John_the_Baptist_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Virgin Nikopoios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_Nikopoios"},{"link_name":"Stoning of Stephen (Damaskinos)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoning_of_Stephen_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Vision of the Apocalypse (Bathas)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vision_of_the_Apocalypse_(Bathas)"},{"link_name":"Portrait of Gabriel Severus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portrait_of_Gabriel_Severus"},{"link_name":"Hellenic Institute Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Institute_of_Byzantine_and_Post-Byzantine_Studies_in_Venice"},{"link_name":"Manolis Hatzidakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manolis_Hatzidakis"},{"link_name":"Institute of Neohellenic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Hellenic_Research_Foundation"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Michael_Damaskinos"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Michael_Damaskinos"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Michael_Damaskinos"},{"link_name":"Michael Damaskinos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Wedding at Cana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wedding_at_Cana_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Tribute to the Eucharist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribute_to_the_Eucharist_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Crucifixion of Saint Andrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Saint_Andrew_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Virgin of the Burning Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgin_of_the_Burning_Bush_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Adoration of the Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adoration_of_the_Kings_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Beheading of John the Baptist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beheading_of_John_the_Baptist_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"The Last Supper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Supper_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"Stoning of Stephen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoning_of_Stephen_(Damaskinos)"},{"link_name":"San Giorgio dei Greci","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Giorgio_dei_Greci"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Venetian painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetian_painting"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q718276#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/25659733"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/95785931"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1386990"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/128582618"},{"link_name":"RKD Artists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/19833"},{"link_name":"ULAN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500017065"},{"link_name":"Italian People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/michele-damaskinos_(Dizionario-Biografico)"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Biographie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd128582618.html?language=en"}],"text":"Drakopoulou, Evgenia (2010). Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830). Τόμος 3: Αβέρκιος - Ιωσήφ [Greek Painters after the Fall of Constantinople (1450–1830). Volume 3: Averkios - Joseph]. Athens, Greece: Center for Modern Greek Studies, National Research Foundation. ISBN 978-960-7916-94-5.Tselenti-Papadopoulou, Niki G. (2002). Οι Εικονες της Ελληνικης Αδελφοτητας της Βενετιας απο το 16ο εως το Πρωτο Μισο του 20ου Αιωνα: Αρχειακη Τεκμηριωση [The Icons of the Greek Brotherhood of Venice from 1600 to First Half of the 20th Century]. Athens: Ministry of Culture Publication of the Archaeological Bulletin No. 81. ISBN 960-214-221-9.vteCretan RenaissancePrincipal proponents\nEl Greco\nGeorgios Klontzas\nMichael Damaskinos\nAndreas Pavias\nAngelos Akotantos\nAndreas Ritzos\nNikolaos Tzafouris\nMichael Fokas\nOther artists\nThomas Bathas\nMarkos Bathas\nTheophanes the Cretan\nFrangos Katelanos\nIoannis Permeniates\nAngelos Pitzamanos\nNikolaos Lampoudis\nAntonios Papadopoulos\nIoannis Apakas\nEuphrosynos\nNikolaos Ritzos\nNikolaos Philanthropinos\nMajor works\nThe Virgin Eleousa (1425–1457)\nSaint Anne with the Virgin (1425–1457)\nChrist the Vine (1425–1457)\nThe Virgin Pantanassa (1436–1492)\nJesus Hominum Salvator (1436–1492)\nThe Crucifixion (Pavias) (c. 1440–1512)\nChrist Bearing the Cross (1487–1501)\nMadre della Consolazione (1490)\nNursing Madonna and Child (Permeniates) (1520–1530)\nMadonna of Constantinople (1530)\nAdoration of the Magi (El Greco) (1565–1567)\nDormition of the Virgin (El Greco) (1565–1566)\nModena Triptych (1568)\nIn Thee Rejoiceth (Klontzas) (1560–1608)\nAdoration of the Kings (Damaskinos) (c. 1587–1591)\nThe Last Supper (Damaskinos) (1587–1591)\nThe Last Judgement Triptych (Klontzas) 1560–1608\nBeheading of John the Baptist (Damaskinos) (1590)\nVirgin Nikopoios (1594)\nStoning of Stephen (Damaskinos) (1591)\nVision of the Apocalypse (Bathas) (1596)\nPortrait of Gabriel Severus (1577–1599)\nRelated\nHellenic Institute Venice\nManolis Hatzidakis\nInstitute of Neohellenic ResearchvteMichael DamaskinosPaintings\nWedding at Cana (c. 1560–1570)\nTribute to the Eucharist (c. 1550–1593)\nCrucifixion of Saint Andrew (c. 1545–1593)\nVirgin of the Burning Bush (c. 1586–1591)\nAdoration of the Kings (c. 1586–1591)\nBeheading of John the Baptist (c. 1590)\nThe Last Supper (c. 1591)\nStoning of Stephen (c. 1591)\nChurchs\nSan Giorgio dei Greci\nRelated\nCretan School\nVenetian paintingAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\n2\nNational\nSpain\nGermany\nArtists\nRKD Artists\nULAN\nPeople\nItalian People\nDeutsche Biographie","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"The Crucifixion of St Andrew late 1500s","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/The_Crucifixion_of_St_Andrew_by_Michael_Damaskenos_%28Byzantine_museum%29.jpg/250px-The_Crucifixion_of_St_Andrew_by_Michael_Damaskenos_%28Byzantine_museum%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Iconostasis of San Giorgio dei Greci","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Chiesa_di_San_Giorgio_dei_Greci%2C_Venice_%2831253923676%29.jpg/120px-Chiesa_di_San_Giorgio_dei_Greci%2C_Venice_%2831253923676%29.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"title":"Heptanese School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heptanese_School_(painting)"},{"title":"Byzantine art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_art"},{"title":"Maniera greca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italo-Byzantine"}]	[{"reference":"Patrick Comerford (June 27, 2009). \"The Cretan School of Icons and its contribution to Western Art\". An Online journal on Anglicanism, Theology, Spirituality. Retrieved May 25, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.patrickcomerford.com/2009/06/cretan-school-of-icons-and-its.html","url_text":"\"The Cretan School of Icons and its contribution to Western Art\""}]},{"reference":"Speake, Graham (2021). Michael Damaskinos Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition. London And New York: Rutledge Taylor & Francis Group. p. 443-444.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=3ockEAAAQBAJ&dq=Encyclopedia+of+Greece+and+the+Hellenic+Tradition+damaskinos&pg=PA443","url_text":"Michael Damaskinos Encyclopedia of Greece and the Hellenic Tradition"}]},{"reference":"Eugenia Drakopoulou (June 18, 2021). \"Damaskinos Michail\". Institute for Neohellenic Research. Retrieved June 18, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://pandektis.ekt.gr/dspace/handle/10442/163803","url_text":"\"Damaskinos Michail\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cretan portable icons\". Archived from the original on 2007-09-28. Retrieved 2007-07-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928124811/http://home.yebo.co.za/~xenitis/Cretan3.htm","url_text":"\"Cretan portable icons\""},{"url":"http://home.yebo.co.za/~xenitis/Cretan3.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Drakopoulou, Evgenia (2010). Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830). Τόμος 3: Αβέρκιος - Ιωσήφ [Greek Painters after the Fall of Constantinople (1450–1830). Volume 3: Averkios - Joseph]. Athens, Greece: Center for Modern Greek Studies, National Research Foundation. ISBN 978-960-7916-94-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://helios-eie.ekt.gr/EIE/handle/10442/14845","url_text":"Έλληνες Ζωγράφοι μετά την Άλωση (1450–1830). Τόμος 3: Αβέρκιος - Ιωσήφ"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-960-7916-94-5","url_text":"978-960-7916-94-5"}]},{"reference":"Tselenti-Papadopoulou, Niki G. (2002). Οι Εικονες της Ελληνικης Αδελφοτητας της Βενετιας απο το 16ο εως το Πρωτο Μισο του 20ου Αιωνα: Αρχειακη Τεκμηριωση [The Icons of the Greek Brotherhood of Venice from 1600 to First Half of the 20th Century]. Athens: Ministry of Culture Publication of the Archaeological Bulletin No. 81. ISBN 960-214-221-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-214-221-9","url_text":"960-214-221-9"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://iakm.gr/agia/Page?lang=en","external_links_name":"Museum of St. Catherine/Museum of Christian Art in Heraklion"},{"Link":"http://iakm.gr/agia/Page?lang=en&name=infotext&id=504&sub=671&sub2=670","external_links_name":"The painter Michael Damaskenos"},{"Link":"http://iakm.gr/agia/Page?lang=en&name=enotita&id=504&sub=670","external_links_name":"Cretan Icon Painting up to the Fall of Candia"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070928002132/http://parembasis.gr/2000/00_08_23.htm","external_links_name":"The work of Michael Damaskinos by S. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_fork	Fork (software development)	["1 Etymology","2 Forking of free and open-source software","3 Forking proprietary software","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	New program, and line of software development, derived from an existing one "Fork (software)" redirects here. For the operation whereby a process creates a copy of itself, see fork (system call). A timeline chart showing the evolution of Linux distributions, with each split in the diagram being called "a fork" In software engineering, a project fork happens when developers take a copy of source code from one software package and start independent development on it, creating a distinct and separate piece of software. The term often implies not merely a development branch, but also a split in the developer community; as such, it is a form of schism. Grounds for forking are varying user preferences and stagnated or discontinued development of the original software. Free and open-source software is that which, by definition, may be forked from the original development team without prior permission, and without violating copyright law. However, licensed forks of proprietary software (e.g. Unix) also happen. Etymology The word "fork" has been used to mean "to divide in branches, go separate ways" as early as the 14th century. In the software environment, the word evokes the fork system call, which causes a running process to split itself into two (almost) identical copies that (typically) diverge to perform different tasks. In the context of software development, "fork" was used in the sense of creating a revision control "branch" by Eric Allman as early as 1980, in the context of Source Code Control System: Creating a branch "forks off" a version of the program. The term was in use on Usenet by 1983 for the process of creating a subgroup to move topics of discussion to. "Fork" is not known to have been used in the sense of a community schism during the origins of Lucid Emacs (now XEmacs) (1991) or the Berkeley Software Distributions (BSDs) (1993–1994); Russ Nelson used the term "shattering" for this sort of fork in 1993, attributing it to John Gilmore. However, "fork" was in use in the present sense by 1995 to describe the XEmacs split, and was an understood usage in the GNU Project by 1996. Forking of free and open-source software Free and open-source software may be legally forked without prior approval of those currently developing, managing, or distributing the software per both The Free Software Definition and The Open Source Definition: The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this, you can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a precondition for this.— The Free Software Definition 3. Derived Works: The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original software.— The Open Source Definition In free software, forks often result from a schism over different goals or personality clashes. In a fork, both parties assume nearly identical code bases, but typically only the larger group, or whoever controls the web site, will retain the full original name and the associated user community. Thus, there is a reputation penalty associated with forking. The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter. On the other hand, a friendly fork or a soft fork is a fork that does not intend to compete, but wants to eventually merge with the original. Eric S. Raymond, in his essay Homesteading the Noosphere, stated that "The most important characteristic of a fork is that it spawns competing projects that cannot later exchange code, splitting the potential developer community". He notes in the Jargon File: Forking is considered a Bad Thing—not merely because it implies a lot of wasted effort in the future, but because forks tend to be accompanied by a great deal of strife and acrimony between the successor groups over issues of legitimacy, succession, and design direction. There is serious social pressure against forking. As a result, major forks (such as the Gnu-Emacs/XEmacs split, the fissioning of the 386BSD group into three daughter projects, and the short-lived GCC/EGCS split) are rare enough that they are remembered individually in hacker folklore. David A. Wheeler notes four possible outcomes of a fork, with examples: The death of the fork. This is by far the most common case. It is easy to declare a fork, but considerable effort to continue independent development and support. A re-merging of the fork (e.g., egcs becoming "blessed" as the new version of GNU Compiler Collection.) The death of the original (e.g. the X.Org Server succeeding and XFree86 dying.) Successful branching, typically with differentiation (e.g., OpenBSD and NetBSD.) Distributed revision control (DVCS) tools have popularised a less emotive use of the term "fork", blurring the distinction with "branch". With a DVCS such as Mercurial or Git, the normal way to contribute to a project, is to first create a personal branch of the repository, independent of the main repository, and later seek to have your changes integrated with it. Sites such as GitHub, Bitbucket and Launchpad provide free DVCS hosting expressly supporting independent branches, such that the technical, social and financial barriers to forking a source code repository are massively reduced, and GitHub uses "fork" as its term for this method of contribution to a project. Forks often restart version numbering from 0.1 or 1.0 even if the original software was at version 3.0, 4.0, or 5.0. An exception is when the forked software is designed to be a drop-in replacement for the original project, e.g. MariaDB for MySQL or LibreOffice for OpenOffice.org. The BSD licenses permit forks to become proprietary software, and copyleft proponents say that commercial incentives thus make proprietisation almost inevitable. (Copyleft licenses can, however, be circumvented via dual-licensing with a proprietary grant in the form of a Contributor License Agreement.) Examples include macOS (based on the proprietary NeXTSTEP and the open source FreeBSD), Cedega and CrossOver (proprietary forks of Wine, though CrossOver tracks Wine and contributes considerably), EnterpriseDB (a fork of PostgreSQL, adding Oracle compatibility features), Supported PostgreSQL with their proprietary ESM storage system, and Netezza's proprietary highly scalable derivative of PostgreSQL. Some of these vendors contribute back changes to the community project, while some keep their changes as their own competitive advantages. Forking proprietary software In proprietary software, the copyright is usually held by the employing entity, not by the individual software developers. Proprietary code is thus more commonly forked when the owner needs to develop two or more versions, such as a windowed version and a command line version, or versions for differing operating systems, such as a word processor for IBM PC compatible machines and Macintosh computers. Generally, such internal forks will concentrate on having the same look, feel, data format, and behavior between platforms so that a user familiar with one can also be productive or share documents generated on the other. This is almost always an economic decision to generate a greater market share and thus pay back the associated extra development costs created by the fork. A notable proprietary fork not of this kind is the many varieties of proprietary Unix—almost all derived from AT&T Unix under license and all called "Unix", but increasingly mutually incompatible. See Unix wars. See also List of software forks Source port Downstream (software development) Group decision-making Modular programming Modding Custom software Personalization Team effectiveness Duplicate code ROM Hacking References ^ "Schism", with its connotations, is a common usage, e.g. "the Lemacs/FSFmacs schism" Archived 30 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine (Jamie Zawinski, 2000) "Behind the KOffice split" Archived 6 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Joe Brockmeier, Linux Weekly News, 2010-12-14) "Copyright assignment – once bitten, twice shy" Archived 30 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Richard Hillesley, H-Online, 2010-08-06) "Forking is a feature" Archived 29 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Anil Dash, 2010-09-10) "The Great Software Schism" Archived 6 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Glyn Moody, Linux Journal, 2006-09-28) "To Fork Or Not To Fork: Lessons From Ubuntu and Debian" Archived 26 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine (Benjamin Mako Hill, 2005). ^ Entry 'fork' in Online Etymology Dictionary Archived 25 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine ^ "The term fork is derived from the POSIX standard for operating systems: the system call used so that a process generates a copy of itself is called fork()." Robles, Gregorio; González-Barahona, Jesús M. (2012). A Comprehensive Study of Software Forks: Dates, Reasons and Outcomes (PDF). OSS 2012 The Eighth International Conference on Open Source Systems. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33442-9_1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2012. ^ Allman, Eric. "An Introduction to the Source Code Control System." Archived 6 November 2014 at the Wayback Machine Project Ingres, University of California at Berkeley, 1980. ^ Can somebody fork off a "net.philosophy"? (John Gilmore, net.misc, 18 January 1983) ^ Shattering — good or bad? (Russell Nelson, gnu.misc.discuss, 1 October 1993) ^ Re: Hey Franz: 32K Windows SUCK!!!!! (Bill Dubuque, cu.cs.macl.info, 21 September 1995) ^ Lignux? (Marcus G. Daniels, gnu.misc.discuss, 7 June 1996) ^ a b c Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS, FLOSS, or FOSS)? Look at the Numbers!: Forking Archived 5 April 2006 at the Wayback Machine (David A. Wheeler) ^ Stallman, Richard. "The Free Software Definition". Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013. ^ "The Open Source Definition". The Open Source Initiative. 7 July 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013. ^ Raymond, Eric S. (15 August 2002). "Promiscuous Theory, Puritan Practice". catb.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006. ^ Forked Archived 8 November 2011 at the Wayback Machine (Jargon File), first added to v4.2.2 Archived 14 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine, 20 August 2000) ^ e.g. Willis, Nathan (15 January 2015). "An "open governance" fork of Node.js". LWN.net. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2015. Forks are a natural part of the open development model—so much so that GitHub famously plasters a "fork your own copy" button on almost every page. See also Nyman, Linus (2015). Understanding Code Forking in Open Source Software (PhD). Hanken School of Economics. p. 57. hdl:10138/153135. Where practitioners have previously had rather narrow definitions of a fork, the term now appears to be used much more broadly. Actions that would traditionally have been called a branch, a new distribution, code fragmentation, a pseudo-fork, etc. may all now be called forks by some developers. This appears to be in no insignificant part due to the broad definition and use of the term fork by GitHub. ^ Forked a project, where do my version numbers start? Archived 26 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine ^ EnterpriseDB Archived 13 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Fujitsu Supported PostgreSQL Archived 20 August 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Netezza Archived 13 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine ^ Fear of forking Archived 17 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine – An essay about forking in free software projects, by Rick Moen External links Right to Fork at Meatball Wiki A PhD examining forking: (Nyman, 2015) Archived 16 July 2023 at the Wayback Machine "Understanding Code Forking in Open Source Software – An examination of code forking, its effect on open source software, and how it is viewed and practiced by developers" vteFree and open-source softwareGeneral Alternative terms for free software Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities Free software Free software project directories Gratis versus libre Long-term support Open-source software Open-source software development Outline Timeline Softwarepackages Audio Bioinformatics Codecs Configuration management Drivers Graphics Wireless Health Mathematics Office suites Operating systems Routing Television Video games Web applications E-commerce Android apps iOS apps Commercial Formerly proprietary Formerly open-source Community Free software movement History Open-source-software movement Events Advocacy Organisations Free Software Movement of India Free Software Foundation Licenses AFL Apache APSL Artistic Beerware BSD Creative Commons CDDL EPL Free Software Foundation GNU GPL GNU AGPL GNU LGPL ISC MIT MPL Python Python Software Foundation License Shared Source Initiative Sleepycat Unlicense WTFPL zlib Types and standards Comparison of licenses Contributor License Agreement Copyleft Debian Free Software Guidelines Definition of Free Cultural Works Free license The Free Software Definition The Open Source Definition Open-source license Permissive software license Public domain Viral license Challenges Digital rights management License proliferation Mozilla software rebranding Proprietary device drivers Proprietary firmware Proprietary software SCO/Linux controversies Software patents Software security Trusted Computing Related topics Forking GNU Manifesto Microsoft Open Specification Promise Open-core model Open-source hardware Shared Source Initiative Source-available software The Cathedral and the Bazaar Revolution OS Portal Category vteVersion control softwareYears, where available, indicate the date of first stable release. Systems with names in italics are no longer maintained or have planned end-of-life dates.Local onlyFree/open-source RCS (1982) SCCS (1973) Proprietary The Librarian (1969) Panvalet (1970s) PVCS (1985) QVCS (1991) Client–serverFree/open-source CVS (1986, 1990 in C) CVSNT (1998) QVCS Enterprise (1998) Subversion (2000) Proprietary AccuRev SCM (2002) Azure DevOps Server (via TFVC) (2005) Services (via TFVC) (2014) ClearCase (1992) CMVC (1994) Dimensions CM (1980s) DSEE (1984) Integrity (2001) Perforce Helix (1995) SCLM (1980s?) Software Change Manager (1970s) StarTeam (1995) Surround SCM (2002) Synergy (1990) Team Concert (2008) Vault (2003) Visual SourceSafe (1994) DistributedFree/open-source BitKeeper (2000) Breezy (2017) Code Co-op (1997) Darcs (2002) DCVS (2002) Fossil (2007) Git (2005) GNU arch (2001) GNU Bazaar (2005) Mercurial (2005) Monotone (2003) Proprietary Azure DevOps Server (via Git) (2013) Services (via Git) (2014) TeamWare (1992) Plastic SCM (2006) Concepts Baseline Branch Trunk Changeset Commit Gated Delta compression Interleaved File comparison Fork Merge Monorepo Repository Tag Category Comparison List	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fork (system call)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fork_(system_call)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Linux_Distribution_Timeline.svg"},{"link_name":"Linux distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_distribution"},{"link_name":"software engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_engineering"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"software package","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_software"},{"link_name":"example needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"},{"link_name":"development branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branching_(revision_control)"},{"link_name":"schism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Free and open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software"},{"link_name":"copyright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"}],"text":"\"Fork (software)\" redirects here. For the operation whereby a process creates a copy of itself, see fork (system call).A timeline chart showing the evolution of Linux distributions, with each split in the diagram being called \"a fork\"In software engineering, a project fork happens when developers take a copy of source code from one software package and start independent development on it, creating a distinct and separate piece of software.[example needed] The term often implies not merely a development branch, but also a split in the developer community; as such, it is a form of schism.[1] Grounds for forking are varying user preferences and stagnated or discontinued development of the original software.Free and open-source software is that which, by definition, may be forked from the original development team without prior permission, and without violating copyright law. However, licensed forks of proprietary software (e.g. Unix) also happen.","title":"Fork (software development)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"fork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fork_(system_call)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branching_(revision_control)"},{"link_name":"Eric Allman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Allman"},{"link_name":"Source Code Control System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_Code_Control_System"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Usenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"XEmacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XEmacs"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Software Distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"},{"link_name":"Russ Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Nelson"},{"link_name":"John Gilmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gilmore_(activist)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The word \"fork\" has been used to mean \"to divide in branches, go separate ways\" as early as the 14th century.[2] In the software environment, the word evokes the fork system call, which causes a running process to split itself into two (almost) identical copies that (typically) diverge to perform different tasks.[3]In the context of software development, \"fork\" was used in the sense of creating a revision control \"branch\" by Eric Allman as early as 1980, in the context of Source Code Control System:[4]Creating a branch \"forks off\" a version of the program.The term was in use on Usenet by 1983 for the process of creating a subgroup to move topics of discussion to.[5]\"Fork\" is not known to have been used in the sense of a community schism during the origins of Lucid Emacs (now XEmacs) (1991) or the Berkeley Software Distributions (BSDs) (1993–1994); Russ Nelson used the term \"shattering\" for this sort of fork in 1993, attributing it to John Gilmore.[6] However, \"fork\" was in use in the present sense by 1995 to describe the XEmacs split,[7] and was an understood usage in the GNU Project by 1996.[8]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"The Free Software Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Free_Software_Definition"},{"link_name":"The Open Source Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Source_Definition"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wheeler-9"},{"link_name":"The Free Software Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Free_Software_Definition"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"The Open Source Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Source_Definition"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wheeler-9"},{"link_name":"Eric S. Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond"},{"link_name":"Homesteading the Noosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homesteading_the_Noosphere"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Jargon File","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jargon_File"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Gnu-Emacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Emacs"},{"link_name":"XEmacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XEmacs"},{"link_name":"386BSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/386BSD"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wheeler-9"},{"link_name":"egcs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egcs"},{"link_name":"GNU Compiler Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Compiler_Collection"},{"link_name":"X.Org Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X.Org_Server"},{"link_name":"XFree86","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XFree86"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD"},{"link_name":"Distributed revision control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_revision_control"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Mercurial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercurial"},{"link_name":"Git","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Git"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"Bitbucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitbucket"},{"link_name":"Launchpad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Launchpad_(website)"},{"link_name":"MariaDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MariaDB"},{"link_name":"MySQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"LibreOffice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LibreOffice"},{"link_name":"OpenOffice.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenOffice.org"},{"link_name":"BSD licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_licenses"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"Contributor License Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contributor_License_Agreement"},{"link_name":"macOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"NeXTSTEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NeXTSTEP"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"Cedega","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cedega_(software)"},{"link_name":"CrossOver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CrossOver"},{"link_name":"Wine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wine_(software)"},{"link_name":"PostgreSQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PostgreSQL"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"Free and open-source software may be legally forked without prior approval of those currently developing, managing, or distributing the software per both The Free Software Definition and The Open Source Definition:[9]The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others (freedom 3). By doing this, you can give the whole community a chance to benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a precondition for this.— The Free Software Definition[10]3. Derived Works: The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must allow them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the original software.— The Open Source Definition[11]In free software, forks often result from a schism over different goals or personality clashes. In a fork, both parties assume nearly identical code bases, but typically only the larger group, or whoever controls the web site, will retain the full original name and the associated user community. Thus, there is a reputation penalty associated with forking.[9] The relationship between the different teams can be cordial or very bitter. On the other hand, a friendly fork or a soft fork is a fork that does not intend to compete, but wants to eventually merge with the original.Eric S. Raymond, in his essay Homesteading the Noosphere,[12] stated that \"The most important characteristic of a fork is that it spawns competing projects that cannot later exchange code, splitting the potential developer community\". He notes in the Jargon File:[13]Forking is considered a Bad Thing—not merely because it implies a lot of wasted effort in the future, but because forks tend to be accompanied by a great deal of strife and acrimony between the successor groups over issues of legitimacy, succession, and design direction. There is serious social pressure against forking. As a result, major forks (such as the Gnu-Emacs/XEmacs split, the fissioning of the 386BSD group into three daughter projects, and the short-lived GCC/EGCS split) are rare enough that they are remembered individually in hacker folklore.David A. Wheeler notes[9] four possible outcomes of a fork, with examples:The death of the fork. This is by far the most common case. It is easy to declare a fork, but considerable effort to continue independent development and support.\nA re-merging of the fork (e.g., egcs becoming \"blessed\" as the new version of GNU Compiler Collection.)\nThe death of the original (e.g. the X.Org Server succeeding and XFree86 dying.)\nSuccessful branching, typically with differentiation (e.g., OpenBSD and NetBSD.)Distributed revision control (DVCS) tools have popularised a less emotive use of the term \"fork\", blurring the distinction with \"branch\".[14] With a DVCS such as Mercurial or Git, the normal way to contribute to a project, is to first create a personal branch of the repository, independent of the main repository, and later seek to have your changes integrated with it. Sites such as GitHub, Bitbucket and Launchpad provide free DVCS hosting expressly supporting independent branches, such that the technical, social and financial barriers to forking a source code repository are massively reduced, and GitHub uses \"fork\" as its term for this method of contribution to a project.Forks often restart version numbering from 0.1 or 1.0 even if the original software was at version 3.0, 4.0, or 5.0. An exception is when the forked software is designed to be a drop-in replacement for the original project, e.g. MariaDB for MySQL[15] or LibreOffice for OpenOffice.org.The BSD licenses permit forks to become proprietary software, and copyleft proponents say that commercial incentives thus make proprietisation almost inevitable. (Copyleft licenses can, however, be circumvented via dual-licensing with a proprietary grant in the form of a Contributor License Agreement.) Examples include macOS (based on the proprietary NeXTSTEP and the open source FreeBSD), Cedega and CrossOver (proprietary forks of Wine, though CrossOver tracks Wine and contributes considerably), EnterpriseDB (a fork of PostgreSQL, adding Oracle compatibility features[16]), Supported PostgreSQL with their proprietary ESM storage system,[17] and Netezza's[18] proprietary highly scalable derivative of PostgreSQL. Some of these vendors contribute back changes to the community project, while some keep their changes as their own competitive advantages.","title":"Forking of free and open-source software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proprietary software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"windowed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Window_(computing)"},{"link_name":"command line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line"},{"link_name":"word processor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"IBM PC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_PC"},{"link_name":"Macintosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macintosh"},{"link_name":"market share","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_share"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moen-19"},{"link_name":"Unix wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix_wars"}],"text":"In proprietary software, the copyright is usually held by the employing entity, not by the individual software developers. Proprietary code is thus more commonly forked when the owner needs to develop two or more versions, such as a windowed version and a command line version, or versions for differing operating systems, such as a word processor for IBM PC compatible machines and Macintosh computers. Generally, such internal forks will concentrate on having the same look, feel, data format, and behavior between platforms so that a user familiar with one can also be productive or share documents generated on the other. This is almost always an economic decision to generate a greater market share and thus pay back the associated extra development costs created by the fork.A notable proprietary fork not of this kind is the many varieties of proprietary Unix—almost all derived from AT&T Unix under license and all called \"Unix\", but increasingly mutually incompatible.[19] See Unix wars.","title":"Forking proprietary software"}]	[{"image_text":"A timeline chart showing the evolution of Linux distributions, with each split in the diagram being called \"a fork\"","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Linux_Distribution_Timeline.svg/170px-Linux_Distribution_Timeline.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"List of software forks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_software_forks"},{"title":"Source port","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_port"},{"title":"Downstream (software development)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Downstream_(software_development)"},{"title":"Group decision-making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_decision-making"},{"title":"Modular programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_programming"},{"title":"Modding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modding"},{"title":"Custom software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Custom_software"},{"title":"Personalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personalization"},{"title":"Team effectiveness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_effectiveness"},{"title":"Duplicate code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplicate_code"},{"title":"ROM Hacking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ROM_hacking"}]	[{"reference":"Robles, Gregorio; González-Barahona, Jesús M. (2012). A Comprehensive Study of Software Forks: Dates, Reasons and Outcomes (PDF). OSS 2012 The Eighth International Conference on Open Source Systems. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-33442-9_1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 December 2013. Retrieved 20 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/paper_0.pdf","url_text":"A Comprehensive Study of Software Forks: Dates, Reasons and Outcomes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-33442-9_1","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-33442-9_1"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221721/http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/paper_0.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Stallman, Richard. \"The Free Software Definition\". Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on 14 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html","url_text":"\"The Free Software Definition\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131014132149/http://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-sw.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Open Source Definition\". The Open Source Initiative. 7 July 2006. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://opensource.org/docs/osd","url_text":"\"The Open Source Definition\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131015144021/http://opensource.org/docs/osd","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Raymond, Eric S. (15 August 2002). \"Promiscuous Theory, Puritan Practice\". catb.org. Archived from the original on 6 October 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond","url_text":"Raymond, Eric S."},{"url":"http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/homesteading/ar01s03.html","url_text":"\"Promiscuous Theory, Puritan Practice\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061006010031/http://www.catb.org/~esr/writings/cathedral-bazaar/homesteading/ar01s03.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Willis, Nathan (15 January 2015). \"An \"open governance\" fork of Node.js\". LWN.net. Archived from the original on 21 April 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2015. Forks are a natural part of the open development model—so much so that GitHub famously plasters a \"fork your own copy\" button on almost every page.","urls":[{"url":"https://lwn.net/Articles/628527/","url_text":"\"An \"open governance\" fork of Node.js\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150421055059/http://lwn.net/Articles/628527/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Nyman, Linus (2015). Understanding Code Forking in Open Source Software (PhD). Hanken School of Economics. p. 57. hdl:10138/153135. Where practitioners have previously had rather narrow definitions of a fork, [...] the term now appears to be used much more broadly. Actions that would traditionally have been called a branch, a new distribution, code fragmentation, a pseudo-fork, etc. may all now be called forks by some developers. This appears to be in no insignificant part due to the broad definition and use of the term fork by GitHub.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/10138%2F153135","url_text":"10138/153135"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.jwz.org/doc/lemacs.html","external_links_name":"\"the Lemacs/FSFmacs schism\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091130093142/http://www.jwz.org/doc/lemacs.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://lwn.net/Articles/419822/","external_links_name":"\"Behind the KOffice split\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130706094238/http://lwn.net/Articles/419822/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.h-online.com/open/features/Copyright-assignment-Once-bitten-twice-shy-1049631.html","external_links_name":"\"Copyright assignment – once bitten, twice shy\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120330153250/http://www.h-online.com/open/features/Copyright-assignment-Once-bitten-twice-shy-1049631.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://dashes.com/anil/2010/09/forking-is-a-feature.html","external_links_name":"\"Forking is a feature\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120229032536/http://dashes.com/anil/2010/09/forking-is-a-feature.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.linuxjournal.com/node/1000101","external_links_name":"\"The Great Software Schism\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120106065841/http://www.linuxjournal.com/node/1000101","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://mako.cc/writing/to_fork_or_not_to_fork.html","external_links_name":"\"To Fork Or Not To Fork: Lessons From Ubuntu and Debian\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120226160810/http://mako.cc/writing/to_fork_or_not_to_fork.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fork","external_links_name":"Entry 'fork' in Online Etymology Dictionary"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120525165727/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=fork","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/paper_0.pdf","external_links_name":"A Comprehensive Study of Software Forks: Dates, Reasons and Outcomes"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-33442-9_1","external_links_name":"10.1007/978-3-642-33442-9_1"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221721/http://flosshub.org/sites/flosshub.org/files/paper_0.pdf","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://sccs.sourceforge.net/man/sccs.me.html","external_links_name":"\"An Introduction to the Source Code Control System.\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141106144859/http://sccs.sourceforge.net/man/sccs.me.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://groups.google.com/group/net.misc/browse_thread/thread/b0e9f8531558b7e9/1cc726d9e9e05ebd?q=fork#1cc726d9e9e05ebd","external_links_name":"Can somebody fork off a \"net.philosophy\"?"},{"Link":"https://groups.google.com/group/gnu.misc.discuss/browse_thread/thread/1bba70b8f8676c43/309504a5a51dd0f0","external_links_name":"Shattering — good or bad?"},{"Link":"https://groups.google.com/group/cu.cs.macl.info/browse_thread/thread/ed9e5ff9cb21c359/4ce930d2fd1271eb?q=%22fork+of%22+xemacs#4ce930d2fd1271eb","external_links_name":"Re: Hey Franz: 32K Windows SUCK!!!!!"},{"Link":"https://groups.google.com/group/gnu.misc.discuss/browse_thread/thread/5d7529d865d4d9ca/69ebc4771f32bc45?q=fork+xemacs&utoken=jCqifzMAAABlYGNE0Z8-NzB8d_a6gkmMuNtzuV4zLfLK8bEgnt4z8g27cB9GA0FI9e6hHUM__C_J8dUPGZeQNP0WkVA49NN0","external_links_name":"Lignux?"},{"Link":"http://www.dwheeler.com/oss_fs_why.html#forking","external_links_name":"Why Open Source Software / Free Software (OSS/FS, FLOSS, or FOSS)? 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretized	Discretization	["1 Discretization of linear state space models","1.1 Discretization of process noise","1.2 Derivation","1.3 Approximations","2 Discretization of continuous features","3 Discretization of smooth functions","4 See also","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]	Process of transferring continuous functions into discrete counterparts A solution to a discretized partial differential equation, obtained with the finite element method. In applied mathematics, discretization is the process of transferring continuous functions, models, variables, and equations into discrete counterparts. This process is usually carried out as a first step toward making them suitable for numerical evaluation and implementation on digital computers. Dichotomization is the special case of discretization in which the number of discrete classes is 2, which can approximate a continuous variable as a binary variable (creating a dichotomy for modeling purposes, as in binary classification). Discretization is also related to discrete mathematics, and is an important component of granular computing. In this context, discretization may also refer to modification of variable or category granularity, as when multiple discrete variables are aggregated or multiple discrete categories fused. Whenever continuous data is discretized, there is always some amount of discretization error. The goal is to reduce the amount to a level considered negligible for the modeling purposes at hand. The terms discretization and quantization often have the same denotation but not always identical connotations. (Specifically, the two terms share a semantic field.) The same is true of discretization error and quantization error. Mathematical methods relating to discretization include the Euler–Maruyama method and the zero-order hold. Discretization of linear state space models Discretization is also concerned with the transformation of continuous differential equations into discrete difference equations, suitable for numerical computing. The following continuous-time state space model x ˙ ( t ) = A x ( t ) + B u ( t ) + w ( t ) {\displaystyle {\dot {\mathbf {x} }}(t)=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {w} (t)} y ( t ) = C x ( t ) + D u ( t ) + v ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} (t)=\mathbf {C} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {D} \mathbf {u} (t)+\mathbf {v} (t)} where v and w are continuous zero-mean white noise sources with power spectral densities w ( t ) ∼ N ( 0 , Q ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {w} (t)\sim N(0,\mathbf {Q} )} v ( t ) ∼ N ( 0 , R ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} (t)\sim N(0,\mathbf {R} )} can be discretized, assuming zero-order hold for the input u and continuous integration for the noise v, to x [ k + 1 ] = A d x [ k ] + B d u [ k ] + w [ k ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =\mathbf {A} _{d}\mathbf {x} +\mathbf {B} _{d}\mathbf {u} +\mathbf {w} } y [ k ] = C d x [ k ] + D d u [ k ] + v [ k ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {y} =\mathbf {C} _{d}\mathbf {x} +\mathbf {D} _{d}\mathbf {u} +\mathbf {v} } with covariances w [ k ] ∼ N ( 0 , Q d ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {w} \sim N(0,\mathbf {Q} _{d})} v [ k ] ∼ N ( 0 , R d ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {v} \sim N(0,\mathbf {R} _{d})} where A d = e A T = L − 1 { ( s I − A ) − 1 } t = T {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}=e^{\mathbf {A} T}={\mathcal {L}}^{-1}\{(s\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} )^{-1}\}_{t=T}} B d = ( ∫ τ = 0 T e A τ d τ ) B = A − 1 ( A d − I ) B {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} _{d}=\left(\int _{\tau =0}^{T}e^{\mathbf {A} \tau }d\tau \right)\mathbf {B} =\mathbf {A} ^{-1}(\mathbf {A} _{d}-I)\mathbf {B} } , if A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } is nonsingular C d = C {\displaystyle \mathbf {C} _{d}=\mathbf {C} } D d = D {\displaystyle \mathbf {D} _{d}=\mathbf {D} } Q d = ∫ τ = 0 T e A τ Q e A ⊤ τ d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=\int _{\tau =0}^{T}e^{\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {Q} e^{\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\tau }d\tau } R d = R 1 T {\displaystyle \mathbf {R} _{d}=\mathbf {R} {\frac {1}{T}}} and T {\displaystyle T} is the sample time, although A ⊤ {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} ^{\top }} is the transposed matrix of A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } . The equation for the discretized measurement noise is a consequence of the continuous measurement noise being defined with a power spectral density. A clever trick to compute Ad and Bd in one step is by utilizing the following property:: p. 215 e [ A B 0 0 ] T = [ A d B d 0 I ] {\displaystyle e^{{\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A} &\mathbf {B} \\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {0} \end{bmatrix}}T}={\begin{bmatrix}\mathbf {A_{d}} &\mathbf {B_{d}} \\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {I} \end{bmatrix}}} Where A d {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} _{d}} and B d {\displaystyle \mathbf {B} _{d}} are the discretized state-space matrices. Discretization of process noise Numerical evaluation of Q d {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}} is a bit trickier due to the matrix exponential integral. It can, however, be computed by first constructing a matrix, and computing the exponential of it F = [ − A Q 0 A ⊤ ] T {\displaystyle \mathbf {F} ={\begin{bmatrix}-\mathbf {A} &\mathbf {Q} \\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {A} ^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}T} G = e F = [ … A d − 1 Q d 0 A d ⊤ ] . {\displaystyle \mathbf {G} =e^{\mathbf {F} }={\begin{bmatrix}\dots &\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}\\\mathbf {0} &\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top }\end{bmatrix}}.} The discretized process noise is then evaluated by multiplying the transpose of the lower-right partition of G with the upper-right partition of G: Q d = ( A d ⊤ ) ⊤ ( A d − 1 Q d ) = A d ( A d − 1 Q d ) . {\displaystyle \mathbf {Q} _{d}=(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\top })^{\top }(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d})=\mathbf {A} _{d}(\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\mathbf {Q} _{d}).} Derivation Starting with the continuous model x ˙ ( t ) = A x ( t ) + B u ( t ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)} we know that the matrix exponential is d d t e A t = A e A t = e A t A {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}e^{\mathbf {A} t}=\mathbf {A} e^{\mathbf {A} t}=e^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} } and by premultiplying the model we get e − A t x ˙ ( t ) = e − A t A x ( t ) + e − A t B u ( t ) {\displaystyle e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {\dot {x}} (t)=e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {A} \mathbf {x} (t)+e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)} which we recognize as d d t ( e − A t x ( t ) ) = e − A t B u ( t ) {\displaystyle {\frac {d}{dt}}(e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t))=e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (t)} and by integrating.. e − A t x ( t ) − e 0 x ( 0 ) = ∫ 0 t e − A τ B u ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle e^{-\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (t)-e^{0}\mathbf {x} (0)=\int _{0}^{t}e^{-\mathbf {A} \tau }\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )d\tau } x ( t ) = e A t x ( 0 ) + ∫ 0 t e A ( t − τ ) B u ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} (t)=e^{\mathbf {A} t}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{t}e^{\mathbf {A} (t-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )d\tau } which is an analytical solution to the continuous model. Now we want to discretise the above expression. We assume that u is constant during each timestep. x [ k ] = d e f x ( k T ) {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \ {\stackrel {\mathrm {def} }{=}}\ \mathbf {x} (kT)} x [ k ] = e A k T x ( 0 ) + ∫ 0 k T e A ( k T − τ ) B u ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =e^{\mathbf {A} kT}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{kT}e^{\mathbf {A} (kT-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )d\tau } x [ k + 1 ] = e A ( k + 1 ) T x ( 0 ) + ∫ 0 ( k + 1 ) T e A ( ( k + 1 ) T − τ ) B u ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =e^{\mathbf {A} (k+1)T}\mathbf {x} (0)+\int _{0}^{(k+1)T}e^{\mathbf {A} ((k+1)T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )d\tau } x [ k + 1 ] = e A T [ e A k T x ( 0 ) + ∫ 0 k T e A ( k T − τ ) B u ( τ ) d τ ] + ∫ k T ( k + 1 ) T e A ( k T + T − τ ) B u ( τ ) d τ {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} =e^{\mathbf {A} T}\left+\int _{kT}^{(k+1)T}e^{\mathbf {A} (kT+T-\tau )}\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} (\tau )d\tau } We recognize the bracketed expression as x [ k ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} } , and the second term can be simplified by substituting with the function v ( τ ) = k T + T − τ {\displaystyle v(\tau )=kT+T-\tau } . Note that d τ = − d v {\displaystyle d\tau =-dv} . We also assume that u {\displaystyle \mathbf {u} } is constant during the integral, which in turn yields x [ k + 1 ] = e A T x [ k ] − ( ∫ v ( k T ) v ( ( k + 1 ) T ) e A v d v ) B u [ k ] = e A T x [ k ] − ( ∫ T 0 e A v d v ) B u [ k ] = e A T x [ k ] + ( ∫ 0 T e A v d v ) B u [ k ] = e A T x [ k ] + A − 1 ( e A T − I ) B u [ k ] {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}\mathbf {x} &=&e^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} -\left(\int _{v(kT)}^{v((k+1)T)}e^{\mathbf {A} v}dv\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} \\&=&e^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} -\left(\int _{T}^{0}e^{\mathbf {A} v}dv\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} \\&=&e^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} +\left(\int _{0}^{T}e^{\mathbf {A} v}dv\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} \\&=&e^{\mathbf {A} T}\mathbf {x} +\mathbf {A} ^{-1}\left(e^{\mathbf {A} T}-\mathbf {I} \right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} \end{matrix}}} which is an exact solution to the discretization problem. When A {\displaystyle \mathbf {A} } is singular, the latter expression can still be used by replacing e A T {\displaystyle e^{\mathbf {A} T}} by its Taylor expansion, e A T = ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! ( A T ) k . {\displaystyle e^{{\mathbf {A} }T}=\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{k!}}({\mathbf {A} }T)^{k}.} This yields x [ k + 1 ] = e A T x [ k ] + ( ∫ 0 T e A v d v ) B u [ k ] = ( ∑ k = 0 ∞ 1 k ! ( A T ) k ) x [ k ] + ( ∑ k = 1 ∞ 1 k ! A k − 1 T k ) B u [ k ] , {\displaystyle {\begin{matrix}\mathbf {x} &=&e^{{\mathbf {A} }T}\mathbf {x} +\left(\int _{0}^{T}e^{{\mathbf {A} }v}dv\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} \\&=&\left(\sum _{k=0}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{k!}}({\mathbf {A} }T)^{k}\right)\mathbf {x} +\left(\sum _{k=1}^{\infty }{\frac {1}{k!}}{\mathbf {A} }^{k-1}T^{k}\right)\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} ,\end{matrix}}} which is the form used in practice. Approximations Exact discretization may sometimes be intractable due to the heavy matrix exponential and integral operations involved. It is much easier to calculate an approximate discrete model, based on that for small timesteps e A T ≈ I + A T {\displaystyle e^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T} . The approximate solution then becomes: x [ k + 1 ] ≈ ( I + A T ) x [ k ] + T B u [ k ] {\displaystyle \mathbf {x} \approx (\mathbf {I} +\mathbf {A} T)\mathbf {x} +T\mathbf {B} \mathbf {u} } This is also known as the Euler method, which is also known as the forward Euler method. Other possible approximations are e A T ≈ ( I − A T ) − 1 {\displaystyle e^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} -\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}} , otherwise known as the backward Euler method and e A T ≈ ( I + 1 2 A T ) ( I − 1 2 A T ) − 1 {\displaystyle e^{\mathbf {A} T}\approx \left(\mathbf {I} +{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)\left(\mathbf {I} -{\frac {1}{2}}\mathbf {A} T\right)^{-1}} , which is known as the bilinear transform, or Tustin transform. Each of these approximations has different stability properties. The bilinear transform preserves the instability of the continuous-time system. Discretization of continuous features Main article: Discretization of continuous features In statistics and machine learning, discretization refers to the process of converting continuous features or variables to discretized or nominal features. This can be useful when creating probability mass functions. Discretization of smooth functions Main article: Distribution (mathematics) § Convolution_versus_Multiplication In generalized functions theory, discretization arises as a particular case of the Convolution Theorem on tempered distributions F { f ∗ III } = F { f } ⋅ III {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}\{f\operatorname {III} \}={\mathcal {F}}\{f\}\cdot \operatorname {III} } F { α ⋅ III } = F { α } ∗ III {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}\{\alpha \cdot \operatorname {III} \}={\mathcal {F}}\{\alpha \}\operatorname {III} } where III {\displaystyle \operatorname {III} } is the Dirac comb, ⋅ III {\displaystyle \cdot \operatorname {III} } is discretization, ∗ III {\displaystyle *\operatorname {III} } is periodization, f {\displaystyle f} is a rapidly decreasing tempered distribution (e.g. a Dirac delta function δ {\displaystyle \delta } or any other compactly supported function), α {\displaystyle \alpha } is a smooth, slowly growing ordinary function (e.g. the function that is constantly 1 {\displaystyle 1} or any other band-limited function) and F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} is the (unitary, ordinary frequency) Fourier transform. Functions α {\displaystyle \alpha } which are not smooth can be made smooth using a mollifier prior to discretization. As an example, discretization of the function that is constantly 1 {\displaystyle 1} yields the sequence [ . . , 1 , 1 , 1 , . . ] {\displaystyle } which, interpreted as the coefficients of a linear combination of Dirac delta functions, forms a Dirac comb. If additionally truncation is applied, one obtains finite sequences, e.g. [ 1 , 1 , 1 , 1 ] {\displaystyle } . They are discrete in both, time and frequency. See also Discrete event simulation Discrete space Discrete time and continuous time Finite difference method Finite volume method for unsteady flow Smoothing Stochastic simulation Time-scale calculus References ^ Analytic Sciences Corporation. Technical Staff. (1974). Applied optimal estimation. Gelb, Arthur, 1937-. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press. pp. 121. ISBN 0-262-20027-9. OCLC 960061. ^ Raymond DeCarlo: Linear Systems: A State Variable Approach with Numerical Implementation, Prentice Hall, NJ, 1989 ^ Charles Van Loan: Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential, IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 23 (3): 395–404, 1978 Further reading Robert Grover Brown & Patrick Y. C. Hwang (1997). Introduction to random signals and applied Kalman filtering (3rd ed.). ISBN 978-0471128397. Chi-Tsong Chen (1984). Linear System Theory and Design. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0030716911. C. Van Loan (Jun 1978). "Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 23 (3): 395–404. doi:10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743. hdl:1813/7095. R.H. Middleton & G.C. Goodwin (1990). Digital control and estimation: a unified approach. p. 33f. ISBN 978-0132116657. External links Discretization in Geometry and Dynamics: research on the discretization of differential geometry and dynamics Discretization at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from Wikiversity Authority control databases: National Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Finite_element_solution.svg"},{"link_name":"finite element method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_element_method"},{"link_name":"applied mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_mathematics"},{"link_name":"continuous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_function"},{"link_name":"discrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/discrete"},{"link_name":"binary variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_variable"},{"link_name":"dichotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dichotomy"},{"link_name":"modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_model"},{"link_name":"binary classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_classification"},{"link_name":"discrete mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_mathematics"},{"link_name":"granular computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granular_computing"},{"link_name":"discretization error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization_error"},{"link_name":"negligible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/negligible"},{"link_name":"modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_model"},{"link_name":"quantization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"denotation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denotation"},{"link_name":"connotations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connotations"},{"link_name":"semantic field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_field"},{"link_name":"discretization error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discretization_error"},{"link_name":"quantization error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantization_error"},{"link_name":"Euler–Maruyama method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler%E2%80%93Maruyama_method"},{"link_name":"zero-order hold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-order_hold"}],"text":"A solution to a discretized partial differential equation, obtained with the finite element method.In applied mathematics, discretization is the process of transferring continuous functions, models, variables, and equations into discrete counterparts. This process is usually carried out as a first step toward making them suitable for numerical evaluation and implementation on digital computers. Dichotomization is the special case of discretization in which the number of discrete classes is 2, which can approximate a continuous variable as a binary variable (creating a dichotomy for modeling purposes, as in binary classification).Discretization is also related to discrete mathematics, and is an important component of granular computing. In this context, discretization may also refer to modification of variable or category granularity, as when multiple discrete variables are aggregated or multiple discrete categories fused.Whenever continuous data is discretized, there is always some amount of discretization error. The goal is to reduce the amount to a level considered negligible for the modeling purposes at hand.The terms discretization and quantization often have the same denotation but not always identical connotations. (Specifically, the two terms share a semantic field.) The same is true of discretization error and quantization error.Mathematical methods relating to discretization include the Euler–Maruyama method and the zero-order hold.","title":"Discretization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_equation"},{"link_name":"difference equations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Difference_equations"},{"link_name":"numerical computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"state space model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_space_(controls)"},{"link_name":"white noise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_noise"},{"link_name":"power spectral densities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_spectral_density"},{"link_name":"zero-order hold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero-order_hold"},{"link_name":"nonsingular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invertible_matrix"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Discretization is also concerned with the transformation of continuous differential equations into discrete difference equations, suitable for numerical computing.The following continuous-time state space modelx\n \n ˙\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n w\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\dot {\\mathbf {x} }}(t)=\\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} (t)+\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (t)+\\mathbf {w} (t)}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n C\n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n D\n \n \n u\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {y} (t)=\\mathbf {C} \\mathbf {x} (t)+\\mathbf {D} \\mathbf {u} (t)+\\mathbf {v} (t)}where v and w are continuous zero-mean white noise sources with power spectral densitiesw\n \n (\n t\n )\n ∼\n N\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n Q\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {w} (t)\\sim N(0,\\mathbf {Q} )}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n (\n t\n )\n ∼\n N\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n R\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} (t)\\sim N(0,\\mathbf {R} )}can be discretized, assuming zero-order hold for the input u and continuous integration for the noise v, tox\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n =\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n \n B\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n w\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k+1]=\\mathbf {A} _{d}\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\mathbf {B} _{d}\\mathbf {u} [k]+\\mathbf {w} [k]}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n y\n \n [\n k\n ]\n =\n \n \n C\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n \n D\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n v\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {y} [k]=\\mathbf {C} _{d}\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\mathbf {D} _{d}\\mathbf {u} [k]+\\mathbf {v} [k]}with covariancesw\n \n [\n k\n ]\n ∼\n N\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {w} [k]\\sim N(0,\\mathbf {Q} _{d})}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n v\n \n [\n k\n ]\n ∼\n N\n (\n 0\n ,\n \n \n R\n \n \n d\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {v} [k]\\sim N(0,\\mathbf {R} _{d})}whereA\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n L\n \n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n {\n (\n s\n \n I\n \n −\n \n A\n \n \n )\n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n }\n \n t\n =\n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} _{d}=e^{\\mathbf {A} T}={\\mathcal {L}}^{-1}\\{(s\\mathbf {I} -\\mathbf {A} )^{-1}\\}_{t=T}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n (\n \n \n ∫\n \n τ\n =\n 0\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n τ\n \n \n d\n τ\n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n =\n \n \n A\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n −\n I\n )\n \n B\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} _{d}=\\left(\\int _{\\tau =0}^{T}e^{\\mathbf {A} \\tau }d\\tau \\right)\\mathbf {B} =\\mathbf {A} ^{-1}(\\mathbf {A} _{d}-I)\\mathbf {B} }\n \n, if \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n is nonsingular\n\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n C\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {C} _{d}=\\mathbf {C} }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n D\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n D\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {D} _{d}=\\mathbf {D} }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n ∫\n \n τ\n =\n 0\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n τ\n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n e\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n ⊤\n \n \n τ\n \n \n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {Q} _{d}=\\int _{\\tau =0}^{T}e^{\\mathbf {A} \\tau }\\mathbf {Q} e^{\\mathbf {A} ^{\\top }\\tau }d\\tau }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n R\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n \n R\n \n \n \n 1\n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {R} _{d}=\\mathbf {R} {\\frac {1}{T}}}and \n \n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle T}\n \n is the sample time, although \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n ⊤\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} ^{\\top }}\n \n is the transposed matrix of \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n. The equation for the discretized measurement noise is a consequence of the continuous measurement noise being defined with a power spectral density.[1]A clever trick to compute Ad and Bd in one step is by utilizing the following property:[2]: p. 215e\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n T\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n d\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n I\n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{{\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {A} &\\mathbf {B} \\\\\\mathbf {0} &\\mathbf {0} \\end{bmatrix}}T}={\\begin{bmatrix}\\mathbf {A_{d}} &\\mathbf {B_{d}} \\\\\\mathbf {0} &\\mathbf {I} \\end{bmatrix}}}Where \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} _{d}}\n \nand \n \n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {B} _{d}}\n \nare the discretized state-space matrices.","title":"Discretization of linear state space models "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Discretization of process noise","text":"Numerical evaluation of \n \n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {Q} _{d}}\n \n is a bit trickier due to the matrix exponential integral. It can, however, be computed by first constructing a matrix, and computing the exponential of it[3]F\n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n −\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n ⊤\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {F} ={\\begin{bmatrix}-\\mathbf {A} &\\mathbf {Q} \\\\\\mathbf {0} &\\mathbf {A} ^{\\top }\\end{bmatrix}}T}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n =\n \n e\n \n \n F\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n …\n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n ⊤\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {G} =e^{\\mathbf {F} }={\\begin{bmatrix}\\dots &\\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\\mathbf {Q} _{d}\\\\\\mathbf {0} &\\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\\top }\\end{bmatrix}}.}The discretized process noise is then evaluated by multiplying the transpose of the lower-right partition of G with the upper-right partition of G:Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n =\n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n ⊤\n \n \n \n )\n \n ⊤\n \n \n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n )\n =\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n d\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n Q\n \n \n d\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {Q} _{d}=(\\mathbf {A} _{d}^{\\top })^{\\top }(\\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\\mathbf {Q} _{d})=\\mathbf {A} _{d}(\\mathbf {A} _{d}^{-1}\\mathbf {Q} _{d}).}","title":"Discretization of linear state space models "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"matrix exponential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_exponential"},{"link_name":"constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_constant"},{"link_name":"integral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integral"},{"link_name":"Taylor expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_series"}],"sub_title":"Derivation","text":"Starting with the continuous modelx\n ˙\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {\\dot {x}} (t)=\\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} (t)+\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (t)}we know that the matrix exponential isd\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n A\n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d}{dt}}e^{\\mathbf {A} t}=\\mathbf {A} e^{\\mathbf {A} t}=e^{\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {A} }and by premultiplying the model we gete\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n \n \n x\n ˙\n \n \n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n +\n \n e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {\\dot {x}} (t)=e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {A} \\mathbf {x} (t)+e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (t)}which we recognize asd\n \n d\n t\n \n \n \n (\n \n e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n )\n =\n \n e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\frac {d}{dt}}(e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {x} (t))=e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (t)}and by integrating..e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n −\n \n e\n \n 0\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n 0\n )\n =\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n \n A\n \n τ\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{-\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {x} (t)-e^{0}\\mathbf {x} (0)=\\int _{0}^{t}e^{-\\mathbf {A} \\tau }\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n t\n )\n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n t\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n 0\n )\n +\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n t\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} (t)=e^{\\mathbf {A} t}\\mathbf {x} (0)+\\int _{0}^{t}e^{\\mathbf {A} (t-\\tau )}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau }which is an analytical solution to the continuous model.Now we want to discretise the above expression. We assume that u is constant during each timestep.x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n d\n e\n f\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n k\n T\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k]\\ {\\stackrel {\\mathrm {def} }{=}}\\ \\mathbf {x} (kT)}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n k\n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n 0\n )\n +\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n k\n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n k\n T\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k]=e^{\\mathbf {A} kT}\\mathbf {x} (0)+\\int _{0}^{kT}e^{\\mathbf {A} (kT-\\tau )}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n 0\n )\n +\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n T\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k+1]=e^{\\mathbf {A} (k+1)T}\\mathbf {x} (0)+\\int _{0}^{(k+1)T}e^{\\mathbf {A} ((k+1)T-\\tau )}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n =\n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n [\n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n k\n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n 0\n )\n +\n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n k\n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n k\n T\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n ]\n \n +\n \n ∫\n \n k\n T\n \n \n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n (\n k\n T\n +\n T\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n (\n τ\n )\n d\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k+1]=e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\left[e^{\\mathbf {A} kT}\\mathbf {x} (0)+\\int _{0}^{kT}e^{\\mathbf {A} (kT-\\tau )}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau \\right]+\\int _{kT}^{(k+1)T}e^{\\mathbf {A} (kT+T-\\tau )}\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} (\\tau )d\\tau }We recognize the bracketed expression as \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k]}\n \n, and the second term can be simplified by substituting with the function \n \n \n \n v\n (\n τ\n )\n =\n k\n T\n +\n T\n −\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle v(\\tau )=kT+T-\\tau }\n \n. Note that \n \n \n \n d\n τ\n =\n −\n d\n v\n \n \n {\\displaystyle d\\tau =-dv}\n \n. We also assume that \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {u} }\n \n is constant during the integral, which in turn yieldsx\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n −\n \n (\n \n \n ∫\n \n v\n (\n k\n T\n )\n \n \n v\n (\n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n T\n )\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n v\n \n \n d\n v\n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n −\n \n (\n \n \n ∫\n \n T\n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n v\n \n \n d\n v\n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n (\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n v\n \n \n d\n v\n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n \n A\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n −\n \n I\n \n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{matrix}\\mathbf {x} [k+1]&=&e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\mathbf {x} [k]-\\left(\\int _{v(kT)}^{v((k+1)T)}e^{\\mathbf {A} v}dv\\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]\\\\&=&e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\mathbf {x} [k]-\\left(\\int _{T}^{0}e^{\\mathbf {A} v}dv\\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]\\\\&=&e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\left(\\int _{0}^{T}e^{\\mathbf {A} v}dv\\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]\\\\&=&e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\mathbf {A} ^{-1}\\left(e^{\\mathbf {A} T}-\\mathbf {I} \\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]\\end{matrix}}}which is an exact solution to the discretization problem.When \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {A} }\n \n is singular, the latter expression can still be used by replacing \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\mathbf {A} T}}\n \n by its Taylor expansion,e\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n T\n \n \n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n k\n !\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n T\n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{{\\mathbf {A} }T}=\\sum _{k=0}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{k!}}({\\mathbf {A} }T)^{k}.}This yieldsx\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n (\n \n \n ∫\n \n 0\n \n \n T\n \n \n \n e\n \n \n \n A\n \n \n v\n \n \n d\n v\n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 0\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n k\n !\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n A\n \n \n T\n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n \n (\n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n k\n !\n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n \n \n \n k\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n T\n \n k\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{matrix}\\mathbf {x} [k+1]&=&e^{{\\mathbf {A} }T}\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\left(\\int _{0}^{T}e^{{\\mathbf {A} }v}dv\\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]\\\\&=&\\left(\\sum _{k=0}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{k!}}({\\mathbf {A} }T)^{k}\\right)\\mathbf {x} [k]+\\left(\\sum _{k=1}^{\\infty }{\\frac {1}{k!}}{\\mathbf {A} }^{k-1}T^{k}\\right)\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k],\\end{matrix}}}which is the form used in practice.","title":"Discretization of linear state space models "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Euler method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_method"},{"link_name":"bilinear transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilinear_transform"}],"sub_title":"Approximations","text":"Exact discretization may sometimes be intractable due to the heavy matrix exponential and integral operations involved. It is much easier to calculate an approximate discrete model, based on that for small timesteps \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n ≈\n \n I\n \n +\n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\approx \\mathbf {I} +\\mathbf {A} T}\n \n. The approximate solution then becomes:x\n \n [\n k\n +\n 1\n ]\n ≈\n (\n \n I\n \n +\n \n A\n \n T\n )\n \n x\n \n [\n k\n ]\n +\n T\n \n B\n \n \n u\n \n [\n k\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {x} [k+1]\\approx (\\mathbf {I} +\\mathbf {A} T)\\mathbf {x} [k]+T\\mathbf {B} \\mathbf {u} [k]}This is also known as the Euler method, which is also known as the forward Euler method. Other possible approximations are \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n ≈\n \n \n (\n \n \n I\n \n −\n \n A\n \n T\n \n )\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\approx \\left(\\mathbf {I} -\\mathbf {A} T\\right)^{-1}}\n \n, otherwise known as the backward Euler method and \n \n \n \n \n e\n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n \n ≈\n \n (\n \n \n I\n \n +\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n )\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n I\n \n −\n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n \n A\n \n T\n \n )\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle e^{\\mathbf {A} T}\\approx \\left(\\mathbf {I} +{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {A} T\\right)\\left(\\mathbf {I} -{\\frac {1}{2}}\\mathbf {A} T\\right)^{-1}}\n \n, which is known as the bilinear transform, or Tustin transform. Each of these approximations has different stability properties. The bilinear transform preserves the instability of the continuous-time system.","title":"Discretization of linear state space models "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"}],"text":"In statistics and machine learning, discretization refers to the process of converting continuous features or variables to discretized or nominal features. This can be useful when creating probability mass functions.","title":"Discretization of continuous features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"generalized functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_function"},{"link_name":"Convolution Theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convolution_theorem#Convolution_theorem_for_tempered_distributions"},{"link_name":"tempered distributions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(mathematics)#Convolution_versus_multiplication"},{"link_name":"Dirac comb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_comb"},{"link_name":"periodization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_summation"},{"link_name":"Dirac delta function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"},{"link_name":"compactly supported","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Support_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"smooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothness"},{"link_name":"slowly growing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distribution_(mathematics)#Convolution_versus_multiplication"},{"link_name":"ordinary function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"band-limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandlimiting"},{"link_name":"Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"mollifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mollifier"},{"link_name":"sequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequence"},{"link_name":"linear combination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_combination"},{"link_name":"Dirac delta functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_delta_function"},{"link_name":"Dirac comb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirac_comb"},{"link_name":"truncation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truncation"}],"text":"In generalized functions theory, discretization\narises as a particular case of the Convolution Theorem\non tempered distributionsF\n \n \n {\n f\n ∗\n III\n }\n =\n \n \n F\n \n \n {\n f\n }\n ⋅\n III\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {F}}\\{f\\operatorname {III} \\}={\\mathcal {F}}\\{f\\}\\cdot \\operatorname {III} }\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n {\n α\n ⋅\n III\n }\n =\n \n \n F\n \n \n {\n α\n }\n ∗\n III\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {F}}\\{\\alpha \\cdot \\operatorname {III} \\}={\\mathcal {F}}\\{\\alpha \\}\\operatorname {III} }where \n \n \n \n III\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\operatorname {III} }\n \n is the Dirac comb,\n\n \n \n \n ⋅\n III\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\cdot \\operatorname {III} }\n \n is discretization, \n \n \n \n ∗\n III\n \n \n {\\displaystyle *\\operatorname {III} }\n \n is\nperiodization, \n \n \n \n f\n \n \n {\\displaystyle f}\n \n is a rapidly decreasing tempered distribution\n(e.g. a Dirac delta function \n \n \n \n δ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\delta }\n \n or any other\ncompactly supported function), \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n is a smooth,\nslowly growing\nordinary function (e.g. the function that is constantly \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n\nor any other band-limited function)\nand \n \n \n \n \n \n F\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathcal {F}}}\n \n is the (unitary, ordinary frequency) Fourier transform.\nFunctions \n \n \n \n α\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\alpha }\n \n which are not smooth can be made smooth using a mollifier prior to discretization.As an example, discretization of the function that is constantly \n \n \n \n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1}\n \n yields the sequence \n \n \n \n [\n .\n .\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n .\n .\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [..,1,1,1,..]}\n \n which, interpreted as the coefficients of a linear combination of Dirac delta functions, forms a Dirac comb. If additionally truncation is applied, one obtains finite sequences, e.g. \n \n \n \n [\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ,\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle [1,1,1,1]}\n \n. They are discrete in both, time and frequency.","title":"Discretization of smooth functions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0471128397","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471128397"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0030716911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0030716911"},{"link_name":"\"Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/7095/1/77-298.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.1978.1101743"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1813/7095","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/1813%2F7095"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0132116657","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0132116657"}],"text":"Robert Grover Brown & Patrick Y. C. Hwang (1997). Introduction to random signals and applied Kalman filtering (3rd ed.). ISBN 978-0471128397.\nChi-Tsong Chen (1984). Linear System Theory and Design. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0030716911.\nC. Van Loan (Jun 1978). \"Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential\" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 23 (3): 395–404. doi:10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743. hdl:1813/7095.\nR.H. Middleton & G.C. Goodwin (1990). Digital control and estimation: a unified approach. p. 33f. ISBN 978-0132116657.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"A solution to a discretized partial differential equation, obtained with the finite element method.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Finite_element_solution.svg/220px-Finite_element_solution.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"Discrete event simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_event_simulation"},{"title":"Discrete space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_space"},{"title":"Discrete time and continuous time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_time_and_continuous_time"},{"title":"Finite difference method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_difference_method"},{"title":"Finite volume method for unsteady flow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_volume_method_for_unsteady_flow"},{"title":"Smoothing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoothing"},{"title":"Stochastic simulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_simulation"},{"title":"Time-scale calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-scale_calculus"}]	[{"reference":"Analytic Sciences Corporation. Technical Staff. (1974). Applied optimal estimation. Gelb, Arthur, 1937-. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press. pp. 121. ISBN 0-262-20027-9. OCLC 960061.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/appliedoptimales00agel","url_text":"Applied optimal estimation"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/appliedoptimales00agel/page/n128","url_text":"121"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-20027-9","url_text":"0-262-20027-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/960061","url_text":"960061"}]},{"reference":"Robert Grover Brown & Patrick Y. C. Hwang (1997). Introduction to random signals and applied Kalman filtering (3rd ed.). ISBN 978-0471128397.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471128397","url_text":"978-0471128397"}]},{"reference":"Chi-Tsong Chen (1984). Linear System Theory and Design. Philadelphia, PA, USA: Saunders College Publishing. ISBN 978-0030716911.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0030716911","url_text":"978-0030716911"}]},{"reference":"C. Van Loan (Jun 1978). \"Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential\" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control. 23 (3): 395–404. doi:10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743. hdl:1813/7095.","urls":[{"url":"http://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/7095/1/77-298.pdf","url_text":"\"Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.1978.1101743","url_text":"10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F7095","url_text":"1813/7095"}]},{"reference":"R.H. Middleton & G.C. Goodwin (1990). Digital control and estimation: a unified approach. p. 33f. ISBN 978-0132116657.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0132116657","url_text":"978-0132116657"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/appliedoptimales00agel","external_links_name":"Applied optimal estimation"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/appliedoptimales00agel/page/n128","external_links_name":"121"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/960061","external_links_name":"960061"},{"Link":"http://ecommons.cornell.edu/bitstream/1813/7095/1/77-298.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Computing integrals involving the matrix exponential\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTAC.1978.1101743","external_links_name":"10.1109/TAC.1978.1101743"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/1813%2F7095","external_links_name":"1813/7095"},{"Link":"https://www.discretization.de/","external_links_name":"Discretization in Geometry and Dynamics: research on the discretization of differential geometry and dynamics"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007396296605171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2016001385","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrsonima_crassifolia	Byrsonima crassifolia	["1 Description and habitat","2 Example ecoregions of occurrence","3 Uses","4 Gallery","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]	Species of fruit and plant "Nance" redirects here. For other uses, see Nance (disambiguation). Byrsonima crassifolia In Costa Rica Conservation status Least Concern (IUCN 3.1) Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Eudicots Clade: Rosids Order: Malpighiales Family: Malpighiaceae Genus: Byrsonima Species: B. crassifolia Binomial name Byrsonima crassifolia(L.) Kunth Synonyms Malpighia crassifolia L. Nance, frozen, unsweetenedFruitNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy306 kJ (73 kcal)Carbohydrates16.97 gSugars8.31 gDietary fiber7.5 g Fat1.16 g Protein0.66 g VitaminsQuantity %DV†Vitamin A equiv.lutein zeaxanthin1% 5 μg569 μgThiamine (B1)1% 0.015 mgRiboflavin (B2)1% 0.018 mgNiacin (B3)2% 0.29 mgPantothenic acid (B5)4% 0.18 mgVitamin B61% 0.021 mgFolate (B9)2% 8 μgVitamin C103% 92.5 mgVitamin E8% 1.25 mgVitamin K10% 11.9 μg MineralsQuantity %DV†Calcium4% 46 mgIron2% 0.38 mgMagnesium5% 20 mgManganese11% 0.248 mgPhosphorus1% 10 mgPotassium8% 244 mgSodium0% 3 mgZinc1% 0.09 mg Link to USDA Database entry†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. Byrsonima crassifolia is a species of flowering plant in the family Malpighiaceae, native to tropical America. Common names used in English include nance, maricao cimun, craboo, and golden spoon. In Jamaica it is called hogberry. The plant is valued for its small (between one, and one and a quarter centimeter in diameter) round, sweet yellow fruit which is strongly scented. The fruits have a very pungent and distinct flavor and smell. When jarred, their texture resembles that of a green or kalamata olive. Description and habitat Byrsonima crassifolia is a slow-growing large shrub or tree to 10 metres (33 ft). Sometimes cultivated for its edible fruits, the tree is native and abundant in the wild, sometimes in extensive stands, in open pine forests and grassy savannas, from central Mexico, through Central America, to Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil; it also occurs in Trinidad, Barbados, Curaçao, St. Martin, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and throughout Cuba and the Isle of Pines. The nance is limited to tropical and subtropical climates. In Central and South America, the tree ranges from sea-level to an altitude of 1,800 m (6,000 ft). It is highly drought-tolerant. Example ecoregions of occurrence Found in a number of tropical and subtropical ecoregions of the Americas that feature conifers, an example ecoregion of occurrence for B. crassifolia is the Belizean pine forests. Uses This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Nance from Guatemala City, Guatemala The fruits are eaten raw or cooked as dessert. In rural Panama, the dessert prepared with the addition of sugar and flour, known as pesada de nance, is quite popular. The fruits are also made into dulce de nance, a candy prepared with the fruit cooked in sugar and water. In Nicaragua (where the fruit is called nancite), it is a popular ingredient for several desserts, including raspados (a frozen dessert made from a drink prepared with nancites) and a dessert made by leaving the fruit to ferment with some sugar in a bottle for several months (usually from harvest around August–September until December) -- this is sometimes called "nancite in vinegar". The fruits are also often used to prepare carbonated beverages, ice cream and juice; in Brazil, to flavor mezcal-based liqueurs, or make an oily, acidic, fermented beverage known as chicha, the standard term applied to assorted beer-like drinks made of fruits or maize. Nance is used to distill a rum-like liquor called crema de nance in Costa Rica. Mexico produces a licor de nanche. In Veracruz, Mexico, it is called nanche and it is a common dessert element that can be found in the form of popsicles (percheronas) and ice sorbets (raspado). Fruit components can be processed to make traditional and innovative food products, namely candies, cookies, cakes, candied fruits, ice creams, sorbets, jellies, juices, liqueurs, jams, nectars, pickles, and fruit drinks In Panama, the wood from the tree is used as an aromatic in smoking and grilling. Gallery Fruit Flowers Tree See also List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil List of Culinary Fruits References ^ a b c Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019). "Byrsonima crassifolia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T61780518A149003401. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T61780518A149003401.en. Retrieved 19 December 2022. ^ "Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 2010-03-30. ^ a b "Byrsonima crassifolia". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2010-03-30. ^ United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". Retrieved 2024-03-28. ^ National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154. ^ "Byrsonima crassifolia". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2022-01-09. ^ a b c Cesar San-Martín-Hernández, Miguel Ángel Martínez-Téllez, Otila Noema Valenzuela-Amavizca, Emmanuel Aispuro-Hernández, Mario Sánchez-Sánchez, Estela Hernández-Camarillo, Leticia Xochitl López-Martínez, and Eber Addí Quintana-Obregón (December 2023). "Byrsonima crassifolia L. Kunth a bio-resource with potential: Overview and opportunities". Folia Horticulturae. 35 (1): 61–75. doi:10.2478/fhort-2023-0005. ISSN 2083-5965.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ C. Michael Hogan & World Wildlife Fund. 2012. Belizean pine forests. ed. M. McGinley. Encyclopedia of Earth. Washington DC External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Byrsonima crassifolia. Data related to Byrsonima crassifolia at Wikispecies Purdue.edu: Byrsonima crassifolia Taxon identifiersByrsonima crassifolia Wikidata: Q2046782 Wikispecies: Byrsonima crassifolia APNI: 222432 BioLib: 197835 CoL: 68TV2 EoL: 592366 EPPO: BYSCR FNA: 242427286 GBIF: 3191361 GRIN: 8222 iNaturalist: 154528 IPNI: 556033-1 IRMNG: 11433778 ITIS: 29263 IUCN: 61780518 NCBI: 4270 Observation.org: 198921 Open Tree of Life: 414971 Plant List: kew-2688172 PLANTS: BYCR POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:556033-1 Tropicos: 19500795 WFO: wfo-0000576794 Malpighia crassifolia Wikidata: Q21976267 GBIF: 5421444 GRIN: 23203 IPNI: 557027-1 IRMNG: 11328798 ITIS: 516645 POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:557027-1 Tropicos: 19500936 WFO: wfo-0000449771	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nance (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nance_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Byrsonima_crassifolia_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Conservation status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_status"},{"link_name":"Least Concern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_Concern"},{"link_name":"IUCN 3.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IUCN-1"},{"link_name":"Scientific classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Byrsonima"},{"link_name":"Plantae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant"},{"link_name":"Tracheophytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vascular_plant"},{"link_name":"Angiosperms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant"},{"link_name":"Eudicots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudicots"},{"link_name":"Rosids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosids"},{"link_name":"Malpighiales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighiales"},{"link_name":"Malpighiaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighiaceae"},{"link_name":"Byrsonima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byrsonima"},{"link_name":"Binomial name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature"},{"link_name":"L.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus"},{"link_name":"Kunth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl_Sigismund_Kunth"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Synonyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GRIN-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nanche.jpg"},{"link_name":"Energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energy"},{"link_name":"Carbohydrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbohydrate"},{"link_name":"Sugars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar"},{"link_name":"Dietary fiber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dietary_fiber"},{"link_name":"Fat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fat"},{"link_name":"Protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_(nutrient)"},{"link_name":"Vitamins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin"},{"link_name":"Vitamin A equiv.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_A"},{"link_name":"lutein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lutein"},{"link_name":"zeaxanthin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeaxanthin"},{"link_name":"Thiamine (B1)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamine"},{"link_name":"Riboflavin (B2)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin"},{"link_name":"Niacin (B3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin_(nutrient)"},{"link_name":"Pantothenic acid (B5)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acid"},{"link_name":"Vitamin B6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B6"},{"link_name":"Folate (B9)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folate"},{"link_name":"Vitamin C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_C"},{"link_name":"Vitamin E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_E"},{"link_name":"Vitamin K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_K"},{"link_name":"Minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral_(nutrient)"},{"link_name":"Calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_in_biology#Humans"},{"link_name":"Iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_iron_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium_in_biology"},{"link_name":"Manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese#Biological_role"},{"link_name":"Phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus#Biological_role"},{"link_name":"Potassium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potassium_in_biology"},{"link_name":"Sodium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_in_biology"},{"link_name":"Zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc#Biological_role"},{"link_name":"Link to USDA Database entry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/167789/nutrients"},{"link_name":"US recommendations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_Daily_Intake#Daily_Values"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FDADailyValues-4"},{"link_name":"the National Academies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academies_of_Sciences,_Engineering,_and_Medicine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NationalAcademiesPotassium-5"},{"link_name":"flowering plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flowering_plant"},{"link_name":"Malpighiaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malpighiaceae"},{"link_name":"tropical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical"},{"link_name":"America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IUCN-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBIF-6"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GRIN-3"},{"link_name":"Jamaica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaica"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olive"},{"link_name":"kalamata olive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamata_olive"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"\"Nance\" redirects here. For other uses, see Nance (disambiguation).Byrsonima crassifolia\n\n\n\n\n\nIn Costa Rica\n\n\n\n\nConservation status\n\n\nLeast Concern (IUCN 3.1)[1]\n\n\n\nScientific classification \n\n\nKingdom:\n\nPlantae\n\n\nClade:\n\nTracheophytes\n\n\nClade:\n\nAngiosperms\n\n\nClade:\n\nEudicots\n\n\nClade:\n\nRosids\n\n\nOrder:\n\nMalpighiales\n\n\nFamily:\n\nMalpighiaceae\n\n\nGenus:\n\nByrsonima\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSpecies:\n\nB. crassifolia\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBinomial name\n\n\nByrsonima crassifolia(L.) Kunth[2]\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSynonyms[3]\n\n\n\nMalpighia crassifolia L.\n\n\n\nNance, frozen, unsweetenedFruitNutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)Energy306 kJ (73 kcal)Carbohydrates16.97 gSugars8.31 gDietary fiber7.5 g\nFat1.16 g\nProtein0.66 g\nVitaminsQuantity %DV†Vitamin A equiv.lutein zeaxanthin1% 5 μg569 μgThiamine (B1)1% 0.015 mgRiboflavin (B2)1% 0.018 mgNiacin (B3)2% 0.29 mgPantothenic acid (B5)4% 0.18 mgVitamin B61% 0.021 mgFolate (B9)2% 8 μgVitamin C103% 92.5 mgVitamin E8% 1.25 mgVitamin K10% 11.9 μg\nMineralsQuantity %DV†Calcium4% 46 mgIron2% 0.38 mgMagnesium5% 20 mgManganese11% 0.248 mgPhosphorus1% 10 mgPotassium8% 244 mgSodium0% 3 mgZinc1% 0.09 mg\nLink to USDA Database entry†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults,[4] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies.[5]Byrsonima crassifolia is a species of flowering plant in the family Malpighiaceae, native to tropical America. Common names used in English include nance,[1] maricao cimun,[6] craboo, and golden spoon.[3] In Jamaica it is called hogberry.[citation needed]The plant is valued for its small (between one, and one and a quarter centimeter in diameter) round, sweet yellow fruit which is strongly scented. The fruits have a very pungent and distinct flavor and smell. When jarred, their texture resembles that of a green or kalamata olive.[citation needed]","title":"Byrsonima crassifolia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"pine forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests"},{"link_name":"savannas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savanna"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Central America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_America"},{"link_name":"Colombia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colombia"},{"link_name":"Peru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peru"},{"link_name":"Bolivia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolivia"},{"link_name":"Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazil"},{"link_name":"Trinidad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinidad"},{"link_name":"Barbados","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbados"},{"link_name":"Curaçao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura%C3%A7ao"},{"link_name":"St. Martin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Martin_(island)"},{"link_name":"Dominica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominica"},{"link_name":"Guadeloupe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadeloupe"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti"},{"link_name":"Dominican Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"Isle of Pines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isla_de_la_Juventud"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IUCN-1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FH-7"}],"text":"Byrsonima crassifolia is a slow-growing large shrub or tree to 10 metres (33 ft). Sometimes cultivated for its edible fruits, the tree is native and abundant in the wild, sometimes in extensive stands, in open pine forests and grassy savannas, from central Mexico, through Central America, to Colombia, Peru, Bolivia and Brazil; it also occurs in Trinidad, Barbados, Curaçao, St. Martin, Dominica, Guadeloupe, Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and throughout Cuba and the Isle of Pines. The nance is limited to tropical and subtropical climates. In Central and South America, the tree ranges from sea-level to an altitude of 1,800 m (6,000 ft).[1] It is highly drought-tolerant.[7]","title":"Description and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Belizean pine forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belizean_pine_forests"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Found in a number of tropical and subtropical ecoregions of the Americas that feature conifers, an example ecoregion of occurrence for B. crassifolia is the Belizean pine forests.[8]","title":"Example ecoregions of occurrence"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2010.05.03.183848_Nance_Guatemala_City.jpg"},{"link_name":"Guatemala City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala_City"},{"link_name":"Guatemala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guatemala"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FH-7"},{"link_name":"Panama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panama"},{"link_name":"Nicaragua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicaragua"},{"link_name":"vinegar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinegar"},{"link_name":"carbonated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonation"},{"link_name":"mezcal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezcal"},{"link_name":"liqueurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liqueur"},{"link_name":"fermented beverage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermented_beverage"},{"link_name":"chicha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicha"},{"link_name":"rum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rum"},{"link_name":"Veracruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veracruz"},{"link_name":"raspado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspado"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FH-7"}],"text":"Nance from Guatemala City, GuatemalaThe fruits are eaten raw or cooked as dessert.[7] In rural Panama, the dessert prepared with the addition of sugar and flour, known as pesada de nance, is quite popular. The fruits are also made into dulce de nance, a candy prepared with the fruit cooked in sugar and water. In Nicaragua (where the fruit is called nancite), it is a popular ingredient for several desserts, including raspados (a frozen dessert made from a drink prepared with nancites) and a dessert made by leaving the fruit to ferment with some sugar in a bottle for several months (usually from harvest around August–September until December) -- this is sometimes called \"nancite in vinegar\".The fruits are also often used to prepare carbonated beverages, ice cream and juice; in Brazil, to flavor mezcal-based liqueurs, or make an oily, acidic, fermented beverage known as chicha, the standard term applied to assorted beer-like drinks made of fruits or maize. Nance is used to distill a rum-like liquor called crema de nance in Costa Rica. Mexico produces a licor de nanche.In Veracruz, Mexico, it is called nanche and it is a common dessert element that can be found in the form of popsicles (percheronas) and ice sorbets (raspado). Fruit components can be processed to make traditional and innovative food products, namely candies, cookies, cakes, candied fruits, ice creams, sorbets, jellies, juices, liqueurs, jams, nectars, pickles, and fruit drinks[7]In Panama, the wood from the tree is used as an aromatic in smoking and grilling.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Byrsonima_crassifolia(Fruto).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nance_Inflorescence_(16558227361).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Byrsonima_crassifolia_(7554340816).jpg"}],"text":"Fruit\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFlowers\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTree","title":"Gallery"}]	[{"image_text":"Nance from Guatemala City, Guatemala","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/2010.05.03.183848_Nance_Guatemala_City.jpg/220px-2010.05.03.183848_Nance_Guatemala_City.jpg"}]	[{"title":"List of plants of Cerrado vegetation of Brazil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_plants_of_Cerrado_vegetation_of_Brazil"},{"title":"List of Culinary Fruits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_culinary_fruits"}]	[{"reference":"Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) & IUCN SSC Global Tree Specialist Group (2019). \"Byrsonima crassifolia\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2019: e.T61780518A149003401. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T61780518A149003401.en. Retrieved 19 December 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/61780518/149003401","url_text":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List","url_text":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T61780518A149003401.en","url_text":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T61780518A149003401.en"}]},{"reference":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth\". TROPICOS. Missouri Botanical Garden. Retrieved 2010-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tropicos.org/NameDetails.aspx?nameid=19500795","url_text":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth\""}]},{"reference":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia\". Germplasm Resources Information Network. Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 2010-03-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=8222","url_text":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germplasm_Resources_Information_Network","url_text":"Germplasm Resources Information Network"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_Research_Service","url_text":"Agricultural Research Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture","url_text":"United States Department of Agriculture"}]},{"reference":"United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). \"Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels\". Retrieved 2024-03-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration","url_text":"United States Food and Drug Administration"},{"url":"https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-facts-label/daily-value-nutrition-and-supplement-facts-labels","url_text":"\"Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels\""}]},{"reference":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). ISBN 978-0-309-48834-1. PMID 30844154.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538102/","url_text":"Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-309-48834-1","url_text":"978-0-309-48834-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30844154","url_text":"30844154"}]},{"reference":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia\". Global Biodiversity Information Facility. Retrieved 2022-01-09.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gbif.org/species/102295574","url_text":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility","url_text":"Global Biodiversity Information Facility"}]},{"reference":"Cesar San-Martín-Hernández, Miguel Ángel Martínez-Téllez, Otila Noema Valenzuela-Amavizca, Emmanuel Aispuro-Hernández, Mario Sánchez-Sánchez, Estela Hernández-Camarillo, Leticia Xochitl López-Martínez, and Eber Addí Quintana-Obregón (December 2023). \"Byrsonima crassifolia L. Kunth a bio-resource with potential: Overview and opportunities\". Folia Horticulturae. 35 (1): 61–75. doi:10.2478/fhort-2023-0005. ISSN 2083-5965.","urls":[{"url":"https://intapi.sciendo.com/pdf/10.2478/fhort-2023-0005","url_text":"\"Byrsonima crassifolia L. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Str%C3%B8get	Strøget	["1 Geography","2 History","3 Influence","4 Today","5 Transport","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading"]	Coordinates: 55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575Pedestrian zone in Copenhagen, Denmark Strøget, Amagertorv Strøget seen from Gammeltorv/Nytorv Aerial view of the street looking West Strøget (Danish pronunciation: ) is a pedestrian, car-free shopping area in Copenhagen, Denmark. This popular tourist attraction in the centre of town is one of the longest pedestrian shopping streets in Europe at 1.1 km. Located at the centre of the old city of Copenhagen, it has long been one of the most high-profile streets in the city. Geography The main street is bound on the west by City Hall Square (Danish: Rådhuspladsen), the central town square by Copenhagen City Hall, and on the east by Kongens Nytorv ("The King's New Square"), another large square at the other end. But the Strøget area is actually a collection of streets that spread out from this central thoroughfare. Components of the pedestrianised network are: Frederiksberggade Gammel Torv / Nytorv Nygade Vimmelskaftet Fiolstræde Jorcks Passage Købmagergade (connects to Nørreport Station via Kultorvet) Amagertorv Østergade History Strøget was known as Ruten until the late 19th century. This collection of streets has been at the heart of the city, and amongst the most fashionable in the city for much of its history. The layout of the streets comprising Strøget has been in place since 1728 when Frederiksberggade was laid out after a fire. Most of the buildings along the street date to the late 19th or early 20th centuries, with the oldest building dating to 1616. Strøget was converted to a pedestrian zone on 17 November 1962 when cars were beginning to dominate Copenhagen's old central streets. Inspired by a number of new pedestrian streets created in Germany after the war, during the 1950s the street had closed to traffic for some of days at Christmas. The 1962 closure was initially a temporary trial, but the change was made permanent in 1964, and the road has remained closed since. The idea was controversial, some people believing that the Danes did not have the mentality for "public life" envisioned by such a street, and many local merchants believed the move would scare away business. The 'father' of a car free Strøget, Alfred Wassard, Copenhagen's 'mayor for town planning' from 1962–78, even faced death threats. On the opening day, police officers were present to protect against assassination threats, and unhappy car drivers honked their horns on side streets to mark their displeasure although the event was well attended and marked by dancing and music. The posher shops on the east end of the street were particularly opposed to the change, and they tried to have the project restricted to its western portion which was dominated by bars and cinemas at the time. However the project quickly proved a success, and the area soon boasted more shoppers, cafes, and a renewed street life. Building on Strøget’s success, the network expanded piecemeal – another street and a few more squares were emptied of cars in 1968, and further closures took place in 1973, and 1992. From the initial 15,800 square metres of the Strøget, Copenhagen’s central pedestrian network has expanded to about 100,000 square metres. In 1993 Amagertorv (Amager square) was re-surfaced in a pattern made of granite, designed by artist Bjørn Nørgaard. Nearby areas were also pedestrianised over the years, for example Nyhavn in 1980 and the town hall square (semi-pedestrianised) in 1996 on the occasion of Copenhagen being the European Capital of Culture (the through road was removed although bus traffic remained, and the square is still bounded by traffic). Influence Architect Jan Gehl studied the new pedestrian area starting in 1962 and his influential reports and findings on the subject formed the basis of Copenhagen's subsequent broader policy shift toward emphasising pedestrians and bicycles. Gehl and Copenhagen's policies have later become influential around the world, encouraging cities such as Melbourne and New York to pedestrianise. Today The street is often credited as the oldest and longest pedestrian street in the world; in fact neither claim is true, although it was the longest pedestrian street at the time of its conversion in 1962. Rue Sainte-Catherine in Bordeaux is longer, while Lijnbaan in Rotterdam was pedestrianised in 1953. And Laisvės Alėja in Kaunas, Lithuania is longer– stretching to 1.6 km. More recently, George Street in Sydney, extends to 2 km. About 80,000 people use Strøget every day at the height of tourist season in summer, and about 48,000 do so on a winter's day. On the last Sunday before Christmas as many as 120,000 may use Strøget. Jan Gehl believes that Strøget is now roughly at its handling capacity on a summer's day, given its width at 10–12 metres and space for roughly 145 people/minute. Many of the city's most famous and expensive stores are located along the strip, as well as some of the most famous and expensive luxury brand chain stores in the world. It also features a multitude of souvenir shops and fast food outlets. The Lonely Planet travel guide noted as of 2014 that although Strøget is "a fun place to stroll," bustling with musicians and people, it seemed to be stagnating, "offering the same old international brand names" and "a scrappy mix of budget clothing stores, tourist shops and kebab houses." They advised that visitors should, "walk down it once, but after that you'll find the side streets far more productive in terms of independent shops and more interesting design." Transport Many bus lines have stops close to the Strøget area, and at Kongens Nytorv is a Metro station. Also the S-train stations Vesterport and Nørreport are located nearby. (Nørreport is located very close to a pedestrian commercial street which leads to the "real" Strøget). Two metro stations opened on 29 September 2019 at City Hall Square and Gammel Strand. The latter one is located close to the middle of Strøget. See also Galleri K Tourism in Denmark Copenhagenization (bicycling) Østergade 13, Copenhagen References ^ Kellahan, Kristie (6 September 2009). "Street smart: Stroget, Copenhagen". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 1 August 2014. ^ "Strøget". VisitCopenhagen.com. Retrieved 2 August 2014. ^ "Strøget". Den Store Danske (in Danish). Gylendal. Retrieved 19 July 2014. ^ a b c d Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. "1960'erne: Strøgets etablering – de antiautoritære unge". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 5 August 2014. ^ a b "The Strøget Solution". The Ottawa Citizen. 22 March 2008. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2014. ^ a b c Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. "Om Strøget - generelt". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 4 August 2014. ^ a b c "Strøget for 50 år siden: Mordtrusler mod Borgmester" (in Danish). Copenhagen Municipality. 31 August 2012. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014. ^ Turner, Chris (18 December 2008). "Copenhagen, Melbourne & The Reconquest of the City". World Changing. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2014. ^ a b c Beacom, Elise (10 November 2012). "Copenhagenizing' the world, one city at a time". The Copenhagen Post. Retrieved 10 August 2014. ^ Welin, Charlotte (17 October 2003). "Da fodfolket indtog midtbyen". Berlingske Tidende (in Danish). Retrieved 5 August 2014. ^ a b Gehl, Jan; Gemzøe, Lars (1996). Public Spaces, Public Life, Copenhagen. The Danish Architectural Press and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. ISBN 877-407-305-2. ^ Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. "1990'erne – omsorg for byrummet". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 6 August 2014. ^ Capps, Kriston (4 February 2014). "Jan Gehl Knows the Formula for Public Life". Architect. Retrieved 10 August 2014. ^ Gehl, Jan; Svarre, Birgitte (2013). How to Study Public Life. Island Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-1610915250. Retrieved 10 August 2014. ^ Rask Glerup, Marie (4 September 2012). "Strøget er ikke verdens længste gågade" . DR.dk (in Danish). Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2014. ^ "Strøget". Lonely Planet. Retrieved 11 August 2014. ^ "Vesterport Station, København V \| firma \| krak.dk". ^ Also Google maps ^ "Nørreport Station - Tag toget til og fra Nørreport togstation med DSB". ^ "Metroselskabet og Københavns Metro". Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Strøget. Gehl, Jan; Gemzøe, Lars (1996). Public Spaces, Public Life, Copenhagen. The Danish Architectural Press and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. ISBN 877-407-305-2. 55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575 vteCopenhagenSee also: Urban area of CopenhagenOfficial districts Amager Vest Amager Øst Bispebjerg Brønshøj-Husum Indre By Nørrebro Østerbro Valby Vanløse Vesterbro/Kongens Enghave Notable localitiesand neighbourhoods Indre By Bellahøj Carlsberg Christiania Christianshavn Frederiksberg Frederiksstaden Holmen Islands Brygge Kongens Nytorv Nyboder Nyhavn Slotsholmen Parks and open spaces Amager Strandpark Assistens Cemetery Frederiksberg Gardens Kastellet Kongens Have Superkilen Churches St. Alban's Alexander Nevsky Church St. Andrew's Anna Church St. Ansgar's Cathedral St. Augustine's Bernstorff Palace Bethlehem Church Brorson's Church Christian's Church Christ Church Elijah's Church Frederik's Church Frederiksberg Church Godthaab Church Grundtvig's Church Gustaf Church Hans Tausen's Church Holmen Church Holy Ghost Church Immanuel Church Isaiah Church St. James's Jerusalem's Church Jesus Church St. John's Church Kildevæld Church St. Luke's Church Mariendal Church St. Mark's St. Matthew's Nathanael's Church St. Paul's St. Peter's Philip's Church Reformed Church Church of Our Saviour Simon Peter's Church Solbjerg Church Sundby Church Trinitatis Church Zion's Church Museums Cisternerne Amber Museum Danish Design Centre Danish Museum of Art & Design Danish Revue Museum Fotografisk Center University of Copenhagen Geological Museum Hirschsprung Collection Jewish Museum Kastrupgård Kunsthal Charlottenborg Medical Museion Museum of Copenhagen National Museum of Denmark National Museum of Photography Natural History Museum of Denmark North Atlantic House Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek Police Museum Revue Museum Royal Danish Naval Museum National Gallery of Denmark Storm P. Museum Tycho Brahe Planetarium War Museum Landmarks Amalienborg Børsen Charlottenborg Palace Christiansborg Palace Copenhagen City Hall Harbour Baths Fortifications Frederiksberg Palace Hotel Astoria Kongens Nytorv Lakes Langelinie The Little Mermaid Medicon Valley Nørreport Station Opera House Øresund Bridge Palace Hotel Radisson Blu Royal Hotel Rosenborg Castle Royal Danish Playhouse Royal Library Tivoli Gardens Politics and administration Capital Region Copenhagen Municipality Lord mayors of Copenhagen Frederiksberg Municipality Education Copenhagen Business School Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation Technical University of Denmark University of Copenhagen UCC Transport Copenhagen Airport Copenhagen Central Station Copenhagen Metro S-train Cycling (Super Bikeways) Districts History Lists Transport Category Authority control databases: Geographic MusicBrainz place	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Str%C3%B8get,_Copenhagen.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Str%C3%B8get_cph.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gammeltorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammeltorv"},{"link_name":"Nytorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nytorv"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amagertorv_aerial.jpg"},{"link_name":"[ˈstʁʌjˀð̩]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Danish"},{"link_name":"pedestrian, car-free shopping area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedestrian_zone"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark"},{"link_name":"tourist attraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourist_attraction"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Pedestrian zone in Copenhagen, DenmarkStrøget, AmagertorvStrøget seen from Gammeltorv/NytorvAerial view of the street looking WestStrøget (Danish pronunciation: [ˈstʁʌjˀð̩]) is a pedestrian, car-free shopping area in Copenhagen, Denmark. This popular tourist attraction in the centre of town is one of the longest pedestrian shopping streets in Europe[1] at 1.1 km.[2] Located at the centre of the old city of Copenhagen, it has long been one of the most high-profile streets in the city.","title":"Strøget"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"City Hall Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Hall_Square,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Danish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_language"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen City Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_City_Hall"},{"link_name":"Kongens Nytorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongens_Nytorv"},{"link_name":"Gammel Torv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammel_Torv"},{"link_name":"Nytorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nytorv"},{"link_name":"Fiolstræde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiolstr%C3%A6de"},{"link_name":"Jorcks Passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jorcks_Passage"},{"link_name":"Købmagergade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B8bmagergade"},{"link_name":"Nørreport Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8rreport_Station"},{"link_name":"Kultorvet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kultorvet"},{"link_name":"Amagertorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amagertorv"}],"text":"The main street is bound on the west by City Hall Square (Danish: Rådhuspladsen), the central town square by Copenhagen City Hall, and on the east by Kongens Nytorv (\"The King's New Square\"), another large square at the other end. But the Strøget area is actually a collection of streets that spread out from this central thoroughfare. Components of the pedestrianised network are:Frederiksberggade\nGammel Torv / Nytorv\nNygade\nVimmelskaftet\nFiolstræde\nJorcks Passage\nKøbmagergade (connects to Nørreport Station via Kultorvet)\nAmagertorv\nØstergade","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-denstoredanske-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etablering-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etablering-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-citizen-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erindringer-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mordtrusler-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etablering-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-copenhagenizing-9"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mordtrusler-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mordtrusler-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etablering-4"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erindringer-6"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publicspaces-11"},{"link_name":"Bjørn Nørgaard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rn_N%C3%B8rgaard"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-byrummet-12"},{"link_name":"Nyhavn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyhavn"},{"link_name":"European Capital of Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Capital_of_Culture"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publicspaces-11"}],"text":"Strøget was known as Ruten until the late 19th century.[3] This collection of streets has been at the heart of the city, and amongst the most fashionable in the city for much of its history. The layout of the streets comprising Strøget has been in place since 1728 when Frederiksberggade was laid out after a fire.[4] Most of the buildings along the street date to the late 19th or early 20th centuries, with the oldest building dating to 1616.[4]Strøget was converted to a pedestrian zone on 17 November 1962 when cars were beginning to dominate Copenhagen's old central streets.[5] Inspired by a number of new pedestrian streets created in Germany after the war,[6] during the 1950s the street had closed to traffic for some of days at Christmas.[7] The 1962 closure was initially a temporary trial, but the change was made permanent in 1964, and the road has remained closed since.[4] The idea was controversial, some people believing that the Danes did not have the mentality for \"public life\" envisioned by such a street, and many local merchants believed the move would scare away business.[8][9] The 'father' of a car free Strøget, Alfred Wassard, Copenhagen's 'mayor for town planning' from 1962–78, even faced death threats.[7] On the opening day, police officers were present to protect against assassination threats, and unhappy car drivers honked their horns on side streets to mark their displeasure although the event was well attended and marked by dancing and music.[7] The posher shops on the east end of the street were particularly opposed to the change, and they tried to have the project restricted to its western portion which was dominated by bars and cinemas at the time.[4]However the project quickly proved a success,[10] and the area soon boasted more shoppers, cafes, and a renewed street life. Building on Strøget’s success, the network expanded piecemeal – another street and a few more squares were emptied of cars in 1968, and further closures took place in 1973, and 1992.[6] From the initial 15,800 square metres of the Strøget, Copenhagen’s central pedestrian network has expanded to about 100,000 square metres.[11] In 1993 Amagertorv (Amager square) was re-surfaced in a pattern made of granite, designed by artist Bjørn Nørgaard.[12] Nearby areas were also pedestrianised over the years, for example Nyhavn in 1980 and the town hall square (semi-pedestrianised) in 1996 on the occasion of Copenhagen being the European Capital of Culture (the through road was removed although bus traffic remained, and the square is still bounded by traffic).[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jan Gehl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Gehl"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-copenhagenizing-9"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-architect-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Architect Jan Gehl studied the new pedestrian area starting in 1962 and his influential reports and findings on the subject formed the basis of Copenhagen's subsequent broader policy shift toward emphasising pedestrians and bicycles.[9] Gehl and Copenhagen's policies have later become influential around the world, encouraging cities such as Melbourne and New York to pedestrianise.[13][14]","title":"Influence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Rue Sainte-Catherine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rue_Sainte-Catherine_(Bordeaux)"},{"link_name":"Lijnbaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lijnbaan"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-citizen-5"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-copenhagenizing-9"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-erindringer-6"},{"link_name":"luxury brand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_brand"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The street is often credited as the oldest and longest pedestrian street in the world; in fact neither claim is true, although it was the longest pedestrian street at the time of its conversion in 1962.[15] Rue Sainte-Catherine in Bordeaux is longer, while Lijnbaan in Rotterdam was pedestrianised in 1953. And Laisvės Alėja in Kaunas, Lithuania is longer– stretching to 1.6 km. More recently, George Street in Sydney, extends to 2 km.About 80,000 people use Strøget every day at the height of tourist season in summer, and about 48,000 do so on a winter's day.[5] On the last Sunday before Christmas as many as 120,000 may use Strøget.[9] Jan Gehl believes that Strøget is now roughly at its handling capacity on a summer's day, given its width at 10–12 metres and space for roughly 145 people/minute.[6]Many of the city's most famous and expensive stores are located along the strip, as well as some of the most famous and expensive luxury brand chain stores in the world. It also features a multitude of souvenir shops and fast food outlets.The Lonely Planet travel guide noted as of 2014 that although Strøget is \"a fun place to stroll,\" bustling with musicians and people, it seemed to be stagnating, \"offering the same old international brand names\" and \"a scrappy mix of budget clothing stores, tourist shops and kebab houses.\" They advised that visitors should, \"walk down it once, but after that you'll find the side streets far more productive in terms of independent shops and more interesting design.\"[16]","title":"Today"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen_Metro"},{"link_name":"S-train stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-trains"},{"link_name":"Vesterport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesterport_station"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Nørreport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B8rreport_station"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"City Hall Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A5dhuspladsen_Station"},{"link_name":"Gammel Strand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gammel_Strand_station"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Many bus lines have stops close to the Strøget area, and at Kongens Nytorv is a Metro station. Also the S-train stations Vesterport[17][18] and Nørreport[19] are located nearby. (Nørreport is located very close to a pedestrian commercial street which leads to the \"real\" Strøget). Two metro stations opened on 29 September 2019 at City Hall Square and Gammel Strand. The latter one is located close to the middle of Strøget.[20]","title":"Transport"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strøget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Str%C3%B8get"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"877-407-305-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/877-407-305-2"},{"link_name":"55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Str%C3%B8get&params=55.679_N_12.575_E_source:dewiki"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Urban area of 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Nytorv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongens_Nytorv"},{"link_name":"Nyboder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyboder"},{"link_name":"Nyhavn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyhavn"},{"link_name":"Slotsholmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slotsholmen"},{"link_name":"Amager Strandpark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amager_Strandpark"},{"link_name":"Assistens Cemetery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistens_Cemetery_(Copenhagen)"},{"link_name":"Frederiksberg Gardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiksberg_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Kastellet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kastellet,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Kongens Have","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosenborg_Castle_Gardens"},{"link_name":"Superkilen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superkilen"},{"link_name":"St. Alban's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Alban%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Alexander Nevsky Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Nevsky_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"St. Andrew's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Andrew%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Anna Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"St. Ansgar's Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Ansgar%27s_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"St. Augustine's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Augustine%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Bernstorff Palace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernstorff_Palace"},{"link_name":"Bethlehem Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bethlehem_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Brorson's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brorson%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Christian's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Christ Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christ_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Elijah's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elijah%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Frederik's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederik%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Frederiksberg Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiksberg_Church"},{"link_name":"Godthaab Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Godthaab_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Grundtvig's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grundtvig%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Gustaf Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Gustaf%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Hans Tausen's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Tausen%27s_Church"},{"link_name":"Holmen Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holmen_Church"},{"link_name":"Holy Ghost Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_the_Holy_Ghost,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Immanuel Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Isaiah Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaiah_Church"},{"link_name":"St. James's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._James%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Jesus Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesus_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"St. John's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._John%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Kildevæld Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kildev%C3%A6ld_Church"},{"link_name":"St. Luke's Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Luke%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Mariendal Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariendal_Church"},{"link_name":"St. Mark's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mark%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"St. Matthew's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Matthew%27s_Church,_Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Nathanael's 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Glyptotek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ny_Carlsberg_Glyptotek"},{"link_name":"Police Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Police_Museum"},{"link_name":"Revue Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_Revue_Museum"},{"link_name":"Royal Danish Naval Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Danish_Naval_Museum"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Storm P. 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Public Spaces, Public Life, Copenhagen. The Danish Architectural Press and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. ISBN 877-407-305-2.55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575vteCopenhagenSee also: Urban area of CopenhagenOfficial districts\nAmager Vest\nAmager Øst\nBispebjerg\nBrønshøj-Husum\nIndre By\nNørrebro\nØsterbro\nValby\nVanløse\nVesterbro/Kongens Enghave\nNotable localitiesand neighbourhoods\nIndre By\nBellahøj\nCarlsberg\nChristiania\nChristianshavn\nFrederiksberg\nFrederiksstaden\nHolmen\nIslands Brygge\nKongens Nytorv\nNyboder\nNyhavn\nSlotsholmen\nParks and open spaces\nAmager Strandpark\nAssistens Cemetery\nFrederiksberg Gardens\nKastellet\nKongens Have\nSuperkilen\nChurches\nSt. Alban's\nAlexander Nevsky Church\nSt. Andrew's\nAnna Church\nSt. Ansgar's Cathedral\nSt. Augustine's\nBernstorff Palace\nBethlehem Church\nBrorson's Church\nChristian's Church\nChrist Church\nElijah's Church\nFrederik's Church\nFrederiksberg Church\nGodthaab Church\nGrundtvig's Church\nGustaf Church\nHans Tausen's Church\nHolmen Church\nHoly Ghost Church\nImmanuel Church\nIsaiah Church\nSt. James's\nJerusalem's Church\nJesus Church\nSt. John's Church\nKildevæld Church\nSt. Luke's Church\nMariendal Church\nSt. Mark's\nSt. Matthew's\nNathanael's Church\nSt. Paul's\nSt. Peter's\nPhilip's Church\nReformed Church\nChurch of Our Saviour\nSimon Peter's Church\nSolbjerg Church\nSundby Church\nTrinitatis Church\nZion's Church\nMuseums\nCisternerne\nAmber Museum\nDanish Design Centre\nDanish Museum of Art & Design\nDanish Revue Museum\nFotografisk Center\nUniversity of Copenhagen Geological Museum\nHirschsprung Collection\nJewish Museum\nKastrupgård\nKunsthal Charlottenborg\nMedical Museion\nMuseum of Copenhagen\nNational Museum of Denmark\nNational Museum of Photography\nNatural History Museum of Denmark\nNorth Atlantic House\nNy Carlsberg Glyptotek\nPolice Museum\nRevue Museum\nRoyal Danish Naval Museum\nNational Gallery of Denmark\nStorm P. Museum\nTycho Brahe Planetarium\nWar Museum\nLandmarks\nAmalienborg\nBørsen\nCharlottenborg Palace\nChristiansborg Palace\nCopenhagen City Hall\nHarbour Baths\nFortifications\nFrederiksberg Palace\nHotel Astoria\nKongens Nytorv\nLakes\nLangelinie\nThe Little Mermaid\nMedicon Valley\nNørreport Station\nOpera House\nØresund Bridge\nPalace Hotel\nRadisson Blu Royal Hotel\nRosenborg Castle\nRoyal Danish Playhouse\nRoyal Library\nTivoli Gardens\nPolitics and administration\nCapital Region\nCopenhagen Municipality\nLord mayors of Copenhagen\nFrederiksberg Municipality\nEducation\nCopenhagen Business School\nRoyal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation\nTechnical University of Denmark\nUniversity of Copenhagen\nUCC\nTransport\nCopenhagen Airport\nCopenhagen Central Station\nCopenhagen Metro\nS-train\nCycling (Super Bikeways)\n\nDistricts\nHistory\nLists\nTransport\n CategoryAuthority control databases: Geographic \nMusicBrainz place","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Strøget, Amagertorv","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Str%C3%B8get%2C_Copenhagen.jpg/300px-Str%C3%B8get%2C_Copenhagen.jpg"},{"image_text":"Strøget seen from Gammeltorv/Nytorv","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Str%C3%B8get_cph.jpg/300px-Str%C3%B8get_cph.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aerial view of the street looking West","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Amagertorv_aerial.jpg/300px-Amagertorv_aerial.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Galleri K","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galleri_K"},{"title":"Tourism in Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tourism_in_Denmark"},{"title":"Copenhagenization (bicycling)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagenization_(bicycling)"},{"title":"Østergade 13, Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98stergade_13,_Copenhagen"}]	[{"reference":"Kellahan, Kristie (6 September 2009). \"Street smart: Stroget, Copenhagen\". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 1 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.smh.com.au/travel/activity/shopping/street-smart-stroget-copenhagen-20090904-fb3r.html","url_text":"\"Street smart: Stroget, Copenhagen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strøget\". VisitCopenhagen.com. Retrieved 2 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/copenhagen/stroget-gdk414471","url_text":"\"Strøget\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strøget\". Den Store Danske (in Danish). Gylendal. Retrieved 19 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_historie/K%C3%B8benhavns_historie/Str%C3%B8get","url_text":"\"Strøget\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. \"1960'erne: Strøgets etablering – de antiautoritære unge\". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 5 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.erindringer.dk/stroget-1960erne","url_text":"\"1960'erne: Strøgets etablering – de antiautoritære unge\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Strøget Solution\". The Ottawa Citizen. 22 March 2008. Archived from the original on 9 November 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151109111044/http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=d47ee45e-4f47-4b2b-b947-ab95578e2e8a&k=30759&p=1","url_text":"\"The Strøget Solution\""},{"url":"http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=d47ee45e-4f47-4b2b-b947-ab95578e2e8a&k=30759&p=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. \"Om Strøget - generelt\". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 4 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.erindringer.dk/om-stroget","url_text":"\"Om Strøget - generelt\""}]},{"reference":"\"Strøget for 50 år siden: Mordtrusler mod Borgmester\" (in Danish). Copenhagen Municipality. 31 August 2012. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 11 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140812211252/https://subsite.kk.dk/Nyheder/2012/September/KFF_Stroeget_50.aspx","url_text":"\"Strøget for 50 år siden: Mordtrusler mod Borgmester\""},{"url":"https://subsite.kk.dk/Nyheder/2012/September/KFF_Stroeget_50.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Turner, Chris (18 December 2008). \"Copenhagen, Melbourne & The Reconquest of the City\". World Changing. Archived from the original on 10 October 2013. Retrieved 6 September 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Turner_(author)","url_text":"Turner, Chris"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131010224938/http://www.worldchanging.com/local/canada/archives/009216.html","url_text":"\"Copenhagen, Melbourne & The Reconquest of the City\""},{"url":"http://www.worldchanging.com/local/canada/archives/009216.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Beacom, Elise (10 November 2012). \"Copenhagenizing' the world, one city at a time\". The Copenhagen Post. Retrieved 10 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://cphpost.dk/news/copenhagenizing-the-world-one-city-at-a-time.3321.html","url_text":"\"Copenhagenizing' the world, one city at a time\""}]},{"reference":"Welin, Charlotte (17 October 2003). \"Da fodfolket indtog midtbyen\". Berlingske Tidende (in Danish). Retrieved 5 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.b.dk/danmark/da-fodfolket-indtog-midtbyen","url_text":"\"Da fodfolket indtog midtbyen\""}]},{"reference":"Gehl, Jan; Gemzøe, Lars (1996). Public Spaces, Public Life, Copenhagen. The Danish Architectural Press and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. ISBN 877-407-305-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/877-407-305-2","url_text":"877-407-305-2"}]},{"reference":"Peter Schøning & Nete Wingender. \"1990'erne – omsorg for byrummet\". Erindringer: Københavnernes Fortællinger (in Danish). Københavns Stadsarkiv. Retrieved 6 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.erindringer.dk/stroget-omsorg","url_text":"\"1990'erne – omsorg for byrummet\""}]},{"reference":"Capps, Kriston (4 February 2014). \"Jan Gehl Knows the Formula for Public Life\". Architect. Retrieved 10 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.architectmagazine.com/planning/jan-gehl-danish-architect-city-planning-denmark-embassy_o.aspx","url_text":"\"Jan Gehl Knows the Formula for Public Life\""}]},{"reference":"Gehl, Jan; Svarre, Birgitte (2013). How to Study Public Life. Island Press. p. 155. ISBN 978-1610915250. Retrieved 10 August 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DUGiAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA155","url_text":"How to Study Public Life"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1610915250","url_text":"978-1610915250"}]},{"reference":"Rask Glerup, Marie (4 September 2012). \"Strøget er ikke verdens længste gågade\" [Strøget is not the world's longest pedestrian street]. DR.dk (in Danish). Archived from the original on 7 September 2012. Retrieved 2 November 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120907083218/http://www.dr.dk/P1/Detektor/Udsendelser/2012/09/03151839.htm","url_text":"\"Strøget er ikke verdens længste gågade\""},{"url":"http://www.dr.dk/P1/Detektor/Udsendelser/2012/09/03151839.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Strøget\". Lonely Planet. 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The Danish Architectural Press and the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts. ISBN 877-407-305-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/877-407-305-2","url_text":"877-407-305-2"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Str%C3%B8get&params=55.679_N_12.575_E_source:dewiki","external_links_name":"55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575"},{"Link":"http://www.smh.com.au/travel/activity/shopping/street-smart-stroget-copenhagen-20090904-fb3r.html","external_links_name":"\"Street smart: Stroget, Copenhagen\""},{"Link":"http://www.visitcopenhagen.com/copenhagen/stroget-gdk414471","external_links_name":"\"Strøget\""},{"Link":"http://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_historie/K%C3%B8benhavns_historie/Str%C3%B8get","external_links_name":"\"Strøget\""},{"Link":"http://www.erindringer.dk/stroget-1960erne","external_links_name":"\"1960'erne: Strøgets etablering – de antiautoritære unge\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151109111044/http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=d47ee45e-4f47-4b2b-b947-ab95578e2e8a&k=30759&p=1","external_links_name":"\"The Strøget Solution\""},{"Link":"http://www.canada.com/ottawacitizen/story.html?id=d47ee45e-4f47-4b2b-b947-ab95578e2e8a&k=30759&p=1","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.erindringer.dk/om-stroget","external_links_name":"\"Om Strøget - generelt\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140812211252/https://subsite.kk.dk/Nyheder/2012/September/KFF_Stroeget_50.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Strøget for 50 år siden: Mordtrusler mod Borgmester\""},{"Link":"https://subsite.kk.dk/Nyheder/2012/September/KFF_Stroeget_50.aspx","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131010224938/http://www.worldchanging.com/local/canada/archives/009216.html","external_links_name":"\"Copenhagen, Melbourne & The Reconquest of the City\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldchanging.com/local/canada/archives/009216.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://cphpost.dk/news/copenhagenizing-the-world-one-city-at-a-time.3321.html","external_links_name":"\"Copenhagenizing' the world, one city at a time\""},{"Link":"http://www.b.dk/danmark/da-fodfolket-indtog-midtbyen","external_links_name":"\"Da fodfolket indtog midtbyen\""},{"Link":"http://www.erindringer.dk/stroget-omsorg","external_links_name":"\"1990'erne – omsorg for byrummet\""},{"Link":"http://www.architectmagazine.com/planning/jan-gehl-danish-architect-city-planning-denmark-embassy_o.aspx","external_links_name":"\"Jan Gehl Knows the Formula for Public Life\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DUGiAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA155","external_links_name":"How to Study Public Life"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120907083218/http://www.dr.dk/P1/Detektor/Udsendelser/2012/09/03151839.htm","external_links_name":"\"Strøget er ikke verdens længste gågade\""},{"Link":"http://www.dr.dk/P1/Detektor/Udsendelser/2012/09/03151839.htm","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.lonelyplanet.com/denmark/copenhagen/sights/shops-arcades/stroget","external_links_name":"\"Strøget\""},{"Link":"http://www.krak.dk/f/vesterport-station:67409562/1612-k%C3%B8benhavn+v","external_links_name":"\"Vesterport Station, København V \| firma \| krak.dk\""},{"Link":"https://www.dsb.dk/kundeservice/stationer/norreport/","external_links_name":"\"Nørreport Station - Tag toget til og fra Nørreport togstation med DSB\""},{"Link":"http://www.m.dk/#!/om+metroen/metrobyggeriet/status+paa+metrobyggeriet/arkitektur-nye-metrostationer","external_links_name":"\"Metroselskabet og Københavns Metro\""},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Str%C3%B8get&params=55.679_N_12.575_E_source:dewiki","external_links_name":"55°40′44″N 12°34′30″E / 55.679°N 12.575°E / 55.679; 12.575"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/place/7d48bf7b-ebbd-4699-a5e9-c16579ba5068","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz place"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(psychometric)	Reliability (statistics)	["1 Types","2 Difference from validity","3 Difference from reproducibility","4 General model","5 Classical test theory","6 Item response theory","7 Estimation","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]	Overall consistency of a measure in statistics and psychometrics For other uses, see Reliability. In statistics and psychometrics, reliability is the overall consistency of a measure. A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions:"It is the characteristic of a set of test scores that relates to the amount of random error from the measurement process that might be embedded in the scores. Scores that are highly reliable are precise, reproducible, and consistent from one testing occasion to another. That is, if the testing process were repeated with a group of test takers, essentially the same results would be obtained. Various kinds of reliability coefficients, with values ranging between 0.00 (much error) and 1.00 (no error), are usually used to indicate the amount of error in the scores." For example, measurements of people's height and weight are often extremely reliable. Types There are several general classes of reliability estimates: Inter-rater reliability assesses the degree of agreement between two or more raters in their appraisals. For example, a person gets a stomach ache and different doctors all give the same diagnosis.: 71 Test-retest reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next. Measurements are gathered from a single rater who uses the same methods or instruments and the same testing conditions. This includes intra-rater reliability. Inter-method reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent when there is a variation in the methods or instruments used. This allows inter-rater reliability to be ruled out. When dealing with forms, it may be termed parallel-forms reliability. Internal consistency reliability, assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. Difference from validity See also: Validity (statistics) § Reliability Reliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently is not necessarily measuring what you want to be measured. For example, while there are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job performance. While reliability does not imply validity, reliability does place a limit on the overall validity of a test. A test that is not perfectly reliable cannot be perfectly valid, either as a means of measuring attributes of a person or as a means of predicting scores on a criterion. While a reliable test may provide useful valid information, a test that is not reliable cannot possibly be valid. For example, if a set of weighing scales consistently measured the weight of an object as 500 grams over the true weight, then the scale would be very reliable, but it would not be valid (as the returned weight is not the true weight). For the scale to be valid, it should return the true weight of an object. This example demonstrates that a perfectly reliable measure is not necessarily valid, but that a valid measure necessarily must be reliable. Difference from reproducibility See also: Reproducibility (statistics) § Reliability General model In practice, testing measures are never perfectly consistent. Theories of test reliability have been developed to estimate the effects of inconsistency on the accuracy of measurement. The basic starting point for almost all theories of test reliability is the idea that test scores reflect the influence of two sorts of factors: 1. Consistency factors: stable characteristics of the individual or the attribute that one is trying to measure. 2. Inconsistency factors: features of the individual or the situation that can affect test scores but have nothing to do with the attribute being measured. These factors include: Temporary but general characteristics of the individual: health, fatigue, motivation, emotional strain Temporary and specific characteristics of individual: comprehension of the specific test task, specific tricks or techniques of dealing with the particular test materials, fluctuations of memory, attention or accuracy Aspects of the testing situation: freedom from distractions, clarity of instructions, interaction of personality, etc. Chance factors: luck in selection of answers by sheer guessing, momentary distractions The goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to measurement errors and how much is due to variability in true scores (true value). A true score is the replicable feature of the concept being measured. It is the part of the observed score that would recur across different measurement occasions in the absence of error. Errors of measurement are composed of both random error and systematic error. It represents the discrepancies between scores obtained on tests and the corresponding true scores. This conceptual breakdown is typically represented by the simple equation: Observed test score = true score + errors of measurement Classical test theory Main article: Classical test theory The goal of reliability theory is to estimate errors in measurement and to suggest ways of improving tests so that errors are minimized. The central assumption of reliability theory is that measurement errors are essentially random. This does not mean that errors arise from random processes. For any individual, an error in measurement is not a completely random event. However, across a large number of individuals, the causes of measurement error are assumed to be so varied that measure errors act as random variables. If errors have the essential characteristics of random variables, then it is reasonable to assume that errors are equally likely to be positive or negative, and that they are not correlated with true scores or with errors on other tests. It is assumed that: 1. Mean error of measurement = 0 2. True scores and errors are uncorrelated 3. Errors on different measures are uncorrelated Reliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement. σ X 2 = σ T 2 + σ E 2 {\displaystyle \sigma _{X}^{2}=\sigma _{T}^{2}+\sigma _{E}^{2}} This equation suggests that test scores vary as the result of two factors: 1. Variability in true scores 2. Variability due to errors of measurement. The reliability coefficient ρ x x ′ {\displaystyle \rho _{xx'}} provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of true score variance to the total variance of test scores. Or, equivalently, one minus the ratio of the variation of the error score and the variation of the observed score: ρ x x ′ = σ T 2 σ X 2 = 1 − σ E 2 σ X 2 {\displaystyle \rho _{xx'}={\frac {\sigma _{T}^{2}}{\sigma _{X}^{2}}}=1-{\frac {\sigma _{E}^{2}}{\sigma _{X}^{2}}}} Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test. Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-test reliability. Each method comes at the problem of figuring out the source of error in the test somewhat differently. Item response theory It was well known to classical test theorists that measurement precision is not uniform across the scale of measurement. Tests tend to distinguish better for test-takers with moderate trait levels and worse among high- and low-scoring test-takers. Item response theory extends the concept of reliability from a single index to a function called the information function. The IRT information function is the inverse of the conditional observed score standard error at any given test score. Estimation The goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to errors in measurement and how much is due to variability in true scores. Four practical strategies have been developed that provide workable methods of estimating test reliability. 1. Test-retest reliability method: directly assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next. It involves: Administering a test to a group of individuals Re-administering the same test to the same group at some later time Correlating the first set of scores with the second The correlation between scores on the first test and the scores on the retest is used to estimate the reliability of the test using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient: see also item-total correlation. 2. Parallel-forms method: The key to this method is the development of alternate test forms that are equivalent in terms of content, response processes and statistical characteristics. For example, alternate forms exist for several tests of general intelligence, and these tests are generally seen equivalent. With the parallel test model it is possible to develop two forms of a test that are equivalent in the sense that a person's true score on form A would be identical to their true score on form B. If both forms of the test were administered to a number of people, differences between scores on form A and form B may be due to errors in measurement only. It involves: Administering one form of the test to a group of individuals At some later time, administering an alternate form of the same test to the same group of people Correlating scores on form A with scores on form B The correlation between scores on the two alternate forms is used to estimate the reliability of the test. This method provides a partial solution to many of the problems inherent in the test-retest reliability method. For example, since the two forms of the test are different, carryover effect is less of a problem. Reactivity effects are also partially controlled; although taking the first test may change responses to the second test. However, it is reasonable to assume that the effect will not be as strong with alternate forms of the test as with two administrations of the same test. However, this technique has its disadvantages: It may be very difficult to create several alternate forms of a test It may also be difficult if not impossible to guarantee that two alternate forms of a test are parallel measures 3. Split-half method: This method treats the two halves of a measure as alternate forms. It provides a simple solution to the problem that the parallel-forms method faces: the difficulty in developing alternate forms. It involves: Administering a test to a group of individuals Splitting the test in half Correlating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the test The correlation between these two split halves is used in estimating the reliability of the test. This halves reliability estimate is then stepped up to the full test length using the Spearman–Brown prediction formula. There are several ways of splitting a test to estimate reliability. For example, a 40-item vocabulary test could be split into two subtests, the first one made up of items 1 through 20 and the second made up of items 21 through 40. However, the responses from the first half may be systematically different from responses in the second half due to an increase in item difficulty and fatigue. In splitting a test, the two halves would need to be as similar as possible, both in terms of their content and in terms of the probable state of the respondent. The simplest method is to adopt an odd-even split, in which the odd-numbered items form one half of the test and the even-numbered items form the other. This arrangement guarantees that each half will contain an equal number of items from the beginning, middle, and end of the original test. 4. Internal consistency: assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients. Cronbach's alpha is a generalization of an earlier form of estimating internal consistency, Kuder–Richardson Formula 20. Although the most commonly used, there are some misconceptions regarding Cronbach's alpha. These measures of reliability differ in their sensitivity to different sources of error and so need not be equal. Also, reliability is a property of the scores of a measure rather than the measure itself and are thus said to be sample dependent. Reliability estimates from one sample might differ from those of a second sample (beyond what might be expected due to sampling variations) if the second sample is drawn from a different population because the true variability is different in this second population. (This is true of measures of all types—yardsticks might measure houses well yet have poor reliability when used to measure the lengths of insects.) Reliability may be improved by clarity of expression (for written assessments), lengthening the measure, and other informal means. However, formal psychometric analysis, called item analysis, is considered the most effective way to increase reliability. This analysis consists of computation of item difficulties and item discrimination indices, the latter index involving computation of correlations between the items and sum of the item scores of the entire test. If items that are too difficult, too easy, and/or have near-zero or negative discrimination are replaced with better items, the reliability of the measure will increase. R ( t ) = 1 − F ( t ) . {\displaystyle R(t)=1-F(t).} R ( t ) = exp ⁡ ( − λ t ) , {\displaystyle R(t)=\exp(-\lambda t),} where λ {\textstyle \lambda } is the failure rate. See also Coefficient of variation Congeneric reliability Consistency (statistics) Homogeneity (statistics) Test-retest reliability Internal consistency Levels of measurement Accuracy and precision Reliability theory Reliability engineering Reproducibility Validity (statistics) References ^ William M.K. Trochim, Reliability ^ National Council on Measurement in Education http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorR ^ al.], Neil R. Carlson ... [et (2009). Psychology : the science of behaviour (4th Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4. ^ a b The Marketing Accountability Standards Board (MASB) endorses this definition as part of its ongoing Common Language: Marketing Activities and Metrics Project Archived 12 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Essentials of abnormal psychology. : Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1305633681. OCLC 884617637. ^ a b Types of Reliability The Research Methods Knowledge Base. Last Revised: 20 October 2006 ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Davidshofer, Kevin R. Murphy, Charles O. (2005). Psychological testing : principles and applications (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-189172-3.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ Gulliksen, Harold (1987). Theory of mental tests. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-0024-1. ^ a b c Cortina, J.M., (1993). What Is Coefficient Alpha? An Examination of Theory and Applications. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(1), 98–104. ^ Ritter, N. (2010). Understanding a widely misunderstood statistic: Cronbach's alpha. Paper presented at Southwestern Educational Research Association (SERA) Conference 2010, New Orleans, LA (ED526237). ^ Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Pelzer, B. (2012). "The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach or Spearman-Brown?" (PDF). International Journal of Public Health. 58 (4): 637–642. doi:10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3. hdl:2066/116735. PMID 23089674. S2CID 215730043. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Reliability (statistics). Internal and external reliability and validity explained. Uncertainty models, uncertainty quantification, and uncertainty processing in engineering The relationships between correlational and internal consistency concepts of test reliability The problem of negative reliabilities Authority control databases: National Germany Israel	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"statistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics"},{"link_name":"psychometrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychometrics"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-themasb.org-4"}],"text":"For other uses, see Reliability.In statistics and psychometrics, reliability is the overall consistency of a measure.[1] A measure is said to have a high reliability if it produces similar results under consistent conditions:\"It is the characteristic of a set of test scores that relates to the amount of random error from the measurement process that might be embedded in the scores. Scores that are highly reliable are precise, reproducible, and consistent from one testing occasion to another. That is, if the testing process were repeated with a group of test takers, essentially the same results would be obtained. Various kinds of reliability coefficients, with values ranging between 0.00 (much error) and 1.00 (no error), are usually used to indicate the amount of error in the scores.\"[2]For example, measurements of people's height and weight are often extremely reliable.[3][4]","title":"Reliability (statistics)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Inter-rater reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inter-rater_reliability"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Test-retest reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-themasb.org-4"},{"link_name":"intra-rater reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intra-rater_reliability"},{"link_name":"forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Form_(document)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-socialresearchmethods-6"},{"link_name":"Internal consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-socialresearchmethods-6"}],"text":"There are several general classes of reliability estimates:Inter-rater reliability assesses the degree of agreement between two or more raters in their appraisals. For example, a person gets a stomach ache and different doctors all give the same diagnosis.[5]: 71 \nTest-retest reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next. Measurements are gathered from a single rater who uses the same methods or instruments and the same testing conditions.[4] This includes intra-rater reliability.\nInter-method reliability assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent when there is a variation in the methods or instruments used. This allows inter-rater reliability to be ruled out. When dealing with forms, it may be termed parallel-forms reliability.[6]\nInternal consistency reliability, assesses the consistency of results across items within a test.[6]","title":"Types"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Validity (statistics) § Reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)#Reliability"},{"link_name":"validity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"validity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"weighing scales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weighing_scales"}],"text":"See also: Validity (statistics) § ReliabilityReliability does not imply validity. That is, a reliable measure that is measuring something consistently is not necessarily measuring what you want to be measured. For example, while there are many reliable tests of specific abilities, not all of them would be valid for predicting, say, job performance.While reliability does not imply validity, reliability does place a limit on the overall validity of a test. A test that is not perfectly reliable cannot be perfectly valid, either as a means of measuring attributes of a person or as a means of predicting scores on a criterion. While a reliable test may provide useful valid information, a test that is not reliable cannot possibly be valid.[7]For example, if a set of weighing scales consistently measured the weight of an object as 500 grams over the true weight, then the scale would be very reliable, but it would not be valid (as the returned weight is not the true weight). For the scale to be valid, it should return the true weight of an object. This example demonstrates that a perfectly reliable measure is not necessarily valid, but that a valid measure necessarily must be reliable.","title":"Difference from validity "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Reproducibility (statistics) § Reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Reproducibility_(statistics)&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"See also: Reproducibility (statistics) § Reliability","title":"Difference from reproducibility "},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"measurement errors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement_error"},{"link_name":"true value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_value"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"random error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_error"},{"link_name":"systematic error","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_error"}],"text":"In practice, testing measures are never perfectly consistent. Theories of test reliability have been developed to estimate the effects of inconsistency on the accuracy of measurement. The basic starting point for almost all theories of test reliability is the idea that test scores reflect the influence of two sorts of factors:[7]1. Consistency factors: stable characteristics of the individual or the attribute that one is trying to measure.2. Inconsistency factors: features of the individual or the situation that can affect test scores but have nothing to do with the attribute being measured.These factors include:[7]Temporary but general characteristics of the individual: health, fatigue, motivation, emotional strain\nTemporary and specific characteristics of individual: comprehension of the specific test task, specific tricks or techniques of dealing with the particular test materials, fluctuations of memory, attention or accuracy\nAspects of the testing situation: freedom from distractions, clarity of instructions, interaction of personality, etc.\nChance factors: luck in selection of answers by sheer guessing, momentary distractionsThe goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to measurement errors and how much is due to variability in true scores (true value).[7]A true score is the replicable feature of the concept being measured. It is the part of the observed score that would recur across different measurement occasions in the absence of error.Errors of measurement are composed of both random error and systematic error. It represents the discrepancies between scores obtained on tests and the corresponding true scores.This conceptual breakdown is typically represented by the simple equation:Observed test score = true score + errors of measurement","title":"General model"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"test-retest reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"},{"link_name":"internal consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"}],"text":"The goal of reliability theory is to estimate errors in measurement and to suggest ways of improving tests so that errors are minimized.The central assumption of reliability theory is that measurement errors are essentially random. This does not mean that errors arise from random processes. For any individual, an error in measurement is not a completely random event. However, across a large number of individuals, the causes of measurement error are assumed to be so varied that measure errors act as random variables.[7]If errors have the essential characteristics of random variables, then it is reasonable to assume that errors are equally likely to be positive or negative, and that they are not correlated with true scores or with errors on other tests.It is assumed that:[8]1. Mean error of measurement = 02. True scores and errors are uncorrelated3. Errors on different measures are uncorrelatedReliability theory shows that the variance of obtained scores is simply the sum of the variance of true scores plus the variance of errors of measurement.[7]σ\n \n X\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n σ\n \n T\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n σ\n \n E\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sigma _{X}^{2}=\\sigma _{T}^{2}+\\sigma _{E}^{2}}This equation suggests that test scores vary as the result of two factors:1. Variability in true scores2. Variability due to errors of measurement.The reliability coefficient \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n x\n \n x\n ′\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xx'}}\n \n provides an index of the relative influence of true and error scores on attained test scores. In its general form, the reliability coefficient is defined as the ratio of true score variance to the total variance of test scores. Or, equivalently, one minus the ratio of the variation of the error score and the variation of the observed score:ρ\n \n x\n \n x\n ′\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n σ\n \n T\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n σ\n \n X\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n =\n 1\n −\n \n \n \n σ\n \n E\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n σ\n \n X\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{xx'}={\\frac {\\sigma _{T}^{2}}{\\sigma _{X}^{2}}}=1-{\\frac {\\sigma _{E}^{2}}{\\sigma _{X}^{2}}}}Unfortunately, there is no way to directly observe or calculate the true score, so a variety of methods are used to estimate the reliability of a test.Some examples of the methods to estimate reliability include test-retest reliability, internal consistency reliability, and parallel-test reliability. Each method comes at the problem of figuring out the source of error in the test somewhat differently.","title":"Classical test theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Item response theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item_response_theory"}],"text":"It was well known to classical test theorists that measurement precision is not uniform across the scale of measurement. Tests tend to distinguish better for test-takers with moderate trait levels and worse among high- and low-scoring test-takers. Item response theory extends the concept of reliability from a single index to a function called the information function. The IRT information function is the inverse of the conditional observed score standard error at any given test score.","title":"Item response theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"Test-retest reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"},{"link_name":"Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pearson_product-moment_correlation_coefficient"},{"link_name":"item-total correlation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Item-total_correlation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"test-retest reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"},{"link_name":"carryover effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carryover_effect"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"Spearman–Brown prediction formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearman%E2%80%93Brown_prediction_formula"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David-7"},{"link_name":"Internal consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"},{"link_name":"Cronbach's alpha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cronbach%27s_alpha"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cortina-9"},{"link_name":"Kuder–Richardson Formula 20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuder%E2%80%93Richardson_Formula_20"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cortina-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cortina-9"}],"text":"The goal of estimating reliability is to determine how much of the variability in test scores is due to errors in measurement and how much is due to variability in true scores.Four practical strategies have been developed that provide workable methods of estimating test reliability.[7]1. Test-retest reliability method: directly assesses the degree to which test scores are consistent from one test administration to the next.It involves:Administering a test to a group of individuals\nRe-administering the same test to the same group at some later time\nCorrelating the first set of scores with the secondThe correlation between scores on the first test and the scores on the retest is used to estimate the reliability of the test using the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient: see also item-total correlation.2. Parallel-forms method:The key to this method is the development of alternate test forms that are equivalent in terms of content, response processes and statistical characteristics. For example, alternate forms exist for several tests of general intelligence, and these tests are generally seen equivalent.[7]With the parallel test model it is possible to develop two forms of a test that are equivalent in the sense that a person's true score on form A would be identical to their true score on form B. If both forms of the test were administered to a number of people, differences between scores on form A and form B may be due to errors in measurement only.[7]It involves:Administering one form of the test to a group of individuals\nAt some later time, administering an alternate form of the same test to the same group of people\nCorrelating scores on form A with scores on form BThe correlation between scores on the two alternate forms is used to estimate the reliability of the test.This method provides a partial solution to many of the problems inherent in the test-retest reliability method. For example, since the two forms of the test are different, carryover effect is less of a problem. Reactivity effects are also partially controlled; although taking the first test may change responses to the second test. However, it is reasonable to assume that the effect will not be as strong with alternate forms of the test as with two administrations of the same test.[7]However, this technique has its disadvantages:It may be very difficult to create several alternate forms of a test\nIt may also be difficult if not impossible to guarantee that two alternate forms of a test are parallel measures3. Split-half method:This method treats the two halves of a measure as alternate forms. It provides a simple solution to the problem that the parallel-forms method faces: the difficulty in developing alternate forms.[7]It involves:Administering a test to a group of individuals\nSplitting the test in half\nCorrelating scores on one half of the test with scores on the other half of the testThe correlation between these two split halves is used in estimating the reliability of the test. This halves reliability estimate is then stepped up to the full test length using the Spearman–Brown prediction formula.There are several ways of splitting a test to estimate reliability. For example, a 40-item vocabulary test could be split into two subtests, the first one made up of items 1 through 20 and the second made up of items 21 through 40. However, the responses from the first half may be systematically different from responses in the second half due to an increase in item difficulty and fatigue.[7]In splitting a test, the two halves would need to be as similar as possible, both in terms of their content and in terms of the probable state of the respondent. The simplest method is to adopt an odd-even split, in which the odd-numbered items form one half of the test and the even-numbered items form the other. This arrangement guarantees that each half will contain an equal number of items from the beginning, middle, and end of the original test.[7]4. Internal consistency: assesses the consistency of results across items within a test. The most common internal consistency measure is Cronbach's alpha, which is usually interpreted as the mean of all possible split-half coefficients.[9] Cronbach's alpha is a generalization of an earlier form of estimating internal consistency, Kuder–Richardson Formula 20.[9] Although the most commonly used, there are some misconceptions regarding Cronbach's alpha.[10][11]These measures of reliability differ in their sensitivity to different sources of error and so need not be equal. Also, reliability is a property of the scores of a measure rather than the measure itself and are thus said to be sample dependent. Reliability estimates from one sample might differ from those of a second sample (beyond what might be expected due to sampling variations) if the second sample is drawn from a different population because the true variability is different in this second population. (This is true of measures of all types—yardsticks might measure houses well yet have poor reliability when used to measure the lengths of insects.)Reliability may be improved by clarity of expression (for written assessments), lengthening the measure,[9] and other informal means. However, formal psychometric analysis, called item analysis, is considered the most effective way to increase reliability. This analysis consists of computation of item difficulties and item discrimination indices, the latter index involving computation of correlations between the items and sum of the item scores of the entire test. If items that are too difficult, too easy, and/or have near-zero or negative discrimination are replaced with better items, the reliability of the measure will increase.R\n (\n t\n )\n =\n 1\n −\n F\n (\n t\n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(t)=1-F(t).}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n R\n (\n t\n )\n =\n exp\n ⁡\n (\n −\n λ\n t\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R(t)=\\exp(-\\lambda t),}\n \n where \n \n \n \n λ\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\lambda }\n \n is the failure rate.","title":"Estimation"}]	[]	[{"title":"Coefficient of variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coefficient_of_variation"},{"title":"Congeneric reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congeneric_reliability"},{"title":"Consistency (statistics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistency_(statistics)"},{"title":"Homogeneity (statistics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneity_(statistics)"},{"title":"Test-retest reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Test-retest_reliability"},{"title":"Internal consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_consistency"},{"title":"Levels of measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levels_of_measurement"},{"title":"Accuracy and precision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accuracy_and_precision"},{"title":"Reliability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_theory"},{"title":"Reliability engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_engineering"},{"title":"Reproducibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproducibility"},{"title":"Validity (statistics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)"}]	[{"reference":"al.], Neil R. Carlson ... [et (2009). Psychology : the science of behaviour (4th Canadian ed.). Toronto: Pearson. ISBN 978-0-205-64524-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse","url_text":"Psychology : the science of behaviour"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-64524-4","url_text":"978-0-205-64524-4"}]},{"reference":"Durand, V. Mark. (2015). Essentials of abnormal psychology. [Place of publication not identified]: Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1305633681. OCLC 884617637.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1305633681","url_text":"978-1305633681"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/884617637","url_text":"884617637"}]},{"reference":"Davidshofer, Kevin R. Murphy, Charles O. (2005). Psychological testing : principles and applications (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson/Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-189172-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-189172-3","url_text":"0-13-189172-3"}]},{"reference":"Gulliksen, Harold (1987). Theory of mental tests. Hillsdale, N.J.: L. Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-0-8058-0024-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8058-0024-1","url_text":"978-0-8058-0024-1"}]},{"reference":"Eisinga, R.; Te Grotenhuis, M.; Pelzer, B. (2012). \"The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach or Spearman-Brown?\" (PDF). International Journal of Public Health. 58 (4): 637–642. doi:10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3. hdl:2066/116735. PMID 23089674. S2CID 215730043.","urls":[{"url":"https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/116735/1/116735pre.pdf","url_text":"\"The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach or Spearman-Brown?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00038-012-0416-3","url_text":"10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F116735","url_text":"2066/116735"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23089674","url_text":"23089674"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215730043","url_text":"215730043"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/reliable.php","external_links_name":"Reliability"},{"Link":"http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorR","external_links_name":"http://www.ncme.org/ncme/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary/NCME/Resource_Center/Glossary1.aspx?hkey=4bb87415-44dc-4088-9ed9-e8515326a061#anchorR"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/psychologyscienc0004unse","external_links_name":"Psychology : the science of behaviour"},{"Link":"http://www.themasb.org/common-language-project/","external_links_name":"Common Language: Marketing Activities and Metrics Project"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130212100753/http://www.themasb.org/common-language-project/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/884617637","external_links_name":"884617637"},{"Link":"http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/reltypes.php","external_links_name":"Types of Reliability"},{"Link":"https://repository.ubn.ru.nl/bitstream/2066/116735/1/116735pre.pdf","external_links_name":"\"The reliability of a two-item scale: Pearson, Cronbach or Spearman-Brown?\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00038-012-0416-3","external_links_name":"10.1007/s00038-012-0416-3"},{"Link":"https://hdl.handle.net/2066%2F116735","external_links_name":"2066/116735"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23089674","external_links_name":"23089674"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:215730043","external_links_name":"215730043"},{"Link":"http://www.loopa.co.uk/internal-external-reliability-and-validity-in-psychology-aqa-a-explained-easily/","external_links_name":"Internal and external reliability and validity explained."},{"Link":"http://www.uncertainty-in-engineering.net/","external_links_name":"Uncertainty models, uncertainty quantification, and uncertainty processing in engineering"},{"Link":"http://www.visualstatistics.net/Statistics/Principal%20Components%20of%20Reliability/PCofReliability.asp","external_links_name":"The relationships between correlational and internal consistency concepts of test reliability"},{"Link":"http://www.visualstatistics.net/Statistics/Reliability%20Negative/Negative%20Reliability.asp","external_links_name":"The problem of negative reliabilities"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/4213628-3","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007529500405171","external_links_name":"Israel"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic_Marine_Revolution	Mesozoic marine revolution	["1 Causes","2 Effects","3 Affected taxa","3.1 Crinoids","3.2 Echinoids","3.3 Brachiopods","3.4 Bivalves","3.5 Gastropods","3.6 Bryozoans","4 See also","5 References"]	Rapid adaption to shell-crushing and boring predation in benthic organisms in the Mesozoic era Seaweed and two chitons in a tide pool "A variety of marine worms": plate from Das Meer by M. J. Schleiden (1804–1881) The Mesozoic marine revolution (MMR) refers to the increase in shell-crushing (durophagous) and boring predation in benthic organisms throughout the Mesozoic era (251 Mya to 66 Mya), along with bulldozing and sediment remodelling in marine habitats. The term was first coined by Geerat J. Vermeij, who based his work on that of Steven M. Stanley. While the MMR was initially restricted to the Cretaceous (145 Mya to 66 Mya), more recent studies have suggested that the beginning of this ecological arms race extends as far back as the Triassic, with the MMR now being considered to have started in the Anisian or the Aalenian. It is an important transition between the Palaeozoic evolutionary fauna and the Modern evolutionary fauna that occurred throughout the Mesozoic. The Mesozoic marine revolution was not the first bout of increased predation pressure; that occurred around the end of the Ordovician. There is some evidence of adaptation to durophagy during the Palaeozoic, particularly in crinoids. Causes Skull and palate crushing teeth of the Middle Triassic placodont Placodus gigas The Mesozoic marine revolution was driven by the evolution of shell-crushing behaviour among Mesozoic marine predators, the technique being perfected in the Late Cretaceous. This forced shelled marine invertebrates to develop defences against such predation or be wiped out. The consequences of this can be seen in many invertebrates today. Such predators are thought to include: Triassic placodonts, Triassic ichthyosaurs, Triassic omphalosaurids, Triassic plesiosaurs, Jurassic pliosaurs, Late Cretaceous mosasaurs and Cretaceous ptychodontoid sharks. Many gastropods also evolved to feed on prey with shells. However, because most durophagous predators were generalists, their effect on anti-predator shell architecture has been viewed by some as diffuse and not as extensive as other authors have suggested. It is thought that the break-up of Pangaea and the formation of new oceans throughout the Mesozoic brought together previously isolated marine communities, forcing them to compete and adapt. The increased shelf space caused by sea-level rise and a hyper-greenhouse climate provided more iterations and chances to evolve, resulting in increasing diversity. The evolution of angiosperms in the Cretaceous enhanced the hydrological cycling, speeding up rates of weathering and nutrient flow into the oceans, which has been cited as a possible driver of the MMR. Another proposal is the evolution of hermit crabs. These exploit the shells of dead gastropods, effectively doubling the life-span of the shell. This allows durophagous predators nearly twice the prey, making it a viable niche to exploit. Effects The net result of the Mesozoic marine revolution was a change from the sedentary epifaunal lifestyle of the Palaeozoic evolutionary fauna to the infaunal/planktonic mode of life of the modern fauna. Non-mobile types that failed to re-attach to their substrate (such as brachiopods) when removed were picked off as easy prey, whereas those that could hide from predation or be mobile enough to escape had an evolutionary advantage. Per capita mean metabolic rates among marine gastropods living in shallow water increased by approximately 150% from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous. Three major trends can be associated with this: Reduction in suspension feeding epifauna Increasing abundance of infauna An intermediate stage of mobile epifauna. Major casualties of the Mesozoic marine revolution include: sessile crinoids, gastropods, brachiopods and epifaunal bivalves. Affected taxa Adult comatulid crinoids, like this Antedon mediterranea specimen, only have vestigial stalks and can actively move around to avoid predation Crinoids The Mesozoic Marine Revolution heavily affected the crinoids, making the majority of their forms extinct. Their sessile nature made them easy prey for durophagous predators since the Triassic. Survivors (such as the comatulids) could swim or crawl, behaved nocturnally or had autotomy (the ability to shed limbs in defence). The shift in the range of sessile stalked crinoids during the late Mesozoic from the shallow shelf to habitats further offshore suggests that they were forced by increased predation pressure in shallow water to migrate to a deep water refuge environment where predation pressure was lower and their mode of life more viable. This migration was not globally synchronous and delayed in the Southern Hemisphere; it did not occur until the Late Eocene in Australia and Antarctica, and until the Early Miocene in Zealandia. Echinoids Echinoids do not suffer major predation (save for general infaunalisation) during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution but it is clear from bromalites (fossilised ‘vomit’) that cidaroids were consumed by predators. Echinoids radiate into predatory niches and are thought to have perfected coral grazing in the Late Cretaceous. Cidaroids too may have contributed to the downfall of the crinoids. The increases in echinoid predation continued into the Cenozoic. Brachiopods Brachiopods, the dominant benthic organism of the Palaeozoic, suffered badly during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. Their sessile foot-attached nature made them easy prey to durophagous predators. The fact that they could not re-attach to a substrate if an attack failed meant their chances of survival were slim. Unlike bivalves, brachiopods never adapted to an infaunal habit (excluding lingulids) and so remained vulnerable throughout the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. As a result of increased predation pressure on top of heightened competition with bivalves, brachiopods became a minor component of most marine faunas by the Cenozoic despite their incredible diversity and abundance during the Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic. Bivalves Bivalves adapted more readily than the brachiopods to this ecological transition. Many bivalves adopted an infaunal habit, using their siphons to gather nutrients from the sediment-water interface while remaining safe. Corbulids developed layers of conchiolin within their shells to better resist predation. Others still, like Pecten, developed the ability to jump a short distance away from predators by contracting their valves. Like brachiopods, epifaunal varieties of bivalves were preyed upon heavily. Among epifaunal types (such as mussels and oysters), the ability to fuse to the substrate made them more difficult to consume for smaller predators. Epifaunal bivalves were preyed on heavily before the Norian but extinction rates diminish after this. Gastropods Benthic gastropods were heavily preyed upon throughout the Mesozoic Marine Revolution, the weaker shelled types being pushed out of the benthic zone into more isolated habitats. The Palaeozoic archaeogastropods were subsequently replaced by neritaceans, mesogastropods and neogastropods. The former typically have symmetrical, umbilicate shells that are mechanically weaker than the latter. These lack an umbilicus and also developed the ability to modify the interior of their shells, allowing them to develop sculptures on their exterior to act as defence against predators. Another development among Muricidae was the ability to bore through shells and consume prey. These marks (while relatively rare) generally occur on sessile invertebrates, implying that they put pressure on Palaeozoic-type faunas during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. Bryozoans Bryozoans exhibited no significant anti-predatory adaptations during the Jurassic, suggesting that they were during this period unaffected by the MMR. See also Cretaceous crab revolution Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event References ^ Erwin, Douglas H. (June 2008). "Macroevolution of ecosystem engineering, niche construction and diversity". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 23 (6): 304–310. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.01.013. PMID 18457902. Retrieved 4 April 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Vermeij, G. J. (1977). "The Mesozoic Marine Revolution: Evidence from Snails, Predators and Grazers". Paleobiology. 3 (3): 245–258. doi:10.1017/S0094837300005352. S2CID 54742050. ^ Stanley, S. M. (2008). "Predation defeats competition on the seafloor". Paleobiology. 34 (1): 1–21. doi:10.1666/07026.1. S2CID 83713101. ^ Stanley, S. M. (1974). "What has happened to the articulate brachiopods?". GSA Abstracts with Programs. 8: 966–967. ^ a b c Leighton, L. R.; Webb, A. E.; Sawyer, J. A. (2013). "Ecological Effects of the Palaeozoic-Modern faunal transition:Comparing predation on Palaeozoic brachiopods and mollusc". Geology. 41 (2): 275–278. Bibcode:2013Geo....41..275L. doi:10.1130/g33750.1. ^ Tackett, Lydia S.; Tintori, Andrea (1 January 2019). "Low drilling frequency in Norian benthic assemblages from the southern Italian Alps and the role of specialized durophages during the Late Triassic". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 513: 25–34. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.06.034. ^ Tackett, Lydia S. (1 April 2016). "Late Triassic durophagy and the origin of the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". PALAIOS. 31 (4): 122–124. doi:10.2110/palo.2016.003. S2CID 88004603. Retrieved 9 December 2022. ^ Cueille, Marie; Green, Emily; Duffin, Christopher J.; Hildebrandt, Claudia; Benton, Michael James (December 2020). "Fish and crab coprolites from the latest Triassic of the UK: From Buckland to the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". Proceedings of the Geologists' Association. 131 (6): 699–721. doi:10.1016/j.pgeola.2020.07.011. S2CID 226298575. Retrieved 7 January 2023. ^ a b c Salamon, M. A.; Niedzwiedzki, R.; Gorzelak, D.; Lach, R.; Surmik, D. (2012). "Bromalites from the Middle Triassic of Poland and the rise of the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 321: 142–150. Bibcode:2012PPP...321..142S. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2012.01.029. ^ Fantasia, Alicia; Mattioli, Emanuela; Spangenberg, Jorge E.; Adatte, Thierry; Bernárdez, Enrique; Ferreira, Jorge; Thibault, Nicolas; Krencker, François-Nicolas; Bodin, Stéphane (January 2022). "The middle-late Aalenian event: A precursor of the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". Global and Planetary Change. 208: 103705. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103705. ^ Vinn, O. (2008). "Attempted predation on Early Paleozoic cornulitids". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 273 (1–2): 87–91. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.12.004. ^ a b Baumiller, T.; Salamon, M.; Gorzelak, P.; Mooi, R.; Messing, C.; Gahn, F. (2010). "Post-Paleozoic crinoid radiation in response to benthic predation preceded the Mesozoic marine revolution". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (13): 5893–5896. Bibcode:2010PNAS..107.5893B. doi:10.1073/pnas.0914199107. PMC 2851891. PMID 20231453. ^ Karapunar, Baran; Werner, Winfried; Simonsen, Sönke; Bade, Manfred; Lücke, Markus; Rebbe, Thomas; Schubert, Siegfried; Rojas, Alexis (11 April 2023). "Drilling predation on Early Jurassic bivalves and behavioral patterns of the presumed gastropod predator—evidence from Pliensbachian soft-bottom deposits of northern Germany". Paleobiology. 49 (4): 642–664. doi:10.1017/pab.2023.6. ISSN 0094-8373. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ Walker, Sally E.; Brett, Carlton E. (October 2002). "Post-Paleozoic Patterns in Marine Predation: Was there a Mesozoic and Cenozoic Marine Predatory Revolution?". The Paleontological Society Papers. 8: 119–194. doi:10.1017/S108933260000108X. ISSN 1089-3326. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ Boyce, C. Kevin; Lee, Jung-Eun (1 June 2011). "Could Land Plant Evolution Have Fed the Marine Revolution?". Paleontological Research. 15 (2): 100–105. doi:10.2517/1342-8144-15.2.100. ISSN 1342-8144. S2CID 53525330. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ Finnegan, Seth; McClain, Craig M.; Kosnik, Matthew A.; Payne, Jonathan L. (Spring 2011). "Escargots through time: an energetic comparison of marine gastropod assemblages before and after the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". Paleobiology. 37 (2): 252–269. doi:10.1666/09066.1. ISSN 0094-8373. S2CID 55548554. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ a b c d e Tackett, L. S.; Bottjer, D. J. (2012). "Faunal Succession of Norian (Late Triassic) level-bottom benthics in the Lombardian basin: Implications for the timing, rate and nature of the early Mesozoic Marine Revolution". PALAIOS. 27 (8): 585–593. Bibcode:2012Palai..27..585T. doi:10.2110/palo.2012.p12-028r. S2CID 130270634. ^ Aberhan, Martin; Kiessling, Wolfgang; Fürsich, Franz T. (Spring 2006). "Testing the role of biological interactions in the evolution of mid-Mesozoic marine benthic ecosystems". Paleobiology. 32 (2): 259–277. doi:10.1666/05028.1. ISSN 0094-8373. S2CID 83545582. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ Oji, T. (1996). "Is predation intensity reduced with increasing depth? Evidence from the west Atlantic stalked crinoid Endoxocrinus parrae (Gervais) and implications for the Mesozoic Marine Revolution". Paleobiology. 22 (3): 339–351. doi:10.1017/S0094837300016328. S2CID 86870809. ^ Whittle, Rowan J.; Hunter, Aaron W.; Cantrill, David J.; McNamara, Kenneth J. (17 May 2018). "Globally discordant Isocrinida (Crinoidea) migration confirms asynchronous Marine Mesozoic Revolution". Communications Biology. 1: 46. doi:10.1038/s42003-018-0048-0. PMC 6123680. PMID 30271929. ^ Borczsz, T.; Zaton, M. (2013). "The oldest record of predation on echinoids: Evidence from the M. Jurassic of Poland". Lethaia. 46: 141–145. doi:10.1111/let.12007. ^ Petsios, Elizabeth; Portell, Roger W.; Farrar, Lyndsey; Tennakoon, Shamindri; Grun, Tobias B.; Kowalewski, Michal; Tyler, Carrie L. (31 March 2021). "An asynchronous Mesozoic marine revolution: the Cenozoic intensification of predation on echinoids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 288 (1947). doi:10.1098/rspb.2021.0400. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 8059962. PMID 33784862. Retrieved 4 June 2024. ^ Manojlovic, Marko; Clapham, Matthew E. (23 November 2020). "The role of bioturbation-driven substrate disturbance in the Mesozoic brachiopod decline". Paleobiology. 47 (1): 86–100. doi:10.1017/pab.2020.50. ^ Bardhan, Subhendu; Saha, Sandip; Das, Shiladri S.; Saha, Ranita (14 April 2021). "Paleoecology of naticid–molluscan prey interaction during the Late Jurassic (Oxfordian) in Kutch, India: evolutionary implications". Journal of Paleontology. 95 (5): 974–993. doi:10.1017/jpa.2021.24. ISSN 0022-3360. S2CID 234798442. Retrieved 16 September 2023. ^ Harper, E. M.; Forsythe, G. T.; Palmer, T. (1998). "Taphonomy and the Mesozoic Marine Revolution: Preservation masks the Importance of Boring Predators". PALAIOS. 13 (4): 352–360. doi:10.2307/3515323. JSTOR 3515323. ^ Taylor, Paul D.; Ernst, Andrej (13 June 2008). "Bryozoans in transition: The depauperate and patchy Jurassic biota". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 263 (1–2): 9–23. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.01.028. Retrieved 11 June 2024 – via Elsevier Science Direct.	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tidepools_Small.jpg"},{"link_name":"Seaweed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seaweed"},{"link_name":"chitons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiton"},{"link_name":"tide pool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide_pool"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Libr0409.jpg"},{"link_name":"durophagous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durophagy"},{"link_name":"boring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drilling"},{"link_name":"predation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predation"},{"link_name":"benthic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benthic"},{"link_name":"Mesozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesozoic"},{"link_name":"Mya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mya_(unit)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DouglasErwinEcosystemEngineering-1"},{"link_name":"Geerat J. Vermeij","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geerat_J._Vermeij"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"Steven M. Stanley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_M._Stanley"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stanley2008-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-stanley1974-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leightonetal2013-5"},{"link_name":"Cretaceous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous"},{"link_name":"Triassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triassic"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettTintori2019-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%E2%80%9DMMR%E2%80%9D-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Anisian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anisian"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salamonetal2012-9"},{"link_name":"Aalenian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalenian"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Palaeozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeozoic"},{"link_name":"pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure"},{"link_name":"Ordovician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vinn2008-11"},{"link_name":"Palaeozoic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palaeozoic"},{"link_name":"crinoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crinoid"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baumiller2010-12"}],"text":"Seaweed and two chitons in a tide pool\"A variety of marine worms\": plate from Das Meer by M. J. Schleiden (1804–1881)The Mesozoic marine revolution (MMR) refers to the increase in shell-crushing (durophagous) and boring predation in benthic organisms throughout the Mesozoic era (251 Mya to 66 Mya), along with bulldozing and sediment remodelling in marine habitats.[1] The term was first coined by Geerat J. Vermeij,[2] who based his work on that of Steven M. Stanley.[3][4][5] While the MMR was initially restricted to the Cretaceous (145 Mya to 66 Mya), more recent studies have suggested that the beginning of this ecological arms race extends as far back as the Triassic,[6][7][8] with the MMR now being considered to have started in the Anisian[9] or the Aalenian.[10] It is an important transition between the Palaeozoic evolutionary fauna and the Modern evolutionary fauna that occurred throughout the Mesozoic.The Mesozoic marine revolution was not the first bout of increased predation pressure; that occurred around the end of the Ordovician.[11] There is some evidence of adaptation to durophagy during the Palaeozoic, particularly in crinoids.[12]","title":"Mesozoic marine revolution"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Placodus_gigas_AMNH_4985_cast_skull.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Placodus_gigas_3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Middle Triassic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Triassic"},{"link_name":"placodont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placodont"},{"link_name":"Placodus gigas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placodus_gigas"},{"link_name":"defences against such predation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"link_name":"placodonts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placodont"},{"link_name":"ichthyosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichthyosaur"},{"link_name":"omphalosaurids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omphalosauridae"},{"link_name":"plesiosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plesiosauria"},{"link_name":"pliosaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliosauridae"},{"link_name":"mosasaurs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosasaur"},{"link_name":"ptychodontoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptychodontidae"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Pangaea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangaea"},{"link_name":"compete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)"},{"link_name":"shelf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_shelf"},{"link_name":"greenhouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_effect"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"hermit crabs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermit_crabs"},{"link_name":"gastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropods"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"}],"text":"Skull and palate crushing teeth of the Middle Triassic placodont Placodus gigasThe Mesozoic marine revolution was driven by the evolution of shell-crushing behaviour among Mesozoic marine predators, the technique being perfected in the Late Cretaceous. This forced shelled marine invertebrates to develop defences against such predation or be wiped out. The consequences of this can be seen in many invertebrates today. Such predators are thought to include: Triassic placodonts, Triassic ichthyosaurs, Triassic omphalosaurids, Triassic plesiosaurs, Jurassic pliosaurs, Late Cretaceous mosasaurs and Cretaceous ptychodontoid sharks.[2] Many gastropods also evolved to feed on prey with shells.[13] However, because most durophagous predators were generalists, their effect on anti-predator shell architecture has been viewed by some as diffuse and not as extensive as other authors have suggested.[14]It is thought that the break-up of Pangaea and the formation of new oceans throughout the Mesozoic brought together previously isolated marine communities, forcing them to compete and adapt. The increased shelf space caused by sea-level rise and a hyper-greenhouse climate provided more iterations and chances to evolve, resulting in increasing diversity.[2]The evolution of angiosperms in the Cretaceous enhanced the hydrological cycling, speeding up rates of weathering and nutrient flow into the oceans, which has been cited as a possible driver of the MMR.[15]Another proposal is the evolution of hermit crabs. These exploit the shells of dead gastropods, effectively doubling the life-span of the shell. This allows durophagous predators nearly twice the prey, making it a viable niche to exploit.[2]","title":"Causes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epifaunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epifaunal"},{"link_name":"evolutionary fauna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_fauna"},{"link_name":"infaunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infaunal"},{"link_name":"planktonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plankton"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leightonetal2013-5"},{"link_name":"brachiopods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiopod"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettandBottjer2012-17"},{"link_name":"epifauna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epifauna"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettandBottjer2012-17"},{"link_name":"infauna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infauna"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettandBottjer2012-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettandBottjer2012-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"sessile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)"},{"link_name":"gastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastropod"},{"link_name":"brachiopods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brachiopods"},{"link_name":"epifaunal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epifaunal"},{"link_name":"bivalves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bivalves"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"The net result of the Mesozoic marine revolution was a change from the sedentary epifaunal lifestyle of the Palaeozoic evolutionary fauna to the infaunal/planktonic mode of life of the modern fauna.[5] Non-mobile types that failed to re-attach to their substrate (such as brachiopods) when removed were picked off as easy prey, whereas those that could hide from predation or be mobile enough to escape had an evolutionary advantage.[2] Per capita mean metabolic rates among marine gastropods living in shallow water increased by approximately 150% from the Late Triassic to the Late Cretaceous.[16]Three major trends can be associated with this:[17]Reduction in suspension feeding epifauna[17]\nIncreasing abundance of infauna[17]\nAn intermediate stage of mobile epifauna.[17][18]Major casualties of the Mesozoic marine revolution include: sessile crinoids, gastropods, brachiopods and epifaunal bivalves.[citation needed]","title":"Effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antedon_mediterranea.jpg"},{"link_name":"comatulid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comatulida"},{"link_name":"crinoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crinoid"},{"link_name":"Antedon mediterranea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antedon_mediterranea"},{"link_name":"vestigial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestigial"}],"text":"Adult comatulid crinoids, like this Antedon mediterranea specimen, only have vestigial stalks and can actively move around to avoid predation","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salamonetal2012-9"},{"link_name":"comatulids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comatulid"},{"link_name":"autotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autotomy"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Baumiller2010-12"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oji1996-19"},{"link_name":"Late Eocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_Eocene"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Antarctica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antarctica"},{"link_name":"Early Miocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_Miocene"},{"link_name":"Zealandia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zealandia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Crinoids","text":"The Mesozoic Marine Revolution heavily affected the crinoids, making the majority of their forms extinct. Their sessile nature made them easy prey for durophagous predators since the Triassic.[9] Survivors (such as the comatulids) could swim or crawl, behaved nocturnally or had autotomy (the ability to shed limbs in defence).[12]The shift in the range of sessile stalked crinoids during the late Mesozoic from the shallow shelf to habitats further offshore suggests that they were forced by increased predation pressure in shallow water to migrate to a deep water refuge environment where predation pressure was lower and their mode of life more viable.[19] This migration was not globally synchronous and delayed in the Southern Hemisphere; it did not occur until the Late Eocene in Australia and Antarctica, and until the Early Miocene in Zealandia.[20]","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Echinoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echinoids"},{"link_name":"bromalites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromalite"},{"link_name":"cidaroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cidaroida"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BorszczandZaton2013-21"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Salamonetal2012-9"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Echinoids","text":"Echinoids do not suffer major predation (save for general infaunalisation) during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution but it is clear from bromalites (fossilised ‘vomit’) that cidaroids were consumed by predators.[21] Echinoids radiate into predatory niches and are thought to have perfected coral grazing in the Late Cretaceous.[2] Cidaroids too may have contributed to the downfall of the crinoids.[9] The increases in echinoid predation continued into the Cenozoic.[22]","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"lingulids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingulida"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"}],"sub_title":"Brachiopods","text":"Brachiopods, the dominant benthic organism of the Palaeozoic, suffered badly during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. Their sessile foot-attached nature made them easy prey to durophagous predators.[2] The fact that they could not re-attach to a substrate if an attack failed meant their chances of survival were slim. Unlike bivalves, brachiopods never adapted to an infaunal habit (excluding lingulids) and so remained vulnerable throughout the Mesozoic Marine Revolution. As a result of increased predation pressure on top of heightened competition with bivalves, brachiopods became a minor component of most marine faunas by the Cenozoic despite their incredible diversity and abundance during the Palaeozoic and early Mesozoic.[23]","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leightonetal2013-5"},{"link_name":"Corbulids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corbulidae"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Pecten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pecten_(bivalve)"},{"link_name":"mussels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mussels"},{"link_name":"oysters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oysters"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TackettandBottjer2012-17"}],"sub_title":"Bivalves","text":"Bivalves adapted more readily than the brachiopods to this ecological transition. Many bivalves adopted an infaunal habit, using their siphons to gather nutrients from the sediment-water interface while remaining safe.[2][5] Corbulids developed layers of conchiolin within their shells to better resist predation.[24] Others still, like Pecten, developed the ability to jump a short distance away from predators by contracting their valves.Like brachiopods, epifaunal varieties of bivalves were preyed upon heavily. Among epifaunal types (such as mussels and oysters), the ability to fuse to the substrate made them more difficult to consume for smaller predators. Epifaunal bivalves were preyed on heavily before the Norian but extinction rates diminish after this.[17]","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"archaeogastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeogastropoda"},{"link_name":"mesogastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesogastropoda"},{"link_name":"neogastropods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neogastropoda"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"umbilicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbilicus_(mollusc)"},{"link_name":"defence against predators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Vermeij1977-2"},{"link_name":"Muricidae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muricidae"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harperetal1998-25"}],"sub_title":"Gastropods","text":"Benthic gastropods were heavily preyed upon throughout the Mesozoic Marine Revolution, the weaker shelled types being pushed out of the benthic zone into more isolated habitats. The Palaeozoic archaeogastropods were subsequently replaced by neritaceans, mesogastropods and neogastropods.[2] The former typically have symmetrical, umbilicate shells that are mechanically weaker than the latter. These lack an umbilicus and also developed the ability to modify the interior of their shells, allowing them to develop sculptures on their exterior to act as defence against predators.[2]Another development among Muricidae was the ability to bore through shells and consume prey. These marks (while relatively rare) generally occur on sessile invertebrates, implying that they put pressure on Palaeozoic-type faunas during the Mesozoic Marine Revolution.[25]","title":"Affected taxa"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Bryozoans","text":"Bryozoans exhibited no significant anti-predatory adaptations during the Jurassic, suggesting that they were during this period unaffected by the MMR.[26]","title":"Affected taxa"}]	[{"image_text":"Seaweed and two chitons in a tide pool","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Tidepools_Small.jpg/300px-Tidepools_Small.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"A variety of marine worms\": plate from Das Meer by M. J. Schleiden (1804–1881)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Libr0409.jpg/170px-Libr0409.jpg"},{"image_text":"Adult comatulid crinoids, like this Antedon mediterranea specimen, only have vestigial stalks and can actively move around to avoid predation","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Antedon_mediterranea.jpg/170px-Antedon_mediterranea.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Cretaceous crab revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretaceous_crab_revolution"},{"title":"Carboniferous-Earliest Permian Biodiversification Event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboniferous-Earliest_Permian_Biodiversification_Event"}]	[{"reference":"Erwin, Douglas H. (June 2008). \"Macroevolution of ecosystem engineering, niche construction and diversity\". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 23 (6): 304–310. doi:10.1016/j.tree.2008.01.013. PMID 18457902. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizraim	Mizraim	["1 Linguistic analysis","2 Biblical accounts","3 Greco-Roman sources","4 Islamic sources","5 Fringe theory","6 References","7 Bibliography"]	Not to be confused with Mizrahim. Hebrew and Aramaic name for the land of Egypt Mizraim (Hebrew: מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם, Modern Mīṣrayīm Tiberian Mīṣrāyīm / Mīṣráyīm \ ; cf. Arabic: مصر, romanized: Miṣr) is the Hebrew and Aramaic name for the land of Egypt and its people. Linguistic analysis Mizraim is the Hebrew cognate of a common Semitic source word for the land now known as Egypt. It is similar to Miṣr in modern Arabic, Misri in the 14th century B.C. Akkadian Amarna tablets, Mṣrm in Ugaritic, Mizraim in Neo-Babylonian texts, and Mu-ṣur in neo-Assyrian Akkadian (as seen on the Rassam cylinder). To this root is appended the dual suffix -āyim, perhaps referring to the "two Egypts": Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. This word is similar in pronunciation and spelling to the Hebrew words matsór and meitsár, meaning literally "siege" and "strait, distress" respectively, and may carry those connotations to Hebrew speakers. Some scholars think it likely that Mizraim is a dual form of the word Misr meaning "land" and was translated literally into Ancient Egyptian as Ta-Wy (the Two Lands) by early pharaohs at Thebes, who later founded the Middle Kingdom. Biblical accounts According to Genesis 10, Mizraim son of Ham was the younger brother of Cush and elder brother of Phut whose families together made up the Hamite branch of Noah's descendants. Mizraim's sons were Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Casluhim, and Caphtorim.19th century scholar Henry Welsford identifies this Mizraim of Egypt in the Book of Genesis as Minos. In the Book of Exodus, it is considered the house of bondage. Regarding the passover, Moses says to the children of Israel, "Remember this day, in which ye came out from Mizraim, out of the house of bondage; for by strength of hand the LORD brought you out from this place; there shall no leavened bread be eaten." The book of Deuteronomy forbids the children of Israel from abhorring a Mizri, an Egyptian, "because you were a stranger in his land." Greco-Roman sources According to Eusebius's Chronicon, Manetho had suggested that the great age of antiquity of which the later Egyptians boasted had actually preceded the Great Flood and that they were really descended from Mizraim, who settled there anew. According to Byzantine chronicler George Syncellus, the Book of Sothis, attributed to Manetho, identified Mizraim with the legendary first Pharaoh Menes, who is said to have unified the Old Kingdom and built Memphis. Mizraim also seems to correspond to Misor, who is said in Phoenician mythology to have been the father of Taautus, who was given Egypt, and later scholars noticed that it also recalls Menes, whose son or successor was said to be Athothis. Islamic sources According to medieval Islamic historians, such as Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, the Egyptian Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, and the Persians al-Tabari and Muhammad Khwandamir, the pyramids, etc. had been built by the wicked races before the Deluge but that Noah's descendant Mizraim (Masar or Mesr) was later entrusted with reoccupying the region. The Islamic accounts also make Masar the son of a Bansar or Beisar and grandson of Ham, rather than a direct son of Ham, and add that he lived to the age of 700. Fringe theory Author David Rohl has suggested a different interpretation: Amongst the followers of Meskiagkasher (Sumerian ruler) was his younger 'brother'—in his own right a strong and charismatic leader of men. He is the head of the falcon tribe—the descendants of Horus the 'Far Distant'. The Bible calls this new Horus-king 'Mizraim' but this name is, in reality, no more than an epithet. It means 'follower of Asr' or 'Asar' (Egyptian Arabic m-asr with the Egyptian preposition m 'from'). Mizraim is merely m-Izra with the majestic plural ending 'im'. Likewise, that other great Semitic-speaking people—the Assyrians—called the country of the pharaohs 'Musri' (m-Usri). References ^ Mizraim-biblehub ^ Daniel I. Block (19 June 1998). The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25 48. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8028-2536-0. ^ Gregorio del Olmo Lete; Joaquín Sanmartín (12 February 2015). A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition (2 vols): Third Revised Edition. BRILL. pp. 580–581. ISBN 978-90-04-28865-2. ^ Ciprut, J.V. (2009). Freedom: reassessments and rephrasings. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262033879. Retrieved 2015-09-13. ^ George Evans (1883). An Essay on Assyriology. Williams and Norgate : pub. by the Hibbert trustees. p. 49. ^ Mizraim-International Standard Bible Encyclopedia ^ "Mizraim". Abarim Publications. Retrieved 16 February 2023. ^ Bullinger, 2000, p. 6. ^ On the origin and ramifications of the English language: Preceded by an inquiry into the primitive seats, early migrations, and final settlements of the principal European nations, Henry Welsford, 1845, pp. 11–12. ^ "Exodus 13:3". Sefaria. ^ "Deuteronomy 23:8". Sefaria. ^ Legend: Genesis of Civilisation Arrow Books Ltd, London, 1999, pp. 451–452 Bibliography Brooks, Joshua William (1841), The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time, R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside vteDescendants of Noah in Genesis 10Shem and Semitic Elam Ashur Arpachshad Lud Aram Ham and Hamitic Cush Mizraim Phut Canaan Japheth and Japhetic Gomer Magog Madai Javan Tubal Meshech Tiras	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mizrahim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizrahim"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"Modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language#Modern_Hebrew"},{"link_name":"[mitsˈʁajim]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"Tiberian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberian_vocalization"},{"link_name":"[misˤˈrɔjim]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"[misˤˈrajim]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Hebrew"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_language"},{"link_name":"Aramaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic"},{"link_name":"Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Mizrahim.Hebrew and Aramaic name for the land of EgyptMizraim (Hebrew: מִצְרַיִם / מִצְרָיִם, Modern Mīṣrayīm [mitsˈʁajim] Tiberian Mīṣrāyīm / Mīṣráyīm [misˤˈrɔjim] \\ [misˤˈrajim]; cf. Arabic: مصر, romanized: Miṣr) is the Hebrew and Aramaic name for the land of Egypt and its people.[1]","title":"Mizraim"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mizraim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9D"},{"link_name":"Miṣr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%B1"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"Misri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%92%88%AA%F0%92%84%91%F0%92%8A%91%F0%92%84%BF"},{"link_name":"Amarna tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amarna_tablets"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Block1998-2"},{"link_name":"Mṣrm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8E%8E%F0%90%8E%95%F0%90%8E%97%F0%90%8E%8E"},{"link_name":"Ugaritic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugaritic"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LeteSanmart%C3%ADn2015-3"},{"link_name":"Neo-Babylonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google-4"},{"link_name":"neo-Assyrian Akkadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akkadian_language"},{"link_name":"Rassam cylinder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rassam_cylinder"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evans1883-5"},{"link_name":"Upper Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Lower Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Egypt"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"matsór","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8"},{"link_name":"meitsár","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%A8"},{"link_name":"siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege"},{"link_name":"strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strait"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Ancient Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian"},{"link_name":"pharaohs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaohs"},{"link_name":"Thebes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Middle Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt"}],"text":"Mizraim is the Hebrew cognate of a common Semitic source word for the land now known as Egypt. It is similar to Miṣr in modern Arabic, Misri in the 14th century B.C. Akkadian Amarna tablets,[2] Mṣrm in Ugaritic, [3] Mizraim in Neo-Babylonian texts,[4] and Mu-ṣur in neo-Assyrian Akkadian (as seen on the Rassam cylinder).[5] To this root is appended the dual suffix -āyim, perhaps referring to the \"two Egypts\": Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.[6] This word is similar in pronunciation and spelling to the Hebrew words matsór and meitsár, meaning literally \"siege\" and \"strait, distress\" respectively, and may carry those connotations to Hebrew speakers.[7] Some scholars [by whom?] think it likely that Mizraim is a dual form of the word Misr meaning \"land\" and was translated literally into Ancient Egyptian as Ta-Wy (the Two Lands) by early pharaohs at Thebes, who later founded the Middle Kingdom.","title":"Linguistic analysis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Genesis 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesis_10"},{"link_name":"Ham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Cush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cush_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Phut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phut"},{"link_name":"Hamite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)"},{"link_name":"Noah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noah"},{"link_name":"Ludim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludim"},{"link_name":"Anamim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anamim"},{"link_name":"Lehabim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehabim"},{"link_name":"Naphtuhim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphtuhim"},{"link_name":"Pathrusim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathrusim"},{"link_name":"Casluhim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casluhim"},{"link_name":"Caphtorim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caphtorim"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bullingerp6-8"},{"link_name":"Book of Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Minos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minos"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Book of Exodus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Exodus"},{"link_name":"passover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passover"},{"link_name":"Moses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses"},{"link_name":"children of Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israelites"},{"link_name":"came out from","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Exodus"},{"link_name":"by strength of hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/With_a_strong_hand_and_an_outstretched_arm"},{"link_name":"leavened bread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chametz"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"book of Deuteronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Deuteronomy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"According to Genesis 10, Mizraim son of Ham was the younger brother of Cush and elder brother of Phut whose families together made up the Hamite branch of Noah's descendants. Mizraim's sons were Ludim, Anamim, Lehabim, Naphtuhim, Pathrusim, Casluhim, and Caphtorim.[8]19th century scholar Henry Welsford identifies this Mizraim of Egypt in the Book of Genesis as Minos.[9]In the Book of Exodus, it is considered the house of bondage. Regarding the passover, Moses says to the children of Israel, \"Remember this day, in which ye came out from Mizraim, out of the house of bondage; for by strength of hand the LORD brought you out from this place; there shall no leavened bread be eaten.\"[10]The book of Deuteronomy forbids the children of Israel from abhorring a Mizri, an Egyptian, \"because you were a stranger in his land.\"[11]","title":"Biblical accounts"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eusebius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eusebius"},{"link_name":"Chronicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronicon_(Eusebius)"},{"link_name":"Manetho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho"},{"link_name":"Great Flood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Flood"},{"link_name":"George Syncellus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Syncellus"},{"link_name":"Book of Sothis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Sothis"},{"link_name":"Manetho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manetho"},{"link_name":"Menes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menes"},{"link_name":"Old Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis_(Egypt)"},{"link_name":"Misor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misor"},{"link_name":"Phoenician mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenician_mythology"},{"link_name":"Taautus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taautus"},{"link_name":"Athothis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athothis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"According to Eusebius's Chronicon, Manetho had suggested that the great age of antiquity of which the later Egyptians boasted had actually preceded the Great Flood and that they were really descended from Mizraim, who settled there anew. According to Byzantine chronicler George Syncellus, the Book of Sothis, attributed to Manetho, identified Mizraim with the legendary first Pharaoh Menes, who is said to have unified the Old Kingdom and built Memphis. Mizraim also seems to correspond to Misor, who is said in Phoenician mythology to have been the father of Taautus, who was given Egypt, and later scholars noticed that it also recalls Menes, whose son or successor was said to be Athothis.[citation needed]","title":"Greco-Roman sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sibt ibn al-Jawzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibt_ibn_al-Jawzi"},{"link_name":"Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_%27Abd_al-Hakam"},{"link_name":"al-Tabari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Tabari"},{"link_name":"Muhammad Khwandamir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Khwandamir"},{"link_name":"pyramids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"According to medieval Islamic historians, such as Sibt ibn al-Jawzi, the Egyptian Ibn 'Abd al-Hakam, and the Persians al-Tabari and Muhammad Khwandamir, the pyramids, etc. had been built by the wicked races before the Deluge but that Noah's descendant Mizraim (Masar or Mesr) was later entrusted with reoccupying the region. The Islamic accounts also make Masar the son of a Bansar or Beisar and grandson of Ham, rather than a direct son of Ham, and add that he lived to the age of 700.[citation needed]","title":"Islamic sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"David Rohl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Rohl"},{"link_name":"Meskiagkasher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meskiagkasher"},{"link_name":"Sumerian ruler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumeria"},{"link_name":"Horus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horus"},{"link_name":"majestic plural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majestic_plural"},{"link_name":"pharaohs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharaoh"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"Author David Rohl has suggested a different interpretation:Amongst the followers of Meskiagkasher (Sumerian ruler) was his younger 'brother'—in his own right a strong and charismatic leader of men. He is the head of the falcon tribe—the descendants of Horus the 'Far Distant'. The Bible calls this new Horus-king 'Mizraim' but this name is, in reality, no more than an epithet. It means 'follower of Asr' or 'Asar' (Egyptian Arabic m-asr with the Egyptian preposition m 'from'). Mizraim is merely m-Izra with the majestic plural ending 'im'. Likewise, that other great Semitic-speaking people—the Assyrians—called the country of the pharaohs 'Musri' (m-Usri).[12]","title":"Fringe theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JY5Nt8_83r4C"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Sons_of_Noah"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Sons_of_Noah"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sons_of_Noah"},{"link_name":"Descendants of Noah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generations_of_Noah"},{"link_name":"Genesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Genesis"},{"link_name":"Shem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shem"},{"link_name":"Semitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_cultures"},{"link_name":"Elam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam,_son_of_Shem"},{"link_name":"Ashur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashur_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Arpachshad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arpachshad"},{"link_name":"Lud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lud,_son_of_Shem"},{"link_name":"Aram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aram,_son_of_Shem"},{"link_name":"Ham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ham_(son_of_Noah)"},{"link_name":"Hamitic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamitic"},{"link_name":"Cush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cush_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Mizraim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Phut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phut"},{"link_name":"Canaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canaan_(son_of_Ham)"},{"link_name":"Japheth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japheth"},{"link_name":"Japhetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japhetic"},{"link_name":"Gomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gomer"},{"link_name":"Magog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magog_(Bible)"},{"link_name":"Madai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madai"},{"link_name":"Javan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javan"},{"link_name":"Tubal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tubal"},{"link_name":"Meshech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meshech"},{"link_name":"Tiras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiras"}],"text":"Brooks, Joshua William (1841), The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time, R.B. Seeley and W. BurnsidevteDescendants of Noah in Genesis 10Shem and Semitic\nElam\nAshur\nArpachshad\nLud\nAram\nHam and Hamitic\nCush\nMizraim\nPhut\nCanaan\nJapheth and Japhetic\nGomer\nMagog\nMadai\nJavan\nTubal\nMeshech\nTiras","title":"Bibliography"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Mizraim-biblehub","urls":[{"url":"https://biblehub.com/topical/m/mizraim.htm","url_text":"Mizraim-biblehub"}]},{"reference":"Daniel I. Block (19 June 1998). The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25 48. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8028-2536-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uYemhagtCpgC&pg=PA166","url_text":"The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25 48"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-2536-0","url_text":"978-0-8028-2536-0"}]},{"reference":"Gregorio del Olmo Lete; Joaquín Sanmartín (12 February 2015). A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition (2 vols): Third Revised Edition. BRILL. pp. 580–581. ISBN 978-90-04-28865-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bh6oBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA581","url_text":"A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition (2 vols): Third Revised Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-28865-2","url_text":"978-90-04-28865-2"}]},{"reference":"Ciprut, J.V. (2009). Freedom: reassessments and rephrasings. MIT Press. ISBN 9780262033879. Retrieved 2015-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jh4oAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Freedom: reassessments and rephrasings"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780262033879","url_text":"9780262033879"}]},{"reference":"George Evans (1883). An Essay on Assyriology. Williams and Norgate : pub. by the Hibbert trustees. p. 49.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iBgYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49","url_text":"An Essay on Assyriology"}]},{"reference":"Mizraim-International Standard Bible Encyclopedia","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/mizraim/","url_text":"Mizraim-International Standard Bible Encyclopedia"}]},{"reference":"\"Mizraim\". Abarim Publications. Retrieved 16 February 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Mizraim.html","url_text":"\"Mizraim\""}]},{"reference":"\"Exodus 13:3\". Sefaria.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sefaria.org/Exodus.13.3?lang=bi&aliyot=0","url_text":"\"Exodus 13:3\""}]},{"reference":"\"Deuteronomy 23:8\". Sefaria.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sefaria.org/Deuteronomy.23.8?lang=bi&aliyot=0","url_text":"\"Deuteronomy 23:8\""}]},{"reference":"Brooks, Joshua William (1841), The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time, R.B. Seeley and W. Burnside","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JY5Nt8_83r4C","url_text":"The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://biblehub.com/topical/m/mizraim.htm","external_links_name":"Mizraim-biblehub"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=uYemhagtCpgC&pg=PA166","external_links_name":"The Book of Ezekiel, Chapters 25 48"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bh6oBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA581","external_links_name":"A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition (2 vols): Third Revised Edition"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=jh4oAQAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Freedom: reassessments and rephrasings"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=iBgYAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA49","external_links_name":"An Essay on Assyriology"},{"Link":"https://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionary/mizraim/","external_links_name":"Mizraim-International Standard Bible Encyclopedia"},{"Link":"https://www.abarim-publications.com/Meaning/Mizraim.html","external_links_name":"\"Mizraim\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-BpAAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22One+of+the+most+singular+circumstances+in+connection%22&pg=PA11","external_links_name":"On the origin and ramifications of the English language: Preceded by an inquiry into the primitive seats, early migrations, and final settlements of the principal European nations"},{"Link":"https://www.sefaria.org/Exodus.13.3?lang=bi&aliyot=0","external_links_name":"\"Exodus 13:3\""},{"Link":"https://www.sefaria.org/Deuteronomy.23.8?lang=bi&aliyot=0","external_links_name":"\"Deuteronomy 23:8\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JY5Nt8_83r4C","external_links_name":"The history of the Hebrew nation: from its origin to the present time"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhodonite	Rhodonite	["1 See also","2 References"]	Single chain manganese inosilicate (MnSiO3) RhodoniteRhodonite from San Martín Mine, Chiurucu, Huallanca District, Bolognesi Province, Ancash, PeruSpecimen size: 53 mm × 52 mm × 40 mm (2.1 in × 2.0 in × 1.6 in)GeneralCategoryInosilicateFormula(repeating unit)(Mn2+, Fe2+, Mg, Ca)SiO3IMA symbolRdnStrunz classification9.DK.05Dana classification65.04.01.01Crystal systemTriclinicCrystal classPinacoidal (1) (same H–M symbol)Space groupP1Unit cella = 9.758 Å, b = 10.499 Å, c = 12.205 Å; α = 108.58°, β = 102.92°, γ = 82.52°; Z = 20IdentificationColorPink, rose-pink to brownish red, red, gray and yellowCrystal habitTabular crystals, massive, granularTwinningLamellar, composition plane {010}CleavagePerfect on {110} and {110}, (110) ^ (110) = 92.5°; good on {001}FractureConchoidal to unevenMohs scale hardness5.5–6.5LusterVitreous to pearlyStreakWhiteDiaphaneityTransparent to translucentSpecific gravity3.57–3.76Optical propertiesBiaxial (+)Refractive indexnα = 1.711–1.738, nβ = 1.714–1.741, nγ = 1.724–1.751Birefringenceδ = 0.013PleochroismWeak2V angle58° to 73° (measured), 58° (calculated)Alters toExterior commonly black from manganese oxidesReferences Rhodonite is a manganese inosilicate, with the formula (Mn, Fe, Mg, Ca)SiO3, and member of the pyroxenoid group of minerals, crystallizing in the triclinic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to compact masses with a rose-red color (its name comes from Ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhódon) 'rose'), often tending to brown due to surface oxidation. The rose-red hue is caused by the manganese cation (Mn2+). Rhodonite crystals often have a thick tabular habit, but are rare. It has a perfect, prismatic cleavage, almost at right angles. The hardness is 5.5–6.5, and the specific gravity is 3.4–3.7; luster is vitreous, being less frequently pearly on cleavage surfaces. The manganese is often partly replaced by iron, magnesium, calcium, and sometimes zinc, which may sometimes be present in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called bustamite; fowlerite is a zinciferous variety containing 7% of zinc oxide. Pink rhodonite contrasting with black manganese oxides is sometimes used as gemstone material as seen in this specimen from Humboldt County, Nevada. The inosilicate (chain silicate) structure of rhodonite has a repeat unit of five silica tetrahedra. The rare polymorph pyroxmangite, formed at different conditions of pressure and temperature, has the same chemical composition but a repeat unit of seven tetrahedra. Rhodonite has also been worked as an ornamental stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near Filipstad and Långban in Värmland, Sweden, small brilliant and translucent crystals (pajsbergite) and cleavage masses occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat resembling pink feldspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey. Rhodonite is the official gemstone of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. See also Enstatite, with MgSiO3 and FeSiO3 end-members Khondalite Wollastonite, CaSiO3 References ^ Warr, L. N. (2021). "IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616. ^ Handbook of Mineralogy. ^ Rhodonite, Mindat.org. ^ Rhodonite, Webmineral data. ^ "Minerals Colored by Metal Ions". minerals.gps.caltech.edu. Retrieved 2023-02-28. ^ General Laws of Massachusetts, Chapter 2, Section 15 Archived 2008-11-23 at the Wayback Machine. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Rhodonite". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rhodonite. vteManganese mineralsBorates Sussexite Tusionite Carbonates Ankerite Kutnohorite Rhodochrosite Manganoan calcite OxidesSimple Hausmannite Manganite Manganosite Nsutite Pyrolusite Mixed Birnessite Bixbyite Ferrocolumbite Ferrotantalite Galaxite Jacobsite Manganotantalite Psilomelane (calvonigrite) Romanèchite Tantalite Todorokite Umber Phosphates Childrenite Graftonite Lithiophilite Natrophilite Purpurite Triplite Triploidite Zanazziite Silicates Babingtonite Braunite Brownleeite Calderite Chloritoid Eudialyte Glaucochroite Jeffersonite Knebelite Ottrelite Piemontite Pyroxferroite Rhodonite Spessartine Sugilite Tephroite Zakharovite Zircophyllite Sulfides Alabandite Hauerite Rambergite Other Axinite (borosilicate) Geigerite (arsenate) Manganese nodule (various) Samsonite (sulfosalt) Zincobotryogen (sulfate) Wolframite (tungstate) Hübnerite (tungstate) Minerals portal vteGemstonesGemmological classifications by E. Ya. Kievlenko (1980), updatedJewelry stones1st order Diamond Ruby Emerald Blue Sapphire Alexandrite Natural marine pearls 2nd order Pink sapphire Demantoid Tsavorite Spinel Precious Black Opal Tanzanite 3rd order Yellow, Green, Violet Sapphires Aquamarine Orange topaz (Imperial) Elbaite Precious White and Fire Opal 4th order Tourmaline – Verdelite Indicolite, polychromous Beryl – Heliodor, pink, yellow-green Topaz yellow, blue, pink Peridot Garnets – Spessartine (malaya), Rhodolite, Almandine, Pyrope Amethyst Citrine Blue Turquoise Jewelry-Industrialstones1st order Lazurite Jadeite Nephrite Malachite Amber (Baltic amber) Chrysoprase Charoite 2nd order Agate Amazonite Rhodonite Colorless, smoky and pink quartz Hematite Common opal Opaque iridescent feldspars Industrial stones Jasper Graphic granite Petrified wood Cacholong (Porouse opal) Marble onyx Obsidian Listwanite (green mica) Jet Selenite Fluorite Serpentinite Aventurine quartzite Ophicalcite (Serpentine/Calcite) Pagodite (Pyrophyllite/Talc) Related List of individual gemstones List of diamonds List of emeralds by size List of sapphires by size List of gemstones by species Minerals portal	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"manganese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manganese"},{"link_name":"formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula"},{"link_name":"pyroxenoid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroxenoid"},{"link_name":"minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"},{"link_name":"triclinic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triclinic"},{"link_name":"rose-red color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_(color)"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language"},{"link_name":"ῥόδον","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BF%A5%CF%8C%CE%B4%CE%BF%CE%BD#Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"cation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal"},{"link_name":"habit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_habit"},{"link_name":"cleavage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_(crystal)"},{"link_name":"hardness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness"},{"link_name":"specific gravity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_gravity"},{"link_name":"luster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lustre_(mineralogy)"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"magnesium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnesium"},{"link_name":"calcium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium"},{"link_name":"zinc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinc"},{"link_name":"bustamite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bustamite"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rhodonite09.jpg"},{"link_name":"gemstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone"},{"link_name":"Humboldt County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_County,_Nevada"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada"},{"link_name":"inosilicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicate_minerals"},{"link_name":"tetrahedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedra"},{"link_name":"polymorph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)"},{"link_name":"pyroxmangite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyroxmangite"},{"link_name":"Filipstad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filipstad"},{"link_name":"Långban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A5ngban"},{"link_name":"Värmland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4rmland"},{"link_name":"Sweden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden"},{"link_name":"feldspar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"franklinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklinite"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"Franklin Furnace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franklin_Furnace"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"gemstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth of Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Massachusetts_state_symbols"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Rhodonite is a manganese inosilicate, with the formula (Mn, Fe, Mg, Ca)SiO3, and member of the pyroxenoid group of minerals, crystallizing in the triclinic system. It commonly occurs as cleavable to compact masses with a rose-red color (its name comes from Ancient Greek ῥόδον (rhódon) 'rose'), often tending to brown due to surface oxidation. The rose-red hue is caused by the manganese cation (Mn2+).[5]Rhodonite crystals often have a thick tabular habit, but are rare. It has a perfect, prismatic cleavage, almost at right angles. The hardness is 5.5–6.5, and the specific gravity is 3.4–3.7; luster is vitreous, being less frequently pearly on cleavage surfaces. The manganese is often partly replaced by iron, magnesium, calcium, and sometimes zinc, which may sometimes be present in considerable amounts; a greyish-brown variety containing as much as 20% of calcium oxide is called bustamite; fowlerite is a zinciferous variety containing 7% of zinc oxide.Pink rhodonite contrasting with black manganese oxides is sometimes used as gemstone material as seen in this specimen from Humboldt County, Nevada.The inosilicate (chain silicate) structure of rhodonite has a repeat unit of five silica tetrahedra. The rare polymorph pyroxmangite, formed at different conditions of pressure and temperature, has the same chemical composition but a repeat unit of seven tetrahedra.Rhodonite has also been worked as an ornamental stone. In the iron and manganese mines at Pajsberg near Filipstad and Långban in Värmland, Sweden, small brilliant and translucent crystals (pajsbergite) and cleavage masses occur. Fowlerite occurs as large, rough crystals, somewhat resembling pink feldspar, with franklinite and zinc ores in granular limestone at Franklin Furnace in New Jersey.Rhodonite is the official gemstone of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts.[6]","title":"Rhodonite"}]	[{"image_text":"Pink rhodonite contrasting with black manganese oxides is sometimes used as gemstone material as seen in this specimen from Humboldt County, Nevada.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Rhodonite09.jpg/220px-Rhodonite09.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Enstatite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enstatite"},{"title":"Khondalite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khondalite"},{"title":"Wollastonite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wollastonite"}]	[{"reference":"Warr, L. N. (2021). \"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols\". Mineralogical Magazine. 85 (3): 291–320. Bibcode:2021MinM...85..291W. doi:10.1180/mgm.2021.43. S2CID 235729616.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","url_text":"\"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineralogical_Magazine","url_text":"Mineralogical Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MinM...85..291W","url_text":"2021MinM...85..291W"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","url_text":"10.1180/mgm.2021.43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235729616","url_text":"235729616"}]},{"reference":"\"Minerals Colored by Metal Ions\". minerals.gps.caltech.edu. Retrieved 2023-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu/color_causes/Metal_Ion/index.html","url_text":"\"Minerals Colored by Metal Ions\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","external_links_name":"\"IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols\""},{"Link":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021MinM...85..291W","external_links_name":"2021MinM...85..291W"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1180%2Fmgm.2021.43","external_links_name":"10.1180/mgm.2021.43"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:235729616","external_links_name":"235729616"},{"Link":"http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/rhodonite.pdf","external_links_name":"Handbook of Mineralogy"},{"Link":"http://www.mindat.org/min-3407.html","external_links_name":"Rhodonite"},{"Link":"http://webmineral.com/data/Rhodonite.shtml","external_links_name":"Rhodonite"},{"Link":"http://minerals.gps.caltech.edu/color_causes/Metal_Ion/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Minerals Colored by Metal Ions\""},{"Link":"http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/2-15.htm","external_links_name":"General Laws of Massachusetts, Chapter 2, Section 15"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081123054240/http://www.mass.gov/legis/laws/mgl/2-15.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_II_of_Le%C3%B3n	Ferdinand II of León	["1 Life","1.1 Family","1.2 Childhood and early years","1.3 Beginning of reign and first marriage with Urraca of Portugal","1.4 The war against the Kingdom of Castile (1162–1166)","1.5 Conquest of Badajoz and war with the Kingdom of Portugal","1.6 Second marriage with Teresa Fernández de Traba","1.7 War with the Kingdom of Castile and conference of Tordesillas (1178–1180)","1.8 Ordination of the territory","1.9 Last years – third marriage with Urraca López de Haro","1.10 Death and burial","2 Issue","3 Notes","4 References","5 References","6 Further reading"]	King of León and Galicia from 1157 to 1188 Ferdinand IIFerdinand II in miniature of the Tumbo A of Santiago de Compostela CathedralKing of León and GaliciaReign21 August 1157 – 22 January 1188PredecessorAlfonso VIISuccessorAlfonso IXBornc. 1137Died22 January 1188 (aged 50–51)BenaventeBurialCathedral of Santiago de CompostelaSpouses Urraca of Portugal (m. 1165; ann. 1175) Teresa Fernández de Traba(m. 1177/78; died 1180) Urraca López de Haro (m. 1187) Issueamong others...Alfonso IXHouseCastilian House of IvreaFatherAlfonso VII of León and CastileMotherBerenguela of Barcelona Ferdinand II (c. 1137 – 22 January 1188), was a member of the Castilian cadet branch of the House of Ivrea and King of León and Galicia from 1157 until his death. Life Family Born in Toledo, Castile, Ferdinand was the third but second surviving son of King Alfonso VII of León and Castile and Berenguela of Barcelona. His paternal grandparents were Count Raymond of Burgundy and Queen Urraca of León and his maternal grandparents were Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, and Douce I, Countess of Provence. He had seven full-siblings, of whom only three survived infancy: the later King Sancho III of Castile, Constance (wife of King Louis VII of France) and Sancha (wife of King Sancho VI of Navarre), and two half-siblings from his father's second marriage with Richeza of Poland, of whom only survive Sancha (wife of King Alfonso II of Aragon). Childhood and early years Sancho III of Castile and Ferdinand II of León and Galicia, from a Privilegium Imperatoris of Alfonso VII of León and Castile Ferdinand's education was entrusted to a Galician magnate, Count Fernando Pérez de Traba, member of the same lineage as the former knights of his grandmother, Queen Urraca, and of the tutors and defenders of his father, King Alfonso VII. Soon he was initiated into the tasks of government. From 1151 he is associated with the throne by his father, along with his older brother Infante Sancho, so in documents from León and Galicia his confirmation with the title of King, or King of Galicia, is common. He was surrounded from the beginning by the Leonese and Galician magnates, such as the Counts Ponce de Minerva, Ramiro Froilaz, Pedro Alfonso and the aforementioned Fernando Pérez de Traba. In a council begun in Valladolid in the year 1155, were agreed the terms of the division of the domains of the still-living King Alfonso VII. There the Kingdoms of León and Galicia were assigned under Ferdinand's sovereignty, excluding Tierra de Campos, Sahagún and Asturias de Santillana. Ferdinand earned the reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display political talent or organising ability. Beginning of reign and first marriage with Urraca of Portugal In 1157 his father, King Alfonso VII died, and according of his will and the previous dispositions of the council of Valladolid of 1155, his second son inherited the Kingdoms of León and Galicia under the name of Ferdinand II; during the early months of his reign, the new monarch had to resolve his disputes with the powerful local nobles and an invasion by his brother Sancho III of Castile. In 1158 Ferdinand II signed the Treaty of Sahagún with his brother Sancho III, under which they agreed to jointly wage war against the Muslims, to divide up the conquered territories, the provision that in case one of the two brothers died without issue, the survivor would inherit the domains of the deceased brother, and the partition of the Kingdom of Portugal. The death of his brother Sancho III in the same year and the succession of his infant son Alfonso VIII, annulled the clauses of the Treaty of Sahagún. During the minority of age of his nephew Alfonso VIII, in the Kingdom of Castile began the dispute between the Houses of Lara and Castro to exercise the regency on behalf of the child king. Taking advantage of the anarchic state in which the kingdom of his late brother was found, Ferdinand II invaded Castile at the head of an army, and demanded, in order to restore order, that the Lara surrender him to his nephew Alfonso VIII, whose education he wished to take charge of. In March 1160 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, commanding the forces of the House of Castro, defeated the Lara supporters in the Battle of Lobregal, in which his father-in-law Count Osorio Martínez lost his life, and Nuño Pérez de Lara was captured. That same year, Ferdinand II was cured of a serious illness supposedly through the intercession of Saints Martin of Tours and Eufemia of Orense. In 1162 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro was appointed Majordomo mayor of Ferdinand II, a position he held twice: firstly from 15 August 1162 until his dismissal on 6 September 1164 and secondly from 19 October 1165 until 15 May 1166. The boundary troubles with Castile restarted in 1164: he then met at Soria with the Lara family, who represented Alfonso VIII, and a truce was established, allowing him to move against the Muslim Almoravids who still held much of southern Spain, and to capture the cities of Alcántara and Alburquerque. In the same year, Ferdinand II defeated King Afonso I of Portugal, who, in 1163, had occupied Salamanca in retaliation for the repopulation of the area ordered by the King of León. In May/June 1165 Ferdinand II married with Infanta Urraca of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso I, as a gesture of reconciliation and alliance between the Kingdoms of León and Portugal. At that time, he restored and repopulated the cities of Ledesma and Ciudad Rodrigo, and this caused the inhabitants of Salamanca who, apparently, had bought the city of Ledesma, took up arms against the king and the magistrates of Ledesma; when Ferdinand II learned of it, he marched with his army against the rebels and forced them to return to their city. The war against the Kingdom of Castile (1162–1166) Ferdinand II in miniature of the Tombo de Toxos Outos In 1162, Ferdinand II conquered the city of Toledo, snatching it from the Castilians, and subsequently naming Fernando Rodríguez de Castro as Governor of the city. The city of Toledo remained in the power of the Kingdom of León until 1166, when it was recovered by the Castilians. On 27 September 1162, Ferdinand II signed an agreement, known as the Treaty of Ágreda, with Alfonso II of Aragon. In 1164 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro entered the Kingdom of Castile for the second time with an army and defeated Count Manrique Pérez de Lara at the Battle of Huete, fought in June or July of that year. Four years later he was appointed Mayor of León, being his duty to control and be in command of the existing fortresses in the city, until the year 1182, when he left the office. Ferdinand II and the members of the House of Lara met in Soria and agreed that, to defend the city of Toledo from the Saracens, they would hand over to the Knights Templar the city of Uclés, located in the current Province of Cuenca, and which would later become the headquarters of the Order of Santiago. The King of León, fearful that the members of the House of Lara would break the agreed peace, allied himself with King Sancho VI of Navarre to intimidate them and, in this way, be able to direct his troops against the Almohads, from whom he snatched the cities of Alcántara and Albuquerque. Conquest of Badajoz and war with the Kingdom of Portugal Despite Ferdinand II's marriage to Infanta Urraca of Portugal, the disputes with the Lusitan kingdom continued. Between 1166 and 1168 King Afonso I of Portugal seized cities belonging to the Leonese kingdom. Ferdinand II then repopulated Ciudad Rodrigo, and the Portuguese monarch, suspecting that his son-in-law was fortifying it with the purpose of attacking him in the future, sent an army commanded by his son and heir, Infante Sancho of Portugal, against that city. The King of León came to the aid of the besieged Ciudad Rodrigo and, in a meeting he had with the Portuguese troops, put them to flight, capturing many prisoners. Afonso I then invaded Galicia, occupying Tui and the territory of Xinzo de Limia (former fiefs of his mother), and in 1169 attacked the city of Cáceres. However, as his troops were also besieging the city of Badajoz, which was in the power of the Saracens, Ferdinand II was able to push the Portuguese out of Galicia and to rush to Badajoz. When Afonso I saw the Leonese arrive he tried to flee, but he was disabled by a broken leg caused by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner at one of the city's gates. Afonso I was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests he had made in Galicia in the previous year. In the peace signed at Pontevedra the following year, Ferdinand II got back twenty-five castles, and the cities of Cáceres, Badajoz, Trujillo, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Montánchez, previously lost by León. When in the same years the Almoravids laid siege to the Portuguese city of Santarém, Ferdinand II came to help his father-in-law, and helped to free the city from the menace. At the beginning of the summer of 1169, Geraldo Geraldes Sem Pavor ("without fear"), of the kingdom of Portugal, took the city of Badajoz after a long siege, but the governor of the city took refuge in the Alcazaba of Badajoz, and the siege had to continue. Seeing the opportunity presented to him to add the main city of the region to his dominions at the expense of his Christian and Muslim enemies, Afonso I of Portugal an army to Badajoz in order to replace Gerardo Sem Pavor as conductor of the siege. Rota of Ferdinand II The city of Trujillo became the head of the domains assembled by Fernando Rodríguez de Castro. This provoked the opposition of Ferdinand II, who argued that Badajoz belonged to him. The King of León then headed south at the head of an army, at the request of the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, who had already sent a contingent of 5,000 knights to help his besieged governor. Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, as the monarch's Majordomo, was one of the Leonese leaders of the expedition. The Portuguese who besieged the Alcazaba of Badajoz, were then besieged by the Leonese, fighting broke out in the streets of the city. While trying to escape, Afonso I of Portugal was captured by the men of Ferdinand II, after breaking his leg. At the same time, Leonese monarch captured Gerardo Sem Pavor. After the capture of the city and the Alcazaba of Badajoz by the Leonese, the latter left the city in the hands of their Muslim allies. Gerardo Sem Pavor had to surrender several of the towns he had conquered to the Kingdom of León, in exchange for his freedom. Ferdinand II kept the city of Cáceres, but the towns of Trujillo, Montánchez, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Monfragüe became the property of Fernando Rodríguez de Castro. After this donation, Fernando Rodríguez de Castro became the lord of a semi-independent principality located between the Tagus and Guadiana rivers, whose headquarters were in the city of Trujillo. Alfonso VIII realized the strategic importance of the fortresses granted to the Castilian, with a view to a future repopulation, since the fortresses were in the area that according to the Treaty of Sahagún of 1158 belonged to the area of influence of the Kingdom of Castile. Defeated by Afonso I of Portugal, the Muslims attacked the Kingdom of León in 1173, trying to seize Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ferdinand II, who had knowledge of his purposes, entrenched himself in the city of Salamanca with the troops he was able to gather in León, in Zamora, in various places in Galicia and in other parts of the kingdom, at the same time giving order to the rest of his army to meet him asap. The Muslims were defeated and only those who fled could keep their freedom. In 1170, Ferdinand II created the military-religious Order of Santiago de Compostela, with the task to protect the city of Cáceres. Like the Order of Alcántara, it initially began as a knightly confraternity and took the name "Santiago" (St. James) after St. James the apostle, with the purpose to protect the pilgrims who visited the tomb of the Apostle Santiago. Second marriage with Teresa Fernández de Traba In 1175, Pope Alexander III annulled the marriage of Ferdinand II and Urraca of Portugal because they were related in the prohibited third degree of consanguinity as being second cousins (their grandmothers, Queen Urraca of León and Countess Teresa of Portugal were half-sisters), despite the fact that the Queen gave birth a son and heir, Infante Alfonso, in 1171. The gold of Castile and England countered the one that Leon offered to Rome to obtain the Papal dispensation for the marriage, since its validity supposed de facto the alliance of Portugal and León, which did not interest neither Castile nor to England, who had family ties to each other after Alfonso VIII was married to Eleanor, daughter of King Henry II of England. After August 1177 and certainly before 7 October 1178, Ferdinand II married with Teresa Fernández de Traba, the illegitimate daughter of Count Fernando Pérez de Traba (the king's former tutor) and Countess Teresa of Portugal, and widow of Count Nuño Pérez de Lara; with this marriage, the king cemented his alliance with the powerful Houses of Lara and Traba —although just like his first marriage, Ferdinand II was also closely related with his new wife in not only a prohibited degree of consanguinity but also of affinity (they were not only 1st cousins once removed but also Teresa Fernández de Traba was aunt of Urraca of Portugal), apparently there wasn't any questioning or impediment for this new wedding of the Leonese monarch. War with the Kingdom of Castile and conference of Tordesillas (1178–1180) In 1178 Ferdinand II invaded the Kingdom of Castile. He seized the municipalities of Castrojeriz and Dueñas (both formerly lands of Teresa Fernández de Traba's first husband) before Alfonso VIII could have put these fortresses on alert, while the Castilian sovereign allied himself with Afonso I of Portugal, who sent his son, Infante Sancho, to fight against the King of León. In 1180 the Kings of León and Castile met in the town of Tordesillas, where they agreed to put an end to their differences, sealing a peace agreement. On 6 February of that year, Ferdinand II's second wife Teresa Fernández de Traba died giving birth to their second son, who died at the same time as his mother and was buried together with her in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León. Ordination of the territory Fuero of Ribadavia Ferdinand II granted cartas forales to numerous cities and towns; in 1164, to Padrón and Ribadavia; in 1168, to Noia; in 1169 to Castro Caldelas and to the city of Pontevedra; in 1170 to Tui and in 1177 to Lugo. It also favored numerous monasteries, such as those of Sobrado, Melón, Armenteira, Moraime and San Martín de Xubia. It also benefited the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, granting a life pension to Master Mateo. During his reign the Order of Santiago was founded and Pope Alexander III granted the grace of the Jacobean jubilee holy year (Bula Regis Aeterni, 1181). This privilege granted to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral favored the heyday of pilgrimages, while promoting the economic, cultural and artistic development of the territories crossed by the Camino de Santiago. Last years – third marriage with Urraca López de Haro In 1184, after a series of failed attempts, the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf invaded Portugal with an army recruited in Northern Africa and, in May, besieged Afonso I in Santarém; the Portuguese were helped by the arrival of the armies sent by the archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, in June, and by Ferdinand II in July. In May 1187 Ferdinand II married with Urraca López de Haro, daughter of Lope Díaz I de Haro, Lord of Biscay, and widow of Nuño Menéndez, Lord of Ceón and Riaño, who was had been his mistress from at least May 1180. On occasion of the wedding, the king granted his new wife the Lordships of Aguilar and Monteagudo. The new queen, who was aware that the end of her husband's life was approaching, wanted to elevate her only surviving son, Infante Sancho, to the throne of León, in detriment of the Infante Alfonso, Ferdinand II's first-born son. To achieve her purpose, Urraca López de Haro maintained that the birth of Infante Alfonso was illegitimate, since the marriage of his parents had been annulled due to the existing blood ties between both spouses. Ferdinand II then banished Infante Alfonso, which was a triumph for his stepmother, who made an effort to ensure that her son inherited the throne upon the death of his father. Death and burial Ferdinand II died at Benavente on 22 January 1188 aged 51, while returning from a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, and was succeeded to the throne by his eldest son, Alfonso IX of León. The Primera Crónica General describes the death of the King of León as follows: And this King Ferdinand of León, son of the Emperor and brother of King Sancho de Castile, finished already with good progress in the XXI year of his reign in his kingdom, near the town of Benavente: and they buried him in the church of Sant Yague de Gallizia , near his grandfather Count Raymund who lies and, near the Empress Berengaria his mother...This was made by the heir of Leon Infante Alfonso, son of King Ferdinand and Queen Urraca, daughter of King Afonso of Portugal. Sepulcher of Ferdinand II in the Chapel of the Relics at Santiago de Compostela Cathedral Contravening his wishes to be buried at Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, Ferdinand II was buried somewhere, possibly in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León, since his widow, Queen Urraca, did not want to transfer the mortal remains to Santiago of Compostela, since its Archbishop, Pedro Suárez de Deza, was a supporter of King Alfonso IX. Later, his remains were transferred by order of his son Alfonso IX to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in which Ferdinand II had stated that he wanted to be buried, since there where buried his mother Queen Berengaria of Barcelona and his grandfather Count Raymond of Burgundy, and, therefore, in a document granted in the city of Benavente on 26 July 1180, confirmed to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral the donations that the sovereign had granted him previously, and that concerned the chaplaincy and the royal tombs of the cathedral, also ordering in said document that no one can build any castle in that territory. The transfer of the remains of Ferdinand II is mentioned in a diploma granted in Zamora by Alfonso IX dated 4 May 1188, which certifies that the royal remains were transferred to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral by order of his son, who wished to fulfill the last wishes of his father, and buried next to the remains of the Apostle Santiago with royal honors, while confirming in said document the privileges and exemptions granted to the cathedral by the soul of his deceased father, and his own. The tomb of Ferdinand II is located in the Chapel of the Relics of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, where the Royal Pantheon is located. On a smooth stone sepulcher is placed the recumbent statue that represents the late king, who appears dressed in a tunic and mantle, his forehead girded with a royal crown, and his head is represented with curly hair and a beard, with the right arm of the sovereign raised and placed at the height of his head, while his left hand rests on his chest. The recumbent statue representing Ferdinand II has been dated to the first half of the 13th century. It was carried out after the death of the king, who died in 1188, which has led to the conclusion that it should have been commissioned by the king's heir, Alfonso IX of León. Issue Ferdinand II and his first wife, Urraca of Portugal, had one son: Alfonso IX (15 August 1171 – 23/24 September 1230), who eventually succeeded him as King of León and Galicia Ferdinand II and his second wife, Teresa Fernández de Traba, had two sons: Ferdinand (1178–1187), who died in infancy and was buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León Sancho (born and died 6 February 1180), whose birth led to the death of his mother and also buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León Ferdinand II and his third wife, Urraca López de Haro, had three sons: García Fernández (1182–1184), died before the marriage of his parents, buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León Alfonso Fernández (1184–1188), legitimized through the subsequent marriage of his parents, died before his father and was also buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León Sancho Fernández (1186 – 25 August 1220), legitimized through the subsequent marriage of his parents, Lord of Monteagudo and Aguilar in succession to his mother, alférez mayor of his half-brother King Alfonso IX on 10 June 1213, and from 8 December 1213 to 16 July 1218, governor of Montenegro and Sarría during 1210–1219 Notes ^ The complete title was Rex Legionensis et Gallecie or Rex Legionensis et Galleciae (King of León and Galicia). He also used the titles of Regis Legionis (King of León), Rex Hispaniae (King of Spain), Rex Hispanorum (King of the Spanish) or Rex Hispaniarum (King of Spain). ^ "Tenente Gallicie rex Fernandus", 1152 (Colección diplomática de San Martín de Jubia (977–1199). Santiago, 1935); "Adefonsus Ymperator, una cum coniuge sua dona Riga dominante regnante in tota Yspania. Sancius rex in Castella. Fredenandus rex in Galicia. Urraka regina in Asturias", (Colección diplomática del monasterio de Villanueva de Oscos. Oviedo, 1981. doc. 5); "Imperatoris Adefonsus, regis Fernandi imperat Galletia.", 1155, ibid, doc. 6; "Adefonsus dei gratia hispaniarum imperator laudat et confirmat. Sanctius filius eius rex Castelle laudat et confirmat. Fernandus filius eius rex Galletie laudat et confirmat", 1155 (Documentos de la Catedral de Lugo). ^ The chronicler Ibn Ṣāḥib al-Ṣalā said that three years after this conquest, between 17 October 1167 and 4 October 1168, Gerardo Sem Pavor was forced to cede Trujillo to a certain Ferdinand, brother-in-law of Ferdinand "the Slimy" (referring to Ferdinand II of León), who was the brother-in-law of Fernando "the Castilian" (the nickname of Fernando Rodríguez de Castro), since the latter had married Stephanie Alfonso "the Unfortunate", half-sister of the King of León. The donation of the cities to Fernando Rodríguez de Castro is also recorded in various Christian sources, such as the Chronica latina regum castellae. The approximate date given by Ibn Ṣāḥib is in disagreement with that of 1169 or 1170, indicated by other sources. ^ «Alfonso VIII carefully observed the events of Badajoz and especially the delivery to "the Castilian" of the castles of Montánchez, Santa Cruz, Albalat and Zuferola.» ^ «Ferdinand II died in Benavente, on 22 January 1188; on 26 according to the ancient calendar of the church of León.» ^ «It is a work after the date of the king's death (1188). Surely his son Alfonso IX commissioned it around the year 1200, when he was in his early thirties.» References ^ Barton 1997, p. 13. ^ McDougall 2017, p. Figure 2. ^ Busk 1833, p. 31. ^ The Encyclopædia Britannica, Vol.9, Ed. Thomas Spencer Baynes, (Henry G. Allen and Company, 1888), p. 80. ^ a b Busk 1833, p. 32. ^ Espana Sagrada. Theatro geographico-historico de la iglesia de Espana. Origen, divisiones... (in Spanish). 1763. p. 225. ^ Barton 1992, p. 259. ^ a b Bishko 1975, p. 414. ^ Corrales Gaitán 2006, p. 194. ^ Bishko 1975, pp. 414–415. ^ Clemente Ramos 1994, pp. 649–650. ^ Hernández Jiménez 1967, p. 93. ^ Montaña Conchiña 1991–1992, p. 201. ^ a b Morton 2014, p. 39. ^ a b Arco y Garay 1954, p. 169. ^ Arco y Garay 1954, p. 171. ^ Arco y Garay 1954, pp. 169–170. ^ Elorza et al. 1990, p. 57. ^ Leese 1996, p. 47. ^ Gerli & Armistead 2003, p. 329. References Arco y Garay, Ricardo del (1954). Sepulcros de la Casa Real de Castilla (in Spanish). Madrid: Instituto Jerónimo Zurita. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. OCLC 11366237. Barton, Simon (1992). "Two Catalan magnates in the courts of the kings of León-Castile: the careers of Ponce de Cabrera and Ponce de Minerva re-examined". Journal of Medieval History. Vol. 18, no. 18. pp. 233–266. doi:10.1016/0304-4181(92)90022-Q. Barton, Simon (1997). The Aristocracy in Twelfth-century León and Castile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521497275. Bishko, Charles Julian (1975). Harry W. Hazard (ed.). A History of the Crusades. Madison (Wisconsin): University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-29906-6-703. Busk, Mary Margaret (1833). The Medieval Military Orders: 1120-1314. Baldwin and Cradock. Clemente Ramos, Julián (1994). La Extremadura musulmana (1142–1248): Organización defensiva y sociedad (in Spanish). Barcelona: CSIC: Institución Milá y Fontanals. Departamento de Esudios Medievales. pp. 647–702. ISSN 0066-5061. {{cite book}}: \|magazine= ignored (help) Corrales Gaitán, Alonso José Roman (2006). C.I.T. Trujillo (ed.). XXXV Coloquios Históricos de Extremadura (in Spanish). Trujillo. pp. 179–194. ISBN 978-84-690-7859-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) Elorza, Juan C.; Vaquero, Lourdes; Castillo, Belén; Negro, Marta (1990). Junta de Castilla y León. Consejería de Cultura y Bienestar Social (ed.). El Panteón Real de las Huelgas de Burgos. Los enterramientos de los reyes de León y de Castilla (in Spanish). Valladolid: Editorial Evergráficas S.A. ISBN 84-241-9999-5. Gerli, E. Michael; Armistead, Samuel G., eds. (2003). Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. ASIN B017WOHFKY. Hernández Jiménez, Félix (1967). "Caminos de Córdoba hacia el Noroeste en época musulmana". Al-Andalus: revista de las Escuelas de Estudios Árabes de Madrid y Granada (in Spanish). No. 32, Nº 1º. Granada: Instituto Miguel Asin. pp. 37–124. ISSN 0304-4335. Leese, Thelma Anna (1996). Blood royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066–1399: the Normans and Plantagenets. Heritage Books. ISBN 978-0-78840-525-9. McDougall, Sara (2017). Royal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800-1230. Oxford University Press. Montaña Conchiña, Juan Luis de la (1991–1992). "La Extremadura cristiana (1142–1230): el Poblamiento". Norba. Revista de historia (in Spanish). No. 11–12. Cáceres: Universidad de Extremadura: Servicio de Publicaciones. p. 201. ISSN 0213-375X. Morton, Nicholas (2014). The Medieval Military Orders: 1120–1314. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-31786-147-8. Pérez González, Maurilio (1997). Crónica del Emperador Alfonso VII (in Spanish). León: Universidad de León, Secretariado de Publicaciones. ISBN 84-7719-601-X. Further reading Szabolcs de Vajay, "From Alfonso VIII to Alfonso X" in Studies in Genealogy and Family History in Tribute to Charles Evans on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday, 1989, pp. 366–417. Ferdinand II of León Castilian House of IvreaCadet branch of the House of IvreaBorn: circa 1137 Died: 22 January 1188 Regnal titles Preceded byAlfonso VII King of León and Galicia 1157–1188 Succeeded byAlfonso IX vteMonarchs of LeónAstur-Leonese house Alfonso III García I Ordoño II Fruela II Alfonso Fróilaz Alfonso IV Ramiro II Ordoño III Sancho I Ordoño IV Sancho I Ramiro III Bermudo II Alfonso V Bermudo III House of Jiménez Ferdinand I Sancho II Alfonso VI Urraca House of Burgundy Alfonso VII Ferdinand II Alfonso IX Sancha & Dulce Ferdinand III Alfonso X Sancho IV Ferdinand IV Alfonso XI Peter House of Trastámara Henry II John I Henry III John II Henry IV Isabella I & Ferdinand V Joanna & Philip I House of Habsburg Charles I vteMonarchs of GaliciaSuebian kings Hermeric Rechila Rechiar Aioulf Maldras Framta Richimund Frumar Remismund Hermeneric Veremund Theodemund Chararic Ariamir Theodemar Miro Eboric Audeca Malaric Astur-Leonese dynasty Ordoño II Sancho I Bermudo II Alfonso V Bermudo III House of Jiménez García II Sancho II Alfonso VI Urraca House of Burgundy Alfonso VII Ferdinand II Alfonso IX Sancha & Dulce Ferdinand III Alfonso X Sancho IV Prince John Ferdinand IV Alfonso XI Peter Portuguese House of Burgundy Ferdinand I of Portugal House of LancasterJohn of GauntHouse of Trastámara Henry II John I Henry III John II Henry IV Isabella I & Ferdinand V Joanna & Philip I House of Habsburg Charles I Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data Germany Vatican People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Castilian cadet branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castilian_House_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"House of Ivrea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Ivrea"},{"link_name":"King of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Leonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Ferdinand II (c. 1137 – 22 January 1188), was a member of the Castilian cadet branch of the House of Ivrea and King of León and Galicia[a] from 1157 until his death.","title":"Ferdinand II of León"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VII of León and Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton199713-2"},{"link_name":"Berenguela of Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berenguela_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDougall2017Figure_2-3"},{"link_name":"Raymond of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Urraca of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramon_Berenguer_III,_Count_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Douce I, Countess of Provence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douce_I,_Countess_of_Provence"},{"link_name":"Sancho III of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Constance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Louis VII of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_VII_of_France"},{"link_name":"Sancha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancha_of_Castile,_Queen_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Sancho VI of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_VI_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Richeza of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richeza_of_Poland,_Queen_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Sancha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancha_of_Castile,_Queen_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Alfonso II of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_II_of_Aragon"}],"sub_title":"Family","text":"Born in Toledo, Castile, Ferdinand was the third but second surviving son of King Alfonso VII of León and Castile[1] and Berenguela of Barcelona.[2] His paternal grandparents were Count Raymond of Burgundy and Queen Urraca of León and his maternal grandparents were Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona, and Douce I, Countess of Provence. He had seven full-siblings, of whom only three survived infancy: the later King Sancho III of Castile, Constance (wife of King Louis VII of France) and Sancha (wife of King Sancho VI of Navarre), and two half-siblings from his father's second marriage with Richeza of Poland, of whom only survive Sancha (wife of King Alfonso II of Aragon).","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sancho_Ferda.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VII of León and Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"Fernando Pérez de Traba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_P%C3%A9rez_de_Traba"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ponce de Minerva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ponce_de_Minerva"},{"link_name":"Valladolid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valladolid"},{"link_name":"Tierra de Campos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tierra_de_Campos"},{"link_name":"Sahagún","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahag%C3%BAn"},{"link_name":"Asturias de Santillana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asturias_de_Santillana"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusk183331-5"},{"link_name":"knight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight"}],"sub_title":"Childhood and early years","text":"Sancho III of Castile and Ferdinand II of León and Galicia, from a Privilegium Imperatoris of Alfonso VII of León and CastileFerdinand's education was entrusted to a Galician magnate, Count Fernando Pérez de Traba, member of the same lineage as the former knights of his grandmother, Queen Urraca, and of the tutors and defenders of his father, King Alfonso VII. Soon he was initiated into the tasks of government. From 1151 he is associated with the throne by his father, along with his older brother Infante Sancho, so in documents from León and Galicia his confirmation with the title of King, or King of Galicia, is common.[b] He was surrounded from the beginning by the Leonese and Galician magnates, such as the Counts Ponce de Minerva, Ramiro Froilaz, Pedro Alfonso and the aforementioned Fernando Pérez de Traba.In a council begun in Valladolid in the year 1155, were agreed the terms of the division of the domains of the still-living King Alfonso VII. There the Kingdoms of León and Galicia were assigned under Ferdinand's sovereignty, excluding Tierra de Campos, Sahagún and Asturias de Santillana.[3] Ferdinand earned the reputation of a good knight and hard fighter, but did not display political talent or organising ability.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Sahagún","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Sahag%C3%BAn_(1158)"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VIII_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusk183332-7"},{"link_name":"Houses of Lara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lara"},{"link_name":"Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Castro"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBusk183332-7"},{"link_name":"Fernando Rodríguez de Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_Rodr%C3%ADguez_de_Castro"},{"link_name":"Battle of Lobregal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lobregal"},{"link_name":"Osorio Martínez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osorio_Mart%C3%ADnez"},{"link_name":"Nuño Pérez de Lara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_P%C3%A9rez_de_Lara"},{"link_name":"Martin of Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Majordomo mayor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majordomo"},{"link_name":"Almoravids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almoravid"},{"link_name":"Alcántara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alc%C3%A1ntara"},{"link_name":"Alburquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alburquerque,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Afonso I of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Salamanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanca"},{"link_name":"Urraca of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Ledesma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledesma,_Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ciudad Rodrigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo"},{"link_name":"Salamanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salamanca"}],"sub_title":"Beginning of reign and first marriage with Urraca of Portugal","text":"In 1157 his father, King Alfonso VII died, and according of his will and the previous dispositions of the council of Valladolid of 1155, his second son inherited the Kingdoms of León and Galicia under the name of Ferdinand II; during the early months of his reign, the new monarch had to resolve his disputes with the powerful local nobles and an invasion by his brother Sancho III of Castile.[4] In 1158 Ferdinand II signed the Treaty of Sahagún with his brother Sancho III, under which they agreed to jointly wage war against the Muslims, to divide up the conquered territories, the provision that in case one of the two brothers died without issue, the survivor would inherit the domains of the deceased brother, and the partition of the Kingdom of Portugal. The death of his brother Sancho III in the same year and the succession of his infant son Alfonso VIII, annulled the clauses of the Treaty of Sahagún.[5]During the minority of age of his nephew Alfonso VIII, in the Kingdom of Castile began the dispute between the Houses of Lara and Castro to exercise the regency on behalf of the child king. Taking advantage of the anarchic state in which the kingdom of his late brother was found, Ferdinand II invaded Castile at the head of an army,[5] and demanded, in order to restore order, that the Lara surrender him to his nephew Alfonso VIII, whose education he wished to take charge of.In March 1160 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, commanding the forces of the House of Castro, defeated the Lara supporters in the Battle of Lobregal, in which his father-in-law Count Osorio Martínez lost his life, and Nuño Pérez de Lara was captured. That same year, Ferdinand II was cured of a serious illness supposedly through the intercession of Saints Martin of Tours and Eufemia of Orense.[6] In 1162 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro was appointed Majordomo mayor of Ferdinand II, a position he held twice: firstly from 15 August 1162 until his dismissal on 6 September 1164 and secondly from 19 October 1165 until 15 May 1166.The boundary troubles with Castile restarted in 1164: he then met at Soria with the Lara family, who represented Alfonso VIII, and a truce was established, allowing him to move against the Muslim Almoravids who still held much of southern Spain, and to capture the cities of Alcántara and Alburquerque. In the same year, Ferdinand II defeated King Afonso I of Portugal, who, in 1163, had occupied Salamanca in retaliation for the repopulation of the area ordered by the King of León.In May/June 1165 Ferdinand II married with Infanta Urraca of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso I, as a gesture of reconciliation and alliance between the Kingdoms of León and Portugal. At that time, he restored and repopulated the cities of Ledesma and Ciudad Rodrigo, and this caused the inhabitants of Salamanca who, apparently, had bought the city of Ledesma, took up arms against the king and the magistrates of Ledesma; when Ferdinand II learned of it, he marched with his army against the rebels and forced them to return to their city.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferda2.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tombo de Toxos Outos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tombo_de_Toxos_Outos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"gl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tombo_de_Toxos_Outos"},{"link_name":"Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo,_Spain"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1992259-9"},{"link_name":"Alfonso II of Aragon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_II_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Manrique Pérez de Lara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manrique_P%C3%A9rez_de_Lara"},{"link_name":"Battle of Huete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Huete"},{"link_name":"Soria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soria"},{"link_name":"Knights Templar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knights_Templar"},{"link_name":"Uclés","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ucl%C3%A9s"},{"link_name":"Province of Cuenca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Cuenca"},{"link_name":"Order of Santiago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Santiago"},{"link_name":"Sancho VI of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_VI_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Almohads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate"},{"link_name":"Alcántara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alc%C3%A1ntara"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alburquerque,_Badajoz"}],"sub_title":"The war against the Kingdom of Castile (1162–1166)","text":"Ferdinand II in miniature of the Tombo de Toxos Outos [gl]In 1162, Ferdinand II conquered the city of Toledo, snatching it from the Castilians, and subsequently naming Fernando Rodríguez de Castro as Governor of the city. The city of Toledo remained in the power of the Kingdom of León until 1166, when it was recovered by the Castilians.[7] On 27 September 1162, Ferdinand II signed an agreement, known as the Treaty of Ágreda, with Alfonso II of Aragon.In 1164 Fernando Rodríguez de Castro entered the Kingdom of Castile for the second time with an army and defeated Count Manrique Pérez de Lara at the Battle of Huete, fought in June or July of that year. Four years later he was appointed Mayor of León, being his duty to control and be in command of the existing fortresses in the city, until the year 1182, when he left the office.Ferdinand II and the members of the House of Lara met in Soria and agreed that, to defend the city of Toledo from the Saracens, they would hand over to the Knights Templar the city of Uclés, located in the current Province of Cuenca, and which would later become the headquarters of the Order of Santiago. The King of León, fearful that the members of the House of Lara would break the agreed peace, allied himself with King Sancho VI of Navarre to intimidate them and, in this way, be able to direct his troops against the Almohads, from whom he snatched the cities of Alcántara and Albuquerque.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Afonso I of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afonso_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Ciudad Rodrigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciudad_Rodrigo"},{"link_name":"Sancho of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Tui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tui,_Galicia"},{"link_name":"Xinzo de Limia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinzo_de_Limia"},{"link_name":"Cáceres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%A1ceres,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Badajoz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badajoz"},{"link_name":"Saracens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saracens"},{"link_name":"Trujillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trujillo,_C%C3%A1ceres"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz de la Sierra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_de_la_Sierra,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Montánchez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont%C3%A1nchez"},{"link_name":"Santarém","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santar%C3%A9m,_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Geraldo Geraldes Sem Pavor (\"without fear\")","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_the_Fearless"},{"link_name":"Alcazaba of Badajoz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcazaba_of_Badajoz"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishko1975414-10"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seal_of_Ferdinand_II_of_Leon.svg"},{"link_name":"Abu Yaqub Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECorrales_Gait%C3%A1n2006194-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishko1975414-10"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Tagus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tagus"},{"link_name":"Guadiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guadiana"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Zamora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zamora,_Spain"},{"link_name":"Order of Santiago de Compostela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Santiago_de_Compostela"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton201439-18"},{"link_name":"Order of Alcántara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Alc%C3%A1ntara"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton201439-18"}],"sub_title":"Conquest of Badajoz and war with the Kingdom of Portugal","text":"Despite Ferdinand II's marriage to Infanta Urraca of Portugal, the disputes with the Lusitan kingdom continued. Between 1166 and 1168 King Afonso I of Portugal seized cities belonging to the Leonese kingdom. Ferdinand II then repopulated Ciudad Rodrigo, and the Portuguese monarch, suspecting that his son-in-law was fortifying it with the purpose of attacking him in the future, sent an army commanded by his son and heir, Infante Sancho of Portugal, against that city. The King of León came to the aid of the besieged Ciudad Rodrigo and, in a meeting he had with the Portuguese troops, put them to flight, capturing many prisoners. Afonso I then invaded Galicia, occupying Tui and the territory of Xinzo de Limia (former fiefs of his mother), and in 1169 attacked the city of Cáceres. However, as his troops were also besieging the city of Badajoz, which was in the power of the Saracens, Ferdinand II was able to push the Portuguese out of Galicia and to rush to Badajoz. When Afonso I saw the Leonese arrive he tried to flee, but he was disabled by a broken leg caused by a fall from his horse, and made prisoner at one of the city's gates. Afonso I was obliged to surrender as his ransom almost all the conquests he had made in Galicia in the previous year. In the peace signed at Pontevedra the following year, Ferdinand II got back twenty-five castles, and the cities of Cáceres, Badajoz, Trujillo, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Montánchez, previously lost by León. When in the same years the Almoravids laid siege to the Portuguese city of Santarém, Ferdinand II came to help his father-in-law, and helped to free the city from the menace.At the beginning of the summer of 1169, Geraldo Geraldes Sem Pavor (\"without fear\"), of the kingdom of Portugal, took the city of Badajoz after a long siege, but the governor of the city took refuge in the Alcazaba of Badajoz, and the siege had to continue.[8] Seeing the opportunity presented to him to add the main city of the region to his dominions at the expense of his Christian and Muslim enemies, Afonso I of Portugal an army to Badajoz in order to replace Gerardo Sem Pavor as conductor of the siege.Rota of Ferdinand IIThe city of Trujillo became the head of the domains assembled by Fernando Rodríguez de Castro. This provoked the opposition of Ferdinand II, who argued that Badajoz belonged to him. The King of León then headed south at the head of an army, at the request of the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, who had already sent a contingent of 5,000 knights to help his besieged governor.[9] Fernando Rodríguez de Castro, as the monarch's Majordomo, was one of the Leonese leaders of the expedition. The Portuguese who besieged the Alcazaba of Badajoz, were then besieged by the Leonese, fighting broke out in the streets of the city. While trying to escape, Afonso I of Portugal was captured by the men of Ferdinand II, after breaking his leg. At the same time, Leonese monarch captured Gerardo Sem Pavor. After the capture of the city and the Alcazaba of Badajoz by the Leonese, the latter left the city in the hands of their Muslim allies. Gerardo Sem Pavor had to surrender several of the towns he had conquered to the Kingdom of León, in exchange for his freedom.[8] Ferdinand II kept the city of Cáceres, but the towns of Trujillo, Montánchez, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Monfragüe became the property of Fernando Rodríguez de Castro.[c] After this donation, Fernando Rodríguez de Castro became the lord of a semi-independent principality located between the Tagus and Guadiana rivers, whose headquarters were in the city of Trujillo. Alfonso VIII realized the strategic importance of the fortresses granted to the Castilian, with a view to a future repopulation, since the fortresses were in the area that according to the Treaty of Sahagún of 1158 belonged to the area of influence of the Kingdom of Castile.[d] Defeated by Afonso I of Portugal, the Muslims attacked the Kingdom of León in 1173, trying to seize Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ferdinand II, who had knowledge of his purposes, entrenched himself in the city of Salamanca with the troops he was able to gather in León, in Zamora, in various places in Galicia and in other parts of the kingdom, at the same time giving order to the rest of his army to meet him asap. The Muslims were defeated and only those who fled could keep their freedom.In 1170, Ferdinand II created the military-religious Order of Santiago de Compostela, with the task to protect the city of Cáceres.[14] Like the Order of Alcántara, it initially began as a knightly confraternity and took the name \"Santiago\" (St. James) after St. James the apostle, with the purpose to protect the pilgrims who visited the tomb of the Apostle Santiago.[14]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pope Alexander III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_III"},{"link_name":"consanguinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consanguinity"},{"link_name":"second cousins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cousin"},{"link_name":"Urraca of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Teresa of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresa,_Countess_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Alfonso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Eleanor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleanor_of_England,_Queen_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Henry II of England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_England"},{"link_name":"Teresa Fernández de Traba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Traba"},{"link_name":"Fernando Pérez de Traba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernando_P%C3%A9rez_de_Traba"},{"link_name":"Nuño Pérez de Lara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nu%C3%B1o_P%C3%A9rez_de_Lara"},{"link_name":"Houses of Lara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lara"},{"link_name":"Traba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Traba"},{"link_name":"affinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affinity_(law)"}],"sub_title":"Second marriage with Teresa Fernández de Traba","text":"In 1175, Pope Alexander III annulled the marriage of Ferdinand II and Urraca of Portugal because they were related in the prohibited third degree of consanguinity as being second cousins (their grandmothers, Queen Urraca of León and Countess Teresa of Portugal were half-sisters), despite the fact that the Queen gave birth a son and heir, Infante Alfonso, in 1171. The gold of Castile and England countered the one that Leon offered to Rome to obtain the Papal dispensation for the marriage, since its validity supposed de facto the alliance of Portugal and León, which did not interest neither Castile nor to England, who had family ties to each other after Alfonso VIII was married to Eleanor, daughter of King Henry II of England.After August 1177 and certainly before 7 October 1178, Ferdinand II married with Teresa Fernández de Traba, the illegitimate daughter of Count Fernando Pérez de Traba (the king's former tutor) and Countess Teresa of Portugal, and widow of Count Nuño Pérez de Lara; with this marriage, the king cemented his alliance with the powerful Houses of Lara and Traba —although just like his first marriage, Ferdinand II was also closely related with his new wife in not only a prohibited degree of consanguinity but also of affinity (they were not only 1st cousins once removed but also Teresa Fernández de Traba was aunt of Urraca of Portugal), apparently there wasn't any questioning or impediment for this new wedding of the Leonese monarch.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Castrojeriz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castrojeriz"},{"link_name":"Dueñas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Due%C3%B1as,_Palencia"},{"link_name":"Tordesillas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tordesillas"},{"link_name":"Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Isidoro,_Le%C3%B3n"}],"sub_title":"War with the Kingdom of Castile and conference of Tordesillas (1178–1180)","text":"In 1178 Ferdinand II invaded the Kingdom of Castile. He seized the municipalities of Castrojeriz and Dueñas (both formerly lands of Teresa Fernández de Traba's first husband) before Alfonso VIII could have put these fortresses on alert, while the Castilian sovereign allied himself with Afonso I of Portugal, who sent his son, Infante Sancho, to fight against the King of León.In 1180 the Kings of León and Castile met in the town of Tordesillas, where they agreed to put an end to their differences, sealing a peace agreement. On 6 February of that year, Ferdinand II's second wife Teresa Fernández de Traba died giving birth to their second son, who died at the same time as his mother and was buried together with her in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Foro_de_Riba_d%27%C3%81via_outorgado_por_Fernando_II_de_Galiza_e_Leom_(Alhariz,_1164).jpg"},{"link_name":"cartas forales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuero"},{"link_name":"Padrón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padr%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ribadavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ribadavia"},{"link_name":"Noia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noia"},{"link_name":"Castro Caldelas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castro_Caldelas"},{"link_name":"Pontevedra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontevedra"},{"link_name":"Tui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tui,_Galicia"},{"link_name":"Lugo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugo"},{"link_name":"Sobrado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sobrado_Abbey"},{"link_name":"San Martín de Xubia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monastery_of_Xuvia"},{"link_name":"Santiago de Compostela Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Master Mateo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Mateo"},{"link_name":"Order of Santiago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Order_of_Santiago"},{"link_name":"Pope Alexander III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Alexander_III"},{"link_name":"jubilee holy year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jubilee_in_the_Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Camino de Santiago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camino_de_Santiago"}],"sub_title":"Ordination of the territory","text":"Fuero of RibadaviaFerdinand II granted cartas forales to numerous cities and towns; in 1164, to Padrón and Ribadavia; in 1168, to Noia; in 1169 to Castro Caldelas and to the city of Pontevedra; in 1170 to Tui and in 1177 to Lugo. It also favored numerous monasteries, such as those of Sobrado, Melón, Armenteira, Moraime and San Martín de Xubia. It also benefited the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, granting a life pension to Master Mateo. During his reign the Order of Santiago was founded and Pope Alexander III granted the grace of the Jacobean jubilee holy year (Bula Regis Aeterni, 1181). This privilege granted to the Santiago de Compostela Cathedral favored the heyday of pilgrimages, while promoting the economic, cultural and artistic development of the territories crossed by the Camino de Santiago.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Abu Yaqub Yusuf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Yaqub_Yusuf"},{"link_name":"archbishop of Santiago de Compostela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archbishop_of_Santiago_de_Compostela"},{"link_name":"Urraca López de Haro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_L%C3%B3pez_de_Haro"},{"link_name":"Lope Díaz I de Haro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lope_D%C3%ADaz_I_de_Haro"},{"link_name":"Lord of Biscay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_of_Biscay"}],"sub_title":"Last years – third marriage with Urraca López de Haro","text":"In 1184, after a series of failed attempts, the Almohad caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf invaded Portugal with an army recruited in Northern Africa and, in May, besieged Afonso I in Santarém; the Portuguese were helped by the arrival of the armies sent by the archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, in June, and by Ferdinand II in July.In May 1187 Ferdinand II married with Urraca López de Haro, daughter of Lope Díaz I de Haro, Lord of Biscay, and widow of Nuño Menéndez, Lord of Ceón and Riaño, who was had been his mistress from at least May 1180. On occasion of the wedding, the king granted his new wife the Lordships of Aguilar and Monteagudo. The new queen, who was aware that the end of her husband's life was approaching, wanted to elevate her only surviving son, Infante Sancho, to the throne of León, in detriment of the Infante Alfonso, Ferdinand II's first-born son. To achieve her purpose, Urraca López de Haro maintained that the birth of Infante Alfonso was illegitimate, since the marriage of his parents had been annulled due to the existing blood ties between both spouses. Ferdinand II then banished Infante Alfonso, which was a triumph for his stepmother, who made an effort to ensure that her son inherited the throne upon the death of his father.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Benavente","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benavente,_Zamora"},{"link_name":"pilgrimage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IX of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[e]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Primera Crónica General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estoria_de_Espa%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArco_y_Garay1954171-21"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fernando_II_of_Galicia_and_Le%C3%B3n.jpg"},{"link_name":"Santiago de Compostela Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Santiago de Compostela Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_de_Compostela_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Isidoro,_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Pedro Suárez de Deza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro_Su%C3%A1rez_de_Deza_(died_1206)"},{"link_name":"Berengaria of Barcelona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berengaria_of_Barcelona"},{"link_name":"Raymond of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Apostle Santiago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArco_y_Garay1954169%E2%80%93170-22"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElorzaVaqueroCastilloNegro199057-23"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IX of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"[f]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Death and burial","text":"Ferdinand II died at Benavente on 22 January 1188 aged 51, while returning from a pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela, and was succeeded to the throne by his eldest son, Alfonso IX of León.[e] The Primera Crónica General describes the death of the King of León as follows:And this King Ferdinand of León, son of the Emperor and brother of King Sancho de Castile, finished already with good progress in the XXI year of his reign in his kingdom, near the town of Benavente: and they buried him in the church of Sant Yague de Gallizia [Basilica of San Isidoro], near his grandfather Count Raymund who lies and, near the Empress Berengaria his mother...This was made by the heir of Leon Infante Alfonso, son of King Ferdinand and Queen Urraca, daughter of King Afonso of Portugal.[16]Sepulcher of Ferdinand II in the Chapel of the Relics at Santiago de Compostela CathedralContravening his wishes to be buried at Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, Ferdinand II was buried somewhere, possibly in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León, since his widow, Queen Urraca, did not want to transfer the mortal remains to Santiago of Compostela, since its Archbishop, Pedro Suárez de Deza, was a supporter of King Alfonso IX.Later, his remains were transferred by order of his son Alfonso IX to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, in which Ferdinand II had stated that he wanted to be buried, since there where buried his mother Queen Berengaria of Barcelona and his grandfather Count Raymond of Burgundy, and, therefore, in a document granted in the city of Benavente on 26 July 1180, confirmed to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral the donations that the sovereign had granted him previously, and that concerned the chaplaincy and the royal tombs of the cathedral, also ordering in said document that no one can build any castle in that territory.The transfer of the remains of Ferdinand II is mentioned in a diploma granted in Zamora by Alfonso IX dated 4 May 1188, which certifies that the royal remains were transferred to Santiago de Compostela Cathedral by order of his son, who wished to fulfill the last wishes of his father, and buried next to the remains of the Apostle Santiago with royal honors, while confirming in said document the privileges and exemptions granted to the cathedral by the soul of his deceased father, and his own.[17]The tomb of Ferdinand II is located in the Chapel of the Relics of Santiago de Compostela Cathedral, where the Royal Pantheon is located. On a smooth stone sepulcher is placed the recumbent statue that represents the late king, who appears dressed in a tunic and mantle, his forehead girded with a royal crown, and his head is represented with curly hair and a beard, with the right arm of the sovereign raised and placed at the height of his head, while his left hand rests on his chest.[18] The recumbent statue representing Ferdinand II has been dated to the first half of the 13th century. It was carried out after the death of the king, who died in 1188, which has led to the conclusion that it should have been commissioned by the king's heir, Alfonso IX of León.[f]","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Urraca of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX"},{"link_name":"King of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Galician_monarchs"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeese199647-25"},{"link_name":"Teresa Fernández de Traba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teresa_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_Traba"},{"link_name":"Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basilica_of_San_Isidoro,_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Urraca López de Haro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_L%C3%B3pez_de_Haro"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerliArmistead2003329-26"},{"link_name":"alférez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf%C3%A9rez"}],"text":"Ferdinand II and his first wife, Urraca of Portugal, had one son:Alfonso IX (15 August 1171 – 23/24 September 1230), who eventually succeeded him as King of León and Galicia[19]Ferdinand II and his second wife, Teresa Fernández de Traba, had two sons:Ferdinand (1178–1187), who died in infancy and was buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León\nSancho (born and died 6 February 1180), whose birth led to the death of his mother and also buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of LeónFerdinand II and his third wife, Urraca López de Haro, had three sons:[20]García Fernández (1182–1184), died before the marriage of his parents, buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León\nAlfonso Fernández (1184–1188), legitimized through the subsequent marriage of his parents, died before his father and was also buried in the Royal Pantheon of the Kings of San Isidoro of León\nSancho Fernández (1186 – 25 August 1220), legitimized through the subsequent marriage of his parents, Lord of Monteagudo and Aguilar in succession to his mother, alférez mayor of his half-brother King Alfonso IX on 10 June 1213, and from 8 December 1213 to 16 July 1218, governor of Montenegro and Sarría during 1210–1219","title":"Issue"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"Ibn Ṣāḥib al-Ṣalā","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_%E1%B9%A2%C4%81%E1%B8%A5ib_al-%E1%B9%A2al%C4%81"},{"link_name":"Stephanie Alfonso \"the Unfortunate\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Alfonso_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBishko1975414%E2%80%93415-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClemente_Ramos1994649%E2%80%93650-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHern%C3%A1ndez_Jim%C3%A9nez196793-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonta%C3%B1a_Conchi%C3%B1a1991%E2%80%931992201-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArco_y_Garay1954169-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-24"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArco_y_Garay1954169-19"}],"text":"^ The complete title was Rex Legionensis et Gallecie or Rex Legionensis et Galleciae (King of León and Galicia). He also used the titles of Regis Legionis (King of León), Rex Hispaniae (King of Spain), Rex Hispanorum (King of the Spanish) or Rex Hispaniarum (King of Spain).\n\n^ \"Tenente Gallicie rex Fernandus\", 1152 (Colección diplomática de San Martín de Jubia (977–1199). Santiago, 1935); \"Adefonsus Ymperator, una cum coniuge sua dona Riga dominante regnante in tota Yspania. Sancius rex in Castella. Fredenandus rex in Galicia. Urraka regina in Asturias\", (Colección diplomática del monasterio de Villanueva de Oscos. Oviedo, 1981. doc. 5); \"Imperatoris Adefonsus, regis Fernandi imperat Galletia.\", 1155, ibid, doc. 6; \"Adefonsus dei gratia hispaniarum imperator laudat et confirmat. Sanctius filius eius rex Castelle laudat et confirmat. Fernandus filius eius rex Galletie laudat et confirmat\", 1155 (Documentos de la Catedral de Lugo).\n\n^ The chronicler Ibn Ṣāḥib al-Ṣalā said that three years after this conquest, between 17 October 1167 and 4 October 1168, Gerardo Sem Pavor was forced to cede Trujillo to a certain Ferdinand, brother-in-law of Ferdinand \"the Slimy\" (referring to Ferdinand II of León), who was the brother-in-law of Fernando \"the Castilian\" (the nickname of Fernando Rodríguez de Castro), since the latter had married Stephanie Alfonso \"the Unfortunate\", half-sister of the King of León. The donation of the cities to Fernando Rodríguez de Castro is also recorded in various Christian sources, such as the Chronica latina regum castellae. The approximate date given by Ibn Ṣāḥib is in disagreement with that of 1169[10] or 1170, indicated by other sources.[11][12]\n\n^ «Alfonso VIII carefully observed the events of Badajoz and especially the delivery to \"the Castilian\" of the castles of Montánchez, Santa Cruz, Albalat and Zuferola.»[13]\n\n^ «Ferdinand II died in Benavente, on 22 January 1188; on 26 according to the ancient calendar of the church of León.»[15]\n\n^ «It is a work after the date of the king's death (1188). Surely his son Alfonso IX commissioned it around the year 1200, when he was in his early thirties.»[15]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Leonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Leonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Leonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Monarchs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Leonese_monarchs"},{"link_name":"León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Astur-Leonese house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astur-Leonese_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Alfonso III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_III_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"García I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_I_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ordoño II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordo%C3%B1o_II_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Fruela II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruela_II_of_Asturias"},{"link_name":"Alfonso Fróilaz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_Fr%C3%B3ilaz"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IV_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ramiro II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiro_II_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ordoño III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordo%C3%B1o_III_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancho I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ordoño IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordo%C3%B1o_IV_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancho I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ramiro III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramiro_III_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Bermudo II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermudo_II_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Alfonso V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Bermudo III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermudo_III_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Shield_of_Alfonso_IX_of_Leon.svg"},{"link_name":"House of Jiménez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%C3%A9nez_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancho II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_II_of_Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"Urraca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"House of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anscarids"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancha,_heiress_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Dulce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulce_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Alfonso X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Sancho IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Alfonso XI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XI_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"House of Trastámara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara"},{"link_name":"Henry II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"John I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Henry III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"John II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Henry IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Isabella I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Joanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Philip I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"House of Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Galician_monarchs"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Galician_monarchs"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Galician_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Monarchs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Galician_monarchs"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia"},{"link_name":"Suebian kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Suebi"},{"link_name":"Hermeric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeric"},{"link_name":"Rechila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechila"},{"link_name":"Rechiar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rechiar"},{"link_name":"Aioulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aioulf"},{"link_name":"Maldras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maldras"},{"link_name":"Framta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Framta"},{"link_name":"Richimund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richimund"},{"link_name":"Frumar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumar"},{"link_name":"Remismund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remismund"},{"link_name":"Hermeneric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermeneric"},{"link_name":"Veremund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veremund"},{"link_name":"Theodemund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodemund"},{"link_name":"Chararic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chararic_(Suebian_king)"},{"link_name":"Ariamir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ariamir"},{"link_name":"Theodemar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodemir_(Suebian_king)"},{"link_name":"Miro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miro_(Suebian_king)"},{"link_name":"Eboric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eboric"},{"link_name":"Audeca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audeca"},{"link_name":"Malaric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaric"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COA_Kingdom_of_Galice.svg"},{"link_name":"Astur-Leonese dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astur-Leonese_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Ordoño II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordo%C3%B1o_II_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancho I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_I_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Bermudo II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermudo_II_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Alfonso V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_V_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Bermudo III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bermudo_III_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"House of Jiménez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim%C3%A9nez_dynasty"},{"link_name":"García II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_II_of_Galicia"},{"link_name":"Sancho II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_II_of_Castile_and_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VI_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"Urraca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urraca_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"House of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anscarids"},{"link_name":"Alfonso VII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_VII_of_Le%C3%B3n_and_Castile"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Alfonso IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_IX_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Sancha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancha,_heiress_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Dulce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dulce_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Alfonso X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_X_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Sancho IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sancho_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Prince John","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Castile,_Lord_of_Valencia_de_Campos"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Alfonso XI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonso_XI_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Peter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Portuguese House of Burgundy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_House_of_Burgundy"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand I of Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_I_of_Portugal"},{"link_name":"House of Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"John of Gaunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_of_Gaunt"},{"link_name":"House of Trastámara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Trast%C3%A1mara"},{"link_name":"Henry II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_II_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"John I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Henry III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_III_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"John II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_II_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Henry IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_IV_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Isabella I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon"},{"link_name":"Joanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"Philip I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_I_of_Castile"},{"link_name":"House of Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Charles I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q316768#identifiers"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/192898432"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb144856885"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb144856885"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/118875213"},{"link_name":"Vatican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/216870"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Biographie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118875213.html?language=en"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/111815967"}],"text":"Szabolcs de Vajay, \"From Alfonso VIII to Alfonso X\" in Studies in Genealogy and Family History in Tribute to Charles Evans on the Occasion of his Eightieth Birthday, 1989, pp. 366–417.vteMonarchs of LeónAstur-Leonese house\nAlfonso III\nGarcía I\nOrdoño II\nFruela II\nAlfonso Fróilaz\nAlfonso IV\nRamiro II\nOrdoño III\nSancho I\nOrdoño IV\nSancho I\nRamiro III\nBermudo II\nAlfonso V\nBermudo III\nHouse of Jiménez\nFerdinand I\nSancho II\nAlfonso VI\nUrraca\nHouse of Burgundy\nAlfonso VII\nFerdinand II\nAlfonso IX\nSancha & Dulce\nFerdinand III\nAlfonso X\nSancho IV\nFerdinand IV\nAlfonso XI\nPeter\nHouse of Trastámara\nHenry II\nJohn I\nHenry III\nJohn II\nHenry IV\nIsabella I & Ferdinand V\nJoanna & Philip I\nHouse of Habsburg\nCharles IvteMonarchs of GaliciaSuebian kings\nHermeric\nRechila\nRechiar\nAioulf\nMaldras\nFramta\nRichimund\nFrumar\nRemismund\nHermeneric\nVeremund\nTheodemund\nChararic\nAriamir\nTheodemar\nMiro\nEboric\nAudeca\nMalaric\nAstur-Leonese dynasty\nOrdoño II\nSancho I\nBermudo II\nAlfonso V\nBermudo III\nHouse of Jiménez\nGarcía II\nSancho II\nAlfonso VI\nUrraca\nHouse of Burgundy\nAlfonso VII\nFerdinand II\nAlfonso IX\nSancha & Dulce\nFerdinand III\nAlfonso X\nSancho IV\nPrince John\nFerdinand IV\nAlfonso XI\nPeter\nPortuguese House of Burgundy\nFerdinand I of Portugal\nHouse of LancasterJohn of GauntHouse of Trastámara\nHenry II\nJohn I\nHenry III\nJohn II\nHenry IV\nIsabella I & Ferdinand V\nJoanna & Philip I\nHouse of Habsburg\nCharles IAuthority control databases International\nVIAF\nNational\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nVatican\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nOther\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Sancho III of Castile and Ferdinand II of León and Galicia, from a Privilegium Imperatoris of Alfonso VII of León and Castile","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Sancho_Ferda.jpg/220px-Sancho_Ferda.jpg"},{"image_text":"Ferdinand II in miniature of the Tombo de Toxos Outos [gl]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Ferda2.jpg/220px-Ferda2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Rota of Ferdinand II","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Seal_of_Ferdinand_II_of_Leon.svg/220px-Seal_of_Ferdinand_II_of_Leon.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Fuero of Ribadavia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Foro_de_Riba_d%27%C3%81via_outorgado_por_Fernando_II_de_Galiza_e_Leom_%28Alhariz%2C_1164%29.jpg/330px-Foro_de_Riba_d%27%C3%81via_outorgado_por_Fernando_II_de_Galiza_e_Leom_%28Alhariz%2C_1164%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sepulcher of Ferdinand II in the Chapel of the Relics at Santiago de Compostela Cathedral","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Fernando_II_of_Galicia_and_Le%C3%B3n.jpg/220px-Fernando_II_of_Galicia_and_Le%C3%B3n.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Espana Sagrada. Theatro geographico-historico de la iglesia de Espana. Origen, divisiones... (in Spanish). 1763. p. 225.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ld-le6Ss5-cC&q=Aportaciones+a+la+memoria+hist%C3%B3rica+de+Santa+Eufemia+en+Ourense&pg=PA224","url_text":"Espana Sagrada. Theatro geographico-historico de la iglesia de Espana. Origen, divisiones..."}]},{"reference":"Arco y Garay, Ricardo del (1954). Sepulcros de la Casa Real de Castilla (in Spanish). Madrid: Instituto Jerónimo Zurita. Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. OCLC 11366237.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11366237","url_text":"11366237"}]},{"reference":"Barton, Simon (1992). \"Two Catalan magnates in the courts of the kings of León-Castile: the careers of Ponce de Cabrera and Ponce de Minerva re-examined\". Journal of Medieval History. Vol. 18, no. 18. pp. 233–266. doi:10.1016/0304-4181(92)90022-Q.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0304-4181%2892%2990022-Q","url_text":"10.1016/0304-4181(92)90022-Q"}]},{"reference":"Barton, Simon (1997). The Aristocracy in Twelfth-century León and Castile. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521497275.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521497275","url_text":"9780521497275"}]},{"reference":"Bishko, Charles Julian (1975). Harry W. Hazard (ed.). A History of the Crusades. Madison (Wisconsin): University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-29906-6-703.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-29906-6-703","url_text":"978-0-29906-6-703"}]},{"reference":"Busk, Mary Margaret (1833). The Medieval Military Orders: 1120-1314. Baldwin and Cradock.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=atc8AAAAYAAJ","url_text":"The Medieval Military Orders: 1120-1314"}]},{"reference":"Clemente Ramos, Julián (1994). La Extremadura musulmana (1142–1248): Organización defensiva y sociedad (in Spanish). Barcelona: CSIC: Institución Milá y Fontanals. Departamento de Esudios Medievales. pp. 647–702. ISSN 0066-5061.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_National_Research_Council","url_text":"CSIC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0066-5061","url_text":"0066-5061"}]},{"reference":"Corrales Gaitán, Alonso José Roman (2006). C.I.T. Trujillo (ed.). XXXV Coloquios Históricos de Extremadura (in Spanish). Trujillo. pp. 179–194. ISBN 978-84-690-7859-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-690-7859-4","url_text":"978-84-690-7859-4"}]},{"reference":"Elorza, Juan C.; Vaquero, Lourdes; Castillo, Belén; Negro, Marta (1990). Junta de Castilla y León. Consejería de Cultura y Bienestar Social (ed.). El Panteón Real de las Huelgas de Burgos. Los enterramientos de los reyes de León y de Castilla (in Spanish). Valladolid: Editorial Evergráficas S.A. ISBN 84-241-9999-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-241-9999-5","url_text":"84-241-9999-5"}]},{"reference":"Gerli, E. Michael; Armistead, Samuel G., eds. (2003). Medieval Iberia: an encyclopedia. Taylor and Francis. ASIN B017WOHFKY.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASIN_(identifier)","url_text":"ASIN"},{"url":"https://www.amazon.com/dp/B017WOHFKY","url_text":"B017WOHFKY"}]},{"reference":"Hernández Jiménez, Félix (1967). \"Caminos de Córdoba hacia el Noroeste en época musulmana\". Al-Andalus: revista de las Escuelas de Estudios Árabes de Madrid y Granada (in Spanish). No. 32, Nº 1º. Granada: Instituto Miguel Asin. pp. 37–124. ISSN 0304-4335.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0304-4335","url_text":"0304-4335"}]},{"reference":"Leese, Thelma Anna (1996). Blood royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066–1399: the Normans and Plantagenets. Heritage Books. ISBN 978-0-78840-525-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=atc8AAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Blood royal: Issue of the Kings and Queens of Medieval England, 1066–1399: the Normans and Plantagenets"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-78840-525-9","url_text":"978-0-78840-525-9"}]},{"reference":"McDougall, Sara (2017). Royal Bastards: The Birth of Illegitimacy, 800-1230. Oxford University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Montaña Conchiña, Juan Luis de la (1991–1992). \"La Extremadura cristiana (1142–1230): el Poblamiento\". Norba. Revista de historia (in Spanish). No. 11–12. Cáceres: Universidad de Extremadura: Servicio de Publicaciones. p. 201. ISSN 0213-375X.","urls":[{"url":"http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=109866","url_text":"\"La Extremadura cristiana (1142–1230): el Poblamiento\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0213-375X","url_text":"0213-375X"}]},{"reference":"Morton, Nicholas (2014). The Medieval Military Orders: 1120–1314. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-31786-147-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=cm9_BAAAQBAJ&q=1170+ferdinand+II+of+Leon","url_text":"The Medieval Military Orders: 1120–1314"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-31786-147-8","url_text":"978-1-31786-147-8"}]},{"reference":"Pérez González, Maurilio (1997). Crónica del Emperador Alfonso VII (in Spanish). León: Universidad de León, Secretariado de Publicaciones. ISBN 84-7719-601-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/84-7719-601-X","url_text":"84-7719-601-X"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Ld-le6Ss5-cC&q=Aportaciones+a+la+memoria+hist%C3%B3rica+de+Santa+Eufemia+en+Ourense&pg=PA224","external_links_name":"Espana Sagrada. Theatro geographico-historico de la iglesia de Espana. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-303	Roland MC-303	["1 Features","2 Synthesizer/Sound Module","3 Sequencer","4 Criticisms","5 References","6 Further reading"]	Roland MC-303 grooveboxManufacturerRolandDates1996–1997Price£565 UK, $699 USTechnical specificationsPolyphony28-noteTimbrality8-part multitimbralLFOYesSynthesis typeSample-based synthesis (rompler)Storage memory448 preset sounds, 12 drum kitsEffectsreverb/delay, chorus/flangerInput/outputKeyboardNoExternal controlMIDI in/out The Roland MC-303 is the first of a series of musical instruments known as a groovebox. It combines a simple sound module with a sequencer to record and store notation, along with controls aimed at encouraging the musician to improvise the music while it is playing. Despite the number in its name and the attention it received at its launch, the MC-303 has more in common with other MC prefixed synthesizers (such as the Roland MC-202), which contain built-in sequencers, than it does with the famous Roland TB-303. As the first Groovebox, the MC-303 was the first in a line of inexpensive products specifically targeted towards house DJs and amateur home musicians rather than professional producers. It was superseded by the Roland MC-505. It is the predecessor to the Roland JX-305, Roland D2, Roland MC-307, Roland EG-101, Roland MC-09, Roland MC-909, Roland MC-808, and most recently the Roland MC-707 in 2019, along with its more portable sibling, the Roland MC-101. Features The key features of the MC-303 are: Sound generator with 28 note - voice polyphony based on the structure model of Roland JV-80 synthesizer 8-track sequencer containing multiple quantize functions: Grid, Shuffle, and Groove. (7 pitched instruments and 1 drum kit) 16-part multitimbral 448 preset sounds and 12 drum kits (includes the Roland CR-78, TR-808, TR-606 & TR-909, electro, techno, jungle, house, drum & bass, breakbeat), 40 synth basses (TB-303, etc.), 35 synth leads, 33 synth pads Resonant filter, LFO, envelope control and built-in effects: delay, reverb, flanger and chorus Realtime Phrase Sequencer (RPS) for instant recall of musical phrases Low Boost Knob feature (Back panel, Only on the Roland MC-303): allowing you to dial in as much low-end as it takes to create powerful Kick or TR-808 Bass sounds so that anyone can 'feel' the groove. 300 onboard dance music variation patterns such as drumbeats and basslines Recording length of up to 32 bars per pattern Instant storage of up to 50 user patterns, 300 pattern variations and 10 songs Storage space for up to approximately 14,000 notes MIDI in and out connections (but no MIDI thru) Synthesizer/Sound Module The synthesizer built into the Roland MC-303 is a rompler which contains sounds largely drawn from classic Roland synths and drum machines such as the TB-303, TR-808 and TR-909 along with the Juno series and various other dance themed sounds such as pads, pianos, strings and vinyl scratches. The sounds can be manipulated with a low-pass filter, various modulation capabilities and some simple DSP effects. It doesn't have a sampler, although the instruction book contains instructions for getting it to control an external sampler. Sequencer The most important part of the MC-303 is its built-in pattern based 8 track sequencer. Each pattern can contain up to 32 bars. It can record and send MIDI data via the MIDI jacks on the rear panel, enabling its internal sequencer to control other sound modules, or its internal sound module to be controlled by an external sequencer. Although communication with other devices is possible, the main advantage to the MC-303 with its small form factor and all-in-one design is the ability to use it as a self-contained studio, albeit an amateur one. Featuring a micro-keyboard that can also be used as a drum sequencer, the MC-303 imitates the handling as well as the look and feel of other famous Roland synthesizers and drum machines such as the MC-202, TB-303, TR-808 and TR-909. Criticisms One criticism made of the machine in various reviews, including the August 1996 issue of Sound on Sound magazine, was that the sound module was essentially limited to only playing built-in preset sounds, discouraging innovation. From a more technical perspective, a major concern was that any knob tweaks made during real time recording were not transmitted via MIDI. The number of preset patterns (mostly aimed for Trance and Techno music) outweighed the number of programmable user patterns which also discouraged innovation. Roland responded in part to these criticisms in its later grooveboxes by solving the MIDI problem, increasing the synthesis capabilities and user pattern storage and adding a sampler section. References ^ Derek Johnson; Debbie Poyser (August 1996). "Hip Replacement". SOS Publications Group. Retrieved 2009-01-31. Further reading "Roland MC-303". Future Music. No. 43. Future Publishing. May 1996. p. 24. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031. vteRoland CorporationSynthesizers Alpha Juno D-50 D-70 E-20 GR-1 GR-300 GR-500 JD-800 JD-XA JP-8000 Juno-60 Juno-106 Juno-D Juno-G Juno-Gi Jupiter-4 Jupiter-6 Jupiter-8 Jupiter-80 Jupiter-50 JX-3P JX-8P JX-10 JX-305 MC-202 RS-202 S-10 S-50 S-220 SH-01 Gaia SH-101 SH-201 SH-1000 SH-3A System 100 System-100M System 700 TB-303 U-20 Roland VK-7 Roland VK-8 V-Synth VP-330 XP-30 Electronic drums CR-78 DDR-30 HandSonic Octapad R-5 R-8 TR-606 TR-808 TR-909 TR-707 / TR-727 TR-505 V-Drums Keytars AX-7 AX-Synth AX-Edge Roland keytars Grooveboxes D2 MC-303 MC-307 MC-505 MC-808 MC-909 SP-808 Samplers DJ-70 MS-1 S-10 S-50 S-220 SP-202 SP-303 SP-404 SP-505 SP-555 SP-606 SP-808 Workstations Fantom-X W-30 XP-50 XP-80 SP-202 SP-303 SP-404 SP-505 SP-555 SP-606 SP-808 Sequencers MC-4 MC-8 MIDI interfaces MPU-401 Modules JD-990 JV-1080 JV-2080 MKS-80 MT-32 SC-55 SC-8850 U-110 U-220 Software Roland Cloud Amplifiers Jazz Chorus Effects units Space Echo Organs VK-7 VK-8 Boss effects DS-1 HM-2 Founder Ikutaro Kakehashi Other D-Beam Tadao Kikumoto Boss V-MODA	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"groovebox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groovebox"},{"link_name":"sequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-202"},{"link_name":"Roland TB-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TB-303"},{"link_name":"house DJs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disc_jockey"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-505","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-505"},{"link_name":"Roland JX-305","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JX-305"},{"link_name":"Roland D2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_D2"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-307","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-307"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-09","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-09"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-909"},{"link_name":"Roland MC-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-808"}],"text":"The Roland MC-303 is the first of a series of musical instruments known as a groovebox. It combines a simple sound module with a sequencer to record and store notation, along with controls aimed at encouraging the musician to improvise the music while it is playing. Despite the number in its name and the attention it received at its launch, the MC-303 has more in common with other MC prefixed synthesizers (such as the Roland MC-202), which contain built-in sequencers, than it does with the famous Roland TB-303. As the first Groovebox, the MC-303 was the first in a line of inexpensive products specifically targeted towards house DJs and amateur home musicians rather than professional producers. It was superseded by the Roland MC-505. It is the predecessor to the Roland JX-305, Roland D2, Roland MC-307, Roland EG-101, Roland MC-09, Roland MC-909, Roland MC-808, and most recently the Roland MC-707 in 2019, along with its more portable sibling, the Roland MC-101.","title":"Roland MC-303"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"note","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Musical_note"},{"link_name":"voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_synthesis"},{"link_name":"polyphony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyphony"},{"link_name":"Roland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"sequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"multitimbral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timbrality"},{"link_name":"preset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/preset"},{"link_name":"Roland CR-78","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_CR-78"},{"link_name":"TR-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TR-808"},{"link_name":"TR-606","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TR-606"},{"link_name":"TR-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TR-909"},{"link_name":"TR-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-808"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"}],"text":"The key features of the MC-303 are:Sound generator with 28 note - voice polyphony based on the structure model of Roland JV-80 synthesizer\n8-track sequencer containing multiple quantize functions: Grid, Shuffle, and Groove. (7 pitched instruments and 1 drum kit)\n16-part multitimbral\n448 preset sounds and 12 drum kits (includes the Roland CR-78, TR-808, TR-606 & TR-909, electro, techno, jungle, house, drum & bass, breakbeat), 40 synth basses (TB-303, etc.), 35 synth leads, 33 synth pads\nResonant filter, LFO, envelope control and built-in effects: delay, reverb, flanger and chorus\nRealtime Phrase Sequencer (RPS) for instant recall of musical phrases\nLow Boost Knob feature (Back panel, Only on the Roland MC-303): allowing you to dial in as much low-end as it takes to create powerful Kick or TR-808 Bass sounds so that anyone can 'feel' the groove.\n300 onboard dance music variation patterns such as drumbeats and basslines\nRecording length of up to 32 bars per pattern\nInstant storage of up to 50 user patterns, 300 pattern variations and 10 songs\nStorage space for up to approximately 14,000 notes\nMIDI in and out connections (but no MIDI thru)","title":"Features"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rompler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rompler"},{"link_name":"TB-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TB-303"},{"link_name":"TR-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-808"},{"link_name":"TR-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-909"},{"link_name":"Juno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Juno-106"},{"link_name":"low-pass filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter"},{"link_name":"DSP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_signal_processor"},{"link_name":"sampler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampler_(musical_instrument)"}],"text":"The synthesizer built into the Roland MC-303 is a rompler which contains sounds largely drawn from classic Roland synths and drum machines such as the TB-303, TR-808 and TR-909 along with the Juno series and various other dance themed sounds such as pads, pianos, strings and vinyl scratches. The sounds can be manipulated with a low-pass filter, various modulation capabilities and some simple DSP effects. It doesn't have a sampler, although the instruction book contains instructions for getting it to control an external sampler.","title":"Synthesizer/Sound Module"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sequencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"MIDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIDI"},{"link_name":"MC-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-202"},{"link_name":"TB-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TB-303"},{"link_name":"TR-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-808"},{"link_name":"TR-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-909"}],"text":"The most important part of the MC-303 is its built-in pattern based 8 track sequencer. Each pattern can contain up to 32 bars. It can record and send MIDI data via the MIDI jacks on the rear panel, enabling its internal sequencer to control other sound modules, or its internal sound module to be controlled by an external sequencer. Although communication with other devices is possible, the main advantage to the MC-303 with its small form factor and all-in-one design is the ability to use it as a self-contained studio, albeit an amateur one. Featuring a micro-keyboard that can also be used as a drum sequencer, the MC-303 imitates the handling as well as the look and feel of other famous Roland synthesizers and drum machines such as the MC-202, TB-303, TR-808 and TR-909.","title":"Sequencer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sound on Sound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_on_Sound"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"One criticism made of the machine in various reviews, including the August 1996 issue of Sound on Sound magazine,[1] was that the sound module was essentially limited to only playing built-in preset sounds, discouraging innovation. From a more technical perspective, a major concern was that any knob tweaks made during real time recording were not transmitted via MIDI. The number of preset patterns (mostly aimed for Trance and Techno music) outweighed the number of programmable user patterns which also discouraged innovation. Roland responded in part to these criticisms in its later grooveboxes by solving the MIDI problem, increasing the synthesis capabilities and user pattern storage and adding a sampler section.[citation needed]","title":"Criticisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Future Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Music"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0967-0378","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0967-0378"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1032779031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032779031"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Roland Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Alpha Juno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Alpha_Juno"},{"link_name":"D-50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_D-50"},{"link_name":"D-70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_D-70"},{"link_name":"E-20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_E-20"},{"link_name":"GR-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_GR-1"},{"link_name":"GR-300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_GR-300"},{"link_name":"GR-500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_GR-500"},{"link_name":"JD-800","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JD-800"},{"link_name":"JD-XA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JD-XA"},{"link_name":"JP-8000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JP-8000"},{"link_name":"Juno-60","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Juno-60"},{"link_name":"Juno-106","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Juno-106"},{"link_name":"Juno-D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno-D"},{"link_name":"Juno-G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Juno-G"},{"link_name":"Juno-Gi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juno-Gi"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jupiter-4"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jupiter-6"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jupiter-8"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jupiter-80"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jupiter-50"},{"link_name":"JX-3P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JX-3P"},{"link_name":"JX-8P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JX-8P"},{"link_name":"JX-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JX-10"},{"link_name":"JX-305","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JX-305"},{"link_name":"MC-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-202"},{"link_name":"RS-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_RS-202"},{"link_name":"S-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-10"},{"link_name":"S-50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-50"},{"link_name":"S-220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-220"},{"link_name":"SH-01 Gaia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SH-01_Gaia"},{"link_name":"SH-101","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SH-101"},{"link_name":"SH-201","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SH-201"},{"link_name":"SH-1000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SH-1000"},{"link_name":"SH-3A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SH-3A"},{"link_name":"System 100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_System_100"},{"link_name":"System-100M","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_System-100M"},{"link_name":"System 700","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_System_700"},{"link_name":"TB-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TB-303"},{"link_name":"U-20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_U-20"},{"link_name":"Roland VK-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_VK-7"},{"link_name":"Roland VK-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_VK-8"},{"link_name":"V-Synth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_V-Synth"},{"link_name":"VP-330","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_VP-330"},{"link_name":"XP-30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_XP-30"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roland_logo.svg"},{"link_name":"CR-78","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_CR-78"},{"link_name":"DDR-30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_DDR-30"},{"link_name":"HandSonic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_HandSonic"},{"link_name":"Octapad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Octapad"},{"link_name":"R-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_R-5"},{"link_name":"R-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_R-8"},{"link_name":"TR-606","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-606"},{"link_name":"TR-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-808"},{"link_name":"TR-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-909"},{"link_name":"TR-707 / TR-727","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-707"},{"link_name":"TR-505","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_TR-505"},{"link_name":"V-Drums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_V-Drums"},{"link_name":"AX-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_AX-7"},{"link_name":"AX-Synth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_AX-Synth"},{"link_name":"AX-Edge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_AX-Edge"},{"link_name":"Roland keytars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_keytars"},{"link_name":"D2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_D2"},{"link_name":"MC-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"MC-307","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-307"},{"link_name":"MC-505","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-505"},{"link_name":"MC-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-808"},{"link_name":"MC-909","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-909"},{"link_name":"SP-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SP-808"},{"link_name":"DJ-70","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_DJ-70"},{"link_name":"MS-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MS-1_Digital_Sampler"},{"link_name":"S-10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-10"},{"link_name":"S-50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-50"},{"link_name":"S-220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_S-220"},{"link_name":"SP-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-202"},{"link_name":"SP-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SP-303"},{"link_name":"SP-404","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-404"},{"link_name":"SP-505","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-505"},{"link_name":"SP-555","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-555"},{"link_name":"SP-606","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SP-606"},{"link_name":"SP-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-808"},{"link_name":"Fantom-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Fantom-X"},{"link_name":"W-30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_W-30"},{"link_name":"XP-50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_XP-50"},{"link_name":"XP-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_XP-80"},{"link_name":"SP-202","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-202"},{"link_name":"SP-303","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SP-303"},{"link_name":"SP-404","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-404"},{"link_name":"SP-505","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-505"},{"link_name":"SP-555","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-555"},{"link_name":"SP-606","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SP-606"},{"link_name":"SP-808","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SP-808"},{"link_name":"MC-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-4_Microcomposer"},{"link_name":"MC-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MC-8_Microcomposer"},{"link_name":"MPU-401","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPU-401"},{"link_name":"JD-990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JD-990"},{"link_name":"JV-1080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JV-1080"},{"link_name":"JV-2080","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_JV-2080"},{"link_name":"MKS-80","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MKS-80"},{"link_name":"MT-32","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_MT-32"},{"link_name":"SC-55","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SC-55"},{"link_name":"SC-8850","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_SC-8850"},{"link_name":"U-110","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_U-110"},{"link_name":"U-220","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_U-20#U-220"},{"link_name":"Roland Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Cloud"},{"link_name":"Jazz Chorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_Jazz_Chorus"},{"link_name":"Space Echo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_RE-201"},{"link_name":"VK-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_VK-7"},{"link_name":"VK-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roland_VK-8"},{"link_name":"DS-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_DS-1"},{"link_name":"HM-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_HM-2"},{"link_name":"Ikutaro Kakehashi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikutaro_Kakehashi"},{"link_name":"D-Beam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D-Beam"},{"link_name":"Tadao Kikumoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tadao_Kikumoto"},{"link_name":"Boss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boss_Corporation"},{"link_name":"V-MODA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-MODA"}],"text":"\"Roland MC-303\". Future Music. No. 43. Future Publishing. May 1996. p. 24. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031.vteRoland CorporationSynthesizers\nAlpha Juno\nD-50\nD-70\nE-20\nGR-1\nGR-300\nGR-500\nJD-800\nJD-XA\nJP-8000\nJuno-60\nJuno-106\nJuno-D\nJuno-G\nJuno-Gi\nJupiter-4\nJupiter-6\nJupiter-8\nJupiter-80\nJupiter-50\nJX-3P\nJX-8P\nJX-10\nJX-305\nMC-202\nRS-202\nS-10\nS-50\nS-220\nSH-01 Gaia\nSH-101\nSH-201\nSH-1000\nSH-3A\nSystem 100\nSystem-100M\nSystem 700\nTB-303\nU-20\nRoland VK-7\nRoland VK-8\nV-Synth\nVP-330\nXP-30\nElectronic drums\nCR-78 \nDDR-30 \nHandSonic\nOctapad\nR-5 \nR-8 \nTR-606\nTR-808 \nTR-909 \nTR-707 / TR-727\nTR-505\nV-Drums\nKeytars\nAX-7 \nAX-Synth \nAX-Edge\nRoland keytars \nGrooveboxes\nD2\nMC-303 \nMC-307\nMC-505\nMC-808\nMC-909\nSP-808\nSamplers\nDJ-70\nMS-1\nS-10\nS-50\nS-220\nSP-202\nSP-303\nSP-404\nSP-505\nSP-555\nSP-606\nSP-808\nWorkstations\nFantom-X\nW-30\nXP-50\nXP-80\nSP-202\nSP-303\nSP-404\nSP-505\nSP-555\nSP-606\nSP-808\nSequencers\nMC-4\nMC-8\nMIDI interfaces\nMPU-401\nModules\nJD-990\nJV-1080\nJV-2080\nMKS-80 \nMT-32 \nSC-55\nSC-8850\nU-110\nU-220\nSoftware\nRoland Cloud\nAmplifiers\nJazz Chorus\nEffects units\nSpace Echo\nOrgans\nVK-7 \nVK-8\nBoss effects\nDS-1\nHM-2\nFounder\nIkutaro Kakehashi\nOther\nD-Beam\nTadao Kikumoto\nBoss\nV-MODA","title":"Further reading"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Derek Johnson; Debbie Poyser (August 1996). \"Hip Replacement\". SOS Publications Group. Retrieved 2009-01-31.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/1996_articles/aug96/rolandmc303.html","url_text":"\"Hip Replacement\""}]},{"reference":"\"Roland MC-303\". Future Music. No. 43. Future Publishing. May 1996. p. 24. ISSN 0967-0378. OCLC 1032779031.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Future_Music","url_text":"Future Music"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0967-0378","url_text":"0967-0378"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032779031","url_text":"1032779031"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.soundonsound.com/sos/1996_articles/aug96/rolandmc303.html","external_links_name":"\"Hip Replacement\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0967-0378","external_links_name":"0967-0378"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032779031","external_links_name":"1032779031"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Philippe_Ronsin	Charles-Philippe Ronsin	["1 Life","2 Influences","3 Last days","4 Works","5 References"]	French revolutionary general Charles-Philippe Ronsin. Charles-Philippe Ronsin (French pronunciation: ; 1 December 1751 – 24 March 1794) was a French general of the Revolutionary Army of the First French Republic, commanding the large Parisian division of l'Armée Révolutionnaire. He was an extreme radical leader of the French Revolution, and one of the many followers of Jacques-René Hébert, known as the Hébertists. Life Born in 1751 in Soissons, Aisne, a city northeast of Paris, Ronsin was son of a master cooper or barrel maker. At the age of seventeen, Charles-Philippe Ronsin joined the Parisian army. By 1772 he left the army with the position of corporal and soon became a playwright and a tutor. In these years he met the artist Jacques-Louis David and they became good friends. Welcoming the Revolution, Ronsin became the Bourgeois Guard Captain in the district of Saint-Roch in 1789. He presented several patriotic pieces in some of the theatres in the capital between the years 1790 and 1792. It was in this period that Ronsin became a club orator and joined the club of the Cordeliers. Influences In August and September 1792, the Executive Council entrusted him three missions. In November, the minister of war, Pache, named him commissioner-organizer in Belgium to the army of Dumouriez. In this post, Ronsin denounced the acts of violence of the suppliers to the armed forces, who were protected by the general. Ronsin was named assistant of the minister of war of Bouchotte on 23 April 1793, without ever commanding a squadron. It is possible that Ronsin received that position thanks to his friendship with Chaumette and Hébert. In May, he left to Vendée, to help the provisioning armies. There was an incident in which Ronsin was upset that his plan for defeating the Vendeans was rejected, therefore, he decided to make sure that General Canclaux was defeated by the Vendeans, ensuring his own victory. He led his troops to Vihiers and Beaulieu and was eventually trapped at Coron. Because of Ronsin's decision the Vendeans took over Beaulieu and managed to convince the Committee to get rid of Canclaux. Ronsin's support among the Cordeliers and the ministry allowed him to cross the rank of captain to that of brigadier general in the army of the coasts of Rochelle. In September, 1793, he becomes chief general of the revolutionary army of Paris. Ronsin had a violent character and was very outspoken. He, however, proved to be a good leader. Ronsin was witty and clever when dealing with his different functions. However, thanks to his quick ascent and his character Ronsin acquired numerous enemies, particularly Pierre Philippeaux and Fabre d'Eglantine. Ronsin created a bill that was posted in Paris after his return from Lyon that stated that there were one hundred and forty thousand people living in Lyon, fifteen hundred of which had nothing to do with the rebellions. Ronsin stated that before the end of September, all of the people who were guilty would die. On 17 December Fabre d'Eglantine denounced Ronsin for being an ultra-revolutionist. Ronsin was arrested along with François-Nicolas Vincent, who was another member of the Cordeliers Club. Last days While in prison the Cordeliers wrote a petition in favor of both Vincent and Ronsin, stating that they were great patriots and that Ronsin should not be punished for attacking Dumouriez, Custine, and Brissot. Among those who were defending Ronsin was Collot d'Herbois, who was also part of the Committee. Collot d'Herbois defended Ronsin, saying that while fighting in the South along with all of the other patriots of the Revolution, Ronsin showed great determination in enforcing respect for the republic. With the help of Fouquier-Tinville, Ronsin was believed to be working on a military conspiracy to replace the revolutionary government with a military dictatorship. Fouquier-Tinville called him one of the "new Cromwell". Ronsin was finally arrested along with Hébert, Momoro, and Vincent. While in prison Ronsin is quoted with saying these words to his co-accused: "...you will be condemned. When you should have acted, you talked. Know how to die. For my part, I swear that you shall not see me flinch. Strive to do the same." Some of his final words before his death were, "Liberty undone!...because a few paltry fellows are about to perish! Liberty is immortal. Our enemies will fall in their turn, and liberty will survive them all!" On 24 March 1794, five carts full of condemned Hébertists were taken to the guillotine, Charles-Philippe Ronsin among them. Their death of was a sort of carnival, a pleasant spectacle according to Michelet's witnesses. Ronsin stayed true to his words in prison: as Thomas Carlyle relates the event, he alone among the Hébertists went to the scaffold with an "air of defiance", still maintaining a steely "eye of command". Within a week of his death, Ronsin's army (l'Armée Révolutionnaire de Paris) was disbanded. Works 1786 -Théatre de M. Ronsin, imprimé au profit de sa belle-mere. A Paris: De l'imprimerie Cailleau 1789 - La ligue aristocratique, ou, Les catilinaires françoises. Paris: Au Palais-Royal, de l'imprimerie de Josseran 1790 - Louis XII, Père du Peuple. Tragédie, dédiée a la Garde Nationale. A Paris, chez L. Potier de Lille 1792 - Discours prononcé par Ch. Ph. Ronsin, le samedi 18 août 1792, l'an 4ème. de la liberté et le premier de l'egalité, à la section du Théâtre François, dite de Marseille, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalite. A Paris: De l'imprimerie de Pougin 1792 - Grand discours fait par Ch.-Ph. Ronsin, l'an 4me. de la liberté, et le 1er. de l'égalité, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre, faite le 26 août 1792, au jardin des Tuileries, ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalité. Paris]: De l'imprimerie de Pougin 1793 - Arétaphile, ou, La révolution de Cyrene : tragédie, en cinq actes, en vers, faite en 1786. Représentée, pour la première fois, sur le théâtre de la rue de Louvois, le 23 juin 1792. A Paris, Chez Guillaume, junior References ^ The Oxford History of the French Revolution; William Doyle; Clarendon Press, 1989; p.252. \|"The Revolutionary Army was at last set on foot, and command of it went... to Ronsin, one of the fiercest allies of Hébert." ^ Doyle, 1989; p.270. \|"The trial took place on 21–4 March, its result a foregone conclusion. Among those who went to the scaffold with Père Duchesne on the afternoon of the twenty-fourth were Vincent, Ronsin, and the leader of section Marat, Momoro." ^ The French Revolution (Part III, The Guillotine), Thomas Carlyle; Scribner, NY, 1871; p.215. \|"General Ronsin too, he still looks forth with some air of defiance, eye of command: the rest are sunk in a stony paleness of despair." ^ Carlyle, 1871; p.216. \|"In the course of a week, the Revolutionary Army itself is disbanded." Adolphe Thiers, Frederic Shoberl, The History of the French Revolution (France,1866). Henri Martin, Abby Landgon Alger, A popular History of France from the First Revolution to the Present Time (France, 1877). Paul R. Hanson, Historical Dictionary of the French Revolution (Scarecrow Press, 2004). Albert Soboul (dir.), Dictionnaire historique de la Révolution française, Quadrige/PUF, 1989, article « Ronsin, Charles Philippe » de Raymonde Monnier Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Belgium Netherlands People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_Philippe_Ronsin.jpg"},{"link_name":"[ʃaʁl filip ʁɔ̃sɛ̃]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General"},{"link_name":"Revolutionary Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolutionary_Army"},{"link_name":"First French Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_French_Republic"},{"link_name":"French Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Jacques-René Hébert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Ren%C3%A9_H%C3%A9bert"},{"link_name":"Hébertists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Charles-Philippe Ronsin.Charles-Philippe Ronsin (French pronunciation: [ʃaʁl filip ʁɔ̃sɛ̃]; 1 December 1751 – 24 March 1794) was a French general of the Revolutionary Army of the First French Republic, commanding the large Parisian division of l'Armée Révolutionnaire. He was an extreme radical leader of the French Revolution, and one of the many followers of Jacques-René Hébert, known as the Hébertists.[1]","title":"Charles-Philippe Ronsin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soissons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soissons"},{"link_name":"Aisne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aisne"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Jacques-Louis David","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques-Louis_David"},{"link_name":"Bourgeois Guard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois_Guard"},{"link_name":"Cordeliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordeliers"}],"text":"Born in 1751 in Soissons, Aisne, a city northeast of Paris, Ronsin was son of a master cooper or barrel maker. At the age of seventeen, Charles-Philippe Ronsin joined the Parisian army. By 1772 he left the army with the position of corporal and soon became a playwright and a tutor. In these years he met the artist Jacques-Louis David and they became good friends.Welcoming the Revolution, Ronsin became the Bourgeois Guard Captain in the district of Saint-Roch in 1789. He presented several patriotic pieces in some of the theatres in the capital between the years 1790 and 1792. It was in this period that Ronsin became a club orator and joined the club of the Cordeliers.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dumouriez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumouriez"},{"link_name":"Chaumette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Gaspard_Chaumette"},{"link_name":"Hébert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert"},{"link_name":"Vendée","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vend%C3%A9e"},{"link_name":"Vendeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendeans"},{"link_name":"General Canclaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Camille_Canclaux"},{"link_name":"Vihiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vihiers"},{"link_name":"Beaulieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Beaulieu_(Saumur)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Coron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coron,_Maine-et-Loire"},{"link_name":"Vendeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendeans"},{"link_name":"Cordeliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordeliers"},{"link_name":"Pierre Philippeaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Philippeaux"},{"link_name":"Fabre d'Eglantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabre_d%27Eglantine"},{"link_name":"Fabre d'Eglantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabre_d%27Eglantine"},{"link_name":"François-Nicolas Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent"},{"link_name":"Cordeliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordeliers"}],"text":"In August and September 1792, the Executive Council entrusted him three missions. In November, the minister of war, Pache, named him commissioner-organizer in Belgium to the army of Dumouriez. In this post, Ronsin denounced the acts of violence of the suppliers to the armed forces, who were protected by the general.Ronsin was named assistant of the minister of war of Bouchotte on 23 April 1793, without ever commanding a squadron. It is possible that Ronsin received that position thanks to his friendship with Chaumette and Hébert. In May, he left to Vendée, to help the provisioning armies. There was an incident in which Ronsin was upset that his plan for defeating the Vendeans was rejected, therefore, he decided to make sure that General Canclaux was defeated by the Vendeans, ensuring his own victory. He led his troops to Vihiers and Beaulieu and was eventually trapped at Coron. Because of Ronsin's decision the Vendeans took over Beaulieu and managed to convince the Committee to get rid of Canclaux.Ronsin's support among the Cordeliers and the ministry allowed him to cross the rank of captain to that of brigadier general in the army of the coasts of Rochelle. In September, 1793, he becomes chief general of the revolutionary army of Paris. Ronsin had a violent character and was very outspoken. He, however, proved to be a good leader. Ronsin was witty and clever when dealing with his different functions. However, thanks to his quick ascent and his character Ronsin acquired numerous enemies, particularly Pierre Philippeaux and Fabre d'Eglantine.Ronsin created a bill that was posted in Paris after his return from Lyon that stated that there were one hundred and forty thousand people living in Lyon, fifteen hundred of which had nothing to do with the rebellions. Ronsin stated that before the end of September, all of the people who were guilty would die. On 17 December Fabre d'Eglantine denounced Ronsin for being an ultra-revolutionist. Ronsin was arrested along with François-Nicolas Vincent, who was another member of the Cordeliers Club.","title":"Influences"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cordeliers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordeliers"},{"link_name":"Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent"},{"link_name":"Dumouriez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dumouriez"},{"link_name":"Custine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Philippe,_Comte_de_Custine"},{"link_name":"Brissot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brissot"},{"link_name":"Collot d'Herbois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collot_d%27Herbois"},{"link_name":"Fouquier-Tinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouquier-Tinville"},{"link_name":"Fouquier-Tinville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouquier-Tinville"},{"link_name":"Hébert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_H%C3%A9bert"},{"link_name":"Momoro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine-Fran%C3%A7ois_Momoro"},{"link_name":"Vincent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois-Nicolas_Vincent"},{"link_name":"Hébertists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9bertists"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Michelet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Michelet"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"While in prison the Cordeliers wrote a petition in favor of both Vincent and Ronsin, stating that they were great patriots and that Ronsin should not be punished for attacking Dumouriez, Custine, and Brissot. Among those who were defending Ronsin was Collot d'Herbois, who was also part of the Committee. Collot d'Herbois defended Ronsin, saying that while fighting in the South along with all of the other patriots of the Revolution, Ronsin showed great determination in enforcing respect for the republic.With the help of Fouquier-Tinville, Ronsin was believed to be working on a military conspiracy to replace the revolutionary government with a military dictatorship. Fouquier-Tinville called him one of the \"new Cromwell\".Ronsin was finally arrested along with Hébert, Momoro, and Vincent. While in prison Ronsin is quoted with saying these words to his co-accused: \"...you will be condemned. When you should have acted, you talked. Know how to die. For my part, I swear that you shall not see me flinch. Strive to do the same.\"\nSome of his final words before his death were, \"Liberty undone!...because a few paltry fellows are about to perish! Liberty is immortal. Our enemies will fall in their turn, and liberty will survive them all!\" On 24 March 1794, five carts full of condemned Hébertists were taken to the guillotine, Charles-Philippe Ronsin among them.[2] Their death of was a sort of carnival, a pleasant spectacle according to Michelet's witnesses. Ronsin stayed true to his words in prison: as Thomas Carlyle relates the event, he alone among the Hébertists went to the scaffold with an \"air of defiance\", still maintaining a steely \"eye of command\".[3] Within a week of his death, Ronsin's army (l'Armée Révolutionnaire de Paris) was disbanded.[4]","title":"Last days"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Théatre de M. Ronsin, imprimé au profit de sa belle-mere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/thatreimprimaup00ronsgoog/page/n10/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"La ligue aristocratique, ou, Les catilinaires françoises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/laliguearistocra00rons"},{"link_name":"Louis XII, Père du Peuple. Tragédie, dédiée a la Garde Nationale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.nl/books?id=EPWLD8hlStsC&printsec=frontcover"},{"link_name":"Discours prononcé par Ch. Ph. Ronsin, le samedi 18 août 1792, l'an 4ème. de la liberté et le premier de l'egalité, à la section du Théâtre François, dite de Marseille, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/discours00unse_z3t"},{"link_name":"Grand discours fait par Ch.-Ph. Ronsin, l'an 4me. de la liberté, et le 1er. de l'égalité, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre, faite le 26 août 1792, au jardin des Tuileries, ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalité","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/granddiscours00unse/page/n1/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Arétaphile, ou, La révolution de Cyrene : tragédie, en cinq actes, en vers, faite en 1786. Représentée, pour la première fois, sur le théâtre de la rue de Louvois, le 23 juin 1792","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/aretaphile00unse/page/n1/mode/2up"}],"text":"1786 -Théatre de M. Ronsin, imprimé au profit de sa belle-mere. A Paris: De l'imprimerie Cailleau\n1789 - La ligue aristocratique, ou, Les catilinaires françoises. Paris: Au Palais-Royal, de l'imprimerie de Josseran\n1790 - Louis XII, Père du Peuple. Tragédie, dédiée a la Garde Nationale. A Paris, chez L. Potier de Lille\n1792 - Discours prononcé par Ch. Ph. Ronsin, le samedi 18 août 1792, l'an 4ème. de la liberté et le premier de l'egalité, à la section du Théâtre François, dite de Marseille, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalite. A Paris: De l'imprimerie de Pougin\n1792 - Grand discours fait par Ch.-Ph. Ronsin, l'an 4me. de la liberté, et le 1er. de l'égalité, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre, faite le 26 août 1792, au jardin des Tuileries, ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalité. Paris]: De l'imprimerie de Pougin\n1793 - Arétaphile, ou, La révolution de Cyrene : tragédie, en cinq actes, en vers, faite en 1786. Représentée, pour la première fois, sur le théâtre de la rue de Louvois, le 23 juin 1792. A Paris, Chez Guillaume, junior","title":"Works"}]	[{"image_text":"Charles-Philippe Ronsin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Charles_Philippe_Ronsin.jpg/200px-Charles_Philippe_Ronsin.jpg"}]	null	[]	[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/thatreimprimaup00ronsgoog/page/n10/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Théatre de M. Ronsin, imprimé au profit de sa belle-mere"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/laliguearistocra00rons","external_links_name":"La ligue aristocratique, ou, Les catilinaires françoises"},{"Link":"https://books.google.nl/books?id=EPWLD8hlStsC&printsec=frontcover","external_links_name":"Louis XII, Père du Peuple. Tragédie, dédiée a la Garde Nationale"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/discours00unse_z3t","external_links_name":"Discours prononcé par Ch. Ph. Ronsin, le samedi 18 août 1792, l'an 4ème. de la liberté et le premier de l'egalité, à la section du Théâtre François, dite de Marseille, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalite"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/granddiscours00unse/page/n1/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Grand discours fait par Ch.-Ph. Ronsin, l'an 4me. de la liberté, et le 1er. de l'égalité, à l'occasion de la cérémonie funèbre, faite le 26 août 1792, au jardin des Tuileries, ordonnée en l'honneur de nos frères d'armes morts à la journée du 10, pour la défense de la liberté et de l'égalité"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/aretaphile00unse/page/n1/mode/2up","external_links_name":"Arétaphile, ou, La révolution de Cyrene : tragédie, en cinq actes, en vers, faite en 1786. Représentée, pour la première fois, sur le théâtre de la rue de Louvois, le 23 juin 1792"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=f5JfQgAACAAJ&q=The%20Oxford%20History%20of%20the%20French%20Revolution","external_links_name":"The Oxford History of the French Revolution"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YDBLAAAAMAAJ&dq=the%20french%20revolution%20by%20thomas%20carlyle&pg=PP5","external_links_name":"The French Revolution (Part III, The Guillotine)"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YDBLAAAAMAAJ&q=ronsin&pg=PA216","external_links_name":"p.215"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=YDBLAAAAMAAJ&dq=the%20french%20revolution%20by%20thomas%20carlyle&pg=PA216","external_links_name":"p.216"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000081278338","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/49334535","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb125291574","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb125291574","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/128721804","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://opac.kbr.be/LIBRARY/doc/AUTHORITY/14608593","external_links_name":"Belgium"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p150636253","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd128721804.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/067053548","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_Hotel_(New_Orleans)	City Hotel (New Orleans)	["1 History","2 See also","3 References"]	Historic structure (1832–1888) City Hotel of New Orleans in 1861 city directory Image of the City Hotel around 1857 from a dinner menu (University of Houston Libraries) The City Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, was one of the city's major antebellum hotels, but maybe not quite so storied as the older, larger, St. Louis and St. Charles Hotels. As explained by a city historian in 1922, the "social life of New Orleans revolved around its great hotels to a degree greater than was the case, probably, in other American city." As was the case with the St. Charles and the St. Louis, slave auctions were held at the City Hotel before the American Civil War. History The four-story City Hotel was designed by Charles Zimpel, built in 1832 and was originally known as Bishop's Hotel and then as Richardson's Hotel before it became the City Hotel around 1839–1840. The City Hotel was owned and operated for many years by a man named Ruggles S. Morse who had come to New Orleans from Portland, Maine. When the Verandah Hotel burned in 1855, business increased at the City Hotel. During the war Ruggles provided extensive medical supplies and equipment for the benefit of victims of the 1862 Ponchatoula train wreck who were being treated the marine hospital. Under Ruggles the hotel was especially favored by Texans, steamboat men, and railroad men. Control of the hotel was transferred in 1874 by Col. Morse to W. T. Mumford and Ed. Watson." The City Hotel was demolished in 1888. The Baldwin building was then built on the same site. See also Slave markets and slave jails in the United States History of slavery in Louisiana Banks' Arcade References ^ a b "Kendall's History of New Orleans - Chapter 43". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "The Times-Picayune 24 Feb 1859, page Page 5". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Communicated". The Times-Picayune. 1837-02-22. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ Terrell, Ellen (2018-09-24). "Charles Zimpel: Architect, Surveyor, Businessman \| Inside Adams". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2024-02-15. ^ a b "Breaking Up of a Famous Caravansary". The Times-Picayune. 1887-06-19. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "1 prize". The Times-Picayune. 1839-05-01. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Book and Job Printing". True American. 1836-05-02. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ a b c "Ruggles S. Morse". The Times-Democrat. 1893-05-02. p. 8. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "The fiery birth and demise of the Verandah Hotel". Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans. 2019-10-02. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Vox Populi". The Times-Picayune. 1893-05-09. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Reflections on City Hotel after sale why Morse in 1874". The Times-Picayune. 1877-05-03. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "Make Way for the New Era". The Times-Picayune. 1888-10-21. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-12-11. ^ "The Weekly Times-Democrat 08 Jul 1892, page 5". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11.	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:City_Hotel_of_New_Orleans.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:City_Hotel_New_Orleans_1857.jpg"},{"link_name":"St. Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_Hotel"},{"link_name":"St. Charles Hotels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Charles_Hotel,_New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"City Hotel of New Orleans in 1861 city directoryImage of the City Hotel around 1857 from a dinner menu (University of Houston Libraries)The City Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana, United States, was one of the city's major antebellum hotels, but maybe not quite so storied as the older, larger, St. Louis and St. Charles Hotels.[1] As explained by a city historian in 1922, the \"social life of New Orleans revolved around its great hotels to a degree greater than was the case, probably, in other American city.\"[1] As was the case with the St. Charles and the St. Louis, slave auctions were held at the City Hotel before the American Civil War.[2][3]","title":"City Hotel (New Orleans)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Zimpel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Zimpel"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"Verandah Hotel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verandah_Hotel"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"1862 Ponchatoula train wreck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=1862_Ponchatoula_train_wreck&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-8"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The four-story City Hotel was designed by Charles Zimpel,[4] built in 1832 and was originally known as Bishop's Hotel and then as Richardson's Hotel before it became the City Hotel around 1839–1840.[5][6][7] The City Hotel was owned and operated for many years by a man named Ruggles S. Morse who had come to New Orleans from Portland, Maine.[5][8] When the Verandah Hotel burned in 1855,[9] business increased at the City Hotel.[8] During the war Ruggles provided extensive medical supplies and equipment for the benefit of victims of the 1862 Ponchatoula train wreck who were being treated the marine hospital.[10]Under Ruggles the hotel was especially favored by Texans, steamboat men, and railroad men.[8] Control of the hotel was transferred in 1874 by Col. Morse to W. T. Mumford and Ed. Watson.\"[11] The City Hotel was demolished in 1888.[12] The Baldwin building was then built on the same site.[13]","title":"History"}]	[{"image_text":"City Hotel of New Orleans in 1861 city directory","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/City_Hotel_of_New_Orleans.jpg/220px-City_Hotel_of_New_Orleans.jpg"},{"image_text":"Image of the City Hotel around 1857 from a dinner menu (University of Houston Libraries)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/City_Hotel_New_Orleans_1857.jpg/220px-City_Hotel_New_Orleans_1857.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Slave markets and slave jails in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slave_markets_and_slave_jails_in_the_United_States"},{"title":"History of slavery in Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana"},{"title":"Banks' Arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banks%27_Arcade"}]	[{"reference":"\"Kendall's History of New Orleans - Chapter 43\". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/KENHNO/43*.html","url_text":"\"Kendall's History of New Orleans - Chapter 43\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Times-Picayune 24 Feb 1859, page Page 5\". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/25881574/","url_text":"\"The Times-Picayune 24 Feb 1859, page Page 5\""}]},{"reference":"\"Communicated\". The Times-Picayune. 1837-02-22. p. 2. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-communicated/136629931/","url_text":"\"Communicated\""}]},{"reference":"Terrell, Ellen (2018-09-24). \"Charles Zimpel: Architect, Surveyor, Businessman \| Inside Adams\". The Library of Congress. Retrieved 2024-02-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.loc.gov/inside_adams/2018/09/charles-zimpel-architect-surveyor-businessman","url_text":"\"Charles Zimpel: Architect, Surveyor, Businessman \| Inside Adams\""}]},{"reference":"\"Breaking Up of a Famous Caravansary\". The Times-Picayune. 1887-06-19. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-breaking-up-of-a-famo/136629678/","url_text":"\"Breaking Up of a Famous Caravansary\""}]},{"reference":"\"1 prize\". The Times-Picayune. 1839-05-01. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-1-prize/136629771/","url_text":"\"1 prize\""}]},{"reference":"\"Book and Job Printing\". True American. 1836-05-02. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/true-american-book-and-job-printing/136629874/","url_text":"\"Book and Job Printing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ruggles S. Morse\". The Times-Democrat. 1893-05-02. p. 8. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-democrat-ruggles-s-morse/136630316/","url_text":"\"Ruggles S. Morse\""}]},{"reference":"\"The fiery birth and demise of the Verandah Hotel\". Preservation Resource Center of New Orleans. 2019-10-02. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://prcno.org/fiery-birth-demise-verandah-hotel/","url_text":"\"The fiery birth and demise of the Verandah Hotel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Vox Populi\". The Times-Picayune. 1893-05-09. p. 3. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-vox-populi/136630465/","url_text":"\"Vox Populi\""}]},{"reference":"\"Reflections on City Hotel after sale why Morse in 1874\". The Times-Picayune. 1877-05-03. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-reflections-on-city-h/21023185/","url_text":"\"Reflections on City Hotel after sale why Morse in 1874\""}]},{"reference":"\"Make Way for the New Era\". The Times-Picayune. 1888-10-21. p. 4. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-make-way-for-the-new/136629520/","url_text":"\"Make Way for the New Era\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Weekly Times-Democrat 08 Jul 1892, page 5\". Newspapers.com. Retrieved 2023-12-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/332952351/","url_text":"\"The Weekly Times-Democrat 08 Jul 1892, page 5\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/KENHNO/43*.html","external_links_name":"\"Kendall's History of New Orleans - Chapter 43\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/25881574/","external_links_name":"\"The Times-Picayune 24 Feb 1859, page Page 5\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-communicated/136629931/","external_links_name":"\"Communicated\""},{"Link":"https://blogs.loc.gov/inside_adams/2018/09/charles-zimpel-architect-surveyor-businessman","external_links_name":"\"Charles Zimpel: Architect, Surveyor, Businessman \| Inside Adams\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-breaking-up-of-a-famo/136629678/","external_links_name":"\"Breaking Up of a Famous Caravansary\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-1-prize/136629771/","external_links_name":"\"1 prize\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/true-american-book-and-job-printing/136629874/","external_links_name":"\"Book and Job Printing\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-democrat-ruggles-s-morse/136630316/","external_links_name":"\"Ruggles S. Morse\""},{"Link":"https://prcno.org/fiery-birth-demise-verandah-hotel/","external_links_name":"\"The fiery birth and demise of the Verandah Hotel\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-vox-populi/136630465/","external_links_name":"\"Vox Populi\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-reflections-on-city-h/21023185/","external_links_name":"\"Reflections on City Hotel after sale why Morse in 1874\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-picayune-make-way-for-the-new/136629520/","external_links_name":"\"Make Way for the New Era\""},{"Link":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/332952351/","external_links_name":"\"The Weekly Times-Democrat 08 Jul 1892, page 5\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MARS_Group	MARS Group	["1 The MARS Plan for London","2 References","3 External links"]	Defunct British architectural think tank The Modern Architectural Research Group, or MARS Group, was a British architectural think tank founded in 1933 by several prominent architects and architectural critics of the time involved in the British modernist movement. The MARS Group came after several previous but unsuccessful attempts at creating an organization to support modernist architects in Britain such as those that had been formed on continental Europe, like the Union des Artistes Modernes in France. The group first formed when Sigfried Giedion of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne asked Morton Shand to assemble a group that would represent Britain at their events. Shand, along with Wells Coates, chose Maxwell Fry and F. R. S. Yorke as the founding members. They were also joined by a few members of architectural group Tecton, by Ove Arup and by John Betjeman, a poet and contributor to Architectural Review. In 1936, Tecton members William Tatton Brown, his wife Aileen and the proprietor of Architectural Press, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, formed a three-strong 'Town Planning Committee' within CIAM exploring ideas related to 'linear cities'; Tatton Brown subsequently presented a paper based on the work, The Theory of Contacts and its Application to the Future of London, at the CIAM V Congress in Paris in September 1937. However, this work was subsequently regarded as a "a preliminary survey of London by a section of the MARS Group", and a new and larger Town Planning Committee was convened under Arthur Korn's leadership in December 1937 to produce what turned out to be a heavily revised plan for London. The group's greatest success came in 1938 with a show at the New Burlington Galleries, but it also left them in debt. The MARS group proposed a radical plan for the redevelopment of postwar London, the details of which were published the Architectural Review in 1942. At its height there were about 58 members in the group. The group itself began to lose steam along with the movement and many members left as a result of creative differences. The group finally disbanded in 1957. The MARS Plan for London "The plan for London issued by the Mars Group (the English wing of CIAM) and prepared by their Town Planning Committee was a marked contrast to anything that had gone before and, anything produced subsequently. It was frankly Utopian and Socialistic in concept." Dennis Sharp, 1971. The plan was devised by what has been described as a 'small and devoted' group, under the town planning sub committee of MARS, chaired by Korn, and including Arthur Ling, Maxwell Fry, the latter who worked as secretary, and fellow Jewish emigre, engineer Felix Samuely. Arthur Korn is described as having been 'the main spring of the enterprise' and as providing an 'infectious enthusiasm' that drove the project forward. Influenced by the Soviet urbanist Miliutin, the plan essentially conceived the centre of the city remaining much the same but with a series of linear forms or tongues extending from the Thames, described as like a herring bone, composed of social units and based around the rail network. Habitation in each social unit was to consist mainly of flats and owed much to Le Corbusier's notion of the unite d'habitation. Described as 'unworkable' by Dennis Sharp, in his 1971 essay on the plan, he concedes it 'was not a concrete scheme but a concept that would by its very nature produce interpretations'. Marmaras and Sutcliffe argue the plan 'saw London almost entirely in terms of movement ... presented primarily as a centre of exchange and communications'. Moughtin and Shirley (1995) note that one of the aims of the plan was to promote public transport, where with railways integral to planning, the 'need for cars will be few'. Korn's initial chairmanship of the plan was interrupted by his 18-month internment in the Isle of Man from 1939, being a German citizen, during which period work on the plan fizzled out. On his release, in 1941, work recommenced, an exhibition of the plan was organised and a 'description and analysis' was published under the joint authorship of Arthur Korn and Felix Samuely in the Architectural Association journal in 1942. References ^ a b Gold, John R. (July 1995). "The MARS plans for London, 1933-1942: plurality and experimentation in the city plans of the early British Modern Movement". Town Planning Review. 66 (3): 243–267. Retrieved 2 March 2023. ^ http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/60598, accessed 27 Dec 2008. Charlotte Benton. 2004. 'Korn, Arthur (1891–1978)’ in Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Simon (2021-11-29). "MARS (Modern Architectural Research Group) (1933 - 1957)". Encyclopedia of Design. Retrieved 2022-10-17. ^ a b c P. 167 in Sharp S. 1971. 'Concept and Interpretation The aims and principles of the MARS plan for London'. In Arthur Korn, Maxwell Fry, Dennis Sharp. 1971. The M.A.R.S. Plan for London. Perspecta, Vol. 13 (1971), pp. 163-173 ^ a b c d Pp 165-6 in Fry E. M. 1971, ' The MARS Group plan of London in Arthur Korn, Maxwell Fry, Dennis Sharp. 1971. The M.A.R.S. Plan for London. Perspecta, Vol. 13 (1971), pp. 163-173 ^ P.88 in Gold J. R. 2000. 'Towards the functional city? MARS, CIAM and the London plans 1933-42. In Thomas Deckker, The Modern City Revisited. Oxford: Taylor and Francis. ^ a b c p122 in Moughtin J.C. and Shirley P. 1995. Urban Design: Green Dimensions. Oxford: Architectural Press. ^ a b Pp. 434-40 in Marmaras E. and Sutcliffe A. 1994. Planning for post-war London: the three independent plans, 1942-3. In Planning Perspectives, 9, (1994) 431-453. ^ A. Korn and F.J. Samuely, A master plan for London, Architectural Review, 91, January (1942). 143–150. External links Design Museum Oxford Dictionary of National Bibliography Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Sweden Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"architectural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"},{"link_name":"think tank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Think_tank"},{"link_name":"modernist movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_style_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"Union des Artistes Modernes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_French_Union_of_Modern_Artists"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sigfried Giedion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sigfried_Giedion"},{"link_name":"Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congr%C3%A8s_International_d%27Architecture_Moderne"},{"link_name":"Morton Shand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton_Shand"},{"link_name":"Wells Coates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wells_Coates"},{"link_name":"Maxwell Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Fry"},{"link_name":"F. R. S. Yorke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F._R._S._Yorke"},{"link_name":"Tecton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecton"},{"link_name":"Ove Arup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ove_Arup"},{"link_name":"John Betjeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Betjeman"},{"link_name":"Architectural Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_Review"},{"link_name":"William Tatton Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Tatton_Brown"},{"link_name":"Hubert de Cronin Hastings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._de_C._Hastings"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gold-1"},{"link_name":"Arthur Korn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Korn_(architect)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gold-1"},{"link_name":"New Burlington Galleries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Burlington_Galleries"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odnb01-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The Modern Architectural Research Group, or MARS Group, was a British architectural think tank founded in 1933 by several prominent architects and architectural critics of the time involved in the British modernist movement. The MARS Group came after several previous but unsuccessful attempts at creating an organization to support modernist architects in Britain such as those that had been formed on continental Europe, like the Union des Artistes Modernes in France.[citation needed]The group first formed when Sigfried Giedion of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne asked Morton Shand to assemble a group that would represent Britain at their events. Shand, along with Wells Coates, chose Maxwell Fry and F. R. S. Yorke as the founding members. They were also joined by a few members of architectural group Tecton, by Ove Arup and by John Betjeman, a poet and contributor to Architectural Review. In 1936, Tecton members William Tatton Brown, his wife Aileen and the proprietor of Architectural Press, Hubert de Cronin Hastings, formed a three-strong 'Town Planning Committee' within CIAM exploring ideas related to 'linear cities'; Tatton Brown subsequently presented a paper based on the work, The Theory of Contacts and its Application to the Future of London, at the CIAM V Congress in Paris in September 1937.[1] However, this work was subsequently regarded as a \"a preliminary survey of London by a section of the MARS Group\", and a new and larger Town Planning Committee was convened under Arthur Korn's leadership in December 1937 to produce what turned out to be a heavily revised plan for London.[1]The group's greatest success came in 1938 with a show at the New Burlington Galleries, but it also left them in debt. The MARS group proposed a radical plan for the redevelopment of postwar London, the details of which were published the Architectural Review in 1942.[2] At its height there were about 58 members in the group. The group itself began to lose steam along with the movement and many members left as a result of creative differences. The group finally disbanded in 1957.[3]","title":"MARS Group"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Utopian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopian"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharp01-4"},{"link_name":"Maxwell Fry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell_Fry"},{"link_name":"Felix Samuely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felix_Samuely"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fry01-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fry01-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gold01-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharp01-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moughtin01-7"},{"link_name":"Le Corbusier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Corbusier"},{"link_name":"unite d'habitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unite_d%27Habitation"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moughtin01-7"},{"link_name":"Dennis Sharp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Sharp"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sharp01-4"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marmaras01-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moughtin01-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-korn01-9"},{"link_name":"Isle of Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Man"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fry01-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fry01-5"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marmaras01-8"}],"text":"\"The plan for London issued by the Mars Group (the English wing of CIAM) and prepared by their Town Planning Committee was a marked contrast to anything that had gone before and, anything produced subsequently. It was frankly Utopian and Socialistic in concept.\" Dennis Sharp, 1971.[4]The plan was devised by what has been described as a 'small and devoted' group, under the town planning sub committee of MARS, chaired by Korn, and including Arthur Ling, Maxwell Fry, the latter who worked as secretary, and fellow Jewish emigre, engineer Felix Samuely.[5] Arthur Korn is described as having been 'the main spring of the enterprise' and as providing an 'infectious enthusiasm' that drove the project forward.[5][6] Influenced by the Soviet urbanist Miliutin, the plan essentially conceived the centre of the city remaining much the same but with a series of linear forms or tongues extending from the Thames, described as like a herring bone, composed of social units and based around the rail network.[4][7] Habitation in each social unit was to consist mainly of flats and owed much to Le Corbusier's notion of the unite d'habitation.[7] Described as 'unworkable' by Dennis Sharp, in his 1971 essay on the plan, he concedes it 'was not a concrete scheme but a concept that would by its very nature produce interpretations'.[4] Marmaras and Sutcliffe argue the plan 'saw London almost entirely in terms of movement ...[being] presented primarily as a centre of exchange and communications'.[8] Moughtin and Shirley (1995) note that one of the aims of the plan was to promote public transport, where with railways integral to planning, the 'need for cars will be few'.[7][9]Korn's initial chairmanship of the plan was interrupted by his 18-month internment in the Isle of Man from 1939, being a German citizen, during which period work on the plan fizzled out.[5] On his release, in 1941, work recommenced, an exhibition of the plan was organised and a 'description and analysis' was published under the joint authorship of Arthur Korn and Felix Samuely in the Architectural Association journal in 1942.[5][8]","title":"The MARS Plan for London"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Gold, John R. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aringa_language	Aringa language	["1 References"]	Central Sudanic language of Uganda AringaÃrị̃ngã tịNative toUgandaRegionAringa county, Yumbe DistrictEthnicityAringaNative speakers495,000 (2014 census)Language familyNilo-Saharan? Central SudanicEastMoru–MadiCentralAringaDialects Andre Kuluba Lebati Writing systemLatinLanguage codesISO 639-3lucGlottologarin1244 Aringa, also known as Low Lugbara, is a Central Sudanic language or dialect spoken by the Aringa people in the West Nile region of Uganda. It is related to the languages spoken by the Lugbara and Madi peoples. Aringa is considered a dialect of Lugbara language, other times a separate language The speakers of Lugbara and Ma'di both consider Aringa to be a separate but related language. There are several divergent forms: Andre, Kuluba, and Lebati. References ^ a b Aringa at Ethnologue (25th ed., 2022) ^ Douglas Boone, Richard Watson, 1999. "Moru–Ma'di Survey Report." SIL Electronic Survey Reports SILESR 1999-001. vteCentral Sudanic languagesPart of the proposed Nilo-Saharan language familyBongo–BagirmiBongo–Baka Baka Bongo Morokodo–Beli Jur Beli Jur Modo Mittu Morokodo Kara Furu Tar Gula Yulu Bagirmi Barma Beraku Disa Fer Gula Jaya Kenga Morom Naba SaraEast Kabba of Gore Laka Lau Laka Ngambay Central Doba West Dagba Gulay Horo Mbay Ngam Sar Kaba Kaba Deme Kaba Na Kulfa Vale Ruto Vale Yulu Yulu Fongoro? Fongoro Sinyar? Sinyar Birri–KreshBirri Birri Kresh Aja Dongo Furu Kresh (Dara–Gboko, Kresh–Hofra, Naka, Ndogo, Woro) Lendu–MangbetuMangbetu–Asoa Asoa Lombi Mangbetu Mangbutu–Lese Bendi Lese Mamvu Mangbutu Mvuba Ndo Lenduic Lendu Ngiti Ndrulo Moru–MadiMoru Moru Central Ma'di Aringa Avokaya Keliko Logo Lugbara Omi Southern Ma'di Ma'di Olu'bo Mimi-D Mimi of Decorse Italics indicate extinct languages vteLanguages of UgandaOfficial languages English Swahili Ugandan Sign Language IndigenouslanguagesBantu Amba Gungu Gwere Khayo Kiga Kinyarwanda Luganda Luhya Marachi Masaba Nkore Nkore-Kiga Nyole Nyoro Nyoro-Tooro Ruuli Samia Singa Soga Talinga Tooro Nilo-Saharan Acholi Adhola Alur Aringa Bari Elgon Ik Karamojong Kuku Lango Lugbara Nyang'i Pökoot Soo Southern Luo Teso Others Runyakitara Nubi Oropom Immigrant languages English French Punjabi Spanish German Italian Hindi Hebrew Arabic Chinese Portuguese Japanese Russian Danish Dutch This Nilo-Saharan languages–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Central Sudanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Sudanic_languages"},{"link_name":"Aringa people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aringa_people"},{"link_name":"West Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Nile_sub-region"},{"link_name":"Uganda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda"},{"link_name":"Lugbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugbara_people"},{"link_name":"Madi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madi_people"},{"link_name":"Lugbara language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lugbara_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-e25-1"},{"link_name":"Ma'di","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma%27di_language"}],"text":"Aringa, also known as Low Lugbara, is a Central Sudanic language or dialect spoken by the Aringa people in the West Nile region of Uganda. It is related to the languages spoken by the Lugbara and Madi peoples.Aringa is considered a dialect of Lugbara language,[2] other times a separate language[1] The speakers of Lugbara and Ma'di both consider Aringa to be a separate but related language. There are several divergent forms: Andre, Kuluba, and Lebati.","title":"Aringa language"}]	[]	null	[]	[{"Link":"https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/arin1244","external_links_name":"arin1244"},{"Link":"https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/luc","external_links_name":"Aringa"},{"Link":"http://www.sil.org/silesr/1999/001/mmsurvey-w97.pdf","external_links_name":"Moru–Ma'di Survey Report."},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aringa_language&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armand_de_Bourbon-Conti	Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti	["1 Early life","2 Life in prison","3 Later life","4 Issue","5 Ancestry","6 References","7 Sources"]	French nobleman This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article relies largely or entirely on a single source. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help improve this article by introducing citations to additional sources.Find sources: "Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2012) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (February 2012) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Armand de BourbonPrince of ContiBorn(1629-10-11)11 October 1629Paris, FranceDied26 February 1666(1666-02-26) (aged 36)Pézenas, Languedoc, FranceSpouseAnne Marie MartinozziIssueLouis Armand I, Prince of ContiFrançois Louis, Prince of ContiHouseBourbon-ContiFatherHenri II, Prince of CondéMotherCharlotte Marguerite de MontmorencySignature Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti (11 October 1629 – 26 February 1666), was a French nobleman, the younger son of Henri II, Prince of Condé and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, daughter of Henri I, Duke of Montmorency. He was the brother of le Grand Condé and Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang. Early life Coat-of-arms for Armand, Prince of Conti. The title of Prince of Conti was revived in his favor at the time of his birth in 1629. With the title Armand also inherited the Château de L'Isle-Adam and its estate, which had been passed down to his mother Charlotte Marguerite after the death of her brother, Henri II de Montmorency. Conti was considered intelligent but due to a slight deformity and having a weak constitution he was destined for a clerical career and studied theology at the university of Bourges, but although he received several benefices, including the abbeys of Cluny and Saint Denis, he did not take orders. He was described as "a cypher" by a contemporary. and seen as debauched. Contis relationship with brother was not good and he was despised by the Grand Conde. Conti was a patron of Moliere and La Fontaine. He played a conspicuous part in the intrigues and fighting of the Fronde, became in 1648 commander-in-chief of the rebel army, and in 1650 was with his brother (Condé) and brother-in-law (Longueville) imprisoned at Vincennes. Life in prison Said to be "mystic" and "full of strange ideas", Conti turned slightly mad while in prison. (this might have been a symtom of the syphilis wich would lead to his death) Having a secret passion for his sister the Duchess of Longueville, he invented tricks to make her notice him. He would later like her become a fervent jansenist. He tried alchemy and potions for some time and eventually bruised himself with a spatula. This episode was ultimately fortunate for him because he could no longer be refused external help from physicians, some of whom would pass letters and pleas to the outside world which sped up his eventual release. Later life Released when Cardinal Mazarin went into exile, he wished to marry Charlotte-Marie de Lorraine (1627–1652), the second daughter of Madame de Chevreuse, the confidante of the queen, Anne of Austria (wife of King Louis XIII of France), but was prevented from doing so by his brother Condé, who was now supreme in the state. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651, but soon afterwards became reconciled with Cardinal Mazarin, and in 1654, married the cardinal's niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi, as well as secured the government of Guienne. They had two sons, Louis Armand and François Louis. He took command of the army, which in 1654, invaded Spain through Catalonia, where he captured three towns from the Spanish. He afterwards led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Alessandria in 1657, he retired to Languedoc, where he devoted himself to study and mysticism until his death. At Clermont, Conti had been a fellow student of Molière's, from whom he secured an introduction to the court of King Louis XIV, but afterwards, when writing a treatise against the stage entitled, Traité de la comédie et des spectacles selon les traditions de l'Église (Paris, 1667), he charged the dramatist with keeping a school of atheism. Conti also wrote Lettres sur la grâce, and Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province. Conti died on 26 February 1666 at Pézenas at the Château de la Grange-des - Prés in Languedoc, France likely from syphilis. Issue Armand married Anne Marie Martinozzi, the daughter of Girolamo Martinozzi and Laura Margherita Mazzarini, elder sister of Cardinal Mazarin. They had the following children: Louis de Bourbon (1658), died in infancy. Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti (1661–1685), married Marie Anne de Bourbon, the eldest legitimised daughter of King Louis XIV and his mistress, Louise de La Vallière, and died childless. François Louis, Prince of Conti (1664–1709), known as "le Grand Conti", married Marie Thérèse de Bourbon, daughter of Henri Jules, Prince of Condé (Armand's nephew), and had issue. Ancestry This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Ancestors of Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti 8. Louis I, Prince of Condé 4. Henri I, Prince of Condé 9. Éléonore de Roye 2. Henri II, Prince of Condé 10. Louis III de La Trémoille, Duke of Thouars 5. Charlotte Catherine de La Trémoille 11. Jeanne de Montmorency 1. Armand, Prince of Conti 12. Anne, Duke of Montmorency 6. Henri I, Duke of Montmorency 13. Madeleine of Savoy 3. Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency 14. Jacques de Budos, Viscount of Portes 7. Louise de Budos, Lady of Vachères 15. Catherine de Clermont-Montoison References ^ Menzies, Sutherland (2020-08-05). Political Women (Vol. 1 of 2): Volume 1. BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-7524-1256-7. ^ Karmen, Henry (1999). Who's Who in Europe 1450-1750. London: Routledge. p. 78. ISBN 9780415147279. ^ Retz, Jean François Paul de Gondi de (1774). Memoirs of the Cardinal de Retz: Containing the Particulars of His Own Life, with the Most Secret Transactions at the French Court and the Civil Wars [occasioned by It. To which are Added Some Other Pieces. Evans. p. 192. ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Conti, Princes of s.v. Armand de Bourbon". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ^ Ladurie, Emmanuel Le Roy (July 2001). Saint-Simon and the Court of Louis XIV. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-47320-8. ^ Marni, Archimede. Allegory in the French Heroic Poem of the Seventeenth Century. Ardent Media. ^ a b c One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Conti, Princes of s.v. Armand de Bourbon". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 28. ^ Scott, Virginia (2002-05-16). Molière: A Theatrical Life. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-01238-6. ^ Hillman 2016, p. 10. Sources Hillman, Jennifer (2016). Female Piety and the Catholic Reformation in France. Routledge. Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti House of BourbonBorn: 11 October 1629 Died: 26 February 1666 French royalty Preceded byFrançois de Bourbon Prince de Conti 1629–1666 Succeeded byLouis Armand Catholic Church titles Preceded byCardinal Richelieu Abbot of Cluny 1642–1654 Succeeded byCardinal Mazarin vtePrinces of Conti François (1581–1614) Armand (1629–1666) Louis Armand (1666–1685) François Louis (1685–1709) Louis Armand (1709–1727) Louis François (1727–1776) Louis François Joseph (1776–1814) vtePrinces of the BloodGenerations are numbered by descent from Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme1st generation Antoine, King of Navarre Francis, Count of Enghien* Charles de Bourbon* Louis, Prince of Condé 2nd generation Henri, Prince of Condé François, Prince of Conti Charles, Count of Soissons* 3rd generation Henri, Prince of Condé Louis, Count of Soissons 4th generation Louis, Prince of Condé Armand, Prince of Conti Louis, Duke of Vendôme 5th generation Henri Jules, Prince of Condé Louis Armand, Prince of Conti* François Louis, Prince of Conti Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme* Philippe, Duke of Vendôme* 6th generation Louis, Duke of Orléans Louis, Duke of Bourbon, Prince of Condé Louis Armand, Prince of Conti 7th generation Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans Louis Henri, Prince of Condé Charles, Count of Charolais Louis, Count of Clermont* Louis François, Prince of Conti 8th generation Philippe, Duke of Orléans Louis Joseph, Prince of Condé Louis François Joseph, Prince of Conti 9th generation Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans Prince Antoine Philippe, Duke of Montpensier Louis Charles, Count of Beaujolais Louis Henri, Prince of Condé 10th generation Ferdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans Louis, Duke of Nemours François d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville Charles, Duke of Penthièvre Henri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale Antoine, Duke of Montpensier Louis Antoine Henri, Duke of Enghien* *died without issue Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Germany Belgium 2 United States Sweden Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Portugal Vatican Artists KulturNav People Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Henri II, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9_(1588%E2%80%931646)"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Marguerite_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"Henri I, Duke of Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_I_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"le Grand Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Genevi%C3%A8ve_de_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"House of Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"Prince du Sang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_du_Sang"}],"text":"Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti (11 October 1629 – 26 February 1666), was a French nobleman, the younger son of Henri II, Prince of Condé and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, daughter of Henri I, Duke of Montmorency. He was the brother of le Grand Condé and Anne Geneviève, Duchess of Longueville. As a member of the reigning House of Bourbon, he was a Prince du Sang.","title":"Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blason_Armand,_prince_de_Conti_(1626_%E2%80%A0_1666).svg"},{"link_name":"Coat-of-arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coat-of-arms"},{"link_name":"Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Château de L'Isle-Adam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_L%27Isle-Adam"},{"link_name":"Henri II de Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_II_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theology"},{"link_name":"university of Bourges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Bourges"},{"link_name":"benefices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefice"},{"link_name":"Cluny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny"},{"link_name":"Saint Denis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_of_Saint_Denis"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_orders"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Moliere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"La Fontaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_La_Fontaine"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"Longueville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_II_d%27Orl%C3%A9ans,_Duke_of_Longueville"},{"link_name":"Vincennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_de_Vincennes"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB19112-4"}],"text":"Coat-of-arms for Armand, Prince of Conti.The title of Prince of Conti was revived in his favor at the time of his birth in 1629. With the title Armand also inherited the Château de L'Isle-Adam and its estate, which had been passed down to his mother Charlotte Marguerite after the death of her brother, Henri II de Montmorency.Conti was considered intelligent but due to a slight deformity and having a weak constitution[1] he was destined for a clerical career and studied theology at the university of Bourges, but although he received several benefices, including the abbeys of Cluny and Saint Denis,[2] he did not take orders.He was described as \"a cypher\" by a contemporary.[3] and seen as debauched. Contis relationship with brother was not good and he was despised by the Grand Conde. Conti was a patron of Moliere and La Fontaine.He played a conspicuous part in the intrigues and fighting of the Fronde, became in 1648 commander-in-chief of the rebel army, and in 1650 was with his brother (Condé) and brother-in-law (Longueville) imprisoned at Vincennes.[4]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Duchess of Longueville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Genevi%C3%A8ve_de_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"alchemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alchemy"},{"link_name":"spatula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spatula"}],"text":"Said to be \"mystic\" and \"full of strange ideas\", Conti turned slightly mad while in prison.[citation needed] (this might have been a symtom of the syphilis wich would lead to his death) Having a secret passion for his sister the Duchess of Longueville, he invented tricks to make her notice him. He would later like her become a fervent jansenist.[5][6] He tried alchemy and potions for some time and eventually bruised himself with a spatula. This episode was ultimately fortunate for him because he could no longer be refused external help from physicians, some of whom would pass letters and pleas to the outside world which sped up his eventual release.","title":"Life in prison"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cardinal Mazarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin"},{"link_name":"Madame de Chevreuse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_de_Rohan-Montbazon,_duchesse_de_Chevreuse"},{"link_name":"Anne of Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_of_Austria"},{"link_name":"Louis XIII of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"cardinal's niece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazarinettes"},{"link_name":"Anne Marie Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_Martinozzi"},{"link_name":"Guienne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guienne"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"Louis Armand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armand_I,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"François Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Conti"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain"},{"link_name":"Catalonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Alessandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alessandria"},{"link_name":"Languedoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languedoc"},{"link_name":"mysticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysticism"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"Clermont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coll%C3%A8ge_de_Clermont"},{"link_name":"Molière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"atheism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atheism"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EB1911-7"},{"link_name":"Pézenas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A9zenas"},{"link_name":"syphilis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syphilis"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Released when Cardinal Mazarin went into exile, he wished to marry Charlotte-Marie de Lorraine (1627–1652), the second daughter of Madame de Chevreuse, the confidante of the queen, Anne of Austria (wife of King Louis XIII of France), but was prevented from doing so by his brother Condé, who was now supreme in the state. He was concerned in the Fronde of 1651, but soon afterwards became reconciled with Cardinal Mazarin, and in 1654, married the cardinal's niece, Anne Marie Martinozzi, as well as secured the government of Guienne.[7] They had two sons, Louis Armand and François Louis.He took command of the army, which in 1654, invaded Spain through Catalonia, where he captured three towns from the Spanish. He afterwards led the French forces in Italy, but after his defeat before Alessandria in 1657, he retired to Languedoc, where he devoted himself to study and mysticism until his death.[7]At Clermont, Conti had been a fellow student of Molière's, from whom he secured an introduction to the court of King Louis XIV, but afterwards, when writing a treatise against the stage entitled, Traité de la comédie et des spectacles selon les traditions de l'Église (Paris, 1667), he charged the dramatist with keeping a school of atheism. Conti also wrote Lettres sur la grâce, and Du devoir des grands et des devoirs des gouverneurs de province.[7]Conti died on 26 February 1666 at Pézenas at the Château de la Grange-des - Prés in Languedoc, France likely from syphilis.[8]","title":"Later life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anne Marie Martinozzi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Marie_Martinozzi"},{"link_name":"Laura Margherita Mazzarini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Margherita_Mazzarini"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillman201610-9"},{"link_name":"Louis Armand I, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armand_I,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Marie Anne de Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Anne_de_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"Louise de La Vallière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_de_La_Valli%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"François Louis, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Conti"},{"link_name":"Marie Thérèse de Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marie_Th%C3%A9r%C3%A8se_de_Bourbon"},{"link_name":"Henri Jules, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri-Jules_de_Bourbon,_prince_de_Cond%C3%A9"}],"text":"Armand married Anne Marie Martinozzi, the daughter of Girolamo Martinozzi and Laura Margherita Mazzarini, elder sister of Cardinal Mazarin.[9] They had the following children:Louis de Bourbon (1658), died in infancy.\nLouis Armand I, Prince of Conti (1661–1685), married Marie Anne de Bourbon, the eldest legitimised daughter of King Louis XIV and his mistress, Louise de La Vallière, and died childless.\nFrançois Louis, Prince of Conti (1664–1709), known as \"le Grand Conti\", married Marie Thérèse de Bourbon, daughter of Henri Jules, Prince of Condé (Armand's nephew), and had issue.","title":"Issue"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Louis I, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9_(1530%E2%80%931569)"},{"link_name":"Henri I, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9_(1552%E2%80%931588)"},{"link_name":"Éléonore de Roye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C3%A9onore_de_Roye"},{"link_name":"Henri II, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9_(1588%E2%80%931646)"},{"link_name":"Louis III de La Trémoille, Duke of Thouars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_III_de_La_Tr%C3%A9moille"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Catherine de La Trémoille","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Catherine_de_La_Tr%C3%A9moille"},{"link_name":"Anne, Duke of Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"Henri I, Duke of Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_I_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"Madeleine of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madeleine_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Marguerite_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"Louise de Budos, Lady of Vachères","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louise_de_Budos"}],"text":"Ancestors of Armand de Bourbon, Prince of Conti 8. Louis I, Prince of Condé 4. Henri I, Prince of Condé 9. Éléonore de Roye 2. Henri II, Prince of Condé 10. Louis III de La Trémoille, Duke of Thouars 5. Charlotte Catherine de La Trémoille 11. Jeanne de Montmorency 1. Armand, Prince of Conti 12. Anne, Duke of Montmorency 6. Henri I, Duke of Montmorency 13. Madeleine of Savoy 3. Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency 14. Jacques de Budos, Viscount of Portes 7. Louise de Budos, Lady of Vachères 15. Catherine de Clermont-Montoison","title":"Ancestry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Princes_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Princes_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Princes_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Princes of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princes_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"François","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Bourbon,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Armand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Louis Armand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armand_I,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"François Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Louis Armand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armand_II,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Louis François","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Louis François Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Fran%C3%A7ois_Joseph,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Prince_of_the_Blood_(House_of_Bourbon)"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Prince_of_the_Blood_(House_of_Bourbon)"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Prince_of_the_Blood_(House_of_Bourbon)"},{"link_name":"Princes of the Blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_du_sang"},{"link_name":"Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Antoine, King of Navarre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antoine_of_Navarre"},{"link_name":"Francis, Count of Enghien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis,_Count_of_Enghien"},{"link_name":"Charles de Bourbon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles,_Cardinal_de_Bourbon_(born_1523)"},{"link_name":"Louis, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_I,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crown_of_a_Prince_of_the_Blood_of_France_(variant).svg"},{"link_name":"Henri, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_I,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"François, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Bourbon,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Charles, Count of Soissons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles,_Count_of_Soissons"},{"link_name":"Henri, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_II,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Louis, Count of Soissons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Count_of_Soissons"},{"link_name":"Louis, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Armand, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Louis, Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Henri Jules, Prince of Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Jules,_Prince_of_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Louis Armand, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Armand_I,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"François Louis, Prince of Conti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Louis,_Prince_of_Conti"},{"link_name":"Louis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Joseph,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Philippe, Duke of Vendôme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe,_Duke_of_Vend%C3%B4me"},{"link_name":"Louis, Duke of Orléans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Duke_of_Orl%C3%A9ans_(1703%E2%80%931752)"},{"link_name":"Louis, Duke of Bourbon, Prince of 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Female Piety and the Catholic Reformation in France. Routledge.vtePrinces of Conti\nFrançois (1581–1614)\nArmand (1629–1666)\nLouis Armand (1666–1685)\nFrançois Louis (1685–1709)\nLouis Armand (1709–1727)\nLouis François (1727–1776)\nLouis François Joseph (1776–1814)vtePrinces of the BloodGenerations are numbered by descent from Charles de Bourbon, Duke of Vendôme1st generation\nAntoine, King of Navarre\nFrancis, Count of Enghien\nCharles de Bourbon\nLouis, Prince of Condé\n2nd generation\nHenri, Prince of Condé\nFrançois, Prince of Conti\nCharles, Count of Soissons\n3rd generation\nHenri, Prince of Condé\nLouis, Count of Soissons\n4th generation\nLouis, Prince of Condé\nArmand, Prince of Conti\nLouis, Duke of Vendôme\n5th generation\nHenri Jules, Prince of Condé\nLouis Armand, Prince of Conti\nFrançois Louis, Prince of Conti\nLouis Joseph, Duke of Vendôme\nPhilippe, Duke of Vendôme\n6th generation\nLouis, Duke of Orléans\nLouis, Duke of Bourbon, Prince of Condé\nLouis Armand, Prince of Conti\n7th generation\nLouis Philippe, Duke of Orléans\nLouis Henri, Prince of Condé\nCharles, Count of Charolais\nLouis, Count of Clermont\nLouis François, Prince of Conti\n8th generation\nPhilippe, Duke of Orléans\nLouis Joseph, Prince of Condé\nLouis François Joseph, Prince of Conti\n9th generation\nLouis Philippe, Duke of Orléans\nPrince Antoine Philippe, Duke of Montpensier\nLouis Charles, Count of Beaujolais\nLouis Henri, Prince of Condé\n10th generation\nFerdinand Philippe, Duke of Orléans\nLouis, Duke of Nemours\nFrançois d'Orléans, Prince of Joinville\nCharles, Duke of Penthièvre\nHenri d'Orléans, Duke of Aumale\nAntoine, Duke of Montpensier\nLouis Antoine Henri, Duke of Enghien\n*died without issueAuthority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nSpain\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nBelgium\n2\nUnited States\nSweden\nCzech Republic\nNetherlands\nPoland\nPortugal\nVatican\nArtists\nKulturNav\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nOther\nSNAC\nIdRef","title":"Sources"}]	[{"image_text":"Coat-of-arms for Armand, Prince of Conti.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Blason_Armand%2C_prince_de_Conti_%281626_%E2%80%A0_1666%29.svg/140px-Blason_Armand%2C_prince_de_Conti_%281626_%E2%80%A0_1666%29.svg.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"Menzies, Sutherland (2020-08-05). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant_Irish_nationalists	Protestant Irish nationalists	["1 Pre-Union background","2 From Emmet to the Fenians","3 Home Rule era (1870–1914)","3.1 Politicians","3.2 Artists","4 Independence era (1916–1922)","5 1940s","6 During the Troubles","7 Republic of Ireland","8 Protestant nationalist converts to Roman Catholicism","9 See also","10 References","10.1 Sources"]	This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Protestant Irish nationalists" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (March 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A portrait of Wolfe Tone Protestant Irish Nationalists are adherents of Protestantism in Ireland who also support Irish nationalism. Protestants have played a large role in the development of Irish nationalism since the eighteenth century, despite most Irish nationalists historically being from the Irish Catholic majority, as well as most Irish Protestants usually tending toward unionism in Ireland. Protestant nationalists (or patriots, particularly before the mid-19th century) have consistently been influential supporters and leaders of various movements for the political independence of Ireland from Great Britain. Historically, these movements ranged from supporting the legislative independence of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, to a form of home rule within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to complete independence in an Irish Republic and (since the partition of Ireland) a United Ireland. Despite their relatively small numbers, individual Protestants have made important contributions to key events in Irish nationalist history, such as Wolfe Tone during the 1798 rebellion, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Home Rule movement, and Erskine Childers and the 1916 Easter Rising. In Northern Ireland, the vast majority of Ulster Protestants are unionist and vote for unionist parties. In 2008, only 4% of Protestants in Northern Ireland thought the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be unification with the Republic of Ireland, whereas 89% said it should be to remain in the United Kingdom. All the various denominations of Protestantism in Ireland have had members involved in nationalism. The Anglican Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church of Ireland are the largest Protestant churches, and this remains the situation across the island of Ireland. The largest Protestant denomination is the Church of Ireland (having roughly 365,000 members, making up around 3% of the population of the Republic of Ireland, 15% of Northern Ireland, and 6.3% of the whole of Ireland), followed by the Presbyterian Church, with a membership of around 300,000, accounting for 0.6% of people in the Republic and 20% in Northern Ireland (6.1% of Ireland's population). Pre-Union background Henry Grattan In the eighteenth century the first attempt towards a form of greater Irish home rule under the British Crown was led by the Irish Patriot Party in the 1770s and 1780s, inspired by Henry Grattan. The Age of Revolution inspired Protestants such as Wolfe Tone, Thomas Russell, Henry Joy McCracken, William Orr, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the brothers Sheares, Archibald Hamilton Rowan, Valentine Lawless, and others who led the United Irishmen movement. At its first meeting on 14 October 1791, almost all attendees were Presbyterians, apart from Tone and Russell who were both Anglicans. Presbyterians, led by McCracken, James Napper Tandy, and Neilson would later go on to lead Ulster Protestant and Catholic Irish rebels in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Tone did manage to unite if only for a short time, at least, some Anglicans, Catholics and Dissenters into the "common name of Irishmen", and would later go on to try to get French support for a rising, first manifested in the failed French Bantry Bay landing of 1796. At that time, the French republicans were opposed to all churches. Such people were inspired by Thomas Paine of the American Revolution, who disapproved of organised religions in The Age of Reason (1794–1795) and preferred a deist belief. Although the United Irish movement was supported by individual priests, the Roman Catholic hierarchy was opposed to it, because of a growing rapprochement between Rome and London (one example of which was the funding of the new seminary in Maynooth by the British government in 1795). During the 1798 rebellion the military leaders were also largely Anglicans. After the initial battles in County Kildare the rebels holding out in the Bog of Allen were led by William Aylmer. In Antrim and Down the rebels were almost all Presbyterians, and at the Battle of Ballynahinch the local Catholic Defenders decided not to take part. In County Wexford, which remained out of British control for a month, the main planners were Bagenal Harvey and Anthony Perry. Joseph Holt led the rebels in County Wicklow, and Sir Edward Crosbie was hanged, having been wrongfully accused of leading a rebel force in County Carlow. Only in County Mayo, where there were few Protestants, was the rebellion led entirely by Catholics, and it only developed there because of the landing by a French force under General Humbert, who was assisted by Captain Bartholomew Teeling. The disarming of Ulster saw several hundred Protestants tortured, executed and imprisoned for their United Irish sympathies. The rebellion became the main reason for the Acts of Union, which passed in 1800. From Emmet to the Fenians In 1803 Robert Emmet, brother of Thomas Addis Emmet, attempted an insurrection in Dublin. Jemmy Hope tried to raise the districts of the north where the Presbyterian spirit of republican resistance had run strongest in the 1790s, but found no response. The democratic and non-violent Repeal Association led by Daniel O'Connell in the 1830s and 1840s was supported by a number of Protestants; the most eminent being John Gray, who later supported Butt and Parnell (see below), and others such as James Haughton. Several younger Protestant Repealers, grouped around Charles Gavan Duffy's paper, the Nation, were disaffected: wary of O'Connell's ready identification of Catholicism with the nation, and of the broader clericalism of the national movement. Referred to contemptuously by O'Connell as "Young Irelanders"--a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy which in 1849 had briefly imposed a republic on the Pope in Rome--they included Thomas Davis, John Mitchel and leader of the abortive 1848 rebellion William Smith O'Brien. In 1845 Davis famously clashed with O'Connell over "the Liberator's" denunciation of the "Queens Colleges", a "mixed" or non-denominational scheme for advanced education in Ireland. When Davis pleaded that "reasons for separate education are reasons for separate life", O'Connell accused him of suggesting it a "crime to be a Catholic". "I am", he declared, "for Old Ireland, and I have some slight notion that Old Ireland will stand by me". In the election of 1852 John Gray, then editor of the Freeman's Journal, at the urging of the Reverend David Bell stood on the platform of Tenant Right League in Monaghan. Bell found his appeals for unity in support of Gray could not prevail against calls of the Union in danger, and "No Popery". Of the 100 of his fellow Presbyterians who had signed the requisition asking Gray to stand, only 11 had the courage to vote for him. Despairing of constitutional means, in 1864 Bell was inducted into the Irish Republican Brotherhood by Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa. Escaping arrest, from 1865 he was in exile in the United States where, in contrast to John Mitchel who, already in Ireland, had defended American slavery against the abolitionism of Daniel O'Connell, Bell tried to associate physical-force Irish republicanism with the Radical Republican agenda of black enfranchisement and Reconstruction. Home Rule era (1870–1914) Politicians Charles Stewart Parnell The new Home Government Association was founded by Isaac Butt in 1870, who died in 1879. William Shaw presided over the convention held to found its successor, the Home Rule League, of which he was chairman. He was followed by Charles Stewart Parnell, the founder of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). H. H. Asquith called Parnell one of the most important men of the nineteenth century and Lord Haldane called him the most powerful man that the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland had seen in 150 years. Parnell led the Gladstonian constitutionalist Home Rule movement and for a time dominated Irish and British affairs. However, at the height of his power he was to be dethroned by the O'Shea divorce affair and died soon afterwards. Other Protestant Nationalist members of parliament were: Sir John Gray, Stephen Gwynn, Henry Harrison, Jeremiah Jordan, William McDonald, J. G. Swift MacNeill, James Maguire, Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony, Isaac Nelson, John Pinkerton, Horace Plunkett and Samuel Young. In 1903, with Thomas Sloan, Independent MP for South Belfast, R.Lindsay Crawford co-founded the Independent Orange Order. For Crawford, who became the new order's Grand Master, this, in the first instance, was a protest against co-optation of the established Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers. But he also saw it as an opportunity for Irish Protestants to "reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen". His commitment in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) to an "extended form of self-government" for Ireland proved too much for Sloan and his supporters, and Crawford was expelled. As a journalist in Canada and the United States Crawford was committed to the cause of Irish self-determination, and in the 1920s served as the Irish trade representative in New York. Several Protestant figures in the early Northern Ireland Labour Party were nationalists. These included MPs Jack Beattie, Sam Kyle and William McMullen and labour leaders James Baird and John Hanna. Meanwhile, trade unionist Victor Halley was a member of the Socialist Republican Party. Artists While not active nationalist supporters, authors who wrote about Irish life and history, such as William Wilde, Whitley Stokes, Standish James O'Grady and Samuel Ferguson helped to develop nationalist sentiment. From 1897 the artist and mystic George Russell (also known as "Æ") helped Horace Plunkett to run the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society. The IAOS rapidly grew into the main Irish rural co-operative body through which Irish farmers could buy and sell goods at the best price. Plunkett was also a cousin of George Noble Plunkett, father of Joseph Mary Plunkett. Horace Plunkett's home in County Dublin was later burned down in 1922 by anti-treaty Irish republicans during the Irish Civil War, as he had been appointed a Senator in the first Irish Free State Senate. Russell was also involved in the "Irish Literary Revival" (or Celtic Twilight) artistic movement, that provided an intellectual and artistic aspect supportive of Irish nationalism. This was also largely started and run by Protestants such as W. B. Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán O'Casey, Alice Milligan, and JM Synge, who also founded the influential but controversial Abbey Theatre that opened in 1904. "An Túr Gloine" (The Glass Tower) had a similar membership. The archetypal work of art that commemorated the 1916 Rising, though sculpted five years before the rising, is the statue of the dying mythical warrior Cuchullain, sculpted by Oliver Sheppard, a Protestant art lecturer in Dublin who had been a moderate nationalist for decades. Cast in bronze, it was unveiled at the GPO in 1935. Independence era (1916–1922) Countess Markievicz on stage, probably in the Abbey Theatre Sam Maguire inducted Michael Collins into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) in 1909. From 1928 the main prize for Irish football awarded by the Gaelic Athletic Association has been the Sam Maguire Cup. In 1908 Bulmer Hobson and Constance Markievicz founded the Fianna Éireann, intended as a nationalist Boy Scout movement. The Irish Volunteers were a paramilitary organisation established in 1913 by Irish Nationalists and separatists including Roger Casement, Bulmer Hobson and Erskine Childers, all Protestant Irish nationalists (although Casement, who had been secretly baptised a Catholic by his mother, officially converted to Catholicism just before he was hanged in 1916). The Irish Volunteers were formed in response to the formation of the Ulster Volunteers by Edward Carson and James Craig. The Ulster Volunteers were a Unionist paramilitary movement who feared a Dublin-centric, anti-Protestant Home Rule parliament in Dublin. The Irish Citizen Army existed from 1913–1947 and one of its creators was Jack White from Ulster, son of General George White. On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, 220 of the group (including 28 women) took part in the Easter Rising. Most of the rifles and ammunition used in the Rising had been imported from Germany in July 1914 by Erskine Childers on his yacht Asgard along with Conor O'Brien, Alice Stopford Green, Mary Spring Rice, Darrell Figgis and the former Quaker Bulmer Hobson. The rest of the rifles were shipped by Sir Thomas Myles, at the suggestion of the barrister James Meredith, and were landed at Kilcoole. In 1913 Hobson had sworn Patrick Pearse into the IRB; Pearse was one of leaders of the Rising. A prominent signatory to the Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921 that followed the Anglo-Irish war was Robert Barton, a cousin of Childers. A cousin of both, David Lubbock Robinson, was in the IRA and interned. He later became a Fianna Fáil Senator. In the subsequent Irish Free State governments Ernest Blythe, a former member of the Irish Volunteers, held various ministerial posts. Seán Lester was a League of Nations diplomat. The founder of the Gaelic League and first President of Ireland was Douglas Hyde. Dorothy Macardle opposed the 1921 Treaty and was a lifelong supporter of Éamon de Valera, writing his view of history in The Irish Republic (1937), but also refusing his suggestion to convert to Catholicism on her deathbed in 1958. Some like the Revd. Robert Hilliard fought in the Spanish Civil War in 1936–1939. Following independence, southern Protestant unionists accepted the new reality and worked with the new Free State from its difficult start in 1922–23. These included judges such as Lord Glenavy, whose suggestions for a new law courts system was enacted as the Courts Act 1924, and twenty accepted nominations to the new Senate, such as Lord Mayo. 1940s In 1941, writer Denis Ireland, son of a wealthy manufacturer and steeped in Unionist tradition, described himself as "a son of the Ulster Protestant industrial ascendancy". He founded the Ulster Union Club in Belfast to purportedly "recapture, for Ulster Protestants, their true tradition as Irishmen", it advertised a range of activities including weekly discussions and lectures on current affairs, economics, history and the Irish language, as well as dancing and music classes. A number of pamphlets were published and under its auspices Ireland contributed to various magazines, newspapers and radio programmes in Belfast and Dublin. The Club was mainly frequented by Protestants but, as the authorities soon discovered, it was a source of recruits to the IRA. UUC meetings were being attended by John Graham, a devout member of the Church of Ireland, who, at the time of his arrest in 1942, was leading a "Protestant squad", an intelligence unit, that was preparing the armed organisation for a new "northern campaign." In 1944, under Northern Ireland Special Powers Act, the UUC was suppressed. The club's premises, and the homes of Ireland and other prominent members (among them Presbyterian clergymen, teachers and university lecturers) were raided by RUC Special Branch. Along with George Gilmore, and George Plant, Graham had been amongst a handful of Protestants who had come to the IRA through the minority Republican Congress. Plant was executed in 1942 by the Irish government for the murder of a suspected informer. In 1948 Denis Ireland entered the Seanad Éireann, the Irish Senate, for the republican and social-democratic Clann na Poblachta. As a senator, Ireland was the first member of the Oireachtas, the Irish Parliament, to be resident in Northern Ireland. During the Troubles In the North, Protestants participated in the early years of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Ivan Cooper was among its co-founders in 1970. Billy Leonard, a former Seventh-day Adventist lay-preacher and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist, whose wife and children are Catholics, was elected in 2001 to Coleraine Borough Council as an SDLP representative for the Skerries area. Citing lack of emphasis on Irish unity he joined Sinn Féin in 2004. The party nominated him to succeed Francie Brolly as an MLA for East Londonderry in 2010. But citing disagreements "over support arrangements for MLAs' wages and expenses", and complaining that "the tentacles of the Army Council still run throughout" the republican party he soon resigned. Ronnie Bunting, son of Ronald Bunting, a close associate of Ian Paisley, became a member of the Official IRA in the early 1970s and was a founder-member of the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) in 1974. He was assassinated by the Ulster Defence Association in 1980. Also assassinated by the UDA in 1980, John Turnley, scion of a wealthy Protestant family and a former British Army officer, joined in SDLP in 1972. At the time he was killed, Turnley was chairman of the Irish Independence Party, co-founded with Frank McManus (former Unity MP for Fermanagh & South Tyrone) and Fergus McAteer (son of the former Nationalist Party leader Eddie McAteer)., and a leading member of the National H-Blocks Committee supporting the IRA blanket protest. Jim Kerr, born into a middle-class Protestant family in Enniscorthy, County Wexford, joined the IRA in the late 1930s and was interned at the Curragh Camp during World War II. Kerr, a socialist and member of the Connolly Study Group at the Camp, like other left-wing IRA members, signed himself out to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Kerr was active in the Border Campaign of the late 1950s and became a close ally of young IRA member Seamus Costello. Kerr was employed as a blasting engineer at the Mogul Mines at Silvermines, near Nenagh, County Tipperary and was a shop steward with the Irish Transport and General Workers Union (ITGWU), involved in several industrial disputes in the early 1970s. Kerr, then a member of the Ard Comhairle of Official Sinn Féin, left with others in late 1974 to help found the Irish Republican Socialist Party (IRSP) and INLA. In 1975 Kerr was arrested for stealing gelignite explosive from Mogul Mines for the INLA and went on the run in continental Europe, building ties with left-wing militant groups and allegedly helping to transport weapons supplied by the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) to the INLA. Noel Jenkinson, from a County Meath Protestant background, emigrated to London in the 1950s and became involved in communist and Maoist politics. In 1969 he joined the IRA in London and in 1972 he was sentenced to thirty years in prison for the Official IRA's bombing of the headquarters of the 16th Parachute Brigade in retaliation for Bloody Sunday. David Russell was a Protestant Provisional IRA volunteer originally from Ramelton in Donegal and a Presbyterian. He was killed due to a premature bomb explosion in 1974 at a supermarket in Derry. Tom Berry was an Official IRA volunteer with Protestant background. He was killed by the Provisional IRA in east Belfast during the intra-republican feud in 1975. Harry Murray was a Provisional IRA volunteer from Tiger's Bay who had served in the Royal Air Force (RAF). Ronald Spence, nephew of Ulster Volunteer Force leader Gusty Spence, joined an auxiliary unit of the Official IRA and was later charged with involvement in a punishment shooting carried out in 1977. Spence had married a girl from the predominantly Catholic Short Strand area of Belfast when he was seventeen and joined a republican social club. Republic of Ireland Martin Mansergh, a member of the Church of Ireland, has been influential in formulating Fianna Fáil's policy on Northern Ireland since the peace process began in the 1990s. Sinn Féin TD for Clare Violet-Anne Wynne is Protestant. Presbyterian Fine Gael TD Heather Humphreys has referred to herself as a republican and nationalist on several occasions. Protestant nationalist converts to Roman Catholicism A number of Protestant nationalists also converted to Catholicism, for a variety of reasons: Lord Ashbourne Ada Beesley, the second wife of John Redmond Thomas Bennett Charles Bewley Joseph Biggar MP Aodh de Blácam (né Harold Blackham) Roger Casement Lillie Connolly, widow of James Connolly Charlotte Despard, sister of Viscount French (Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1918–21) Victor Fagg, prominent Irish republican (converted to Catholicism in 1943 to marry Una Daly, a member of the women's IRA group, Cumann na mBan) Father Patrick Fell, a Roman Catholic convert accused and later convicted in the 1970s of being a commander of an Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) active service unit; later became a priest. Mabel McConnell FitzGerald, wife of Desmond FitzGerald and mother of Garret FitzGerald Grace Gifford, sister of Muriel, wife of Joseph Plunkett Katherine Anna ("Katie") Gifford, Mrs Wilson (1875–1957), Irish republican, civil servant, and teacher; sister of Grace and Muriel Gifford Muriel Gifford, sister of Grace, wife of Thomas MacDonagh Maud Gonne, wife of John MacBride, mother of Seán MacBride, and mother-in-law of Francis Stuart Edmund Dwyer Gray, son of the Protestant nationalist, Sir John Gray Hugh Law MP and TD Shane Leslie Seán Mac Stíofáin, born John Edward Drayton Stephenson in England to an English Protestant father and a mother of Ulster Protestant and Unionist. Constance Markievicz MP (abstentionist) and TD, first female elected as both Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony MP Gertrude Bannister Parry (cousin of Roger Casement) James Pearse, father of Patrick and Willie Pearse; converted to Catholicism (and, at least nominally, Home Rule) before marrying Margaret Brady (who, with her daughters, shared her sons' political beliefs and all became political activists) William Stockley Francis Stuart, son-in-law of Maud Gonne See also Alliance Party of Northern Ireland Catholic Unionist Unionism in Ireland Irish Unionist Party References ^ "Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2008". Ark.ac.uk. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2010. ^ "World Council of Churches". Oikoumene.org. Archived from the original on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2010. ^ "Presbyterian Church of Ireland". Presbyterianireland.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2010. ^ Dennis Gwynn, O'Connell, Davis and the Colleges Bill, Cork University Press, 1948, p. 68 ^ Macken, Ultan (2008). The Story of Daniel O'Connell. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781856355964. ^ Mulvey, Helen (2003). Thomas Davis and Ireland: A Biographical Study. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 180. ISBN 0813213037. ^ Bell, Thomas (1967). "The Reverend David Bell". Clogher Historical Society. 6 (2): 253–276. doi:10.2307/27695597. JSTOR 27695597. S2CID 165479361. Retrieved 3 October 2020. ^ Duffy, Charles Gavan (1883). Four Years of Irish History, 1845-1849. Dublin: Cassell, Petter, Galpin. pp. 500–501. Retrieved 4 September 2020. ^ Gleeson, David (2016) Failing to ‘unite with the abolitionists’: the Irish Nationalist Press and U.S. emancipation. Slavery & Abolition, 37 (3). pp. 622-637. ISSN 0144-039X ^ Knight, Matthew (2017). "The Irish Republic: Reconstructing Liberty, Right Principles, and the Fenian Brotherhood". Éire-Ireland (Irish-American Cultural Institute). 52 (3 & 4): 252–271. doi:10.1353/eir.2017.0029. S2CID 159525524. Retrieved 9 October 2020. ^ a b Courtney, Roger (2013). Dissenting Voices: Rediscovering the Irish Progressive Presbyterian Tradition. Belfast: Ulster Historical Society. pp. 286–287. ISBN 9781909556065. ^ a b Michael Farrell, Northern Ireland: The Orange State ^ *Plunkett Foundation history Archived 15 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine ^ "Directory of Members - 1919 - 2018 - Houses of the Oireachtas - Tithe an Oireachtais". www.oireachtas.ie. ^ "Ulster Union Club. A new Protestant movement." Irish Times, 19 February 1941. ^ Ulster Union Club. What is the Ulster Union Club? Belfast, Ulster Union Club. 1941). ^ Guy Woodward (2015), Culture, Northern Ireland and the Second World War. Oxford University Press. p. 221 ^ Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). The IRA. London: Macmillan. p. 178.. ^ Boyd, Andrew (2001). IRepublicanism and Loyalty in Ireland. Belfast: Donaldson Archives. p. 45. ^ Moroney, Michael (1988). "George Plant & The Rule of Law: The Devereux Affair (1940–42)". Tipperary Historical Journal: 1–12. Retrieved 13 March 2012. ^ "Coleraine Council Elections 1993-2011". www.ark.ac.uk. ^ "Ex RUC man becomes Sinn Fein MLA", BBC News, 19 November 2009. ^ How Orange RUC man joined and left Sinn Fein, Belfast Newsletter, 25 July 2012. ^ "IRA still have a big say in Sinn Fein says ex MLA and RUC man", belfasttelegraph.co.uk, 21 June 2012; retrieved 11 August 2012. ^ Beresford, David (16 October 1980). "Leading Republicans Killed in Belfast". The Guardian. London. p. 1. ^ "Beginning of the End". Irishdemocrat.co.uk. Retrieved 9 January 2010. ^ Irish Independence Party Irish Election Literature ^ "The life of Republican Socialist Jim Kerr", Sam McGrath, 30 June 2021. ^ Brian Hanley and Scott Millar, The Lost Revolution: The Story of the Official IRA and the Workers' Party. Penguin UK, 2009. ^ Sutton, Malcolm. "CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths". cain.ulst.ac.uk. ^ "Two Are Shot Dead in Belfast As Factions in the I.R.A. Feud". The New York Times. November 1975. ^ Hanley, Brian; Millar, Scott (3 September 2009). The Lost Revolution: The Story of the Official IRA and the Workers' Party. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141935010 – via Google Books. ^ McDonald, Henry; Holland, Jack (29 June 2016). "I.N.L.A - Deadly Divisions". Poolbeg Press Ltd – via Google Books. ^ "Humiliating the IRA was a fatal mistake". 12 November 2020. ^ The Belfast Telegraph, 3 February 1981. ^ "Heather Humphreys: 1916 commemorations belong to all". Irish Times. 31 March 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2021. ^ "Aodh de Blacam notes". Ricorso. 15 September 1991. Retrieved 9 January 2010. ^ Profile, GoneButNotForgotten.ie; accessed 3 June 2020. Archived 16 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine ^ Flanagan, Eimear (12 September 2019). "My grandfather helped form the Provisional IRA". BBC News. ^ Fagg, Morgan. "'The IRA was formed in my grandad's sitting room'". The Irish Times. ^ Katie Gifford: "Born 28 February 1875 at 12 Carlisle Avenue, Donnybrook, Co. Dublin, second child of Frederick and Isabella Gifford. She graduated from the RUI with an honours BA (1898), one of the first generation of Irish women to receive university education. A gifted linguist, she was fluent in several languages. She married (1909) Walter Harris Wilson, six years her junior, and went to live with him in his native Wales; they had no children. She converted to Roman catholicism on her marriage. After his death in the 1918 influenza epidemic, she returned to Ireland and became active in Sinn Féin and Cumann na mBan. As registrar of the first dáil loan, she worked closely with the finance minister, Michael Collins. She stood unsuccessfully in a north Dublin ward in the 1920 municipal elections. She was arrested in early 1923 during the civil war, because, according to family tradition, she was mistaken for her better known and more politically active sister Grace; however, she continued to be detained after Grace's arrest. Imprisoned in Kilmainham jail and the North Dublin Union, Katie, probably owing to her education, maturity of years, and skills in negotiation, was appointed a prisoners' CO, serving on the Cumann na mBan prisoners' council. She was released in September 1923, one month after Grace's release." ^ "Seán MacStiofáin". The Telegraph. 18 May 2001. Sources O'Broin, Leon; Protestant Nationalists in Revolutionary Ireland, Barnes & Noble 1985, ISBN 978-0-389-20569-2	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Theobald_Wolfe_Tone.PNG"},{"link_name":"Wolfe Tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfe_Tone"},{"link_name":"Protestantism in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_nationalism"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"Irish Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Catholic"},{"link_name":"unionism in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ireland"},{"link_name":"Great Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"home rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_rule"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republic"},{"link_name":"partition of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"United Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Wolfe Tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfe_Tone"},{"link_name":"1798 rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1798_rebellion"},{"link_name":"Charles Stewart Parnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stewart_Parnell"},{"link_name":"Home Rule movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_bills"},{"link_name":"Erskine Childers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Childers_(author)"},{"link_name":"Easter Rising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Rising"},{"link_name":"Ulster Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Protestants"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Presbyterian Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"A portrait of Wolfe ToneProtestant Irish Nationalists are adherents of Protestantism in Ireland who also support Irish nationalism. Protestants have played a large role in the development of Irish nationalism since the eighteenth century, despite most Irish nationalists historically being from the Irish Catholic majority, as well as most Irish Protestants usually tending toward unionism in Ireland. Protestant nationalists (or patriots, particularly before the mid-19th century)[citation needed] have consistently been influential supporters and leaders of various movements for the political independence of Ireland from Great Britain. Historically, these movements ranged from supporting the legislative independence of the Parliament of the Kingdom of Ireland, to a form of home rule within the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, to complete independence in an Irish Republic and (since the partition of Ireland) a United Ireland.Despite their relatively small numbers, individual Protestants have made important contributions to key events in Irish nationalist history, such as Wolfe Tone during the 1798 rebellion, Charles Stewart Parnell and the Home Rule movement, and Erskine Childers and the 1916 Easter Rising.In Northern Ireland, the vast majority of Ulster Protestants are unionist and vote for unionist parties. In 2008, only 4% of Protestants in Northern Ireland thought the long-term policy for Northern Ireland should be unification with the Republic of Ireland, whereas 89% said it should be to remain in the United Kingdom.[1]All the various denominations of Protestantism in Ireland have had members involved in nationalism. The Anglican Church of Ireland and the Presbyterian Church of Ireland are the largest Protestant churches, and this remains the situation across the island of Ireland. The largest Protestant denomination is the Church of Ireland (having roughly 365,000 members,[2] making up around 3% of the population of the Republic of Ireland, 15% of Northern Ireland, and 6.3% of the whole of Ireland), followed by the Presbyterian Church, with a membership of around 300,000,[3] accounting for 0.6% of people in the Republic and 20% in Northern Ireland (6.1% of Ireland's population).","title":"Protestant Irish nationalists"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Grattan.jpg"},{"link_name":"Henry Grattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Grattan"},{"link_name":"Irish Patriot Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Patriot_Party"},{"link_name":"Henry Grattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Grattan"},{"link_name":"Age of Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Wolfe Tone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theobald_Wolfe_Tone"},{"link_name":"Thomas Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Russell_(rebel)"},{"link_name":"Henry Joy McCracken","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Joy_McCracken"},{"link_name":"William Orr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Orr_(United_Irishman)"},{"link_name":"Lord Edward Fitzgerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Edward_Fitzgerald"},{"link_name":"the brothers Sheares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sheares_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Archibald Hamilton Rowan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Hamilton_Rowan"},{"link_name":"Valentine Lawless","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valentine_Lawless"},{"link_name":"United Irishmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_United_Irishmen"},{"link_name":"Presbyterians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterianism"},{"link_name":"Anglicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglicanism"},{"link_name":"James Napper Tandy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Napper_Tandy"},{"link_name":"Ulster Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Protestant"},{"link_name":"Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholicism_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish Rebellion of 1798","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1798"},{"link_name":"Dissenters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dissenters"},{"link_name":"Bantry Bay landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Bantry_Bay"},{"link_name":"opposed to all churches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dechristianisation_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Thomas Paine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Paine"},{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"The Age of Reason","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Reason"},{"link_name":"deist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deist"},{"link_name":"seminary in Maynooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_College,_Maynooth"},{"link_name":"County Kildare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kildare"},{"link_name":"Bog of Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog_of_Allen"},{"link_name":"William Aylmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Aylmer"},{"link_name":"Battle of Ballynahinch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Ballynahinch"},{"link_name":"Defenders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defenders_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"County Wexford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Wexford"},{"link_name":"Bagenal Harvey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bagenal_Harvey"},{"link_name":"Anthony Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthony_Perry"},{"link_name":"Joseph Holt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Holt_(rebel)"},{"link_name":"County Wicklow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Wicklow"},{"link_name":"Sir Edward Crosbie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Edward_Crosbie,_5th_Baronet"},{"link_name":"County Carlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Carlow"},{"link_name":"County Mayo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Mayo"},{"link_name":"General Humbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Humbert"},{"link_name":"Captain Bartholomew Teeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartholomew_Teeling"},{"link_name":"Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster"},{"link_name":"Acts of Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acts_of_Union_1800"}],"text":"Henry GrattanIn the eighteenth century the first attempt towards a form of greater Irish home rule under the British Crown was led by the Irish Patriot Party in the 1770s and 1780s, inspired by Henry Grattan.The Age of Revolution inspired Protestants such as Wolfe Tone, Thomas Russell, Henry Joy McCracken, William Orr, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, the brothers Sheares, Archibald Hamilton Rowan, Valentine Lawless, and others who led the United Irishmen movement. At its first meeting on 14 October 1791, almost all attendees were Presbyterians, apart from Tone and Russell who were both Anglicans. Presbyterians, led by McCracken, James Napper Tandy, and Neilson would later go on to lead Ulster Protestant and Catholic Irish rebels in the Irish Rebellion of 1798. Tone did manage to unite if only for a short time, at least, some Anglicans, Catholics and Dissenters into the \"common name of Irishmen\", and would later go on to try to get French support for a rising, first manifested in the failed French Bantry Bay landing of 1796.At that time, the French republicans were opposed to all churches. Such people were inspired by Thomas Paine of the American Revolution, who disapproved of organised religions in The Age of Reason (1794–1795) and preferred a deist belief. Although the United Irish movement was supported by individual priests, the Roman Catholic hierarchy was opposed to it, because of a growing rapprochement between Rome and London (one example of which was the funding of the new seminary in Maynooth by the British government in 1795).During the 1798 rebellion the military leaders were also largely Anglicans. After the initial battles in County Kildare the rebels holding out in the Bog of Allen were led by William Aylmer. In Antrim and Down the rebels were almost all Presbyterians, and at the Battle of Ballynahinch the local Catholic Defenders decided not to take part. In County Wexford, which remained out of British control for a month, the main planners were Bagenal Harvey and Anthony Perry. Joseph Holt led the rebels in County Wicklow, and Sir Edward Crosbie was hanged, having been wrongfully accused of leading a rebel force in County Carlow. Only in County Mayo, where there were few Protestants, was the rebellion led entirely by Catholics, and it only developed there because of the landing by a French force under General Humbert, who was assisted by Captain Bartholomew Teeling. The disarming of Ulster saw several hundred Protestants tortured, executed and imprisoned for their United Irish sympathies. The rebellion became the main reason for the Acts of Union, which passed in 1800.","title":"Pre-Union background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Robert Emmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Emmet"},{"link_name":"Thomas Addis Emmet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Addis_Emmet"},{"link_name":"Jemmy Hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Hope_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Repeal Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeal_Association"},{"link_name":"Daniel O'Connell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_O%27Connell"},{"link_name":"John Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gray_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"James Haughton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Haughton_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Charles Gavan Duffy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Gavan_Duffy"},{"link_name":"Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nation_(Irish_newspaper)"},{"link_name":"Young Irelanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Giuseppe Mazzini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giuseppe_Mazzini"},{"link_name":"Young Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Italy"},{"link_name":"republic on the Pope in Rome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Republic_(1849)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Osborne_Davis_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"John Mitchel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mitchel"},{"link_name":"1848 rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Young_Irelander_Rebellion_of_1848"},{"link_name":"William Smith O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Smith_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Freeman's Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman%27s_Journal"},{"link_name":"David Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bell_(Irish_Republican)"},{"link_name":"Tenant Right League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tenant_Right_League"},{"link_name":"Monaghan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Monaghan"},{"link_name":"Irish Republican [\"Fenian\"] Brotherhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Brotherhood"},{"link_name":"Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_O%27Donovan_Rossa"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"John Mitchel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mitchel"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"abolitionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abolitionism"},{"link_name":"Daniel O'Connell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_O%27Connell"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Radical [U.S.] Republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radical_Republicans"},{"link_name":"Reconstruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction_era"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"In 1803 Robert Emmet, brother of Thomas Addis Emmet, attempted an insurrection in Dublin. Jemmy Hope tried to raise the districts of the north where the Presbyterian spirit of republican resistance had run strongest in the 1790s, but found no response.The democratic and non-violent Repeal Association led by Daniel O'Connell in the 1830s and 1840s was supported by a number of Protestants; the most eminent being John Gray, who later supported Butt and Parnell (see below), and others such as James Haughton. Several younger Protestant Repealers, grouped around Charles Gavan Duffy's paper, the Nation, were disaffected: wary of O'Connell's ready identification of Catholicism with the nation, and of the broader clericalism of the national movement. Referred to contemptuously by O'Connell as \"Young Irelanders\"[4]--a reference to Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy which in 1849 had briefly imposed a republic on the Pope in Rome--they included Thomas Davis, John Mitchel and leader of the abortive 1848 rebellion William Smith O'Brien.In 1845 Davis famously clashed with O'Connell over \"the Liberator's\" denunciation of the \"Queens Colleges\", a \"mixed\" or non-denominational scheme for advanced education in Ireland. When Davis pleaded that \"reasons for separate education are reasons for [a] separate life\", O'Connell accused him of suggesting it a \"crime to be a Catholic\". \"I am\", he declared, \"for Old Ireland, and I have some slight notion that Old Ireland will stand by me\".[5][6]In the election of 1852 John Gray, then editor of the Freeman's Journal, at the urging of the Reverend David Bell stood on the platform of Tenant Right League in Monaghan. Bell found his appeals for unity in support of Gray could not prevail against calls of the Union in danger, and \"No Popery\". Of the 100 of his fellow Presbyterians who had signed the requisition asking Gray to stand, only 11 had the courage to vote for him. Despairing of constitutional means, in 1864 Bell was inducted into the Irish Republican [\"Fenian\"] Brotherhood by Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa.[7] Escaping arrest, from 1865 he was in exile in the United States where, in contrast to John Mitchel who, already in Ireland, had defended American slavery against the abolitionism of Daniel O'Connell,[8][9] Bell tried to associate physical-force Irish republicanism with the Radical [U.S.] Republican agenda of black enfranchisement and Reconstruction.[10]","title":"From Emmet to the Fenians"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Home Rule era (1870–1914)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CSParnell.jpg"},{"link_name":"Charles Stewart Parnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stewart_Parnell"},{"link_name":"Home Government Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Government_Association"},{"link_name":"Isaac Butt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Butt"},{"link_name":"William Shaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shaw_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Home Rule League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Rule_League"},{"link_name":"Charles Stewart Parnell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Stewart_Parnell"},{"link_name":"Irish Parliamentary Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Parliamentary_Party"},{"link_name":"H. H. Asquith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._H._Asquith"},{"link_name":"Lord Haldane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Haldane,_1st_Viscount_Haldane"},{"link_name":"Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Palace"},{"link_name":"United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Gladstonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Ewart_Gladstone"},{"link_name":"Home Rule movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Home_Rule_bills"},{"link_name":"O'Shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katharine_O%27Shea"},{"link_name":"Sir John Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gray_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Stephen Gwynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Gwynn"},{"link_name":"Henry Harrison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Harrison_(MP)"},{"link_name":"Jeremiah Jordan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Jordan"},{"link_name":"William McDonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Archibald_Macdonald_(MP)"},{"link_name":"J. G. Swift MacNeill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._G._Swift_MacNeill"},{"link_name":"James Maguire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Rochfort_Maguire"},{"link_name":"Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierce_Charles_de_Lacy_O%27Mahony"},{"link_name":"Isaac Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Nelson"},{"link_name":"John Pinkerton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pinkerton_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Horace Plunkett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Plunkett"},{"link_name":"Samuel Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Young_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Sloan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Sloan"},{"link_name":"MP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Parliament"},{"link_name":"South Belfast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belfast_South_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"R.Lindsay Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lindsay_Crawford"},{"link_name":"Independent Orange Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_Orange_Order"},{"link_name":"Orange Order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_Order"},{"link_name":"Ulster Unionist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Unionist_Party"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Courtney-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Courtney-11"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Jack Beattie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Beattie"},{"link_name":"Sam Kyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Kyle"},{"link_name":"William McMullen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_McMullen_(politician)"},{"link_name":"James Baird","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Baird_(trade_unionist)"},{"link_name":"John Hanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John_Hanna_(trade_unionist)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-farrell-12"},{"link_name":"Victor Halley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Halley"},{"link_name":"Socialist Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socialist_Republican_Party_(Ireland)"}],"sub_title":"Politicians","text":"Charles Stewart ParnellThe new Home Government Association was founded by Isaac Butt in 1870, who died in 1879. William Shaw presided over the convention held to found its successor, the Home Rule League, of which he was chairman. He was followed by Charles Stewart Parnell, the founder of the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP). H. H. Asquith called Parnell one of the most important men of the nineteenth century and Lord Haldane called him the most powerful man that the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland had seen in 150 years. Parnell led the Gladstonian constitutionalist Home Rule movement and for a time dominated Irish and British affairs. However, at the height of his power he was to be dethroned by the O'Shea divorce affair and died soon afterwards.Other Protestant Nationalist members of parliament were: Sir John Gray, Stephen Gwynn, Henry Harrison, Jeremiah Jordan, William McDonald, J. G. Swift MacNeill, James Maguire, Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony, Isaac Nelson, John Pinkerton, Horace Plunkett and Samuel Young.In 1903, with Thomas Sloan, Independent MP for South Belfast, R.Lindsay Crawford co-founded the Independent Orange Order. For Crawford, who became the new order's Grand Master, this, in the first instance, was a protest against co-optation of the established Orange Order by the Ulster Unionist Party and its alignment with the interests of landlords and employers.[11] But he also saw it as an opportunity for Irish Protestants to \"reconsider their position as Irish citizens and their attitude towards their Roman Catholic countrymen\". His commitment in the Magheramorne Manifesto (1904) to an \"extended form of self-government\" for Ireland proved too much for Sloan and his supporters, and Crawford was expelled. As a journalist in Canada and the United States Crawford was committed to the cause of Irish self-determination, and in the 1920s served as the Irish trade representative in New York.[11]Several Protestant figures in the early Northern Ireland Labour Party were nationalists. These included MPs Jack Beattie, Sam Kyle and William McMullen and labour leaders James Baird and John Hanna.[12] Meanwhile, trade unionist Victor Halley was a member of the Socialist Republican Party.","title":"Home Rule era (1870–1914)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Wilde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilde"},{"link_name":"Whitley Stokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitley_Stokes_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"Standish James O'Grady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standish_James_O%27Grady"},{"link_name":"Samuel Ferguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Ferguson"},{"link_name":"George Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_William_Russell"},{"link_name":"Horace Plunkett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horace_Plunkett"},{"link_name":"Irish Agricultural Organisation Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Agricultural_Organisation_Society"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"co-operative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-op"},{"link_name":"George Noble Plunkett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Count_Plunkett"},{"link_name":"Joseph Mary Plunkett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Mary_Plunkett"},{"link_name":"County Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Dublin"},{"link_name":"anti-treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty"},{"link_name":"Irish republicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_republicanism"},{"link_name":"Irish Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Irish Free State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seanad"},{"link_name":"Irish Literary Revival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Literary_Revival"},{"link_name":"W. B. Yeats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._B._Yeats"},{"link_name":"Lady Gregory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady_Gregory"},{"link_name":"Seán O'Casey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_O%27Casey"},{"link_name":"Alice Milligan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Milligan"},{"link_name":"JM Synge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Millington_Synge"},{"link_name":"Abbey Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Theatre"},{"link_name":"An Túr Gloine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_T%C3%BAr_Gloine"},{"link_name":"Cuchullain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuchullain"},{"link_name":"Oliver Sheppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Sheppard"},{"link_name":"GPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Post_Office_(Dublin)"}],"sub_title":"Artists","text":"While not active nationalist supporters, authors who wrote about Irish life and history, such as William Wilde, Whitley Stokes, Standish James O'Grady and Samuel Ferguson helped to develop nationalist sentiment.From 1897 the artist and mystic George Russell (also known as \"Æ\") helped Horace Plunkett to run the Irish Agricultural Organisation Society.[13] The IAOS rapidly grew into the main Irish rural co-operative body through which Irish farmers could buy and sell goods at the best price. Plunkett was also a cousin of George Noble Plunkett, father of Joseph Mary Plunkett. Horace Plunkett's home in County Dublin was later burned down in 1922 by anti-treaty Irish republicans during the Irish Civil War, as he had been appointed a Senator in the first Irish Free State Senate.Russell was also involved in the \"Irish Literary Revival\" (or Celtic Twilight) artistic movement, that provided an intellectual and artistic aspect supportive of Irish nationalism. This was also largely started and run by Protestants such as W. B. Yeats, Lady Gregory, Seán O'Casey, Alice Milligan, and JM Synge, who also founded the influential but controversial Abbey Theatre that opened in 1904. \"An Túr Gloine\" (The Glass Tower) had a similar membership.The archetypal work of art that commemorated the 1916 Rising, though sculpted five years before the rising, is the statue of the dying mythical warrior Cuchullain, sculpted by Oliver Sheppard, a Protestant art lecturer in Dublin who had been a moderate nationalist for decades. Cast in bronze, it was unveiled at the GPO in 1935.","title":"Home Rule era (1870–1914)"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Countess_Markievicz.jpg"},{"link_name":"Countess Markievicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_Markievicz"},{"link_name":"Abbey Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbey_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Sam Maguire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Maguire"},{"link_name":"Michael Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Collins_(Irish_leader)"},{"link_name":"Irish Republican Brotherhood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Brotherhood"},{"link_name":"Gaelic Athletic Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_Athletic_Association"},{"link_name":"Sam Maguire Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Maguire_Cup"},{"link_name":"Bulmer Hobson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulmer_Hobson"},{"link_name":"Constance Markievicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_Markievicz"},{"link_name":"Fianna Éireann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna_%C3%89ireann"},{"link_name":"Irish Volunteers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Volunteers"},{"link_name":"Roger Casement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Casement"},{"link_name":"Erskine Childers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Childers_(author)"},{"link_name":"Ulster Volunteers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Volunteers"},{"link_name":"Edward Carson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Carson"},{"link_name":"James Craig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Craig,_1st_Viscount_Craigavon"},{"link_name":"Unionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Irish Citizen Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Citizen_Army"},{"link_name":"Jack White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_White_(labour_unionist)"},{"link_name":"Easter Rising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter_Rising"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Germany"},{"link_name":"Erskine Childers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erskine_Childers_(author)"},{"link_name":"Asgard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asgard_(yacht)"},{"link_name":"Conor O'Brien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Conor_Marshall_O%27Brien"},{"link_name":"Alice Stopford Green","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Stopford_Green"},{"link_name":"Mary Spring Rice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Spring_Rice"},{"link_name":"Darrell Figgis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darrell_Figgis"},{"link_name":"Quaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quaker"},{"link_name":"Sir Thomas Myles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Myles"},{"link_name":"James Meredith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Creed_Meredith"},{"link_name":"Kilcoole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilcoole"},{"link_name":"Patrick Pearse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Pearse"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Irish Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_Treaty"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Irish war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Irish_war"},{"link_name":"Robert Barton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Barton"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Irish Free State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Free_State"},{"link_name":"Ernest Blythe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Blythe"},{"link_name":"Seán Lester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester"},{"link_name":"League of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"Gaelic League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaelic_League"},{"link_name":"President of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Douglas Hyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Hyde"},{"link_name":"Dorothy Macardle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorothy_Macardle"},{"link_name":"Éamon de Valera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89amon_de_Valera"},{"link_name":"The Irish Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Irish_Republic_(book)"},{"link_name":"Robert Hilliard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hilliard"},{"link_name":"Lord Glenavy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Campbell,_1st_Baron_Glenavy"},{"link_name":"Courts Act 1924","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courts_of_Justice_Act,_1924"},{"link_name":"new Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann_(Irish_Free_State)"},{"link_name":"Lord Mayo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermot_Bourke,_7th_Earl_of_Mayo"}],"text":"Countess Markievicz on stage, probably in the Abbey TheatreSam Maguire inducted Michael Collins into the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) in 1909. From 1928 the main prize for Irish football awarded by the Gaelic Athletic Association has been the Sam Maguire Cup.In 1908 Bulmer Hobson and Constance Markievicz founded the Fianna Éireann, intended as a nationalist Boy Scout movement. The Irish Volunteers were a paramilitary organisation established in 1913 by Irish Nationalists and separatists including Roger Casement, Bulmer Hobson and Erskine Childers, all Protestant Irish nationalists (although Casement, who had been secretly baptised a Catholic by his mother, officially converted to Catholicism just before he was hanged in 1916). The Irish Volunteers were formed in response to the formation of the Ulster Volunteers by Edward Carson and James Craig. The Ulster Volunteers were a Unionist paramilitary movement who feared a Dublin-centric, anti-Protestant Home Rule parliament in Dublin.The Irish Citizen Army existed from 1913–1947 and one of its creators was Jack White from Ulster, son of General George White. On Easter Monday, 24 April 1916, 220 of the group (including 28 women) took part in the Easter Rising. Most of the rifles and ammunition used in the Rising had been imported from Germany in July 1914 by Erskine Childers on his yacht Asgard along with Conor O'Brien, Alice Stopford Green, Mary Spring Rice, Darrell Figgis and the former Quaker Bulmer Hobson. The rest of the rifles were shipped by Sir Thomas Myles, at the suggestion of the barrister James Meredith, and were landed at Kilcoole. In 1913 Hobson had sworn Patrick Pearse into the IRB; Pearse was one of leaders of the Rising. A prominent signatory to the Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921 that followed the Anglo-Irish war was Robert Barton, a cousin of Childers.\nA cousin of both, David Lubbock Robinson, was in the IRA and interned. He later became a Fianna Fáil Senator.[14]In the subsequent Irish Free State governments Ernest Blythe, a former member of the Irish Volunteers, held various ministerial posts. Seán Lester was a League of Nations diplomat. The founder of the Gaelic League and first President of Ireland was Douglas Hyde. Dorothy Macardle opposed the 1921 Treaty and was a lifelong supporter of Éamon de Valera, writing his view of history in The Irish Republic (1937), but also refusing his suggestion to convert to Catholicism on her deathbed in 1958. Some like the Revd. Robert Hilliard fought in the Spanish Civil War in 1936–1939.Following independence, southern Protestant unionists accepted the new reality and worked with the new Free State from its difficult start in 1922–23. These included judges such as Lord Glenavy, whose suggestions for a new law courts system was enacted as the Courts Act 1924, and twenty accepted nominations to the new Senate, such as Lord Mayo.","title":"Independence era (1916–1922)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Denis Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Ireland"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Irish language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Gaelic"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Army_(1922%E2%80%931969)"},{"link_name":"John Graham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Graham_(Irish_republican)"},{"link_name":"Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"northern campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland Special Powers Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_Authorities_(Special_Powers)_Act_(Northern_Ireland)_1922"},{"link_name":"RUC Special Branch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RUC_Special_Branch"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"George Gilmore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gilmore"},{"link_name":"George Plant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Plant"},{"link_name":"Republican Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Congress"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-farrell-12"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Seanad Éireann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seanad_%C3%89ireann"},{"link_name":"republican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republicanism"},{"link_name":"social-democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy"},{"link_name":"Clann na Poblachta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clann_na_Poblachta"},{"link_name":"Oireachtas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oireachtas"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 1941, writer Denis Ireland, son of a wealthy manufacturer and steeped in Unionist tradition, described himself as \"a son of the Ulster Protestant industrial ascendancy\". He founded the Ulster Union Club in Belfast to purportedly \"recapture, for Ulster Protestants, their true tradition as Irishmen\",[15] it advertised a range of activities including weekly discussions and lectures on current affairs, economics, history and the Irish language, as well as dancing and music classes.[16] A number of pamphlets were published and under its auspices Ireland contributed to various magazines, newspapers and radio programmes in Belfast and Dublin.[17]The Club was mainly frequented by Protestants but, as the authorities soon discovered, it was a source of recruits to the IRA. UUC meetings were being attended by John Graham, a devout member of the Church of Ireland, who, at the time of his arrest in 1942, was leading a \"Protestant squad\", an intelligence unit, that was preparing the armed organisation for a new \"northern campaign.\"[18] In 1944, under Northern Ireland Special Powers Act, the UUC was suppressed. The club's premises, and the homes of Ireland and other prominent members (among them Presbyterian clergymen, teachers and university lecturers) were raided by RUC Special Branch.[19]Along with George Gilmore, and George Plant, Graham had been amongst a handful of Protestants who had come to the IRA through the minority Republican Congress.[12] Plant was executed in 1942 by the Irish government for the murder of a suspected informer.[20]In 1948 Denis Ireland entered the Seanad Éireann, the Irish Senate, for the republican and social-democratic Clann na Poblachta. As a senator, Ireland was the first member of the Oireachtas, the Irish Parliament, to be resident in Northern Ireland.[citation needed]","title":"1940s"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Social Democratic and Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_Democratic_and_Labour_Party"},{"link_name":"Ivan Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Averill_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Billy Leonard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy_Leonard"},{"link_name":"Seventh-day Adventist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seventh-day_Adventist_Church"},{"link_name":"Royal Ulster Constabulary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ulster_Constabulary"},{"link_name":"Coleraine Borough Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coleraine_Borough_Council"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elections-21"},{"link_name":"Sinn Féin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinn_F%C3%A9in"},{"link_name":"Francie Brolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francie_Brolly"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[IRA] Army Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IRA_Army_Council"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Ronnie Bunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_Bunting"},{"link_name":"Ronald Bunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Bunting"},{"link_name":"Ian Paisley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Paisley"},{"link_name":"Official IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_IRA"},{"link_name":"Irish National Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_National_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"Ulster Defence Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Defence_Association"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"John Turnley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Turnley"},{"link_name":"Irish Independence Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Independence_Party"},{"link_name":"Frank McManus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_McManus_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Unity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unity_(Northern_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Fermanagh & South Tyrone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermanagh_and_South_Tyrone_(UK_Parliament_constituency)"},{"link_name":"Fergus McAteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fergus_McAteer"},{"link_name":"Nationalist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalist_Party_(Northern_Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Eddie McAteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddie_McAteer"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"blanket protest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blanket_protest"},{"link_name":"Enniscorthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enniscorthy"},{"link_name":"interned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internment"},{"link_name":"Curragh Camp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curragh_Camp"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Connolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Connolly"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"invaded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Barbarossa"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Border Campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_campaign_(Irish_Republican_Army)"},{"link_name":"Seamus Costello","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seamus_Costello"},{"link_name":"Silvermines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvermines"},{"link_name":"shop steward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shop_steward"},{"link_name":"Irish Transport and General Workers Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Transport_and_General_Workers_Union"},{"link_name":"Official Sinn Féin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workers%27_Party_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"Irish Republican Socialist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Republican_Socialist_Party"},{"link_name":"Palestinian Liberation Organisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palestinian_Liberation_Organisation"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"County Meath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Meath"},{"link_name":"Maoist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maoist"},{"link_name":"bombing of the headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972_Aldershot_bombing"},{"link_name":"16th Parachute Brigade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16th_Parachute_Brigade_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Bloody Sunday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Sunday_(1972)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LR01-29"},{"link_name":"Provisional IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_IRA"},{"link_name":"volunteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_(Irish_republican)"},{"link_name":"Derry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derry"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Official IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_IRA"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Provisional IRA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provisional_IRA"},{"link_name":"volunteer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volunteer_(Irish_republican)"},{"link_name":"Tiger's Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiger%27s_Bay"},{"link_name":"Royal Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Ulster Volunteer Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Volunteer_Force"},{"link_name":"Gusty Spence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gusty_Spence"},{"link_name":"Short Strand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_Strand"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"In the North, Protestants participated in the early years of the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Ivan Cooper was among its co-founders in 1970.Billy Leonard, a former Seventh-day Adventist lay-preacher and Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC) reservist, whose wife and children are Catholics, was elected in 2001 to Coleraine Borough Council as an SDLP representative for the Skerries area.[21] Citing lack of emphasis on Irish unity he joined Sinn Féin in 2004. The party nominated him to succeed Francie Brolly as an MLA for East Londonderry in 2010.[22] But citing disagreements \"over support arrangements for MLAs' wages and expenses\",[23] and complaining that \"the tentacles of the [IRA] Army Council still run throughout\" the republican party he soon resigned.[24]Ronnie Bunting, son of Ronald Bunting, a close associate of Ian Paisley, became a member of the Official IRA in the early 1970s and was a founder-member of the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) in 1974. He was assassinated by the Ulster Defence Association in 1980.[25][26]Also assassinated by the UDA in 1980, John Turnley, scion of a wealthy Protestant family and a former British Army officer, joined in SDLP in 1972. At the time he was killed, Turnley was chairman of the Irish Independence Party, co-founded with Frank McManus (former Unity MP for Fermanagh & South Tyrone) and Fergus McAteer (son of the former Nationalist Party leader Eddie McAteer).,[27] and a leading member of the National H-Blocks Committee supporting the IRA blanket protest.Jim Kerr, born into a middle-class Protestant family in Enniscorthy, County Wexford, joined the IRA in the late 1930s and was interned at the Curragh Camp during World War II. Kerr, a socialist and member of the Connolly Study Group at the Camp, like other left-wing IRA members, signed himself out to join the Royal Air Force (RAF) after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union. Kerr was active in the Border Campaign of the late 1950s and became a close ally of young IRA member Seamus Costello. Kerr was employed as a blasting engineer at the Mogul Mines at Silvermines, near Nenagh, County Tipperary and was a shop steward with the Irish Transport and General Workers Union (ITGWU), involved in several industrial disputes in the early 1970s. Kerr, then a member of the Ard Comhairle of Official Sinn Féin, left with others in late 1974 to help found the Irish Republican Socialist Party (IRSP) and INLA. In 1975 Kerr was arrested for stealing gelignite explosive from Mogul Mines for the INLA and went on the run in continental Europe, building ties with left-wing militant groups and allegedly helping to transport weapons supplied by the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) to the INLA.[28]Noel Jenkinson, from a County Meath Protestant background, emigrated to London in the 1950s and became involved in communist and Maoist politics. In 1969 he joined the IRA in London and in 1972 he was sentenced to thirty years in prison for the Official IRA's bombing of the headquarters of the 16th Parachute Brigade in retaliation for Bloody Sunday.[29]David Russell was a Protestant Provisional IRA volunteer originally from Ramelton in Donegal and a Presbyterian. He was killed due to a premature bomb explosion in 1974 at a supermarket in Derry.[30] Tom Berry was an Official IRA volunteer with Protestant background. He was killed by the Provisional IRA in east Belfast during the intra-republican feud in 1975.[31][32][33] Harry Murray was a Provisional IRA volunteer from Tiger's Bay who had served in the Royal Air Force (RAF).[34] Ronald Spence, nephew of Ulster Volunteer Force leader Gusty Spence, joined an auxiliary unit of the Official IRA and was later charged with involvement in a punishment shooting carried out in 1977. Spence had married a girl from the predominantly Catholic Short Strand area of Belfast when he was seventeen and joined a republican social club.[35]","title":"During the Troubles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Martin Mansergh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Mansergh"},{"link_name":"Church of Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_of_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Fianna Fáil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fianna_F%C3%A1il"},{"link_name":"Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland"},{"link_name":"peace process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ireland_peace_process"},{"link_name":"Violet-Anne Wynne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violet-Anne_Wynne"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Martin Mansergh, a member of the Church of Ireland, has been influential in formulating Fianna Fáil's policy on Northern Ireland since the peace process began in the 1990s. Sinn Féin TD for Clare Violet-Anne Wynne is Protestant. Presbyterian Fine Gael TD Heather Humphreys has referred to herself as a republican and nationalist on several occasions.[36]","title":"Republic of Ireland"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Ashbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Gibson,_2nd_Baron_Ashbourne"},{"link_name":"John Redmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Redmond"},{"link_name":"Thomas Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Westropp_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Charles Bewley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bewley"},{"link_name":"Joseph Biggar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Biggar"},{"link_name":"Aodh de Blácam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aodh_de_Bl%C3%A1cam"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Roger Casement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Casement"},{"link_name":"James Connolly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Connolly"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Charlotte Despard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlotte_Despard"},{"link_name":"Viscount French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Denton_Pinkstone_French,_1st_Earl_of_Ypres"},{"link_name":"Cumann na mBan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumann_na_mBan"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Patrick Fell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Fell"},{"link_name":"Desmond FitzGerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desmond_FitzGerald_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Garret FitzGerald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garret_FitzGerald"},{"link_name":"Grace Gifford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grace_Gifford"},{"link_name":"Joseph Plunkett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Plunkett"},{"link_name":"Katherine Anna (\"Katie\") Gifford, Mrs Wilson (1875–1957), Irish republican, civil servant, and teacher; sister of Grace and Muriel Gifford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a3464"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Thomas MacDonagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_MacDonagh"},{"link_name":"Maud Gonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_Gonne"},{"link_name":"John MacBride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_MacBride"},{"link_name":"Seán MacBride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_MacBride"},{"link_name":"Francis Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Stuart"},{"link_name":"Edmund Dwyer Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Dwyer_Gray_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Sir John Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gray_(Irish_politician)"},{"link_name":"Hugh Law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Law_(Cumann_na_nGaedheal_politician)"},{"link_name":"Shane Leslie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shane_Leslie"},{"link_name":"Seán Mac Stíofáin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Mac_St%C3%ADof%C3%A1in"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Constance Markievicz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constance_Markievicz"},{"link_name":"Pierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierce_Charles_de_Lacy_O%27Mahony"},{"link_name":"Patrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Pearse"},{"link_name":"Willie Pearse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willie_Pearse"},{"link_name":"Home Rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Rule"},{"link_name":"William Stockley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Stockley"},{"link_name":"Francis Stuart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Stuart"},{"link_name":"Maud Gonne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maud_Gonne"}],"text":"A number of Protestant nationalists also converted to Catholicism, for a variety of reasons:Lord Ashbourne\nAda Beesley, the second wife of John Redmond\nThomas Bennett\nCharles Bewley\nJoseph Biggar MP\nAodh de Blácam (né Harold Blackham)[37]\nRoger Casement\nLillie Connolly, widow of James Connolly[38]\nCharlotte Despard, sister of Viscount French (Lord Lieutenant of Ireland 1918–21)\nVictor Fagg, prominent Irish republican (converted to Catholicism in 1943 to marry Una Daly, a member of the women's IRA group, Cumann na mBan[39][40])\nFather Patrick Fell, a Roman Catholic convert accused and later convicted in the 1970s of being a commander of an Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) active service unit; later became a priest.\nMabel McConnell FitzGerald, wife of Desmond FitzGerald and mother of Garret FitzGerald\nGrace Gifford, sister of Muriel, wife of Joseph Plunkett\nKatherine Anna (\"Katie\") Gifford, Mrs Wilson (1875–1957), Irish republican, civil servant, and teacher; sister of Grace and Muriel Gifford[41]\nMuriel Gifford, sister of Grace, wife of Thomas MacDonagh\nMaud Gonne, wife of John MacBride, mother of Seán MacBride, and mother-in-law of Francis Stuart\nEdmund Dwyer Gray, son of the Protestant nationalist, Sir John Gray\nHugh Law MP and TD\nShane Leslie\nSeán Mac Stíofáin, born John Edward Drayton Stephenson in England to an English Protestant father and a mother of Ulster Protestant and Unionist.[42]\nConstance Markievicz MP (abstentionist) and TD, first female elected as both\nPierce Charles de Lacy O'Mahony MP\nGertrude Bannister Parry (cousin of Roger Casement)\nJames Pearse, father of Patrick and Willie Pearse; converted to Catholicism (and, at least nominally, Home Rule) before marrying Margaret Brady (who, with her daughters, shared her sons' political beliefs and all became political activists)\nWilliam Stockley\nFrancis Stuart, son-in-law of Maud Gonne","title":"Protestant nationalist converts to Roman Catholicism"}]	[{"image_text":"A portrait of Wolfe Tone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Portrait_of_Theobald_Wolfe_Tone.PNG/200px-Portrait_of_Theobald_Wolfe_Tone.PNG"},{"image_text":"Henry Grattan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Henry_Grattan.jpg/150px-Henry_Grattan.jpg"},{"image_text":"Charles Stewart Parnell","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/CSParnell.jpg"},{"image_text":"Countess Markievicz on stage, probably in the Abbey Theatre","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Countess_Markievicz.jpg/150px-Countess_Markievicz.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Alliance Party of Northern Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliance_Party_of_Northern_Ireland"},{"title":"Catholic Unionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Unionist"},{"title":"Unionism in Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unionism_in_Ireland"},{"title":"Irish Unionist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Unionist_Party"}]	[{"reference":"\"Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2008\". Ark.ac.uk. 4 June 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2008/Political_Attitudes/NIRELND2.html","url_text":"\"Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2008\""}]},{"reference":"\"World Council of Churches\". Oikoumene.org. Archived from the original on 5 September 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110905233538/http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/regions/europe/ireland/church-of-ireland.html","url_text":"\"World Council of Churches\""},{"url":"http://www.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/regions/europe/ireland/church-of-ireland.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Presbyterian Church of Ireland\". Presbyterianireland.org. Archived from the original on 27 September 2009. Retrieved 9 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090927091331/http://www.presbyterianireland.org/index.html","url_text":"\"Presbyterian Church of Ireland\""},{"url":"http://www.presbyterianireland.org/index.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Macken, Ultan (2008). The Story of Daniel O'Connell. Cork: Mercier Press. p. 120. ISBN 9781856355964.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781856355964","url_text":"9781856355964"}]},{"reference":"Mulvey, Helen (2003). Thomas Davis and Ireland: A Biographical Study. Washington DC: The Catholic University of America Press. p. 180. ISBN 0813213037.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ikdUr7-_bLkC&pg=PA180","url_text":"Thomas Davis and Ireland: A Biographical Study"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0813213037","url_text":"0813213037"}]},{"reference":"Bell, Thomas (1967). \"The Reverend David Bell\". Clogher Historical Society. 6 (2): 253–276. doi:10.2307/27695597. JSTOR 27695597. S2CID 165479361. Retrieved 3 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/27695597","url_text":"\"The Reverend David Bell\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F27695597","url_text":"10.2307/27695597"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/27695597","url_text":"27695597"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165479361","url_text":"165479361"}]},{"reference":"Duffy, Charles Gavan (1883). Four Years of Irish History, 1845-1849. Dublin: Cassell, Petter, Galpin. pp. 500–501. Retrieved 4 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=WLWeAQAACAAJ","url_text":"Four Years of Irish History, 1845-1849"}]},{"reference":"Knight, Matthew (2017). \"The Irish Republic: Reconstructing Liberty, Right Principles, and the Fenian Brotherhood\". Éire-Ireland (Irish-American Cultural Institute). 52 (3 & 4): 252–271. doi:10.1353/eir.2017.0029. S2CID 159525524. Retrieved 9 October 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://muse.jhu.edu/article/680371/summary","url_text":"\"The Irish Republic: Reconstructing Liberty, Right Principles, and the Fenian Brotherhood\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1353%2Feir.2017.0029","url_text":"10.1353/eir.2017.0029"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159525524","url_text":"159525524"}]},{"reference":"Courtney, Roger (2013). Dissenting Voices: Rediscovering the Irish Progressive Presbyterian Tradition. Belfast: Ulster Historical Society. pp. 286–287. ISBN 9781909556065.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781909556065","url_text":"9781909556065"}]},{"reference":"\"Directory of Members - 1919 - 2018 - Houses of the Oireachtas - Tithe an Oireachtais\". www.oireachtas.ie.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oireachtas.ie/members-hist/default.asp?MemberFirstName=david+&MemberName=robinson&disp=src&housetype=&HouseNum=&ConstID=","url_text":"\"Directory of Members - 1919 - 2018 - Houses of the Oireachtas - Tithe an Oireachtais\""}]},{"reference":"Coogan, Tim Pat (2002). The IRA. London: Macmillan. p. 178.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Boyd, Andrew (2001). IRepublicanism and Loyalty in Ireland. Belfast: Donaldson Archives. p. 45.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Moroney, Michael (1988). \"George Plant & The Rule of Law: The Devereux Affair (1940–42)\". Tipperary Historical Journal: 1–12. Retrieved 13 March 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.tipperarylibraries.ie/ths/thj1988.htm","url_text":"\"George Plant & The Rule of Law: The Devereux Affair (1940–42)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Coleraine Council Elections 1993-2011\". www.ark.ac.uk.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ark.ac.uk/elections/lgcoleraine.htm","url_text":"\"Coleraine Council Elections 1993-2011\""}]},{"reference":"Beresford, David (16 October 1980). \"Leading Republicans Killed in Belfast\". The Guardian. London. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Beresford_(journalist)","url_text":"Beresford, David"},{"url":"https://www.newspapers.com/image/259587493/?terms=Ronnie%2BBunting","url_text":"\"Leading Republicans Killed in Belfast\""}]},{"reference":"\"Beginning of the End\". Irishdemocrat.co.uk. Retrieved 9 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.irishdemocrat.co.uk/book-reviews/beginning-of-the-end","url_text":"\"Beginning of the End\""}]},{"reference":"Sutton, Malcolm. \"CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths\". cain.ulst.ac.uk.","urls":[{"url":"http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/sutton/chron/1974.html","url_text":"\"CAIN: Sutton Index of Deaths\""}]},{"reference":"\"Two Are Shot Dead in Belfast As Factions in the I.R.A. Feud\". The New York Times. November 1975.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1975/11/01/archives/two-are-shot-dead-in-belfast-as-factions-in-the-ira-feud.html","url_text":"\"Two Are Shot Dead in Belfast As Factions in the I.R.A. Feud\""}]},{"reference":"Hanley, Brian; Millar, Scott (3 September 2009). The Lost Revolution: The Story of the Official IRA and the Workers' Party. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141935010 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=r-fOXprvPmgC&q=berry","url_text":"The Lost Revolution: The Story of the Official IRA and the Workers' Party"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780141935010","url_text":"9780141935010"}]},{"reference":"McDonald, Henry; Holland, Jack (29 June 2016). \"I.N.L.A - Deadly Divisions\". Poolbeg Press Ltd – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hseNDAAAQBAJ&q=berry","url_text":"\"I.N.L.A - Deadly Divisions\""}]},{"reference":"\"Humiliating the IRA was a fatal mistake\". 12 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/humiliating-the-ira-was-a-fatal-mistake","url_text":"\"Humiliating the IRA was a fatal mistake\""}]},{"reference":"\"Heather Humphreys: 1916 commemorations belong to all\". Irish Times. 31 March 2015. Retrieved 4 October 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/heather-humphreys-1916-commemorations-belong-to-all-1.2159082?mode=sample&auth-failed=1&pw-origin=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.irishtimes.com%2Fopinion%2Fheather-humphreys-1916-commemorations-belong-to-all-1.2159082","url_text":"\"Heather Humphreys: 1916 commemorations belong to all\""}]},{"reference":"\"Aodh de Blacam notes\". Ricorso. 15 September 1991. Retrieved 9 January 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ricorso.net/rx/az-data/index.htm","url_text":"\"Aodh de Blacam notes\""}]},{"reference":"Flanagan, Eimear (12 September 2019). \"My grandfather helped form the Provisional IRA\". BBC News.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-49661860","url_text":"\"My grandfather helped form the Provisional IRA\""}]},{"reference":"Fagg, Morgan. \"'The IRA was formed in my grandad's sitting room'\". The Irish Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.irishtimes.com/news/ireland/irish-news/the-ira-was-formed-in-my-grandad-s-sitting-room-1.4012858","url_text":"\"'The IRA was formed in my grandad's sitting room'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Seán MacStiofáin\". The Telegraph. 18 May 2001.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1330782/Sean-MacStiofain.html","url_text":"\"Seán MacStiofáin\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22","external_links_name":"\"Protestant Irish nationalists\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Protestant+Irish+nationalists%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Irish_nationalists&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve it"},{"Link":"https://dib.cambridge.org/viewReadPage.do?articleId=a3464","external_links_name":"Katherine Anna (\"Katie\") Gifford, Mrs Wilson (1875–1957), Irish republican, civil servant, and teacher; 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Porta	Battle of Porta	["1 Background","2 Battlefield and opposing forces","3 The battle","3.1 8 June","3.2 9 June","4 Aftermath","5 Notes","6 References","7 Sources","8 External links"]	Coordinates: 39°28′N 21°37′E / 39.467°N 21.617°E / 39.467; 21.617Part of the Greek Resistance during World War II Battle of PortaDate8–9 June 1943LocationPorta–Mouzaki area, Italian-occupied Greece39°28′N 21°37′E / 39.467°N 21.617°E / 39.467; 21.617Result Greek Resistance victoryBelligerents Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) Royal Italian ArmyCommanders and leaders Georgios ZarogiannisDimitris TasosThanasis Koufodimos Giuseppe BertiUnits involved Pelion and Kissavos sub-commandsReserve ELAS forcesAgrafa sub-command as reinforcements and reserves 6th Lancieri di Aosta Cav. Reg. (two battalions)24th Pinerolo Inf. Div. (four battalions)Two Aromanian legionary companiesStrength 200–253 partisans 3,000–4,000 men (1st day), rising to c. 5,500 (2nd day)4 bomber & 1 recon. aircraftCasualties and losses 3 wounded 3 Italian soldiers and 5 Legionaries killedclass=notpageimage\| Location within Greece vteGreek resistanceMainland Greece Drama Ryka Mikro Chorio ESPO bombing Leivadi Gorgopotamos Bridge Fardykambos Meritsa Porta Animals Kournovo Tunnel Asopos Bridge Sarantaporos 22 July 1943 Athens protest Execution of Josef Salminger Kokkinia Menina Crete (Cretan resistance) Albumen Trahili Damasta Kidnapping of Heinrich Kreipe The Battle of Porta (Greek: Μάχη της Πόρτας) was fought on 8–9 June 1943 at the Porta and Mouzaki passes in western Thessaly, between the partisans of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the Royal Italian Army, during the Axis occupation of Greece. In spring 1943, a wave of successes demonstrated the rise of the Greek Resistance to the Axis powers, particularly the Italians; large areas of the mountainous interior of the country were effectively liberated. In response, the Italian 11th Army planned a large-scale anti-partisan operation for June. Warned of Italian intentions, ELAS General Headquarters withdrew its dispersed detachments to the central Pindus massif. In Thessaly the forces withdrawn from the Mount Pelion and Mount Kissavos areas were detailed to watch the Porta and Mouzaki passes, covering the withdrawal of the rest of the Thessalian partisans. Contrary to orders from ELAS GHQ to only engage in disruptive hit-and-run attacks against the Italian army, the commanders of these two detachments, numbering around 250 men with mostly light weaponry and scarce ammunition, decided to hold the passes against the expected Italian attack. Over two weeks, field works were erected in front of the passes and outposts established in the villages. The Italians moved against the Greek positions on 8 June, with around 4,000 men, both infantry and cavalry, from the 24th Pinerolo Infantry Division, with artillery and aviation support. Facing far superior numbers and lacking sufficient ammunition, the partisans were able to hold back the Italians at Porta on the first day, but at Mouzaki, the Italians forced them back and occupied the village. After reinforcements were brought in during the night, the Italians managed to advance on both flanks on 9 June, threatening to encircle the partisan position at Porta. The ELAS partisans withdrew to the mountains, but their actions had been successful in that the Italians, having suffered significant casualties, broke off their planned anti-partisan sweeps in the mountainous interior without continuing their advance. Background On 6 April 1941, following a botched Italian invasion in October 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Greece through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The Greek capital Athens fell on 27 April, and by June, after the capture of Crete, all of Greece was under Axis occupation. Most of the country was left to the Italian forces, while Bulgaria annexed northeastern Greece and German troops occupied the strategically most important areas. A collaborationist government was installed, but its legitimacy among the Greek people was minimal, and its control over the country compromised by the patchwork of different occupation regimes Greece was divided into. As early as the autumn 1941, the first stirrings of a resistance movement were registered, with attacks on isolated Gendarmerie stations in Macedonia in northern Greece. The establishment of large-scale resistance organizations in 1942, most notably the communist-dominated National Liberation Front (EAM) and its military wing, the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) began to challenge not only the collaborationist government's organs, but also the Italian occupation troops. The winter and early spring of 1943 saw a series of resistance successes against the Italians in the mountainous areas of mainland Greece, with battlefield victories such as at Fardykambos, or the liberation of towns like Karditsa (12 March), Grevena (24 March), and Metsovo (22 April). By 16 April an Italian report noted that "control throughout the north-east, centre and south-west of Greece remains very precarious, not to say nonexistent". As a result, the high command of the Italian army in Greece, the 11th Army in Athens, decided to mount a large-scale and concerted anti-partisan effort, aimed at hemming in the partisan forces in the Pindus mountain massif, and then launching coordinated and concentric attacks in Thessaly, Central Greece, and Epirus to clear the area. The operation would begin after 20 May, the deadline set by the new collaborationist government under Ioannis Rallis for partisans to surrender in exchange for a full amnesty. Consequently, the ELAS Central Committee issued orders to its regional headquarters to prepare for the attack, gathering the bulk of its forces in the Pindus massif, and relocating itself there, while leaving behind rear guards to obstruct the Italians. Central Committee member Kostas Karagiorgis informed the Thessaly Headquarters of ELAS of these decisions when it met at Porta on 17 May. Thus the partisan groups of western and eastern Thessaly—the Agrafa sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Ἀγράφων), the Koziakas sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Κόζιακα), the Kissavos–Mavrovouni sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Κισσάβου-Μαυροβουνίου) and Pelion–Karantaou sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Πηλίου-Καραντάου)—were ordered to move towards the area of Mount Smolikas, while leaving behind some forces to harass the Italians, and occupying some strategic passes, i.e, the Porta–Mouzaki pass and the Kalambaka–Diava pass. After the Italian operation began on 22 May, the eastern Thessalian forces—the Kissavos and Pelion sub-commands—were forced to cross the Thessalian plain in a three-day operation, moving only under cover of darkness. Battlefield and opposing forces The Portaikos river with the Ottoman-era footbridge The Porta Pass is formed by the Portaikos river as it descends from the Pindos mountains to the Thessalian plain. The village of Porta lies exactly at the entrance of the pass. In the 1940s, a narrow car road leading from Trikala to Pertouli passed near the village and crossed the river on a concrete bridge. The northern side of the pass, towards Koziakas, is nearly inaccessible except for narrow footpaths, but the southern side towards Agrafa is easier to traverse. The rear of the Porta defensive position could be attacked via the car road passing through the gap at Mouzaki allowed easy access to the village of Vatsounia. As a result, any defender of the Porta Pass against an opponent coming from the plain was also obliged to keep the Mouzaki–Porti area also under control to avoid being flanked. Dimitris Tasos (alias Mimis Boukouvalas), one of the ELAS commanders at Porta The defence of the pass was undertaken by the eastern Thessalian sub-commands of Pelion and Kissavos, which were closest to the area. The Koziakas sub-command was ordered to occupy the Kalambaka–Diava pass, while a detachment sent to the Agrafa area for procuring supplies was ordered to remain there and carry out harassing attacks. The ELAS forces deployed in the Porta–Mouzaki numbered in total 235 partisans, aided by four groups of Reserve ELAS fighters from the villages of Dousikos, Porta, Beletsi, and Mouzaki, but only the Dousikos group actually fought in the battle, as the others were used as covering forces and messengers. The two detachments of the Kissavos sub-command, reinforced by a squad from the Agrafa sub-command—8 squads in total—held the Porta straits, while the Pelion sub-command, likewise reinforced with a squad from Agrafa—6 squads in total—held the passes at Mouzaki. Typical for Greek resistance fighters during this time, their weaponry was a medley of different origins: Greek Mannlicher-Schönauer rifles, old French Lebel and even more antiquated Gras rifles, as well as rifles of Bulgarian, German and British provenance. Each squad had one sub-machine gun and one light machine gun, again of different types, from the World War I-vintage French Chauchat used by the Greek army, to captured Italian Breda 30s and British-supplied Brens. The only heavier armament was two Hotchkiss machine guns and an Italian mortar lacking aiming sights. One machine gun and the mortar were deployed at Porta, and the other machine gun at Mouzaki. The partisans were also short of ammunition; some fighters had as few as 15 bullets for their rifles; only 36 shells were available for the mortar, of which six misfired and had to be repaired during the battle; the light machine guns only had about 300 bullets, sufficient for a brief firefight at most; there was no ammunition for one of the machine guns, so the partisans' arms workshop shortened 3,500 German rounds by 2 millimetres (0.079 in) to be fireable by the machine gun. The commanders at Porta, as well as of the overall force, were Cavalry Captain Georgios Zarogiannis (nom de guerre "Kavallaris", 'horseman'), a veteran of the Greco-Italian War and head of the Kissavos sub-command, and Dimitris Tasos, better known by his alias of "Mimis Boukouvalas". During the course of the battle, a former General Staff colonel, Dimitrios Petroulakis, served in an advisory capacity; after the battle, despite being a committed royalist, he joined the ELAS General Headquarters as chief of staff. According to Boukouvalas' memoirs, given the small force at their disposal, the Thessaly Headquarters initially insisted that they only harass the Italians, but he and Zarogiannis insisted on standing and fighting at Porta as long as possible. To that end, a fortnight before the battle they began preparing extensive fieldworks covering a front of some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), running from north of Dousikos to Mouzaki. Telephone lines were laid to outposts in Dousikos, Mouzaki, and to Tyrna and Pertouli to their rear. Advanced detachments and horse patrols were sent out to gather supplies and reconnoitre the plain as close to Trikala as possible, and a telephone line was laid to the villages of Mikri Pouliana and Beletsi to warn of the approach of Italian forces. Headquarters reluctantly conceded them freedom of action, and Boukouvalas and Zarogiannis continued preparing their defences in the area. Since no timely reinforcements could be expected, the plan was to delay the Italian advance for as long as possible. The forces covering the Mouzaki area were instructed, if pressed hard, to begin an orderly retreat by pivoting towards the right, while keeping their left anchored to maintain contact with the Porta position. In early June 1943, the Italians held Trikala with a cavalry and an infantry regiment, with a couple of tanks, an artillery battalion, engineers and support services, with a further cavalry regiment at Simikli (now Polyneri). The morale of the Italian forces was low, but its command was aware, from spies and reconnaissance flights, that ELAS had left some small forces in the Porta–Mouzaki area and had begun erecting fieldworks there. In preparation for the anti-partisan sweeps, reinforcements were brought up from Larissa, including men of the so-called 'Roman Legion', an Aromanian ('Vlach') secessionist group sponsored by the Italians. Pack animals were requisitioned from the neighbouring settlements in preparation for an anti-partisan sweep. The forces amassed for the operation against Porta numbered two full infantry battalions from the Pinerolo Infantry Division, two battalions from the—partly motorized—Lancieri di Aosta cavalry regiment at Trikala, a field battery, two companies of Aromanian separatists, four bomber aircraft and one reconnaissance aircraft. The battle 8 June Italian infantry marching The Italians' plans became apparent on the night of 7 June, when their force began moving by road from Trikala to the village of Gortzi on the road to Petra. At about 01:00 on 8 June, the telephone operator from Poliana informed ELAS command of the Italian movement, and the partisans were alerted to occupy their positions. The Italians arrived at Beletsi at 04:30. In order to increase the psychological impact on the partisans, the Italian commander placed his cavalry in front, advancing at the double. At 05:30, men of an advanced detachment from Pelion, situated on the heights above Beletsi, opened fire on the advancing Italians, before retiring higher up the mountain side. Shortly after, Italian cavalry and motorcycle troops made contact with the defensive position of the Kissavos men at Petra. As Italian infantry followed up their advance guards, fighting developed both at Petra and at Mouzaki. Both sides made use of their heavy equipment, while the Italian aircraft also began attacks. The Greeks' mortar proved inaccurate, due both to the lack of sights and being unable to train because of the lack of ammunition. On the Porta sector, the Italians withdrew around noon, leaving only a detachment of 40 men to watch the entrance in a guardpost outside Porta. Shortly afterwards a group of five partisans led by "Peronosporos" ('mildew') managed to crawl up to them without being seen, surprise the garrison, and force them to withdraw completely. At about the same time, Lieutenant Georgios Nikitas took over the command of the partisan mortar and relocated it, greatly improving the accuracy and effect of its fire, which helped to scatter the Italian cavalry massing for an attack outside Beletsi in the afternoon. Repeated cavalry attacks between Porta and Dousikos were repelled by partisan fire before they came near the Greek positions. These were the last Italian attempts against Porta for that day. The Italians pressed their main attack in the direction of Mouzaki, and by noon had made some small progress. The commander of the Greek Pelion sub-command, Thanasis Koufodimos ("Petros Pilioritis") was wounded by a mortar fragment at c. 12:30, followed by another partisan, Dervisis. Despite his wound, Koufodimos remained in his post directing the battle until his replacement, Ioannis Katsantonis, arrived in the afternoon. Around noon, the Italians occupied the village of Mouzaki, which they plundered and torched. To avoid being surrounded and outnumbered, the Pelion squads began withdrawing to the ridge between Beletsi and Mouzaki and the village of Porti. In the evening, the Italians broke off their advance and withdrew to Beletsi and Mouzaki. 9 June ELAS partisans During the night Italian vehicles brought up more troops, including the cavalry regiment at Simikli and one infantry battalion each from Larissa and Volos, bringing the total force to 5,500 men, according to the testimony of Italian prisoners taken by the partisans. These reinforcements arrived during the morning. The partisans' shortage of ammunition, bad the day before, was now worse. According to Boukouvalas, messages were sent to the village of Prodromos, where the nearest ELAS force under the teacher Lepouchis was quartered. They requested he take his men to Lesiana, to the right and rear of the Italians, and attack them from there. However, Lepouchis put the proposal to a vote among his men, who rejected it as most expected that the Porta position could not be held. The partisans did receive a reinforcement of 60 men from Pertouli during the night, who took position on the eastern flank of the Porta position. At dawn, the Italians renewed their assault with artillery and air support. Their attack was aimed not only to the south against Mouzaki as on the previous day, but also to the north against Mount Koziakas, in a pincer movement against the partisan positions. The first assault was thrown back; Boukouvalas reported that the partisans could see the Italian commanding general landing in his liaison plane to bolster his men's morale. The Italians managed to reach Porti around noon and torch it, but their subsequent attempts to push forward into the southern flank of the Petra position were repelled. The role of the Hotchkiss machine gun, emplaced outside Porti and manned by "Flogas" ('flame'), proved crucial as its fire pinned down the Italian troops for the rest of the day. On the northern flank, however, the Italians had more success: cavalry squadrons reconnoitred the approaches to Mount Koziakas, finding that the partisans held only the area up to the villages of Dousikos and Lepenitsa. In the afternoon, two battalions launched an attack on the northern flank of the Porta position, captured the villages of Gorgyri and Xylopariko, and pushed on to the heights of Lepenitsa, from where the Italians and their Legionary auxiliaries could flank the ELAS forces at Dousikos; the ELAS forces withdrew higher up the mountain. After the squad defending the area ran out of ammunition, the Italians entered the village of Dousikos in the afternoon and set it on fire, threatening the defenders of Petra, who were also running low on ammunition, with only 2 to 5 rounds per rifle and no mortar shells. At the same time, on the southern flank the Italians applied renewed pressure on the Sklataina–Vatsinia axis, threatening to outflank the Porta position. Consequently the ELAS commanders ordered a withdrawal, which began at 17:00, in the direction of Tyrna. At 17:30 they blew up the road bridge over the Portaikos river to impede an Italian advance. The withdrawal was so fast that the Italians, busy torching the village of Porta, lost contact with the partisans. Once the Porta troops were safely withdrawn and a new defensive position established at Dramizi, the Mouzaki position was evacuated under cover of night. Aftermath According to EAM/ELAS members, the c. 250 partisans, fighting for two days against a vastly superior force, suffered only three wounded. The official number of Italian casualties recorded by the Hellenic Army History Directorate was three Italian soldiers and five Legionaries killed. Other sources give much larger figures: about 300 dead and wounded, including a major; the military commander of ELAS, Stefanos Sarafis, who was nearby at Tzourtza, claimed "almost 500" Italian dead and wounded, as well as the loss of many horses and an aircraft, although later in his memoirs he raised the number of Italian casualties to "approximately 700". The following day, the Italians torched the villages of Porta, Vatsinia, Chania, and Ropotania. Estimating the partisan forces present at many times their actual number, they made no attempt to enter the mountainous regions, and after gathering their dead returned to Trikala two days later. Only eight days later did 1,500 men from Trikala move against the Agrafa area, setting fire to the villages of Vounesi, Kanalia, and Mesenikolas. Near Vounesi they were confronted by some 30 partisans of the Agrafa sub-command. The partisans withdrew higher up the mountain after a first firefight; the Italians, suspicious of a larger ambush, broke off the operation and returned to their bases. For ELAS, the battle of Porta was of particular importance as the first time it confronted the Italians as a regular army in a "more or less full-scale defensive action", as Sarafis describes it, rather than hit-and-run ambushes. This marked the transformation and maturation of ELAS from a guerrilla force into "disciplined troops who knew how to fight", a fact readily recognized by the Italians themselves: the Italian commandant at Trikala remarked as much to the local Greek prefect, reprimanding him for not providing accurate information about the partisans. From then until the Italian armistice in September 1943, the Italian garrisons in Thessaly remained confined to the cities and gave up any further attempt at confronting the partisans. In the weeks after the armistice, the Italian forces in Thessaly began negotiating their going over to the partisans. Initially it was agreed that the Italian formations, the Pinerolo division and the Aosta cavalry regiment, would remain intact and retain their armament to fight against the Germans, but on 15 October the 1st ELAS Division forcibly disarmed them, encountering only brief resistance from the Aosta cavalry regiment and isolated garrisons in the area of Porta. Notes ^ This decision, or rather the manner of its implementation in Thessaly and Macedonia, where the partisan groups were withdrawn entirely from large areas, was a result of a mix of caution and inexperience of the ELAS cadres, and of confusion in the chain of command between EAM and ELAS hierarchies, and came under heavy criticism: not only did it force the partisans to break off contact with the occupying forces, but it also exposed the civilian population to reprisals, and allowed rival groups to be established in the areas vacated by ELAS. Some ELAS members in their post-war memoirs even attributed this to deliberate misinformation by the British Intelligence Service, aimed at allowing the rival EDES group, to which the British were more favourably disposed, to expand in the areas vacated by ELAS. ^ In his memoirs, Boukouvalas claims a total force of only 140 men, reinforced during the battle with 60 more. ^ According to the contemporary reports of the 11th Army, the Pinerolo division was classed as "incomplete" in terms of effectiveness in spring 1943, having only about 60% of the automobiles and pack animals on its table of organization and equipment, and 85% of personnel. ^ Following the Italian surrender, the Italian forces in Thessaly went over to ELAS, and partisans captured the military archives of the Aosta regiment. Based on these documents, they held its commander, Colonel Berti, as prisoner with the intention of trying him for war crimes, but he was released on the intervention of the British military mission. References ^ Mazower 1993, pp. 5–22. ^ Mazower 1993, pp. 103ff., 123ff.. ^ Eudes 1973, pp. 42–49. ^ Grigoriadis 1982, pp. 215, 218–219. ^ Mazower 1993, pp. 135–136. ^ a b c Grigoriadis 1982, p. 244. ^ Ballis 1981, p. 100. ^ Hatzis 1983, pp. 110–115. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 101–102. ^ a b Sevastakis 1978, p. 386. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 100–103. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 103–104. ^ Ballis 1981, p. 103. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 386–387, 389. ^ a b Ballis 1981, p. 104. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 50, 104–105. ^ a b c Sevastakis 1978, p. 387. ^ a b c Ballis 1981, p. 105. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 49, 387. ^ a b Grigoriadis 1982, p. 245. ^ a b c d Sarafis 1980, p. 130. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 48–50, 387. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 48–49, 387. ^ Bregantin 2010, pp. 267, 268. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 105–106. ^ a b c d Ballis 1981, p. 106. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 106–107. ^ a b c d Ballis 1981, p. 107. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 55, 389–390. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 56–57, 390. ^ Sevastakis 1978, p. 389. ^ Sevastakis 1978, p. 390. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 107–108. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 390–391. ^ a b c d Ballis 1981, p. 108. ^ Sevastakis 1978, p. 391. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 56, 391. ^ Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, p. 162. ^ a b Hatzis 1983, p. 110. ^ Sarafis 1980, p. 429. ^ Sevastakis 1978, pp. 58, 103. ^ Sevastakis 1978, p. 390 (note 3). ^ a b c Sevastakis 1978, p. 57. ^ Ballis 1981, pp. 108–109. ^ Ballis 1981, p. 109. ^ Eudes 1973, pp. 109–110. ^ Sarafis 1980, pp. 181ff., 199. Sources Ballis, Dimitrios E. (1981). Ο ΕΛΑΣ στη Θεσσαλία (in Greek). Athens: Synchroni Epochi. Bregantin, Lisa (2010). L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943 (PhD) (in Italian). Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia. Eudes, Dominique (1973). The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949. Translated by John Howe. New York and London: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-275-1. Grigoriadis, Solon (1982). Συνοπτική Ιστορία της Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944 (in Greek). Athens: Kapopoulos. OCLC 165816421. Hatzis, Thanasis (1983). Η νικηφόρα επανάσταση που χάθηκε (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Dorikos. Hellenic Army History Directorate (1998). Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος "Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ" . Athens: Hellenic Army History Directorate. ISBN 960-7897-31-5. Mazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06552-3. Sarafis, Stefanos (1980). ELAS: Greek Resistance Army. Translated by Sylvia Moody. London: Merlin Press. ISBN 9780850362442. Sevastakis, Alexis (1978). Καπετάν Μπουκουβάλας: Το αντάρτικο ιππικό της Θεσσαλίας (in Greek). Athens: Diogenis. External links Antonis Vogiazos (Director & Scenario), Angelos Kovotsos (Production Director), Vaso Kanellopoulou (Producer), Petros Antaios (Scenario), Nikos Svoronos (Historical Advisor) (1987). ΧΡΟΝΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΘΝΙΚΗΣ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΑΣΗΣ, Επεισόδιο 8: ΤΟ ΑΝΤΑΡΤΙΚΟ ΚΙΝΗΜΑ ΣΤΟ ΠΡΩΤΟ ΕΞΑΜΗΝΟ ΤΟΥ 1943 (in Greek). Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation. Battle of Porta segment with on-site shots and interviews of Mimis Tasos ("Boukouvalas"), Giorgos Zarogianis ("Kavallaris"), Leonidas Pappas, at 26:35–36:03. Retrieved 26 January 2019. vteGreece during World War II1940–1941 Balkans CampaignGreco-Italian War(1940–1941)Battles Pindus Elaia–Kalamas Korytsa/Korcë Saranda Morava–Ivan Himara Klisura Pass Trebeshina Italian spring offensive Hill 731 Leaders Greece Ioannis Metaxas Alexandros Papagos Charalambos Katsimitros Konstantinos Davakis Markos Drakos and Ioannis Pitsikas Dimitrios Papadopoulos Georgios Kosmas Italy Benito Mussolini Galeazzo Ciano Sebastiano Visconti Prasca Ubaldo Soddu Ugo Cavallero Carlo Geloso Units Greece 8th Infantry Division Epirus Army Section Western Macedonia Army Section Italy 9th Army 11th Army German invasion(April–May 1941)Battles Operation Lustre Metaxas Line Vevi Kleisoura Pass Thermopylae Crete Leaders Greece King George II Alexandros Papagos Konstantinos Bakopoulos Georgios Tsolakoglou British Commonwealth Henry Maitland Wilson Thomas Blamey Bernard Freyberg Germany Wilhelm List Sepp Dietrich Kurt Student Units Greece Eastern Macedonia Army Section Central Macedonia Army Section Epirus Army Section British Commonwealth 1st Armoured Brigade 2nd New Zealand Division 6th Australian Division Germany XVIII Army Corps XXXX Panzer Corps Luftflotte 4 1st Parachute Division 5th Mountain Division Occupation and collaborationOccupyingpowersLeaders andcommands Germany Günther Altenburg Hermann Neubacher Walter Schimana Alexander Löhr Army Group E Hellmuth Felmy LXVIII Army Corps Hubert Lanz XXII Mountain Corps Alexander Andrae, Bruno Bräuer and Friedrich-Wilhelm Müller Fortress Crete Max Merten Italy Angelico Carta Pellegrino Ghigi Piero Parini Carlo Geloso and Carlo Vecchiarelli 11th Army III Army Corps VIII Army Corps XXVI Corps Bulgaria Ivan Markov Trifon Trifonov Asen Sirakov Atrocities Kondomari Kandanos Alikianos Doxato Kommeno Kalavryta Lingiades Distomo Domenikon Drakeia Cephalonia (Acqui Division) Mesovouno Pyrgoi Vorizia Viannos Kallikratis and Kali Sykia Anogeia Kedros Kleisoura Haidari concentration camp Larissa concentration camp 200 of Kaisariani Chortiatis Economicexploitation Greek economy, 1941–1944 Great Famine GWRA DEGRIGES Compulsory loan Occupation Reichsmark The Holocaust Bulgarian-occupied Greece Thessaloniki Zvi Koretz Jewish cemetery of Salonica Baron Hirsch ghetto Expropriation of property Rescue of the Jews of Zakynthos CollaborationistgovernmentPeople Georgios Tsolakoglou K. Logothetopoulos Ioannis Rallis Georgios Poulos Friedrich Schubert Nikolaos Bourantas George S. Mercouris Ioannis Plytzanopoulos Sotirios Gotzamanis Organizations Security Battalions Hellenic Socialist Patriotic Organisation (ESPO) National Union of Greece (EEE) Greek National Socialist Party Secessionists Roman Legion Alcibiades Diamandi Nicolaos Matussis Vassilis Rapotikas Ohrana Andon Kalchev Cham collaboration Këshilla Xhemil Dino Atrocities Paramythia Executions of Kokkinia Resistance and Free GreeceNational LiberationFront (EAM)People Aris Velouchiotis Stefanos Sarafis Andreas Tzimas Georgios Siantos Alexandros Svolos Ilias Tsirimokos Markos Vafeiadis Evripidis Bakirtzis Organizations Communist Party of Greece (KKE) Socialist Party of Greece (SKE) Union of People's Democracy (ELD) Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) Greek People's Liberation Navy (ELAN) Political Committee of National Liberation (PEEA) and National Council United Panhellenic Organization of Youth (EPON) National Solidarity (EA) Organization for the Protection of the People's Struggle (OPLA) Slavic-Macedonian National Liberation Front (SNOF) Anti-Fascist Committee for a Free Germany (AKFD) Operations Drama uprising Ryka Mikro Chorio Gorgopotamos Bridge Meritsa Fardykambos Porta Sarantaporos Kournovo Tunnel 1943 Athens protest Pinerolo disarmament Steiri Agorelitsa Killing of Franz Krech Atrocities Feneos executions 5/42 Regiment dissolution Meligalas Kilkis Red Terror (Greece) Non-EAM resistancePeople Napoleon Zervas Georgios Kartalis Dimitrios Psarros Komninos Pyromaglou Antonis Fosteridis Kostas Perrikos Ilias Degiannis Vasileios Sachinis Lela Karagianni Konstantinos Ventiris Manolis Paterakis Petrakogiorgis Kimonas Zografakis Organizations National Republican Greek League (EDES) National Bands of Greek Guerrillas (EOEA) National and Social Liberation (EKKA) 5/42 Regiment Defenders of Northern Greece (YVE)/Panhellenic Liberation Organization (PAO) Panhellenic Union of Fighting Youths (PEAN) Prometheus II Apollo National Organization of Crete (ΕΟΚ) Hellenic Army (ES) Northern Epirus Liberation Front (MAVI) others... Operations ESPO bombing Gorgopotamos Bridge (Operation "Harling") Agia Kyriaki Milia Skala Paramythias Execution of Josef Salminger Xirovouni Trahili Menina Dodona Atrocities Expulsion of Cham Albanians British Military Mission (SOE)People Eddie Myers Chris Woodhouse Patrick Leigh Fermor Bill Stanley Moss Themis Marinos George Psychoundakis Jerzy Iwanow-Szajnowicz Operations Operation "Albumen" Gorgopotamos Bridge (Operation "Harling") Operation "Animals" Asopos Bridge (Operation "Washing") Kidnapping of Heinrich Kreipe Damasta sabotage Greek government-in-exileGreek governmentin exileEvents/Battles Mareth Line El Alamein Wadi Akarit Dodecanese April 1944 mutiny Rimini Symi Santorini People King George II Emmanouil Tsouderos Sofoklis Venizelos Panagiotis Kanellopoulos Thrasyvoulos Tsakalotos Christodoulos Tsigantes Pafsanias Katsotas Greek Armed Forcesin the Middle East 3rd Mountain Brigade Sacred Band Vasilissa Olga Adrias Katsonis Papanikolis 13th Squadron 335th Squadron 336th Squadron Liberation and road to the civil warPrelude to Civil WarEvents National Bands Agreement Plaka agreement Red Terror Lebanon Conference Caserta Agreement Operation "Manna" Percentages agreement Dekemvriana Treaty of Varkiza White Terror People Ronald Scobie Georgios Papandreou Archbishop Damaskinos Georgios Grivas Angelos Evert Nikos Zachariadis CommemorationEvents Ohi Day Museums Athens War Museum Holocaust Museum of Greece Kalavryta Massacre Museum Kalpaki War Museum Museum of the Battle of Crete and the National Resistance Thessaloniki War Museum Popular culture Aera! Aera! Aera! Captain Corelli's Mandolin film Ill Met by Moonlight film Ipolochagos Natassa Mediterraneo The 11th Day: Crete 1941 The Guns of Navarone film What Did You Do in the War, Thanasis?	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Greek_Resistance"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Greek_Resistance"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Greek_Resistance"},{"link_name":"Greek resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_resistance"},{"link_name":"Drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama_uprising"},{"link_name":"Ryka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Ryka&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Mikro Chorio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Mikro_Chorio&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ESPO bombing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Socialist_Patriotic_Organisation"},{"link_name":"Leivadi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Leivadi"},{"link_name":"Gorgopotamos Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Harling"},{"link_name":"Fardykambos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fardykambos"},{"link_name":"Meritsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Meritsa"},{"link_name":"Porta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Animals"},{"link_name":"Kournovo Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Destruction_of_the_Kournovo_Tunnel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Asopos Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Washing"},{"link_name":"Sarantaporos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sarantaporos_(1943)"},{"link_name":"22 July 1943 Athens protest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/22_July_1943_Athens_protest"},{"link_name":"Execution of Josef Salminger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Execution_of_Josef_Salminger&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Kokkinia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Kokkinia"},{"link_name":"Menina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Menina"},{"link_name":"Cretan resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_resistance"},{"link_name":"Albumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Albumen"},{"link_name":"Trahili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Trahili"},{"link_name":"Damasta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damasta_sabotage"},{"link_name":"Kidnapping of Heinrich Kreipe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidnapping_of_Heinrich_Kreipe"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Porta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porta,_Thessaly"},{"link_name":"Mouzaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouzaki"},{"link_name":"Thessaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaly"},{"link_name":"Greek People's Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"Royal Italian Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Italian_Army"},{"link_name":"Axis occupation of Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Greek Resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Resistance"},{"link_name":"11th Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Army_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Pindus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindus"},{"link_name":"Thessaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaly"},{"link_name":"Mount Pelion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pelion"},{"link_name":"Mount Kissavos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kissavos"},{"link_name":"24th Pinerolo Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_Pinerolo"}],"text":"Part of the Greek Resistance during World War IIvteGreek resistanceMainland Greece\nDrama\nRyka\nMikro Chorio\nESPO bombing\nLeivadi\nGorgopotamos Bridge\nFardykambos\nMeritsa\nPorta\nAnimals\nKournovo Tunnel\nAsopos Bridge\nSarantaporos\n22 July 1943 Athens protest\nExecution of Josef Salminger\nKokkinia\nMenina\nCrete (Cretan resistance)\n\nAlbumen\nTrahili\nDamasta\nKidnapping of Heinrich KreipeThe Battle of Porta (Greek: Μάχη της Πόρτας) was fought on 8–9 June 1943 at the Porta and Mouzaki passes in western Thessaly, between the partisans of the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) and the Royal Italian Army, during the Axis occupation of Greece.In spring 1943, a wave of successes demonstrated the rise of the Greek Resistance to the Axis powers, particularly the Italians; large areas of the mountainous interior of the country were effectively liberated. In response, the Italian 11th Army planned a large-scale anti-partisan operation for June. Warned of Italian intentions, ELAS General Headquarters withdrew its dispersed detachments to the central Pindus massif.In Thessaly the forces withdrawn from the Mount Pelion and Mount Kissavos areas were detailed to watch the Porta and Mouzaki passes, covering the withdrawal of the rest of the Thessalian partisans. Contrary to orders from ELAS GHQ to only engage in disruptive hit-and-run attacks against the Italian army, the commanders of these two detachments, numbering around 250 men with mostly light weaponry and scarce ammunition, decided to hold the passes against the expected Italian attack. Over two weeks, field works were erected in front of the passes and outposts established in the villages. The Italians moved against the Greek positions on 8 June, with around 4,000 men, both infantry and cavalry, from the 24th Pinerolo Infantry Division, with artillery and aviation support.Facing far superior numbers and lacking sufficient ammunition, the partisans were able to hold back the Italians at Porta on the first day, but at Mouzaki, the Italians forced them back and occupied the village. After reinforcements were brought in during the night, the Italians managed to advance on both flanks on 9 June, threatening to encircle the partisan position at Porta. The ELAS partisans withdrew to the mountains, but their actions had been successful in that the Italians, having suffered significant casualties, broke off their planned anti-partisan sweeps in the mountainous interior without continuing their advance.","title":"Battle of Porta"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian invasion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_invasion_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"invaded Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Axis occupation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axis_occupation_of_Greece"},{"link_name":"collaborationist government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_State_(1941%E2%80%931944)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazower19935%E2%80%9322-1"},{"link_name":"resistance movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Resistance"},{"link_name":"Gendarmerie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Gendarmerie"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"National Liberation Front","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"Greek People's Liberation Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_People%27s_Liberation_Army"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazower1993103ff.,_123ff.-2"},{"link_name":"Fardykambos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Fardykambos"},{"link_name":"Karditsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karditsa"},{"link_name":"Grevena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grevena"},{"link_name":"Metsovo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metsovo"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEudes197342%E2%80%9349-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982215,_218%E2%80%93219-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMazower1993135%E2%80%93136-5"},{"link_name":"11th Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/11th_Army_(Italy)"},{"link_name":"Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athens"},{"link_name":"Pindus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindus"},{"link_name":"Thessaly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessaly"},{"link_name":"Central Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Greece_(geographic_region)"},{"link_name":"Epirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epirus_(region)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982244-6"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Rallis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Rallis"},{"link_name":"amnesty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnesty"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981100-7"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982244-6"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978386-11"},{"link_name":"Kostas Karagiorgis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostas_Karagiorgis"},{"link_name":"Porta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porta,_Thessaly"},{"link_name":"Agrafa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrafa"},{"link_name":"Koziakas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mount_Koziakas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"el","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%8C%CE%B6%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BA%CE%B1%CF%82"},{"link_name":"Kissavos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Kissavos"},{"link_name":"Pelion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Pelion"},{"link_name":"Mount Smolikas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Smolikas"},{"link_name":"Mouzaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouzaki"},{"link_name":"Kalambaka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalambaka"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981100%E2%80%93103-12"},{"link_name":"Thessalian plain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thessalian_plain"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982244-6"}],"text":"On 6 April 1941, following a botched Italian invasion in October 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Greece through Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. The Greek capital Athens fell on 27 April, and by June, after the capture of Crete, all of Greece was under Axis occupation. Most of the country was left to the Italian forces, while Bulgaria annexed northeastern Greece and German troops occupied the strategically most important areas. A collaborationist government was installed, but its legitimacy among the Greek people was minimal, and its control over the country compromised by the patchwork of different occupation regimes Greece was divided into.[1] As early as the autumn 1941, the first stirrings of a resistance movement were registered, with attacks on isolated Gendarmerie stations in Macedonia in northern Greece. The establishment of large-scale resistance organizations in 1942, most notably the communist-dominated National Liberation Front (EAM) and its military wing, the Greek People's Liberation Army (ELAS) began to challenge not only the collaborationist government's organs, but also the Italian occupation troops.[2]The winter and early spring of 1943 saw a series of resistance successes against the Italians in the mountainous areas of mainland Greece, with battlefield victories such as at Fardykambos, or the liberation of towns like Karditsa (12 March), Grevena (24 March), and Metsovo (22 April).[3][4] By 16 April an Italian report noted that \"control throughout the north-east, centre and south-west of Greece remains very precarious, not to say nonexistent\".[5] As a result, the high command of the Italian army in Greece, the 11th Army in Athens, decided to mount a large-scale and concerted anti-partisan effort, aimed at hemming in the partisan forces in the Pindus mountain massif, and then launching coordinated and concentric attacks in Thessaly, Central Greece, and Epirus to clear the area.[6] The operation would begin after 20 May, the deadline set by the new collaborationist government under Ioannis Rallis for partisans to surrender in exchange for a full amnesty.[7]Consequently, the ELAS Central Committee issued orders to its regional headquarters to prepare for the attack, gathering the bulk of its forces in the Pindus massif, and relocating itself there, while leaving behind rear guards to obstruct the Italians.[a][6][10] Central Committee member Kostas Karagiorgis informed the Thessaly Headquarters of ELAS of these decisions when it met at Porta on 17 May. Thus the partisan groups of western and eastern Thessaly—the Agrafa sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Ἀγράφων), the Koziakas [el] sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Κόζιακα), the Kissavos–Mavrovouni sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Κισσάβου-Μαυροβουνίου) and Pelion–Karantaou sub-command (Ὑπαρχηγείον Πηλίου-Καραντάου)—were ordered to move towards the area of Mount Smolikas, while leaving behind some forces to harass the Italians, and occupying some strategic passes, i.e, the Porta–Mouzaki pass and the Kalambaka–Diava pass.[11] After the Italian operation began on 22 May, the eastern Thessalian forces—the Kissavos and Pelion sub-commands—were forced to cross the Thessalian plain in a three-day operation, moving only under cover of darkness.[6]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%86%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%B3._%CE%92%CE%B7%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"link_name":"Portaikos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Portaikos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"el","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%8A%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82"},{"link_name":"Pindos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pindos"},{"link_name":"Pertouli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertouli"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981103%E2%80%93104-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mimis_Boukouvalas.jpg"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981103-14"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981104-17"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981104-17"},{"link_name":"Mannlicher-Schönauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mannlicher-Sch%C3%B6nauer"},{"link_name":"Lebel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebel_Model_1886_rifle"},{"link_name":"Gras rifles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusil_Gras_mle_1874"},{"link_name":"sub-machine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-machine_gun"},{"link_name":"light machine gun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_machine_gun"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Chauchat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chauchat"},{"link_name":"Breda 30s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breda_30"},{"link_name":"Brens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bren"},{"link_name":"Hotchkiss machine guns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotchkiss_M1929_machine_gun"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis198150,_104%E2%80%93105-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978387-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981105-20"},{"link_name":"nom de guerre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nom_de_guerre"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197849,_387-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982245-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980130-23"},{"link_name":"Tyrna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elati,_Trikala"},{"link_name":"Pertouli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pertouli"},{"link_name":"Trikala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trikala"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197848%E2%80%9350,_387-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197848%E2%80%9349,_387-25"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978386-11"},{"link_name":"Larissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larissa"},{"link_name":"Roman Legion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Legion_(1941%E2%80%931943)"},{"link_name":"Aromanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aromanians"},{"link_name":"Vlach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vlachs"},{"link_name":"Pinerolo Infantry Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/24th_Infantry_Division_Pinerolo"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Lancieri di Aosta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/6th_Cavalry_Regiment_Lancieri_di_Aosta"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981105-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980130-23"}],"text":"The Portaikos river with the Ottoman-era footbridgeThe Porta Pass is formed by the Portaikos [el] river as it descends from the Pindos mountains to the Thessalian plain. The village of Porta lies exactly at the entrance of the pass. In the 1940s, a narrow car road leading from Trikala to Pertouli passed near the village and crossed the river on a concrete bridge. The northern side of the pass, towards Koziakas, is nearly inaccessible except for narrow footpaths, but the southern side towards Agrafa is easier to traverse. The rear of the Porta defensive position could be attacked via the car road passing through the gap at Mouzaki allowed easy access to the village of Vatsounia. As a result, any defender of the Porta Pass against an opponent coming from the plain was also obliged to keep the Mouzaki–Porti area also under control to avoid being flanked.[12]Dimitris Tasos (alias Mimis Boukouvalas), one of the ELAS commanders at PortaThe defence of the pass was undertaken by the eastern Thessalian sub-commands of Pelion and Kissavos, which were closest to the area. The Koziakas sub-command was ordered to occupy the Kalambaka–Diava pass, while a detachment sent to the Agrafa area for procuring supplies was ordered to remain there and carry out harassing attacks.[13] The ELAS forces deployed in the Porta–Mouzaki numbered in total 235 partisans,[b] aided by four groups of Reserve ELAS fighters from the villages of Dousikos, Porta, Beletsi, and Mouzaki, but only the Dousikos group actually fought in the battle, as the others were used as covering forces and messengers.[15] The two detachments of the Kissavos sub-command, reinforced by a squad from the Agrafa sub-command—8 squads in total—held the Porta straits, while the Pelion sub-command, likewise reinforced with a squad from Agrafa—6 squads in total—held the passes at Mouzaki.[15]Typical for Greek resistance fighters during this time, their weaponry was a medley of different origins: Greek Mannlicher-Schönauer rifles, old French Lebel and even more antiquated Gras rifles, as well as rifles of Bulgarian, German and British provenance. Each squad had one sub-machine gun and one light machine gun, again of different types, from the World War I-vintage French Chauchat used by the Greek army, to captured Italian Breda 30s and British-supplied Brens. The only heavier armament was two Hotchkiss machine guns and an Italian mortar lacking aiming sights. One machine gun and the mortar were deployed at Porta, and the other machine gun at Mouzaki.[16][17] The partisans were also short of ammunition; some fighters had as few as 15 bullets for their rifles; only 36 shells were available for the mortar, of which six misfired and had to be repaired during the battle; the light machine guns only had about 300 bullets, sufficient for a brief firefight at most; there was no ammunition for one of the machine guns, so the partisans' arms workshop shortened 3,500 German rounds by 2 millimetres (0.079 in) to be fireable by the machine gun.[18]The commanders at Porta, as well as of the overall force, were Cavalry Captain Georgios Zarogiannis (nom de guerre \"Kavallaris\", 'horseman'), a veteran of the Greco-Italian War and head of the Kissavos sub-command, and Dimitris Tasos, better known by his alias of \"Mimis Boukouvalas\".[19] During the course of the battle, a former General Staff colonel, Dimitrios Petroulakis, served in an advisory capacity; after the battle, despite being a committed royalist, he joined the ELAS General Headquarters as chief of staff.[20][21] According to Boukouvalas' memoirs, given the small force at their disposal, the Thessaly Headquarters initially insisted that they only harass the Italians, but he and Zarogiannis insisted on standing and fighting at Porta as long as possible. To that end, a fortnight before the battle they began preparing extensive fieldworks covering a front of some 4 kilometres (2.5 mi), running from north of Dousikos to Mouzaki. Telephone lines were laid to outposts in Dousikos, Mouzaki, and to Tyrna and Pertouli to their rear. Advanced detachments and horse patrols were sent out to gather supplies and reconnoitre the plain as close to Trikala as possible, and a telephone line was laid to the villages of Mikri Pouliana and Beletsi to warn of the approach of Italian forces.[22] Headquarters reluctantly conceded them freedom of action, and Boukouvalas and Zarogiannis continued preparing their defences in the area. Since no timely reinforcements could be expected, the plan was to delay the Italian advance for as long as possible. The forces covering the Mouzaki area were instructed, if pressed hard, to begin an orderly retreat by pivoting towards the right, while keeping their left anchored to maintain contact with the Porta position.[23]In early June 1943, the Italians held Trikala with a cavalry and an infantry regiment, with a couple of tanks, an artillery battalion, engineers and support services, with a further cavalry regiment at Simikli (now Polyneri). The morale of the Italian forces was low, but its command was aware, from spies and reconnaissance flights, that ELAS had left some small forces in the Porta–Mouzaki area and had begun erecting fieldworks there.[10] In preparation for the anti-partisan sweeps, reinforcements were brought up from Larissa, including men of the so-called 'Roman Legion', an Aromanian ('Vlach') secessionist group sponsored by the Italians. Pack animals were requisitioned from the neighbouring settlements in preparation for an anti-partisan sweep. The forces amassed for the operation against Porta numbered two full infantry battalions from the Pinerolo Infantry Division,[c] two battalions from the—partly motorized—Lancieri di Aosta cavalry regiment at Trikala, a field battery, two companies of Aromanian separatists, four bomber aircraft and one reconnaissance aircraft.[18][21]","title":"Battlefield and opposing forces"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"The battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Italian-soldiers-in-the-Yugoslavian-Front-in-Albania-391759053046.jpg"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981105-20"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978387-19"},{"link_name":"at the double","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/at_the_double"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978387-19"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981105%E2%80%93106-28"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981106-29"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981106-29"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981106-29"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981106%E2%80%93107-30"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981106-29"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981107-31"}],"sub_title":"8 June","text":"Italian infantry marchingThe Italians' plans became apparent on the night of 7 June, when their force began moving by road from Trikala to the village of Gortzi on the road to Petra.[18] At about 01:00 on 8 June, the telephone operator from Poliana informed ELAS command of the Italian movement, and the partisans were alerted to occupy their positions. The Italians arrived at Beletsi at 04:30.[17] In order to increase the psychological impact on the partisans, the Italian commander placed his cavalry in front, advancing at the double.[17]At 05:30, men of an advanced detachment from Pelion, situated on the heights above Beletsi, opened fire on the advancing Italians, before retiring higher up the mountain side.[25] Shortly after, Italian cavalry and motorcycle troops made contact with the defensive position of the Kissavos men at Petra. As Italian infantry followed up their advance guards, fighting developed both at Petra and at Mouzaki.[26] Both sides made use of their heavy equipment, while the Italian aircraft also began attacks. The Greeks' mortar proved inaccurate, due both to the lack of sights and being unable to train because of the lack of ammunition.[26]On the Porta sector, the Italians withdrew around noon, leaving only a detachment of 40 men to watch the entrance in a guardpost outside Porta. Shortly afterwards a group of five partisans led by \"Peronosporos\" ('mildew') managed to crawl up to them without being seen, surprise the garrison, and force them to withdraw completely.[26] At about the same time, Lieutenant Georgios Nikitas took over the command of the partisan mortar and relocated it, greatly improving the accuracy and effect of its fire, which helped to scatter the Italian cavalry massing for an attack outside Beletsi in the afternoon. Repeated cavalry attacks between Porta and Dousikos were repelled by partisan fire before they came near the Greek positions. These were the last Italian attempts against Porta for that day.[27]The Italians pressed their main attack in the direction of Mouzaki, and by noon had made some small progress. The commander of the Greek Pelion sub-command, Thanasis Koufodimos (\"Petros Pilioritis\") was wounded by a mortar fragment at c. 12:30, followed by another partisan, Dervisis. Despite his wound, Koufodimos remained in his post directing the battle until his replacement, Ioannis Katsantonis, arrived in the afternoon.[26] Around noon, the Italians occupied the village of Mouzaki, which they plundered and torched. To avoid being surrounded and outnumbered, the Pelion squads began withdrawing to the ridge between Beletsi and Mouzaki and the village of Porti. In the evening, the Italians broke off their advance and withdrew to Beletsi and Mouzaki.[28]","title":"The battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%91%CE%9C-%CE%95%CE%9B%CE%91%CE%A3.jpg"},{"link_name":"Volos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volos"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981107-31"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197855,_389%E2%80%93390-32"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981107-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197856%E2%80%9357,_390-33"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978389-34"},{"link_name":"pincer movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pincer_movement"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981107-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978390-35"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981107%E2%80%93108-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978390%E2%80%93391-37"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981108-38"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978391-39"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981108-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197856,_391-40"}],"sub_title":"9 June","text":"ELAS partisansDuring the night Italian vehicles brought up more troops, including the cavalry regiment at Simikli and one infantry battalion each from Larissa and Volos, bringing the total force to 5,500 men, according to the testimony of Italian prisoners taken by the partisans. These reinforcements arrived during the morning.[28][29] The partisans' shortage of ammunition, bad the day before, was now worse.[28] According to Boukouvalas, messages were sent to the village of Prodromos, where the nearest ELAS force under the teacher Lepouchis was quartered. They requested he take his men to Lesiana, to the right and rear of the Italians, and attack them from there. However, Lepouchis put the proposal to a vote among his men, who rejected it as most expected that the Porta position could not be held.[30] The partisans did receive a reinforcement of 60 men from Pertouli during the night, who took position on the eastern flank of the Porta position.[31]At dawn, the Italians renewed their assault with artillery and air support. Their attack was aimed not only to the south against Mouzaki as on the previous day, but also to the north against Mount Koziakas, in a pincer movement against the partisan positions.[28] The first assault was thrown back; Boukouvalas reported that the partisans could see the Italian commanding general landing in his liaison plane to bolster his men's morale.[32] The Italians managed to reach Porti around noon and torch it, but their subsequent attempts to push forward into the southern flank of the Petra position were repelled. The role of the Hotchkiss machine gun, emplaced outside Porti and manned by \"Flogas\" ('flame'), proved crucial as its fire pinned down the Italian troops for the rest of the day.[33]On the northern flank, however, the Italians had more success: cavalry squadrons reconnoitred the approaches to Mount Koziakas, finding that the partisans held only the area up to the villages of Dousikos and Lepenitsa. In the afternoon, two battalions launched an attack on the northern flank of the Porta position, captured the villages of Gorgyri and Xylopariko, and pushed on to the heights of Lepenitsa, from where the Italians and their Legionary auxiliaries could flank the ELAS forces at Dousikos; the ELAS forces withdrew higher up the mountain.[34] After the squad defending the area ran out of ammunition, the Italians entered the village of Dousikos in the afternoon and set it on fire, threatening the defenders of Petra, who were also running low on ammunition, with only 2 to 5 rounds per rifle and no mortar shells.[35] At the same time, on the southern flank the Italians applied renewed pressure on the Sklataina–Vatsinia axis, threatening to outflank the Porta position.[36]Consequently the ELAS commanders ordered a withdrawal, which began at 17:00, in the direction of Tyrna. At 17:30 they blew up the road bridge over the Portaikos river to impede an Italian advance. The withdrawal was so fast that the Italians, busy torching the village of Porta, lost contact with the partisans. Once the Porta troops were safely withdrawn and a new defensive position established at Dramizi, the Mouzaki position was evacuated under cover of night.[35][37]","title":"The battle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"casualties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casualty_(person)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE%CE%91%CF%81%CF%87%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CE%95%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE%CF%82_%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B7%CF%82162-41"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981108-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzis1983110-42"},{"link_name":"Stefanos Sarafis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefanos_Sarafis"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980130-23"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980429-43"},{"link_name":"[d]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978390_(note_3)-46"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981108-38"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197857-47"},{"link_name":"Kanalia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanalia"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197857-47"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981108%E2%80%93109-48"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980130-23"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzis1983110-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197857-47"},{"link_name":"Italian armistice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_armistice"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrigoriadis1982245-22"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981109-49"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEudes1973109%E2%80%93110-50"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESarafis1980181ff.,_199-51"}],"text":"According to EAM/ELAS members, the c. 250 partisans, fighting for two days against a vastly superior force, suffered only three wounded. The official number of Italian casualties recorded by the Hellenic Army History Directorate was three Italian soldiers and five Legionaries killed.[38] Other sources give much larger figures: about 300 dead and wounded, including a major;[35][39] the military commander of ELAS, Stefanos Sarafis, who was nearby at Tzourtza, claimed \"almost 500\" Italian dead and wounded, as well as the loss of many horses and an aircraft,[21] although later in his memoirs he raised the number of Italian casualties to \"approximately 700\".[40]\nThe following day, the Italians torched the villages of Porta, Vatsinia, Chania, and Ropotania.[d] Estimating the partisan forces present at many times their actual number,[42] they made no attempt to enter the mountainous regions, and after gathering their dead returned to Trikala two days later.[35][43] Only eight days later did 1,500 men from Trikala move against the Agrafa area, setting fire to the villages of Vounesi, Kanalia, and Mesenikolas. Near Vounesi they were confronted by some 30 partisans of the Agrafa sub-command. The partisans withdrew higher up the mountain after a first firefight; the Italians, suspicious of a larger ambush, broke off the operation and returned to their bases.[43][44]For ELAS, the battle of Porta was of particular importance as the first time it confronted the Italians as a regular army in a \"more or less full-scale defensive action\", as Sarafis describes it, rather than hit-and-run ambushes. This marked the transformation and maturation of ELAS from a guerrilla force into \"disciplined troops who knew how to fight\", a fact readily recognized by the Italians themselves: the Italian commandant at Trikala remarked as much to the local Greek prefect, reprimanding him for not providing accurate information about the partisans.[21][39][43] From then until the Italian armistice in September 1943, the Italian garrisons in Thessaly remained confined to the cities and gave up any further attempt at confronting the partisans.[20][45] In the weeks after the armistice, the Italian forces in Thessaly began negotiating their going over to the partisans. Initially it was agreed that the Italian formations, the Pinerolo division and the Aosta cavalry regiment, would remain intact and retain their armament to fight against the Germans, but on 15 October the 1st ELAS Division forcibly disarmed them, encountering only brief resistance from the Aosta cavalry regiment and isolated garrisons in the area of Porta.[46][47]","title":"Aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonia_(Greece)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHatzis1983110%E2%80%93115-8"},{"link_name":"Intelligence Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secret_Intelligence_Service"},{"link_name":"EDES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EDES"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBallis1981101%E2%80%93102-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis1978386%E2%80%93387,_389-15"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"table of organization and equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Table_of_organization_and_equipment"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBregantin2010267,_268-26"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-45"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESevastakis197858,_103-44"}],"text":"^ This decision, or rather the manner of its implementation in Thessaly and Macedonia, where the partisan groups were withdrawn entirely from large areas, was a result of a mix of caution and inexperience of the ELAS cadres, and of confusion in the chain of command between EAM and ELAS hierarchies, and came under heavy criticism: not only did it force the partisans to break off contact with the occupying forces, but it also exposed the civilian population to reprisals, and allowed rival groups to be established in the areas vacated by ELAS.[8] Some ELAS members in their post-war memoirs even attributed this to deliberate misinformation by the British Intelligence Service, aimed at allowing the rival EDES group, to which the British were more favourably disposed, to expand in the areas vacated by ELAS.[9]\n\n^ In his memoirs, Boukouvalas claims a total force of only 140 men, reinforced during the battle with 60 more.[14]\n\n^ According to the contemporary reports of the 11th Army, the Pinerolo division was classed as \"incomplete\" in terms of effectiveness in spring 1943, having only about 60% of the automobiles and pack animals on its table of organization and equipment, and 85% of personnel.[24]\n\n^ Following the Italian surrender, the Italian forces in Thessaly went over to ELAS, and partisans captured the military archives of the Aosta regiment. Based on these documents, they held its commander, Colonel Berti, as prisoner with the intention of trying him for war crimes, but he was released on the intervention of the British military mission.[41]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//dspace.unive.it/handle/10579/970"},{"link_name":"The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/kapetaniospartis0000eude"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-85345-275-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85345-275-1"},{"link_name":"Grigoriadis, Solon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon_Grigoriadis"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"165816421","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/165816421"},{"link_name":"Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος \"Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9-5mAAAAMAAJ"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"960-7897-31-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-7897-31-5"},{"link_name":"Mazower, Mark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Mazower"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-300-06552-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06552-3"},{"link_name":"Sarafis, Stefanos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefanos_Sarafis"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780850362442","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850362442"}],"text":"Ballis, Dimitrios E. (1981). Ο ΕΛΑΣ στη Θεσσαλία [ELAS in Thessaly] (in Greek). Athens: Synchroni Epochi.\nBregantin, Lisa (2010). L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943 (PhD) (in Italian). Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia.\nEudes, Dominique (1973). The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949. Translated by John Howe. New York and London: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-275-1.\nGrigoriadis, Solon (1982). Συνοπτική Ιστορία της Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944 [Concise History of the National Resistance, 1941-1944] (in Greek). Athens: Kapopoulos. OCLC 165816421.\nHatzis, Thanasis (1983). Η νικηφόρα επανάσταση που χάθηκε [The victorious revolution that was lost] (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Dorikos.\nHellenic Army History Directorate (1998). Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος \"Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ\" [National Resistance Archives, 1941-1944. 3rd Volume \"ELAS Partisan Organization\"]. Athens: Hellenic Army History Directorate. ISBN 960-7897-31-5.\nMazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06552-3.\nSarafis, Stefanos (1980). ELAS: Greek Resistance Army. Translated by Sylvia Moody. London: Merlin Press. ISBN 9780850362442.\nSevastakis, Alexis (1978). Καπετάν Μπουκουβάλας: Το αντάρτικο ιππικό της Θεσσαλίας [Kapetan Boukouvalas: The partisan cavalry of Thessaly] (in Greek). Athens: Diogenis.","title":"Sources"}]	[{"image_text":"The Portaikos river with the Ottoman-era footbridge","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%86%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%B3._%CE%92%CE%B7%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%86%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B9_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%91%CE%B3._%CE%92%CE%B7%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%82_%CE%A0%CF%8D%CE%BB%CE%B7_%CE%A4%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AC%CE%BB%CF%89%CE%BD_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dimitris Tasos (alias Mimis Boukouvalas), one of the ELAS commanders at Porta","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Mimis_Boukouvalas.jpg"},{"image_text":"Italian infantry marching","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Italian-soldiers-in-the-Yugoslavian-Front-in-Albania-391759053046.jpg/220px-Italian-soldiers-in-the-Yugoslavian-Front-in-Albania-391759053046.jpg"},{"image_text":"ELAS partisans","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%91%CE%9C-%CE%95%CE%9B%CE%91%CE%A3.jpg/220px-%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AC%CF%81%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%82_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%95%CE%91%CE%9C-%CE%95%CE%9B%CE%91%CE%A3.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Ballis, Dimitrios E. (1981). Ο ΕΛΑΣ στη Θεσσαλία [ELAS in Thessaly] (in Greek). Athens: Synchroni Epochi.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Bregantin, Lisa (2010). L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943 (PhD) (in Italian). Università Ca’ Foscari di Venezia.","urls":[{"url":"http://dspace.unive.it/handle/10579/970","url_text":"L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943"}]},{"reference":"Eudes, Dominique (1973). The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949. Translated by John Howe. New York and London: Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0-85345-275-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/kapetaniospartis0000eude","url_text":"The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85345-275-1","url_text":"978-0-85345-275-1"}]},{"reference":"Grigoriadis, Solon (1982). Συνοπτική Ιστορία της Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944 [Concise History of the National Resistance, 1941-1944] (in Greek). Athens: Kapopoulos. OCLC 165816421.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solon_Grigoriadis","url_text":"Grigoriadis, Solon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/165816421","url_text":"165816421"}]},{"reference":"Hatzis, Thanasis (1983). Η νικηφόρα επανάσταση που χάθηκε [The victorious revolution that was lost] (in Greek). Vol. II. Athens: Dorikos.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hellenic Army History Directorate (1998). Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος \"Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ\" [National Resistance Archives, 1941-1944. 3rd Volume \"ELAS Partisan Organization\"]. Athens: Hellenic Army History Directorate. ISBN 960-7897-31-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9-5mAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος \"Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/960-7897-31-5","url_text":"960-7897-31-5"}]},{"reference":"Mazower, Mark (1993). Inside Hitler's Greece: The Experience of Occupation, 1941–44. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-06552-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Mazower","url_text":"Mazower, Mark"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-06552-3","url_text":"0-300-06552-3"}]},{"reference":"Sarafis, Stefanos (1980). ELAS: Greek Resistance Army. Translated by Sylvia Moody. London: Merlin Press. ISBN 9780850362442.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefanos_Sarafis","url_text":"Sarafis, Stefanos"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780850362442","url_text":"9780850362442"}]},{"reference":"Sevastakis, Alexis (1978). Καπετάν Μπουκουβάλας: Το αντάρτικο ιππικό της Θεσσαλίας [Kapetan Boukouvalas: The partisan cavalry of Thessaly] (in Greek). Athens: Diogenis.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Antonis Vogiazos (Director & Scenario), Angelos Kovotsos (Production Director), Vaso Kanellopoulou (Producer), Petros Antaios (Scenario), Nikos Svoronos (Historical Advisor) (1987). ΧΡΟΝΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΘΝΙΚΗΣ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΑΣΗΣ, Επεισόδιο 8: ΤΟ ΑΝΤΑΡΤΙΚΟ ΚΙΝΗΜΑ ΣΤΟ ΠΡΩΤΟ ΕΞΑΜΗΝΟ ΤΟΥ 1943 [Chronicle of the National Resistance, Episode 8: The partisan movement in the first semester of 1943] (in Greek). Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation. Battle of Porta segment with on-site shots and interviews of Mimis Tasos (\"Boukouvalas\"), Giorgos Zarogianis (\"Kavallaris\"), Leonidas Pappas, at 26:35–36:03. Retrieved 26 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.ert.gr/8123/","url_text":"ΧΡΟΝΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΘΝΙΚΗΣ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΑΣΗΣ, Επεισόδιο 8: ΤΟ ΑΝΤΑΡΤΙΚΟ ΚΙΝΗΜΑ ΣΤΟ ΠΡΩΤΟ ΕΞΑΜΗΝΟ ΤΟΥ 1943"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_Broadcasting_Corporation","url_text":"Hellenic Broadcasting Corporation"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Porta&params=39_28_N_21_37_E_","external_links_name":"39°28′N 21°37′E / 39.467°N 21.617°E / 39.467; 21.617"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Battle_of_Porta&params=39_28_N_21_37_E_","external_links_name":"39°28′N 21°37′E / 39.467°N 21.617°E / 39.467; 21.617"},{"Link":"http://dspace.unive.it/handle/10579/970","external_links_name":"L'occupazione dimenticata. Gli italiani in Grecia 1941-1943"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/kapetaniospartis0000eude","external_links_name":"The Kapetanios: Partisans and Civil War in Greece, 1943-1949"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/165816421","external_links_name":"165816421"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=9-5mAAAAMAAJ","external_links_name":"Αρχεία Εθνικής Αντίστασης, 1941-1944. Τόμος 3ος \"Αντάρτικη Οργάνωση ΕΛΑΣ\""},{"Link":"https://archive.ert.gr/8123/","external_links_name":"ΧΡΟΝΙΚΟ ΤΗΣ ΕΘΝΙΚΗΣ ΑΝΤΙΣΤΑΣΗΣ, Επεισόδιο 8: ΤΟ ΑΝΤΑΡΤΙΚΟ ΚΙΝΗΜΑ ΣΤΟ ΠΡΩΤΟ ΕΞΑΜΗΝΟ ΤΟΥ 1943"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioglycollate_broth	Thioglycolate broth	["1 References"]	Culture medium used in microbiology Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growing them in test tubes of thioglycolate broth: 1: Obligate aerobes need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. They gather at the top of the tube where the oxygen concentration is highest. 2: Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen, so they gather at the bottom of the tube where the oxygen concentration is lowest. 3: Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without oxygen because they can metabolise energy aerobically or anaerobically. They gather mostly at the top because aerobic respiration generates more ATP than either fermentation or anaerobic respiration. 4: Microaerophiles need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. However, they are poisoned by high concentrations of oxygen. They gather in the upper part of the test tube, but not the very top. 5: Aerotolerant organisms do not require oxygen as they metabolise energy anaerobically. Unlike obligate anaerobes, though, they are not poisoned by oxygen. They can be found evenly spread throughout the test tube. Thioglycolate broth is a multipurpose, enrichment, differential medium used primarily to determine the oxygen requirements of microorganisms. Sodium thioglycolate in the medium consumes oxygen and permits the growth of obligate anaerobes. This, combined with the diffusion of oxygen from the top of the broth, produces a range of oxygen concentrations in the medium along its depth. The oxygen concentration at a given level is indicated by a redox-sensitive dye such as resazurine that turns pink in the presence of oxygen. Thioglycollate broth medium is recommended to isolate strict anaerobes should an anaerobic infection be suspected. This allows the differentiation of obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, microaerophiles, and aerotolerant organisms. For example, obligately anaerobic Clostridium species will be seen growing only in the bottom of the test tube. Thioglycolate broth is also used to recruit macrophages to the peritoneal cavity of mice when injected intraperitoneally. It recruits numerous macrophages, but does not activate them. References ^ Cain, Donna. "Fluid Thioglycollate Broth". Collin College. ^ Cheesbrough, Monica (2006). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-521-67631-2. Retrieved 2009-09-14. ^ a b Leijh PC; van Zwet TL; ter Kuile MN; van Furth R (November 1984). "Effect of thioglycolate on phagocytic and microbicidal activities of peritoneal macrophages". Infection and Immunity. 46 (2): 448–452. doi:10.1128/iai.46.2.448-452.1984. PMC 261553. PMID 6500699. vteGrowth media / agar platesSelective mediaGram positiveActinomycetota Mycobacterium tuberculosis Löwenstein–Jensen medium Middlebrook 7H9 Broth Middlebrook 7H10 Agar Middlebrook 7H11 Agar Mycoplasma pneumoniae Eaton's agar Bacillota Corynebacterium diphtheriae Hoyle's agar Enterococcus Bile esculin agar Lactobacillus Lee's Agar MRS agar Lactococcus M17 agar Listeria Fraser broth PALCAM Staphylococcus Mannitol salt agar Baird-Parker agar Vogel–Johnson agar Gram negativeAlphaproteobacteria Brucella Brucella agar Farrell's medium Betaproteobacteria Neisseria Thayer–Martin agar New York City agar Gammaproteobacteria Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans Tryptic soy-serum-bacitracin-vancomycin Bordetella Bordet–Gengou agar Enterobacteriaceae VRBD agar Haemophilus influenzae/Legionella pneumophila Buffered charcoal yeast extract agar Pseudomonas aeruginosa Cetrimide agar Salmonella XLT agar DCA agar Salmonella/Shigella XLD agar Differential media Lactose fermenting gram negative MacConkey agar/Sorbitol-MacConkey agar Eosin methylene blue Endo agar Bismuth sulfite agar Hektoen enteric agar Lysine iron agar Simmons' citrate agar TSI slant Fungal media BAF agar Czapek medium Dermatophyte test medium Malt extract agar MMN medium Potato dextrose agar Sabouraud agar YEPD YM Nonselective media Blood agar Chocolate agar Columbia blood agar Letheen broth Lysogeny broth Nutrient agar Plate count agar Trypticase soy agar Tryptic soy broth Zobell’s marine agar Other/ungrouped media Brain heart infusion Cystine–lactose–electrolyte-deficient agar Cystine tryptic agar Glucose phosphate broth Lauryl tryptose broth Mannitol motility medium Mueller–Hinton agar/PNP agar R2A agar Schädler agar This microbiology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anaerobic.png"},{"link_name":"bacteria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteria"},{"link_name":"Obligate aerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_aerobe"},{"link_name":"Obligate anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe"},{"link_name":"Facultative anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative_anaerobes"},{"link_name":"Microaerophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaerophile"},{"link_name":"Aerotolerant organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerotolerant_organisms"},{"link_name":"differential medium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_medium"},{"link_name":"thioglycolate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioglycolate"},{"link_name":"obligate anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"resazurine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resazurine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Thio_cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_organism"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"obligate aerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_aerobe"},{"link_name":"obligate anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obligate_anaerobe"},{"link_name":"facultative anaerobes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facultative_anaerobic_organism"},{"link_name":"microaerophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microaerophile"},{"link_name":"aerotolerant organisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaerobic_organism#Energy_metabolism"},{"link_name":"Clostridium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clostridium"},{"link_name":"macrophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage"},{"link_name":"peritoneal cavity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peritoneal_cavity"},{"link_name":"intraperitoneally","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intraperitoneally"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leijh-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leijh-3"}],"text":"Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growing them in test tubes of thioglycolate broth: 1: Obligate aerobes need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. They gather at the top of the tube where the oxygen concentration is highest. 2: Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen, so they gather at the bottom of the tube where the oxygen concentration is lowest. 3: Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without oxygen because they can metabolise energy aerobically or anaerobically. They gather mostly at the top because aerobic respiration generates more ATP than either fermentation or anaerobic respiration. 4: Microaerophiles need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. However, they are poisoned by high concentrations of oxygen. They gather in the upper part of the test tube, but not the very top. 5: Aerotolerant organisms do not require oxygen as they metabolise energy anaerobically. Unlike obligate anaerobes, though, they are not poisoned by oxygen. They can be found evenly spread throughout the test tube.Thioglycolate broth is a multipurpose, enrichment, differential medium used primarily to determine the oxygen requirements of microorganisms. Sodium thioglycolate in the medium consumes oxygen and permits the growth of obligate anaerobes.[1] This, combined with the diffusion of oxygen from the top of the broth, produces a range of oxygen concentrations in the medium along its depth. The oxygen concentration at a given level is indicated by a redox-sensitive dye such as resazurine that turns pink in the presence of oxygen.Thioglycollate broth medium is recommended to isolate strict anaerobes should an anaerobic infection be suspected.[2]This allows the differentiation of obligate aerobes, obligate anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, microaerophiles, and aerotolerant organisms. For example, obligately anaerobic Clostridium species will be seen growing only in the bottom of the test tube.Thioglycolate broth is also used to recruit macrophages to the peritoneal cavity of mice when injected intraperitoneally.[3] It recruits numerous macrophages, but does not activate them.[3]","title":"Thioglycolate broth"}]	[{"image_text":"Aerobic and anaerobic bacteria can be identified by growing them in test tubes of thioglycolate broth: 1: Obligate aerobes need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. They gather at the top of the tube where the oxygen concentration is highest. 2: Obligate anaerobes are poisoned by oxygen, so they gather at the bottom of the tube where the oxygen concentration is lowest. 3: Facultative anaerobes can grow with or without oxygen because they can metabolise energy aerobically or anaerobically. They gather mostly at the top because aerobic respiration generates more ATP than either fermentation or anaerobic respiration. 4: Microaerophiles need oxygen because they cannot ferment or respire anaerobically. However, they are poisoned by high concentrations of oxygen. They gather in the upper part of the test tube, but not the very top. 5: Aerotolerant organisms do not require oxygen as they metabolise energy anaerobically. Unlike obligate anaerobes, though, they are not poisoned by oxygen. They can be found evenly spread throughout the test tube.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Anaerobic.png/300px-Anaerobic.png"},{"image_text":"Thioglycollate broth medium is recommended to isolate strict anaerobes should an anaerobic infection be suspected.[2]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Thio_cropped.jpg/160px-Thio_cropped.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Cain, Donna. \"Fluid Thioglycollate [sic] Broth\". Collin College.","urls":[{"url":"http://iws2.collin.edu/dcain/CCCCD%20Micro/thioglycollatebroth.htm","url_text":"\"Fluid Thioglycollate [sic] Broth\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collin_College","url_text":"Collin College"}]},{"reference":"Cheesbrough, Monica (2006). District Laboratory Practice in Tropical Countries, Part 2. Cambridge University Press. p. 126. ISBN 0-521-67631-2. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyotaro_Kimura	Heitarō Kimura	["1 Biography","2 See also","3 References","3.1 Books","4 External links","5 Notes"]	Japanese officer and war criminal (1888-1948) Heitarō KimuraBorn28 September 1888 (1888-09-28)Saitama Prefecture, Empire of JapanDied23 December 1948(1948-12-23) (aged 60)Sugamo Prison, Tokyo, Occupied JapanCause of deathExecution by hangingCriminal statusExecutedConviction(s)Crimes against peaceWar crimesCrimes against humanityTrialInternational Military Tribunal for the Far EastCriminal penaltyDeath Military careerAllegiance Empire of JapanService/branch Imperial Japanese ArmyYears of service1908–1945Rank GeneralCommands held32nd DivisionBurma Area ArmyBattles/warsSiberian InterventionSecond Sino-Japanese WarWorld War II Heitarō Kimura (木村兵太郎, Kimura Heitarō (sometimes Kimura Hyōtarō), 28 September 1888 – 23 December 1948) was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army. He was convicted of war crimes and sentenced to death by hanging. Biography Kimura was born in Saitama prefecture, north of Tokyo, but was raised in Hiroshima prefecture, which he considered to be his home. He attended military schooling from an early age, and graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1908. He went on to graduate from the Army War College in 1916 and was commissioned into the artillery. He served during the Japanese Siberian Intervention of 1918–1919 in support of White Russian forces against the Bolshevik Red Army. He was subsequently sent as a military attaché to Germany. From the late 1920s Kimura was attached to the Inspectorate of Artillery and an instructor at the Field Artillery School. He was selected as a member of the Japanese delegation to the London Disarmament Conference from 1929 to 1931. On his return to Japan, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned command of the IJA 22nd Artillery Regiment. From 1932 to 1934, he returned to the Field Artillery School, followed by the Coastal Artillery School as an instructor. In 1935, Kimura first served in an influential role close to the centre of Japanese policy when he was appointed Chief of the Control Section in the Economic Mobilisation Bureau at the Ministry of War. The next year, he was appointed Head of the Ordnance Bureau. He was promoted to the rank of major general in 1936. He became a lieutenant general in 1939, and was assigned a combat command with the IJA 32nd Division in China from 1939 to 1940. From 1940 to 1941, Kimura served as Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army in Manchukuo. Kimura returned to the Ministry of War in 1941 as Vice Minister of War, assisting War Minister Hideki Tōjō in planning strategies for campaigns in the Second Sino-Japanese War as well as the Pacific War. From 1943 to 1944, he was a member of the Supreme War Council, where he continued to exert a major influence on strategy and policy. Late in 1944, as the course of the war went against Japan after the disastrous Battle of Imphal, Kimura was again assigned to the field, this time as commander in chief of the Burma Area Army, defending Burma against the Allied South East Asia Command. The situation was not promising as Japanese forces were under severe pressure on every front, and the Allies had complete air superiority. Reinforcements and munitions were short, and Imperial General Headquarters entertained the unsupported hope that Kimura would be able make his command logistically self-sufficient. Unable to defend all of Burma, Kimura fell back behind the Irrawaddy River to attack the Allies when their supply lines were stretched thin - a move which initially dislocated the Allied plans. Such was Allied material superiority that the main weight of the offensive was switched, and the vital positions of Meiktila and Mandalay were captured at the Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay. From that point, Kimura was only capable of delaying actions. He opted to preserve his forces rather than defend the capital, Rangoon to the last man. Promoted to the rank of general in 1945, he was still reorganizing his forces at the surrender of Japan in mid-1945. After the end of World War II, Kimura was arrested by the Allied occupation powers and tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for war crimes. The tribunal cited his role in planning the strategy for the war in China and Southeast Asia, and condemned him for laxity in preventing atrocities against prisoners of war in Burma. Although the Death Railway was built from 1942 to 1943, and Kimura did not arrive in Burma until late 1944, Kimura was also charged with the abuse and deaths of prisoners of war & civilian laborers used to construct the railroad. Found guilty in 1948 on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 54 and 55 of the indictment he was condemned to death by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and hanged as a war criminal. See also Burma campaign References Books Fuller, Richard (1992). Shokan: Hirohito's Samurai. London: Arms and Armor. ISBN 1-85409-151-4. Latimer, Jon (2004). Burma: The Forgotten War. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6576-2. Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victors' Justice: the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton University Press. ISBN. External links Ammenthorp, Steen. "Heitaro Kimura". The Generals of World War II. Budge, Kent. "Kimura, Heitaro". Pacific War Online Encyclopedia. Clancy, Patrick. "IMTFE Judgement". HyperWar Foundation. Myanmar (Burma) at www.worldstatesmen.org Notes ^ Budge, The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia ^ Ammenthorp, The Generals of World War II ^ Fuller, Shokan Hirohito's Samurai ^ Latimer, Burma: The Forgotten War ^ Minear, Victor's Justice ^ Clancy, IMTFE Judgement Military offices Preceded byMasakazu Kawabe Commander, Burma Area Army Aug 1944 – Sept 1946 Succeeded bynone	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army"},{"link_name":"war crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_war_crimes"}],"text":"Heitarō Kimura (木村兵太郎, Kimura Heitarō (sometimes Kimura Hyōtarō), 28 September 1888 – 23 December 1948) was a general in the Imperial Japanese Army. He was convicted of war crimes and sentenced to death by hanging.","title":"Heitarō Kimura"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Saitama prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saitama_prefecture"},{"link_name":"Hiroshima prefecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiroshima_prefecture"},{"link_name":"Imperial Japanese Army Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Academy"},{"link_name":"Army War College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_War_College_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"artillery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artillery"},{"link_name":"Siberian Intervention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_Intervention"},{"link_name":"White Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_movement"},{"link_name":"Bolshevik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevik"},{"link_name":"Red Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Army"},{"link_name":"military attaché","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_attach%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"London Disarmament Conference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Naval_Treaty"},{"link_name":"lieutenant colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_colonel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ministry of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"major general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_general"},{"link_name":"lieutenant general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_general"},{"link_name":"IJA 32nd Division","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IJA_32nd_Division"},{"link_name":"Chief of Staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_of_staff_(military)"},{"link_name":"Kwantung Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kwantung_Army"},{"link_name":"Manchukuo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchukuo"},{"link_name":"War Minister","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_War_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Hideki Tōjō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hideki_T%C5%8Dj%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"Second Sino-Japanese War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War"},{"link_name":"Pacific War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War"},{"link_name":"Supreme War Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_War_Council_(Japan)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Battle of Imphal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Imphal"},{"link_name":"commander in chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_in_chief"},{"link_name":"Burma Area Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Area_Army"},{"link_name":"Burma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma"},{"link_name":"Allied","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"South East Asia Command","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_East_Asia_Command"},{"link_name":"air superiority","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_superiority"},{"link_name":"Imperial General Headquarters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_General_Headquarters"},{"link_name":"Irrawaddy River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ayeyarwady_River"},{"link_name":"Meiktila","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meiktila"},{"link_name":"Mandalay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandalay"},{"link_name":"Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Meiktila_and_Mandalay"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Rangoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yangon"},{"link_name":"general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General"},{"link_name":"surrender of Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"Allied occupation powers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Commander_of_the_Allied_Powers"},{"link_name":"International Military Tribunal for the Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East"},{"link_name":"war crimes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_crimes"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_of_war"},{"link_name":"Death Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_Railway"},{"link_name":"prisoners of war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoners_of_war"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"International Military Tribunal for the Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Military_Tribunal_for_the_Far_East"},{"link_name":"war criminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_criminal"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Kimura was born in Saitama prefecture, north of Tokyo, but was raised in Hiroshima prefecture, which he considered to be his home. He attended military schooling from an early age, and graduated from the Imperial Japanese Army Academy in 1908. He went on to graduate from the Army War College in 1916 and was commissioned into the artillery. He served during the Japanese Siberian Intervention of 1918–1919 in support of White Russian forces against the Bolshevik Red Army. He was subsequently sent as a military attaché to Germany.[1]From the late 1920s Kimura was attached to the Inspectorate of Artillery and an instructor at the Field Artillery School. He was selected as a member of the Japanese delegation to the London Disarmament Conference from 1929 to 1931. On his return to Japan, he was promoted to lieutenant colonel and assigned command of the IJA 22nd Artillery Regiment. From 1932 to 1934, he returned to the Field Artillery School, followed by the Coastal Artillery School as an instructor.[2]In 1935, Kimura first served in an influential role close to the centre of Japanese policy when he was appointed Chief of the Control Section in the Economic Mobilisation Bureau at the Ministry of War. The next year, he was appointed Head of the Ordnance Bureau. He was promoted to the rank of major general in 1936. He became a lieutenant general in 1939, and was assigned a combat command with the IJA 32nd Division in China from 1939 to 1940. From 1940 to 1941, Kimura served as Chief of Staff of the Kwantung Army in Manchukuo.Kimura returned to the Ministry of War in 1941 as Vice Minister of War, assisting War Minister Hideki Tōjō in planning strategies for campaigns in the Second Sino-Japanese War as well as the Pacific War. From 1943 to 1944, he was a member of the Supreme War Council, where he continued to exert a major influence on strategy and policy.[3]Late in 1944, as the course of the war went against Japan after the disastrous Battle of Imphal, Kimura was again assigned to the field, this time as commander in chief of the Burma Area Army, defending Burma against the Allied South East Asia Command. The situation was not promising as Japanese forces were under severe pressure on every front, and the Allies had complete air superiority. Reinforcements and munitions were short, and Imperial General Headquarters entertained the unsupported hope that Kimura would be able make his command logistically self-sufficient.Unable to defend all of Burma, Kimura fell back behind the Irrawaddy River to attack the Allies when their supply lines were stretched thin - a move which initially dislocated the Allied plans. Such was Allied material superiority that the main weight of the offensive was switched, and the vital positions of Meiktila and Mandalay were captured at the Battle of Meiktila and Mandalay. From that point, Kimura was only capable of delaying actions.[4] He opted to preserve his forces rather than defend the capital, Rangoon to the last man. Promoted to the rank of general in 1945, he was still reorganizing his forces at the surrender of Japan in mid-1945.After the end of World War II, Kimura was arrested by the Allied occupation powers and tried by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East for war crimes. The tribunal cited his role in planning the strategy for the war in China and Southeast Asia, and condemned him for laxity in preventing atrocities against prisoners of war in Burma. Although the Death Railway was built from 1942 to 1943, and Kimura did not arrive in Burma until late 1944, Kimura was also charged with the abuse and deaths of prisoners of war & civilian laborers used to construct the railroad.[5] Found guilty in 1948 on Counts 1, 27, 29, 31, 32, 54 and 55 of the indictment he was condemned to death by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and hanged as a war criminal.[6]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"text":"^ Budge, The Pacific War Online Encyclopedia\n\n^ Ammenthorp, The Generals of World War II\n\n^ Fuller, Shokan Hirohito's Samurai\n\n^ Latimer, Burma: The Forgotten War\n\n^ Minear, Victor's Justice\n\n^ Clancy, IMTFE Judgement","title":"Notes"}]	[]	[{"title":"Burma campaign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma_campaign"}]	[{"reference":"Fuller, Richard (1992). Shokan: Hirohito's Samurai. London: Arms and Armor. ISBN 1-85409-151-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shokanhirohitoss00full","url_text":"Shokan: Hirohito's Samurai"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85409-151-4","url_text":"1-85409-151-4"}]},{"reference":"Latimer, Jon (2004). Burma: The Forgotten War. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6576-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Latimer","url_text":"Latimer, Jon"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7195-6576-2","url_text":"978-0-7195-6576-2"}]},{"reference":"Minear, Richard H. (1971). Victors' Justice: the Tokyo War Crimes Trial. Princeton University Press. ISBN.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_H._Minear","url_text":"Minear, Richard H."},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/victorsjusticeto00mine","url_text":"Victors' Justice: the Tokyo War Crimes Trial"}]},{"reference":"Ammenthorp, Steen. \"Heitaro Kimura\". The Generals of World War II.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.generals.dk/general/Kimura/Heitaro/Japan.html","url_text":"\"Heitaro Kimura\""}]},{"reference":"Budge, Kent. \"Kimura, Heitaro\". Pacific War Online Encyclopedia.","urls":[{"url":"http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/","url_text":"\"Kimura, Heitaro\""}]},{"reference":"Clancy, Patrick. \"IMTFE Judgement\". HyperWar Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-10.html","url_text":"\"IMTFE Judgement\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/shokanhirohitoss00full","external_links_name":"Shokan: Hirohito's Samurai"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/victorsjusticeto00mine","external_links_name":"Victors' Justice: the Tokyo War Crimes Trial"},{"Link":"http://www.generals.dk/general/Kimura/Heitaro/Japan.html","external_links_name":"\"Heitaro Kimura\""},{"Link":"http://pwencycl.kgbudge.com/","external_links_name":"\"Kimura, Heitaro\""},{"Link":"http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/PTO/IMTFE/IMTFE-10.html","external_links_name":"\"IMTFE Judgement\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldstatesmen.org/Myanmar.htm","external_links_name":"Myanmar (Burma)"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khandi_Alexander	Khandi Alexander	["1 Early life","2 Career","3 Filmography","3.1 Film","3.2 Television","3.3 Music videos","4 Awards and nominations","5 References","6 External links"]	American dancer, choreographer, and actress Khandi AlexanderAlexander in 2014BornHarriet Rene Alexander (1957-09-04) September 4, 1957 (age 66)Jacksonville, Florida, U.S.OccupationsDancerchoreographeractressYears active1985–present Harriet Rene "Khandi" Alexander (born September 4, 1957) is an American dancer, choreographer, and actress. She began her career as a dancer in the 1980s, and was a choreographer for Whitney Houston's world tours from 1988 to 1992. During the 1990s, Alexander appeared in a number of films, including CB4 (1993), What's Love Got to Do with It (1993), Sugar Hill (1994), and There's Something About Mary (1998). She starred as Catherine Duke in the NBC sitcom NewsRadio from 1995 to 1998. She also had a major recurring role in the NBC medical drama ER (1995–2001) as Jackie Robbins, sister to Dr. Peter Benton. Alexander also received critical acclaim for her leading performance in the HBO miniseries The Corner in 2000. From 2002 to 2009, Alexander starred as Dr. Alexx Woods in the CBS police procedural series CSI: Miami. From 2010 to 2013, she starred as LaDonna Batiste-Williams in the HBO drama Treme. Later in 2013, she joined the cast of the ABC drama Scandal as Maya Lewis, Olivia Pope's mother, for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2015. Alexander also received a Critics' Choice Television Award nomination for playing Bessie Smith's sister Viola in the 2015 HBO film Bessie. Early life Khandi Alexander was born in Jacksonville, Florida, the daughter of Alverina Yavonna (Masters), an opera and jazz singer, and Henry Roland Alexander, who owned a construction company. She was raised in Queens, New York, and was educated at Queensborough Community College. She appeared on Broadway, starring in Chicago, Bob Fosse's Dancin', and Dreamgirls. She was a choreographer for Whitney Houston's world tour from 1988 to 1992, and also appeared as a dancer in Natalie Cole's video for "Pink Cadillac" in 1988. Career Alexander in 2013 Alexander began her acting career in the late 1980s. She made her television debut on the 1985 sketch-comedy show FTV. Since the early 1990s, Alexander has concentrated on film and TV, playing supporting roles in several movies, including CB4, Joshua Tree, What's Love Got to Do with It, Poetic Justice, and Sugar Hill. In 1995, Alexander was cast as Catherine Duke on the NBC comedy series NewsRadio. She stayed with the show until season 4, episode 7, "Catherine Moves On", then returned for a final appearance in the season 5 premiere episode, "Bill Moves On" to memorialize Phil Hartman. She played the recurring character of Jackie Robbins in the medical drama series ER. Alexander has made a number of guest appearances on other television shows, including Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, NYPD Blue, Third Watch, Cosby, Better off Ted, La Femme Nikita, and Body of Proof. In 2000, Alexander won critical acclaim for her performance as Fran Boyd, a mother addicted to drugs in the Emmy Award-winning HBO miniseries The Corner. She later appeared in the films Emmett's Mark and Dark Blue, and starred opposite Rob Lowe in the Lifetime television movie Perfect Strangers. In 2002 through 2008, she portrayed the character of Alexx Woods, a medical examiner in the CBS police drama CSI: Miami. Alexander left CSI: Miami shortly before the end of the 2007–2008 season. Her final appearance aired on May 5, 2008. On February 2, 2009, she returned to the role of Alexx Woods for a guest appearance in the episode "Smoke Gets In Your CSI's". She returned again as Alexx Woods in guest appearances in the episodes "Out of Time" on September 21, 2009, and "Bad Seed" on October 19, 2009. In fall 2008, Alexander was cast as a lead character in the HBO drama pilot Treme, that premiered on April 11, 2010. She played a bar owner in a neighborhood of New Orleans affected by Hurricane Katrina. She received critical acclaim for her performance in the show. Alexander starred in the award-winning HBO television series by David Simon from 2010 to 2013. The series ended after four seasons. She later was cast in Shonda Rhimes' drama series Scandal as Maya Lewis, Kerry Washington's character Olivia Pope's mother. In 2015, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her performance. In 2014, Alexander was cast as older sister of Queen Latifah's title character in the HBO Film Bessie about iconic blues singer Bessie Smith. She was nominated for a Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Movie/Miniseries. Filmography Film Year Film Role Notes 1985 Streetwalkin' Star A Chorus Line Dancer 1987 Maid to Order Hooker in Jail 1993 CB4 Sissy Joshua Tree Maralena Turner Menace II Society Karen Lawson What's Love Got to Do with It Darlene Poetic Justice Simone 1994 Sugar Hill Ella Skuggs House Party 3 Janelle Greedy Laura Densmore, P.I. 1996 No Easy Way Diana Campbell 1998 There's Something About Mary Joanie 1999 Thick as Thieves Janet 2002 Fool Proof Icarus Emmett's Mark Detective Middlestat Dark Blue Janelle Holland 2006 Rain Latishia Arnold 2007 First Born Dierdre 2013 The-N-word Ms. Greene Short 2016 A Woman, a Part Leslie Pushing Dead Dot Patriots Day Veronica the Interrogator 2018 Fahrenheit 451 Toni Morrison Television Year Title Role Notes 1985 FTV Various Characters TV series 1987 Rags to Riches The Delights Episode: "Pilot" 1988 Duet Nurse Episode: "Special Delivery" 1989 A Different World Theressa Stone Episode: "Citizen Wayne" 1992 The Edge Various Characters Episode: "Episode #1.11" 1993 Shameful Secrets Rosalie TV movie 1994 To My Daughter with Love Harriet TV movie 1995–98 NewsRadio Catherine Duke Main cast (season 1–4), guest (season 5) 1995–2001 ER Jackie Robbins Recurring cast (season 1–8) 1996 Terminal Dr. Deborah Levy TV movie 1998 La Femme Nikita Terry Episode: "Soul Sacrifice" 1999 Cosby Karen Episode: "The Awful Truth" NYPD Blue Sonya Episode: "What's Up, Chuck?" Spawn 3: Ultimate Battle Lakesha / Nurse (voice) Episode: "Seed of the Hellspawn" X-Chromosome Yolanda (voice) TV series Partners Charlie TV movie 2000 Rude Awakening Juanita Wilson Episode: "Star 80 Proof" The Corner Denise Francine 'Fran' Boyd Main cast Third Watch Beverly Saunders Episode: "History" 2001 Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Sgt. Karen Smythe Episode: "Paranoia" 2002 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation Dr. Alexx Woods Episode: "Cross Jurisdictions" 2002–09 CSI: Miami Dr. Alexx Woods Main cast (season 1–6), guest (season 7–8) 2003 Life's a Bitch Yolanda Episode: "Pilot" 2004 Perfect Strangers Christie Kaplan TV movie 2009 Better Off Ted Stella Clifton Episode: "Battle of the Bulbs" 2010–13 Treme LaDonna Batiste-Williams Main cast 2012 Body of Proof Beverly Travers Episode: "Occupational Hazards" & "Identity" 2013–18 Scandal Maya Pope Recurring cast (season 3-4 & 6–7) 2014 The Assault Detective Jodi Miller TV movie 2015 Bessie Viola Smith TV movie BoJack Horseman Police Chief / Farmer's Wife (voice) Episode: "Chickens" 2019 A Black Lady Sketch Show Narrator Episode: "Why Are Her Pies Wet, Lord?" SEAL Team Ambassador Nicole Marsden Episode: "All Along the Watchtower: Part 1 & 2" 2021 What We Do in the Shadows Contessa Carmilla De Mornay Episode: "A Farewell" Music videos Year Title Artist 1993 "Heaven Knows" Luther Vandross Awards and nominations This section of a biography of a living person does not include any references or sources. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living people that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately.Find sources: "Khandi Alexander" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Year Award Category Work Result 1998 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series NewsRadio Nominated 2000 Online Film & Television Association Best Actress in a Motion Picture or Miniseries The Corner Nominated 2001 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Television Movie, Mini-Series or Dramatic Special Nominated Black Reel Awards Best Actress Won 2002 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Law & Order: Special Victims Unit Nominated 2003 DVD Exclusive Awards Best Actress Emmett's Mark Nominated 2005 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series CSI: Miami Won 2006 Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series Nominated 2011 Vision Award Best Performance - Drama Treme Won 2012 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Actress in a Drama Series Nominated 2013 Nominated 2014 Nominated Vision Award Best Performance - Drama Nominated 2015 NAACP Image Award Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series Scandal Won Critics' Choice Television Award Best Supporting Actress in a Movie or Miniseries Bessie Nominated Primetime Emmy Award Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series Scandal Nominated References ^ a b c d Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (January 28, 2016). Finding Your Roots, season 2: The Official Companion to the PBS Series. ISBN 9781469626192. ^ Stated on Finding Your Roots, PBS, October 14, 2014 ^ "Khandi Alexander's Interactive Family Tree - Finding Your Roots - PBS". Finding Your Roots. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved May 6, 2016. ^ a b c "Khandi Alexander Biography". Tvguide.com. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ a b "Khandi Alexander". Yahoo Movies. Retrieved May 6, 2016. ^ Fretts, Bruce (December 22, 2000). "Khandi Alexander". EW.com. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ Als, Hilton. "The Talk of the Town: The Small Screen Making "The Corner" Real". The New Yorker. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ a b "Exclusive: Khandi Alexander Pays CSI: Miami a Visit - Today's News: Our Take". TVGuide.com. December 1, 2008. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ "Cheers & Jeers: Treme's Khandi (Alexander) is Dandy - Today's News: Our Take". TVGuide.com. July 5, 2011. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ "'Treme': Khandi Alexander, as LaDonna Batiste-Williams, has no time for your problems - latimes.com". Latimesblogs.latimes.com. April 25, 2010. Retrieved December 18, 2013. ^ Michael O'Connell, Khandi Alexander on the End of 'Treme' and Rebuilding LaDonna, The Hollywood Reporter, September 23, 2012 ^ "'Treme' Season 4: Final episodes bring hope and struggle to New Orleans - Zap2it". Blog.zap2it.com. Archived from the original on November 5, 2013. Retrieved November 6, 2013. ^ "'Scandal' Casts 'Treme' Star to Play Olivia's Mother (Exclusive)". The Hollywood Reporter. November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2013. ^ "Khandi Alexander Will Play Olivia Pope's Mother On 'Scandal' \| Shadow and Act". Blogs.indiewire.com. Retrieved November 6, 2013. ^ Slezak, Michael. "Scandal Season 3: Khandi Alexander Cast as Olivia's Mother — Is She Alive?". TVLine. Retrieved November 6, 2013. ^ Variety Staff. "Emmy Award Nominations 2015 – Full List: 67th Primetime Emmy Nominees - Variety". Variety. Retrieved July 17, 2015. ^ Andreeva, Nellie. "Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join HBO Films' Bessie Smith Biopic". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 22, 2014. ^ "Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join Queen Latifah In Bessie Smith Biopic\|Shadow and Act". Blogs.indiewire.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2014. Retrieved May 22, 2014. ^ Pedersen, Erik. "Critics' Choice Television Awards Nominations 2015". Deadline. Retrieved May 6, 2015. ^ Pedersen, Erik. "'Supergirl's Melissa Benoist Joins 'Patriots Day' As Wife Boston Marathon Bomber - Deadline". Deadline. Retrieved May 6, 2016. External links Khandi Alexander at IMDb Awards for Khandi Alexander vteBlack Reel Award for Outstanding Actress, TV Movie or Limited Series Halle Berry (2000) Khandi Alexander (2001) Angela Bassett (2002) Angela Bassett (2003) Suzzanne Douglas (2004) Lynn Whitfield (2005) S. Epatha Merkerson (2006) Alexa Vega (2007) Taraji P. Henson (2012) Aunjanue Ellis (2013) Anika Noni Rose (2014) Cicely Tyson (2015) Queen Latifah (2016) Kerry Washington (2017) Sanaa Lathan (2017) Regina King (2018) Niecy Nash (2019) Regina King (2020) Michaela Coel (2021) Wunmi Mosaku (2022) vteNAACP Image Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series1990s Fatima Faloye (1995) No Award (1996) Lynn Whitfield (1997) Ruby Dee (1998) Rosa Parks (1999) 2000s Loretta Devine (2000) Debbi Morgan (2001) Loretta Devine (2002) Loretta Devine (2003) Khandi Alexander (2004) S. Epatha Merkerson (2005) Chandra Wilson (2006) Chandra Wilson (2007) Angela Bassett (2008) S. Epatha Merkerson (2009) 2010s S. Epatha Merkerson (2010) Archie Panjabi (2011) Loretta Devine (2012) Taraji P. Henson (2013) Khandi Alexander (2014) Regina King (2015) Naturi Naughton (2016) Naturi Naughton (2017) Lynn Whitfield (2018) Lynn Whitfield (2019) 2020s Mary J. Blige (2020) Mary J. Blige (2021) Loretta Devine (2022) Gail Bean (2023) Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Netherlands Poland People Deutsche Synchronkartei Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fdr1-1"},{"link_name":"Whitney Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitney_Houston"},{"link_name":"CB4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB4"},{"link_name":"What's Love Got to Do with It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s_Love_Got_to_Do_with_It_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"Sugar Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar_Hill_(1994_film)"},{"link_name":"There's Something About Mary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/There%27s_Something_About_Mary"},{"link_name":"NBC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC"},{"link_name":"NewsRadio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NewsRadio"},{"link_name":"ER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ER_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Jackie Robbins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackie_Robbins"},{"link_name":"Dr. Peter Benton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Benton"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"The Corner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Corner"},{"link_name":"Dr. Alexx Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexx_Woods"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"CSI: Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSI:_Miami"},{"link_name":"Treme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treme_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"ABC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"Scandal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandal_(American_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Olivia Pope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivia_Pope"},{"link_name":"Primetime Emmy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award"},{"link_name":"Critics' Choice Television Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critics%27_Choice_Television_Award"},{"link_name":"Bessie Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_Smith"},{"link_name":"Bessie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessie_(film)"}],"text":"Harriet Rene \"Khandi\" Alexander (born September 4, 1957[1]) is an American dancer, choreographer, and actress. She began her career as a dancer in the 1980s, and was a choreographer for Whitney Houston's world tours from 1988 to 1992.During the 1990s, Alexander appeared in a number of films, including CB4 (1993), What's Love Got to Do with It (1993), Sugar Hill (1994), and There's Something About Mary (1998). She starred as Catherine Duke in the NBC sitcom NewsRadio from 1995 to 1998. She also had a major recurring role in the NBC medical drama ER (1995–2001) as Jackie Robbins, sister to Dr. Peter Benton. Alexander also received critical acclaim for her leading performance in the HBO miniseries The Corner in 2000.From 2002 to 2009, Alexander starred as Dr. Alexx Woods in the CBS police procedural series CSI: Miami. From 2010 to 2013, she starred as LaDonna Batiste-Williams in the HBO drama Treme. Later in 2013, she joined the cast of the ABC drama Scandal as Maya Lewis, Olivia Pope's mother, for which she received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in 2015. Alexander also received a Critics' Choice Television Award nomination for playing Bessie Smith's sister Viola in the 2015 HBO film Bessie.","title":"Khandi Alexander"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jacksonville, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacksonville,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fdr1-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Queens, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queens,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fdr1-1"},{"link_name":"Queensborough Community 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the daughter of Alverina Yavonna (Masters), an opera and jazz singer, and Henry Roland Alexander, who owned a construction company.[2][3] She was raised in Queens, New York,[1] and was educated at Queensborough Community College.[4] She appeared on Broadway, starring in Chicago, Bob Fosse's Dancin', and Dreamgirls.[4] She was a choreographer for Whitney Houston's world tour from 1988 to 1992, and also appeared as a dancer in Natalie Cole's video for \"Pink Cadillac\" in 1988.[5]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Khandi_Alexander_2013.jpg"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tvg-4"},{"link_name":"CB4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CB4"},{"link_name":"Joshua Tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Tree_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"What's Love Got to Do with It","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/What%27s_Love_Got_to_Do_with_It_(1993_film)"},{"link_name":"Poetic 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her acting career in the late 1980s. She made her television debut on the 1985 sketch-comedy show FTV.[4] Since the early 1990s, Alexander has concentrated on film and TV, playing supporting roles in several movies, including CB4, Joshua Tree, What's Love Got to Do with It, Poetic Justice, and Sugar Hill.In 1995, Alexander was cast as Catherine Duke on the NBC comedy series NewsRadio. She stayed with the show until season 4, episode 7, \"Catherine Moves On\", then returned for a final appearance in the season 5 premiere episode, \"Bill Moves On\" to memorialize Phil Hartman. She played the recurring character of Jackie Robbins in the medical drama series ER. Alexander has made a number of guest appearances on other television shows, including Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, NYPD Blue, Third Watch, Cosby, Better off Ted, La Femme Nikita, and Body of Proof.In 2000, Alexander won critical acclaim for her performance as Fran Boyd, a mother addicted to drugs in the Emmy Award-winning HBO miniseries The Corner.[5][6][7] She later appeared in the films Emmett's Mark and Dark Blue, and starred opposite Rob Lowe in the Lifetime television movie Perfect Strangers. In 2002 through 2008, she portrayed the character of Alexx Woods, a medical examiner in the CBS police drama CSI: Miami. Alexander left CSI: Miami shortly before the end of the 2007–2008 season. Her final appearance aired on May 5, 2008. On February 2, 2009, she returned to the role of Alexx Woods for a guest appearance in the episode \"Smoke Gets In Your CSI's\".[8] She returned again as Alexx Woods in guest appearances in the episodes \"Out of Time\" on September 21, 2009, and \"Bad Seed\" on October 19, 2009.In fall 2008, Alexander was cast as a lead character in the HBO drama pilot Treme, that premiered on April 11, 2010.[8] She played a bar owner in a neighborhood of New Orleans affected by Hurricane Katrina. She received critical acclaim for her performance in the show.[9][10] Alexander starred in the award-winning HBO television series by David Simon from 2010 to 2013.[11] The series ended after four seasons.[12] She later was cast in Shonda Rhimes' drama series Scandal as Maya Lewis, Kerry Washington's character Olivia Pope's mother.[13][14][15] In 2015, she was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series for her performance.[16]In 2014, Alexander was cast as older sister of Queen Latifah's title character in the HBO Film Bessie about iconic blues singer Bessie Smith.[17][18] She was nominated for a Critics' Choice Television Award for Best Supporting Actress in a Movie/Miniseries.[19]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Film","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Television","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Music videos","title":"Filmography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Awards and nominations"}]	[{"image_text":"Alexander in 2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Khandi_Alexander_2013.jpg/170px-Khandi_Alexander_2013.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Gates, Henry Louis Jr. (January 28, 2016). Finding Your Roots, season 2: The Official Companion to the PBS Series. ISBN 9781469626192.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2sg3CwAAQBAJ&dq=%22harriet+rene+alexander%22&pg=PA165","url_text":"Finding Your Roots, season 2: The Official Companion to the PBS Series"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781469626192","url_text":"9781469626192"}]},{"reference":"\"Khandi Alexander's Interactive Family Tree - Finding Your Roots - PBS\". Finding Your Roots. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved May 6, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924164536/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/finding-your-roots/blog/khandi-alexanders-interactive-family-tree/","url_text":"\"Khandi Alexander's Interactive Family Tree - Finding Your Roots - PBS\""},{"url":"https://www.pbs.org/wnet/finding-your-roots/blog/khandi-alexanders-interactive-family-tree/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Khandi Alexander Biography\". Tvguide.com. Retrieved December 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/khandi-alexander/bio/160649","url_text":"\"Khandi Alexander Biography\""}]},{"reference":"\"Khandi Alexander\". Yahoo Movies. Retrieved May 6, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://movies.yahoo.com/person/khandi-alexander/biography.html","url_text":"\"Khandi Alexander\""}]},{"reference":"Fretts, Bruce (December 22, 2000). \"Khandi Alexander\". EW.com. Retrieved December 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20042324,00.html","url_text":"\"Khandi Alexander\""}]},{"reference":"Als, Hilton. \"The Talk of the Town: The Small Screen Making \"The Corner\" Real\". The New Yorker. Retrieved December 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.newyorker.com/archive/2000/05/15/2000_05_15_038_TNY_LIBRY_000020824","url_text":"\"The Talk of the Town: The Small Screen Making \"The Corner\" Real\""}]},{"reference":"\"Exclusive: Khandi Alexander Pays CSI: Miami a Visit - Today's News: Our Take\". TVGuide.com. December 1, 2008. Retrieved December 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tvguide.com/news/khandi-miami-return-1000210.aspx","url_text":"\"Exclusive: Khandi Alexander Pays CSI: Miami a Visit - Today's News: Our Take\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cheers & Jeers: Treme's Khandi (Alexander) is Dandy - Today's News: Our Take\". TVGuide.com. July 5, 2011. 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Retrieved November 6, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131105215804/http://blog.zap2it.com/frominsidethebox/2013/11/treme-season-4-final-episodes-bring-hope-and-struggle-to-new-orleans.html","url_text":"\"'Treme' Season 4: Final episodes bring hope and struggle to New Orleans - Zap2it\""},{"url":"http://blog.zap2it.com/frominsidethebox/2013/11/treme-season-4-final-episodes-bring-hope-and-struggle-to-new-orleans.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"'Scandal' Casts 'Treme' Star to Play Olivia's Mother (Exclusive)\". The Hollywood Reporter. November 17, 2011. Retrieved November 6, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/scandal-casts-treme-star-play-653537","url_text":"\"'Scandal' Casts 'Treme' Star to Play Olivia's Mother (Exclusive)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Hollywood_Reporter","url_text":"The Hollywood Reporter"}]},{"reference":"\"Khandi Alexander Will Play Olivia Pope's Mother On 'Scandal' \| Shadow and Act\". Blogs.indiewire.com. Retrieved November 6, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.indiewire.com/shadowandact/khandi-alexander-will-play-olivia-popes-mother-on-scandal","url_text":"\"Khandi Alexander Will Play Olivia Pope's Mother On 'Scandal' \| Shadow and Act\""}]},{"reference":"Slezak, Michael. \"Scandal Season 3: Khandi Alexander Cast as Olivia's Mother — Is She Alive?\". TVLine. Retrieved November 6, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://tvline.com/2013/11/05/scandal-olivias-mother-alive-khandi-alexander-season-3/","url_text":"\"Scandal Season 3: Khandi Alexander Cast as Olivia's Mother — Is She Alive?\""}]},{"reference":"Variety Staff. \"Emmy Award Nominations 2015 – Full List: 67th Primetime Emmy Nominees - Variety\". Variety. Retrieved July 17, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://variety.com/2015/tv/news/emmy-award-nominations-2015-full-list-1201537852/","url_text":"\"Emmy Award Nominations 2015 – Full List: 67th Primetime Emmy Nominees - Variety\""}]},{"reference":"Andreeva, Nellie. \"Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join HBO Films' Bessie Smith Biopic\". Deadline.com. Retrieved May 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.deadline.com/2014/05/monique-khandi-alexander-bessie-smith-biopic-hbo/","url_text":"\"Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join HBO Films' Bessie Smith Biopic\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join Queen Latifah In Bessie Smith Biopic\|Shadow and Act\". Blogs.indiewire.com. Archived from the original on May 22, 2014. Retrieved May 22, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140522194201/http://blogs.indiewire.com/shadowandact/monique-khandi-alexander-join-queen-latifah-in-bessie-smith-biopic","url_text":"\"Mo'Nique & Khandi Alexander Join Queen Latifah In Bessie Smith Biopic\|Shadow and Act\""},{"url":"http://blogs.indiewire.com/shadowandact/monique-khandi-alexander-join-queen-latifah-in-bessie-smith-biopic","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pedersen, Erik. \"Critics' Choice Television Awards Nominations 2015\". Deadline. Retrieved May 6, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2015/05/critics-choice-television-awards-nominations-2015-list-1201421320","url_text":"\"Critics' Choice Television Awards Nominations 2015\""}]},{"reference":"Pedersen, Erik. \"'Supergirl's Melissa Benoist Joins 'Patriots Day' As Wife Boston Marathon Bomber - Deadline\". Deadline. Retrieved May 6, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2016/05/melissa-benoist-patriots-day-supergirl-1201750127/","url_text":"\"'Supergirl's Melissa Benoist Joins 'Patriots Day' As Wife Boston Marathon Bomber - Deadline\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Khandi+Alexander%22","external_links_name":"\"Khandi Alexander\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Khandi+Alexander%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Khandi+Alexander%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Khandi+Alexander%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Khandi+Alexander%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Khandi+Alexander%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2sg3CwAAQBAJ&dq=%22harriet+rene+alexander%22&pg=PA165","external_links_name":"Finding Your Roots, season 2: The Official Companion to the PBS Series"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150924164536/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/finding-your-roots/blog/khandi-alexanders-interactive-family-tree/","external_links_name":"\"Khandi Alexander's Interactive Family Tree - 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania_(colony)	Transylvania Colony	["1 Background","2 The Transylvania Company","2.1 Treaty of Sycamore Shoals (a.k.a. Watauga Treaties)","3 Settlement","4 Demise","5 See also","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]	Short-lived extra-legal colony in frontier Kentucky This article is about the frontier colony in North America. For the historical region of Romania, see Transylvania. The Transylvania Purchase and the Wilderness Road corridor from Sycamore Shoals The Transylvania Colony, also referred to as the Transylvania Purchase, was a short-lived, extra-legal colony founded in early 1775 by North Carolina land speculator Richard Henderson, who formed and controlled the Transylvania Company. Henderson and his investors had reached an agreement to purchase a vast tract of Cherokee lands west of the southern and central Appalachian Mountains through the acceptance of the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals with most leading Cherokee chieftains then controlling these lands. In exchange for the land the tribes received goods worth, according to the estimates of some scholars, about 10,000 British pounds ($1.5 million U.S. in 2016). To further complicate matters, this frontier land was also claimed by the Virginia Colony (particularly following Lord Dunmore's War) and a southern portion by Province of North Carolina. The Transylvania Colony was located in what is now the central and western parts of Kentucky, and a chunk of north central Tennessee. The American pioneer and frontier explorer Daniel Boone was hired by Henderson to establish the Wilderness Road going through the Cumberland Gap and into southeastern Kentucky to facilitate settlement. A governmental compact was concluded by the settlers in May 1775. Most settlement was forestalled by the Revolutionary War, except around established towns. Henderson's Transylvania claim in Kentucky was invalidated by the Virginia General Assembly in 1778, and the remaining Tennessee portion was invalidated by North Carolina in 1783. Henderson was compensated with a land grant along the Ohio River in western Kentucky and the current town of Henderson was founded there. Background The Royal Proclamation of 1763 that ended the French and Indian War declared lands west of the Appalachians as "Indian Territory" forbidden to colonial settlement. Continued provocations by colonial explorers, traders and trappers necessitated some concessions by the Indians to concede lands for settlement in exchange for peace. In the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Iroquois ceded their claims on lands south of the Ohio River to the British Empire. Although they claimed sovereignty over much of what is now Kentucky, the Iroquois did not actually reside there, as did their nominal vassal, the Shawnee. In addition, the Cherokee to the south and southeast used much of the area as their historical hunting grounds. Neither of these peoples had been consulted regarding the Stanwix treaty, although a series of borders was worked out with the Cherokee at the Treaty of Hard Labour (1768), the Treaty of Lochaber (1770), and once more in 1771 when they agreed to extend the Lochaber cession into present-day northeast Kentucky. The Shawnee, however, had not conducted a boundary agreement with the colonies since 1758 at the Treaty of Easton, giving them a claim to everything west of the Alleghenies. Consequently, they began to attack frontier settlers moving into the region. This led to Lord Dunmore's War, fought in 1774, primarily between the Shawnee and Virginia Colony. The Shawnee lost this brief war and their chief Cornstalk ceded all their claims south of the Ohio River, including Kentucky. Also, through much of the second half of the 17th century, a state of war had existed between the "northern tribes" (particularly the Iroquois, and the Lenape and Shawnee who were then tributary to them) and the "southern tribes" of the Cherokee and Catawba, the shared hunting grounds of Kentucky remained a contentious neutral zone. The Transylvania Company Sycamore Shoals at Elizabethton, Tennessee.On 27 August 1774, Richard Henderson, a judge from North Carolina, organized a land speculation company with a number of other prominent North Carolinians. Originally called Richard Henderson and Company, the company name was first changed to the Louisa Company, and finally to the Transylvania Company on January 6, 1775. The Transylvania Company investors hoped to establish a British proprietary colony by purchasing the Kentucky lands from the Cherokee who had earlier settled much of the south and southeastern Kentucky areas and still claimed hunting rights in the abandoned Shawnee lands. Treaty of Sycamore Shoals (a.k.a. Watauga Treaties) Main articles: Great Grant Deed, Path Grant Deed, Charles Robertson Grant Deed, and Jacob Brown Grant Deeds In March 1775, Richard Henderson and Daniel Boone met with more than 1,200 Cherokee at Sycamore Shoals (present day Elizabethton in northeastern Tennessee). Present were Cherokee leaders such as Attakullakulla and Oconostota. With five grant deeds that constituted the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, Henderson purchased all the land lying between the Cumberland River, the Cumberland Mountains, and the Kentucky River, and situated south of the Ohio River on March 14, 1775. Some adjacent land to the southeast, in Virginia and North Carolina, was also purchased. The land thus delineated, 20 million acres (81,000 km2), encompassed an area half the size of present-day Kentucky. Henderson and his partners probably believed that a recent British legal opinion, the Pratt–Yorke opinion, had made such purchases legal. In fact, the Transylvania Company's purchase was in violation of both Virginia and North Carolina law, as well as the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited private purchase of American Indian land and the establishment of any non-Crown sanctioned colony. The Treaty was disavowed by some of the chiefs. A dissident Cherokee chief, Dragging Canoe, refused to sign, endorse, or obey the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, declaring that "it is bloody ground, and will be dark and difficult to settle". It would prove to be prophetic, and subsequently Kentucky came to be referred to by the sardonic phrase, dark and bloody ground. Dragging Canoe left the Sycamore Shoals treaty grounds and took those who were loyal to him and his way of thinking into southeastern Tennessee, near present-day Chattanooga. This group came to be called the "Chickamauga" after the nearby creek of the same name. Dragging Canoe and this group went on to become the chief protagonists of the Cherokee-American wars. Settlement Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap (George Caleb Bingham, oil on canvas, 1851–52). Meeting of the Transylvania House of Delegates. Anonymous sketch of the constitutional convention meeting "under the shade of a huge elm tree (the limbs of which extended at least a hundred feet wide)", convened by Richard Henderson. Prior to the signing of the Sycamore Shoals Treaty, Henderson had hired Daniel Boone, an experienced hunter, to travel to the Cherokee towns and to inform them of the upcoming negotiations. Boone had been in southeast Kentucky long before the founding of any Kentucky settlements. Afterward, Boone was hired to blaze what became known as the Wilderness Road, which went from southwestern Virginia north through the Cumberland Gap and into central Kentucky. During this trail-blazing expedition, Boone and his party suffered several Indian attacks. Along with a party of about thirty workers, Boone cleared a path from the Cumberland Gap to the Kentucky River, where he established Boone's Station (today Boonesborough) which was intended to be the capital of Transylvania. Unknown to Boone, Henderson led another expedition following in Boone's tracks, widening the path so travellers could bring through wagons. In addition to Boone's Station, other settlements, including Harrod's Town, Logan's Fort (formerly St. Asaph), Lexington and Kenton's Station (also called Limestone) were established at this time. Many of these settlers had come to Kentucky on their own initiative, and some of them refused to recognize Transylvania's authority. When Henderson arrived at Boonesborough fewer than a hundred people resided there. This population and a few other settlements in the area constituted the sparse concentration of white settlers in the isolated western wilderness. The settlers recognized their precarious situation. They not only faced significant Indian hostilities, but lacked adequate supplies and shelter. Notwithstanding these circumstances, Henderson urged settlers in the area to hold a constitutional convention. Henderson's plan involved the various settlements scattered across Transylvania sending delegates to Boonesborough, acting in the name of the people they represented and whose consent would justify the convention. Representatives from Harrod's Town, Boiling Spring (adjacent to Harrod's Town), Logan's Fort and Boone's Station attended. In May 1775, under the shade of a huge elm tree, a three-day convention met. In addition to passing nine bills dealing with immediate matters of governance, delegates drafted a compact that organized a frame of government, known as the Transylvania Compact. This plan included executive, legislative, and judicial branches. Demise After concluding the compact, Henderson returned to North Carolina. On behalf of his fellow investors in the land scheme he petitioned the Continental Congress, seeking to make Transylvania a legally recognized colony. Despite those efforts, the Congress declined to act without the consent of Virginia and North Carolina, both of whom claimed jurisdiction over the region in question. In June 1776 the Virginia General Assembly prohibited the Transylvania Land Company from making any demands on settlers in the region. In December 1778, Virginia's Assembly finally declared the Transylvania claim void. In compensation, Henderson and his partners received a grant of 200,000 acres (312 square miles) on the Ohio River below the mouth of Green River. An early settlement there was named Red Banks, and became the city of Henderson in 1797. Henderson pressed on with his remaining modest claim in Tennessee, and it was finally invalidated by North Carolina in 1783. Henderson was similarly compensated there with a land grant of 200,000 acres in Powell Valley. See also Vandalia Colony, which would have abutted Transylvania along the Kentucky River Isaac Shelby, surveyor for the Transylvania Company and future KY governor Transylvania University namesake, but unrelated to the Transylvania Purchase Henderson County, Kentucky, the namesake county whose seat was Henderson References ^ a b Sawyer, Susan (1 August 2002). It Happened in Tennessee. Guilford: Globe Pequot. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-7627-1164-2. Retrieved 22 November 2011. ^ Part of the land north of the Cumberland River was also in North Carolina. ^ Raised along the Yadkin River in North Carolina, Boone's early Cherokee connections are not well recorded, but he had used Cherokee guides at times. ^ Christian G. Fritz, American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War (Cambridge University Press, 2008), pp. 55–60 ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3 Further reading Abernethy, Thomas Perkins. Western Lands and the American Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell, 1959. External links "Transylvania Purchase", entry from the Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture vteCherokeeTribes Cherokee Nation Eastern Band United Keetoowah Band Culture Society National holiday Calendar Clans Chiefs Gadugi Ghigau Green Corn Ceremony Language history syllabary Cherokee (Unicode block) Cherokee Supplement (Unicode block) Cherokee Immersion School New Kituwah Academy Marbles Spiritual beliefs Moon-eyed people Ethnobotany Black drink Kanuchi Stomp dance Booger dance Flag of the Cherokee Nation Legends Ani Hyuntikwalaski Deer Woman Horned Serpent Moon-eyed people Nun'Yunu'Wi Nûñnë'hï Kâ'lanû Ahkyeli'skï U'tlun'ta Tsul 'Kalu History History timeline military Treaties Kituwa Ani-kutani skiagusta (rank) outacite (rank) Raven of Chota Wars Tribal Wars Battle of Taliwa Anglo-Cherokee War Siege of Fort Loudoun Battle of Echoee Cherokee War of 1776 Cherokee–American wars Battle of Hightower Battle of Lindley's Fort Nickajack Expedition American Civil War 1st Cherokee Mounted Rifles Cherokee treaties Treaty of New Echota Treaty of Tellico Treaty of Turkeytown Treaty of Dewitt's Corner Treaty of Hard Labour Treaty of Lochaber Treaty of Hopewell Treaty of Holston Jackson and McMinn Treaty Transylvania Purchase Chickamauga Cherokee Overhill Cherokee Cherokee Phoenix Cherokee Nation (1794–1907) Removal Trail of Tears Indian Removal Act Cherokee descent Jacob Brown Grant Deeds Texas Cherokees Organizations Heritage Center Cherokee Preservation Foundation Warriors Society Original Keetoowah Society Keetoowah Nighthawk Society Youth Choir Heritage groups Cherokee Southwest Township Oconaluftee Indian Village Unto These Hills Education Female Seminary Male Seminary Cherokee Central Schools Cherokee High School Sequoyah Schools Sequoyah High School Politics and law Principal Chiefs Blood Law Slavery 1842 revolt freedmen controversy Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831) Worcester v. Georgia (1832) The Cherokee Tobacco case (1871) Cherokee Nation v. Leavitt (2005) Cherokee Commission Cherokee Strip in Kansas Sequoyah Constitutional Convention Towns and villages Cherokee Towns (pre-Removal) Amoyeligunahita Brasstown Chatuga Chilhowee Chota Conasauga Cowee Coyotee Crowtown Dirt town Ducktown Etowah Frogtown Hiwassee Hiwassee Island Island town Isunigu Joara Keowee Kituwa Kulsetsiyi Long Swamp Mialoquo Nacoochee Nantahala NewEchota Nickajack Nikwasi Nununyi Ocoee Oconee Oostanaula Red Clay Settico Spike Bucktown Talisi Talulah Tanasi Tellico Tomassee Tomotley Toqua Toxoway Tsatanugi Tuckasegee Tugaloo Turkeytown Turtletown Tuskegee Running Water Titsohili Cherokee Nations Western Cherokee Nation Cherokee Nation Tahlequah Tahlonteeskee Eastern Band Cherokee Qualla Boundary Landmarks and memorial sites Cherokee National Capitol Cherokee Removal Memorial Park Chieftains Museum First Cherokee Female Seminary Site Judaculla Rock Long Island John Ross House Ross's Landing Sequoyah's Cabin Tellico Blockhouse Trail of Tears State Park Brainerd Mission Rattlesnake Springs Fort Cass Red Clay State Historic Park Hair Conrad Cabin Nancy Ward Tomb Blythe Ferry Bussell Island Chief Vann House Historic Site Mantle Rock Museum of the Cherokee People Untokiasdiyi Standing Stone Stick Ball Grounds Cullasaja River Tuckasegee River Oconaluftee valley Oconaluftee River Abrams Creek Sycamore Shoals The Great Trading Path The Great War Path Hiwassee River Heritage Center Chatata Tuckaleechee Fort Smith Historic Site Port Royal State Park Five Civilized Tribes Museum Tlanusiyi Cherokee Path People Early leaders Moytoy of Tellico Attakullakulla Amouskositte Old Hop Moytoy of Citico Standing Turkey Outacite of Keowee Oconostota Savanukah Old Tassel Little Turkey Dragging Canoe Kunokeski Incalatanga Tagwadihi Cherokee Nation East (1794-1839) Enola Pathkiller Big Tiger Charles R. Hicks William Hicks John Ross Cherokee Nation West (1810-1839) The Bowl Degadoga Tahlonteeskee John Jolly Sam Houston John Looney John Rogers Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (1824-present) Yonaguska William Holland Thomas Tsaladihi Gerard Parker Joyce Dugan Patrick Lambert Richard Sneed Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory (1839–1907) Lewis Downing Degataga William P. Ross Utselata Dennis Bushyhead Joel B. Mayes Johnson Harris Samuel Houston Mayes Thomas Buffington William Charles Rogers Cherokee Nation (1975–present) J. B. Milam W. W. Keeler Ross Swimmer Wilma Mankiller Joe Byrd Chadwick "Corntassel" Smith Bill John Baker Chuck Hoskin, Jr. United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians (1939–present) James L. Gordon John W. Hair Other notable Cherokee Nancy Ward Tsali Tahlonteeskee (warrior) Turtle-at-Home Junaluska Goingsnake Elias Boudinot Wauhatchie James Vann David Vann Joseph Vann Bob Benge Nunnahitsunega Ned Christie John Martin Markwayne Mullin Yvette Herrell Sequoya Major Ridge Jenny McIntosh Sam Sixkiller Clement V. Rogers Redbird Smith Durbin Feeling Hastings Shade Kimberly Teehee See also: Cherokee-language Wikipedia	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wilderness_road_en.png"},{"link_name":"Richard Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Henderson_(American_pioneer)"},{"link_name":"Cherokee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee"},{"link_name":"Appalachian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Virginia Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia_Colony"},{"link_name":"Lord Dunmore's War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunmore%27s_War"},{"link_name":"Province of North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky"},{"link_name":"Daniel Boone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Boone"},{"link_name":"Wilderness Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_Road"},{"link_name":"Cumberland Gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_Gap"},{"link_name":"Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson,_Kentucky"}],"text":"This article is about the frontier colony in North America. For the historical region of Romania, see Transylvania.The Transylvania Purchase and the Wilderness Road corridor from Sycamore ShoalsThe Transylvania Colony, also referred to as the Transylvania Purchase, was a short-lived, extra-legal colony founded in early 1775 by North Carolina land speculator Richard Henderson, who formed and controlled the Transylvania Company. Henderson and his investors had reached an agreement to purchase a vast tract of Cherokee lands west of the southern and central Appalachian Mountains through the acceptance of the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals with most leading Cherokee chieftains then controlling these lands. In exchange for the land the tribes received goods worth, according to the estimates of some scholars, about 10,000 British pounds ($1.5 million U.S. in 2016). To further complicate matters, this frontier land was also claimed by the Virginia Colony (particularly following Lord Dunmore's War) and a southern portion by Province of North Carolina.The Transylvania Colony was located in what is now the central and western parts of Kentucky, and a chunk of north central Tennessee. The American pioneer and frontier explorer Daniel Boone was hired by Henderson to establish the Wilderness Road going through the Cumberland Gap and into southeastern Kentucky to facilitate settlement. A governmental compact was concluded by the settlers in May 1775. Most settlement was forestalled by the Revolutionary War, except around established towns. Henderson's Transylvania claim in Kentucky was invalidated by the Virginia General Assembly in 1778, and the remaining Tennessee portion was invalidated by North Carolina in 1783. Henderson was compensated with a land grant along the Ohio River in western Kentucky and the current town of Henderson was founded there.","title":"Transylvania Colony"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Proclamation of 1763","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763"},{"link_name":"French and Indian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War"},{"link_name":"Indian Territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Fort Stanwix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fort_Stanwix"},{"link_name":"Iroquois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois"},{"link_name":"Ohio River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_River"},{"link_name":"British Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire"},{"link_name":"Shawnee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawnee"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Hard Labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Hard_Labour"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Lochaber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Lochaber"},{"link_name":"extend the Lochaber cession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donelson%27s_Indian_Line"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Easton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Easton"},{"link_name":"Cornstalk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornstalk"}],"text":"The Royal Proclamation of 1763 that ended the French and Indian War declared lands west of the Appalachians as \"Indian Territory\" forbidden to colonial settlement.\nContinued provocations by colonial explorers, traders and trappers necessitated some concessions by the Indians to concede lands for settlement in exchange for peace.\nIn the 1768 Treaty of Fort Stanwix, the Iroquois ceded their claims on lands south of the Ohio River to the British Empire. Although they claimed sovereignty over much of what is now Kentucky, the Iroquois did not actually reside there, as did their nominal vassal, the Shawnee. In addition, the Cherokee to the south and southeast used much of the area as their historical hunting grounds. Neither of these peoples had been consulted regarding the Stanwix treaty, although a series of borders was worked out with the Cherokee at the Treaty of Hard Labour (1768), the Treaty of Lochaber (1770), and once more in 1771 when they agreed to extend the Lochaber cession into present-day northeast Kentucky. The Shawnee, however, had not conducted a boundary agreement with the colonies since 1758 at the Treaty of Easton, giving them a claim to everything west of the Alleghenies. Consequently, they began to attack frontier settlers moving into the region. This led to Lord Dunmore's War, fought in 1774, primarily between the Shawnee and Virginia Colony. The Shawnee lost this brief war and their chief Cornstalk ceded all their claims south of the Ohio River, including Kentucky.Also, through much of the second half of the 17th century, a state of war had existed between the \"northern tribes\" (particularly the Iroquois, and the Lenape and Shawnee who were then tributary to them) and the \"southern tribes\" of the Cherokee and Catawba, the shared hunting grounds of Kentucky remained a contentious neutral zone.","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sycamore-shoals-tn1.jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sawyer2002-1"},{"link_name":"land speculation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_speculation"},{"link_name":"proprietary colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_colony"}],"text":"Sycamore Shoals at Elizabethton, Tennessee.On 27 August 1774, Richard Henderson, a judge from North Carolina,[1] organized a land speculation company with a number of other prominent North Carolinians. Originally called Richard Henderson and Company, the company name was first changed to the Louisa Company, and finally to the Transylvania Company on January 6, 1775. The Transylvania Company investors hoped to establish a British proprietary colony by purchasing the Kentucky lands from the Cherokee who had earlier settled much of the south and southeastern Kentucky areas and still claimed hunting rights in the abandoned Shawnee lands.","title":"The Transylvania Company"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sycamore Shoals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sycamore_Shoals"},{"link_name":"Elizabethton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabethton,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"Attakullakulla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attakullakulla"},{"link_name":"Oconostota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oconostota"},{"link_name":"Cumberland River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_River"},{"link_name":"Cumberland Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumberland_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Kentucky River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_River"},{"link_name":"Ohio River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio_River"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pratt–Yorke opinion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt%E2%80%93Yorke_opinion"},{"link_name":"Royal Proclamation of 1763","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Proclamation_of_1763"},{"link_name":"Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_of_Great_Britain"},{"link_name":"Dragging Canoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dragging_Canoe"},{"link_name":"Chickamauga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chickamauga_Cherokee"},{"link_name":"Cherokee-American wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cherokee-American_wars"}],"sub_title":"Treaty of Sycamore Shoals (a.k.a. Watauga Treaties)","text":"In March 1775, Richard Henderson and Daniel Boone met with more than 1,200 Cherokee at Sycamore Shoals (present day Elizabethton in northeastern Tennessee). Present were Cherokee leaders such as Attakullakulla and Oconostota. With five grant deeds that constituted the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, Henderson purchased all the land lying between the Cumberland River, the Cumberland Mountains, and the Kentucky River, and situated south of the Ohio River on March 14, 1775. Some adjacent land to the southeast, in Virginia and North Carolina, was also purchased.[2] The land thus delineated, 20 million acres (81,000 km2), encompassed an area half the size of present-day Kentucky.Henderson and his partners probably believed that a recent British legal opinion, the Pratt–Yorke opinion, had made such purchases legal. In fact, the Transylvania Company's purchase was in violation of both Virginia and North Carolina law, as well as the Royal Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited private purchase of American Indian land and the establishment of any non-Crown sanctioned colony.The Treaty was disavowed by some of the chiefs. A dissident Cherokee chief, Dragging Canoe, refused to sign, endorse, or obey the Treaty of Sycamore Shoals, declaring that \"it is bloody ground, and will be dark and difficult to settle\". It would prove to be prophetic, and subsequently Kentucky came to be referred to by the sardonic phrase, dark and bloody ground. Dragging Canoe left the Sycamore Shoals treaty grounds and took those who were loyal to him and his way of thinking into southeastern Tennessee, near present-day Chattanooga. This group came to be called the \"Chickamauga\" after the nearby creek of the same name. Dragging Canoe and this group went on to become the chief protagonists of the Cherokee-American wars.","title":"The Transylvania Company"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:George_Caleb_Bingham_-_Daniel_Boone_escorting_settlers_through_the_Cumberland_Gap.jpg"},{"link_name":"George Caleb Bingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Caleb_Bingham"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Boonesborough,_Kentucky_30_grey.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daniel Boone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Boone"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sawyer2002-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Wilderness Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_Road"},{"link_name":"Kentucky River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky_River"},{"link_name":"Boonesborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boonesborough,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"by whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"Harrod's Town","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrodsburg,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"Logan's Fort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"Lexington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexington,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"Kenton's Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maysville,_Kentucky"},{"link_name":"constitutional convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_convention_(political_meeting)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap (George Caleb Bingham, oil on canvas, 1851–52).Meeting of the Transylvania House of Delegates. Anonymous sketch of the constitutional convention meeting \"under the shade of a huge elm tree (the limbs of which extended at least a hundred feet wide)\", convened by Richard Henderson.Prior to the signing of the Sycamore Shoals Treaty, Henderson had hired Daniel Boone,[1] an experienced hunter, to travel to the Cherokee towns and to inform them of the upcoming negotiations. Boone had been in southeast Kentucky long before the founding of any Kentucky settlements.[3]\nAfterward, Boone was hired to blaze what became known as the Wilderness Road, which went from southwestern Virginia north through the Cumberland Gap and into central Kentucky. During this trail-blazing expedition, Boone and his party suffered several Indian attacks. Along with a party of about thirty workers, Boone cleared a path from the Cumberland Gap to the Kentucky River, where he established Boone's Station (today Boonesborough) which was intended[by whom?] to be the capital of Transylvania. Unknown to Boone, Henderson led another expedition following in Boone's tracks, widening the path so travellers could bring through wagons. In addition to Boone's Station, other settlements, including Harrod's Town, Logan's Fort (formerly St. Asaph), Lexington and Kenton's Station (also called Limestone) were established at this time. Many of these settlers had come to Kentucky on their own initiative, and some of them refused to recognize Transylvania's authority.When Henderson arrived at Boonesborough fewer than a hundred people resided there. This population and a few other settlements in the area constituted the sparse concentration of white settlers in the isolated western wilderness. The settlers recognized their precarious situation. They not only faced significant Indian hostilities, but lacked adequate supplies and shelter. Notwithstanding these circumstances, Henderson urged settlers in the area to hold a constitutional convention.Henderson's plan involved the various settlements scattered across Transylvania sending delegates to Boonesborough, acting in the name of the people they represented and whose consent would justify the convention. Representatives from Harrod's Town, Boiling Spring (adjacent to Harrod's Town), Logan's Fort and Boone's Station attended. In May 1775, under the shade of a huge elm tree, a three-day convention met. In addition to passing nine bills dealing with immediate matters of governance, delegates drafted a compact that organized a frame of government, known as the Transylvania Compact. This plan included executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[4]","title":"Settlement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Continental Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Congress"},{"link_name":"Green River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_River_(Kentucky)"},{"link_name":"Henderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson,_Kentucky"}],"text":"After concluding the compact, Henderson returned to North Carolina. On behalf of his fellow investors in the land scheme he petitioned the Continental Congress, seeking to make Transylvania a legally recognized colony. Despite those efforts, the Congress declined to act without the consent of Virginia and North Carolina, both of whom claimed jurisdiction over the region in question. In June 1776 the Virginia General Assembly prohibited the Transylvania Land Company from making any demands on settlers in the region. In December 1778, Virginia's Assembly finally declared the Transylvania claim void. In compensation, Henderson and his partners received a grant of 200,000 acres (312 square miles) on the Ohio River below the mouth of Green River. An early settlement there was named Red Banks, and became the city of Henderson in 1797.Henderson pressed on with his remaining modest claim in Tennessee, and it was finally invalidated by North Carolina in 1783. Henderson was similarly compensated there with a land grant of 200,000 acres in Powell Valley.","title":"Demise"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Abernethy, Thomas Perkins. Western Lands and the American Revolution. New York: Russell & Russell, 1959.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"The Transylvania Purchase and the Wilderness Road corridor from Sycamore Shoals","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Wilderness_road_en.png/220px-Wilderness_road_en.png"},{"image_text":"Sycamore Shoals at Elizabethton, Tennessee.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Sycamore-shoals-tn1.jpg/300px-Sycamore-shoals-tn1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Daniel Boone Escorting Settlers through the Cumberland Gap (George Caleb Bingham, oil on canvas, 1851–52).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/George_Caleb_Bingham_-_Daniel_Boone_escorting_settlers_through_the_Cumberland_Gap.jpg/300px-George_Caleb_Bingham_-_Daniel_Boone_escorting_settlers_through_the_Cumberland_Gap.jpg"},{"image_text":"Meeting of the Transylvania House of Delegates. Anonymous sketch of the constitutional convention meeting \"under the shade of a huge elm tree (the limbs of which extended at least a hundred feet wide)\", convened by Richard Henderson.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Boonesborough%2C_Kentucky_30_grey.jpg/300px-Boonesborough%2C_Kentucky_30_grey.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Vandalia Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalia_(colony)"},{"title":"Isaac Shelby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Shelby"},{"title":"Transylvania University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transylvania_University"},{"title":"Henderson County, Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henderson_County,_Kentucky#History"}]	[{"reference":"Sawyer, Susan (1 August 2002). It Happened in Tennessee. Guilford: Globe Pequot. pp. 1–3. ISBN 978-0-7627-1164-2. Retrieved 22 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=L8iRDxjf4NAC","url_text":"It Happened in Tennessee"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7627-1164-2","url_text":"978-0-7627-1164-2"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=L8iRDxjf4NAC","external_links_name":"It Happened in Tennessee"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZpKCvUacmSwC&dq=christian+g+fritz+%22american+sovereigns%22&pg=RA1-PA168","external_links_name":"American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War"},{"Link":"http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=1398","external_links_name":"\"Transylvania Purchase\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Adversary	The Secret Adversary	["1 Plot summary","2 Characters","3 Literary significance and reception","4 Adaptations","4.1 Film","4.2 Television","4.3 Graphic novel adaptation","4.4 Stage","5 Publication history","5.1 Book dedication","5.2 Dustjacket blurb","6 References","7 External links"]	Detective novel by Agatha Christie (1922) For the German silent film adaptation, see The Secret Adversary (film). The Secret Adversary Dust-jacket illustration of the first UK editionAuthorAgatha ChristieCover artistErnest AkersLanguageEnglishGenreCrime novelPublisherThe Bodley HeadPublication dateJanuary 1922Publication placeUnited KingdomMedia typePrint (hardback & paperback)Pages320 (first edition, hardback)Preceded byThe Mysterious Affair at Styles Followed byThe Murder on the Links TextThe Secret Adversary at Wikisource The Secret Adversary is the second published detective fiction novel by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in January 1922 in the United Kingdom by The Bodley Head and in the United States by Dodd, Mead and Company later in that same year. The UK edition retailed at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6) and the US edition at $1.75. The book introduces the characters of Tommy and Tuppence who feature in three other Christie novels and one collection of short stories; the five Tommy and Tuppence books span Agatha Christie's writing career. The Great War is over, and jobs are scarce. Childhood friends Tommy Beresford and Prudence "Tuppence" Cowley meet and agree to start their own business as The Young Adventurers. They are hired for a job that leads them both to many dangerous situations, meeting allies as well, including an American millionaire in search of his cousin. Reviews were generally positive on this adventure, which manages to keep the identity of the arch-criminal secret to the very end. Plot summary In 1920 London, demobilised soldier Tommy Beresford reunites with his childhood friend and war volunteer Prudence "Tuppence" Cowley. Out of work and money, they form "The Young Adventurers, Ltd". Their first client, a Mr Whittington, makes Tuppence a suspiciously generous offer. Remembering a seemingly unrelated anecdote of Tommy’s, when Whittington asks Tuppence her name, she gives him the alias "Jane Finn." A shocked Whittington offers her £50 hush money and disappears. Carter, an old friend of Tommy's from British intelligence, tells them that Jane Finn was a British agent who disappeared while attempting to deliver a secret treaty to the American embassy in London. Tommy and Tuppence agree to find her, but Carter warns them about an enemy agent known only as "Mr Brown." Also searching for Jane Finn is her cousin Julius Hersheimmer, an American multimillionaire. Tommy and Tuppence's investigation leads them to the home of Mrs Marguerite "Rita" Vandemeyer, a woman with several powerful friends, including Whittington and Sir James Peel Edgerton, K C. Tuppence obtains a job as Mrs Vandemeyer's maid and enlists the help of a young boy working there named Albert. Tuppence hears Mrs Vandemeyer mention Mr Brown and forces her to admit she knows his real identity. Mrs Vandemeyer screams, collapses, and murmurs "Mr Brown" to Tuppence just before dying. Tuppence receives a telegram signed by Tommy and rushes after him. Meanwhile, Tommy follows Boris Ivanovitch, another of Rita's associates, to a house in Soho, where Tommy is taken prisoner while attempting to eavesdrop on a meeting of Bolshevist conspirators. A young French woman at the house, Annette, arranges his escape, but refuses to leave herself. Tommy returns to the Ritz and finds Tuppence. Sir James discovers Jane Finn, who has recovered her memory after an accident. She tells them where she hid the treaty, but they find instead a message from Mr Brown. While searching for writing paper in Julius's drawer, Tommy finds a photograph of Annette. Tommy concludes that Annette is the real Jane Finn and the Jane Finn they met was a plant to stop their investigation. He gets an original copy of the telegram sent to Tuppence and sees that her destination was altered on the copy he read. Tommy and Albert proceed to the correct destination. Hersheimmer arranges for the release of Tuppence and Annette. At Sir James's residence, Jane tells her story: after receiving the packet, she became suspicious of Mrs Vandemeyer. Jane placed blank sheets in the original packet, sealing the treaty inside magazine pages. Travelling from Ireland, she was mugged and taken to the house in Soho. Perceiving the intent of her captors, Jane faked amnesia, conversing only in French. She hid the treaty in a picture frame in her room and has maintained her role as "Annette" ever since. Tuppence suspects that Hersheimmer is Mr Brown. Sir James agrees, adding that the real Hersheimmer was killed in America and that his imposter killed Mrs Vandemeyer. They rush to Soho, recovering the treaty at the house. Sir James identifies himself as the true Mr Brown, and announces his plan to kill them, wound himself, and then blame it on the elusive Mr Brown. Julius and Tommy, who are hiding in the room, overwhelm Sir James. He commits suicide using poison concealed in his ring, the compelling evidence to persuade Mr Carter of his old friend's guilt. Tommy’s role in solving the mystery persuades his estranged rich uncle to support him financially and make Tommy his heir. The novel ends with both Hersheimmer and Jane, and Tommy and Tuppence, engaged to marry. Characters Thomas Beresford: Tommy, young redheaded Englishman who fought in the Great War, wounded twice, considered slow but steady and clear-headed in his thinking, at his best in a tight situation. In his early twenties. Prudence L Cowley: Tuppence, young woman with black bobbed hair, one of several children of a conservative archdeacon, served in the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) during the Great War. She is modern and stylish, quick and intuitive in her thinking, acts rapidly on her ideas. In her early twenties. Julius P Hersheimmer: Millionaire from America, seeking his first cousin Jane Finn, a girl he never met in America due to a family quarrel. He is quick-thinking, quick-acting, and being from America, he carries a gun and knows how to use it. In his early thirties. Mr Carter: Englishman skilled in the intelligence service and connected with the highest political powers, known only by this alias. He seeks the treaty and the girl who might have carried it off the ship. Jane Finn: American woman, 18 years old when she left the US, with good skills in speaking French, who aimed to work in a war hospital during the Great War. She sailed on the Lusitania, and she survived, carrying a document from a man named Danvers. Marguerite Vandemeyer: Rita, a beautiful woman in society who followed Danvers on the Lusitania. She is affiliated with the conspirators and uniquely knows "Mr Brown"'s true identity. Her character is steely and powerful and she sees Sir James socially. She dies by poison. Albert: Lift boy at the building in which Rita Vandemeyer lives, becomes helper to Tuppence, then to Tommy. Mr Whittington: Member of the conspirators who first encounters Tommy and Tuppence as they plan their joint venture over lunch in a restaurant. He spoke Jane Finn's name in the streets as Tommy passed him. Boris Ivanovitch, Count Stepanov: Member of the conspiracy, who keeps in touch with Whittington and Rita. Mr Kramenin: Russian Bolshevik, serving in London, and one of the conspirators, called number one. Julius selects him to lead him to the girls. Dr Hall: Runs the nursing home in Bournemouth where he took in the amnesia patient as a niece of Rita Vandemeyer, under the name Janet, for several years. Sir James Peel Edgerton: MP and prominent London defence lawyer, known to instinctively identify a criminal. He is socially and politically well known, and seen as a potential future prime minister. Mr Carter respects his intelligence, going back years. He sees Rita socially. He is known for his persuasive ways. Mr Brown: Elusive leader of the conspirators, who appears as a man named Brown often, but in a minor role, so others do not recall his appearance. He is key to all decisions of the conspirators, subtle with information, brutal or fatal with his enemies, the master criminal mind of the age. Literary significance and reception Upon publication of the first book edition it was reviewed by The Times Literary Supplement in its edition of 26 January 1922, which described it as "a whirl of thrilling adventures". It stated that the characters of Tommy and Tuppence were "refreshingly original" and praised the fact that the "identity of the arch-criminal, the elusive "Mr Brown", is cleverly concealed to the very end". The critic for The New York Times Book Review (11 June 1922) was also impressed: "It is safe to assert that unless the reader peers into the last chapter or so of the tale, he will not know who this secret adversary is until the author chooses to reveal him." The review gave something of a backhanded compliment when it said that Christie "gives a sense of plausibility to the most preposterous situations and developments." Nevertheless it conceded thatMiss Christie has a clever prattling style that shifts easily into amusing dialogue and so aids the pleasure of the reader as he tears along with Tommy and Tuppence on the trail of the mysterious Mr Brown. Many of the situations are a bit moth-eaten from frequent usage by other writers, but at that Miss Christie manages to invest them with a new sense of individuality that renders them rather absorbing. Robert Barnard described the novel as "The first and best (no extravagant compliment this) of the Tommy and Tuppence stories. It tells how the dauntless pair foils a plot to foment labour unrest and red revolution in Britain, masterminded by the man behind the Bolshevists. Good reactionary fun, if you're in that mood." Some additional blurbs regarding the book, and used by The Bodley Head for advertising subsequent print runs, are as follows: "It's an excellent yarn and the reader will find it as impossible as we did to put it aside until the mystery has been fathomed." — Daily Chronicle "We promise our readers an exciting story of adventure, full of hairbreadth escapes, and many disappointments if they try to guess the riddle before the author is ready to give them the clue. — An excellent story." — Saturday Review. "The atmosphere of the book is admirable and the story will be read with avidity by all. Undoubtedly the book is a success." — East Anglian Daily Times. "A book of thrilling adventure. Sensational adventures which make thrilling and gripping reading. Mrs Christie has certainly succeeded in writing a story not only entertaining, but ingenious and amazingly clever." — Irish Independent. The one critic who was not so keen on the book was Christie's publisher, John Lane, who had wanted her to write another detective novel along the lines of The Mysterious Affair at Styles. Adaptations Film The Secret Adversary was the second Christie work to be turned into a film. Made in Germany by the Orplid Film company, it was released in that country on 15 February 1929 as Die Abenteurer G.m.b.H., a silent movie which ran for 76 minutes. It was released in the UK and US under the title Adventures Inc. Character names from the book were changed for the film. Previously thought to be lost, it was given a rare showing at the National Film Theatre on 15 July 2001 (see National Film Theatre: A Tribute to the Work of Agatha Christie) Adaptor: Jane Bess Director: Fred Sauer Photography: Adolf Otto Weitzenberg Art Direction:' Leopold Blonder and Franz Schroedter Cast: Eve Gray as Lucienne Fereoni Carlo Aldini as Pierre Lafitte Elfriede Borodin as Jeanette Finné Hilda Bayley as Rita van den Meer Eberhard Leithoff as George Finné Jack Mylong-Münz as Boris Shayle Gardner as Julius Vardier Hans Mierendorff as Hans Mierendorff Valy Arnheim as Wittington Television The novel was adapted twice for television, in 1983 and in 2014 (aired July–August 2015 in the UK). The book was adapted by London Weekend Television as a 115-minute drama, and transmitted on Sunday, 9 October 1983. It acted as an introduction to a ten-part adaptation of Partners in Crime, made with the same stars, which began transmission one week later under the title Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime. Adaptor: Pat Sandys Director: Tony Wharmby Cast: Francesca Annis as Prudence Cowley James Warwick as Thomas Beresford Reece Dinsdale as Albert Arthur Cox as Detective Inspector Marriott Gavan O'Herlihy as Julius P Hersheimmer Alec McCowen as Sir James Peele Edgerton Honor Blackman as Rita Vandemeyer Peter Barkworth as Carter Toria Fuller as Jane Finn John Fraser as Kramenin George Baker as Whittington Donald Houston as Boris Joseph Brady as Dr Hall Wolf Kahler as The German Peter Lovstrom as Henry Matthew Scurfield as Conrad Gabrielle Blunt as Annie In February 2014, the BBC announced it had commissioned the TV series Partners in Crime, with three episodes as an adaptation of The Secret Adversary, written by Zinnie Harris. It aired in July/August 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of Dame Agatha Christie's birth. It is not set in the post-Great War period, so Tommy and Tuppence are not the young things of that era, are married and have a son sent off to school. It is instead set in 1952, with references made to the Cold War against Stalin. Cast: Jessica Raine as Tuppence David Walliams as Tommy Camilla Marie Beeput as Jane Finn Alice Krige as Rita Vandemeyer James Fleet as Mr. Carter Clarke Peters as Julius Hersheimer Matthew Steer as Albert Pemberton Graphic novel adaptation The Secret Adversary was released by HarperCollins as a graphic novel adaptation on 20 May 2008, adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq (ISBN 0-00-727461-0). This was translated from the edition first published in France by Emmanuel Proust éditions in 2003 under the title of Mister Brown. Stage Agatha Christie’s The Secret Adversary was presented for the stage for the first time in 2015 as a Watermill Theatre production, adapted from the Christie novel by Sarah Punshon and Johann Hari for a company of seven actors. A play in two acts, it was described in the publicity as being "shot through with fast-paced action, comedy, live music and a dash of romance". The live music was performed by the cast. Tuppence was played by Emerald O’Hanrahan, and Tommy by Garmon Rhys. It opened and ran at The Watermill Theatre, West Berkshire Playhouse from Thursday 12 February to Saturday 21 March, and then toured until Saturday 9 May, ending its run at the Rose Theatre, Kingston. On 16 February 2016, Great Lakes Theater debuted a 70-minute stage adaptation as part of their educational programming. Adapted by David Hansen, this production is performed by a cast of five (3 men, 2 women) with most performers playing more than one role. Publication history 1922, John Lane (The Bodley Head), January 1922, Hardback, 320 pp 1922, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 1922, Hardback, 330 pp 1927, John Lane (The Bodley Head), February 1927, Hardback (Cheap Edition – two shillings) 1946, Avon Books (New York), Avon number 100, Paperback, 264 pp 1955, Pan Books, Paperback (Pan number 357) 1957, Pan Books, Paperback (Great Pan GP82) 1967, Bantam Books (New York), Paperback 1976, Panther Books (London), Paperback; ISBN 0-586-04424-8 1991, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 256pp; ISBN 0-00-617478-7 1991, Ulverscroft Large Print Edition, Hardcover; ISBN 0-7089-2441-7 2001, Signet (Penguin Group), Paperback 2007, Facsimile of 1922 UK first edition (HarperCollins), 5 November 2007, Hardcover, 320 pp; ISBN 0-00-726515-8 Like its predecessor, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, The Secret Adversary was first published as an unillustrated serialisation in The Times weekly edition (aka The Weekly Times) as a complete and unabridged text in seventeen instalments from 12 August (Issue 2328) to 2 December 1921 (Issue 2343). Christie was paid £50 for the serialisation rights (£1,545 in 2003 currency). Book dedication The dedication of the book reads: "To all those who lead monotonous lives in the hope that they experience at second hand the delights and dangers of adventure". This rather whimsical statement was one of only two times that Christie addressed a dedication to her readers, the other occasion being the penultimate Tommy and Tuppence book, By the Pricking of My Thumbs in 1968. Dustjacket blurb The dustjacket front flap of the first edition carried no specially written blurb. Instead, it repeated the text which appeared on the jacket of The Mysterious Affair at Styles (the back jacket flap carrying review quotes of the earlier novel). In later editions, blurbs first published in the back of Poirot Investigates were used. References ^ a b The English Catalogue of Books. Vol. XI A-L January 1921 – December 1925. Millwood, New York: Kraus Reprint Corporation. 1979. p. 310. ^ John Cooper; B.A. Pyke (1994). Detective Fiction – the collector's guide (Second ed.). Scholar Press. pp. 82, 86. ISBN 0-85967-991-8. ^ a b "American Tribute to Agatha Christie: The Classic Years 1920s". May 2007. Retrieved 11 January 2014. ^ The Times Literary Supplement, 26 January 1922 (p. 61) ^ The New York Times Book Review, 11 June 1922 (p. 15) ^ Barnard, Robert (1990). A Talent to Deceive – an appreciation of Agatha Christie (Revised ed.). Fontana Books. p. 200. ISBN 0-00-637474-3. ^ a b c d e Christie, Agatha (1924). Poirot Investigates. John Lane Company (The Bodley Head). pp. Advertising supplements following p. 298 of novel. ^ a b Thompson, Laura (2008). Agatha Christie: An English Mystery. Headline Review. p. 128. ^ Brunsdale, Mitzi (2010). Icons of Mystery and Crime Detection: From Sleuths to Superheroes. ABC-CLIO. ^ "Partners In Crime - major new BBC One drama for Agatha Christie's 125th celebration year". BBC. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015. ^ O'Donovan, Gerard (27 July 2015). "Jessica Raine and David Walliams in Partners in Crime: 'watchable'". The Telegraph. Retrieved 28 July 2015. ^ Partners in Crime (2015) at IMDb ^ "The @GreatLakesTheater Takes Agatha Christie on the Road". Cool Cleveland. 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016. ^ Holdings at the British Library (Newspapers – Colindale). Shelfmark: NPL LON LD77 ^ O'Donoghue, Jim; Goulding, Louise (March 2004). "Consumer Price Inflation Since 1750 – Composite consumer price index with description and assessment of source data, and examples of how to revalue historical amounts to current day prices and calculate changes in purchasing power". Economic Trends, National Statistics Office (604): 38–46. ISSN 0013-0400. Archived from the original on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) External links Wikisource has original text related to this article: The Secret Adversary The Secret Adversary is in the public domain in the US. The copyright on the book will not expire in many other Western countries until 2047. The Secret Adversary at Standard Ebooks The Secret Adversary at Project Gutenberg The Secret Adversary at the official Agatha Christie website Die Abenteurer GmbH (1929) at IMDb Die Abenteurer GmbH (1929) entry at British Film Institute The Secret Adversary (1983) at IMDb The Secret Adversary (1983) article at Screenonline vteAgatha Christie Bibliography Universe Adaptations Characters Superintendent Battle Tommy and Tuppence Beresford Lady Eileen "Bundle" Brent Sir Henry Clithering Captain Arthur Hastings Chief Inspector James Japp Miss Jane Marple Ariadne Oliver Hercule Poirot Parker Pyne Mr. Harley Quin Raymond West Locations St. Mary Mead Novels The Mysterious Affair at Styles The Secret Adversary The Murder on the Links The Man in the Brown Suit The Secret of Chimneys The Murder of Roger Ackroyd The Big Four The Mystery of the Blue Train The Seven Dials Mystery The Murder at the Vicarage The Sittaford Mystery Peril at End House Lord Edgware Dies Murder on the Orient Express Why Didn't They Ask Evans? Three Act Tragedy Death in the Clouds The A.B.C. Murders Murder in Mesopotamia Cards on the Table Dumb Witness Death on the Nile Appointment with Death Hercule Poirot's Christmas Murder Is Easy And Then There Were None Sad Cypress One, Two, Buckle My Shoe Evil Under the Sun N or M? The Body in the Library Five Little Pigs The Moving Finger Towards Zero Death Comes as the End Sparkling Cyanide The Hollow Taken at the Flood Crooked House A Murder Is Announced They Came to Baghdad Mrs McGinty's Dead They Do It with Mirrors After the Funeral A Pocket Full of Rye Destination Unknown Hickory Dickory Dock Dead Man's Folly 4.50 from Paddington Ordeal by Innocence Cat Among the Pigeons The Pale Horse The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side The Clocks A Caribbean Mystery At Bertram's Hotel Third Girl Endless Night By the Pricking of My Thumbs Hallowe'en Party Passenger to Frankfurt Nemesis Elephants Can Remember Postern of Fate Curtain Sleeping Murder As Mary Westmacott Giant's Bread Unfinished Portrait Absent in the Spring The Rose and the Yew Tree A Daughter's a Daughter The Burden Short story collections Poirot Investigates Partners in Crime The Mysterious Mr Quin The Thirteen Problems The Hound of Death The Listerdale Mystery Parker Pyne Investigates Murder in the Mews The Regatta Mystery The Labours of Hercules The Witness for the Prosecution and Other Stories Three Blind Mice and Other Stories The Under Dog and Other Stories The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding Double Sin and Other Stories The Golden Ball and Other Stories Poirot's Early Cases Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories Problem at Pollensa Bay and Other Stories The Harlequin Tea Set While the Light Lasts and Other Stories Plays Black Coffee And Then There Were None Appointment with Death Murder on the Nile The Hollow The Mousetrap Witness for the Prosecution Spider's Web Towards Zero Verdict The Unexpected Guest Go Back For Murder Fiddlers Three Akhnaton Chimneys Radio and television plays Wasp's Nest The Yellow Iris Three Blind Mice Butter in a Lordly Dish Personal Call Other books The Road of Dreams Come, Tell Me How You Live Star Over Bethlehem Poems An Autobiography The Mousetrap and Other Plays Agatha Christie's Secret Notebooks Depictions Agatha Christie Memorial Agatha (1979 film) Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures (2004 docudrama) The Unicorn and the Wasp (2008 TV episode) Agatha and the Truth of Murder (2018 film) Agatha and the Curse of Ishtar (2019 film) Agatha and the Midnight Murders (2020 film) See How They Run (2022 film) Related Archie Christie (first husband) Max Mallowan (second husband) Ashfield, Torquay (home) Greenway Estate (home) Agatha Award Agatha Christie Award (Japan) Category vteThe Times and The Sunday TimesEditors ofThe Times 1785: John Walter 1803: John Walter, 2nd 1812: John Stoddart 1817: Thomas Barnes 1841: John Thadeus Delane 1877: Thomas Chenery 1884: George Earle Buckle 1912: Geoffrey Dawson 1919: George Sydney Freeman 1919: Wickham Steed 1923: Geoffrey Dawson 1941: Robert Barrington-Ward 1948: William Francis Casey 1952: William Haley 1967: William Rees-Mogg 1981: Harold Evans 1982: Charles Douglas-Home 1985: Charles Wilson 1990: Simon Jenkins 1992: Peter Stothard 2002: Robert Thomson 2007: James Harding 2013: John Witherow 2022: Tony Gallagher Editors of TheSunday Times 1821: Henry White 1822: Daniel Whittle Harvey 1824: Clarkson 1828: Thomas Gaspey 1835: Unknown 1850: Edward Tyrrel Smith 1858: E. W. Scale 1867: Edmund Scale 1874: Joseph Hatton 1881: Neville Bruce 1887: Phil Robinson 1890: Arthur William à Beckett 1893: Rachel Beer 1901: Leonard Rees 1932: William W. Hadley 1950: Harry Hodson 1961: Denis Hamilton 1967: Harold Evans 1981: Frank Giles 1983: Andrew Neil 1995: John Witherow 2013: Martin Ivens 2020: Emma Tucker 2023: Ben Taylor First publishedin The Times "The Darkling Thrush" Harcourt interpolation The Mysterious Affair at Styles "Ode of Remembrance" The Secret Adversary Relatedpublications Times Atlas of the World TES (magazine) Times Higher Education The Times Literary Supplement The Times Science Review Times Top 100 Graduate Employers Other News UK Reynolds v Times Newspapers Ltd Walter v Lane Times New Roman Wapping dispute Category	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Secret Adversary (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Secret_Adversary_(film)"},{"link_name":"detective fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detective_fiction"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie"},{"link_name":"The Bodley Head","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bodley_Head"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cat-1"},{"link_name":"Dodd, Mead and Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodd,_Mead_and_Company"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US-3"},{"link_name":"shillings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shillings"},{"link_name":"sixpence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_sixpence_coin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cat-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-US-3"},{"link_name":"Tommy and Tuppence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_and_Tuppence"}],"text":"For the German silent film adaptation, see The Secret Adversary (film).The Secret Adversary is the second published detective fiction novel by British writer Agatha Christie, first published in January 1922 in the United Kingdom by The Bodley Head[1] and in the United States by Dodd, Mead and Company later in that same year.[2][3] The UK edition retailed at seven shillings and sixpence (7/6)[1] and the US edition at $1.75.[3]The book introduces the characters of Tommy and Tuppence who feature in three other Christie novels and one collection of short stories; the five Tommy and Tuppence books span Agatha Christie's writing career. The Great War is over, and jobs are scarce. Childhood friends Tommy Beresford and Prudence \"Tuppence\" Cowley meet and agree to start their own business as The Young Adventurers. They are hired for a job that leads them both to many dangerous situations, meeting allies as well, including an American millionaire in search of his cousin.Reviews were generally positive on this adventure, which manages to keep the identity of the arch-criminal secret to the very end.","title":"The Secret Adversary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hush money","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hush_money"},{"link_name":"K C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King%27s_Counsel"},{"link_name":"Soho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soho"},{"link_name":"Bolshevist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolshevist"}],"text":"In 1920 London, demobilised soldier Tommy Beresford reunites with his childhood friend and war volunteer Prudence \"Tuppence\" Cowley. Out of work and money, they form \"The Young Adventurers, Ltd\". Their first client, a Mr Whittington, makes Tuppence a suspiciously generous offer. Remembering a seemingly unrelated anecdote of Tommy’s, when Whittington asks Tuppence her name, she gives him the alias \"Jane Finn.\" A shocked Whittington offers her £50 hush money and disappears. Carter, an old friend of Tommy's from British intelligence, tells them that Jane Finn was a British agent who disappeared while attempting to deliver a secret treaty to the American embassy in London. Tommy and Tuppence agree to find her, but Carter warns them about an enemy agent known only as \"Mr Brown.\" Also searching for Jane Finn is her cousin Julius Hersheimmer, an American multimillionaire.Tommy and Tuppence's investigation leads them to the home of Mrs Marguerite \"Rita\" Vandemeyer, a woman with several powerful friends, including Whittington and Sir James Peel Edgerton, K C. Tuppence obtains a job as Mrs Vandemeyer's maid and enlists the help of a young boy working there named Albert. Tuppence hears Mrs Vandemeyer mention Mr Brown and forces her to admit she knows his real identity. Mrs Vandemeyer screams, collapses, and murmurs \"Mr Brown\" to Tuppence just before dying. Tuppence receives a telegram signed by Tommy and rushes after him.Meanwhile, Tommy follows Boris Ivanovitch, another of Rita's associates, to a house in Soho, where Tommy is taken prisoner while attempting to eavesdrop on a meeting of Bolshevist conspirators. A young French woman at the house, Annette, arranges his escape, but refuses to leave herself. Tommy returns to the Ritz and finds Tuppence.Sir James discovers Jane Finn, who has recovered her memory after an accident. She tells them where she hid the treaty, but they find instead a message from Mr Brown. While searching for writing paper in Julius's drawer, Tommy finds a photograph of Annette. Tommy concludes that Annette is the real Jane Finn and the Jane Finn they met was a plant to stop their investigation. He gets an original copy of the telegram sent to Tuppence and sees that her destination was altered on the copy he read. Tommy and Albert proceed to the correct destination.Hersheimmer arranges for the release of Tuppence and Annette. At Sir James's residence, Jane tells her story: after receiving the packet, she became suspicious of Mrs Vandemeyer. Jane placed blank sheets in the original packet, sealing the treaty inside magazine pages. Travelling from Ireland, she was mugged and taken to the house in Soho. Perceiving the intent of her captors, Jane faked amnesia, conversing only in French. She hid the treaty in a picture frame in her room and has maintained her role as \"Annette\" ever since. Tuppence suspects that Hersheimmer is Mr Brown. Sir James agrees, adding that the real Hersheimmer was killed in America and that his imposter killed Mrs Vandemeyer. They rush to Soho, recovering the treaty at the house. Sir James identifies himself as the true Mr Brown, and announces his plan to kill them, wound himself, and then blame it on the elusive Mr Brown. Julius and Tommy, who are hiding in the room, overwhelm Sir James. He commits suicide using poison concealed in his ring, the compelling evidence to persuade Mr Carter of his old friend's guilt.Tommy’s role in solving the mystery persuades his estranged rich uncle to support him financially and make Tommy his heir. The novel ends with both Hersheimmer and Jane, and Tommy and Tuppence, engaged to marry.","title":"Plot summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bobbed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_cut"},{"link_name":"Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntary_Aid_Detachment"}],"text":"Thomas Beresford: Tommy, young redheaded Englishman who fought in the Great War, wounded twice, considered slow but steady and clear-headed in his thinking, at his best in a tight situation. In his early twenties.\nPrudence L Cowley: Tuppence, young woman with black bobbed hair, one of several children of a conservative archdeacon, served in the Voluntary Aid Detachment (VAD) during the Great War. She is modern and stylish, quick and intuitive in her thinking, acts rapidly on her ideas. In her early twenties.\nJulius P Hersheimmer: Millionaire from America, seeking his first cousin Jane Finn, a girl he never met in America due to a family quarrel. He is quick-thinking, quick-acting, and being from America, he carries a gun and knows how to use it. In his early thirties.\nMr Carter: Englishman skilled in the intelligence service and connected with the highest political powers, known only by this alias. He seeks the treaty and the girl who might have carried it off the ship.\nJane Finn: American woman, 18 years old when she left the US, with good skills in speaking French, who aimed to work in a war hospital during the Great War. She sailed on the Lusitania, and she survived, carrying a document from a man named Danvers.\nMarguerite Vandemeyer: Rita, a beautiful woman in society who followed Danvers on the Lusitania. She is affiliated with the conspirators and uniquely knows \"Mr Brown\"'s true identity. Her character is steely and powerful and she sees Sir James socially. She dies by poison.\nAlbert: Lift boy at the building in which Rita Vandemeyer lives, becomes helper to Tuppence, then to Tommy.\nMr Whittington: Member of the conspirators who first encounters Tommy and Tuppence as they plan their joint venture over lunch in a restaurant. He spoke Jane Finn's name in the streets as Tommy passed him.\nBoris Ivanovitch, Count Stepanov: Member of the conspiracy, who keeps in touch with Whittington and Rita.\nMr Kramenin: Russian Bolshevik, serving in London, and one of the conspirators, called number one. Julius selects him to lead him to the girls.\nDr Hall: Runs the nursing home in Bournemouth where he took in the amnesia patient as a niece of Rita Vandemeyer, under the name Janet, for several years.\nSir James Peel Edgerton: MP and prominent London defence lawyer, known to instinctively identify a criminal. He is socially and politically well known, and seen as a potential future prime minister. Mr Carter respects his intelligence, going back years. He sees Rita socially. He is known for his persuasive ways.\nMr Brown: Elusive leader of the conspirators, who appears as a man named Brown often, but in a minor role, so others do not recall his appearance. He is key to all decisions of the conspirators, subtle with information, brutal or fatal with his enemies, the master criminal mind of the age.","title":"Characters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Times Literary Supplement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_Literary_Supplement"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"The New York Times Book Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times_Book_Review"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Robert Barnard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Barnard"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"blurbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blurb"},{"link_name":"Daily Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_Chronicle_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blurbs-7"},{"link_name":"Saturday Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday_Review_(London)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blurbs-7"},{"link_name":"East Anglian Daily Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglian_Daily_Times"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blurbs-7"},{"link_name":"Irish Independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Independent"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blurbs-7"},{"link_name":"John Lane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lane_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-8"}],"text":"Upon publication of the first book edition it was reviewed by The Times Literary Supplement in its edition of 26 January 1922, which described it as \"a whirl of thrilling adventures\". It stated that the characters of Tommy and Tuppence were \"refreshingly original\" and praised the fact that the \"identity of the arch-criminal, the elusive \"Mr Brown\", is cleverly concealed to the very end\".[4]The critic for The New York Times Book Review (11 June 1922) was also impressed: \"It is safe to assert that unless the reader peers into the last chapter or so of the tale, he will not know who this secret adversary is until the author chooses to reveal him.\" The review gave something of a backhanded compliment when it said that Christie \"gives a sense of plausibility to the most preposterous situations and developments.\" Nevertheless it conceded thatMiss Christie has a clever prattling style that shifts easily into amusing dialogue and so aids the pleasure of the reader as he tears along with Tommy and Tuppence on the trail of the mysterious Mr Brown. Many of the situations are a bit moth-eaten from frequent usage by other writers, but at that Miss Christie manages to invest them with a new sense of individuality that renders them rather absorbing.[5]Robert Barnard described the novel as \"The first and best (no extravagant compliment this) of the Tommy and Tuppence stories. It tells how the dauntless pair foils a plot to foment labour unrest and red revolution in Britain, masterminded by the man behind the Bolshevists. Good reactionary fun, if you're in that mood.\"[6]Some additional blurbs regarding the book, and used by The Bodley Head for advertising subsequent print runs, are as follows:\"It's an excellent yarn and the reader will find it as impossible as we did to put it aside until the mystery has been fathomed.\" — Daily Chronicle[7]\"We promise our readers an exciting story of adventure, full of hairbreadth escapes, and many disappointments if they try to guess the riddle before the author is ready to give them the clue. — An excellent story.\" — Saturday Review.[7]\"The atmosphere of the book is admirable and the story will be read with avidity by all. Undoubtedly the book is a success.\" — East Anglian Daily Times.[7]\"A book of thrilling adventure. Sensational adventures which make thrilling and gripping reading. Mrs Christie has certainly succeeded in writing a story not only entertaining, but ingenious and amazingly clever.\" — Irish Independent.[7]The one critic who was not so keen on the book was Christie's publisher, John Lane, who had wanted her to write another detective novel along the lines of The Mysterious Affair at Styles.[8]","title":"Literary significance and reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema_of_Germany"},{"link_name":"silent movie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silent_movie"},{"link_name":"National Film Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Film_Theatre"},{"link_name":"National Film Theatre: A Tribute to the Work of Agatha Christie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.christian-kirsch.de/blog/christie-news/national-film-theatre-a-tribute-to-the-work-of-agatha-christie"},{"link_name":"Jane Bess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Bess"},{"link_name":"Fred Sauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Sauer"},{"link_name":"Leopold Blonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Blonder"},{"link_name":"Franz Schroedter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Schroedter"},{"link_name":"Eve Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Gray"},{"link_name":"Carlo Aldini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Aldini"},{"link_name":"Hilda Bayley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilda_Bayley"},{"link_name":"Jack Mylong-Münz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Mylong"},{"link_name":"Shayle Gardner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shayle_Gardner"},{"link_name":"Hans Mierendorff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Mierendorff"},{"link_name":"Valy Arnheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valy_Arnheim"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Film","text":"The Secret Adversary was the second Christie work to be turned into a film. Made in Germany by the Orplid Film company, it was released in that country on 15 February 1929 as Die Abenteurer G.m.b.H., a silent movie which ran for 76 minutes. It was released in the UK and US under the title Adventures Inc. Character names from the book were changed for the film. Previously thought to be lost, it was given a rare showing at the National Film Theatre on 15 July 2001 (see National Film Theatre: A Tribute to the Work of Agatha Christie)Adaptor: Jane Bess\nDirector: Fred Sauer\nPhotography: Adolf Otto Weitzenberg\nArt Direction:' Leopold Blonder and Franz SchroedterCast:Eve Gray as Lucienne Fereoni\nCarlo Aldini as Pierre Lafitte\nElfriede Borodin as Jeanette Finné\nHilda Bayley as Rita van den Meer\nEberhard Leithoff as George Finné\nJack Mylong-Münz as Boris\nShayle Gardner as Julius Vardier\nHans Mierendorff as Hans Mierendorff\nValy Arnheim as Wittington[9]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"London Weekend Television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Weekend_Television"},{"link_name":"Partners in Crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partners_in_Crime_(short_story_collection)"},{"link_name":"Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha_Christie%27s_Partners_in_Crime"},{"link_name":"Francesca Annis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesca_Annis"},{"link_name":"James Warwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Warwick_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Reece Dinsdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reece_Dinsdale"},{"link_name":"Arthur Cox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Cox_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Gavan O'Herlihy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gavan_O%27Herlihy"},{"link_name":"Alec McCowen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_McCowen"},{"link_name":"Honor Blackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honor_Blackman"},{"link_name":"Peter Barkworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Barkworth"},{"link_name":"John Fraser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Fraser_(actor)"},{"link_name":"George Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Baker_(British_actor)"},{"link_name":"Donald Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Houston"},{"link_name":"Joseph Brady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Brady_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Wolf Kahler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf_Kahler"},{"link_name":"Matthew Scurfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Scurfield"},{"link_name":"Gabrielle Blunt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gabrielle_Blunt"},{"link_name":"Partners in Crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partners_in_Crime_(UK_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Zinnie Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zinnie_Harris"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"Stalin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stalin"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Jessica Raine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jessica_Raine"},{"link_name":"David Walliams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Walliams"},{"link_name":"Camilla Marie Beeput","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camilla_Marie_Beeput"},{"link_name":"Alice Krige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alice_Krige"},{"link_name":"James Fleet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Fleet"},{"link_name":"Clarke Peters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarke_Peters"},{"link_name":"Matthew Steer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Steer"}],"sub_title":"Television","text":"The novel was adapted twice for television, in 1983 and in 2014 (aired July–August 2015 in the UK).The book was adapted by London Weekend Television as a 115-minute drama, and transmitted on Sunday, 9 October 1983. It acted as an introduction to a ten-part adaptation of Partners in Crime, made with the same stars, which began transmission one week later under the title Agatha Christie's Partners in Crime.Adaptor: Pat Sandys\nDirector: Tony WharmbyCast:Francesca Annis as Prudence Cowley\nJames Warwick as Thomas Beresford\nReece Dinsdale as Albert\nArthur Cox as Detective Inspector Marriott\nGavan O'Herlihy as Julius P Hersheimmer\nAlec McCowen as Sir James Peele Edgerton\nHonor Blackman as Rita Vandemeyer\nPeter Barkworth as Carter\nToria Fuller as Jane Finn\nJohn Fraser as Kramenin\nGeorge Baker as Whittington\nDonald Houston as Boris\nJoseph Brady as Dr Hall\nWolf Kahler as The German\nPeter Lovstrom as Henry\nMatthew Scurfield as Conrad\nGabrielle Blunt as AnnieIn February 2014, the BBC announced it had commissioned the TV series Partners in Crime, with three episodes as an adaptation of The Secret Adversary, written by Zinnie Harris. It aired in July/August 2015, marking the 125th anniversary of Dame Agatha Christie's birth.[10] It is not set in the post-Great War period, so Tommy and Tuppence are not the young things of that era, are married and have a son sent off to school.[11] It is instead set in 1952, with references made to the Cold War against Stalin.[12]Cast:Jessica Raine as Tuppence\nDavid Walliams as Tommy\nCamilla Marie Beeput as Jane Finn\nAlice Krige as Rita Vandemeyer\nJames Fleet as Mr. Carter\nClarke Peters as Julius Hersheimer\nMatthew Steer as Albert Pemberton","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"graphic novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_novel"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-727461-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-727461-0"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Proust éditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Proust_%C3%A9ditions"}],"sub_title":"Graphic novel adaptation","text":"The Secret Adversary was released by HarperCollins as a graphic novel adaptation on 20 May 2008, adapted by François Rivière and illustrated by Frank Leclercq (ISBN 0-00-727461-0). This was translated from the edition first published in France by Emmanuel Proust éditions in 2003 under the title of Mister Brown.","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Watermill Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watermill_Theatre"},{"link_name":"Johann Hari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Hari"},{"link_name":"Emerald O’Hanrahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerald_O%E2%80%99Hanrahan"},{"link_name":"Rose Theatre, Kingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rose_Theatre,_Kingston"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes Theater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes_Theater"},{"link_name":"David Hansen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hansen_(actor)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Stage","text":"Agatha Christie’s The Secret Adversary was presented for the stage for the first time in 2015 as a Watermill Theatre production, adapted from the Christie novel by Sarah Punshon and Johann Hari for a company of seven actors. A play in two acts, it was described in the publicity as being \"shot through with fast-paced action, comedy, live music and a dash of romance\". The live music was performed by the cast. Tuppence was played by Emerald O’Hanrahan, and Tommy by Garmon Rhys. It opened and ran at The Watermill Theatre, West Berkshire Playhouse from Thursday 12 February to Saturday 21 March, and then toured until Saturday 9 May, ending its run at the Rose Theatre, Kingston.[citation needed]On 16 February 2016, Great Lakes Theater debuted a 70-minute stage adaptation as part of their educational programming. Adapted by David Hansen, this production is performed by a cast of five (3 men, 2 women) with most performers playing more than one role.[13]","title":"Adaptations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Avon Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avon_(publishers)"},{"link_name":"Pan Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Books"},{"link_name":"Bantam Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bantam_Books"},{"link_name":"Panther Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panther_Books"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-586-04424-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-586-04424-8"},{"link_name":"HarperCollins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HarperCollins"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-617478-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-617478-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7089-2441-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7089-2441-7"},{"link_name":"Signet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signet_Books"},{"link_name":"Penguin Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penguin_Group"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-00-726515-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-726515-8"},{"link_name":"The Mysterious Affair at Styles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Mysterious_Affair_at_Styles"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-8"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inflation-15"}],"text":"1922, John Lane (The Bodley Head), January 1922, Hardback, 320 pp\n1922, Dodd Mead and Company (New York), 1922, Hardback, 330 pp\n1927, John Lane (The Bodley Head), February 1927, Hardback (Cheap Edition – two shillings)\n1946, Avon Books (New York), Avon number 100, Paperback, 264 pp\n1955, Pan Books, Paperback (Pan number 357)\n1957, Pan Books, Paperback (Great Pan GP82)\n1967, Bantam Books (New York), Paperback\n1976, Panther Books (London), Paperback; ISBN 0-586-04424-8\n1991, Fontana Books (Imprint of HarperCollins), Paperback, 256pp; ISBN 0-00-617478-7\n1991, Ulverscroft Large Print Edition, Hardcover; ISBN 0-7089-2441-7\n2001, Signet (Penguin Group), Paperback\n2007, Facsimile of 1922 UK first edition (HarperCollins), 5 November 2007, Hardcover, 320 pp; ISBN 0-00-726515-8Like its predecessor, The Mysterious Affair at Styles, The Secret Adversary was first published as an unillustrated serialisation in The Times weekly edition (aka The Weekly Times) as a complete and unabridged text in seventeen instalments from 12 August (Issue 2328) to 2 December 1921 (Issue 2343).[14] Christie was paid £50 for the serialisation rights (£1,545 in 2003 currency).[8][15]","title":"Publication history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"By the Pricking of My Thumbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By_the_Pricking_of_My_Thumbs"}],"sub_title":"Book dedication","text":"The dedication of the book reads:\n\"To all those who lead monotonous lives in the hope that they experience at second hand the delights and dangers of adventure\".This rather whimsical statement was one of only two times that Christie addressed a dedication to her readers, the other occasion being the penultimate Tommy and Tuppence book, By the Pricking of My Thumbs in 1968.","title":"Publication history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blurbs-7"}],"sub_title":"Dustjacket blurb","text":"The dustjacket front flap of the first edition carried no specially written blurb. Instead, it repeated the text which appeared on the jacket of The Mysterious Affair at Styles (the back jacket flap carrying review quotes of the earlier novel). In later editions, blurbs first published in the back of Poirot Investigates were used.[7]","title":"Publication history"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"The English Catalogue of Books. Vol. XI A-L January 1921 – December 1925. Millwood, New York: Kraus Reprint Corporation. 1979. p. 310.","urls":[]},{"reference":"John Cooper; B.A. Pyke (1994). Detective Fiction – the collector's guide (Second ed.). Scholar Press. pp. 82, 86. ISBN 0-85967-991-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85967-991-8","url_text":"0-85967-991-8"}]},{"reference":"\"American Tribute to Agatha Christie: The Classic Years 1920s\". May 2007. Retrieved 11 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://home.insightbb.com/~jsmarcum/agatha20.htm","url_text":"\"American Tribute to Agatha Christie: The Classic Years 1920s\""}]},{"reference":"Barnard, Robert (1990). A Talent to Deceive – an appreciation of Agatha Christie (Revised ed.). Fontana Books. p. 200. ISBN 0-00-637474-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-00-637474-3","url_text":"0-00-637474-3"}]},{"reference":"Christie, Agatha (1924). Poirot Investigates. John Lane Company (The Bodley Head). pp. Advertising supplements following p. 298 of novel.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poirot_Investigates","url_text":"Poirot Investigates"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lane_(publisher)","url_text":"John Lane"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Bodley_Head","url_text":"The Bodley Head"}]},{"reference":"Thompson, Laura (2008). Agatha Christie: An English Mystery. Headline Review. p. 128.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Brunsdale, Mitzi (2010). Icons of Mystery and Crime Detection: From Sleuths to Superheroes. ABC-CLIO.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Partners In Crime - major new BBC One drama for Agatha Christie's 125th celebration year\". BBC. 18 September 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/partners-in-crime","url_text":"\"Partners In Crime - major new BBC One drama for Agatha Christie's 125th celebration year\""}]},{"reference":"O'Donovan, Gerard (27 July 2015). \"Jessica Raine and David Walliams in Partners in Crime: 'watchable'\". The Telegraph. Retrieved 28 July 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/11761691/Partners-in-Crime-episode-1-review.html","url_text":"\"Jessica Raine and David Walliams in Partners in Crime: 'watchable'\""}]},{"reference":"\"The @GreatLakesTheater Takes Agatha Christie on the Road\". Cool Cleveland. 2016. Retrieved 24 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://coolcleveland.com/blog/2016/02/the-greatlakestheater-takes-agatha-christie-on-the-road/","url_text":"\"The @GreatLakesTheater Takes Agatha Christie on the Road\""}]},{"reference":"O'Donoghue, Jim; Goulding, Louise (March 2004). \"Consumer Price Inflation Since 1750 – Composite consumer price index with description and assessment of source data, and examples of how to revalue historical amounts to current day prices and calculate changes in purchasing power\". Economic Trends, National Statistics Office (604): 38–46. ISSN 0013-0400. Archived from the original on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 25 September 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090616183331/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/article.asp?ID=726","url_text":"\"Consumer Price Inflation Since 1750 – Composite consumer price index with description and assessment of source data, and examples of how to revalue historical amounts to current day prices and calculate changes in purchasing power\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0400","url_text":"0013-0400"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.christian-kirsch.de/blog/christie-news/national-film-theatre-a-tribute-to-the-work-of-agatha-christie","external_links_name":"National Film Theatre: A Tribute to the Work of Agatha Christie"},{"Link":"http://home.insightbb.com/~jsmarcum/agatha20.htm","external_links_name":"\"American Tribute to Agatha Christie: The Classic Years 1920s\""},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/latestnews/2014/partners-in-crime","external_links_name":"\"Partners In Crime - major new BBC One drama for Agatha Christie's 125th celebration year\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/tv-and-radio-reviews/11761691/Partners-in-Crime-episode-1-review.html","external_links_name":"\"Jessica Raine and David Walliams in Partners in Crime: 'watchable'\""},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3581940/","external_links_name":"Partners in Crime (2015)"},{"Link":"http://coolcleveland.com/blog/2016/02/the-greatlakestheater-takes-agatha-christie-on-the-road/","external_links_name":"\"The @GreatLakesTheater Takes Agatha Christie on the Road\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090616183331/http://www.statistics.gov.uk/CCI/article.asp?ID=726","external_links_name":"\"Consumer Price Inflation Since 1750 – Composite consumer price index with description and assessment of source data, and examples of how to revalue historical amounts to current day prices and calculate changes in purchasing power\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0013-0400","external_links_name":"0013-0400"},{"Link":"https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/agatha-christie/the-secret-adversary","external_links_name":"The Secret Adversary"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/1155","external_links_name":"The Secret Adversary"},{"Link":"http://www.agathachristie.com/christies-work/stories/the-secret-adversary/207","external_links_name":"The Secret Adversary at the official Agatha Christie website"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0190947/","external_links_name":"Die Abenteurer GmbH (1929)"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071112043918/http://ftvdb.bfi.org.uk/sift/title/349824","external_links_name":"Die Abenteurer GmbH"},{"Link":"https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0084647/","external_links_name":"The Secret Adversary (1983)"},{"Link":"http://www.screenonline.org.uk/tv/id/1246017/index.html","external_links_name":"The Secret Adversary"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wadsworth_(officer)	William Wadsworth (officer)	["1 Family","2 Visit from the Duke","3 Treaty of Big Tree","4 Battle of Queenston Heights","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]	For other people named William Wadsworth, see William Wadsworth (disambiguation). Portrait of General William Wadsworth by John Trumbull William Wadsworth (1765 in Durham, Connecticut – 15 February 1833 in Geneseo, New York) was an officer in the New York State militia, before and during the War of 1812. As a Brigadier General, he commanded the New York militia contingent in the American army at the Battle of Queenston Heights. He waived his right to command over Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott, of the United States Army. During the battle, he faced the enemy at all times so he would not be shot in the back and appear to be cowardly. Waving his sword and swearing at the troops back across the river, hoping to instill the fighting spirit in them, he made a genuine but vain attempt to get the militia to cross and reinforce their position. At the end of the battle, Wadsworth was taken prisoner when the American force, cut off on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, surrendered to avoid a massacre by Indians under John Brant attached to the British force. Family William Wadsworth was a scion of the prominent Wadsworth family of Connecticut. He was a sixth generation descendant of William Wadsworth (1595–1675), who was one of the Founders of Hartford, Connecticut. In 1790, with his charismatic brother James Wadsworth, he moved from Connecticut to the Genesee Valley of Western New York State. Settling in "Big Tree" on June 9, 1790, on the east bank of the Genesee River, William and his brother went from the leading pioneers of this unsettled region to one of its largest wealthiest land holders. As the settlement in the area increased, William was elected Town supervisor for 21 years. Before and during his tenure, William created and took charge of the area's local militia and eventually took command of the Genesee Valley militia. By the time hostilities broke out between the U.S. and Great Britain in 1812, William Wadsworth was promoted to brigadier general. William never married and history records no known children. Visit from the Duke Despite the fact William and his brother were now by any standard wealthy, they were living in their first log cabin when, in the summer of 1795, the Duke François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt arrived from Canawaugus, New York, with his entourage of a young Englishman, servants and a poodle named Cartouche. The duke, who had letters of introduction to "those great American Landlords, Messrs. James and William Wadsworth", was somewhat taken aback by their manorial dwelling. He described it in his memoirs as "a small log house as dirty as any I have ever seen" It was cluttered with stores of all kinds and live chickens. The duke says, "It stank so I could hardly bear it." The duke's dog apparently ate one of Wadsworth's chickens and his servant Jenny told that "eminent nobleman" what she thought of him and his dog. William's hospitality extended him an invitation to "stay for a week," which was hastily declined. The duke stayed the night, but William could not see them off properly, as Captain, he had to attend to the muster of militia early the following morning. The duke left that day for Buffalo and continued on his "Grand Tour" into Canada. Treaty of Big Tree Between August 20, 1797 and September 16, 1797, William Wadsworth hosted the United States delegation for the Treaty of Big Tree in his log cabin and new cobblestone house. A meadow between the Wadsworths' cabin at Big Tree and the gigantic oak by the river, which gave the place its name, was the site of the conference. Nearly three thousand Seneca and other members of the Six Nations of the Iroquois attended the conference. Their representatives were the Chiefs Cornplanter, Red Jacket, Farmer's Brother, Tall Chief, Little Beard and others, the Clan Mothers of the nation, and Mary Jemison. The United States' representatives were Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth, Commissioner representing the US Government, Thomas Morris representing his father, Robert Morris, General William Shepard representing Massachusetts, Theophilus Cazenove and Paolo Busti, representatives for the Holland Land Company, Captain Israel Chapin, representing the Department of Indian Affairs, Joseph Ellicott, Land surveyor, and James Rees as acting secretary. The treaty was signed on September 16, 1797, after nearly a month of sometimes heated, back and forth negotiations. It opened up the territory west of the Genesee River and established ten Reservations for the Seneca in Western New York. Battle of Queenston Heights On June 18, 1812, War was declared between the United States and Great Britain. That same day, William Wadsworth was promoted to brigadier general and put in command of the 7th Brigade, 1st Division made up of the 18th, 19th, and 20th regiments of the New York State Detached Militia. These regiments represented the Counties of Seneca, Cayuga and Ontario respectively. The 20th Regiment contained the various companies of Ontario County, New York in which was William's original Geneseo Company now under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Peter Allen. At the outbreak of the War of 1812, the Niagara Frontier was unprepared to defend its settlements. Many who lived along the Niagara River which separates Canada from New York were alarmed by the military activity on the Canadian side of the river. They wrote to New York Congressman and Quartermaster General, Peter B. Porter, on April 15, 1812, about their concerns of the lack of arms and ammunition, adding "there is not five muskets that is fit to use in this place & they are not to be had in this quarter." Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was made aware the New York Militia was destitute of arms, camp equipment, blankets, and other items. Particularly, at the settlements of Black Rock, now a part of Buffalo, New York, and the settlement at Lewiston, New York. On June 25, 1812, one week after his promotion and the declaration of war, Governor Tompkins ordered Brigadier General William Wadsworth and his newly formed 7th Brigade, with two cannons and ball, to command the Niagara Frontier and reinforce the 400 regular army at Black Rock. The Governor's instruction made it clear Wadsworth was "at liberty to act offensively as well as defensively" according to the circumstances along the river. Wadsworth confessed to the governor, in a letter, that he lacked military experience and was "ignorant of even the minor duties of the duty to which you have assigned me," and asked to have an experienced "military secretary" assigned to him, a request to which the governor complied. The Governor later assigned the more experienced Major General Amos Hall to overall command of the Niagara Frontier militia on July 28, 1812, until Major General Stephen van Rensselaer could assume the command on August 11, 1812. It was for these reasons Wadsworth earned the epitaph "the reluctant general." Wadsworth marched his column of about 900 men from Canandaigua and reached Batavia on July 1, picking up U.S. regular troops along the way. These consisted of the 13th U.S. Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel John Chrystie and Major James Mullany; the 23rd Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant William Clarke; and the 3rd U.S. Artillery Regiment under Captain James McKeon. Wadsworth reached Black Rock on July 3 with a combined force of 1600 men. He immediately dispatched militia reinforcements to Fort Schlosser at Niagara Falls, New York, and to Lewiston and sent the detachment of regulars on to Fort Niagara. About a week later four more companies of volunteer militia attached to the 20th regiment arrived, along with 20 horsemen acting as courier riders. This group brought General Wadsworth's combined strength to nearly 1,900 men at arms (including invalids and absentees) by July 10, 1812. General Wadsworth immediately appraised the defenses between Buffalo and Fort Niagara. He reports that Fort Niagara "is very much decayed" and under-gunned. He requested heavy ordnance and field artillery. He asked the Governor to dispatch 2,000 more troops and that he immediately send food, tents, shoes and equipment for the men currently there. He went to work building batteries and breast works, but this was nearly futile "without axes, hoes, shovels or anything of this kind." Per Wadsworth's request, Governor Tompkins sent his personal assistant, the engineer and artillerist Nicholas Gray, to assist Wadsworth. Upon his arrival on July 18, Gray reported to Tompkins that he was impressed with General Wadsworth whose "camps were in good health and orderly" and that he "had ordered a military school, both for officers and soldiers... and pays unwearied attention to the troops, and is forming a system which has as its objective the organization of the staff and camp duties." On July 24, 1812, Major General Amos Hall arrived at Buffalo and took command, but this was only temporary, as both Wadsworth and Hall knew they were to be replaced soon. On August 11, 1812, Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer arrived to Lewiston and took Command. On September 4, 1812, Major General Van Rennselaer writes in his general orders "To the Commanding officer of the 7th Brigade and to the Colonels of the 18th and 20th Regiments , the General tenders his acknowledgments, for the strict discipline of their troops and the preservation of their health." This order following months of successive general orders issuing complaints and instructions to the officers about the troop's lack of discipline, order, and sanitation. Stephan Van Rensselaer was a popular Federalist politician and an opponent in the gubernatorial candidacy of New York in 1813. His rival, Governor Tompkins, had appointed him to command the American army for political purposes, perhaps to get rid of him, as he was an inexperienced commander. Under presidential pressure from Washington, D.C. Van Rensselaer began making plans to cross the Niagara River from his base at Lewiston, NY to capture the village of Queenston, Ontario and the nearby heights. He ordered Brigadier General Alexander Smyth to join him in Lewiston with his troops on October 11, 1812. However, Smyth, of the regular US Army, commanding at Buffalo, had issues with taking orders from him. Believing van Rensselaer's hasty maneuver unwise, he and his men remained conspicuously absent from the campaign that followed. In the pre-dawn hours of October 13, 1812, Lieutenant Colonel John Chrystie and the first landing party made their way across the river. After Col. Chrystie's boat came under surprise fire, his crew retreated to Lewiston. Captain John E. Wool, having landed, took command of the 13th United States Infantry Regiment, led a group of American soldiers up a fisherman's path to the British artillery stationed on top of the heights. His men were able to take out the British artillery emplacements on Queenston Heights. After realizing the Americans had landed, British Major General Isaac Brock sent a message from Queenston to British Major General Roger H. Sheaffe at Fort George, requesting immediate reinforcements to block the American landings. In the meantime General Brock ordered his men and Indian Allies to retake the heights. Major General Van Rensselaer worked to consolidate the position on the Canadian side of the river. Ordering the heights to be fortified, he placed Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott in command with Brigadier General William Wadsworth leading the militia. Despite the earlier success, Van Rensselaer's position was tenuous as only around 600 men had crossed being 350 Regular Army and only 250 Militia had volunteered to cross with Wadsworth. After Van Rensselaer gave command of the invasion party to Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott. Major Isaac Roach recalls that when Scott "took command he did not know there was a General officer on the grounds. The latter , who was in plain clothes at the time, modestly made his rank known, insisted on supporting Scott, which he did, with zeal and valor, in every combat." General Brock led the British charge up the heights that nearly succeeded, but it ultimately was repelled. Brock, an obvious target with his commanding height and general's uniform, was wounded in the hand and then shot and killed by American sharpshooters. A second charge, this time under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Macdonell, soon followed. The Americans repulsed this second change, killing Macdonell and severely wounding Captain Wool in the thigh. Meanwhile, General Wadsworth with a detachment of militia volunteers and Winfield Scott's regulars crossed the river to reinforce Captain Wool's position and take command. Wadsworth had hoped "that his example might have a better effect than his orders in making the militia cross." British reinforcements arrived from Fort George to Queenston, including British artillery. Opening fire from the village, it made crossing the river hazardous. On the heights 300 Iroquois began attacking Scott and Wadsworth's outposts. Frustrated, van Rensselaer worked tirelessly to convince the militia to embark to reinforce Scott and Wadsworth. However, most of the citizen Militia, low on ammunition, knowing reinforcements were not in the vicinity, hearing the war cries of the Indians, and in full view of the British reinforcements approaching across the river, stood by their known right, as volunteer militia, to refuse to invade or fight in a foreign country. By law, militiamen were not required to cross a border under arms, but could volunteer to do so. Ultimately unsuccessful, Van Rensselaer dispatched a note to Scott and Wadsworth giving them permission "to withdraw if the situation warranted." Abandoned by the militia, hearing the Mohawk war cries under John Brant and fearing massacre, Wadsworth's men retreated. During their retreat Wadsworth was wounded in the right arm. His line collapsing, Scott, too, fell back, ultimately retreating down the slope above the river. With no escape and the Mohawks, embittered over the loss of two chiefs, in pursuit, Scott was forced to surrender the remnants of his command to British Major General Roger Sheaffe. Wadsworth's men too, soon ran out of ammunition and were forced back to the edge of the heights where "Thousands could testify to seeing him standing on... land at the edge of the bluff, pleading... to his men on the safe bank to join him and save the day. When they would not, he shook his bright sword and cursed them so terribly that one awed eyewitness wrote, 'His language was said to be the worst in the whole American Army'." Another witness later described Wadsworth as "the most eloquently profane officer in the army." After the bugles hailed the cease-fire, General Wadsworth was brought before General Roger H. Sheaffe. Upon introductions, British Captain James Crooks recalls, Wadsworth "drew his sword and presented the handle to General Sheaffe who said, 'I understand General your people have surrendered,' to which Wadsworth made no other answer other than bowing his head in token that it was so." The British tallied the total number captured at 436 regulars and 489 of militia. They released the walking wounded the day after the battle. The militia was released on parole on October 15. Surprisingly, among them was Brigadier General William Wadsworth, who had negotiated the release of Major James Mullany and Captain Peter Ogilvie. The release of such high-ranking officers was the cause of much consternation and dismay among the British troops and their Indian allies. General Sheaffe relates he allowed Wadsworth's release in the hope "his going with the militia will... only tend to ensure a strict execution of the agreement." The other regular officers were released several months later after the terms of the exchange agreement between the parties was honored. Shortly after his parole General Wadsworth returned to his home on the Genesee Valley to recuperate. Though disappointed with the lack of militia to volunteer on that fateful day Wadsworth still defends them. He later writes to Van Rensselaer, "I do not say where the regulars and militia who were not there... were, but it is clear they were not where they ought to have been. ...I am conscious that on the 13th and that on every other day during the campaign, I endeavored to do my duty. With this I shall rest satisfied, however others may estimate my services. I am aware that the militia have their faults, but they have their merit, too, and it is that merit of which they ought not to be deprived, unless it is intended to render them useless in the future." When William died in 1833 his brother James Wadsworth inherited his estate. His obituary noted that "Few officers... have been more universally respected and beloved by their soldiers." References ^ Lieut. Wm. E. Birkhimer, Adjutant 3D U. S. Artillery. "The Third Regiment of Artillery".{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) Further reading "History of the Pioneer Settlement of Phelps and Gorham's Purchase and Morris; Reserve:..." by O. Turner, 1851 "The War of 1812" by John K. Mahon, Gainesville, Univ. of Florida Press, 1991 "Citizen soldiers in the war of 1812" By Carl Edward Skeen, Univ. Press of Kentucky, 1999 Malcomson, Robert (2003). A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-022-1. "General Wadsworth's Division, War of 1812" by Charles Whittlesey, Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical Society, 1879 "The Invasion of Canada, 1812–1813" by Pierre Burton, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1980 "A Narrative of the Affair of Queenstown: in the War of 1812" by Solomon van Rensselaer, Leavitt, Lord & Co., New York, 1836 External links galafilm 1812 site	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Wadsworth (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wadsworth_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Globalartaccesswilliamwadsworth.tif"},{"link_name":"Durham, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"Geneseo, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneseo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"Battle of Queenston Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Queenston_Heights"},{"link_name":"Winfield Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Scott"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"Indians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"John Brant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brant_(Mohawk_chief)"}],"text":"For other people named William Wadsworth, see William Wadsworth (disambiguation).Portrait of General William Wadsworth by John TrumbullWilliam Wadsworth (1765 in Durham, Connecticut – 15 February 1833 in Geneseo, New York) was an officer in the New York State militia, before and during the War of 1812. As a Brigadier General, he commanded the New York militia contingent in the American army at the Battle of Queenston Heights. He waived his right to command over Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott, of the United States Army. During the battle, he faced the enemy at all times so he would not be shot in the back and appear to be cowardly. Waving his sword and swearing at the troops back across the river, hoping to instill the fighting spirit in them, he made a genuine but vain attempt to get the militia to cross and reinforce their position.At the end of the battle, Wadsworth was taken prisoner when the American force, cut off on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, surrendered to avoid a massacre by Indians under John Brant attached to the British force.","title":"William Wadsworth (officer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Wadsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadsworth_(surname)"},{"link_name":"William Wadsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wadsworth_(patriarch)"},{"link_name":"Founders of Hartford, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Founders_of_Hartford,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"James Wadsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wadsworth_(of_Geneseo)"},{"link_name":"Western New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_New_York"},{"link_name":"Big Tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneseo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Genesee River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesee_River"},{"link_name":"Town supervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Town_supervisor"},{"link_name":"brigadier general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general"}],"text":"William Wadsworth was a scion of the prominent Wadsworth family of Connecticut. He was a sixth generation descendant of William Wadsworth (1595–1675), who was one of the Founders of Hartford, Connecticut. In 1790, with his charismatic brother James Wadsworth, he moved from Connecticut to the Genesee Valley of Western New York State.Settling in \"Big Tree\" on June 9, 1790, on the east bank of the Genesee River, William and his brother went from the leading pioneers of this unsettled region to one of its largest wealthiest land holders. As the settlement in the area increased, William was elected Town supervisor for 21 years. Before and during his tenure, William created and took charge of the area's local militia and eventually took command of the Genesee Valley militia. By the time hostilities broke out between the U.S. and Great Britain in 1812, William Wadsworth was promoted to brigadier general.William never married and history records no known children.","title":"Family"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Alexandre_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric,_duc_de_la_Rochefoucauld-Liancourt"},{"link_name":"Canawaugus, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canawaugus,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Grand Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Tour"},{"link_name":"Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"}],"text":"Despite the fact William and his brother were now by any standard wealthy,[citation needed] they were living in their first log cabin when, in the summer of 1795, the Duke François Alexandre Frédéric, duc de la Rochefoucauld-Liancourt arrived from Canawaugus, New York, with his entourage of a young Englishman, servants and a poodle named Cartouche. The duke, who had letters of introduction to \"those great American Landlords, Messrs. James and William Wadsworth\", was somewhat taken aback by their manorial dwelling. He described it in his memoirs as \"a small log house as dirty as any I have ever seen\" It was cluttered with stores of all kinds and live chickens. The duke says, \"It stank so I could hardly bear it.\" The duke's dog apparently ate one of Wadsworth's chickens and his servant Jenny told that \"eminent nobleman\" what she thought of him and his dog. William's hospitality extended him an invitation to \"stay for a week,\" which was hastily declined. The duke stayed the night, but William could not see them off properly, as Captain, he had to attend to the muster of militia early the following morning. The duke left that day for Buffalo and continued on his \"Grand Tour\" into Canada.","title":"Visit from the Duke"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Treaty of Big Tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Big_Tree"},{"link_name":"cobblestone house","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobblestone_architecture"},{"link_name":"Big Tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneseo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Six Nations of the Iroquois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Nations_of_the_Iroquois"},{"link_name":"Cornplanter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornplanter"},{"link_name":"Red Jacket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Jacket"},{"link_name":"Farmer's Brother","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farmer%27s_Brother"},{"link_name":"Tall Chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tall_Chief"},{"link_name":"Little Beard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Beard"},{"link_name":"Clan Mothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haudenosaunee_Clan_Mother"},{"link_name":"Mary Jemison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Jemison"},{"link_name":"Jeremiah Wadsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremiah_Wadsworth"},{"link_name":"Thomas Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Morris_(New_York)"},{"link_name":"Robert Morris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morris_(financier)"},{"link_name":"William Shepard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shepard"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Theophilus Cazenove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theophilus_Cazenove"},{"link_name":"Paolo Busti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Busti"},{"link_name":"Holland Land Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Land_Company"},{"link_name":"Joseph Ellicott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Ellicott"},{"link_name":"Genesee River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genesee_River"},{"link_name":"Reservations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_reservation"},{"link_name":"Western New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_New_York"}],"text":"Between August 20, 1797 and September 16, 1797, William Wadsworth hosted the United States delegation for the Treaty of Big Tree in his log cabin and new cobblestone house. A meadow between the Wadsworths' cabin at Big Tree and the gigantic oak by the river, which gave the place its name, was the site of the conference.Nearly three thousand Seneca and other members of the Six Nations of the Iroquois attended the conference. Their representatives were the Chiefs Cornplanter, Red Jacket, Farmer's Brother, Tall Chief, Little Beard and others, the Clan Mothers of the nation, and Mary Jemison. The United States' representatives were Colonel Jeremiah Wadsworth, Commissioner representing the US Government, Thomas Morris representing his father, Robert Morris, General William Shepard representing Massachusetts, Theophilus Cazenove and Paolo Busti, representatives for the Holland Land Company, Captain Israel Chapin, representing the Department of Indian Affairs, Joseph Ellicott, Land surveyor, and James Rees as acting secretary.The treaty was signed on September 16, 1797, after nearly a month of sometimes heated, back and forth negotiations. It opened up the territory west of the Genesee River and established ten Reservations for the Seneca in Western New York.","title":"Treaty of Big Tree"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"brigadier general","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brigadier_general"},{"link_name":"Seneca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seneca_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Cayuga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cayuga_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Ontario County, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Geneseo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneseo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"Niagara Frontier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Frontier"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"Quartermaster General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quartermaster_General"},{"link_name":"Peter B. Porter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_B._Porter"},{"link_name":"Governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor"},{"link_name":"Daniel D. Tompkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_D._Tompkins"},{"link_name":"Black Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Rock,_Buffalo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Buffalo, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Lewiston, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewiston,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Major General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_General"},{"link_name":"Stephen van Rensselaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Van_Rensselaer_III"},{"link_name":"Canandaigua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canandaigua_(city),_New_York"},{"link_name":"Batavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batavia,_New_York"},{"link_name":"13th U.S. Infantry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/13th_U.S._Infantry"},{"link_name":"John Chrystie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrystie"},{"link_name":"James Mullany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mullany&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"23rd Infantry Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"3rd U.S. Artillery Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=3rd_U.S._Artillery_Regiment&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"James McKeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_McKeon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Black Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Rock,_Buffalo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Fort Schlosser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Schlosser"},{"link_name":"Niagara Falls, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Fort Niagara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Niagara"},{"link_name":"Nicholas Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_Gray"},{"link_name":"Amos Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Amos_Hall&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Stephen Van Rensselaer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Van_Rensselaer"},{"link_name":"Lewiston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewiston,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Federalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Queenston, Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queenston,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queenston_Heights"},{"link_name":"Alexander Smyth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Smyth"},{"link_name":"John Chrystie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chrystie"},{"link_name":"John E. Wool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_E._Wool"},{"link_name":"Queenston Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queenston_Heights"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_people"},{"link_name":"Major General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_General"},{"link_name":"Isaac Brock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Brock"},{"link_name":"Roger H. Sheaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Hale_Sheaffe"},{"link_name":"Fort George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_George,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queenston_Heights"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel"},{"link_name":"Winfield Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winfield_Scott"},{"link_name":"Isaac Roach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Roach"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant Colonel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_Colonel"},{"link_name":"John Macdonell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Macdonell"},{"link_name":"Militia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Militia"},{"link_name":"Mohawk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohawk_nation"},{"link_name":"John Brant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Brant_(Mohawk_chief)"},{"link_name":"Roger H. Sheaffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Hale_Sheaffe"},{"link_name":"James Crooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Crooks"},{"link_name":"James Mullany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Mullany&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Peter Ogilvie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peter_Ogilvie_(military)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"James Wadsworth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Wadsworth_(of_Geneseo)"}],"text":"On June 18, 1812, War was declared between the United States and Great Britain. That same day, William Wadsworth was promoted to brigadier general and put in command of the 7th Brigade, 1st Division made up of the 18th, 19th, and 20th regiments of the New York State Detached Militia. These regiments represented the Counties of Seneca, Cayuga and Ontario respectively.The 20th Regiment contained the various companies of Ontario County, New York in which was William's original Geneseo Company now under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Peter Allen.At the outbreak of the War of 1812, the Niagara Frontier was unprepared to defend its settlements. Many who lived along the Niagara River which separates Canada from New York were alarmed by the military activity on the Canadian side of the river. They wrote to New York Congressman and Quartermaster General, Peter B. Porter, on April 15, 1812, about their concerns of the lack of arms and ammunition, adding \"there is not five muskets that is fit to use in this place & they are not to be had in this quarter.\" Governor Daniel D. Tompkins was made aware the New York Militia was destitute of arms, camp equipment, blankets, and other items. Particularly, at the settlements of Black Rock, now a part of Buffalo, New York, and the settlement at Lewiston, New York.On June 25, 1812, one week after his promotion and the declaration of war, Governor Tompkins ordered Brigadier General William Wadsworth and his newly formed 7th Brigade, with two cannons and ball, to command the Niagara Frontier and reinforce the 400 regular army at Black Rock. The Governor's instruction made it clear Wadsworth was \"at liberty to act offensively as well as defensively\" according to the circumstances along the river. Wadsworth confessed to the governor, in a letter, that he lacked military experience and was \"ignorant of even the minor duties of the duty to which you have assigned me,\" and asked to have an experienced \"military secretary\" assigned to him, a request to which the governor complied. The Governor later assigned the more experienced Major General Amos Hall to overall command of the Niagara Frontier militia on July 28, 1812, until Major General Stephen van Rensselaer could assume the command on August 11, 1812. It was for these reasons Wadsworth earned the epitaph \"the reluctant general.\"Wadsworth marched his column of about 900 men from Canandaigua and reached Batavia on July 1, picking up U.S. regular troops along the way. These consisted of the 13th U.S. Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant Colonel John Chrystie and Major James Mullany; the 23rd Infantry Regiment under Lieutenant William Clarke; and the 3rd U.S. Artillery Regiment under Captain James McKeon.[1] Wadsworth reached Black Rock on July 3 with a combined force of 1600 men. He immediately dispatched militia reinforcements to Fort Schlosser at Niagara Falls, New York, and to Lewiston and sent the detachment of regulars on to Fort Niagara. About a week later four more companies of volunteer militia attached to the 20th regiment arrived, along with 20 horsemen acting as courier riders. This group brought General Wadsworth's combined strength to nearly 1,900 men at arms (including invalids and absentees) by July 10, 1812.General Wadsworth immediately appraised the defenses between Buffalo and Fort Niagara. He reports that Fort Niagara \"is very much decayed\" and under-gunned. He requested heavy ordnance and field artillery. He asked the Governor to dispatch 2,000 more troops and that he immediately send food, tents, shoes and equipment for the men currently there. He went to work building batteries and breast works, but this was nearly futile \"without axes, hoes, shovels or anything of this kind.\"Per Wadsworth's request, Governor Tompkins sent his personal assistant, the engineer and artillerist Nicholas Gray, to assist Wadsworth. Upon his arrival on July 18, Gray reported to Tompkins that he was impressed with General Wadsworth whose \"camps were in good health and orderly\" and that he \"had ordered a military school, both for officers and soldiers... and pays unwearied attention to the troops, and is forming a system which has as its objective the organization of the staff and camp duties.\"On July 24, 1812, Major General Amos Hall arrived at Buffalo and took command, but this was only temporary, as both Wadsworth and Hall knew they were to be replaced soon. On August 11, 1812, Major General Stephen Van Rensselaer arrived to Lewiston and took Command.On September 4, 1812, Major General Van Rennselaer writes in his general orders \"To the Commanding officer of the 7th Brigade [General Wadsworth] and to the Colonels of the 18th and 20th Regiments [Wadsworth's original Company], the General tenders his acknowledgments, for the strict discipline of their troops and the preservation of their health.\" This order following months of successive general orders issuing complaints and instructions to the officers about the troop's lack of discipline, order, and sanitation.Stephan Van Rensselaer was a popular Federalist politician and an opponent in the gubernatorial candidacy of New York in 1813. His rival, Governor Tompkins, had appointed him to command the American army for political purposes, perhaps to get rid of him, as he was an inexperienced commander.Under presidential pressure from Washington, D.C. Van Rensselaer began making plans to cross the Niagara River from his base at Lewiston, NY to capture the village of Queenston, Ontario and the nearby heights. He ordered Brigadier General Alexander Smyth to join him in Lewiston with his troops on October 11, 1812. However, Smyth, of the regular US Army, commanding at Buffalo, had issues with taking orders from him. Believing van Rensselaer's hasty maneuver unwise, he and his men remained conspicuously absent from the campaign that followed.In the pre-dawn hours of October 13, 1812, Lieutenant Colonel John Chrystie and the first landing party made their way across the river. After Col. Chrystie's boat came under surprise fire, his crew retreated to Lewiston. Captain John E. Wool, having landed, took command of the 13th United States Infantry Regiment, led a group of American soldiers up a fisherman's path to the British artillery stationed on top of the heights. His men were able to take out the British artillery emplacements on Queenston Heights.After realizing the Americans had landed, British Major General Isaac Brock sent a message from Queenston to British Major General Roger H. Sheaffe at Fort George, requesting immediate reinforcements to block the American landings. In the meantime General Brock ordered his men and Indian Allies to retake the heights.Major General Van Rensselaer worked to consolidate the position on the Canadian side of the river. Ordering the heights to be fortified, he placed Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott in command with Brigadier General William Wadsworth leading the militia. Despite the earlier success, Van Rensselaer's position was tenuous as only around 600 men had crossed being 350 Regular Army and only 250 Militia had volunteered to cross with Wadsworth.After Van Rensselaer gave command of the invasion party to Lieutenant Colonel Winfield Scott. Major Isaac Roach recalls that when Scott \"took command he did not know there was a General officer on the grounds. The latter [Wadsworth], who was in plain clothes at the time, modestly made his rank known, insisted on supporting Scott, which he did, with zeal and valor, in every combat.\"General Brock led the British charge up the heights that nearly succeeded, but it ultimately was repelled. Brock, an obvious target with his commanding height and general's uniform, was wounded in the hand and then shot and killed by American sharpshooters. A second charge, this time under the command of Lieutenant Colonel John Macdonell, soon followed. The Americans repulsed this second change, killing Macdonell and severely wounding Captain Wool in the thigh.Meanwhile, General Wadsworth with a detachment of militia volunteers and Winfield Scott's regulars crossed the river to reinforce Captain Wool's position and take command. Wadsworth had hoped \"that his example might have a better effect than his orders in making the militia cross.\"British reinforcements arrived from Fort George to Queenston, including British artillery. Opening fire from the village, it made crossing the river hazardous. On the heights 300 Iroquois began attacking Scott and Wadsworth's outposts.Frustrated, van Rensselaer worked tirelessly to convince the militia to embark to reinforce Scott and Wadsworth. However, most of the citizen Militia, low on ammunition, knowing reinforcements were not in the vicinity, hearing the war cries of the Indians, and in full view of the British reinforcements approaching across the river, stood by their known right, as volunteer militia, to refuse to invade or fight in a foreign country. By law, militiamen were not required to cross a border under arms, but could volunteer to do so.Ultimately unsuccessful, Van Rensselaer dispatched a note to Scott and Wadsworth giving them permission \"to withdraw if the situation warranted.\"Abandoned by the militia, hearing the Mohawk war cries under John Brant and fearing massacre, Wadsworth's men retreated. During their retreat Wadsworth was wounded in the right arm. His line collapsing, Scott, too, fell back, ultimately retreating down the slope above the river. With no escape and the Mohawks, embittered over the loss of two chiefs, in pursuit, Scott was forced to surrender the remnants of his command to British Major General Roger Sheaffe. Wadsworth's men too, soon ran out of ammunition and were forced back to the edge of the heights where \"Thousands could testify to seeing him [Wadsworth] standing on... land at the edge of the bluff, pleading... to his men on the safe bank to join him and save the day. When they would not, he shook his bright sword and cursed them so terribly that one awed eyewitness wrote, 'His language was said to be the worst in the whole American Army'.\" Another witness later described Wadsworth as \"the most eloquently profane officer in the [US] army.\"After the bugles hailed the cease-fire, General Wadsworth was brought before General Roger H. Sheaffe. Upon introductions, British Captain James Crooks recalls, Wadsworth \"drew his sword and presented the handle to General Sheaffe who said, 'I understand General your people have surrendered,' to which Wadsworth made no other answer other than bowing his head in token that it was so.\"The British tallied the total number captured at 436 regulars and 489 of militia. They released the walking wounded the day after the battle. The militia was released on parole on October 15. Surprisingly, among them was Brigadier General William Wadsworth, who had negotiated the release of Major James Mullany and Captain Peter Ogilvie. The release of such high-ranking officers was the cause of much consternation and dismay among the British troops and their Indian allies. General Sheaffe relates he allowed Wadsworth's release in the hope \"his going with the militia will... only tend to ensure a strict execution of the agreement.\" The other regular officers were released several months later after the terms of the exchange agreement between the parties was honored.Shortly after his parole General Wadsworth returned to his home on the Genesee Valley to recuperate. Though disappointed with the lack of militia to volunteer on that fateful day Wadsworth still defends them. He later writes to Van Rensselaer, \"I do not say where the regulars and militia who were not there... were, but it is clear they were not where they ought to have been. ...I am conscious that on the 13th and that on every other day during the campaign, I endeavored to do my duty. With this I shall rest satisfied, however others may estimate my services. I am aware that the militia have their faults, but they have their merit, too, and it is that merit of which they ought not to be deprived, unless it is intended to render them useless in the future.\"When William died in 1833 his brother James Wadsworth inherited his estate. His obituary noted that \"Few officers... have been more universally respected and beloved by their soldiers.\"","title":"Battle of Queenston Heights"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Malcomson, Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Malcomson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Zl12AAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59114-022-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-022-1"},{"link_name":"Charles Whittlesey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Whittlesey_(geologist)"}],"text":"\"History of the Pioneer Settlement of Phelps and Gorham's Purchase and Morris; Reserve:...\" by O. Turner, 1851\n\"The War of 1812\" by John K. Mahon, Gainesville, Univ. of Florida Press, 1991\n\"Citizen soldiers in the war of 1812\" By Carl Edward Skeen, Univ. Press of Kentucky, 1999\nMalcomson, Robert (2003). A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-022-1.\n\"General Wadsworth's Division, War of 1812\" by Charles Whittlesey, Cleveland: Western Reserve Historical Society, 1879\n\"The Invasion of Canada, 1812–1813\" by Pierre Burton, Toronto: McClelland & Stewart, 1980\n\"A Narrative of the Affair of Queenstown: in the War of 1812\" by Solomon van Rensselaer, Leavitt, Lord & Co., New York, 1836","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Portrait of General William Wadsworth by John Trumbull","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Globalartaccesswilliamwadsworth.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Globalartaccesswilliamwadsworth.tif.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Lieut. Wm. E. Birkhimer, Adjutant 3D U. S. Artillery. \"The Third Regiment of Artillery\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.history.army.mil/books/R&H/R&H-3Art.htm","url_text":"\"The Third Regiment of Artillery\""}]},{"reference":"Malcomson, Robert (2003). A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 978-1-59114-022-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Malcomson&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Malcomson, Robert"},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Zl12AAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1","url_text":"A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59114-022-1","url_text":"978-1-59114-022-1"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.history.army.mil/books/R&H/R&H-3Art.htm","external_links_name":"\"The Third Regiment of Artillery\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Zl12AAAAMAAJ&pg=PP1","external_links_name":"A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812"},{"Link":"http://www.galafilm.com/1812/e/people/wadsworth.html","external_links_name":"galafilm 1812 site"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Calisto	La Calisto	["1 Libretto","2 Performance history","3 Publication","3.1 Leppard","3.2 Brown","3.3 Torrente and Badolato","4 Roles","5 Synopsis","6 Recordings","7 References","8 External links"]	Opera by Francesco Cavalli Title page of the 1651 libretto La Calisto is an Italian opera by Francesco Cavalli from a libretto by Giovanni Faustini based on the mythological story of Callisto. The opera received its first performance on 28 November 1651 at the Teatro Sant 'Apollinare, Venice, where it drew limited audiences for its run of eleven performances. In the twentieth century it was successfully revived. Libretto The libretto was published in 1651 by Giuliani and Batti. The story combines two myths: Jupiter's seduction of Calisto, and Diana's adventure with Endymion. The plot is somewhat formulaic: Jane Glover has commented on how the librettist had to invent complications to meet audience expectations in the context of Venetian opera. Performance history Faustini, who was an impresario as well as a librettist, rented the Sant 'Apollinare Theatre in 1650. He and Cavalli put on three operas there before his death in December 1651 during the run of La Calisto. The theatre was equipped with complex stage machinery intended to impress the opera audiences with spectacle. However, the eleven performances of La Calisto from 28 November to 31 December 1651 attracted only about 1,200 patrons to a theatre that housed 400. The original Venetian production suffered from many incidents, including the death of the primo uomo Bonifatio Ceretti shortly after the premiere. This forced major changes in the original cast: the role of Endimione was changed from alto to soprano and probably assigned to one of the Caresana brothers; this forced to find a new singer to perform Linfea, probably assigned to a young woman referred to as "putella" (i.e. young girl). The two soprano Furie were replaced by a single bass Furia, most likely performed by Pallegrino Canner, and a new character was added, a drunken peasant called Bifolco, probably performed by a new singer, Lorenzo Ferri, whose part has not survived in the score. Most likely, the title role Calisto was sung by Catterina Giani, whose boat was paid for by the impresario during rehearsals and the opera run, while the other primma donna, Margarita da Costa, played the role of Diana. It is also quite likely that the roles of both Giove and Giove-in-Diana were performed by the same singer, Giulio Cesare Donati, who was able to perform both bass and soprano with a technique known as basso alla bastarda (see Roles below). The manuscript score is preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, with other operas by Cavalli. This has allowed La Calisto to be revived in modern times. The first person to publish the score was the British conductor Raymond Leppard in 1975. Leppard had arranged the opera for performance at Glyndebourne Festival Opera in 1970. This production included a number of then-prominent singers including Janet Baker as Diana. It was significant for creating new audiences for baroque opera and the recorded version is still listened to (it has been released on compact disc). However, the way that Leppard had "realised" (as he termed his orchestrations) the opera was removed from the original work. The United States premiere of the opera was presented in April 1972 for the dedication of the Patricia Corbett Pavilion at the University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music. The cast included Barbara Daniels as Diana and Tom Fox as Giove. It was performed in London by the Opera Factory at the Royal Court Theatre in June 1984 with the harpsichordist, Paul Daniel, conducting a group of nine players of baroque instruments. The opera continues to be performed in new venues. For example, it received its premiere at Madrid's Teatro Real in 2019, while in the season 19-20 it was performed in Aachen and Nürnberg. It was performed with success at La Scala in 2021 in a production by David McVicar. The conductor was Christophe Rousset, who combined the players of his baroque music ensemble Les Talens Lyriques with members of the La Scala orchestra to fill the large hall. The singers included Chen Reiss as Calisto, Luca Tittoto as Jupiter, Véronique Gens as Juno, Olga Bezsmertna as Diana, Christophe Dumaux as Endymion, Chiara Amarù as Linfea and Markus Werba as Mercury. Publication Leppard Raymond Leppard´s edition of 1975 was the first publication of the score. It includes translations of the libretto. Brown In 2008, Jennifer Williams Brown's edition of the score (A-R Editions, 2007) won the American Musicological Society's Claude V. Palisca award (recognizing outstanding scholarly editions or translations). Torrente and Badolato The German music publisher Bärenreiter Verlag initiated the publication of The Operas of Francesco Cavalli in 2012 with the publication of a new critical edition prepared by Álvaro Torrente and Nicola Badolato that was used in the new productions of the opera in the Bayerische Staatsoper (2005), the Royal Opera House (2008), Theater Basel (2010) and Teatro Real (2019). Roles Role Voice type Premiere Cast, November 28, 1651(Conductor: Francesco Cavalli) Alternative Castproposed by A. Torrente La Natura alto castrato Tomaso Bovi Tomaso Bovi L'Eternità soprano Margarita da Costa Nina dal Pavon Il Destino boy soprano Cristoforo Caresana Margarita da Costa Calisto soprano Margarita da Costa Catterina Giani Giove bass Giulio Cesare Donati Giulio Cesare Donati Giove in Diana soprano or bass Catterina Giani Giulio Cesare Donati Diana soprano Catterina Giani Margarita da Costa Endimione alto castrato Bonifatio Ceretti Cristoforo Caresana Giunone soprano Nina dal Pavon Nina dal Pavon Linfea soprano castrato Andrea Caresana Putella (Antonia Bembo?) Satirino boy soprano Cristoforo Caresana Andrea Caresana Mercurio tenor Tenor di Carrara Tenor di Carrara (Francesco Guerra?) Pane alto castrato Tomaso Bovi Tomaso Bovi Silvano bass Pellegrino Canner Pellegrino Canner Furia 1 soprano castrato Andrea Caresana Furia 2 boy soprano Cristoforo Caresana Furia bass Pellegrino Canner Synopsis The story is based on the myth of Callisto from Ovid's Metamorphoses. Recordings Soloists including Janet Baker, James Bowman and Ileana Cotrubaș, Glyndebourne Festival Chorus, LPO, Raymond Leppard (Decca, 1971) Concerto Vocale, René Jacobs, Marcelo Lippi, Maria Bayo, etc. (Harmonia Mundi, 1996) Glimmerglass Opera, Jane Glover (BBC Music, 1996) - extracts from a live performance References Notes ^ Glover, Jane, "The Peak Period of Venetian Public Opera: The 1650s" (1975-1976). Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association, 102: pp. 67-82. ^ Glixon, Beth L. and Glixon, Jonathan E., "Marco Faustini and Venetian Opera Production in the 1650s: Recent Archival Discoveries", The Journal of Musicology,(Winter 1992),10 (1): pp. 48-73. ^ Claire Fontijn suggests that this young girl could have been Antonia Bembo, an 11-year-old girl in 1651, who was a vocal and composition student of Cavalli. Claire Fontijn, " 'Sotto la disciplina del Signor Cavalli': Works by Strozzi and Bembo," in Claire Fontijn ed., Fiori Musicali: Liber amicorum Alexander Silbiger on his 75th Birthday (Sterling Heights: Harmonie Park Press, 2010), 165-83, particularly 171-76. ^ Álvaro Torrente, "The Twenty Two Steps: Clef Anomalies or ‘Basso alla Bastarda’ in Mid Seventeenth-Century Italian Opera", in Beth Glixon, Nathan Link and Rebecca Cypess (eds.), Word, Image, and Song: Essays on Early Modern Italy (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 2013), pp. 101-14. ^ Cavalli, F., Leppard, R., Faustini, G., Marz, K. R., & Dunn, G. (1975). La Calisto: An Opera in Two Acts With a Prologue. London: Faber Music. ^ Janelle Gelfand (July 13, 2014). "The love of 'La Calisto'". The Cincinnati Enquirer. ^ Rodney Milnes, "La Calisto. Opera Factory at the Royal Court Theatre, London, June 12", Opera, August 1984, pp. 931–932. ^ Andreas Falentin (June 21, 2021). "Barocke Filterblasen". Die deutsche Bühne. ^ Dieter Stoll (June 21, 2021). "Im Greta-Gedächtnis-Gymnasium". Die deutsche Bühne. ^ Emanuele Senici, Opera Around the World, Italy, Milan, Opera, February 2022, p. 194. ^ Renato Verga, "Cavalli's La Calisto arrives at La Scala for the first time and triumphs", bachtrack, 1 November 2021. ^ American Musicological Society. Claude V. Palisca Award Winners. ^ Torrente, Álvaro & Nicola Badolato (eds.), Francesco Cavalli. La Calisto, The operas of Francesco Cavalli, Vol. I, Kassel, Bärenreiter Verlag, 2012. ISMN 979-0-006-55660-1 ^ 'Introduction' to the critical edition of La Calisto Sources Holden, Amanda (Ed.), The New Penguin Opera Guide, New York: Penguin Putnam, 2001. ISBN 0-14-029312-4 External links Glixon, Beth, Rosand, Ellen, et al, Calisto a le stelle: Cavalli and the Staging of Venetian Opera, Lecture transcripts and video presentation, Gresham College, 22 September 2008. La Calisto: Scores at the International Music Score Library Project 'Introduction' to the critical edition of La Calisto by Álvaro Torrente, Kassel, Bärenreiter, 2012. vteFrancesco CavalliOperas Le nozze di Teti e di Peleo (1639) Gli amori d'Apollo e di Dafne (1640) La Didone (1641) La virtù dei strali d'Amore (1642) L'Egisto (1643) Ormindo (1644) Doriclea (1645) Giasone (1649) Orimonte (1650) Oristeo (1651) La Calisto (1652) Eritrea (1652) Veremonda (1652) Rosinda (1653) L'Orione (1653) Ciro (1654) Il Xerse (1655) Statira principessa di Persia (1655) Erismena (1655) Artemisia (1657) Hipermestra (1658) Elena (1659) Ercole amante (1662) Scipione affricano (1664) Mutio Scevola (1665) Pompeo Magno (1666) Eliogabalo (1667) Related Teatro San Cassiano Venetian polychoral style Category Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data Germany United States Poland Other MusicBrainz work IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Francesco_Cavalli_-_La_Calisto_-_title_page_of_the_libretto_-_Venice_1651.png"},{"link_name":"opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera"},{"link_name":"Francesco Cavalli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Cavalli"},{"link_name":"libretto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libretto"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Faustini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Faustini"},{"link_name":"Callisto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Teatro Sant 'Apollinare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Sant_%27Apollinare"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"}],"text":"Title page of the 1651 librettoLa Calisto is an Italian opera by Francesco Cavalli from a libretto by Giovanni Faustini based on the mythological story of Callisto.The opera received its first performance on 28 November 1651 at the Teatro Sant 'Apollinare, Venice, where it drew limited audiences for its run of eleven performances. In the twentieth century it was successfully revived.","title":"La Calisto"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Endymion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endymion_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Jane Glover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Glover"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The libretto was published in 1651 by Giuliani and Batti. \nThe story combines two myths: Jupiter's seduction of Calisto, and Diana's adventure with Endymion.\nThe plot is somewhat formulaic: Jane Glover has commented on how the librettist had to invent complications to meet audience expectations in the context of Venetian opera.[1]","title":"Libretto"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stage machinery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stage_machinery"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Biblioteca Marciana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioteca_Marciana"},{"link_name":"Raymond Leppard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond_Leppard"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Leppard-5"},{"link_name":"Glyndebourne Festival Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glyndebourne_Festival_Opera"},{"link_name":"Janet Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Baker"},{"link_name":"baroque opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_opera"},{"link_name":"University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati_%E2%80%93_College-Conservatory_of_Music"},{"link_name":"Barbara Daniels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbara_Daniels_(soprano)"},{"link_name":"Tom Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Fox_(baritone)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Opera Factory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Opera_Factory"},{"link_name":"Royal Court Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Court_Theatre"},{"link_name":"harpsichordist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harpsichordist"},{"link_name":"Paul Daniel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Daniel"},{"link_name":"baroque instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baroque_instruments"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Teatro Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Real"},{"link_name":"Aachen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aachen"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Nürnberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staatstheater_N%C3%BCrnberg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"La Scala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Scala"},{"link_name":"David McVicar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_McVicar"},{"link_name":"Christophe Rousset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_Rousset"},{"link_name":"Les Talens Lyriques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Talens_Lyriques"},{"link_name":"Chen Reiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chen_Reiss"},{"link_name":"Véronique Gens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A9ronique_Gens"},{"link_name":"Olga Bezsmertna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olga_Bezsmertna"},{"link_name":"Christophe Dumaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_Dumaux"},{"link_name":"Markus Werba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markus_Werba"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Faustini, who was an impresario as well as a librettist, rented the Sant 'Apollinare Theatre in 1650. He and Cavalli put on three operas there before his death in December 1651 during the run of La Calisto.\nThe theatre was equipped with complex stage machinery intended to impress the opera audiences with spectacle. However, the eleven performances of La Calisto from 28 November to 31 December 1651 attracted only about 1,200 patrons to a theatre that housed 400.[2]The original Venetian production suffered from many incidents, including the death of the primo uomo Bonifatio Ceretti shortly after the premiere. This forced major changes in the original cast: the role of Endimione was changed from alto to soprano and probably assigned to one of the Caresana brothers; this forced to find a new singer to perform Linfea, probably assigned to a young woman referred to as \"putella\" (i.e. young girl).[3] The two soprano Furie were replaced by a single bass Furia, most likely performed by Pallegrino Canner, and a new character was added, a drunken peasant called Bifolco, probably performed by a new singer, Lorenzo Ferri, whose part has not survived in the score. Most likely, the title role Calisto was sung by Catterina Giani, whose boat was paid for by the impresario during rehearsals and the opera run, while the other primma donna, Margarita da Costa, played the role of Diana. It is also quite likely that the roles of both Giove and Giove-in-Diana were performed by the same singer, Giulio Cesare Donati, who was able to perform both bass and soprano with a technique known as basso alla bastarda[4] (see Roles below).The manuscript score is preserved in the Biblioteca Marciana, Venice, with other operas by Cavalli. This has allowed La Calisto to be revived in modern times. The first person to publish the score was the British conductor Raymond Leppard in 1975.[5] Leppard had arranged the opera for performance at Glyndebourne Festival Opera in 1970. This production included a number of then-prominent singers including Janet Baker as Diana. It was significant for creating new audiences for baroque opera and the recorded version is still listened to (it has been released on compact disc). However, the way that Leppard had \"realised\" (as he termed his orchestrations) the opera was removed from the original work.The United States premiere of the opera was presented in April 1972 for the dedication of the Patricia Corbett Pavilion at the University of Cincinnati – College-Conservatory of Music. The cast included Barbara Daniels as Diana and Tom Fox as Giove.[6] It was performed in London by the Opera Factory at the Royal Court Theatre in June 1984 with the harpsichordist, Paul Daniel, conducting a group of nine players of baroque instruments.[7]The opera continues to be performed in new venues. For example, it received its premiere at Madrid's Teatro Real in 2019, while in the season 19-20 it was performed in Aachen[8] and Nürnberg.[9] It was performed with success at La Scala in 2021 in a production by David McVicar. The conductor was Christophe Rousset, who combined the players of his baroque music ensemble Les Talens Lyriques with members of the La Scala orchestra to fill the large hall. The singers included Chen Reiss as Calisto, Luca Tittoto as Jupiter, Véronique Gens as Juno, Olga Bezsmertna as Diana, Christophe Dumaux as Endymion, Chiara Amarù as Linfea and Markus Werba as Mercury.[10][11]","title":"Performance history"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Leppard","text":"Raymond Leppard´s edition of 1975 was the first publication of the score. It includes translations of the libretto.","title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Musicological Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Musicological_Society"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Brown","text":"In 2008, Jennifer Williams Brown's edition of the score (A-R Editions, 2007) won the American Musicological Society's Claude V. Palisca award (recognizing outstanding scholarly editions or translations).[12]","title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bärenreiter Verlag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A4renreiter"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Bayerische Staatsoper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayerische_Staatsoper"},{"link_name":"Royal Opera House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Opera_House"},{"link_name":"Theater Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theater_Basel"},{"link_name":"Teatro Real","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teatro_Real"}],"sub_title":"Torrente and Badolato","text":"The German music publisher Bärenreiter Verlag initiated the publication of The Operas of Francesco Cavalli in 2012 with the publication of a new critical edition prepared by Álvaro Torrente and Nicola Badolato[13] that was used in the new productions of the opera in the Bayerische Staatsoper (2005), the Royal Opera House (2008), Theater Basel (2010) and Teatro Real (2019).","title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Roles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Callisto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callisto_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Ovid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovid"},{"link_name":"Metamorphoses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metamorphoses"}],"text":"The story is based on the myth of Callisto from Ovid's Metamorphoses.","title":"Synopsis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Janet Baker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Baker"},{"link_name":"James Bowman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bowman_(countertenor)"},{"link_name":"Ileana Cotrubaș","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ileana_Cotruba%C8%99"},{"link_name":"LPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Philharmonic_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"Decca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decca_Records"},{"link_name":"Concerto Vocale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concerto_Vocale"},{"link_name":"René Jacobs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Jacobs"},{"link_name":"Harmonia Mundi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmonia_Mundi"},{"link_name":"Glimmerglass Opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glimmerglass_Opera"}],"text":"Soloists including Janet Baker, James Bowman and Ileana Cotrubaș, Glyndebourne Festival Chorus, LPO, Raymond Leppard (Decca, 1971)\nConcerto Vocale, René Jacobs, Marcelo Lippi, Maria Bayo, etc. (Harmonia Mundi, 1996)\nGlimmerglass Opera, Jane Glover (BBC Music, 1996) - extracts from a live performance","title":"Recordings"}]	[{"image_text":"Title page of the 1651 libretto","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Francesco_Cavalli_-_La_Calisto_-_title_page_of_the_libretto_-_Venice_1651.png/220px-Francesco_Cavalli_-_La_Calisto_-_title_page_of_the_libretto_-_Venice_1651.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"Janelle Gelfand (July 13, 2014). \"The love of 'La Calisto'\". The Cincinnati Enquirer.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cincinnati.com/story/entertainment/arts/2014/07/13/love-la-calisto/12547207/","url_text":"\"The love of 'La Calisto'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cincinnati_Enquirer","url_text":"The Cincinnati Enquirer"}]},{"reference":"Andreas Falentin (June 21, 2021). \"Barocke Filterblasen\". Die deutsche Bühne.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.die-deutsche-buehne.de/kritiken/barocke-filterblasen","url_text":"\"Barocke Filterblasen\""}]},{"reference":"Dieter Stoll (June 21, 2021). \"Im Greta-Gedächtnis-Gymnasium\". Die deutsche Bühne.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.die-deutsche-buehne.de/kritiken/im-greta-gedaechtnis-gymnasium","url_text":"\"Im Greta-Gedächtnis-Gymnasium\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/7484685/The_Twenty_Two_Steps_Clef_Anomalies_or_Basso_alla_Bastarda_in_Mid_Seventeenth_Century_Italian_Opera","external_links_name":"Álvaro Torrente, \"The Twenty Two Steps: Clef Anomalies or ‘Basso alla Bastarda’ in Mid Seventeenth-Century Italian Opera\", in Beth Glixon, Nathan Link and Rebecca Cypess (eds.), Word, Image, and Song: Essays on Early Modern Italy (Rochester, University of Rochester Press, 2013), pp. 101-14."},{"Link":"http://www.cincinnati.com/story/entertainment/arts/2014/07/13/love-la-calisto/12547207/","external_links_name":"\"The love of 'La Calisto'\""},{"Link":"https://reader.exacteditions.com/issues/51595/page/109","external_links_name":"\"La Calisto. Opera Factory at the Royal Court Theatre, London, June 12\""},{"Link":"https://www.die-deutsche-buehne.de/kritiken/barocke-filterblasen","external_links_name":"\"Barocke Filterblasen\""},{"Link":"https://www.die-deutsche-buehne.de/kritiken/im-greta-gedaechtnis-gymnasium","external_links_name":"\"Im Greta-Gedächtnis-Gymnasium\""},{"Link":"https://reader.exacteditions.com/issues/99019/page/68","external_links_name":"Opera Around the World, Italy, Milan"},{"Link":"https://bachtrack.com/review-calisto-cavalli-mcvicar-rousset-reiss-tittoto-bezsmertna-teatro-scala-milan-october-2021","external_links_name":"\"Cavalli's La Calisto arrives at La Scala for the first time and triumphs\""},{"Link":"http://www.ams-net.org/awards/paliscawinners.php","external_links_name":"Claude V. Palisca Award Winners"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/7484693/Francesco_Cavalli._La_Calisto","external_links_name":"'Introduction' to the critical edition of La Calisto"},{"Link":"http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/calisto-a-le-stelle-cavalli-and-the-staging-of-venetian-opera","external_links_name":"Glixon, Beth, Rosand, Ellen, et al, Calisto a le stelle: Cavalli and the Staging of Venetian Opera"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/7484693/Francesco_Cavalli._La_Calisto","external_links_name":"'Introduction' to the critical edition of La Calisto by Álvaro Torrente, Kassel, Bärenreiter, 2012."},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/181768045","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13923065v","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13923065v","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/30034936X","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nr00003600","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810586499405606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://musicbrainz.org/work/9b157d58-8de2-4342-9ceb-8a823257747a","external_links_name":"MusicBrainz work"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/140163999","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_site	Active site	["1 Binding site","1.1 Lock and key hypothesis","1.2 Induced fit hypothesis","1.3 Conformational selection hypothesis","2 Types of non-covalent interactions","3 Catalytic site","4 Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process","4.1 Approximation of the reactant","4.2 Covalent catalysis","4.3 Metal ions","4.4 Acid/base catalysis","4.5 Conformational distortion","4.6 Preorganised active site complementarity to the transition state","5 Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms","5.1 Glutathione reductase","5.2 Chymotrypsin","6 Unbinding","7 Cofactors","8 Inhibitors","9 Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors","9.1 Competitive inhibitor: HIV protease inhibitor","9.2 Non-competitive inhibitor: Strychnine","9.3 Irreversible inhibitor: Diisopropyl fluorophosphate","10 In drug discovery","10.1 Application of enzyme inhibitors","11 Allosteric sites","12 See also","13 References","14 Further reading"]	Active region of an enzyme Organisation of enzyme structure and lysozyme example. Binding sites in blue, catalytic site in red and peptidoglycan substrate in black. (PDB: 9LYZ) In biology and biochemistry, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate, the binding site, and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate, the catalytic site. Although the active site occupies only ~10–20% of the volume of an enzyme,: 19 it is the most important part as it directly catalyzes the chemical reaction. It usually consists of three to four amino acids, while other amino acids within the protein are required to maintain the tertiary structure of the enzymes. Each active site is evolved to be optimised to bind a particular substrate and catalyse a particular reaction, resulting in high specificity. This specificity is determined by the arrangement of amino acids within the active site and the structure of the substrates. Sometimes enzymes also need to bind with some cofactors to fulfil their function. The active site is usually a groove or pocket of the enzyme which can be located in a deep tunnel within the enzyme, or between the interfaces of multimeric enzymes. An active site can catalyse a reaction repeatedly as residues are not altered at the end of the reaction (they may change during the reaction, but are regenerated by the end). This process is achieved by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, so more substrates have enough energy to undergo reaction. Binding site Diagram of the lock and key hypothesisDiagram of the induced fit hypothesis Main article: Binding site Usually, an enzyme molecule has only one active site, and the active site fits with one specific type of substrate. An active site contains a binding site that binds the substrate and orients it for catalysis. The orientation of the substrate and the close proximity between it and the active site is so important that in some cases the enzyme can still function properly even though all other parts are mutated and lose function. Initially, the interaction between the active site and the substrate is non-covalent and transient. There are four important types of interaction that hold the substrate in a defined orientation and form an enzyme-substrate complex (ES complex): hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic force interactions.: 148 The charge distribution on the substrate and active site must be complementary, which means all positive and negative charges must be cancelled out. Otherwise, there will be a repulsive force pushing them apart. The active site usually contains non-polar amino acids, although sometimes polar amino acids may also occur. The binding of substrate to the binding site requires at least three contact points in order to achieve stereo-, regio-, and enantioselectivity. For example, alcohol dehydrogenase which catalyses the transfer of a hydride ion from ethanol to NAD+ interacts with the substrate methyl group, hydroxyl group and the pro-(R) hydrogen that will be abstracted during the reaction.: 149 In order to exert their function, enzymes need to assume their correct protein fold (native fold) and tertiary structure. To maintain this defined three-dimensional structure, proteins rely on various types of interactions between their amino acid residues. If these interactions are interfered with, for example by extreme pH values, high temperature or high ion concentrations, this will cause the enzyme to denature and lose its catalytic activity. A tighter fit between an active site and the substrate molecule is believed to increase the efficiency of a reaction. If the tightness between the active site of DNA polymerase and its substrate is increased, the fidelity, which means the correct rate of DNA replication will also increase. Most enzymes have deeply buried active sites, which can be accessed by a substrate via access channels. There are three proposed models of how enzymes fit their specific substrate: the lock and key model, the induced fit model, and the conformational selection model. The latter two are not mutually exclusive: conformational selection can be followed by a change in the enzyme's shape. Additionally, a protein may not wholly follow either model. Amino acids at the binding site of ubiquitin generally follow the induced fit model, whereas the rest of the protein generally adheres to conformational selection. Factors such as temperature likely influences the pathway taken during binding, with higher temperatures predicted to increase the importance of conformational selection and decrease that of induced fit. Lock and key hypothesis This concept was suggested by the 19th-century chemist Emil Fischer. He proposed that the active site and substrate are two stable structures that fit perfectly without any further modification, just like a key fits into a lock. If one substrate perfectly binds to its active site, the interactions between them will be strongest, resulting in high catalytic efficiency. As time went by, limitations of this model started to appear. For example, the competitive enzyme inhibitor methylglucoside can bind tightly to the active site of 4-alpha-glucanotransferase and perfectly fits into it. However, 4-alpha-glucanotransferase is not active on methylglucoside and no glycosyl transfer occurs. The Lock and Key hypothesis cannot explain this, as it would predict a high efficiency of methylglucoside glycosyl transfer due to its tight binding. Apart from competitive inhibition, this theory cannot explain the mechanism of action of non-competitive inhibitors either, as they do not bind to the active site but nevertheless influence catalytic activity. Induced fit hypothesis Daniel Koshland's theory of enzyme-substrate binding is that the active site and the binding portion of the substrate are not exactly complementary. The induced fit model is a development of the lock-and-key model and assumes that an active site is flexible and changes shape until the substrate is completely bound. This model is similar to a person wearing a glove: the glove changes shape to fit the hand. The enzyme initially has a conformation that attracts its substrate. Enzyme surface is flexible and only the correct catalyst can induce interaction leading to catalysis. Conformational changes may then occur as the substrate is bound. After the reaction products will move away from the enzyme and the active site returns to its initial shape. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the entire protein domain could move several nanometers during catalysis. This movement of protein surface can create microenvironments that favour the catalysis. Conformational selection hypothesis This model suggests that enzymes exist in a variety of conformations, only some of which are capable of binding to a substrate. When a substrate is bound to the protein, the equilibrium in the conformational ensemble shifts towards those able to bind ligands (as enzymes with bound substrates are removed from the equilibrium between the free conformations). Types of non-covalent interactions Positively charged sodium ion and negatively charged fluoride ion attract each other to form sodium fluoride under electrostatic interaction.Hydrogen bond between two water molecules. Van der Waals force between two acetone molecules. The lower acetone molecule contains a partially negative oxygen atom that attracts partially positive carbon atom in the upper acetone.Hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups tend to assemble with the same kind of molecules. Electrostatic interaction: In an aqueous environment, the oppositely charged groups in amino acid side chains within the active site and substrates attract each other, which is termed electrostatic interaction. For example, when a carboxylic acid (R-COOH) dissociates into RCOO− and H+ ions, COO− will attract positively charged groups such as protonated guanidine side chain of arginine. Hydrogen bond: A hydrogen bond is a specific type of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative electron donor that contain a pair of electrons such as oxygen, fluorine and nitrogen. The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the chemical nature and geometric arrangement of each group. Van der Waals force: Van der Waals force is formed between oppositely charged groups due to transient uneven electron distribution in each group. If all electrons are concentrated at one pole of the group this end will be negative, while the other end will be positive. Although the individual force is weak, as the total number of interactions between the active site and substrate is massive the sum of them will be significant. Hydrophobic interaction: Non-polar hydrophobic groups tend to aggregate together in the aqueous environment and try to leave from polar solvent. These hydrophobic groups usually have long carbon chain and do not react with water molecules. When dissolving in water a protein molecule will curl up into a ball-like shape, leaving hydrophilic groups in outside while hydrophobic groups are deeply buried within the centre. Catalytic site Main article: Enzyme catalysis See also: Catalytic triad The enzyme TEV protease contains a catalytic triad of residues (red) in its catalytic site. The substrate (black) is bound by the binding site to orient it next to the triad. PDB: 1lvm Once the substrate is bound and oriented to the active site, catalysis can begin. The residues of the catalytic site are typically very close to the binding site, and some residues can have dual-roles in both binding and catalysis. Catalytic residues of the site interact with the substrate to lower the activation energy of a reaction and thereby make it proceed faster. They do this by a number of different mechanisms including the approximation of the reactants, nucleophilic/electrophilic catalysis and acid/base catalysis. These mechanisms will be explained below. Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process Approximation of the reactant During enzyme catalytic reaction, the substrate and active site are brought together in a close proximity. This approach has various purposes. Firstly, when substrates bind within the active site the effective concentration of it significantly increases than in solution. This means the number of substrate molecules involved in the reaction is also increased. This process also reduces the desolvation energy required for the reaction to occur. In solution substrate molecules are surrounded by solvent molecules and energy is required for enzyme molecules to replace them and contact with the substrate. Since bulk molecules can be excluded from the active site this energy output can be minimised. Next, the active site is designed to reorient the substrate to reduce the activation energy for the reaction to occur. The alignment of the substrate, after binding, is locked in a high energy state and can proceed to the next step. In addition, this binding is favoured by entropy as the energy cost associated with solution reaction is largely eliminated since solvent cannot enter active site. In the end, the active site may manipulate the Molecular orbital of the substrate into a suitable orientation to reduce activation energy.: 155–8 The electrostatic states of substrate and active site must be complementary to each other. A polarized negatively charged amino acid side chain will repel uncharged substrate. But if the transition state involves the formation of an ion centre then the side chain will now produce a favourable interaction. Covalent catalysis Many enzymes including serine protease, cysteine protease, protein kinase and phosphatase evolved to form transient covalent bonds between them and their substrates to lower the activation energy and allow the reaction to occur. This process can be divided into 2 steps: formation and breakdown. The former step is rate-limit step while the later step is needed to regenerate intact enzyme.: 158 Nucleophilic catalysis: This process involves the donation of electrons from the enzyme's nucleophile to a substrate to form a covalent bond between them during the transition state. The strength of this interaction depends on two aspects.: the ability of the nucleophilic group to donate electrons and the electrophile to accept them. The former one is mainly affected by the basicity(the ability to donate electron pairs) of the species while the later one is in regard to its pKa. Both groups are also affected by their chemical properties such as polarizability, electronegativity and ionization potential. Amino acids that can form nucleophile including serine, cysteine, aspartate and glutamine. Electrophilic catalysis: The mechanism behind this process is exactly same as nucleophilic catalysis except that now amino acids in active site act as electrophile while substrates are nucleophiles. This reaction usually requires cofactors as the amino acid side chains are not strong enough in attracting electrons. Metal ions Metal ions have multiple roles during the reaction. Firstly it can bind to negatively charged substrate groups so they will not repel electron pairs from active site's nucleophilic groups. It can attract negatively charged electrons to increase electrophilicity. It can also bridge between active site and substrate. At last, they may change the conformational structure of the substrate to favour reaction. : 158 Acid/base catalysis In some reactions, protons and hydroxide may directly act as acid and base in term of specific acid and specific base catalysis. But more often groups in substrate and active site act as Brønsted–Lowry acid and base. This is called general acid and general base theory. The easiest way to distinguish between them is to check whether the reaction rate is determined by the concentrations of the general acid and base. If the answer is yes then the reaction is the general type. Since most enzymes have an optimum pH of 6 to 7, the amino acids in the side chain usually have a pKa of 4~10. Candidate include aspartate, glutamate, histidine, cysteine. These acids and bases can stabilise the nucleophile or electrophile formed during the catalysis by providing positive and negative charges.: 164–70 Conformational distortion Quantitative studies of enzymatic reactions often found that the acceleration of chemical reaction speed cannot be fully explained by existing theories like the approximation, acid/base catalysis and electrophile/nucleophile catalysis. And there is an obvious paradox: in reversible enzymatic reaction if the active site perfectly fits the substrates then the backward reaction will be slowed since products cannot fit perfectly into the active site. So conformational distortion was introduced and argues that both active site and substrate can undergo conformational changes to fit with each other all the time.: 170–5 Preorganised active site complementarity to the transition state This theory is a little similar to the Lock and Key Theory, but at this time the active site is preprogrammed to bind perfectly to substrate in transition state rather than in ground state. The formation of transition state within the solution requires a large amount of energy to relocate solvent molecules and the reaction is slowed. So the active site can substitute solvent molecules and surround the substrates to minimize the counterproductive effect imposed by the solution. The presence of charged groups with the active site will attract substrates and ensure electrostatic complementarity.: 176–8 Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis. Glutathione reductase the mechanism of glutathione reductase The role of glutathione(GSH) is to remove accumulated reactive oxygen species which may damage cells. During this process, its thiol side chain is oxidised and two glutathione molecules are connected by a disulphide bond to form a dimer(GSSG). In order to regenerate glutathione the disulphide bond has to be broken, In human cells, this is done by glutathione reductase(GR). Glutathione reductase is a dimer that contains two identical subunits. It requires one NADP and one FAD as the cofactors. The active site is located in the linkage between two subunits. The NADPH is involved in the generation of FADH-. In the active site, there are two cysteine residues besides the FAD cofactor and are used to break the disulphide bond during the catalytic reaction. NADPH is bound by three positively charged residues: Arg-218, His-219 and Arg-224. The catalytic process starts when the FAD is reduced by NADPH to accept one electron and from FADH−. It then attacks the disulphide bond formed between 2 cysteine residues, forming one SH bond and a single S− group. This S− group will act as a nucleophile to attack the disulphide bond in the oxidised glutathione(GSSG), breaking it and forming a cysteine-SG complex. The first SG− anion is released and then receives one proton from adjacent SH group and from the first glutathione monomer. Next the adjacent S− group attack disulphide bond in cysteine-SG complex and release the second SG− anion. It receives one proton in solution and forms the second glutathione monomer. : 137–9 Chymotrypsin Mechanism of peptide bond cleavage by chymotrypsin. Chymotrypsin is a serine endopeptidase that is present in pancreatic juice and helps the hydrolysis of proteins and peptide.: 84–6 It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in L-isomers of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan. In the active site of this enzyme, three amino acid residues work together to form a catalytic triad which makes up the catalytic site. In chymotrypsin, these residues are Ser-195, His-57 and Asp-102. The mechanism of chymotrypsin can be divided into two phases. First, Ser-195 nucleophilically attacks the peptide bond carbon in the substrate to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nucleophilicity of Ser-195 is enhanced by His-57, which abstracts a proton from Ser-195 and is in turn stabilised by the negatively charged carboxylate group (RCOO−) in Asp-102. Furthermore, the tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate generated in this step is stabilised by hydrogen bonds from Ser-195 and Gly-193. In the second stage, the R'NH group is protonated by His-57 to form R'NH2 and leaves the intermediate, leaving behind the acylated Ser-195. His-57 then acts as a base again to abstract one proton from a water molecule. The resulting hydroxide anion nucleophilically attacks the acyl-enzyme complex to form a second tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate, which is once again stabilised by H bonds. In the end, Ser-195 leaves the tetrahedral intermediate, breaking the CO bond that connected the enzyme to the peptide substrate. A proton is transferred to Ser-195 through His-57, so that all three amino acid return to their initial state. Unbinding Substrate unbinding is influenced by various factors. Larger ligands generally stay in the active site longer, as do those with more rotatable bonds (although this may be a side effect of size). When the solvent is excluded from the active site, less flexible proteins result in longer residence times. More hydrogen bonds shielded from the solvent also decrease unbinding. Cofactors Redox states of Flavin. Main article: Cofactor (biochemistry) Enzymes can use cofactors as 'helper molecules'. Coenzymes are referred to those non-protein molecules that bind with enzymes to help them fulfill their jobs. Mostly they are connected to the active site by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bond or hydrophobic interaction. But sometimes a covalent bond can also form between them. For example, the heme in cytochrome C is bound to the protein through thioester bond. In some occasions, coenzymes can leave enzymes after the reaction is finished. Otherwise, they permanently bind to the enzyme.: 69 Coenzyme is a broad concept which includes metal ions, various vitamins and ATP. If an enzyme needs coenzyme to work itself, it is called an apoenzyme. In fact, it alone cannot catalyze reactions properly. Only when its cofactor comes in and binds to the active site to form holoenzyme does it work properly. One example of the coenzyme is Flavin. It contains a distinct conjugated isoalloxazine ring system. Flavin has multiple redox states and can be used in processes that involve the transfer of one or two electrons. It can act as an electron acceptor in reaction, like the oxidation of NAD to NADH, to accept two electrons and form 1,5-dihydroflavin. On the other hand, it can form semiquinone(free radical) by accepting one electron, and then converts to fully reduced form by the addition of an extra electron. This property allows it to be used in one electron oxidation process. Inhibitors Main article: Enzyme inhibitor Inhibitors disrupt the interaction between enzyme and substrate, slowing down the rate of a reaction. There are different types of inhibitor, including both reversible and irreversible forms. Competitive inhibitors are inhibitors that only target free enzyme molecules. They compete with substrates for free enzyme acceptor and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. They have two mechanisms. Competitive inhibitors usually have structural similarities to the substrates and or ES complex. As a result, they can fit into the active site and trigger favourable interactions to fill in the space and block substrates from entry. They can also induce transient conformational changes in the active site so substrates cannot fit perfectly with it. After a short period of time, competitive inhibitors will drop off and leave the enzyme intact. Inhibitors are classified as non-competitive inhibitors when they bind both free enzyme and ES complex. Since they do not compete with substrates for the active site, they cannot be overcome by simply increasing the substrate concentration. They usually bind to a different site on the enzyme and alter the 3-dimensional structure of the active site to block substrates from entry or leaving the enzyme. Irreversible inhibitors are similar to competitive inhibitors as they both bind to the active site. However, irreversible inhibitors form irreversible covalent bonds with the amino acid residues in the active site and never leave. Therefore, the active site is occupied and the substrate cannot enter. Occasionally the inhibitor will leave but the catalytic site is permanently altered in shape. These inhibitors usually contain electrophilic groups like halogen substitutes and epoxides. As time goes by more and more enzymes are bound by irreversible inhibitors and cannot function anymore. Example Binds active site? Reduces rate of reaction? Competitive reversible inhibitor HIV protease inhibitors Yes Yes Non-competitive reversible inhibitor Heavy metals such as lead and mercury No Yes Irreversible inhibitor Cyanide Yes Yes Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors Competitive inhibitor: HIV protease inhibitor Indinavir, an HIV protease inhibitor.jpg HIV protease inhibitors are used to treat patients having AIDS virus by preventing its DNA replication. HIV protease is used by the virus to cleave Gag-Pol polyprotein into 3 smaller proteins that are responsible for virion assembly, package and maturation. This enzyme targets the specific phenylalanine-proline cleave site within the target protein. If HIV protease is switched off the virion particle will lose function and cannot infect patients. Since it is essential in viral replication and is absent in healthy human, it is an ideal target for drug development. HIV protease belongs to aspartic protease family and has a similar mechanism. Firstly the aspartate residue activates a water molecule and turns it into a nucleophile. Then it attacks the carbonyl group within the peptide bond (NH-CO) to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nitrogen atom within the intermediate receives a proton, forming an amide group and subsequent rearrangement leads to the breakdown of the bond between it and the intermediate and forms two products. Inhibitors usually contain a nonhydrolyzable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine groups that mimic the tetrahedral intermediate. Since they share a similar structure and electrostatic arrangement to the transition state of substrates they can still fit into the active site but cannot be broken down, so hydrolysis cannot occur. Non-competitive inhibitor: Strychnine Strychnine is a neurotoxin that causes death by affecting nerves that control muscular contraction and cause respiration difficulty. The impulse is transmitted between the synapse through a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. It is released into the synapse between nerve cells and binds to receptors in the postsynaptic cell. Then an action potential is generated and transmitted through the postsynaptic cell to start a new cycle. Glycine can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitter receptors, thus a larger amount of acetylcholinesterase is required to trigger an action potential. This makes sure that the generation of nerve impulses is tightly controlled. However, this control is broken down when strychnine is added. It inhibits glycine receptors(a chloride channel) and a much lower level of neurotransmitter concentration can trigger an action potential. Nerves now constantly transmit signals and cause excessive muscular contraction, leading to asphyxiation and death. Irreversible inhibitor: Diisopropyl fluorophosphate Irreversible inhibition of a serine protease by DIPF. Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DIFP) is an irreversible inhibitor that blocks the action of serine protease. When it binds to the enzyme a nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs and releases one hydrogen fluoride molecule. The OH group in the active site acts as a nucleophile to attack the phosphorus in DIFP and form a tetrahedral intermediate and release a proton. Then the P-F bond is broken, one electron is transferred to the F atom and it leaves the intermediate as F− anion. It combines with a proton in solution to form one HF molecule. A covalent bond formed between the active site and DIFP, so the serine side chain is no longer available to the substrate. In drug discovery Identification of active sites is crucial in the process of drug discovery. The 3-D structure of the enzyme is analysed to identify active site residues and design drugs which can fit into them. Proteolytic enzymes are targets for some drugs, such as protease inhibitors, which include drugs against AIDS and hypertension. These protease inhibitors bind to an enzyme's active site and block interaction with natural substrates. An important factor in drug design is the strength of binding between the active site and an enzyme inhibitor. If the enzyme found in bacteria is significantly different from the human enzyme then an inhibitor can be designed against that particular bacterium without harming the human enzyme. If one kind of enzyme is only present in one kind of organism, its inhibitor can be used to specifically wipe them out. Active sites can be mapped to aid the design of new drugs such as enzyme inhibitors. This involves the description of the size of an active site and the number and properties of sub-sites, such as details of the binding interaction. Modern database technology called CPASS (Comparison of Protein Active Site Structures) however allows the comparison of active sites in more detail and the finding of structural similarity using software. Application of enzyme inhibitors Example Mechanism of action Anti-bacterial agent Penicillin The bacterial cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan. During bacterial growth the present crosslinking of peptidoglycan fibre is broken, so new cell wall monomer can be integrated into the cell wall. Penicillin works by inhibiting the transpeptidase which is essential for the formation of crosslinks, so the cell wall is weakened and will burst open due to turgor pressure. Anti-fungi agent Azole Ergosterol is a sterol that forms the cell surface membrane of the fungi. Azole can inhibit its biosynthesis by inhibiting the Lanosterol 14 alpha-demethylase, so no new ergosterol is produced and harmful 14α-lanosterol is accumulated within the cell. Also, azole may generate reactive oxygen species. Anti-viral agent Saquinavir HIV protease is needed to cleave Gag-Pol polyprotein into 3 individual proteins so they can function properly and start viral packaging process. HIV protease inhibitors like Saquinavir inhibit it so no new mature viral particle can be made. Insecticides Physostigmine In the animal nervous system, Acetylcholinesterase is required to break down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine into acetate and choline. Physostigmine binds to its active site and inhibits it, so impulse signal cannot be transmitted through nerves. This results in the death of insects as they lose control of muscle and heart function. Herbicides Cyclohexanedione Cyclohexanedione targets the Acetyl-CoA carboxylase which is involved in the first step of fat synthesis: ATP-dependent carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA. Lipids are important in making up the cell membrane. Allosteric sites Main article: Allosteric regulation A – Active site B – Allosteric site C – Substrate D – Inhibitor E – Enzyme. This is a diagram of allosteric regulation of an enzyme. When inhibitor binds to the allosteric site the shape of active site is altered, so substrate cannot fit into it An allosteric site is a site on an enzyme, unrelated to its active site, which can bind an effector molecule. This interaction is another mechanism of enzyme regulation. Allosteric modification usually happens in proteins with more than one subunit. Allosteric interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step. They allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site. See also Biology portal Hugh Stott Taylor SitEx References ^ a b c Bugg TD (2004). Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry (PDF) (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781405114523. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2018. ^ a b Shanmugam S (2009). Enzyme Technology. I K International Publishing House. p. 48. ISBN 9789380026053. ^ a b Pravda L, Berka K, Svobodová Vařeková R, et al. (2014). "Anatomy of Enzyme Channels". BMC Bioinformatics. 15 (1): 379. doi:10.1186/s12859-014-0379-x. PMC 4245731. PMID 25403510. ^ Alberts B (2010). Essential Cell Biology. Garland Science. p. 91. ISBN 9780815341291. ^ a b Dagmar R, Gregory A (2008). "How Enzymes Work". Science. 320 (5882): 1428–1429. doi:10.1126/science.1159747. PMID 18556536. S2CID 43617575. ^ a b c d e f g h i Robert A (2000). Enzymes: A Practical Introduction to Structure, Mechanism, and Data Analysis (PDF) (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780471359296. ^ Kool ET (1984). "Active site tightness and substrate fit in DNA replication". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 71: 191–219. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135453. PMID 12045095. ^ Csermely, Peter; Palotai, Robin; Nussinov, Ruth (2010). "Induced fit, conformational selection and independent dynamic segments: an extended view of binding events". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 35 (10): 539–546. arXiv:1005.0348. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2010.04.009. ISSN 0968-0004. PMC 3018770. PMID 20541943. ^ Daniel E (1995). "The Key–Lock Theory and the Induced Fit Theory". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 33 (2324): 2375–2378. doi:10.1002/anie.199423751. ^ Sullivan SM (2008). "Enzymes with lid-gated active sites must operate by an induced fit mechanism instead of conformational selection". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (37): 13829–13834. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10513829S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805364105. PMC 2544539. PMID 18772387. ^ Copeland, Robert A. (2013). "Drug–Target Residence Time". Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors in Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 287–344. ISBN 978-1-118-54039-8. ^ a b Pan, Albert C.; Borhani, David W.; Dror, Ron O.; Shaw, David E. (2013). "Molecular determinants of drug–receptor binding kinetics". Drug Discovery Today. 18 (13–14): 667–673. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2013.02.007. ISSN 1359-6446. PMID 23454741. ^ Miller, Duncan C.; Lunn, Graham; Jones, Peter; Sabnis, Yogesh; Davies, Nichola L.; Driscoll, Paul (2012). "Investigation of the effect of molecular properties on the binding kinetics of a ligand to its biological target". MedChemComm. 3 (4): 449–452. doi:10.1039/c2md00270a. ISSN 2040-2503. ^ Flexner C (1998). "HIV-protease inhibitors". The New England Journal of Medicine. 338 (18): 1281–1292. doi:10.1056/NEJM199804303381808. PMID 9562584. ^ Ashraf B, Chi-Huey W (2003). "HIV-1 protease: mechanism and drug discovery". Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry. 1 (1): 5–14. doi:10.1039/B208248A. PMID 12929379. ^ Gray W, Rick G (1993). "Cytoprotection by inhibition of chloride channels: The mechanism of action of glycine and strychnine". Life Sciences. 53 (15): 1211–1215. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(93)90539-F. PMID 8412478. ^ Jansen EF, Nuttig F, Balls AK (1949). "Mode of inhibition of chymotrypsin by diisopropyl fluorophosphate; introduction of phosphorus". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 179 (1): 201–204. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)56828-9. PMID 18119235. ^ a b Schechter I (2005). "Mapping of the active site of proteases in the 1960s and rational design of inhibitors/drugs in the 1990s". Current Protein & Peptide Science. 6 (6): 501–512. doi:10.2174/138920305774933286. PMID 16381600. ^ a b c DeDecker BS (2000). "Allosteric drugs: thinking outside the active-site box". Chemistry & Biology. 7 (5): 103–107. doi:10.1016/S1074-5521(00)00115-0. PMID 10801477. ^ Zuercher M (2008). "Structure-Based Drug Design: Exploring the Proper Filling of Apolar Pockets at Enzyme Active Sites". Journal of Organic Chemistry. 73 (12): 4345–4361. doi:10.1021/jo800527n. PMID 18510366. ^ Powers R (2006). "Comparison of protein active site structures for functional annotation of proteins and drug design". Proteins. 65 (1): 124–135. doi:10.1002/prot.21092. PMID 16862592. S2CID 2527166. Further reading Wikimedia Commons has media related to Active site. Alan Fersht, Structure and Mechanism in Protein Science: A Guide to Enzyme Catalysis and Protein Folding. W. H. Freeman, 1998. ISBN 0-7167-3268-8 Bugg, T. Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry. (2nd edition), Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2004. ISBN 1-4051-1452-5. vteEnzymesActivity Active site Binding site Catalytic triad Oxyanion hole Enzyme promiscuity Diffusion-limited enzyme Cofactor Enzyme catalysis Regulation Allosteric regulation Cooperativity Enzyme inhibitor Enzyme activator Classification EC number Enzyme superfamily Enzyme family List of enzymes Kinetics Enzyme kinetics Eadie–Hofstee diagram Hanes–Woolf plot Lineweaver–Burk plot Michaelis–Menten kinetics Types EC1 Oxidoreductases (list) EC2 Transferases (list) EC3 Hydrolases (list) EC4 Lyases (list) EC5 Isomerases (list) EC6 Ligases (list) EC7 Translocases (list) Authority control databases: National Germany	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enzyme_structure.svg"},{"link_name":"enzyme structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_structure"},{"link_name":"lysozyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lysozyme"},{"link_name":"peptidoglycan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptidoglycan"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"9LYZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/9LYZ"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"biochemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistry"},{"link_name":"enzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"substrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid"},{"link_name":"binding site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_site"},{"link_name":"catalyse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"chemical reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_reaction"},{"link_name":"tertiary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_structure"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google48-2"},{"link_name":"specificity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_specificity"},{"link_name":"cofactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pravda-3"},{"link_name":"multimeric enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_quaternary_structure"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"activation energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_energy"}],"text":"Organisation of enzyme structure and lysozyme example. Binding sites in blue, catalytic site in red and peptidoglycan substrate in black. (PDB: 9LYZ)In biology and biochemistry, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of amino acid residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate, the binding site, and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate, the catalytic site. Although the active site occupies only ~10–20% of the volume of an enzyme,[1]: 19 it is the most important part as it directly catalyzes the chemical reaction. It usually consists of three to four amino acids, while other amino acids within the protein are required to maintain the tertiary structure of the enzymes.[2]Each active site is evolved to be optimised to bind a particular substrate and catalyse a particular reaction, resulting in high specificity. This specificity is determined by the arrangement of amino acids within the active site and the structure of the substrates. Sometimes enzymes also need to bind with some cofactors to fulfil their function. The active site is usually a groove or pocket of the enzyme which can be located in a deep tunnel within the enzyme,[3] or between the interfaces of multimeric enzymes. An active site can catalyse a reaction repeatedly as residues are not altered at the end of the reaction (they may change during the reaction, but are regenerated by the end).[4] This process is achieved by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, so more substrates have enough energy to undergo reaction.","title":"Active site"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lock_and_key.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Inducedfit080.png"},{"link_name":"mutated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutation"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dagmar-5"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond"},{"link_name":"van der Waals interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force"},{"link_name":"hydrophobic interactions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic_interaction"},{"link_name":"electrostatic force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrostatic"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"non-polar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_polarity"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-google48-2"},{"link_name":"alcohol dehydrogenase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_dehydrogenase"},{"link_name":"hydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydride"},{"link_name":"ethanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol"},{"link_name":"NAD+","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NADH"},{"link_name":"methyl group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methyl_group"},{"link_name":"hydroxyl group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxyl_group"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"protein fold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_folding"},{"link_name":"tertiary structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tertiary_structure"},{"link_name":"denature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denaturation_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"DNA polymerase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_polymerase"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kool2002-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pravda-3"},{"link_name":"lock and key model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lock_and_key_model"},{"link_name":"induced fit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Induced_fit"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CsermelyPalotai2010-8"}],"text":"Diagram of the lock and key hypothesisDiagram of the induced fit hypothesisUsually, an enzyme molecule has only one active site, and the active site fits with one specific type of substrate. An active site contains a binding site that binds the substrate and orients it for catalysis. The orientation of the substrate and the close proximity between it and the active site is so important that in some cases the enzyme can still function properly even though all other parts are mutated and lose function.[5]Initially, the interaction between the active site and the substrate is non-covalent and transient. There are four important types of interaction that hold the substrate in a defined orientation and form an enzyme-substrate complex (ES complex): hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions, hydrophobic interactions and electrostatic force interactions.[6]: 148 The charge distribution on the substrate and active site must be complementary, which means all positive and negative charges must be cancelled out. Otherwise, there will be a repulsive force pushing them apart. The active site usually contains non-polar amino acids, although sometimes polar amino acids may also occur.[2] The binding of substrate to the binding site requires at least three contact points in order to achieve stereo-, regio-, and enantioselectivity. For example, alcohol dehydrogenase which catalyses the transfer of a hydride ion from ethanol to NAD+ interacts with the substrate methyl group, hydroxyl group and the pro-(R) hydrogen that will be abstracted during the reaction.[6]: 149In order to exert their function, enzymes need to assume their correct protein fold (native fold) and tertiary structure. To maintain this defined three-dimensional structure, proteins rely on various types of interactions between their amino acid residues. If these interactions are interfered with, for example by extreme pH values, high temperature or high ion concentrations, this will cause the enzyme to denature and lose its catalytic activity.[citation needed]A tighter fit between an active site and the substrate molecule is believed to increase the efficiency of a reaction. If the tightness between the active site of DNA polymerase and its substrate is increased, the fidelity, which means the correct rate of DNA replication will also increase.[7] Most enzymes have deeply buried active sites, which can be accessed by a substrate via access channels.[3]There are three proposed models of how enzymes fit their specific substrate: the lock and key model, the induced fit model, and the conformational selection model. The latter two are not mutually exclusive: conformational selection can be followed by a change in the enzyme's shape. Additionally, a protein may not wholly follow either model. Amino acids at the binding site of ubiquitin generally follow the induced fit model, whereas the rest of the protein generally adheres to conformational selection. Factors such as temperature likely influences the pathway taken during binding, with higher temperatures predicted to increase the importance of conformational selection and decrease that of induced fit.[8]","title":"Binding site"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emil Fischer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Emil_Fischer"},{"link_name":"enzyme inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"methylglucoside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methylglucoside"},{"link_name":"4-alpha-glucanotransferase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4-alpha-glucanotransferase"},{"link_name":"non-competitive inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-competitive_inhibition"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Daniel-9"}],"sub_title":"Lock and key hypothesis","text":"This concept was suggested by the 19th-century chemist Emil Fischer. He proposed that the active site and substrate are two stable structures that fit perfectly without any further modification, just like a key fits into a lock. If one substrate perfectly binds to its active site, the interactions between them will be strongest, resulting in high catalytic efficiency.As time went by, limitations of this model started to appear. For example, the competitive enzyme inhibitor methylglucoside can bind tightly to the active site of 4-alpha-glucanotransferase and perfectly fits into it. However, 4-alpha-glucanotransferase is not active on methylglucoside and no glycosyl transfer occurs. The Lock and Key hypothesis cannot explain this, as it would predict a high efficiency of methylglucoside glycosyl transfer due to its tight binding. Apart from competitive inhibition, this theory cannot explain the mechanism of action of non-competitive inhibitors either, as they do not bind to the active site but nevertheless influence catalytic activity.[9]","title":"Binding site"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Daniel Koshland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_E._Koshland_Jr."},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sullivan2008-10"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dagmar-5"}],"sub_title":"Induced fit hypothesis","text":"Daniel Koshland's theory of enzyme-substrate binding is that the active site and the binding portion of the substrate are not exactly complementary.[10] The induced fit model is a development of the lock-and-key model and assumes that an active site is flexible and changes shape until the substrate is completely bound. This model is similar to a person wearing a glove: the glove changes shape to fit the hand. The enzyme initially has a conformation that attracts its substrate. Enzyme surface is flexible and only the correct catalyst can induce interaction leading to catalysis. Conformational changes may then occur as the substrate is bound. After the reaction products will move away from the enzyme and the active site returns to its initial shape. This hypothesis is supported by the observation that the entire protein domain could move several nanometers during catalysis. This movement of protein surface can create microenvironments that favour the catalysis.[5]","title":"Binding site"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ligands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligand_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Copeland2013-11"}],"sub_title":"Conformational selection hypothesis","text":"This model suggests that enzymes exist in a variety of conformations, only some of which are capable of binding to a substrate. When a substrate is bound to the protein, the equilibrium in the conformational ensemble shifts towards those able to bind ligands (as enzymes with bound substrates are removed from the equilibrium between the free conformations).[11]","title":"Binding site"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NaF.gif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hydrogen-bonding-in-water-2D.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acetone_dipole-dipole.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cartoon_of_protein_hydrophobic_interaction.jpg"},{"link_name":"carboxylic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylic_acid"},{"link_name":"guanidine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanidine"},{"link_name":"arginine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"dipole-dipole interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"},{"link_name":"electron donor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_donor"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"fluorine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluorine"},{"link_name":"nitrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Positively charged sodium ion and negatively charged fluoride ion attract each other to form sodium fluoride under electrostatic interaction.Hydrogen bond between two water molecules.Van der Waals force between two acetone molecules. The lower acetone molecule contains a partially negative oxygen atom that attracts partially positive carbon atom in the upper acetone.Hydrophobic and hydrophilic groups tend to assemble with the same kind of molecules.Electrostatic interaction: In an aqueous environment, the oppositely charged groups in amino acid side chains within the active site and substrates attract each other, which is termed electrostatic interaction. For example, when a carboxylic acid (R-COOH) dissociates into RCOO− and H+ ions, COO− will attract positively charged groups such as protonated guanidine side chain of arginine.[citation needed]Hydrogen bond: A hydrogen bond is a specific type of dipole-dipole interaction between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative electron donor that contain a pair of electrons such as oxygen, fluorine and nitrogen. The strength of hydrogen bond depends on the chemical nature and geometric arrangement of each group.[citation needed]Van der Waals force: Van der Waals force is formed between oppositely charged groups due to transient uneven electron distribution in each group. If all electrons are concentrated at one pole of the group this end will be negative, while the other end will be positive. Although the individual force is weak, as the total number of interactions between the active site and substrate is massive the sum of them will be significant.[citation needed]Hydrophobic interaction: Non-polar hydrophobic groups tend to aggregate together in the aqueous environment and try to leave from polar solvent. These hydrophobic groups usually have long carbon chain and do not react with water molecules. When dissolving in water a protein molecule will curl up into a ball-like shape, leaving hydrophilic groups in outside while hydrophobic groups are deeply buried within the centre.[citation needed]","title":"Types of non-covalent interactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Catalytic triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_triad"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalytic_triad_of_TEV_protease.png"},{"link_name":"TEV protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TEV_protease"},{"link_name":"catalytic triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_triad"},{"link_name":"substrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substrate_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"binding site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_site"},{"link_name":"PDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_Data_Bank"},{"link_name":"1lvm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.rcsb.org/structure/1lvm"},{"link_name":"catalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"activation energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Activation_energy"},{"link_name":"faster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"See also: Catalytic triadThe enzyme TEV protease contains a catalytic triad of residues (red) in its catalytic site. The substrate (black) is bound by the binding site to orient it next to the triad. PDB: 1lvmOnce the substrate is bound and oriented to the active site, catalysis can begin. The residues of the catalytic site are typically very close to the binding site, and some residues can have dual-roles in both binding and catalysis.[citation needed]Catalytic residues of the site interact with the substrate to lower the activation energy of a reaction and thereby make it proceed faster. They do this by a number of different mechanisms including the approximation of the reactants, nucleophilic/electrophilic catalysis and acid/base catalysis. These mechanisms will be explained below.[citation needed]","title":"Catalytic site"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"effective concentration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_activity"},{"link_name":"desolvation energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvation"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropy"},{"link_name":"Molecular orbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_orbital"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation"}],"sub_title":"Approximation of the reactant","text":"During enzyme catalytic reaction, the substrate and active site are brought together in a close proximity. This approach has various purposes. Firstly, when substrates bind within the active site the effective concentration of it significantly increases than in solution. This means the number of substrate molecules involved in the reaction is also increased. This process also reduces the desolvation energy required for the reaction to occur. In solution substrate molecules are surrounded by solvent molecules and energy is required for enzyme molecules to replace them and contact with the substrate. Since bulk molecules can be excluded from the active site this energy output can be minimised. Next, the active site is designed to reorient the substrate to reduce the activation energy for the reaction to occur. The alignment of the substrate, after binding, is locked in a high energy state and can proceed to the next step. In addition, this binding is favoured by entropy as the energy cost associated with solution reaction is largely eliminated since solvent cannot enter active site. In the end, the active site may manipulate the Molecular orbital of the substrate into a suitable orientation to reduce activation energy.[6]: 155–8The electrostatic states of substrate and active site must be complementary to each other. A polarized negatively charged amino acid side chain will repel uncharged substrate. But if the transition state involves the formation of an ion centre then the side chain will now produce a favourable interaction.","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"serine protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine_protease"},{"link_name":"cysteine protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine_protease"},{"link_name":"protein kinase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_kinase"},{"link_name":"phosphatase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphatase"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"nucleophile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleophile"},{"link_name":"electrophile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophile"},{"link_name":"pKa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant"},{"link_name":"polarizability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polarizability"},{"link_name":"electronegativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronegativity"},{"link_name":"ionization potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionization_energy"},{"link_name":"serine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine"},{"link_name":"cysteine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine"},{"link_name":"aspartate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate"},{"link_name":"glutamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"electrophile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophile"},{"link_name":"nucleophiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleophiles"}],"sub_title":"Covalent catalysis","text":"Many enzymes including serine protease, cysteine protease, protein kinase and phosphatase evolved to form transient covalent bonds between them and their substrates to lower the activation energy and allow the reaction to occur. This process can be divided into 2 steps: formation and breakdown. The former step is rate-limit step while the later step is needed to regenerate intact enzyme.[6]: 158Nucleophilic catalysis: This process involves the donation of electrons from the enzyme's nucleophile to a substrate to form a covalent bond between them during the transition state. The strength of this interaction depends on two aspects.: the ability of the nucleophilic group to donate electrons and the electrophile to accept them. The former one is mainly affected by the basicity(the ability to donate electron pairs) of the species while the later one is in regard to its pKa. Both groups are also affected by their chemical properties such as polarizability, electronegativity and ionization potential. Amino acids that can form nucleophile including serine, cysteine, aspartate and glutamine.[citation needed]Electrophilic catalysis: The mechanism behind this process is exactly same as nucleophilic catalysis except that now amino acids in active site act as electrophile while substrates are nucleophiles. This reaction usually requires cofactors as the amino acid side chains are not strong enough in attracting electrons.","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Metal ions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal_ions_in_aqueous_solution"},{"link_name":"electrophilicity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrophilicity"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"sub_title":"Metal ions","text":"Metal ions have multiple roles during the reaction. Firstly it can bind to negatively charged substrate groups so they will not repel electron pairs from active site's nucleophilic groups. It can attract negatively charged electrons to increase electrophilicity. It can also bridge between active site and substrate. At last, they may change the conformational structure of the substrate to favour reaction.\n[6]: 158","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"protons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protons"},{"link_name":"hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide"},{"link_name":"reaction rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reaction_rate"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"pKa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid_dissociation_constant"},{"link_name":"aspartate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate"},{"link_name":"glutamate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamate"},{"link_name":"histidine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histidine"},{"link_name":"cysteine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"sub_title":"Acid/base catalysis","text":"In some reactions, protons and hydroxide may directly act as acid and base in term of specific acid and specific base catalysis. But more often groups in substrate and active site act as Brønsted–Lowry acid and base. This is called general acid and general base theory. The easiest way to distinguish between them is to check whether the reaction rate is determined by the concentrations of the general acid and base. If the answer is yes then the reaction is the general type. Since most enzymes have an optimum pH of 6 to 7, the amino acids in the side chain usually have a pKa of 4~10. Candidate include aspartate, glutamate, histidine, cysteine. These acids and bases can stabilise the nucleophile or electrophile formed during the catalysis by providing positive and negative charges.[6]: 164–70","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"backward reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_equilibrium"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"sub_title":"Conformational distortion","text":"Quantitative studies of enzymatic reactions often found that the acceleration of chemical reaction speed cannot be fully explained by existing theories like the approximation, acid/base catalysis and electrophile/nucleophile catalysis. And there is an obvious paradox: in reversible enzymatic reaction if the active site perfectly fits the substrates then the backward reaction will be slowed since products cannot fit perfectly into the active site. So conformational distortion was introduced and argues that both active site and substrate can undergo conformational changes to fit with each other all the time.[6]: 170–5","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"}],"sub_title":"Preorganised active site complementarity to the transition state","text":"This theory is a little similar to the Lock and Key Theory, but at this time the active site is preprogrammed to bind perfectly to substrate in transition state rather than in ground state. The formation of transition state within the solution requires a large amount of energy to relocate solvent molecules and the reaction is slowed. So the active site can substitute solvent molecules and surround the substrates to minimize the counterproductive effect imposed by the solution. The presence of charged groups with the active site will attract substrates and ensure electrostatic complementarity.[6]: 176–8","title":"Mechanisms involved in Catalytic process"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"In reality, most enzyme mechanisms involve a combination of several different types of catalysis.","title":"Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:GSR_Catalytic_Cycle.PNG"},{"link_name":"glutathione","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutathione"},{"link_name":"thiol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiol"},{"link_name":"oxidised","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation"},{"link_name":"disulphide bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disulphide_bond"},{"link_name":"dimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimer_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"glutathione reductase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutathione_reductase"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"NADP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_adenine_dinucleotide_phosphate"},{"link_name":"FAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_adenine_dinucleotide"},{"link_name":"cofactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"cysteine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"reduced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_redox_reaction"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"}],"sub_title":"Glutathione reductase","text":"the mechanism of glutathione reductaseThe role of glutathione(GSH) is to remove accumulated reactive oxygen species which may damage cells. During this process, its thiol side chain is oxidised and two glutathione molecules are connected by a disulphide bond to form a dimer(GSSG). In order to regenerate glutathione the disulphide bond has to be broken, In human cells, this is done by glutathione reductase(GR).[citation needed]Glutathione reductase is a dimer that contains two identical subunits. It requires one NADP and one FAD as the cofactors. The active site is located in the linkage between two subunits. The NADPH is involved in the generation of FADH-. In the active site, there are two cysteine residues besides the FAD cofactor and are used to break the disulphide bond during the catalytic reaction. NADPH is bound by three positively charged residues: Arg-218, His-219 and Arg-224.[citation needed]The catalytic process starts when the FAD is reduced by NADPH to accept one electron and from FADH−. It then attacks the disulphide bond formed between 2 cysteine residues, forming one SH bond and a single S− group. This S− group will act as a nucleophile to attack the disulphide bond in the oxidised glutathione(GSSG), breaking it and forming a cysteine-SG complex. The first SG− anion is released and then receives one proton from adjacent SH group and from the first glutathione monomer. Next the adjacent S− group attack disulphide bond in cysteine-SG complex and release the second SG− anion. It receives one proton in solution and forms the second glutathione monomer.[1]: 137–9","title":"Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mechanism_of_peptide_bond_cleavage_in_a-chymotrypsin.svg"},{"link_name":"Chymotrypsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chymotrypsin"},{"link_name":"serine endopeptidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine_protease"},{"link_name":"pancreatic juice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreatic_juice"},{"link_name":"hydrolysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolysis"},{"link_name":"proteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteins"},{"link_name":"peptide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypeptides"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-1"},{"link_name":"L-isomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereoisomerism"},{"link_name":"tyrosine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyrosine"},{"link_name":"phenylalanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine"},{"link_name":"tryptophan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tryptophan"},{"link_name":"catalytic triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_triad"},{"link_name":"peptide bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_bond"},{"link_name":"carboxylate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carboxylate"},{"link_name":"oxyanion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyanion"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bonds"},{"link_name":"R'NH2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amine"},{"link_name":"acylated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acyl_group"},{"link_name":"hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroxide"}],"sub_title":"Chymotrypsin","text":"Mechanism of peptide bond cleavage by chymotrypsin.Chymotrypsin is a serine endopeptidase that is present in pancreatic juice and helps the hydrolysis of proteins and peptide.[1]: 84–6 It catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in L-isomers of tyrosine, phenylalanine, and tryptophan. In the active site of this enzyme, three amino acid residues work together to form a catalytic triad which makes up the catalytic site. In chymotrypsin, these residues are Ser-195, His-57 and Asp-102.The mechanism of chymotrypsin can be divided into two phases. First, Ser-195 nucleophilically attacks the peptide bond carbon in the substrate to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nucleophilicity of Ser-195 is enhanced by His-57, which abstracts a proton from Ser-195 and is in turn stabilised by the negatively charged carboxylate group (RCOO−) in Asp-102. Furthermore, the tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate generated in this step is stabilised by hydrogen bonds from Ser-195 and Gly-193.In the second stage, the R'NH group is protonated by His-57 to form R'NH2 and leaves the intermediate, leaving behind the acylated Ser-195. His-57 then acts as a base again to abstract one proton from a water molecule. The resulting hydroxide anion nucleophilically attacks the acyl-enzyme complex to form a second tetrahedral oxyanion intermediate, which is once again stabilised by H bonds. In the end, Ser-195 leaves the tetrahedral intermediate, breaking the CO bond that connected the enzyme to the peptide substrate. A proton is transferred to Ser-195 through His-57, so that all three amino acid return to their initial state.","title":"Examples of enzyme catalysis mechanisms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PanBorhani2013-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MillerLunn2012-13"},{"link_name":"residence times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Residence_time"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PanBorhani2013-12"}],"text":"Substrate unbinding is influenced by various factors. Larger ligands generally stay in the active site longer,[12] as do those with more rotatable bonds (although this may be a side effect of size).[13] When the solvent is excluded from the active site, less flexible proteins result in longer residence times. More hydrogen bonds shielded from the solvent also decrease unbinding.[12]","title":"Unbinding"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redox_states_of_FAD.png"},{"link_name":"cofactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"hydrogen bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond"},{"link_name":"hydrophobic interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophobic_interaction"},{"link_name":"heme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heme_group"},{"link_name":"cytochrome C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytochrome_C"},{"link_name":"thioester bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thioester"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-6"},{"link_name":"vitamins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamins"},{"link_name":"ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adenosine_triphosphate"},{"link_name":"Flavin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_adenine_dinucleotide"},{"link_name":"redox states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"electron acceptor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electron_acceptor"},{"link_name":"semiquinone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiquinone"},{"link_name":"free radical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_radical"}],"text":"Redox states of Flavin.Enzymes can use cofactors as 'helper molecules'. Coenzymes are referred to those non-protein molecules that bind with enzymes to help them fulfill their jobs. Mostly they are connected to the active site by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bond or hydrophobic interaction. But sometimes a covalent bond can also form between them. For example, the heme in cytochrome C is bound to the protein through thioester bond. In some occasions, coenzymes can leave enzymes after the reaction is finished. Otherwise, they permanently bind to the enzyme.[6]: 69 Coenzyme is a broad concept which includes metal ions, various vitamins and ATP. If an enzyme needs coenzyme to work itself, it is called an apoenzyme. In fact, it alone cannot catalyze reactions properly. Only when its cofactor comes in and binds to the active site to form holoenzyme does it work properly.One example of the coenzyme is Flavin. It contains a distinct conjugated isoalloxazine ring system. Flavin has multiple redox states and can be used in processes that involve the transfer of one or two electrons. It can act as an electron acceptor in reaction, like the oxidation of NAD to NADH, to accept two electrons and form 1,5-dihydroflavin. On the other hand, it can form semiquinone(free radical) by accepting one electron, and then converts to fully reduced form by the addition of an extra electron. This property allows it to be used in one electron oxidation process.","title":"Cofactors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Competitive inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_inhibition"},{"link_name":"non-competitive inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-competitive_inhibition"},{"link_name":"Irreversible inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"halogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen"},{"link_name":"epoxides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epoxides"}],"text":"Inhibitors disrupt the interaction between enzyme and substrate, slowing down the rate of a reaction. There are different types of inhibitor, including both reversible and irreversible forms.Competitive inhibitors are inhibitors that only target free enzyme molecules. They compete with substrates for free enzyme acceptor and can be overcome by increasing the substrate concentration. They have two mechanisms. Competitive inhibitors usually have structural similarities to the substrates and or ES complex. As a result, they can fit into the active site and trigger favourable interactions to fill in the space and block substrates from entry. They can also induce transient conformational changes in the active site so substrates cannot fit perfectly with it. After a short period of time, competitive inhibitors will drop off and leave the enzyme intact.Inhibitors are classified as non-competitive inhibitors when they bind both free enzyme and ES complex. Since they do not compete with substrates for the active site, they cannot be overcome by simply increasing the substrate concentration. They usually bind to a different site on the enzyme and alter the 3-dimensional structure of the active site to block substrates from entry or leaving the enzyme.Irreversible inhibitors are similar to competitive inhibitors as they both bind to the active site. However, irreversible inhibitors form irreversible covalent bonds with the amino acid residues in the active site and never leave. Therefore, the active site is occupied and the substrate cannot enter. Occasionally the inhibitor will leave but the catalytic site is permanently altered in shape. These inhibitors usually contain electrophilic groups like halogen substitutes and epoxides. As time goes by more and more enzymes are bound by irreversible inhibitors and cannot function anymore.","title":"Inhibitors"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indinavir,_an_HIV_protease_inhibitor.jpg"},{"link_name":"HIV protease inhibitors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protease_inhibitor_(biology)"},{"link_name":"AIDS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIDS"},{"link_name":"DNA replication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_replication"},{"link_name":"HIV protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV-1_protease"},{"link_name":"phenylalanine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenylalanine"},{"link_name":"proline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proline"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Flexner-14"},{"link_name":"drug development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_development"},{"link_name":"aspartic protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_protease"},{"link_name":"aspartate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartate"},{"link_name":"nucleophile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleophile"},{"link_name":"carbonyl group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonyl_group"},{"link_name":"peptide bond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide_bond"},{"link_name":"amide group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amide"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ashraf-15"}],"sub_title":"Competitive inhibitor: HIV protease inhibitor","text":"Indinavir, an HIV protease inhibitor.jpgHIV protease inhibitors are used to treat patients having AIDS virus by preventing its DNA replication. HIV protease is used by the virus to cleave Gag-Pol polyprotein into 3 smaller proteins that are responsible for virion assembly, package and maturation. This enzyme targets the specific phenylalanine-proline cleave site within the target protein.[14] If HIV protease is switched off the virion particle will lose function and cannot infect patients. Since it is essential in viral replication and is absent in healthy human, it is an ideal target for drug development.HIV protease belongs to aspartic protease family and has a similar mechanism. Firstly the aspartate residue activates a water molecule and turns it into a nucleophile. Then it attacks the carbonyl group within the peptide bond (NH-CO) to form a tetrahedral intermediate. The nitrogen atom within the intermediate receives a proton, forming an amide group and subsequent rearrangement leads to the breakdown of the bond between it and the intermediate and forms two products.[15]Inhibitors usually contain a nonhydrolyzable hydroxyethylene or hydroxyethylamine groups that mimic the tetrahedral intermediate. Since they share a similar structure and electrostatic arrangement to the transition state of substrates they can still fit into the active site but cannot be broken down, so hydrolysis cannot occur.","title":"Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"neurotoxin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotoxin"},{"link_name":"muscular contraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscular_contraction"},{"link_name":"neurotransmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter"},{"link_name":"acetylcholine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetylcholine"},{"link_name":"synapse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synapse"},{"link_name":"action potential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential"},{"link_name":"Glycine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine"},{"link_name":"chloride channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chloride_channel"},{"link_name":"asphyxiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asphyxia"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gray-16"}],"sub_title":"Non-competitive inhibitor: Strychnine","text":"Strychnine is a neurotoxin that causes death by affecting nerves that control muscular contraction and cause respiration difficulty. The impulse is transmitted between the synapse through a neurotransmitter called acetylcholine. It is released into the synapse between nerve cells and binds to receptors in the postsynaptic cell. Then an action potential is generated and transmitted through the postsynaptic cell to start a new cycle.Glycine can inhibit the activity of neurotransmitter receptors, thus a larger amount of acetylcholinesterase is required to trigger an action potential. This makes sure that the generation of nerve impulses is tightly controlled. However, this control is broken down when strychnine is added. It inhibits glycine receptors(a chloride channel) and a much lower level of neurotransmitter concentration can trigger an action potential. Nerves now constantly transmit signals and cause excessive muscular contraction, leading to asphyxiation and death.[16]","title":"Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIFP_serine_inactivation.svg"},{"link_name":"Diisopropyl fluorophosphate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diisopropyl_fluorophosphate"},{"link_name":"serine protease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serine_protease"},{"link_name":"nucleophilic substitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleophilic_substitution"},{"link_name":"hydrogen fluoride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fluoride"},{"link_name":"phosphorus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphorus"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JANSEN-17"}],"sub_title":"Irreversible inhibitor: Diisopropyl fluorophosphate","text":"Irreversible inhibition of a serine protease by DIPF.Diisopropyl fluorophosphate (DIFP) is an irreversible inhibitor that blocks the action of serine protease. When it binds to the enzyme a nucleophilic substitution reaction occurs and releases one hydrogen fluoride molecule. The OH group in the active site acts as a nucleophile to attack the phosphorus in DIFP and form a tetrahedral intermediate and release a proton. Then the P-F bond is broken, one electron is transferred to the F atom and it leaves the intermediate as F− anion. It combines with a proton in solution to form one HF molecule. A covalent bond formed between the active site and DIFP, so the serine side chain is no longer available to the substrate.[17]","title":"Examples of competitive and irreversible enzyme inhibitors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"drug discovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_discovery"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schechter2005-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeDecker2000-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Zuercher2008-20"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schechter2005-18"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Powers2006-21"}],"text":"Identification of active sites is crucial in the process of drug discovery. The 3-D structure of the enzyme is analysed to identify active site residues and design drugs which can fit into them. Proteolytic enzymes are targets for some drugs, such as protease inhibitors, which include drugs against AIDS and hypertension.[18] These protease inhibitors bind to an enzyme's active site and block interaction with natural substrates.[19] An important factor in drug design is the strength of binding between the active site and an enzyme inhibitor.[20] If the enzyme found in bacteria is significantly different from the human enzyme then an inhibitor can be designed against that particular bacterium without harming the human enzyme. If one kind of enzyme is only present in one kind of organism, its inhibitor can be used to specifically wipe them out.Active sites can be mapped to aid the design of new drugs such as enzyme inhibitors. This involves the description of the size of an active site and the number and properties of sub-sites, such as details of the binding interaction.[18] Modern database technology called CPASS (Comparison of Protein Active Site Structures) however allows the comparison of active sites in more detail and the finding of structural similarity using software.[21]","title":"In drug discovery"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Application of enzyme inhibitors","title":"In drug discovery"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Allosteric_Regulation.svg"},{"link_name":"allosteric site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_site"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeDecker2000-19"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DeDecker2000-19"}],"text":"A – Active site B – Allosteric site C – Substrate D – Inhibitor E – Enzyme. This is a diagram of allosteric regulation of an enzyme. When inhibitor binds to the allosteric site the shape of active site is altered, so substrate cannot fit into itAn allosteric site is a site on an enzyme, unrelated to its active site, which can bind an effector molecule. This interaction is another mechanism of enzyme regulation. Allosteric modification usually happens in proteins with more than one subunit. Allosteric interactions are often present in metabolic pathways and are beneficial in that they allow one step of a reaction to regulate another step.[19] They allow an enzyme to have a range of molecular interactions, other than the highly specific active site.[19]","title":"Allosteric sites"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Active site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Active_site"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7167-3268-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7167-3268-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-4051-1452-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-1452-5"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Enzymes"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Enzymes"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Enzymes"},{"link_name":"Enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme"},{"link_name":"Active site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Binding site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binding_site"},{"link_name":"Catalytic triad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalytic_triad"},{"link_name":"Oxyanion hole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxyanion_hole"},{"link_name":"Enzyme promiscuity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_promiscuity"},{"link_name":"Diffusion-limited enzyme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffusion-limited_enzyme"},{"link_name":"Cofactor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cofactor_(biochemistry)"},{"link_name":"Enzyme catalysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_catalysis"},{"link_name":"Allosteric regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allosteric_regulation"},{"link_name":"Cooperativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooperativity"},{"link_name":"Enzyme inhibitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_inhibitor"},{"link_name":"Enzyme activator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_activator"},{"link_name":"EC number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_Commission_number"},{"link_name":"Enzyme superfamily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_superfamily"},{"link_name":"Enzyme family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein_family"},{"link_name":"List of enzymes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_enzymes"},{"link_name":"Enzyme kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme_kinetics"},{"link_name":"Eadie–Hofstee diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eadie%E2%80%93Hofstee_diagram"},{"link_name":"Hanes–Woolf plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanes%E2%80%93Woolf_plot"},{"link_name":"Lineweaver–Burk plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lineweaver%E2%80%93Burk_plot"},{"link_name":"Michaelis–Menten kinetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michaelis%E2%80%93Menten_kinetics"},{"link_name":"Oxidoreductases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidoreductase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_1)"},{"link_name":"Transferases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transferase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_2)"},{"link_name":"Hydrolases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrolase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_3)"},{"link_name":"Lyases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_4)"},{"link_name":"Isomerases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomerase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_5)"},{"link_name":"Ligases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_6)"},{"link_name":"Translocases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translocase"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_EC_numbers_(EC_7)"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q423026#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/4337771-3"}],"text":"Wikimedia Commons has media related to Active site.Alan Fersht, Structure and Mechanism in Protein Science: A Guide to Enzyme Catalysis and Protein Folding. W. H. Freeman, 1998. ISBN 0-7167-3268-8\nBugg, T. Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry. (2nd edition), Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2004. ISBN 1-4051-1452-5.vteEnzymesActivity\nActive site\nBinding site\nCatalytic triad\nOxyanion hole\nEnzyme promiscuity\nDiffusion-limited enzyme\nCofactor\nEnzyme catalysis\nRegulation\nAllosteric regulation\nCooperativity\nEnzyme inhibitor\nEnzyme activator\nClassification\nEC number\nEnzyme superfamily\nEnzyme family\nList of enzymes\nKinetics\nEnzyme kinetics\nEadie–Hofstee diagram\nHanes–Woolf plot\nLineweaver–Burk plot\nMichaelis–Menten kinetics\nTypes\nEC1 Oxidoreductases (list)\nEC2 Transferases (list)\nEC3 Hydrolases (list)\nEC4 Lyases (list)\nEC5 Isomerases (list)\nEC6 Ligases (list)\nEC7 Translocases (list)Authority control databases: National \nGermany","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Organisation of enzyme structure and lysozyme example. Binding sites in blue, catalytic site in red and peptidoglycan substrate in black. (PDB: 9LYZ)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Enzyme_structure.svg/400px-Enzyme_structure.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The enzyme TEV protease contains a catalytic triad of residues (red) in its catalytic site. The substrate (black) is bound by the binding site to orient it next to the triad. PDB: 1lvm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Catalytic_triad_of_TEV_protease.png/300px-Catalytic_triad_of_TEV_protease.png"},{"image_text":"the mechanism of glutathione reductase","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/GSR_Catalytic_Cycle.PNG/400px-GSR_Catalytic_Cycle.PNG"},{"image_text":"Mechanism of peptide bond cleavage by chymotrypsin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Mechanism_of_peptide_bond_cleavage_in_a-chymotrypsin.svg/400px-Mechanism_of_peptide_bond_cleavage_in_a-chymotrypsin.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Redox states of Flavin.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Redox_states_of_FAD.png/350px-Redox_states_of_FAD.png"},{"image_text":"Indinavir, an HIV protease inhibitor.jpg","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Indinavir%2C_an_HIV_protease_inhibitor.jpg/300px-Indinavir%2C_an_HIV_protease_inhibitor.jpg"},{"image_text":"Irreversible inhibition of a serine protease by DIPF.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/DIFP_serine_inactivation.svg/300px-DIFP_serine_inactivation.svg.png"},{"image_text":"A – Active site B – Allosteric site C – Substrate D – Inhibitor E – Enzyme. This is a diagram of allosteric regulation of an enzyme. When inhibitor binds to the allosteric site the shape of active site is altered, so substrate cannot fit into it","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Allosteric_Regulation.svg/300px-Allosteric_Regulation.svg.png"}]	[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg"},{"title":"Biology portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Biology"},{"title":"Hugh Stott Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Stott_Taylor"},{"title":"SitEx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SitEx"}]	[{"reference":"Bugg TD (2004). Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry (PDF) (2nd ed.). Blackwell Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781405114523. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180322143320/http://fcebichivirtuallibrary.info/ebooks/Chem/Introduction_To_Enzyme_And_Coenzyme_Chemistry.pdf","url_text":"Introduction to Enzyme and Coenzyme Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405114523","url_text":"9781405114523"},{"url":"http://fcebichivirtuallibrary.info/ebooks/Chem/Introduction_To_Enzyme_And_Coenzyme_Chemistry.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Shanmugam S (2009). Enzyme Technology. I K International Publishing House. p. 48. ISBN 9789380026053.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KrGn_obcy6QC&pg=PA48","url_text":"Enzyme Technology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789380026053","url_text":"9789380026053"}]},{"reference":"Pravda L, Berka K, Svobodová Vařeková R, et al. (2014). \"Anatomy of Enzyme Channels\". BMC Bioinformatics. 15 (1): 379. doi:10.1186/s12859-014-0379-x. PMC 4245731. PMID 25403510.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4245731","url_text":"\"Anatomy of Enzyme Channels\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BMC_Bioinformatics","url_text":"BMC Bioinformatics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12859-014-0379-x","url_text":"10.1186/s12859-014-0379-x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4245731","url_text":"4245731"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25403510","url_text":"25403510"}]},{"reference":"Alberts B (2010). Essential Cell Biology. Garland Science. p. 91. ISBN 9780815341291.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xg0vAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Essential Cell Biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815341291","url_text":"9780815341291"}]},{"reference":"Dagmar R, Gregory A (2008). \"How Enzymes Work\". Science. 320 (5882): 1428–1429. doi:10.1126/science.1159747. PMID 18556536. S2CID 43617575.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_(journal)","url_text":"Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1159747","url_text":"10.1126/science.1159747"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18556536","url_text":"18556536"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:43617575","url_text":"43617575"}]},{"reference":"Robert A (2000). Enzymes: A Practical Introduction to Structure, Mechanism, and Data Analysis (PDF) (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9780471359296.","urls":[{"url":"https://enzimo.files.wordpress.com/2012/09/enzymes-a-practical-guide2.pdf","url_text":"Enzymes: A Practical Introduction to Structure, Mechanism, and Data Analysis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471359296","url_text":"9780471359296"}]},{"reference":"Kool ET (1984). \"Active site tightness and substrate fit in DNA replication\". Annual Review of Biochemistry. 71: 191–219. doi:10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135453. PMID 12045095.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual_Review_of_Biochemistry","url_text":"Annual Review of Biochemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.biochem.71.110601.135453","url_text":"10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135453"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12045095","url_text":"12045095"}]},{"reference":"Csermely, Peter; Palotai, Robin; Nussinov, Ruth (2010). \"Induced fit, conformational selection and independent dynamic segments: an extended view of binding events\". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 35 (10): 539–546. arXiv:1005.0348. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2010.04.009. ISSN 0968-0004. PMC 3018770. PMID 20541943.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3018770","url_text":"\"Induced fit, conformational selection and independent dynamic segments: an extended view of binding events\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/1005.0348","url_text":"1005.0348"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tibs.2010.04.009","url_text":"10.1016/j.tibs.2010.04.009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0968-0004","url_text":"0968-0004"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3018770","url_text":"3018770"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20541943","url_text":"20541943"}]},{"reference":"Daniel E (1995). \"The Key–Lock Theory and the Induced Fit Theory\". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 33 (2324): 2375–2378. doi:10.1002/anie.199423751.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angewandte_Chemie_International_Edition","url_text":"Angewandte Chemie International Edition"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.199423751","url_text":"10.1002/anie.199423751"}]},{"reference":"Sullivan SM (2008). \"Enzymes with lid-gated active sites must operate by an induced fit mechanism instead of conformational selection\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (37): 13829–13834. Bibcode:2008PNAS..10513829S. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805364105. PMC 2544539. PMID 18772387.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2544539","url_text":"\"Enzymes with lid-gated active sites must operate by an induced fit mechanism instead of conformational selection\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_the_United_States_of_America","url_text":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PNAS..10513829S","url_text":"2008PNAS..10513829S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0805364105","url_text":"10.1073/pnas.0805364105"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2544539","url_text":"2544539"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18772387","url_text":"18772387"}]},{"reference":"Copeland, Robert A. (2013). \"Drug–Target Residence Time\". Evaluation of Enzyme Inhibitors in Drug Discovery. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. pp. 287–344. ISBN 978-1-118-54039-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-54039-8","url_text":"978-1-118-54039-8"}]},{"reference":"Pan, Albert C.; Borhani, David W.; Dror, Ron O.; Shaw, David E. (2013). \"Molecular determinants of drug–receptor binding kinetics\". Drug Discovery Today. 18 (13–14): 667–673. doi:10.1016/j.drudis.2013.02.007. ISSN 1359-6446. PMID 23454741.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.drudis.2013.02.007","url_text":"10.1016/j.drudis.2013.02.007"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1359-6446","url_text":"1359-6446"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23454741","url_text":"23454741"}]},{"reference":"Miller, Duncan C.; Lunn, Graham; Jones, Peter; Sabnis, Yogesh; Davies, Nichola L.; Driscoll, Paul (2012). \"Investigation of the effect of molecular properties on the binding kinetics of a ligand to its biological target\". MedChemComm. 3 (4): 449–452. doi:10.1039/c2md00270a. 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PMID 12929379.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organic_%26_Biomolecular_Chemistry","url_text":"Organic & Biomolecular Chemistry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1039%2FB208248A","url_text":"10.1039/B208248A"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12929379","url_text":"12929379"}]},{"reference":"Gray W, Rick G (1993). \"Cytoprotection by inhibition of chloride channels: The mechanism of action of glycine and strychnine\". Life Sciences. 53 (15): 1211–1215. doi:10.1016/0024-3205(93)90539-F. PMID 8412478.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Sciences_(journal)","url_text":"Life Sciences"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0024-3205%2893%2990539-F","url_text":"10.1016/0024-3205(93)90539-F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8412478","url_text":"8412478"}]},{"reference":"Jansen EF, Nuttig F, Balls AK (1949). \"Mode of inhibition of chymotrypsin by diisopropyl fluorophosphate; introduction of phosphorus\". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 179 (1): 201–204. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)56828-9. 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PMID 10801477.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1074-5521%2800%2900115-0","url_text":"\"Allosteric drugs: thinking outside the active-site box\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry_%26_Biology","url_text":"Chemistry & Biology"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1074-5521%2800%2900115-0","url_text":"10.1016/S1074-5521(00)00115-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10801477","url_text":"10801477"}]},{"reference":"Zuercher M (2008). \"Structure-Based Drug Design: Exploring the Proper Filling of Apolar Pockets at Enzyme Active Sites\". Journal of Organic Chemistry. 73 (12): 4345–4361. doi:10.1021/jo800527n. 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S2CID 2527166.","urls":[{"url":"http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=chemistrypowers","url_text":"\"Comparison of protein active site structures for functional annotation of proteins and drug 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_economic_regions_of_California	List of economic regions of California	["1 List","2 See also","3 References","4 Bibliography"]	Economic regions of California Nine California regional economies and nine associated geopolitical regions were specified in about 1998 by the California Regional Economies Project. California Statewide is the tenth economic region. The California Economic Strategy Panel uses employment and wage information reported by employers, along with these regions, for public policy-making, planning, and program administration. Other agencies, specifically including the California Public Utilities Commission and the California Board of Registered Nursing, also provide reports for the regions. List Northern California Region (dark green) Northern Sacramento Valley Region (Light Green) Greater Sacramento (yellow) Bay Area (Red) Central Coast (orange) San Joaquin Valley Region (green) Central Sierra Region (brown) Southern California Region (light blue) Southern Border Region (purple) California Statewide. The state as a whole is the tenth economic region. See also California portal Economy of California List of regions of California References ^ California Economic Strategy Panel (December 2006). "California economic base report: Southern Border region" (PDF). California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-01. Retrieved 2011-06-09. ^ "California: Southern Border region. Wireline and Fixed Wireless Broadband Availability" (PDF). California Public Utilities Commission. Retrieved 2011-06-09. ^ Center for the Health Professions; Renae Waneka; Joanne Spetz (March 31, 2010). "California Board of Registered Nursing. 2008-2009 Annual School Report. Data Summary and Historical Trend Analysis. A Presentation of Pre-Licensure Nursing Education Programs in California. Southern Border" (PDF). San Francisco: Department of Consumer Affairs. Board of Registered Nurses. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 21, 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-09. Bibliography "California Economic Strategy Panel Regions" (PDF). California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-01. "Economic Strategy Panel. California's Economic Regions". California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-06-27. Retrieved 2011-06-12. "Economic Strategy Panel". California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2011-06-11.	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California Statewide is the tenth economic region. The California Economic Strategy Panel uses employment and wage information reported by employers, along with these regions, for public policy-making, planning, and program administration.[1] Other agencies, specifically including the California Public Utilities Commission and the California Board of Registered Nursing, also provide reports for the regions.[2][3]","title":"List of economic regions of California"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Northern California Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_California_Region&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Northern Sacramento Valley Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Northern_Sacramento_Valley_Region&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Greater Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Bay Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay_area"},{"link_name":"Central Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Central_Coast"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin Valley Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_Valley"},{"link_name":"Central Sierra Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_Nevada_(U.S.)"},{"link_name":"Southern California Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Los_Angeles"},{"link_name":"Southern Border Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Border_Region_(California)"}],"text":"Northern California Region (dark green)\nNorthern Sacramento Valley Region (Light Green)\nGreater Sacramento (yellow)\nBay Area (Red)\nCentral Coast (orange)\nSan Joaquin Valley Region (green)\nCentral Sierra Region (brown)\nSouthern California Region (light blue)\nSouthern Border Region (purple)\nCalifornia Statewide. The state as a whole is the tenth economic region.","title":"List"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"California Economic Strategy Panel Regions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20111001045752/http://www.labor.ca.gov/panel/pdf/CESP_Regions_100606.pdf"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.labor.ca.gov/panel/pdf/CESP_Regions_100606.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Economic Strategy Panel. California's Economic Regions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110627183620/http://www.labor.ca.gov/panel/espcaeconregions.htm"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.labor.ca.gov/panel/espcaeconregions.htm"},{"link_name":"\"Economic Strategy Panel\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20110711073702/http://www.labor.ca.gov/panel/espcrepindex.htm"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.labor.ca.gov/panel/espcrepindex.htm"}],"text":"\"California Economic Strategy Panel Regions\" (PDF). California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 1, 2011. Retrieved 2011-10-01.\n\"Economic Strategy Panel. California's Economic Regions\". California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-06-27. Retrieved 2011-06-12.\n\"Economic Strategy Panel\". California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original on 2011-07-11. Retrieved 2011-06-11.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"Economic regions of California","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/California_economic_regions_map_%28labeled_and_colored%29.svg/220px-California_economic_regions_map_%28labeled_and_colored%29.svg.png"}]	[{"title":"California portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:California"},{"title":"Economy of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_California"},{"title":"List of regions of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_regions_of_California"}]	[{"reference":"California Economic Strategy Panel (December 2006). \"California economic base report: Southern Border region\" (PDF). California Labor and Workforce Development Agency. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-10-01. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagaddhatri_puja	Jagaddhatri	["1 Legends","2 History of worship","3 Festivities","4 Jagadhatri Mela","5 In literature","6 References","7 Further reading","8 External links"]	Aspect of goddess DurgaIt has been suggested that this article should be split into a new article titled Jagaddhatri puja. (discuss) (December 2023)This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Jagaddhatri" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Jagaddhatri / Jagadhatri2006 Jagaddhatri Puja, RanchiAffiliationMahadevi, Parvati, Durga, Jagaddhatri, MahadurgaMantraॐ महादेव्यै बिद्महे, सिंहवाहिन्यै धीमहि, तन्नो देवी प्रचोदयात॥WeaponChakram, Bow, Arrow, conchColorRed and greenMountLionConsortShiva For other uses, see Jagaddhatri (disambiguation). Jagatdhatri or Jagaddhatri (transl. Bearer of the World) is an aspect of the Hindu goddess Durga, worshipped in the Indian state of West Bengal and other states like Odisha and Jharkhand. Jagaddhatri Puja is particularly famous in Chandannagar town of Hooghly district,Krishnanagar of Nadia district and Ichhapur Nawabgunj of North 24 Parganas in West Bengal where it is celebrated as a five-day-long festival. Her worship and rituals are derived from Tantra. It is believed that her worship frees her devotees from ego and all other materialistic desires. According to the Purans, Jagadhatri is the incarnation of Siddhidhatri. She is also said to be the combined form of Sri Bhuvaneshwari and Durga. In Bengal, her puja is celebrated as the comeback of Devi, specifically in Krishnanagar, Chandannagar,Rishra and Guptipara. Legends The legend of Jagaddhatri is inspired from a tale in the Kena Upanishad. In the Katyayani Tantra, the following legend is told. After the goddess Durga killed Mahishasura, the gods of Svarga forgot about her powers. So, in order to test them, Parvati appeared before the gods Agni, Vayu, Varuna, and Chandra, who considered themselves invincible and were engulfed by ahamkara (ego). She asked them to move a tiny blade of grass. Vayu failed to pluck it; Agni failed to burn it. Every god failed at the task. In the end, they understood that the Goddess is the source of all power in the universe; even theirs. The goddess appeared before them as Uma, riding on a lion. The goddess is equated with Brahman in the narrative. The goddess gave the ego of the gods the form of an elephant. Jagaddhatri is depicted sitting on a lion with an elephant under them. The elephant, symbolizing ahamkara, lies under the paws of her vahana the lion, who symbolises courage, valour and the strength to overcome any challenges, including one's internal struggles with the Shada Ripus ("the six enemies"). "You must believe in the Ishwara rupa. Do you know the meaning of Jagadhatri rupa? She is carrying the world. If she stops then the world will get destroyed" is said by Sri Ramakrishna. Her dhyana mantra describes her weapons, vahana and her Iconography. She is sitting atop a lion, wearing different jewelry, in her four hands Devi holds bow, arrow, chakra and Samkha. She is reddish like the rising sun and she is wearing a snake garland. Her reddish colour and weapons are the symbols of raja guna but this is not for destruction and going to war. Rather this is to keep the world focused on Ritam & Satyam. She sustains the universe through her Yoga shakti. Naga/Sarpa is the symbol of Yoga & Upavitam is the symbol of Bramhin. Devi is yogini. She is using the world through her maha yoga shakti. The act of rescuing the world is her Lila. In her stotram (Jagadhatri Strotram), she has been invoked as Adhara bhutah, Dhritirupah, Dhurandharah, Dhruvapadah, Shaktistah, Shaktirupah, Shaktacharpriyah, Shaktivigrahe. It is said that she had killed the elephant demon, Kurandrasura. Its mention is not found in her dhyana mantra but in her idol an elephant is seen below her mount lion, who is none other than Kurandrasura. History of worship Jagatdhatri Puja at Krishnanagar Royal Palace There are variations regarding the history of worship of the goddess in Bengal. The popular narrative states that the worship was begun by Maharaja Krishnachandra of Krishnanagar, Nadia. However, as per local history, the worship of goddess Jagatdhatri was first established by Chandrachur Tarkamani of Santipur who made an idol of the goddess at the behest of Raja Girishchandra. At the time only ghat puja was conducted at Krishnanagar, Nadia in Bengal. Idol worship of the goddess was initiated in the village of Bramhasason, which is located in Haripur in Santipur, Nadia. Furthermore, the Jaleshwara temple of Shantipur(1665) and Raghaveshwara temple(1669) have the idol of the goddess inside the sanctum sanctorum as well as carved on the temple walls. So, her worship may have been known in Nadia long before Krishna Chandra. At Krishnanagar, Raj Rajeshwary Jagatdhatri Puja is one of the oldest in Bengal. As per local history, Maharaja Krishnachandra was arrested by Nawab Siraj-ud-Dullah once for not paying taxes on time. He was released from prison during the day of Vijaya Dashami. Having missed the entire festivity of Durga Puja in his kingdom, Maharaja became extremely sad. Seeing her devotee sad, the ultimate mother, Goddess Jagaddhatri gave Maharaja a vision and the king commenced the ritual of Jagatdhatri Puja in his native place.The puja was performed by Raj Rajeshwary (Raj Mata in Bengali language) and before the start, a Jagatdhatri Puja was donated by Maharaja Krishna Chandra named Maa Jaleshwary at Malopara Barowary. The worship of the goddess was later resumed by Sarada Devi, wife of Ramakrishna. The Jagatdhatri puja of Bose family and Chatterjee family, Palpara and Bhavanipur, deserves a special mention in this regard. The puja of Bose family initially used to be held in their ancestral home in Murshidabad. Folklore has it that this puja was started in 1788. The puja was later shifted to its present location in Chandannagar, where many of the family members now live. The exact history of the deity is unknown, but family records date it back to 1640.In Chatterjee family this puja originates from 1700 in Srirampur which later was shifted to Chatterjee's official ancestral home in 1936 by Hari Mohan Chatterjee. For over 40 years it remained the centre of attraction during the festivities.After the demise of Hari Mohan Chatterjee the puja was continued by 3 generations by Shashanka Chatterjee, Nilanka Chatterjee (Son of Late Shashanka Chatterjee) and at present by Tirthanka Chatterjee and Ankita Chatterjee (children of Nilanka and Jayeeta Chatterjee).In 2023 the puja got shifted again for the 2nd time in 200 years to Bangalore, marking a historic shift to South of India.The Puja is continued by Chatterjees with all grandeur and tradition dating back centuries. Researcher Mohit Roy has noted that Jagadhatri vigraha from Barisal(BD) is from the 8th Century. Currently, the vigraha is in the Ashutosh Museum(Kolkata). One must note that such Simha-Vahini vigrahas have been discovered plenty, particularly from western Bengal. 2023 Jagadhatri puja, Chandannagar. The first textual mention of Jagadhatri puja comes from Kalviveka of Smarta Shulapani, dated approximately from 1375 to 1460.Later Smartas Brihaspati Raymukut and Srinatha Acharya Churamani have mentioned the goddess in their work. The time in which she is worshipped, Shukla Paksha of the pious month of Kartika, especially the Tithi of Navami, is very auspicious. In ancient times, it was known as Chandika Puja. According to Smritisagara and Mahamohopadhhaya Panchanan Tarkaratna, it is the day to worship Uma. The oldest temple of the goddess is in Somra (Hooghly), also known as Mahavidya temple. It was established in 1621 CE. The worship of the goddess takes place in the Dekhuria village as well in Birbhum. Still older is the Jagadhatri puja of Baligram village(Jiaganj, Murshidabad), dated back to five hundred years ago. Bandyopadhyay family of Mirhat of Kalna are observing Jagadhatri puja for more than four hundred years. Jagadhatri puja is the main Puja of Dhatrigram, Baidyapur & Mirhat of Kalna. The 350-year-old Chandrapati family's kuladevi is Jagrata, to say the least. Festivities The Goddess of Jagatdhatri at Chandannagar day of Navami puja Jagatdhatri Puja is very popular in Krishnanagar, (Sutragarh-Santipur), Tehatta, Rishra, Chandannagar, Bhadreswar, Hooghly, Boinchi, Ashoknagar-Kalyangarh, Howrah. The beauty of the festival in Chandannagar is mainly due to the collaborative conception between the French and Bengalis. Remarkable feature remaining its procession, second largest in the world after Rio de Janeiro's, with its magnificent lightings The Jagadhatri puja of Krishnanagar is a thing to see. During this time the city adorns itself with lots of lights, flowers, pandals and the likes. Each year more than 5 lakh devotees come to Krishnanagar to be a part of this grandiose festival. There are about 150-175 clubs and barowaris which organise Jagadhatri puja in the city. The Jagadhatri puja of Krishnagar is a perfect blending of devotion, emotion and celebration. The most popular Jagadhatri goddess is the Burima of Chasa Para(In Bengali Chasa means farmer). This deity is called the Tirupathi of Krishnanagar. Each year the idol is embellished with 150 kg gold and 150 kg silver ornaments with more than 10 benarasis and jamdanis. Besides Burima, Choto Ma (the deity of Kathalpota Barowari),Mejoma (the deity of College Street Barowari), Jaleswari (the idol of Malo para Barowari) are also very famous. The Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja Committee started the first sarbojanin ( for all )Jagadhatri Puja in the Bankura district. Although they started the first pujo in 2017, the first committee was formed in 2019. Here, the goddess Jagadhatri is known as Boroma. On the Shukla Navami tithi in the month of Kartika (sometimes in Agrahayana), Trikalin Puja is performed . On the eleventh day, the mother idol is immersed in Padmapukur with Dhunuchi dance, with ancient Bengali dhaak and procession. The main attraction of this pujo committee is that pujo is performed in a specific area but people from different locations of Bankura are associated with this pujo. In their words, "Para jar jar Boroma Sobar". Along with Pujo, this committee also does various social work. West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee was present in the mandapa as the chief guest of the Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja in 2020. The Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja Committee is becoming popular among the people of Bankura. Replica of Rashtrapati Bhavan in Bhanjpur Jagaddhatri Puja 2022 Jagadhatri Mela Idol of Maa Jagadhatri at Bhanjpur Jagadhatri Mela, Baripada(2012) Jagadhatri Puja Torana 2012 designed as Lalitha Mahal, Mysore After Ratha Yatra, Jagadhatri Mela at Bhanjpur Jagadhatri Podia, is the biggest mela of Baripada, Odisha. It is the festival of Maa Jagadhatri, Goddess of the whole world. There is an 8–15 day mela (carnival) also known as mini Bali Jatra named after Cuttack's Bali Jatra which takes place at Jagadhatri Mela Podia, Bhanjpur, near the Bhanjpur railway Station during the month of October–November. It is celebrated on Gosthastami. It is also referred to as another Durga Puja as it also starts on Asthami tithi and ends on Dashami tithi. The date of the puja is decided by the luni-solar Hindu calendar. In 2012, the sarbajanina Maa Jagadhatri puja has been started from 21 November. But the mela continued from 26 November to 7 December (for the first time it was for such a long period of 13 days). As the puja was celebrating its Diamond Jubilee for completing 60 years. In 2013, the sarbajanina Maa Jagadhatri puja has been started on 11 November. But to commemorate the loss of Odisha, specifically Mayurbhanj district and Baripada due to Phailin and post Phailin flood, there will be no Cultural Program or Live telecast of this(2013) year's Jagadhatri Puja and Mela on Blue Sky (Local Cable Provider). But Mela will continue from 14 to 25 November 2013. 2023 Theme of Chandannagar Jagaddhatri Puja Every year its main attraction is the Puja Torana(Pendal) and the Mela. The Pendal is decorated as a famous monument in 2011 it was a miniature of US Capitol Building, United States. This year, it is Lalitha Mahal, Mysore. From the year 2000 it has been a tradition to decorate the torana as a special infrastructure. Tajmahal, Agra; Victoria Memorial (India), Kolkata; Titanic Ship; Lotus Temple, New Delhi; Golden Temple, Punjab etc. were also mimicked in the previous years since 2000 to 2006. As a tribute to 26/11 Hotel Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, Mumbai attack victims, the torana of the year 2009 is a lookalike of that hotel. The pictures are shown here are the toranas decorated from 2007 to 2012 as the previous year's pictures are not available. In literature Goddess Jagatdhatri figures in the historical fiction Anandamath written by Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. It is the same literary work from which the national song of India Vande Mataram originates. In the novel, Kali, Durga, and Jagatdhatri are depicted as three aspects of 'Bharat Mata' (Mother India) – Jagatdhatri as the mother used to be, Kali as the mother now is, and Durga as the mother will be in future. The trio of goddesses are shown as the object of worship of a group of ascetics who form the protagonists of the story. References ^ Fell McDermott, Rachel. Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals. Columbia University Press. ^ "Chandannagar, 'City of Lights' Shines for Jagadhatri Puja as Bengal Soaks in Festive Spirit". News18. Retrieved November 1, 2022. ^ "Jagadhatri Puja 2022: There are different opinions about the history of Jagadhatri Puja. History says that the first puja started in a tree". Hindustan Times. Retrieved Nov 2, 2022. ^ a b "Jagaddhatri Puja: Who started Jagaddhatri Puja in Bengal and where?". Zee News. Retrieved October 31, 2022. ^ Chowdhuri, Soumita (9 November 2021). "Jagadhatri Puja 2021: স্বপ্নাদেশে, কৃষ্ণনগরেই প্রথম জগদ্ধাত্রী পুজো শুরু করেন রাজা কৃষ্ণচন্দ্র! জানুন অজানা ইতিহাস". Aaj Tak (in Bengali). Kolkata. Retrieved 20 March 2022. ^ "The legends of Jagadhatri Puja". The Statesman. ^ "Overflowing with Ecstasy". The Statesman. 26 October 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017. ^ "French connection: Jagatdhatri's homecoming to Chandernagore - Times of India". The Times of India. Retrieved 23 November 2016. ^ "Jagadhatri Puja and Mela, Bhanjpur on e-News Sites". Archived from the original on 2019-10-30. Retrieved 2012-11-23. ^ Gulati, Poorva (January 2021). "From Nation to Post Nation: The Making and Unmaking of National Consciousness in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's Anandamath". Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science. ISSN 2456-5571. Further reading McDermott, Rachel Fell (2011). Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Jagaddhatri. 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culture Bengali Hindu diaspora Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jagaddhatri (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagaddhatri_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Hindu goddess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_goddess"},{"link_name":"Durga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga"},{"link_name":"Indian state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_states"},{"link_name":"West Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal"},{"link_name":"Odisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha"},{"link_name":"Jharkhand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jharkhand"},{"link_name":"Chandannagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandannagar"},{"link_name":"Hooghly district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooghly_district"},{"link_name":"Krishnanagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnanagar,_Nadia"},{"link_name":"Nadia district","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadia_district"},{"link_name":"Ichhapur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ichapore"},{"link_name":"North 24 Parganas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_24_Parganas_district"},{"link_name":"West Bengal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Bengal"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Tantra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantra"},{"link_name":"Siddhidhatri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siddhidhatri"},{"link_name":"Bhuvaneshwari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhuvaneshwari"},{"link_name":"Durga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga"},{"link_name":"Krishnanagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnanagar,_Nadia"},{"link_name":"Chandannagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandannagar"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Rishra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishra"},{"link_name":"Guptipara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guptipara"}],"text":"For other uses, see Jagaddhatri (disambiguation).Jagatdhatri or Jagaddhatri (transl. Bearer of the World) is an aspect of the Hindu goddess Durga, worshipped in the Indian state of West Bengal and other states like Odisha and Jharkhand. Jagaddhatri Puja is particularly famous in Chandannagar town of Hooghly district,Krishnanagar of Nadia district and Ichhapur Nawabgunj of North 24 Parganas in West Bengal where it is celebrated as a five-day-long festival.[1] Her worship and rituals are derived from Tantra. It is believed that her worship frees her devotees from ego and all other materialistic desires.According to the Purans, Jagadhatri is the incarnation of Siddhidhatri. She is also said to be the combined form of Sri Bhuvaneshwari and Durga. In Bengal, her puja is celebrated as the comeback of Devi, specifically in Krishnanagar, Chandannagar[2],Rishra and Guptipara.","title":"Jagaddhatri"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kena Upanishad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kena_Upanishad#Allegory_of_three_gods_and_one_goddess_-_Third_and_Fourth_khandas"},{"link_name":"Tantra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantras_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"Durga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga"},{"link_name":"Mahishasura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahishasura"},{"link_name":"Svarga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svarga"},{"link_name":"Agni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agni"},{"link_name":"Vayu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vayu"},{"link_name":"Varuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna"},{"link_name":"Chandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra"},{"link_name":"ahamkara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahamkara"},{"link_name":"Goddess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadevi"},{"link_name":"Brahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahman"},{"link_name":"vahana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahana"},{"link_name":"Sri Ramakrishna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramakrishna"},{"link_name":"lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion"},{"link_name":"bow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"arrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_(weapon)"},{"link_name":"chakra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chakram"},{"link_name":"Samkha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conch_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"raja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rajas"},{"link_name":"Yoga shakti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga"},{"link_name":"Upavitam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanayana"},{"link_name":"Bramhin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmin"},{"link_name":"yogini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogini"},{"link_name":"stotram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stotra"},{"link_name":"elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"Kurandrasura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurandrasura&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elephant"},{"link_name":"lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion"},{"link_name":"Kurandrasura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kurandrasura&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"The legend of Jagaddhatri is inspired from a tale in the Kena Upanishad. In the Katyayani Tantra, the following legend is told. After the goddess Durga killed Mahishasura, the gods of Svarga forgot about her powers. So, in order to test them, Parvati appeared before the gods Agni, Vayu, Varuna, and Chandra, who considered themselves invincible and were engulfed by ahamkara (ego). She asked them to move a tiny blade of grass. Vayu failed to pluck it; Agni failed to burn it. Every god failed at the task. In the end, they understood that the Goddess is the source of all power in the universe; even theirs. The goddess appeared before them as Uma, riding on a lion. The goddess is equated with Brahman in the narrative. The goddess gave the ego of the gods the form of an elephant. Jagaddhatri is depicted sitting on a lion with an elephant under them. The elephant, symbolizing ahamkara, lies under the paws of her vahana the lion, who symbolises courage, valour and the strength to overcome any challenges, including one's internal struggles with the Shada Ripus (\"the six enemies\").\"You must believe in the Ishwara rupa. Do you know the meaning of Jagadhatri rupa? She is carrying the world. If she stops then the world will get destroyed\" is said by Sri Ramakrishna.Her dhyana mantra describes her weapons, vahana and her Iconography. She is sitting atop a lion, wearing different jewelry, in her four hands Devi holds bow, arrow, chakra and Samkha. She is reddish like the rising sun and she is wearing a snake garland. Her reddish colour and weapons are the symbols of raja guna but this is not for destruction and going to war. Rather this is to keep the world focused on Ritam & Satyam.She sustains the universe through her Yoga shakti. Naga/Sarpa is the symbol of Yoga & Upavitam is the symbol of Bramhin. Devi is yogini. She is using the world through her maha yoga shakti. The act of rescuing the world is her Lila.In her stotram (Jagadhatri Strotram), she has been invoked as Adhara bhutah, Dhritirupah, Dhurandharah, Dhruvapadah, Shaktistah, Shaktirupah, Shaktacharpriyah, Shaktivigrahe.It is said that she had killed the elephant demon, Kurandrasura. Its mention is not found in her dhyana mantra but in her idol an elephant is seen below her mount lion, who is none other than Kurandrasura.","title":"Legends"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jagaddhatri_Krishnanagar_Rajbati.jpg"},{"link_name":"Maharaja Krishnachandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaja_Krishnachandra"},{"link_name":"Krishnanagar, Nadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnanagar,_Nadia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZeeNewsArticle-4"},{"link_name":"Maharaja Krishnachandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maharaja_Krishnachandra"},{"link_name":"Vijaya Dashami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijaya_Dashami"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sarada Devi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarada_Devi"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2023_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%80.jpg"},{"link_name":"Kalviveka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kalviveka&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ZeeNewsArticle-4"},{"link_name":"Brihaspati Raymukut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brihaspati_Raymukut&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Srinatha Acharya Churamani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Srinatha_Acharya_Churamani&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Shukla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shukla_Paksha"},{"link_name":"Kartika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81rtika_(month)"},{"link_name":"Tithi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tithi"},{"link_name":"Navami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navami"},{"link_name":"Chandika","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandi"},{"link_name":"Uma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvati"},{"link_name":"Mahavidya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavidya"},{"link_name":"Dekhuria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dekhuria&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Birbhum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birbhum_district"},{"link_name":"Murshidabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murshidabad"},{"link_name":"Kalna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalna_City"},{"link_name":"Kalna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalna_City"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Jagatdhatri Puja at Krishnanagar Royal PalaceThere are variations regarding the history of worship of the goddess in Bengal. The popular narrative states that the worship was begun by Maharaja Krishnachandra of Krishnanagar, Nadia. However, as per local history, the worship of goddess Jagatdhatri was first established by Chandrachur Tarkamani of Santipur who made an idol of the goddess at the behest of Raja Girishchandra. At the time only ghat puja was conducted at Krishnanagar, Nadia in Bengal. Idol worship of the goddess was initiated in the village of Bramhasason, which is located in Haripur in Santipur, Nadia.[3] Furthermore, the Jaleshwara temple of Shantipur(1665) and Raghaveshwara temple(1669) have the idol of the goddess inside the sanctum sanctorum as well as carved on the temple walls. So, her worship may have been known in Nadia long before Krishna Chandra.[4]At Krishnanagar, Raj Rajeshwary Jagatdhatri Puja is one of the oldest in Bengal. As per local history, Maharaja Krishnachandra was arrested by Nawab Siraj-ud-Dullah once for not paying taxes on time. He was released from prison during the day of Vijaya Dashami. Having missed the entire festivity of Durga Puja in his kingdom, Maharaja became extremely sad. Seeing her devotee sad, the ultimate mother, Goddess Jagaddhatri gave Maharaja a vision and the king commenced the ritual of Jagatdhatri Puja in his native place.[5]The puja was performed by Raj Rajeshwary (Raj Mata in Bengali language) and before the start, a Jagatdhatri Puja was donated by Maharaja Krishna Chandra named Maa Jaleshwary at Malopara Barowary. The worship of the goddess was later resumed by Sarada Devi, wife of Ramakrishna.[6]The Jagatdhatri puja of Bose family and Chatterjee family, Palpara and Bhavanipur, deserves a special mention in this regard. The puja of Bose family initially used to be held in their ancestral home in Murshidabad. Folklore has it that this puja was started in 1788. The puja was later shifted to its present location in Chandannagar, where many of the family members now live. The exact history of the deity is unknown, but family records date it back to 1640.In Chatterjee family this puja originates from 1700 in Srirampur which later was shifted to Chatterjee's official ancestral home in 1936 by Hari Mohan Chatterjee. For over 40 years it remained the centre of attraction during the festivities.After the demise of Hari Mohan Chatterjee the puja was continued by 3 generations by Shashanka Chatterjee, Nilanka Chatterjee (Son of Late Shashanka Chatterjee) and at present by Tirthanka Chatterjee and Ankita Chatterjee (children of Nilanka and Jayeeta Chatterjee).In 2023 the puja got shifted again for the 2nd time in 200 years to Bangalore, marking a historic shift to South of India.The Puja is continued by Chatterjees with all grandeur and tradition dating back centuries.[7]Researcher Mohit Roy has noted that Jagadhatri vigraha from Barisal(BD) is from the 8th Century. Currently, the vigraha is in the Ashutosh Museum(Kolkata). One must note that such Simha-Vahini vigrahas have been discovered plenty, particularly from western Bengal.2023 Jagadhatri puja, Chandannagar.The first textual mention of Jagadhatri puja comes from Kalviveka of Smarta Shulapani, dated approximately from 1375 to 1460.[4]Later Smartas Brihaspati Raymukut and Srinatha Acharya Churamani have mentioned the goddess in their work.The time in which she is worshipped, Shukla Paksha of the pious month of Kartika, especially the Tithi of Navami, is very auspicious. In ancient times, it was known as Chandika Puja. According to Smritisagara and Mahamohopadhhaya Panchanan Tarkaratna, it is the day to worship Uma.The oldest temple of the goddess is in Somra (Hooghly), also known as Mahavidya temple. It was established in 1621 CE. The worship of the goddess takes place in the Dekhuria village as well in Birbhum. Still older is the Jagadhatri puja of Baligram village(Jiaganj, Murshidabad), dated back to five hundred years ago. Bandyopadhyay family of Mirhat of Kalna are observing Jagadhatri puja for more than four hundred years. Jagadhatri puja is the main Puja of Dhatrigram, Baidyapur & Mirhat of Kalna. The 350-year-old Chandrapati family's kuladevi is Jagrata, to say the least.[citation needed]","title":"History of worship"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Goddess_of_Jagadhatri_at_Chandannagar_day_of_nabami_IMG_20161109_112445.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tehatta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehatta"},{"link_name":"Rishra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishra"},{"link_name":"Chandannagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandannagar"},{"link_name":"Bhadreswar, Hooghly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhadreswar,_Hooghly"},{"link_name":"Boinchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boinchi"},{"link_name":"Ashoknagar-Kalyangarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashoknagar_Kalyangarh"},{"link_name":"Howrah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howrah"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Krishnanagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishnanagar,_Nadia"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jagadhatri_Puja_2022.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rashtrapati Bhavan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrapati_Bhavan"},{"link_name":"Jagaddhatri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"}],"text":"The Goddess of Jagatdhatri at Chandannagar day of Navami pujaJagatdhatri Puja is very popular in Krishnanagar, (Sutragarh-Santipur), Tehatta, Rishra, Chandannagar, Bhadreswar, Hooghly, Boinchi, Ashoknagar-Kalyangarh, Howrah.The beauty of the festival in Chandannagar is mainly due to the collaborative conception between the French and Bengalis. Remarkable feature remaining its procession, second largest in the world after Rio de Janeiro's, with its magnificent lightings[8]The Jagadhatri puja of Krishnanagar is a thing to see. During this time the city adorns itself with lots of lights, flowers, pandals and the likes. Each year more than 5 lakh devotees come to Krishnanagar to be a part of this grandiose festival. There are about 150-175 clubs and barowaris which organise Jagadhatri puja in the city. The Jagadhatri puja of Krishnagar is a perfect blending of devotion, emotion and celebration. The most popular Jagadhatri goddess is the Burima of Chasa Para(In Bengali Chasa means farmer). This deity is called the Tirupathi of Krishnanagar. Each year the idol is embellished with 150 kg gold and 150 kg silver ornaments with more than 10 benarasis and jamdanis. Besides Burima, Choto Ma (the deity of Kathalpota Barowari),Mejoma (the deity of College Street Barowari), Jaleswari (the idol of Malo para Barowari) are also very famous.The Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja Committee started the first sarbojanin ( for all )Jagadhatri Puja in the Bankura district. Although they started the first pujo in 2017, the first committee was formed in 2019. Here, the goddess Jagadhatri is known as Boroma. On the Shukla Navami tithi in the month of Kartika (sometimes in Agrahayana), Trikalin Puja is performed . On the eleventh day, the mother idol is immersed in Padmapukur with Dhunuchi dance, with ancient Bengali dhaak and procession. The main attraction of this pujo committee is that pujo is performed in a specific area but people from different locations of Bankura are associated with this pujo. In their words, \"Para jar jar Boroma Sobar\". Along with Pujo, this committee also does various social work. West Bengal Chief Minister Mamata Banerjee was present in the mandapa as the chief guest of the Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja in 2020. The Trinayani Jagadhatri Puja Committee is becoming popular among the people of Bankura.Replica of Rashtrapati Bhavan in Bhanjpur Jagaddhatri Puja 2022","title":"Festivities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Idol_of_Maa_Jagadhatri_2012.JPG"},{"link_name":"Jagadhatri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadhatri"},{"link_name":"Bhanjpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhanjpur"},{"link_name":"Baripada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baripada"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jagadhatri_Mela_2012.JPG"},{"link_name":"Lalitha Mahal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalitha_Mahal"},{"link_name":"Mysore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore"},{"link_name":"Ratha Yatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ratha_Yatra"},{"link_name":"Bhanjpur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhanjpur"},{"link_name":"Baripada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baripada"},{"link_name":"Odisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odisha"},{"link_name":"Jagadhatri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jagadhatri"},{"link_name":"Bali Jatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali_Jatra"},{"link_name":"Cuttack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuttack"},{"link_name":"Bali Jatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bali_Jatra"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Diamond Jubilee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamond_Jubilee"},{"link_name":"Mayurbhanj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayurbhanj"},{"link_name":"Phailin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phailin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jagaddhatri_2023.jpg"},{"link_name":"US Capitol Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Capitol_Building"},{"link_name":"Lalitha Mahal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lalitha_Mahal"},{"link_name":"Mysore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mysore"},{"link_name":"Tajmahal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tajmahal"},{"link_name":"Agra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agra"},{"link_name":"Victoria Memorial (India)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Memorial_(India)"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"Titanic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanic"},{"link_name":"Lotus Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Temple"},{"link_name":"New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"Golden Temple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmandir_Sahib"},{"link_name":"Punjab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjab,_India"},{"link_name":"26/11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/26/11"},{"link_name":"Taj Mahal Palace & Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taj_Mahal_Palace_%26_Tower"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"}],"text":"Idol of Maa Jagadhatri at Bhanjpur Jagadhatri Mela, Baripada(2012)Jagadhatri Puja Torana 2012 designed as Lalitha Mahal, MysoreAfter Ratha Yatra, Jagadhatri Mela at Bhanjpur Jagadhatri Podia, is the biggest mela of Baripada, Odisha. It is the festival of Maa Jagadhatri, Goddess of the whole world. There is an 8–15 day mela (carnival) also known as mini Bali Jatra named after Cuttack's Bali Jatra which takes place at Jagadhatri Mela Podia, Bhanjpur, near the Bhanjpur railway Station during the month of October–November. It is celebrated on Gosthastami. It is also referred to as another Durga Puja as it also starts on Asthami tithi and ends on Dashami tithi. The date of the puja is decided by the luni-solar Hindu calendar.In 2012, the sarbajanina Maa Jagadhatri puja[9] has been started from 21 November. But the mela continued from 26 November to 7 December (for the first time it was for such a long period of 13 days). As the puja was celebrating its Diamond Jubilee for completing 60 years.In 2013, the sarbajanina Maa Jagadhatri puja has been started on 11 November. But to commemorate the loss of Odisha, specifically Mayurbhanj district and Baripada due to Phailin and post Phailin flood, there will be no Cultural Program or Live telecast of this(2013) year's Jagadhatri Puja and Mela on Blue Sky (Local Cable Provider). But Mela will continue from 14 to 25 November 2013.2023 Theme of Chandannagar Jagaddhatri PujaEvery year its main attraction is the Puja Torana(Pendal) and the Mela. The Pendal is decorated as a famous monument in 2011 it was a miniature of US Capitol Building, United States. This year, it is Lalitha Mahal, Mysore. From the year 2000 it has been a tradition to decorate the torana as a special infrastructure. Tajmahal, Agra; Victoria Memorial (India), Kolkata; Titanic Ship; Lotus Temple, New Delhi; Golden Temple, Punjab etc. were also mimicked in the previous years since 2000 to 2006. As a tribute to 26/11 Hotel Taj Mahal Palace & Tower, Mumbai attack victims, the torana of the year 2009 is a lookalike of that hotel. The pictures are shown here are the toranas decorated from 2007 to 2012 as the previous year's pictures are not available.","title":"Jagadhatri Mela"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anandamath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anandamath"},{"link_name":"Bankim Chandra Chatterjee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bankim_Chandra_Chatterjee"},{"link_name":"Vande Mataram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vande_Mataram"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Goddess Jagatdhatri figures in the historical fiction Anandamath written by Bengali novelist Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. It is the same literary work from which the national song of India Vande Mataram originates. In the novel, Kali, Durga, and Jagatdhatri are depicted as three aspects of 'Bharat Mata' (Mother India) – Jagatdhatri as the mother used to be, Kali as the mother now is, and Durga as the mother will be in future. The trio of goddesses are shown as the object of worship of a group of ascetics who form the protagonists of the story.[10]","title":"In literature"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=ggBeH_lmUu8C"}],"text":"McDermott, Rachel Fell (2011). Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Jagatdhatri Puja at Krishnanagar Royal Palace","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Jagaddhatri_Krishnanagar_Rajbati.jpg/220px-Jagaddhatri_Krishnanagar_Rajbati.jpg"},{"image_text":"2023 Jagadhatri puja, Chandannagar.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/2023_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%80.jpg/220px-2023_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%80.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Goddess of Jagatdhatri at Chandannagar day of Navami puja","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/The_Goddess_of_Jagadhatri_at_Chandannagar_day_of_nabami_IMG_20161109_112445.jpg/220px-The_Goddess_of_Jagadhatri_at_Chandannagar_day_of_nabami_IMG_20161109_112445.jpg"},{"image_text":"Replica of Rashtrapati Bhavan in Bhanjpur Jagaddhatri Puja 2022","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Jagadhatri_Puja_2022.jpg/220px-Jagadhatri_Puja_2022.jpg"},{"image_text":"Idol of Maa Jagadhatri at Bhanjpur Jagadhatri Mela, Baripada(2012)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Idol_of_Maa_Jagadhatri_2012.JPG/220px-Idol_of_Maa_Jagadhatri_2012.JPG"},{"image_text":"Jagadhatri Puja Torana 2012 designed as Lalitha Mahal, Mysore","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Jagadhatri_Mela_2012.JPG/220px-Jagadhatri_Mela_2012.JPG"},{"image_text":"2023 Theme of Chandannagar Jagaddhatri Puja","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Jagaddhatri_2023.jpg/175px-Jagaddhatri_2023.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Fell McDermott, Rachel. Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals. Columbia University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Chandannagar, 'City of Lights' Shines for Jagadhatri Puja as Bengal Soaks in Festive Spirit\". News18. Retrieved November 1, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.news18.com/news/india/chandannagar-city-of-lights-shines-for-jagadhatri-puja-as-bengal-soaks-in-more-festive-spirit-6287431.html","url_text":"\"Chandannagar, 'City of Lights' Shines for Jagadhatri Puja as Bengal Soaks in Festive Spirit\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jagadhatri Puja 2022: There are different opinions about the history of Jagadhatri Puja. History says that the first puja started in a tree\". Hindustan Times. Retrieved Nov 2, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/astrology/where-did-jagaddhatri-puja-begin-history-tells-about-a-shantipur-31667362521347.html","url_text":"\"Jagadhatri Puja 2022: There are different opinions about the history of Jagadhatri Puja. History says that the first puja started in a tree\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jagaddhatri Puja: Who started Jagaddhatri Puja in Bengal and where?\". Zee News. Retrieved October 31, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/lifestyle/jagaddhatri-puja-in-bengal-first-celebrated-specfically-in-krishnanagar-by-maharaja-krishnachandra_448085.html","url_text":"\"Jagaddhatri Puja: Who started Jagaddhatri Puja in Bengal and where?\""}]},{"reference":"Chowdhuri, Soumita (9 November 2021). \"Jagadhatri Puja 2021: স্বপ্নাদেশে, কৃষ্ণনগরেই প্রথম জগদ্ধাত্রী পুজো শুরু করেন রাজা কৃষ্ণচন্দ্র! জানুন অজানা ইতিহাস\". Aaj Tak (in Bengali). Kolkata. Retrieved 20 March 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://bangla.aajtak.in/dharm-religion/story/jagadhatri-puja-2021-origin-history-significance-krishnanagar-and-chandannagar-pictures-raja-krishna-chandra-started-krishnanagar-rajbari-puja-after-seeing-dreams-soc-312304-2021-11-09","url_text":"\"Jagadhatri Puja 2021: স্বপ্নাদেশে, কৃষ্ণনগরেই প্রথম জগদ্ধাত্রী পুজো শুরু করেন রাজা কৃষ্ণচন্দ্র! জানুন অজানা ইতিহাস\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaj_Tak","url_text":"Aaj Tak"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata","url_text":"Kolkata"}]},{"reference":"\"The legends of Jagadhatri Puja\". The Statesman.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestatesman.com/religion/legends-jagadhatri-puja-1502818059.html","url_text":"\"The legends of Jagadhatri Puja\""}]},{"reference":"\"Overflowing with Ecstasy\". The Statesman. 26 October 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thestatesman.com/features/overflowing-with-ecstasy-1502517398.html","url_text":"\"Overflowing with Ecstasy\""}]},{"reference":"\"French connection: Jagatdhatri's homecoming to Chandernagore - Times of India\". The Times of India. Retrieved 23 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/French-connection-Jagaddhatris-homecoming-to-Chandernagore/articleshow/55323723.cms","url_text":"\"French connection: Jagatdhatri's homecoming to Chandernagore - Times of India\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jagadhatri Puja and Mela, Bhanjpur on e-News Sites\". Archived from the original on 2019-10-30. Retrieved 2012-11-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191030151922/https://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20121121/2105451.html","url_text":"\"Jagadhatri Puja and Mela, Bhanjpur on e-News Sites\""},{"url":"http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20121121/2105451.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gulati, Poorva (January 2021). \"From Nation to Post Nation: The Making and Unmaking of National Consciousness in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's Anandamath\". Bodhi International Journal of Research in Humanities, Arts and Science. ISSN 2456-5571.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.academia.edu/resource/work/44888399","url_text":"\"From Nation to Post Nation: The Making and Unmaking of National Consciousness in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's Anandamath\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2456-5571","url_text":"2456-5571"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Jagaddhatri%22","external_links_name":"\"Jagaddhatri\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Jagaddhatri%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Jagaddhatri%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Jagaddhatri%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Jagaddhatri%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Jagaddhatri%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.news18.com/news/india/chandannagar-city-of-lights-shines-for-jagadhatri-puja-as-bengal-soaks-in-more-festive-spirit-6287431.html","external_links_name":"\"Chandannagar, 'City of Lights' Shines for Jagadhatri Puja as Bengal Soaks in Festive Spirit\""},{"Link":"https://bangla.hindustantimes.com/astrology/where-did-jagaddhatri-puja-begin-history-tells-about-a-shantipur-31667362521347.html","external_links_name":"\"Jagadhatri Puja 2022: There are different opinions about the history of Jagadhatri Puja. History says that the first puja started in a tree\""},{"Link":"https://zeenews.india.com/bengali/lifestyle/jagaddhatri-puja-in-bengal-first-celebrated-specfically-in-krishnanagar-by-maharaja-krishnachandra_448085.html","external_links_name":"\"Jagaddhatri Puja: Who started Jagaddhatri Puja in Bengal and where?\""},{"Link":"https://bangla.aajtak.in/dharm-religion/story/jagadhatri-puja-2021-origin-history-significance-krishnanagar-and-chandannagar-pictures-raja-krishna-chandra-started-krishnanagar-rajbari-puja-after-seeing-dreams-soc-312304-2021-11-09","external_links_name":"\"Jagadhatri Puja 2021: স্বপ্নাদেশে, কৃষ্ণনগরেই প্রথম জগদ্ধাত্রী পুজো শুরু করেন রাজা কৃষ্ণচন্দ্র! জানুন অজানা ইতিহাস\""},{"Link":"https://www.thestatesman.com/religion/legends-jagadhatri-puja-1502818059.html","external_links_name":"\"The legends of Jagadhatri Puja\""},{"Link":"https://www.thestatesman.com/features/overflowing-with-ecstasy-1502517398.html","external_links_name":"\"Overflowing with Ecstasy\""},{"Link":"http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/French-connection-Jagaddhatris-homecoming-to-Chandernagore/articleshow/55323723.cms","external_links_name":"\"French connection: Jagatdhatri's homecoming to Chandernagore - Times of India\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191030151922/https://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20121121/2105451.html","external_links_name":"\"Jagadhatri Puja and Mela, Bhanjpur on e-News Sites\""},{"Link":"http://news.webindia123.com/news/Articles/India/20121121/2105451.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.academia.edu/resource/work/44888399","external_links_name":"\"From Nation to Post Nation: The Making and Unmaking of National Consciousness in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee's Anandamath\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2456-5571","external_links_name":"2456-5571"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ggBeH_lmUu8C","external_links_name":"Revelry, Rivalry, and Longing for the Goddesses of Bengal: The Fortunes of Hindu Festivals"},{"Link":"http://www.jagadhatrionline.in/how-chandannagar-celebrates-jagadhatri-puja/","external_links_name":"How Chandannagar celebrates Jagadhatri Puja?: An article by Dr. Subhendu Prakash Chakrabarty"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210816064420/http://www.jagadhatrionline.in/how-chandannagar-celebrates-jagadhatri-puja/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/221134984","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1017987327","external_links_name":"Germany"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow%E2%80%93Washington_hotline	Moscow–Washington hotline	["1 Origins","1.1 Background","1.2 Agreement","2 Political criticism","3 Technology and procedure","3.1 Teletype","3.2 Encryption","3.3 Satellite","3.4 Facsimile","3.5 Email","4 Usage","5 Other hotlines with Moscow","6 In popular culture","6.1 Political advertising","7 See also","8 Notes and references","9 External links"]	Direct communication system between Russia and the United States The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, U.S. (left) and the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia (right), the two facilities linked by the hotline. The Moscow–Washington hotline (formally known in the United States as the Washington–Moscow Direct Communications Link; Russian: Горячая линия Вашингтон – Москва, romanized: Goryachaya liniya Vashington–Moskva) is a system that allows direct communication between the leaders of the United States and the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union). This hotline was established in 1963 and links the Pentagon with the Kremlin (historically, with Soviet Communist Party leadership across the square from the Kremlin itself). Although in popular culture it is known as the "red telephone", the hotline was never a telephone line, and no red phones were used. The first implementation used Teletype equipment, and shifted to fax machines in 1986. Since 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline has been a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by a secure form of email. Origins Background Several people came up with the idea for a hotline, including Harvard professor Thomas Schelling, who had worked on nuclear war policy for the Defense Department previously. Schelling credited the pop fiction novel Red Alert (the basis of the film Dr. Strangelove) with making governments more aware of the benefit of direct communication between the superpowers. In addition, Parade editor Jess Gorkin personally badgered 1960 presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, and buttonholed the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev during a U.S. visit to adopt the idea. During this period Gerard C. Smith, as head of the State Department Policy Planning Staff, proposed direct communication links between Moscow and Washington. Objections from others in the State Department, the U.S. military, and the Kremlin delayed introduction. The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis made the hotline a priority. During the standoff, official diplomatic messages typically took six hours to deliver; unofficial channels, such as via television network correspondents, had to be used too as they were quicker. The experience of the crisis convinced both sides of the need for better communications. During the crisis, the United States took nearly twelve hours to receive and decode Nikita Khrushchev's 3,000-word-initial settlement message – a dangerously long time. By the time Washington had drafted a reply, a tougher message from Moscow had been received, demanding that U.S. missiles be removed from Turkey. White House advisers thought faster communications could have averted the crisis, and resolved it quickly. The two countries signed the Hot Line Agreement on June 20, 1963 – the first time they formally took action to cut the risk of starting a nuclear war unintentionally. It was used for the first time by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on August 30, 1963. Agreement The "hotline", as it would come to be known, was established after the signing of a "Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Establishment of a Direct Communications Line" on June 20, 1963, in Geneva, Switzerland, by representatives of the Soviet Union and the United States. Political criticism The Republican Party criticized the hotline in its 1964 national platform; it said the Kennedy administration had "sought accommodations with Communism without adequate safeguards and compensating gains for freedom. It has alienated proven allies by opening a 'hot line' first with a sworn enemy rather than with a proven friend, and in general pursued a risky path such as began at Munich a quarter century ago." Technology and procedure ITT Intelex Teletype L015, as displayed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum. An East German Siemens T63-SU12 teleprinter from the hotline, as displayed in the National Cryptologic Museum of the NSA. The black box behind the teleprinter is an ETCRRM II encryption machine. In Finland there are still several signs marking the cable's location. This one is in Forssa. The text reads "Post and telegraph department". The cable was also used for the ordinary national telephone service. The Moscow–Washington hotline was intended for text only; speech might be misinterpreted. Leaders wrote in their native language and messages were translated at the receiving end. Teletype The first generation of the hotline used two full-time duplex telegraph circuits. The primary circuit was routed from Washington, D.C. via London, Copenhagen, Stockholm and Helsinki to Moscow. TAT-1, the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable carried messages from Washington to London. A secondary radio line for back-up and service messages linked Washington and Moscow via Tangier. This network was originally built by Harris Corporation. In July 1963 the United States sent four sets of teleprinters with the Latin alphabet to Moscow for the terminal there. A month later the Soviet equipment, four sets of East German teleprinters with the Cyrillic alphabet made by Siemens, arrived in Washington. The hotline started operations on August 30, 1963. Encryption A Japanese-built device called Electronic Teleprinter Cryptographic Regenerative Repeater Mixer II (ETCRRM II) encrypted the teletype messages using a shared one-time pad. Each country delivered keying tapes used to encode its messages via its embassy abroad. An advantage of the one-time pad was that neither country had to reveal more sensitive encryption methods to the other. Satellite In September 1971, Moscow and Washington decided to upgrade the system. The countries also agreed for the first time when the line should be used. Specifically, they agreed to notify each other immediately in the event of an accidental, unauthorized or unexplained incident involving a nuclear weapon that could increase the risk of nuclear war. Two new satellite communication lines supplemented the terrestrial circuits using two U.S. Intelsat satellites, and two Soviet Molniya II satellites. This arrangement lasted from 1971 to 1978; it made the radio link via Tangier redundant. Facsimile In May 1983, President Ronald Reagan proposed to upgrade the hotline by the addition of high-speed facsimile capability. The Soviet Union and the United States agreed formally to do this on July 17, 1984. According to the agreement, upgrades were to take place through use of Intelsat satellites and modems, facsimile machines, and computers. The facsimile terminals were operational by 1986. The teletype circuits were cut in 1988 after several years of testing and use proved the fax links to be reliable. The Soviets transferred the hotline link to the newer, geostationary Gorizont-class satellites of the Stationar system. In 1988, the US side of the hotline system was located at the National Military Command Center in the Pentagon. Each MOLINK (Moscow Link) team worked an eight-hour shift: a non-commissioned officer looked after the equipment, and a commissioned officer who was fluent in Russian and well-briefed on world affairs was translator. The hotline was tested hourly. U.S. test messages included excerpts of William Shakespeare, Mark Twain, encyclopedias, and a first-aid manual; Soviet tests included passages from the works of Anton Chekhov. MOLINK staffers took special care not to include innuendo or literary imagery that could be misinterpreted, such as passages from Winnie the Pooh, given that a bear is considered the national symbol of Russia. The Soviets also asked, during the Carter administration, that Washington not send routine communications through the hotline. Upon receipt of the message at the NMCC, the message was translated into English, and both the original Russian and the translated English texts are transmitted to the White House Situation Room. However, if the message were to indicate "an imminent disaster, such as an accidental nuclear strike", the MOLINK team would telephone the gist of the message to the Situation Room duty officer who would brief the president before a formal translation was complete. Email In 2007, the Moscow–Washington hotline was upgraded; a dedicated computer network links Moscow and Washington. The new system started operations on January 1, 2008. It continues to use the two satellite links but a fiber optic cable replaced the old back-up cable. Commercial software is used for both chat and email: chat to coordinate operations, and email for actual messages. Transmission is nearly instantaneous. Usage The first message transmitted over the hotline was on August 30, 1963. Washington sent Moscow the text: "THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG'S BACK 1234567890". The message was sent in all capital letters, since the equipment did not support lowercase. Later, during testing, the Russian translators sent a message asking their American counterparts, "What does it mean when your people say 'The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog'?" The primary link was accidentally cut several times, for example near Copenhagen by a Danish bulldozer operator, and by a Finnish farmer who ploughed it up once. Regular testing of both the primary and backup links took place daily. During the even hours, the US sent test messages to the Soviet Union. In the odd hours, the Soviet Union sent test messages to the US. The line was used during: 1963: Assassination of President Kennedy 1967: Six Day War 1971: War between India and Pakistan 1973: Yom Kippur War 1974: Turkish Invasion of Cyprus 1979: Soviet–Afghan War 1981: Threat of Soviet Invasion of Poland 1982: Israeli Invasion of Lebanon 1991: Gulf War 2001: The 9/11 attacks 2003: Aftermath of Iraq War On October 31, 2016, the Moscow–Washington hotline was used to reinforce Barack Obama's September warning that the U.S. would consider any interference on Election Day a grave matter. Other hotlines with Moscow Another hotline-type mechanism for formal communications between Washington and Moscow are the US Nuclear Risk Reduction Center and Russian National Nuclear Risk Reduction Center, which were initiated by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 following the Reykjavik Summit to reduce the risk of nuclear war. The negotiations began in May 1986, and the sides agreed in 1987. The sides established NRRCs in Washington and in Moscow, exchanging arms control and confidence building measures notifications, initially including those required by the agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War and the 1972 Agreement on the Prevention of Incidents on and over the High Seas, with their duties expanding over the decades to include notifications covering more than 16 treaties and agreements. In 2012, it was announced that a proposal was being negotiated with Moscow to add cyber warfare to the topics to be discussed on the hotline. Since 2007 there has been a hotline between Beijing and Washington and also Beijing and Moscow. At the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United States and Russia created a deconfliction line to prevent miscalculations or escalation. In November 2022, an anonymous U.S. official told Reuters that the line had only been used once in the war. The official said that the line was used to communicate concerns about Russian military operations near Ukrainian infrastructure, but did not elaborate. The official said it was not used when a missile hit Poland. In popular culture This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Moscow–Washington hotline" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A non-dial "Red Phone" which is on display in the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum. This telephone is actually a prop, erroneously representing the hotline between Washington and Moscow. In numerous books, movies, video games, etc., the hotline between Washington and Moscow is represented by a red phone, although the real hotline has never been a telephone line. A hotline telephone was depicted in the film Fail-Safe as the "Red 1 / Ultimate 1 Touch phone", and also in Stanley Kubrick's film Dr. Strangelove, both from 1964 and both loosely based on Peter George's Cold War thriller novel Red Alert from 1958. In the 1979 film Meteor a direct telephone link is used as the hot line. A more realistic depiction of the Hotline was Tom Clancy's novel The Sum of All Fears from 1991 and its 2002 film adaptation, in which a text-based computer communications system was depicted, resembling the actual Hotline equipment from the 1980s and 1990s. This "Red Phone" was installed in the CINCSAC underground command post at Offutt AFB. Although connected to a hotline for nuclear warfare command communications, it was a component of the SAC Primary Alert System. It did not connect to foreign officials. In the 1990 HBO film By Dawn's Early Light, the White House Situation Room equipment that receives the (translated) hotline message, apparently relayed by the Pentagon-NMCC MOLINK team, is depicted as a teleprinter (and not as a fax machine, the technology already in use at the NMCC itself by that year). A telephone is used in the intro cinematic of the video game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2. The call is placed by the US president to the Kremlin in the wake of a global Soviet invasion. In "World War Three", a 2005 episode of the British sci-fi television series Doctor Who, the Slitheen await a phone call to plunge the planet into a nuclear holocaust on an actual red telephone, directly pastiching the cold war fears related to the hotline. Political advertising The "red phone" was the centerpiece of television commercials used in the 1984 Democratic primary and 1984 presidential election and the 2008 Democratic primary elections. In 1984, an advertisement made by Bob Beckel and Roy Spence on behalf of candidate Walter Mondale suggested that "The most awesome, powerful responsibility in the world lies in the hand that picks up this phone." The advertisement was intended to raise questions about candidate Gary Hart's readiness for the presidency. The red phone was also featured prominently in an advertisement from that year targeting President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative. In the second ad, the ringing phone goes unanswered while the narrator says, "there will be no time to wake a president – computers will take control." Roy Spence revived the "red phone" idea in 2008 in an advertisement for candidate Hillary Clinton. See also Islamabad–New Delhi hotline Seoul–Pyongyang hotline Beijing–Washington hotline Notes and references ^ a b c d e f g h Stone, Webster (September 18, 1988). "Moscow's Still Holding". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014. ^ Clavin, Tom (19 Jun 2013). "There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-07-01. ^ a b c d Graham, Thomas; La Vera, Damien (2002). "The 'Hot Line' Agreements". Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era. University of Washington Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 978-0295801414. ^ a b Craig, Bell; Richardson, Paul E. (September–October 2009). "The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}". Russian Life. Vol. 52, no. 5. Archived from the original on 2015-06-30. ^ U.S. State Department. "Hot Line Agreement (1963)". Atomic Archive. Archived from the original on August 30, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2022. ^ Kavass, Igor I.; Hein, W. S. (1991). United States Treaty Index: 1776–1990, Consolidation (Volume 6 ed.). W.S. Hein. p. 718. ISBN 978-0899417707. Retrieved 30 August 2022. TIAS 5362 ^ Encyclopedia of Russian History ^ "This Day in History – August 30, 1963: Hotline established between Washington and Moscow". History.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-06. ^ Republican Party Platform, Section Two, "Weakness Before Communism" (adopted July 13, 1964). See http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25840 ^ Kennedy, Bruce (1998). "CNN Cold War – Spotlight: The birth of the hot line". Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2011. ^ Council on Foreign Relations (1990). International Affairs Fellowship program 1967–1990 directory. Council on Foreign Relations Press. Retrieved 28 June 2013. ^ David K. Barnhart; Allan A. Metcalf (1999). America in So Many Words: Words That Have Shaped America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0618002702. Retrieved 28 June 2013. ^ Graff, Garrett M. (2017). Raven Rock: The Story of the U.S. Government's Secret Plan to Save Itself – While the Rest of Us Die. Simon & Schuster. ^ David Kahn, The Codebreakers, pp. 715–716 ^ "Norges ukjente rolle i den «hete linjen» – DN.no". www.dn.no. Archived from the original on 2017-12-08. ^ Jozef Goldblat (International Peace Research Institute) (2002). Arms control. Sage. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0761940162. ^ Coit D. Blacker, Gloria Duffy (Stanford Arms Control Group) (1984). International arms control. Stanford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0804712115. ^ James Mayall, Cornelia Navari (1980). The end of the post-war era. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–137. ISBN 0521226988. ^ Larsen, Jeffrey Arthur; Smith, James M. (2005). Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament. Scarecrow Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0810850606. moscow hotline teleprinter fax machine. ^ Stephen L. Thacher, Crisis Communications between Superpowers, US Army War College, Carusle Barracks, 1990, p. 10. ^ a b "Washington Moscow Hotline". www.cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 2016-02-28. ^ Rusk, Dean (1991). As I Saw It: A Secretary of State's Memoirs. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 225. ^ "Electrospaces.net: The Washington-Moscow Hotline". electrospaces.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-28. ^ "What Obama said to Putin on the Red Phone about the election hacks". NBC News. Retrieved 2016-12-20. ^ "Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)". US State Department. 15 September 1987. ^ "Agreement on the Establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)". FAS. 15 September 1987. ^ "Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation for Monitoring the Implementation of Treaties (National Center for Nuclear Risk Reduction)". Russia MOD. 5 June 2024. ^ "US, Russia plan hotline to prevent cyber war". Total Telecom. 30 April 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2012. ^ "Hotline Agreements". Arms Control Association. ^ Mitchell, Ellen (3 March 2022). "US, Russia set up military communication line to prevent accidental clash". thehill.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022. ^ Stewart, Phil (29 November 2022). "Exclusive: U.S., Russia have used their military hotline once so far during Ukraine war". reuters.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022. ^ The red phone that was NOT on the Hotline, August 30, 2013 ^ Lisboa, Maria Manuel (2011). The End of the World: Apocalypse and Its Aftermath in Western Culture. Open Book Publishers. p. 28. ISBN 9781906924508. ...the Americans receive a teletype from their counterparts in the Soviet Union stating that they have now determined that the first missile was not launched by NATO. ^ YouTube – Red Alert 2 intro ^ "The Doctor Who Transcripts - World War Three". www.chakoteya.net. Retrieved 2023-08-16. ^ YouTube – US Democrats – Walter Mondale 1984 Video 10 ^ Kurtz, Howard (March 1, 2008), "Clinton Plays the Fear Card", Washington Post, pp. A08 ^ YouTube – Mondale/Ferraro Commercial 1984 ^ Kaid, Lynda Lee; Anne Johnston (2000). Videostyle in Presidential Campaigns: Style and Content of Televised Political Advertising. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 59. ISBN 0-275-94071-3. ^ Beckel, Bob (March 19, 2008). "Superdelegates: Whiners or Deciders?". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 2008-03-20. ^ YouTube – Hillary Clinton Ad – 3 AM White House Ringing Phone ^ Kornblut, Anne E.; Murray, Shailagh (March 1, 2008), "Clinton Ad Hints Obama Is Unprepared for Crisis", Washington Post, pp. A01 External links "DCL: The Direct Communications Link", Cryptolog, December 1983, declassified internal newsletter of the National Security Agency; five-page illustrated article detailing the political and technical history of the hotline up to the Reagan administration. Top Level Telecommunications: The Washington-Moscow Hot Line Crypto Machines: The Washington-Moscow Hot Line The original Hotline Agreement Texts of 1963, 1971 and 1984 vteJohn F. 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Russian Kurier, Inc. Kidnapping of Mormon missionaries Pristina airport incident Russian Guantanamo Bay detainees RM Broadcasting Illegals Program Stephen Holmes European Deterrence Initiative Operation Atlantic Resolve Russian interference in United States elections 2016 Links between Trump associates and Russian officials Steele dossier Maria Butina 2018 2020 Donald Trump's disclosures of classified information Havana syndrome Zersetzung Battle of Khasham Poisoning of Sergei and Yulia Skripal Arrest of Trevor Reed Russian bounty program Viktor Bout–Brittney Griner prisoner exchange Black Sea drone incident Russian spies in the Russo-Ukrainian War 2022–2023 Pentagon document leaks Lady R incident Legislation Jackson–Vanik amendment Russian foreign agent law Magnitsky Act Dima Yakovlev Law Guantanamo List Ukraine Freedom Support Act of 2014 Russian undesirable organizations law Countering America's Adversaries Through Sanctions Act Defending Elections from Threats by Establishing Redlines Act Defending American Security from Kremlin Aggression Act Russian–Venezuelan Threat Mitigation Act Task Force KleptoCapture Executive Order 14071 Treaties START II START III Mutual detargeting Megatons to Megawatts Program Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty New START Related Russian Empire–United States relations Soviet Union–United States relations NATO–Russia relations Anti-American sentiment in Russia Bush legs Center on Global Interests Congress of Russian Americans Anglo-American School of Moscow United States military and prostitution in South Korea Russian Mission School in New York Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C. Russian Cultural Center International Launch Services U.S. Russia Foundation U.S.–Russia Business Council Stanford US–Russia Forum Space Flight Europe-America 500 Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition Territorial claims in the Arctic United States and the Russian invasion of Ukraine New Great Game Second Cold War Not One Inch Category Portals: United States Russia Politics	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Pentagon,_cropped_square.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moscow_Kremlin_(8281675670).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Pentagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon"},{"link_name":"Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kremlin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"the Pentagon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pentagon"},{"link_name":"Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow_Kremlin"},{"link_name":"Soviet Communist Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smithsonian_2013-06-19-2"},{"link_name":"hotline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hotline"},{"link_name":"Teletype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"fax machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham-3"},{"link_name":"email","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-richardson-4"}],"text":"The Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, U.S. (left) and the Kremlin in Moscow, Russia (right), the two facilities linked by the hotline.The Moscow–Washington hotline (formally known in the United States as the Washington–Moscow Direct Communications Link;[1] Russian: Горячая линия Вашингтон – Москва, romanized: Goryachaya liniya Vashington–Moskva) is a system that allows direct communication between the leaders of the United States and the Russian Federation (formerly the Soviet Union). This hotline was established in 1963 and links the Pentagon with the Kremlin (historically, with Soviet Communist Party leadership across the square from the Kremlin itself).[1][2] Although in popular culture it is known as the \"red telephone\", the hotline was never a telephone line, and no red phones were used. The first implementation used Teletype equipment, and shifted to fax machines in 1986.[3] Since 2008, the Moscow–Washington hotline has been a secure computer link over which messages are exchanged by a secure form of email.[4]","title":"Moscow–Washington hotline"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard"},{"link_name":"Thomas Schelling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Schelling"},{"link_name":"Defense Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense"},{"link_name":"Red Alert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Alert_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Dr. Strangelove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Strangelove"},{"link_name":"Parade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parade_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"John F. Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Richard Nixon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Nixon"},{"link_name":"Nikita Khrushchev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"Gerard C. Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerard_C._Smith"},{"link_name":"State Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Department"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._military"},{"link_name":"Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kremlin"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"1962 Cuban Missile Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuban_Missile_Crisis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Nikita Khrushchev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"Turkey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkey"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Background","text":"Several people came up with the idea for a hotline, including Harvard professor Thomas Schelling, who had worked on nuclear war policy for the Defense Department previously. Schelling credited the pop fiction novel Red Alert (the basis of the film Dr. Strangelove) with making governments more aware of the benefit of direct communication between the superpowers. In addition, Parade editor Jess Gorkin personally badgered 1960 presidential candidates John F. Kennedy and Richard Nixon, and buttonholed the Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev during a U.S. visit to adopt the idea.[1] During this period Gerard C. Smith, as head of the State Department Policy Planning Staff, proposed direct communication links between Moscow and Washington. Objections from others in the State Department, the U.S. military, and the Kremlin delayed introduction.[1]The 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis made the hotline a priority. During the standoff, official diplomatic messages typically took six hours to deliver; unofficial channels, such as via television network correspondents, had to be used too as they were quicker.[1] The experience of the crisis convinced both sides of the need for better communications.[5]During the crisis, the United States took nearly twelve hours to receive and decode Nikita Khrushchev's 3,000-word-initial settlement message – a dangerously long time. By the time Washington had drafted a reply, a tougher message from Moscow had been received, demanding that U.S. missiles be removed from Turkey.[citation needed] White House advisers thought faster communications could have averted the crisis, and resolved it quickly. The two countries signed the Hot Line Agreement on June 20, 1963[6] – the first time they formally took action to cut the risk of starting a nuclear war unintentionally.[7] It was used for the first time by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on August 30, 1963.[8]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham-3"}],"sub_title":"Agreement","text":"The \"hotline\", as it would come to be known, was established after the signing of a \"Memorandum of Understanding Regarding the Establishment of a Direct Communications Line\" on June 20, 1963, in Geneva, Switzerland, by representatives of the Soviet Union and the United States.[3]","title":"Origins"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Kennedy administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_administration"},{"link_name":"Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Republican Party criticized the hotline in its 1964 national platform; it said the Kennedy administration had \"sought accommodations with Communism without adequate safeguards and compensating gains for freedom. It has alienated proven allies by opening a 'hot line' first with a sworn enemy rather than with a proven friend, and in general pursued a risky path such as began at Munich a quarter century ago.\"[9]","title":"Political criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ITT_Intelex_Teletype_L015.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyndon_Baines_Johnson_Library_and_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:T63-SU12-TP_NCM.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Cryptologic Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Cryptologic_Museum"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hotline_sign_in_finland.jpg"},{"link_name":"Forssa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forssa"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"ITT Intelex Teletype L015, as displayed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum.An East German Siemens T63-SU12 teleprinter from the hotline, as displayed in the National Cryptologic Museum of the NSA. The black box behind the teleprinter is an ETCRRM II encryption machine.In Finland there are still several signs marking the cable's location. This one is in Forssa. The text reads \"Post and telegraph department\". The cable was also used for the ordinary national telephone service.The Moscow–Washington hotline was intended for text only; speech might be misinterpreted. Leaders wrote in their native language and messages were translated at the receiving end.[10]","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"duplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duplex_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Stockholm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stockholm"},{"link_name":"Helsinki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helsinki"},{"link_name":"Moscow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moscow"},{"link_name":"TAT-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TAT-1"},{"link_name":"transatlantic telephone cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transatlantic_telephone_cable"},{"link_name":"Tangier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tangier"},{"link_name":"Harris Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Relations1990-11"},{"link_name":"Latin alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_alphabet"},{"link_name":"East German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germany"},{"link_name":"teleprinters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"Cyrillic alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Siemens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siemens"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BarnhartMetcalf1999-12"}],"sub_title":"Teletype","text":"The first generation of the hotline used two full-time duplex telegraph circuits. The primary circuit was routed from Washington, D.C. via London, Copenhagen, Stockholm and Helsinki to Moscow. TAT-1, the first submarine transatlantic telephone cable carried messages from Washington to London. A secondary radio line for back-up and service messages linked Washington and Moscow via Tangier. This network was originally built by Harris Corporation.[11]In July 1963 the United States sent four sets of teleprinters with the Latin alphabet to Moscow for the terminal there. A month later the Soviet equipment, four sets of East German teleprinters with the Cyrillic alphabet made by Siemens, arrived in Washington. The hotline started operations on August 30, 1963.[12]","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"one-time pad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-time_pad"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RavenRock-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Encryption","text":"A Japanese-built device called Electronic Teleprinter Cryptographic Regenerative Repeater Mixer II (ETCRRM II) encrypted the teletype messages using a shared one-time pad.[13] Each country delivered keying tapes used to encode its messages via its embassy abroad. An advantage of the one-time pad was that neither country had to reveal more sensitive encryption methods to the other.[14][15]","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Intelsat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelsat"},{"link_name":"Molniya II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molniya_(satellite)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Satellite","text":"In September 1971, Moscow and Washington decided to upgrade the system. The countries also agreed for the first time when the line should be used. Specifically, they agreed to notify each other immediately in the event of an accidental, unauthorized or unexplained incident involving a nuclear weapon that could increase the risk of nuclear war.[16][17][18] Two new satellite communication lines supplemented the terrestrial circuits using two U.S. Intelsat satellites, and two Soviet Molniya II satellites. This arrangement lasted from 1971 to 1978; it made the radio link via Tangier redundant.[citation needed]","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"facsimile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fax"},{"link_name":"Intelsat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelsat"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Larsen-19"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham-3"},{"link_name":"Gorizont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorizont"},{"link_name":"Stationar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationar"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"National Military Command Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Military_Command_Center"},{"link_name":"non-commissioned officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-commissioned_officer"},{"link_name":"commissioned officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commissioned_officer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"William Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"Mark Twain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Twain"},{"link_name":"encyclopedias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia"},{"link_name":"first-aid manual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-aid_manual"},{"link_name":"Anton Chekhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Chekhov"},{"link_name":"Winnie the Pooh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winnie_the_Pooh"},{"link_name":"the national symbol of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Bear"},{"link_name":"Carter administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carter_administration"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"},{"link_name":"White House Situation Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Situation_Room"},{"link_name":"duty officer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_officer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stone-1"}],"sub_title":"Facsimile","text":"In May 1983, President Ronald Reagan proposed to upgrade the hotline by the addition of high-speed facsimile capability. The Soviet Union and the United States agreed formally to do this on July 17, 1984.According to the agreement, upgrades were to take place through use of Intelsat satellites and modems, facsimile machines, and computers.[19] The facsimile terminals were operational by 1986.[3] The teletype circuits were cut in 1988 after several years of testing and use proved the fax links to be reliable. The Soviets transferred the hotline link to the newer, geostationary Gorizont-class satellites of the Stationar system.[20]In 1988, the US side of the hotline system was located at the National Military Command Center in the Pentagon. Each MOLINK (Moscow Link) team worked an eight-hour shift: a non-commissioned officer looked after the equipment, and a commissioned officer who was fluent in Russian and well-briefed on world affairs was translator.[1] The hotline was tested hourly. U.S. test messages included excerpts of William Shakespeare, Mark Twain, encyclopedias, and a first-aid manual; Soviet tests included passages from the works of Anton Chekhov. MOLINK staffers took special care not to include innuendo or literary imagery that could be misinterpreted, such as passages from Winnie the Pooh, given that a bear is considered the national symbol of Russia. The Soviets also asked, during the Carter administration, that Washington not send routine communications through the hotline.[1]Upon receipt of the message at the NMCC, the message was translated into English, and both the original Russian and the translated English texts are transmitted to the White House Situation Room. However, if the message were to indicate \"an imminent disaster, such as an accidental nuclear strike\", the MOLINK team would telephone the gist of the message to the Situation Room duty officer who would brief the president before a formal translation was complete.[1]","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computer network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-richardson-4"},{"link_name":"fiber optic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_fiber"}],"sub_title":"Email","text":"In 2007, the Moscow–Washington hotline was upgraded; a dedicated computer network links Moscow and Washington. The new system started operations on January 1, 2008.[4] It continues to use the two satellite links but a fiber optic cable replaced the old back-up cable. Commercial software is used for both chat and email: chat to coordinate operations, and email for actual messages. Transmission is nearly instantaneous.","title":"Technology and procedure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG'S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_quick_brown_fox_jumps_over_the_lazy_dog"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crypt-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Copenhagen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copenhagen"},{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-crypt-21"},{"link_name":"Assassination of President Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy"},{"link_name":"Six Day War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six-Day_War"},{"link_name":"War between India and Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Pakistani_War_of_1971"},{"link_name":"Yom Kippur War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War"},{"link_name":"Turkish Invasion of Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turkish_invasion_of_Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Soviet–Afghan War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Afghan_War"},{"link_name":"Threat of Soviet Invasion of Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_law_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"Israeli Invasion of Lebanon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"9/11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/9/11"},{"link_name":"Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"Election Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2016_United_States_elections"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"The first message transmitted over the hotline was on August 30, 1963. Washington sent Moscow the text: \"THE QUICK BROWN FOX JUMPED OVER THE LAZY DOG'S BACK 1234567890\". The message was sent in all capital letters, since the equipment did not support lowercase.[21] Later, during testing, the Russian translators sent a message asking their American counterparts, \"What does it mean when your people say 'The quick brown fox jumped over the lazy dog'?\"[22]The primary link was accidentally cut several times, for example near Copenhagen by a Danish bulldozer operator, and by a Finnish farmer who ploughed it up once. Regular testing of both the primary and backup links took place daily.[23] During the even hours, the US sent test messages to the Soviet Union. In the odd hours, the Soviet Union sent test messages to the US.[citation needed]The line was used during:[21]1963: Assassination of President Kennedy\n1967: Six Day War\n1971: War between India and Pakistan\n1973: Yom Kippur War\n1974: Turkish Invasion of Cyprus\n1979: Soviet–Afghan War\n1981: Threat of Soviet Invasion of Poland\n1982: Israeli Invasion of Lebanon\n1991: Gulf War\n2001: The 9/11 attacks\n2003: Aftermath of Iraq WarOn October 31, 2016, the Moscow–Washington hotline was used to reinforce Barack Obama's September warning that the U.S. would consider any interference on Election Day a grave matter.[24]","title":"Usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nuclear Risk Reduction Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_Risk_Reduction_Center"},{"link_name":"National Nuclear Risk Reduction Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Nuclear_Risk_Reduction_Center"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-treaty-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nuke.fas.org-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Homepage-27"},{"link_name":"cyber warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberwarfare"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-telecomnews-28"},{"link_name":"Beijing and Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing-Washington_hotline"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Russian invasion of Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters"},{"link_name":"a missile hit Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2022_missile_explosion_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"Another hotline-type mechanism for formal communications between Washington and Moscow are the US Nuclear Risk Reduction Center and Russian National Nuclear Risk Reduction Center, which were initiated by Ronald Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev in 1985 following the Reykjavik Summit to reduce the risk of nuclear war.[25] The negotiations began in May 1986, and the sides agreed in 1987.[26] The sides established NRRCs in Washington and in Moscow,[27] exchanging arms control and confidence building measures notifications, initially including those required by the agreement on Measures to Reduce the Risk of Outbreak of Nuclear War and the 1972 Agreement on the Prevention of Incidents on and over the High Seas, with their duties expanding over the decades to include notifications covering more than 16 treaties and agreements.In 2012, it was announced that a proposal was being negotiated with Moscow to add cyber warfare to the topics to be discussed on the hotline.[28]Since 2007 there has been a hotline between Beijing and Washington and also Beijing and Moscow.[29]At the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the United States and Russia created a deconfliction line to prevent miscalculations or escalation.[30] In November 2022, an anonymous U.S. official told Reuters that the line had only been used once in the war. The official said that the line was used to communicate concerns about Russian military operations near Ukrainian infrastructure, but did not elaborate. The official said it was not used when a missile hit Poland.[31]","title":"Other hotlines with Moscow"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jimmy_Carter_Library_and_Museum_99.JPG"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"Fail-Safe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fail_Safe_(1964_film)"},{"link_name":"Dr. Strangelove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Strangelove"},{"link_name":"Peter George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_George_(author)"},{"link_name":"Red Alert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Alert_(novel)"},{"link_name":"Meteor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteor_(film)"},{"link_name":"Tom Clancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Clancy"},{"link_name":"The Sum of All Fears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sum_of_All_Fears"},{"link_name":"its 2002 film adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sum_of_All_Fears_(film)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SAC_Museum_Red_Phone_2020.jpg"},{"link_name":"CINCSAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_commanders-in-chief_of_the_Strategic_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"Offutt AFB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offutt_Air_Force_Base"},{"link_name":"SAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Air_Command"},{"link_name":"Primary Alert System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_Alert_System"},{"link_name":"HBO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBO"},{"link_name":"By Dawn's Early Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/By_Dawn%27s_Early_Light"},{"link_name":"White House Situation Room","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_House_Situation_Room"},{"link_name":"NMCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Military_Command_Center"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lisboa-33"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Graham-3"},{"link_name":"Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_%26_Conquer:_Red_Alert_2"},{"link_name":"Kremlin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kremlin"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"\"World War Three\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_Three_(Doctor_Who)"},{"link_name":"2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who_(series_1)"},{"link_name":"sci-fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sci_fi"},{"link_name":"Doctor Who","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_Who"},{"link_name":"Slitheen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slitheen"},{"link_name":"nuclear holocaust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_holocaust"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"A non-dial \"Red Phone\" which is on display in the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum. This telephone is actually a prop, erroneously representing the hotline between Washington and Moscow.[32]In numerous books, movies, video games, etc., the hotline between Washington and Moscow is represented by a red phone, although the real hotline has never been a telephone line.A hotline telephone was depicted in the film Fail-Safe as the \"Red 1 / Ultimate 1 Touch phone\", and also in Stanley Kubrick's film Dr. Strangelove, both from 1964 and both loosely based on Peter George's Cold War thriller novel Red Alert from 1958.In the 1979 film Meteor a direct telephone link is used as the hot line.A more realistic depiction of the Hotline was Tom Clancy's novel The Sum of All Fears from 1991 and its 2002 film adaptation, in which a text-based computer communications system was depicted, resembling the actual Hotline equipment from the 1980s and 1990s.This \"Red Phone\" was installed in the CINCSAC underground command post at Offutt AFB. Although connected to a hotline for nuclear warfare command communications, it was a component of the SAC Primary Alert System. It did not connect to foreign officials.In the 1990 HBO film By Dawn's Early Light, the White House Situation Room equipment that receives the (translated) hotline message, apparently relayed by the Pentagon-NMCC MOLINK team, is depicted as a teleprinter[33] (and not as a fax machine, the technology already in use at the NMCC itself by that year[3]).A telephone is used in the intro cinematic of the video game Command & Conquer: Red Alert 2. The call is placed by the US president to the Kremlin in the wake of a global Soviet invasion.[34]In \"World War Three\", a 2005 episode of the British sci-fi television series Doctor Who, the Slitheen await a phone call to plunge the planet into a nuclear holocaust on an actual red telephone, directly pastiching the cold war fears related to the hotline.[35]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"television commercials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_commercial"},{"link_name":"1984 Democratic primary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)_presidential_primaries,_1984"},{"link_name":"1984 presidential election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"2008 Democratic primary elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)_presidential_primaries,_2008"},{"link_name":"Bob Beckel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Beckel"},{"link_name":"Roy Spence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Spence"},{"link_name":"Walter Mondale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Mondale"},{"link_name":"Gary Hart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Hart"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo_080301_kurtz-37"},{"link_name":"Ronald Reagan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Reagan"},{"link_name":"Strategic Defense Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defense_Initiative"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kaid-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rcp_080319-40"},{"link_name":"Hillary Clinton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillary_Clinton"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo_080301_kornblut-42"}],"sub_title":"Political advertising","text":"The \"red phone\" was the centerpiece of television commercials used in the 1984 Democratic primary and 1984 presidential election and the 2008 Democratic primary elections. In 1984, an advertisement made by Bob Beckel and Roy Spence on behalf of candidate Walter Mondale suggested that \"The most awesome, powerful responsibility in the world lies in the hand that picks up this phone.\" The advertisement was intended to raise questions about candidate Gary Hart's readiness for the presidency.[36][37]The red phone was also featured prominently in an advertisement from that year targeting President Ronald Reagan's Strategic Defense Initiative. In the second ad, the ringing phone goes unanswered while the narrator says, \"there will be no time to wake a president – computers will take control.\"[38][39][40] Roy Spence revived the \"red phone\" idea in 2008 in an advertisement for candidate Hillary Clinton.[41][42]","title":"In popular culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Stone_1-7"},{"link_name":"\"Moscow's Still 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10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=3fu-2Ew1ijg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-wapo_080301_kurtz_37-0"},{"link_name":"Kurtz, Howard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Kurtz"},{"link_name":"\"Clinton Plays the Fear Card\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/29/AR2008022903334.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-38"},{"link_name":"YouTube – Mondale/Ferraro Commercial 1984","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRmtxXJnzoc"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kaid_39-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-275-94071-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94071-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-rcp_080319_40-0"},{"link_name":"Beckel, Bob","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Beckel"},{"link_name":"\"Superdelegates: Whiners or Deciders?\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/superdelegates_whiners_or_deci.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-41"},{"link_name":"YouTube – Hillary Clinton Ad – 3 AM White House Ringing Phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.youtube.com/watch?v=7yr7odFUARg"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-wapo_080301_kornblut_42-0"},{"link_name":"Kornblut, Anne E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_E._Kornblut"},{"link_name":"Murray, Shailagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shailagh_Murray"},{"link_name":"\"Clinton Ad Hints Obama Is Unprepared for Crisis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/29/AR2008022904073.html"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g h Stone, Webster (September 18, 1988). \"Moscow's Still Holding\". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014.\n\n^ Clavin, Tom (19 Jun 2013). \"There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-07-01.\n\n^ a b c d Graham, Thomas; La Vera, Damien (2002). \"The 'Hot Line' Agreements\". Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era. University of Washington Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 978-0295801414.\n\n^ a b Craig, Bell; Richardson, Paul E. (September–October 2009). \"The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}\". Russian Life. Vol. 52, no. 5. Archived from the original on 2015-06-30.[dead link]\n\n^ U.S. State Department. \"Hot Line Agreement (1963)\". Atomic Archive. Archived from the original on August 30, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2022.\n\n^ Kavass, Igor I.; Hein, W. S. (1991). United States Treaty Index: 1776–1990, Consolidation (Volume 6 ed.). W.S. Hein. p. 718. ISBN 978-0899417707. Retrieved 30 August 2022. TIAS 5362\n\n^ Encyclopedia of Russian History [ISBN missing][page needed]\n\n^ \"This Day in History – August 30, 1963: Hotline established between Washington and Moscow\". History.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-06.\n\n^ Republican Party Platform, Section Two, \"Weakness Before Communism\" (adopted July 13, 1964). See http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=25840\n\n^ Kennedy, Bruce (1998). \"CNN Cold War – Spotlight: The birth of the hot line\". Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2011.\n\n^ Council on Foreign Relations (1990). International Affairs Fellowship program 1967–1990 directory. Council on Foreign Relations Press. Retrieved 28 June 2013.\n\n^ David K. Barnhart; Allan A. Metcalf (1999). America in So Many Words: Words That Have Shaped America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0618002702. Retrieved 28 June 2013.\n\n^ Graff, Garrett M. (2017). Raven Rock: The Story of the U.S. Government's Secret Plan to Save Itself – While the Rest of Us Die. Simon & Schuster.[ISBN missing][page needed]\n\n^ David Kahn, The Codebreakers, pp. 715–716 [ISBN missing]\n\n^ \"Norges ukjente rolle i den «hete linjen» – DN.no\". www.dn.no. Archived from the original on 2017-12-08. \n\n^ Jozef Goldblat (International Peace Research Institute) (2002). Arms control. Sage. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0761940162.\n\n^ Coit D. Blacker, Gloria Duffy (Stanford Arms Control Group) (1984). International arms control. Stanford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0804712115.\n\n^ James Mayall, Cornelia Navari (1980). The end of the post-war era. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–137. ISBN 0521226988.\n\n^ Larsen, Jeffrey Arthur; Smith, James M. (2005). Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament. Scarecrow Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0810850606. moscow hotline teleprinter fax machine.\n\n^ Stephen L. Thacher, Crisis Communications between Superpowers, US Army War College, Carusle Barracks, 1990, p. 10.\n\n^ a b \"Washington Moscow Hotline\". www.cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 2016-02-28.\n\n^ Rusk, Dean (1991). As I Saw It: A Secretary of State's Memoirs. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 225.\n\n^ \"Electrospaces.net: The Washington-Moscow Hotline\". electrospaces.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-28.\n\n^ \"What Obama said to Putin on the Red Phone about the election hacks\". NBC News. Retrieved 2016-12-20.\n\n^ \"Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\". US State Department. 15 September 1987.\n\n^ \"Agreement on the Establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\". FAS. 15 September 1987.\n\n^ \"Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation for Monitoring the Implementation of Treaties (National Center for Nuclear Risk Reduction)\". Russia MOD. 5 June 2024.\n\n^ \"US, Russia plan hotline to prevent cyber war\". Total Telecom. 30 April 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2012.\n\n^ \"Hotline Agreements\". Arms Control Association.\n\n^ Mitchell, Ellen (3 March 2022). \"US, Russia set up military communication line to prevent accidental clash\". thehill.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022.\n\n^ Stewart, Phil (29 November 2022). \"Exclusive: U.S., Russia have used their military hotline once so far during Ukraine war\". reuters.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022.\n\n^ The red phone that was NOT on the Hotline, August 30, 2013\n\n^ Lisboa, Maria Manuel (2011). The End of the World: Apocalypse and Its Aftermath in Western Culture. Open Book Publishers. p. 28. ISBN 9781906924508. ...the Americans receive a teletype from their counterparts in the Soviet Union stating that they have now determined that the first missile was not launched by NATO.\n\n^ YouTube – Red Alert 2 intro\n\n^ \"The Doctor Who Transcripts - World War Three\". www.chakoteya.net. Retrieved 2023-08-16.\n\n^ YouTube – US Democrats – Walter Mondale 1984 Video 10\n\n^ Kurtz, Howard (March 1, 2008), \"Clinton Plays the Fear Card\", Washington Post, pp. A08\n\n^ YouTube – Mondale/Ferraro Commercial 1984\n\n^ Kaid, Lynda Lee; Anne Johnston (2000). Videostyle in Presidential Campaigns: Style and Content of Televised Political Advertising. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 59. ISBN 0-275-94071-3.\n\n^ Beckel, Bob (March 19, 2008). \"Superdelegates: Whiners or Deciders?\". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 2008-03-20.\n\n^ YouTube – Hillary Clinton Ad – 3 AM White House Ringing Phone\n\n^ Kornblut, Anne E.; Murray, Shailagh (March 1, 2008), \"Clinton Ad Hints Obama Is Unprepared for Crisis\", Washington Post, pp. A01","title":"Notes and references"}]	[{"image_text":"ITT Intelex Teletype L015, as displayed in the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/ITT_Intelex_Teletype_L015.jpg/220px-ITT_Intelex_Teletype_L015.jpg"},{"image_text":"An East German Siemens T63-SU12 teleprinter from the hotline, as displayed in the National Cryptologic Museum of the NSA. The black box behind the teleprinter is an ETCRRM II encryption machine.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/T63-SU12-TP_NCM.jpg/220px-T63-SU12-TP_NCM.jpg"},{"image_text":"In Finland there are still several signs marking the cable's location. This one is in Forssa. The text reads \"Post and telegraph department\". The cable was also used for the ordinary national telephone service.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Hotline_sign_in_finland.jpg/220px-Hotline_sign_in_finland.jpg"},{"image_text":"A non-dial \"Red Phone\" which is on display in the Jimmy Carter Library and Museum. This telephone is actually a prop, erroneously representing the hotline between Washington and Moscow.[32]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Jimmy_Carter_Library_and_Museum_99.JPG/220px-Jimmy_Carter_Library_and_Museum_99.JPG"},{"image_text":"This \"Red Phone\" was installed in the CINCSAC underground command post at Offutt AFB. Although connected to a hotline for nuclear warfare command communications, it was a component of the SAC Primary Alert System. It did not connect to foreign officials.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/SAC_Museum_Red_Phone_2020.jpg/200px-SAC_Museum_Red_Phone_2020.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Islamabad–New Delhi hotline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamabad%E2%80%93New_Delhi_hotline"},{"title":"Seoul–Pyongyang hotline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seoul%E2%80%93Pyongyang_hotline"},{"title":"Beijing–Washington hotline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Washington_hotline"}]	[{"reference":"Stone, Webster (September 18, 1988). \"Moscow's Still Holding\". New York Times. Archived from the original on June 30, 2015. Retrieved October 28, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/18/magazine/moscow-s-still-holding.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print","url_text":"\"Moscow's Still Holding\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150630042053/http://www.nytimes.com/1988/09/18/magazine/moscow-s-still-holding.html?pagewanted=all&pagewanted=print","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Clavin, Tom (19 Jun 2013). \"There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2013-07-01.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/There-Never-Was-Such-a-Thing-as-a-Red-Phone-in-the-White-House-212156891.html","url_text":"\"There Never Was Such a Thing as a Red Phone in the White House\""}]},{"reference":"Graham, Thomas; La Vera, Damien (2002). \"The 'Hot Line' Agreements\". Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era. University of Washington Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 978-0295801414.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mgHgRQMYu1YC&pg=PA20","url_text":"\"The 'Hot Line' Agreements\""},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mgHgRQMYu1YC","url_text":"Cornerstones of Security: Arms Control Treaties in the Nuclear Era"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0295801414","url_text":"978-0295801414"}]},{"reference":"Craig, Bell; Richardson, Paul E. (September–October 2009). \"The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}\". Russian Life. Vol. 52, no. 5. Archived from the original on 2015-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150630060247/https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-207553679/the-hot-line-is-a-hollywood-myth","url_text":"\"The Hot Line {Is a Hollywood Myth}\""},{"url":"https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-207553679/the-hot-line-is-a-hollywood-myth","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"U.S. State Department. \"Hot Line Agreement (1963)\". Atomic Archive. Archived from the original on August 30, 2022. Retrieved August 30, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220830092829/https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/hot-line.html","url_text":"\"Hot Line Agreement (1963)\""},{"url":"https://www.atomicarchive.com/resources/treaties/hot-line.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kavass, Igor I.; Hein, W. S. (1991). United States Treaty Index: 1776–1990, Consolidation (Volume 6 ed.). W.S. Hein. p. 718. ISBN 978-0899417707. Retrieved 30 August 2022. TIAS 5362","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZAaAQAAMAAJ&q=%22June+20%2C+1963%22","url_text":"United States Treaty Index: 1776–1990, Consolidation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0899417707","url_text":"978-0899417707"}]},{"reference":"\"This Day in History – August 30, 1963: Hotline established between Washington and Moscow\". History.com. Archived from the original on May 20, 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230520160045/https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hotline-established-between-washington-and-moscow","url_text":"\"This Day in History – August 30, 1963: Hotline established between Washington and Moscow\""},{"url":"https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/hotline-established-between-washington-and-moscow","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Kennedy, Bruce (1998). \"CNN Cold War – Spotlight: The birth of the hot line\". Archived from the original on 23 September 2008. Retrieved 18 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080923200642/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/10/spotlight/","url_text":"\"CNN Cold War – Spotlight: The birth of the hot line\""},{"url":"http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/10/spotlight/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Council on Foreign Relations (1990). International Affairs Fellowship program 1967–1990 directory. Council on Foreign Relations Press. Retrieved 28 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=KsKFAAAAIAAJ","url_text":"International Affairs Fellowship program 1967–1990 directory"}]},{"reference":"David K. Barnhart; Allan A. Metcalf (1999). America in So Many Words: Words That Have Shaped America. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 252–. ISBN 978-0618002702. Retrieved 28 June 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=SYrJZLjgDmIC&pg=PA252","url_text":"America in So Many Words: Words That Have Shaped America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0618002702","url_text":"978-0618002702"}]},{"reference":"Graff, Garrett M. (2017). Raven Rock: The Story of the U.S. Government's Secret Plan to Save Itself – While the Rest of Us Die. Simon & Schuster.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Norges ukjente rolle i den «hete linjen» – DN.no\". www.dn.no. Archived from the original on 2017-12-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171208070848/https://www.dn.no/DNtv/video/2017/12/07/1438/norges-ukjente-rolle-i-den-hete-linjen","url_text":"\"Norges ukjente rolle i den «hete linjen» – DN.no\""},{"url":"https://www.dn.no/DNtv/video/2017/12/07/1438/norges-ukjente-rolle-i-den-hete-linjen","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jozef Goldblat (International Peace Research Institute) (2002). Arms control. Sage. pp. 301–302. ISBN 0761940162.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7Fpvdv4f2cUC","url_text":"Arms control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0761940162","url_text":"0761940162"}]},{"reference":"Coit D. Blacker, Gloria Duffy (Stanford Arms Control Group) (1984). International arms control. Stanford University Press. p. 118. ISBN 0804712115.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/internationalarm00blac","url_text":"International arms control"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/internationalarm00blac/page/118","url_text":"118"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0804712115","url_text":"0804712115"}]},{"reference":"James Mayall, Cornelia Navari (1980). The end of the post-war era. Cambridge University Press. pp. 135–137. ISBN 0521226988.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JQA9AAAAIAAJ","url_text":"The end of the post-war era"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521226988","url_text":"0521226988"}]},{"reference":"Larsen, Jeffrey Arthur; Smith, James M. (2005). Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament. Scarecrow Press. p. 107. ISBN 978-0810850606. moscow hotline teleprinter fax machine.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000lar","url_text":"Historical Dictionary of Arms Control and Disarmament"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000lars/page/107","url_text":"107"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0810850606","url_text":"978-0810850606"}]},{"reference":"\"Washington Moscow Hotline\". www.cryptomuseum.com. Retrieved 2016-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cryptomuseum.com/crypto/hotline/index.htm","url_text":"\"Washington Moscow Hotline\""}]},{"reference":"Rusk, Dean (1991). As I Saw It: A Secretary of State's Memoirs. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. p. 225.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Electrospaces.net: The Washington-Moscow Hotline\". electrospaces.blogspot.co.uk. Retrieved 2016-02-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://electrospaces.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/the-washington-moscow-hot-line.html","url_text":"\"Electrospaces.net: The Washington-Moscow Hotline\""}]},{"reference":"\"What Obama said to Putin on the Red Phone about the election hacks\". NBC News. Retrieved 2016-12-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/what-obama-said-putin-red-phone-about-election-hack-n697116","url_text":"\"What Obama said to Putin on the Red Phone about the election hacks\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\". US State Department. 15 September 1987.","urls":[{"url":"https://2009-2017.state.gov/t/isn/215573.htm","url_text":"\"Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Agreement on the Establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\". FAS. 15 September 1987.","urls":[{"url":"https://nuke.fas.org/control/nrrc/docs/nrrc1.htm","url_text":"\"Agreement on the Establishment of Nuclear Risk Reduction Centers (1987)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation for Monitoring the Implementation of Treaties (National Center for Nuclear Risk Reduction)\". Russia MOD. 5 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://structure.mil.ru/structure/ministry_of_defence/details.htm?id=11148@egOrganization","url_text":"\"Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation for Monitoring the Implementation of Treaties (National Center for Nuclear Risk Reduction)\""}]},{"reference":"\"US, Russia plan hotline to prevent cyber war\". Total Telecom. 30 April 2012. Retrieved 5 September 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.totaltele.com/view.aspx?ID=473127","url_text":"\"US, Russia plan hotline to prevent cyber war\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hotline Agreements\". Arms Control Association.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.armscontrol.org/factsheets/Hotlines","url_text":"\"Hotline Agreements\""}]},{"reference":"Mitchell, Ellen (3 March 2022). \"US, Russia set up military communication line to prevent accidental clash\". thehill.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://thehill.com/policy/defense/596789-us-russia-set-up-military-communication-line-to-prevent-accidental-clash/","url_text":"\"US, Russia set up military communication line to prevent accidental clash\""}]},{"reference":"Stewart, Phil (29 November 2022). \"Exclusive: U.S., Russia have used their military hotline once so far during Ukraine war\". reuters.com. Retrieved December 1, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/world/us-russia-have-used-deconfliction-line-once-so-far-during-ukraine-war-source-2022-11-28/","url_text":"\"Exclusive: U.S., Russia have used their military hotline once so far during Ukraine war\""}]},{"reference":"Lisboa, Maria Manuel (2011). The End of the World: Apocalypse and Its Aftermath in Western Culture. Open Book Publishers. p. 28. ISBN 9781906924508. ...the Americans receive a teletype from their counterparts in the Soviet Union stating that they have now determined that the first missile was not launched by NATO.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=03mzgiknmtAC&q=by+dawn%27s+early+light+teletype&pg=PA28","url_text":"The End of the World: Apocalypse and Its Aftermath in Western Culture"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781906924508","url_text":"9781906924508"}]},{"reference":"\"The Doctor Who Transcripts - World War Three\". www.chakoteya.net. Retrieved 2023-08-16.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.chakoteya.net/DoctorWho/27-5.htm#:~:text=MARGARET:%20Oh,%20look%20at%20that.%20The%20telephone%20is%20actually%20red.","url_text":"\"The Doctor Who Transcripts - World War Three\""}]},{"reference":"Kurtz, Howard (March 1, 2008), \"Clinton Plays the Fear Card\", Washington Post, pp. A08","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Kurtz","url_text":"Kurtz, Howard"},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/29/AR2008022903334.html","url_text":"\"Clinton Plays the Fear Card\""}]},{"reference":"Kaid, Lynda Lee; Anne Johnston (2000). Videostyle in Presidential Campaigns: Style and Content of Televised Political Advertising. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 59. ISBN 0-275-94071-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-275-94071-3","url_text":"0-275-94071-3"}]},{"reference":"Beckel, Bob (March 19, 2008). \"Superdelegates: Whiners or Deciders?\". Real Clear Politics. Retrieved 2008-03-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Beckel","url_text":"Beckel, Bob"},{"url":"http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2008/03/superdelegates_whiners_or_deci.html","url_text":"\"Superdelegates: Whiners or Deciders?\""}]},{"reference":"Kornblut, Anne E.; Murray, Shailagh (March 1, 2008), \"Clinton Ad Hints Obama Is Unprepared for Crisis\", Washington Post, pp. A01","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_E._Kornblut","url_text":"Kornblut, Anne E."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shailagh_Murray","url_text":"Murray, Shailagh"},{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/02/29/AR2008022904073.html","url_text":"\"Clinton Ad Hints Obama Is Unprepared for Crisis\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Moscow%E2%80%93Washington+hotline%22","external_links_name":"\"Moscow–Washington 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress_Zawditu	Zewditu	["1 Biography","1.1 Early life","1.2 Ascent to power","1.3 Reign","1.3.1 Political maneuvering","1.3.2 War against Iyasu","1.3.3 Rise of Tafari","1.4 Death and succession","2 Family tree","2.1 Patrilineal descent","3 References","3.1 Citations","4 External links"]	Empress of Ethiopia from 1916 to 1930 This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Zewditu" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Zewditu ዘውዲቱNegesta NagastatEmpress of EthiopiaReign27 September 1916 – 2 April 1930Coronation11 February 1917PredecessorLij IyasuSuccessorHaile Selassie IRegentRas Tafari MakonnenBornAskala Maryam(1876-04-29)29 April 1876Werrehimenu, Wollo, Ethiopian EmpireDied2 April 1930(1930-04-02) (aged 53)Addis Ababa, Ethiopian EmpireSpouseAraya Selassie Yohannes (1882–1888)Gwangul ZegeyeWube Atnaf SegedGugsa Welle (1900–1930)DynastyHouse of Solomon (Shewan Branch)FatherMenelik IIMotherWeyziro AbechiReligionEthiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Styles ofZewditu I of EthiopiaReference styleHer Imperial MajestyAmharic: ግርማዊት; girmāwītSpoken styleYour Imperial MajestyAmharic: ጃንሆይ; djānhoilit. "O royal"Alternative styleOur Lord (familiar)Amharic: ጌቶቹ; getochulit. "Our master" (pl.) Zewditu (Ge'ez: ዘውዲቱ, born Askala Maryam; 29 April 1876 – 2 April 1930) was Empress of Ethiopia from 1916 until her death in 1930. The first female head of an internationally recognized country in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the first and only empress regnant of the Ethiopian Empire, her reign was noted for the reforms of her Regent and designated heir Ras Tafari Makonnen (who succeeded her as Emperor Haile Selassie I), about which she was at best ambivalent and often stridently opposed, due to her staunch conservatism and strong religious devotion. She is the most recent empress regnant, as well as the last female Ethiopian head of state until the 2018 election of Sahle-Work Zewde as president. Empress Zewditu sought to maintain Ethiopia's traditional values during her reign through a series of conservative policies, resisting rapid modernization. Ascending to the throne in 1916 after the deposition of Emperor Iyasu V, she was supported by conservative factions and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, who saw her as a stabilizing figure. Her rule was characterized by efforts to uphold Ethiopian traditions and the Orthodox Christian faith, contrasting with the modernizing ambitions of her regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, later known as Emperor Haile Selassie. Faced with significant internal challenges, she navigated power struggles between conservative and modernist factions within the country. Despite her conservative stance, Zewditu had to deal with the complexities of a nation under pressure to modernize and engage with foreign powers. During her reign, Ethiopia experienced political manoeuvring, with Ras Tafari pushing for reforms and international diplomacy, creating a dual power dynamic that defined her rule. Ethiopia's attempts to assert its sovereignty amidst external threats, particularly from colonial powers like Italy, marked this period. Her commitment to preserving Ethiopian independence and cultural heritage was a notable aspect of her leadership. However, resistance to rapid modernization and reliance on traditionalist policies led to tensions within the government and society. The death of Empress Zewditu in 1930, under circumstances that remain somewhat unclear, marked the end of an era and paved the way for Ras Tafari to become Emperor Haile Selassie. Her legacy reflects efforts to maintain traditional values while facing the inevitability of change. She is remembered for her dedication to the Ethiopian Orthodox faith and her role in a transitional period that set the stage for the modernization efforts that followed. Critics argue that her conservative policies may have hindered Ethiopia's progress and adaptation to the modern world. However, supporters highlight her significant role in maintaining Ethiopian sovereignty and cultural identity during a period of potential upheaval. Her reign remains a topic of study for its insights into the challenges of leadership during a time of significant political and social change. Biography Early life Baptised as Askala Maryam ("Askal of Mary", a type of flower), but using the given name Zewditu (Zauditu), the future Empress was the second daughter of the Negus (or King) Menelik of Shewa, the future emperor Menelik II. Zewditu is an Amharic word meaning "the Crown", though it sometimes appears erroneously Anglicized as "Judith", with which it is not cognate. Her mother, Weyziro (Lady) Abechi, was a noblewoman of Wollo and a brief companion of Menelik II. Her mother separated from Menelik when Zewditu was very young, and the future empress was raised by her father and his consort Baffana. Negus Menelik later married Taytu Betul but had no children by this wife. Menelik had three acknowledged children: Zewditu herself; a son, Asfa Wossen, who died before adulthood; and another daughter Shewa Regga, the mother of Lij Iyasu, Menelik's eventual heir. However, the Emperor remained closest to Zewditu, who also had good relations with her stepmother, the Empress Taytu, and was part of her father's household for most of her life. In 1886 the ten-year-old Zewditu was married to Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes, son and heir of Emperor Yohannes IV. The marriage was political, having been arranged when Menelik agreed to submit to Yohannes' rule. Yohannes and Menelik eventually fell into conflict again, however, with Menelik launching a rebellion against Yohannes' rule. Zewditu's marriage was childless, since she was very young during her marriage, although her husband had fathered a son by another woman. When Araya Selassie died in 1888, she left Mekele and returned to her father's court in Shewa. Despite the hostility between Menelik and Yohannes, Zewditu managed throughout the conflict to maintain good relations with both. In a sign of his high regard and affection for his daughter-in-law, Emperor Yohannes IV sent Zewditu back to Shewa with a large gift of valuable cattle, at a time when relations between him and her father were at a particularly low point. Zewditu had two further marriages, both brief, before marrying Ras Gugsa Welle. Gugsa Welle was the nephew of the Empress Taytu, Zewditu's stepmother. Zewditu had already been on good terms with Taytu, but the direct tie between the two helped cement the relationship. Unlike her prior marriages, Zewditu's marriage to Gugsa Welle is thought to have been happy. Ascent to power Upon the death of Emperor Yohannis IV at the Battle of Metemma against the Mahdists of the Sudan, in the Mahdist War, Negus Menelik of Shewa assumed power and became Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889. This restored the direct male line succession of the dynasty, as Emperor Yohannes's claim to the throne was through a female link to the line. As the daughter of Menelik II, Zewditu would be the last monarch in direct agnatic descent from the Solomonic dynasty. Her successor Haile Selassie was also linked in the female line. Menelik died in 1913, and Lij Iyasu, the son of Zewditu's half-sister Shewa Regga, who had been publicly declared heir apparent in 1909, took the throne. Iyasu considered Zewditu a potential threat to his rule, and exiled her and her husband to the countryside. Empress Zewditu with one of her favored priests Due to fears of instability that might be caused, the cabinet of ministers decided not to publicly proclaim the death of Menelik II. As a result, Iyasu was never officially proclaimed as Emperor Iyasu V. However, both Menelik's death and Iyasu's de facto accession were widely known and accepted. The Church authorities, the Lord Regent Ras Tessema, and the ministers agreed that Iyasu's coronation should be postponed until he was a bit older and had taken Holy Communion with his wife, which would make his marriage insoluble in the eyes of the Orthodox Church. However, Iyasu quickly encountered problems with his rule, and he was never crowned. He was widely disliked by the nobility for his unstable behavior, and the church held him in suspicion for his alleged Muslim sympathies. After a troubled few years, Iyasu was removed from power. Zewditu was summoned to the capital, and on 27 September 1916, the Council of State and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church officially announced the death of Emperor Menelik II and deposed Iyasu in favour of Zewditu. Zewditu's official title was "Queen of Kings" (Negiste Negest), a modification of the traditional title "King of Kings" (Nəgusä Nägäst). Initially, Zewditu was not permitted to exercise power herself. Instead, her cousin Ras Tafari Makonnen was appointed regent, and her father's old loyal general, Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis Dinagde was made commander-in-chief of the army. Ras Tafari was also made heir apparent to Zewditu, for none of her children had survived to adulthood. In 1928, after an attempt to remove Ras Tafari Makonnen from power failed, the Empress was compelled to crown her cousin Negus. Reign Political maneuvering While the conservative Ethiopian aristocracy was generally supportive of Zewditu, it was less enthusiastic about many of her relatives. Zewditu's stepmother and the aunt of her husband, Dowager Empress Taytu Betul, had withdrawn from the capital after Menelik's death, but were still distrusted somewhat due to the evident favoritism she had practiced during the reign of her late husband. In an attempt to limit her influence, the aristocracy arranged for her nephew—Zewditu's husband Ras Gugsa Welle—to be appointed to a remote governorship, removing him from court. This move, while intended as a strike against Taytu rather than against Zewditu, is believed to have upset Zewditu considerably. Zewditu also suffered guilt for taking the throne from Lij Iyasu, whom her father had wanted to succeed him – while she believed that Iyasu's overthrow was necessary, she had admired her father greatly, and was unhappy at having to disobey his wishes. Her separation from her husband and her guilt about Iyasu's overthrow combined to make Zewditu not particularly happy as Empress. Even though he had treated her abominably, she held much personal affection for her nephew Iyasu, and is said to have wept bitterly for him when told that she was being made Empress as her nephew had been excommunicated for apostasy. Increasingly, the Empress retreated from state responsibility into a world of fasting and prayer, whilst the progressive elements that surrounded the heir, Tafari Makonnen, gained in strength and influence at court. War against Iyasu The early period of Zewditu's reign was marked by a war against Lij Iyasu, who had escaped captivity. Backed by his father, Negus Mikael of Wollo, a powerful northern leader, Iyasu attempted to regain the throne. The two failed to effectively coordinate their efforts however, and after some initial victories Iyasu's father was defeated and captured at the Battle of Segale. The Negus was paraded through the streets of Addis Ababa in chains, carrying a rock of repentance on his shoulders, before entering the throne room and kissing the Empress's shoes to beg for her mercy. The heir to the throne, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was not present at this spectacle out of consideration for the feelings of his wife, who was the granddaughter of Negus Mikael. Upon hearing of his father's defeat and humiliation, Iyasu himself fled to Afar. After years on the run, Iyasu was later captured by Dejazmach Gugsa Araya Selassie, the son whom Zewditu's first husband had fathered by another woman. Gugsa Araya was rewarded with the title of Ras from his former stepmother, and with Princess Yeshashework Yilma, the niece of Tafari Makonnen, as his bride. When Iyasu was captured, a tearful Empress Zewditu pleaded that he be kept in a special house on the grounds of the palace, where she would see to his care and he could receive religious counsel. She found Ras Tafari and Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde to be unbendingly opposed, and so gave up. She did, however, ensure that special favorite foods and a constant supply of clothing and luxuries reached Iyasu at his place of arrest in Sellale. Rise of Tafari Main article: Haile Selassie See also: Rastafari As Empress Zewditu's reign progressed, the difference in outlook gradually widened between her and her appointed heir, Ras Tafari Makonnen. Tafari was a moderniser, believing that Ethiopia needed to open itself to the world in order to survive. In this, he had the backing of many younger nobles. Zewditu, however, was a conservative, believing in the preservation of Ethiopian tradition. She had the strong backing of the church in this belief. Slowly, however, Zewditu began to withdraw from active politics, leaving more and more power to Tafari. Under Tafari's direction, Ethiopia entered the League of Nations, and abolished slavery. Zewditu busied herself with religious activities, such as the construction of a number of significant churches. In 1928 there was a small conservative uprising against Tafari's reforms, but it was unsuccessful. Empress Zewditu was compelled to grant Tafari, who now controlled most of the Ethiopian government, the title of King (Negus). While Negus Tafari remained under the nominal rule of Zewditu (who was still Negeste Negest, i.e. Empress), Tafari was now in effect the ruler of Ethiopia. A number of attempts were made to displace him, but they were all unsuccessful. In 1930, Zewditu's husband Ras Gugsa Welle led a rebellion against Negus Tafari in Begemder, hoping to end the regency in spite of his wife's repeated pleas and orders to desist, but was defeated and killed in battle by the modernised Ethiopian army at the Battle of Anchem on 31 March 1930. Death and succession On 2 April 1930, two days after Ras Gugsa Welle was killed in battle, Empress Zewditu died. According to some popular histories, Zewditu died of shock and grief at hearing of her husband's death, but other accounts contradict this, claiming that Zewditu was not informed of the battle's outcome before her sudden death. Some diplomatic sources in Addis Ababa reported at the time that the fever-stricken Empress was immersed in a large container of frigidly cold holy water to cure her of her illness, but that her body went into shock, and she died shortly thereafter. Zewditu was succeeded on the throne by Negus Tafari, who took the name of Emperor Haile Selassie. Family tree Menelik II1889 – 1913Weyziro Abechi ConsortYohannes IV1837 – 1889 Gugsa Welle 1875 – 1930 Fourth husbandZewditu I 1876 – 1930Gwangul Zegeye Second husbandWube Atnaf Seged Third husbandAraya Selassie Yohannes1867 – 1888 First husband Patrilineal descent Patrilineal descent Dil Na'od (Last king of Axum) Mkhbara Widam (Mahbere-Widam) Agba Seyun (Yakob) Sinfa Ar'ad Negus Zaré Asfiha Yakob Bahr Seggad Adam Asgad (Widma Asgad) Tasfa Iyasus Yekuno Amlak, emperor of Ethiopia, 12??–1285 Prince Qidma Seggada Amda Seyon I, emperor of Ethiopia Newaya Krestos, emperor of Ethiopia Dawit I, emperor of Ethiopia Zara Yaqob, emperor of Ethiopia, 1399–1468 Baeda Maryam I, emperor of Ethiopia, 1448–1478 Na'od, emperor of Ethiopia, 14??–1508 Dawit II, emperor of Ethiopia, c. 1496–1540 Prince Segwa Qal Warada Qal Lesba Qal Negasi Krestos, ruler of Shewa Sebestyanos, ruler of Shewa Kidane Kale, ruler of Shewa Amha Iyasus, ruler of Shewa Asfaw Wossen, ruler of Shewa Wossen Seged, 1808–1813, ruler of Shewa Sahle Selassie, king of Shewa, 1795–1847 Haile Melekot, king of Shewa, 1824–1855 Menelik II, emperor of Ethiopia, 1844–1913 Empress Zewditu, 1876–1930 References Citations ^ "About this Collection \| United States Treaties and Other International Agreements \| Digital Collections \| Library of Congress". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ "Empress Zewditu". Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ a b Abota, Arka (6 December 2002). "Ethiopia's Foreign Policy Under Emperor Haile Selassie I: an Appraisal". docslib.org/. pp. 22–28. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ Tesfu, Julianna (14 June 2008). "Empress Zewditu (1876-1930) •". Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ Gebissa, Ezekiel (1996). "Prowess, Piety and Politics: the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909-1930) (review)". Northeast African Studies. 3 (1): 129–131. ISSN 1535-6574. ^ "Empress Zewditu: A Woman of Faith and Modernization". 29 February 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024. ^ "> askalemaryam - አስካለማርያም Ethiopian name Meaning in English". AmharicTeacher.com. Retrieved 29 May 2024. ^ "> zewditu - ዘውዲቱ Ethiopian name Meaning in English". AmharicTeacher.com. Retrieved 29 May 2024. ^ Marcus, Harold G. (1995). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913. Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press. pp. 241, 261. ISBN 1-56902-010-8. ^ Marcus, Menelik II, pp. 278–281 ^ Bahru Zewde (2001). A History of Modern Ethiopia (second ed.). Oxford: James Currey. p. 135. ISBN 0-85255-786-8. ^ Henze, Paul B. (2000). Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia. New York: Palgrave. p. 205. ISBN 0-312-22719-1. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Zauditu of Ethiopia. Biography Ethiopian Treasures – Empress Zawditu, Addis Ababa – Ethiopia Zewditu House of SolomonBorn: 29 April 1876 Died: 2 April 1930 Regnal titles Preceded byIyasu V Empress of Ethiopia 27 September 1916 – 2 April 1930 Succeeded byHaile Selassie I Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Netherlands Poland Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ge'ez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ge%27ez_language"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Empress of Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia"},{"link_name":"Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africa"},{"link_name":"empress regnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_regnant"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire"},{"link_name":"the reforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernization_under_Haile_Selassie_I"},{"link_name":"Regent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enderase"},{"link_name":"Ras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_aristocratic_and_court_titles#Ras"},{"link_name":"Haile Selassie I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I"},{"link_name":"empress regnant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_regnant"},{"link_name":"Sahle-Work Zewde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sahle-Work_Zewde"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Emperor Iyasu V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lij_Iyasu"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church"},{"link_name":"Ras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_(title)"},{"link_name":"Emperor Haile Selassie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Zewditu (Ge'ez: ዘውዲቱ,[1] born Askala Maryam; 29 April 1876 – 2 April 1930) was Empress of Ethiopia from 1916 until her death in 1930. The first female head of an internationally recognized country in Africa in the 19th and 20th centuries, and the first and only empress regnant of the Ethiopian Empire, her reign was noted for the reforms of her Regent and designated heir Ras Tafari Makonnen (who succeeded her as Emperor Haile Selassie I), about which she was at best ambivalent and often stridently opposed, due to her staunch conservatism and strong religious devotion. She is the most recent empress regnant, as well as the last female Ethiopian head of state until the 2018 election of Sahle-Work Zewde as president.[2]Empress Zewditu sought to maintain Ethiopia's traditional values during her reign through a series of conservative policies, resisting rapid modernization. Ascending to the throne in 1916 after the deposition of Emperor Iyasu V, she was supported by conservative factions and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church, who saw her as a stabilizing figure. Her rule was characterized by efforts to uphold Ethiopian traditions and the Orthodox Christian faith, contrasting with the modernizing ambitions of her regent, Ras Tafari Makonnen, later known as Emperor Haile Selassie.[3]Faced with significant internal challenges, she navigated power struggles between conservative and modernist factions within the country. Despite her conservative stance, Zewditu had to deal with the complexities of a nation under pressure to modernize and engage with foreign powers. During her reign, Ethiopia experienced political manoeuvring, with Ras Tafari pushing for reforms and international diplomacy, creating a dual power dynamic that defined her rule.[3] Ethiopia's attempts to assert its sovereignty amidst external threats, particularly from colonial powers like Italy, marked this period. Her commitment to preserving Ethiopian independence and cultural heritage was a notable aspect of her leadership.[4] However, resistance to rapid modernization and reliance on traditionalist policies led to tensions within the government and society.[5]The death of Empress Zewditu in 1930, under circumstances that remain somewhat unclear, marked the end of an era and paved the way for Ras Tafari to become Emperor Haile Selassie. Her legacy reflects efforts to maintain traditional values while facing the inevitability of change. She is remembered for her dedication to the Ethiopian Orthodox faith and her role in a transitional period that set the stage for the modernization efforts that followed. Critics argue that her conservative policies may have hindered Ethiopia's progress and adaptation to the modern world. However, supporters highlight her significant role in maintaining Ethiopian sovereignty and cultural identity during a period of potential upheaval.[6] Her reign remains a topic of study for its insights into the challenges of leadership during a time of significant political and social change.","title":"Zewditu"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"flower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Negus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negus"},{"link_name":"Shewa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shewa"},{"link_name":"Menelik II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menelik_II"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Abechi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abechi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Baffana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Baffana&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Taytu Betul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taytu_Betul"},{"link_name":"Lij Iyasu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyasu_V"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ras_(title)"},{"link_name":"Araya Selassie Yohannes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Araya_Selassie_Yohannes"},{"link_name":"Yohannes IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yohannes_IV"},{"link_name":"Mekele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mekele"},{"link_name":"Gugsa Welle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gugsa_Welle"}],"sub_title":"Early life","text":"Baptised as Askala Maryam (\"Askal of Mary\", a type of flower),[7] but using the given name Zewditu (Zauditu), the future Empress was the second daughter of the Negus (or King) Menelik of Shewa, the future emperor Menelik II. Zewditu is an Amharic word meaning \"the Crown\",[8] though it sometimes appears erroneously Anglicized as \"Judith\", with which it is not cognate. Her mother, Weyziro (Lady) Abechi, was a noblewoman of Wollo and a brief companion of Menelik II. Her mother separated from Menelik when Zewditu was very young, and the future empress was raised by her father and his consort Baffana. Negus Menelik later married Taytu Betul but had no children by this wife. Menelik had three acknowledged children: Zewditu herself; a son, Asfa Wossen, who died before adulthood; and another daughter Shewa Regga, the mother of Lij Iyasu, Menelik's eventual heir. However, the Emperor remained closest to Zewditu, who also had good relations with her stepmother, the Empress Taytu, and was part of her father's household for most of her life.In 1886[citation needed] the ten-year-old Zewditu was married to Ras Araya Selassie Yohannes, son and heir of Emperor Yohannes IV. The marriage was political, having been arranged when Menelik agreed to submit to Yohannes' rule. Yohannes and Menelik eventually fell into conflict again, however, with Menelik launching a rebellion against Yohannes' rule. Zewditu's marriage was childless, since she was very young during her marriage, although her husband had fathered a son by another woman. When Araya Selassie died in 1888, she left Mekele and returned to her father's court in Shewa. Despite the hostility between Menelik and Yohannes, Zewditu managed throughout the conflict to maintain good relations with both. In a sign of his high regard and affection for his daughter-in-law, Emperor Yohannes IV sent Zewditu back to Shewa with a large gift of valuable cattle, at a time when relations between him and her father were at a particularly low point.Zewditu had two further marriages, both brief, before marrying Ras Gugsa Welle. Gugsa Welle was the nephew of the Empress Taytu, Zewditu's stepmother. Zewditu had already been on good terms with Taytu, but the direct tie between the two helped cement the relationship. Unlike her prior marriages, Zewditu's marriage to Gugsa Welle is thought to have been happy.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Battle of Metemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Metemma"},{"link_name":"Mahdist War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahdist_War"},{"link_name":"Solomonic dynasty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty"},{"link_name":"Haile Selassie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"},{"link_name":"Lij Iyasu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iyasu_V"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Zewditu_and_favored_priest.png"},{"link_name":"Muslim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Nəgusä Nägäst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_Kings"},{"link_name":"regent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regent"},{"link_name":"Fitawrari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitawrari"},{"link_name":"Hapte Giorgis Dinagde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habte_Giyorgis_Dinagde"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Ascent to power","text":"Upon the death of Emperor Yohannis IV at the Battle of Metemma against the Mahdists of the Sudan, in the Mahdist War, Negus Menelik of Shewa assumed power and became Emperor of Ethiopia in 1889. This restored the direct male line succession of the dynasty, as Emperor Yohannes's claim to the throne was through a female link to the line. As the daughter of Menelik II, Zewditu would be the last monarch in direct agnatic descent from the Solomonic dynasty. Her successor Haile Selassie was also linked in the female line. Menelik died in 1913, and Lij Iyasu, the son of Zewditu's half-sister Shewa Regga, who had been publicly declared heir apparent in 1909, took the throne.[9] Iyasu considered Zewditu a potential threat to his rule, and exiled her and her husband to the countryside.Empress Zewditu with one of her favored priestsDue to fears of instability that might be caused, the cabinet of ministers decided not to publicly proclaim the death of Menelik II. As a result, Iyasu was never officially proclaimed as Emperor Iyasu V. However, both Menelik's death and Iyasu's de facto accession were widely known and accepted. The Church authorities, the Lord Regent Ras Tessema, and the ministers agreed that Iyasu's coronation should be postponed until he was a bit older and had taken Holy Communion with his wife, which would make his marriage insoluble in the eyes of the Orthodox Church. However, Iyasu quickly encountered problems with his rule, and he was never crowned. He was widely disliked by the nobility for his unstable behavior, and the church held him in suspicion for his alleged Muslim sympathies. After a troubled few years, Iyasu was removed from power. Zewditu was summoned to the capital, and on 27 September 1916, the Council of State and the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church officially announced the death of Emperor Menelik II and deposed Iyasu in favour of Zewditu.[10] Zewditu's official title was \"Queen of Kings\" (Negiste Negest), a modification of the traditional title \"King of Kings\" (Nəgusä Nägäst).Initially, Zewditu was not permitted to exercise power herself. Instead, her cousin Ras Tafari Makonnen was appointed regent, and her father's old loyal general, Fitawrari Hapte Giorgis Dinagde was made commander-in-chief of the army. Ras Tafari was also made heir apparent to Zewditu, for none of her children had survived to adulthood. In 1928, after an attempt to remove Ras Tafari Makonnen from power failed, the Empress was compelled to crown her cousin Negus.[11]","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reign","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Taytu Betul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taytu_Betul"}],"sub_title":"Reign - Political maneuvering","text":"While the conservative Ethiopian aristocracy was generally supportive of Zewditu, it was less enthusiastic about many of her relatives. Zewditu's stepmother and the aunt of her husband, Dowager Empress Taytu Betul, had withdrawn from the capital after Menelik's death, but were still distrusted somewhat due to the evident favoritism she had practiced during the reign of her late husband. In an attempt to limit her influence, the aristocracy arranged for her nephew—Zewditu's husband Ras Gugsa Welle—to be appointed to a remote governorship, removing him from court. This move, while intended as a strike against Taytu rather than against Zewditu, is believed to have upset Zewditu considerably. Zewditu also suffered guilt for taking the throne from Lij Iyasu, whom her father had wanted to succeed him – while she believed that Iyasu's overthrow was necessary, she had admired her father greatly, and was unhappy at having to disobey his wishes. Her separation from her husband and her guilt about Iyasu's overthrow combined to make Zewditu not particularly happy as Empress. Even though he had treated her abominably, she held much personal affection for her nephew Iyasu, and is said to have wept bitterly for him when told that she was being made Empress as her nephew had been excommunicated for apostasy. Increasingly, the Empress retreated from state responsibility into a world of fasting and prayer, whilst the progressive elements that surrounded the heir, Tafari Makonnen, gained in strength and influence at court.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mikael of Wollo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikael_of_Wollo"},{"link_name":"Battle of Segale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Segale"},{"link_name":"Afar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afar_(region)"},{"link_name":"Dejazmach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejazmach"},{"link_name":"Gugsa Araya Selassie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gugsa_Araya_Selassie"},{"link_name":"Yeshashework Yilma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yeshashework_Yilma"}],"sub_title":"Reign - War against Iyasu","text":"The early period of Zewditu's reign was marked by a war against Lij Iyasu, who had escaped captivity. Backed by his father, Negus Mikael of Wollo, a powerful northern leader, Iyasu attempted to regain the throne. The two failed to effectively coordinate their efforts however, and after some initial victories Iyasu's father was defeated and captured at the Battle of Segale. The Negus was paraded through the streets of Addis Ababa in chains, carrying a rock of repentance on his shoulders, before entering the throne room and kissing the Empress's shoes to beg for her mercy. The heir to the throne, Ras Tafari Makonnen, was not present at this spectacle out of consideration for the feelings of his wife, who was the granddaughter of Negus Mikael.Upon hearing of his father's defeat and humiliation, Iyasu himself fled to Afar. After years on the run, Iyasu was later captured by Dejazmach Gugsa Araya Selassie, the son whom Zewditu's first husband had fathered by another woman. Gugsa Araya was rewarded with the title of Ras from his former stepmother, and with Princess Yeshashework Yilma, the niece of Tafari Makonnen, as his bride. When Iyasu was captured, a tearful Empress Zewditu pleaded that he be kept in a special house on the grounds of the palace, where she would see to his care and he could receive religious counsel. She found Ras Tafari and Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde to be unbendingly opposed, and so gave up. She did, however, ensure that special favorite foods and a constant supply of clothing and luxuries reached Iyasu at his place of arrest in Sellale.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rastafari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rastafari"},{"link_name":"Tafari Makonnen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"},{"link_name":"League of Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations"},{"link_name":"slavery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavery"},{"link_name":"small conservative uprising against Tafari's reforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat_of_1928"},{"link_name":"rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gugsa_Welle%27s_Rebellion_(1930)"},{"link_name":"Begemder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Begemder"},{"link_name":"Battle of Anchem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Anchem"}],"sub_title":"Reign - Rise of Tafari","text":"See also: RastafariAs Empress Zewditu's reign progressed, the difference in outlook gradually widened between her and her appointed heir, Ras Tafari Makonnen. Tafari was a moderniser, believing that Ethiopia needed to open itself to the world in order to survive. In this, he had the backing of many younger nobles. Zewditu, however, was a conservative, believing in the preservation of Ethiopian tradition. She had the strong backing of the church in this belief. Slowly, however, Zewditu began to withdraw from active politics, leaving more and more power to Tafari. Under Tafari's direction, Ethiopia entered the League of Nations, and abolished slavery. Zewditu busied herself with religious activities, such as the construction of a number of significant churches.In 1928 there was a small conservative uprising against Tafari's reforms, but it was unsuccessful. Empress Zewditu was compelled to grant Tafari, who now controlled most of the Ethiopian government, the title of King (Negus). While Negus Tafari remained under the nominal rule of Zewditu (who was still Negeste Negest, i.e. Empress), Tafari was now in effect the ruler of Ethiopia. A number of attempts were made to displace him, but they were all unsuccessful. In 1930, Zewditu's husband Ras Gugsa Welle led a rebellion against Negus Tafari in Begemder, hoping to end the regency in spite of his wife's repeated pleas and orders to desist, but was defeated and killed in battle by the modernised Ethiopian army at the Battle of Anchem on 31 March 1930.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Haile Selassie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haile_Selassie"}],"sub_title":"Death and succession","text":"On 2 April 1930, two days after Ras Gugsa Welle was killed in battle, Empress Zewditu died. According to some popular histories, Zewditu died of shock and grief at hearing of her husband's death, but other accounts contradict this, claiming that Zewditu was not informed of the battle's outcome before her sudden death. Some diplomatic sources in Addis Ababa reported at the time that the fever-stricken Empress was immersed in a large container of frigidly cold holy water to cure her of her illness, but that her body went into shock, and she died shortly thereafter.[12]Zewditu was succeeded on the throne by Negus Tafari, who took the name of Emperor Haile Selassie.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Family tree"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Patrilineal descent","title":"Family tree"}]	[{"image_text":"Empress Zewditu with one of her favored priests","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Zewditu_and_favored_priest.png/220px-Zewditu_and_favored_priest.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"About this Collection \| United States Treaties and Other International Agreements \| Digital Collections \| Library of Congress\". Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. Retrieved 28 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-treaties-and-other-international-agreements/about-this-collection/","url_text":"\"About this Collection \| United States Treaties and Other International Agreements \| Digital Collections \| Library of Congress\""}]},{"reference":"\"Empress Zewditu\". Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840. Retrieved 28 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840","url_text":"\"Empress Zewditu\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803133444840","url_text":"10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840"}]},{"reference":"Abota, Arka (6 December 2002). \"Ethiopia's Foreign Policy Under Emperor Haile Selassie I: an Appraisal\". docslib.org/. pp. 22–28. Archived from the original on 28 May 2024. 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ISSN 1535-6574.","urls":[{"url":"https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/26/article/399043","url_text":"\"Prowess, Piety and Politics: the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909-1930) (review)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1535-6574","url_text":"1535-6574"}]},{"reference":"\"Empress Zewditu: A Woman of Faith and Modernization\". 29 February 2024. Retrieved 28 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://adwamuseum.org/2024/02/29/empress-zewditu-a-woman-of-faith-and-modernization/","url_text":"\"Empress Zewditu: A Woman of Faith and Modernization\""}]},{"reference":"\"> askalemaryam - አስካለማርያም Ethiopian name Meaning in English\". AmharicTeacher.com. Retrieved 29 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://amharicteacher.com/name/amharic/askalemaryam","url_text":"\"> askalemaryam - አስካለማርያም Ethiopian name Meaning in English\""}]},{"reference":"\"> zewditu - ዘውዲቱ Ethiopian name Meaning in English\". AmharicTeacher.com. Retrieved 29 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://amharicteacher.com/name/english/%E1%8B%98%E1%8B%8D%E1%8B%B2%E1%89%B1","url_text":"\"> zewditu - ዘውዲቱ Ethiopian name Meaning in English\""}]},{"reference":"Marcus, Harold G. (1995). The Life and Times of Menelik II: Ethiopia 1844–1913. Lawrenceville: Red Sea Press. pp. 241, 261. ISBN 1-56902-010-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56902-010-8","url_text":"1-56902-010-8"}]},{"reference":"Bahru Zewde (2001). A History of Modern Ethiopia (second ed.). Oxford: James Currey. p. 135. ISBN 0-85255-786-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr","url_text":"A History of Modern Ethiopia"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr/page/135","url_text":"135"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85255-786-8","url_text":"0-85255-786-8"}]},{"reference":"Henze, Paul B. (2000). Layers of Time, A History of Ethiopia. New York: Palgrave. p. 205. ISBN 0-312-22719-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-22719-1","url_text":"0-312-22719-1"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Zewditu%22","external_links_name":"\"Zewditu\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Zewditu%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Zewditu%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Zewditu%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Zewditu%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Zewditu%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.loc.gov/collections/united-states-treaties-and-other-international-agreements/about-this-collection/","external_links_name":"\"About this Collection \| United States Treaties and Other International Agreements \| Digital Collections \| Library of Congress\""},{"Link":"https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840","external_links_name":"\"Empress Zewditu\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803133444840","external_links_name":"10.1093/oi/authority.20110803133444840"},{"Link":"https://docslib.org/doc/2193461/ethiopias-foreign-policy-under-emperor-haile-selassie-i-an-appraisal","external_links_name":"\"Ethiopia's Foreign Policy Under Emperor Haile Selassie I: an Appraisal\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20240528103935/https://docslib.org/doc/2193461/ethiopias-foreign-policy-under-emperor-haile-selassie-i-an-appraisal","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/empress-zewditu-1876-1930/","external_links_name":"\"Empress Zewditu (1876-1930) •\""},{"Link":"https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/26/article/399043","external_links_name":"\"Prowess, Piety and Politics: the Chronicle of Abeto Iyasu and Empress Zewditu of Ethiopia (1909-1930) (review)\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1535-6574","external_links_name":"1535-6574"},{"Link":"https://adwamuseum.org/2024/02/29/empress-zewditu-a-woman-of-faith-and-modernization/","external_links_name":"\"Empress Zewditu: A Woman of Faith and Modernization\""},{"Link":"https://amharicteacher.com/name/amharic/askalemaryam","external_links_name":"\"> askalemaryam - አስካለማርያም Ethiopian name Meaning in English\""},{"Link":"https://amharicteacher.com/name/english/%E1%8B%98%E1%8B%8D%E1%8B%B2%E1%89%B1","external_links_name":"\"> zewditu - ዘውዲቱ Ethiopian name Meaning in English\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr","external_links_name":"A History of Modern Ethiopia"},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/historyofmoderne00bahr/page/135","external_links_name":"135"},{"Link":"https://www.angelfire.com/ny/ethiocrown/Zewditu.html","external_links_name":"Biography"},{"Link":"http://www.ethiopiantreasures.co.uk/pages/zewditu.htm","external_links_name":"Ethiopian Treasures – Empress Zawditu, Addis Ababa – Ethiopia"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/391123/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000381899603","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/262837335","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJpypDV6WWhcMd4X9YGrbd","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16608432p","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb16608432p","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/119180480","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007270230805171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n97045413","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p292775687","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810669377505606","external_links_name":"Poland"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/13426732X","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Committee_of_Safety	Committee of Safety (England)	["1 1642–1644","2 1647","3 1659","4 Notes","5 References"]	The Committee of Safety, established by the Parliamentarians in July 1642, was the first of a number of successive committees set up to oversee the English Civil War against King Charles I, and the Interregnum. 1642–1644 The initial committee of safety consisted of five members of the House of Lords: the Earls of Essex, Holland, Northumberland and Pembroke and Viscount Saye-and-Sele, and ten members of the House of Commons: Nathaniel Fiennes, John Glynn, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Henry Marten, Sir John Merrick, William Pierrepoint, John Pym, Sir Philip Stapleton, and Sir William Waller. It sat until 1644 when Parliament and their new Scottish allies agreed to replace it with the Committee of Both Kingdoms. 1647 The Presbyterians in the House of Commons set up a new committee of safety, to coordinate defence of London and Parliament from the New Model Army which was advancing on London with demands that the Presbyterians did not wish to meet. When it became clear that the populace did not support them, the committee was dissolved and the Presbyterians fled. 1659 There were two committees of safety in 1659. The first was set up on 7 May, on the authority of the Rump Parliament, to replace the Lord Protector Richard Cromwell's Council of State. It initially had seven members Charles Fleetwood, Sir Arthur Hesilrige, Sir Henry Vane the Younger, Edmund Ludlow, William Sydenham, Richard Salwey, and John Jones. Two days later on 9 May four more men were appointed to the committee John Lambert, John Desborough, James Berry and Thomas Scot. It was only a temporary expediency and was dissolved two weeks later when on 19 May a new Council of State was appointed. The last Committee of Safety was set up on 26 October 1659 by the high command of the New Model Army just before the Restoration. It was set up in response to the Rump Parliament which the day before tried to place the commander of the army Charles Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the speaker. The members of the last committee were: Henry Vane the Younger Bulstrode Whitelocke William Sydenham John Lambert James Berry Lord Warriston (Archibald Johnston) Edmund Ludlow Richard Salwey John Desborough Charles Fleetwood Sir James Harrington William Steele Walter Strickland Henry Lawrence John Ireton Robert Tichborne Henry Brandrith Robert Thomson John Hewson John Clark (or John Clerk) Robert Lilburne Robert Bennet Cornelius Holland Notes ^ a b c d e f g h Sat on both 1659 committees References ^ a b Robert Plant, The Committee of Safety Archived 22 December 2008 at the Wayback Machine, British Civil Wars website, Retrieved 2009-11-25 ^ a b England: Committees of Safety: 1659-1660 Archived 2008-07-05 at the Wayback Machine, archontology.org website Archived 2013-01-12 at archive.today, Retrieved 2009-11-25 ^ Ben Cahoon,United Kingdom, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, history, rulers, politics, government, 2000 (Retrieved 2009-11-25)	[{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Committee of Safety (England)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Essex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_3rd_Earl_of_Essex"},{"link_name":"Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Rich,_1st_Earl_of_Holland"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algernon_Percy,_10th_Earl_of_Northumberland"},{"link_name":"Pembroke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Herbert,_4th_Earl_of_Pembroke"},{"link_name":"Viscount Saye-and-Sele","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Fiennes,_1st_Viscount_Saye_and_Sele"},{"link_name":"Nathaniel Fiennes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Fiennes"},{"link_name":"John Glynn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Glynne_(judge)"},{"link_name":"John Hampden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hampden"},{"link_name":"Denzil Holles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denzil_Holles,_1st_Baron_Holles"},{"link_name":"Henry Marten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Marten_(regicide)"},{"link_name":"Sir John Merrick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Merrick_(MP)"},{"link_name":"William Pierrepoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Pierrepont_(politician)"},{"link_name":"John Pym","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pym"},{"link_name":"Sir Philip Stapleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Stapleton"},{"link_name":"Sir William Waller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Waller"},{"link_name":"Committee of Both Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_of_Both_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plant-1"}],"text":"The initial committee of safety consisted of five members of the House of Lords: the Earls of Essex, Holland, Northumberland and Pembroke and Viscount Saye-and-Sele, and ten members of the House of Commons: Nathaniel Fiennes, John Glynn, John Hampden, Denzil Holles, Henry Marten, Sir John Merrick, William Pierrepoint, John Pym, Sir Philip Stapleton, and Sir William Waller. It sat until 1644 when Parliament and their new Scottish allies agreed to replace it with the Committee of Both Kingdoms.[1]","title":"1642–1644"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Presbyterians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presbyterian"},{"link_name":"New Model Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Model_Army"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-plant-1"}],"text":"The Presbyterians in the House of Commons set up a new committee of safety, to coordinate defence of London and Parliament from the New Model Army which was advancing on London with demands that the Presbyterians did not wish to meet. When it became clear that the populace did not support them, the committee was dissolved and the Presbyterians fled.[1]","title":"1647"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Rump Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rump_Parliament"},{"link_name":"Richard Cromwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Cromwell"},{"link_name":"Council of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Council_of_State_(England)"},{"link_name":"Charles Fleetwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fleetwood"},{"link_name":"Arthur Hesilrige","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Hesilrige"},{"link_name":"Henry Vane the Younger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Vane_the_Younger"},{"link_name":"Edmund Ludlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_Ludlow"},{"link_name":"William Sydenham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Sydenham"},{"link_name":"Richard Salwey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Salwey"},{"link_name":"John Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jones_Maesygarnedd"},{"link_name":"John Lambert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lambert_(general)"},{"link_name":"John Desborough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Desborough"},{"link_name":"James Berry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Berry_(Major-General)"},{"link_name":"Thomas Scot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Scot"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archontology-2"},{"link_name":"New Model Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Model_Army"},{"link_name":"Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Restoration"},{"link_name":"speaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speaker_(politics)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archontology-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"Bulstrode Whitelocke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulstrode_Whitelocke"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"Lord Warriston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archibald_Johnston,_Lord_Warriston"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"[nb 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-both-1659-4"},{"link_name":"James Harrington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_James_Harrington,_3rd_Baronet"},{"link_name":"Walter Strickland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Strickland"},{"link_name":"Henry Lawrence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Lawrence_(President_of_the_Council)"},{"link_name":"John Ireton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ireton"},{"link_name":"Robert Tichborne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Tichborne"},{"link_name":"Henry Brandrith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Henry_Brandrith&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"John Hewson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hewson_(regicide)"},{"link_name":"John Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Clark_(Parliamentarian)"},{"link_name":"Robert Lilburne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Lilburne"},{"link_name":"Robert Bennet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Bennet_(MP)"},{"link_name":"Cornelius Holland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornelius_Holland_(regicide)"}],"text":"There were two committees of safety in 1659. The first was set up on 7 May, on the authority of the Rump Parliament, to replace the Lord Protector Richard Cromwell's Council of State. It initially had seven members Charles Fleetwood, Sir Arthur Hesilrige, Sir Henry Vane the Younger, Edmund Ludlow, William Sydenham, Richard Salwey, and John Jones. Two days later on 9 May four more men were appointed to the committee John Lambert, John Desborough, James Berry and Thomas Scot. It was only a temporary expediency and was dissolved two weeks later when on 19 May a new Council of State was appointed.[2]The last Committee of Safety was set up on 26 October 1659 by the high command of the New Model Army just before the Restoration. It was set up in response to the Rump Parliament which the day before tried to place the commander of the army Charles Fleetwood as chief of a military council under the authority of the speaker. The members of the last committee were:[2][3]Henry Vane the Younger[nb 1]\nBulstrode Whitelocke\nWilliam Sydenham[nb 1]\nJohn Lambert[nb 1]\nJames Berry[nb 1]\nLord Warriston (Archibald Johnston)\nEdmund Ludlow[nb 1]\nRichard Salwey[nb 1]\nJohn Desborough[nb 1]\nCharles Fleetwood[nb 1]\nSir James Harrington\nWilliam Steele\nWalter Strickland\nHenry Lawrence\nJohn Ireton\nRobert Tichborne\nHenry Brandrith\nRobert Thomson\nJohn Hewson\nJohn Clark (or John Clerk)\nRobert Lilburne\nRobert Bennet\nCornelius Holland","title":"1659"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-both-1659_4-7"}],"text":"^ a b c d e f g h Sat on both 1659 committees","title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[]	[{"Link":"http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/committee-safety.htm","external_links_name":"The Committee of Safety"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20081222055910/http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/glossary/committee-safety.htm","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.british-civil-wars.co.uk/index.htm","external_links_name":"British Civil Wars website"},{"Link":"http://www.archontology.org/nations/england/commonwealth/safety_committee.php","external_links_name":"England: Committees of Safety: 1659-1660"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080705122405/http://www.archontology.org/nations/england/commonwealth/safety_committee.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.archontology.org/main/author.php","external_links_name":"archontology.org website"},{"Link":"https://archive.today/20130112102934/http://www.archontology.org/main/author.php","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.worldstatesmen.org/United_Kingdom.html","external_links_name":"United Kingdom, Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland, history, rulers, politics, government"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rostral_scale	Rostral scale	["1 Related scales","2 See also","3 References"]	The shield-nosed cobra (genus Aspidelaps) has a greatly enlarged rostral scale. The rostral scale, or rostral, in snakes and other scaled reptiles is the median plate on the tip of the snout that borders the mouth opening. It corresponds to the mental scale in the lower jaw. The term pertains to the rostrum, or nose. In snakes, the shape and size of this scale is one of many characteristics used to differentiate species from one another. Related scales Nasorostral scale Mental scale Labial scales See also Snake scales Anatomical terms of location References ^ Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing Associates. (7th printing, 1985). 1,105 pp. (in two volumes). ISBN 0-8014-0463-0.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"snakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snakes"},{"link_name":"scaled reptiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Squamata"},{"link_name":"plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_scales"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W&W57-1"},{"link_name":"mental scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_scale"}],"text":"The rostral scale, or rostral, in snakes and other scaled reptiles is the median plate on the tip of the snout that borders the mouth opening.[1] It corresponds to the mental scale in the lower jaw. The term pertains to the rostrum, or nose. In snakes, the shape and size of this scale is one of many characteristics used to differentiate species from one another.","title":"Rostral scale"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nasorostral scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasorostral_scale"},{"link_name":"Mental scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mental_scale"},{"link_name":"Labial scales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labial_scales"}],"text":"Nasorostral scale\nMental scale\nLabial scales","title":"Related scales"}]	[{"image_text":"The shield-nosed cobra (genus Aspidelaps) has a greatly enlarged rostral scale.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Shieldnosecobra.jpg/360px-Shieldnosecobra.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Snake scales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snake_scales"},{"title":"Anatomical terms of location","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomical_terms_of_location"}]	[]	[]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katalin_Vesztergombi	Katalin Vesztergombi	["1 Education","2 Contributions","3 Personal","4 Selected publications","4.1 Books","4.2 Research articles","5 References"]	Hungarian mathematician The native form of this personal name is Vesztergombi Katalin. This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals. Katalin VesztergombiBorn (1948-07-17) July 17, 1948 (age 75)NationalityHungarianSpouseLászló LovászAcademic backgroundEducationFazekas Mihály GimnáziumAlma materEötvös Loránd UniversityThesisDistribution of Distances in Finite Point SetsDoctoral advisorVera SósAcademic workDisciplineMathematicsInstitutionsEötvös Loránd UniversityNotable worksDiscrete Mathematics: Elementary and Beyond Katalin L. Vesztergombi (born July 17, 1948) is a Hungarian mathematician known for her contributions to graph theory and discrete geometry. A student of Vera T. Sós and a co-author of Paul Erdős, she is an emeritus associate professor at Eötvös Loránd University and a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. Education As a high-school student in the 1960s, Vesztergombi became part of a special class for gifted mathematics students at Fazekas Mihály Gimnázium with her future collaborators László Lovász, József Pelikán, and others. She completed her Ph.D. in 1987 at Eötvös Loránd University. Her dissertation, Distribution of Distances in Finite Point Sets, is connected to the Erdős distinct distances problem and was supervised by Vera Sós. Contributions Vesztergombi's research contributions include works on permutations, graph coloring and graph products, combinatorial discrepancy theory, distance problems in discrete geometry, geometric graph theory, the rectilinear crossing number of the complete graph, and graphons. With László Lovász and József Pelikán, she is the author of the textbook Discrete Mathematics: Elementary and Beyond. Personal Vesztergombi is married to László Lovász, with whom she is also a frequent research collaborator. Selected publications Books DM. Lovász, L.; Pelikán, J.; Vesztergombi, K. (2003), Discrete Mathematics: Elementary and Beyond, Undergraduate Texts in Mathematics, New York: Springer-Verlag, doi:10.1007/b97469, ISBN 0-387-95584-4, MR 1952453 Research articles PR. Vesztergombi, K. (1974), "Permutations with restriction of middle strength", Studia Scientiarum Mathematicarum Hungarica, 9: 181–185 (1975), MR 0373917 XN. Vesztergombi, K. (1978–1979), "Some remarks on the chromatic number of the strong product of graphs", Acta Cybernetica, 4 (2): 207–212, MR 0525046 SS. Lovász, L.; Spencer, J.; Vesztergombi, K. (1986), "Discrepancy of set-systems and matrices", European Journal of Combinatorics, 7 (2): 151–160, doi:10.1016/S0195-6698(86)80041-5, MR 0856328 LD. Erdős, P.; Lovász, L.; Vesztergombi, K. (1989), "On the graph of large distances", Discrete & Computational Geometry, 4 (6): 541–549, doi:10.1007/BF02187746, MR 1006077 GR. Lovász, L.; Vesztergombi, K. (2002), "Geometric representations of graphs", Paul Erdős and his mathematics, II (Budapest, 1999), Bolyai Society Mathematical Studies, vol. 11, Budapest: János Bolyai Mathematical Society, pp. 471–498, MR 1954739 CQ. Lovász, László; Vesztergombi, Katalin; Wagner, Uli; Welzl, Emo (2004), "Convex quadrilaterals and k-sets", Towards a theory of geometric graphs, Contemporary Mathematics, vol. 342, Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society, pp. 139–148, doi:10.1090/conm/342/06138, MR 2065260 D1. Borgs, C.; Chayes, J. T.; Lovász, L.; Sós, V. T.; Vesztergombi, K. (2008), "Convergent sequences of dense graphs. I. Subgraph frequencies, metric properties and testing", Advances in Mathematics, 219 (6): 1801–1851, arXiv:math/0702004, doi:10.1016/j.aim.2008.07.008, MR 2455626, S2CID 5974912 D2. Borgs, C.; Chayes, J. T.; Lovász, L.; Sós, V. T.; Vesztergombi, K. (2012), "Convergent sequences of dense graphs II. Multiway cuts and statistical physics", Annals of Mathematics, Second Series, 176 (1): 151–219, doi:10.4007/annals.2012.176.1.2, MR 2925382 References Wikimedia Commons has media related to Katalin Vesztergombi. ^ a b Vesztergombi Katalin, Hungarian Doctoral Council, retrieved 2018-02-10 ^ Katalin Vesztergombi, Eötvös Loránd University, retrieved 2018-02-10 ^ Vesztergombi Katalin, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, retrieved 2018-02-10 ^ Taber, Keith S.; Sumida, Manabu; McClure, Lynne, eds. (2017), Teaching Gifted Learners in STEM Subjects: Developing Talent in Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics, Routledge Research in Achievement and Gifted Education, Routledge, pp. 92–93, ISBN 9781317448969 ^ a b Katalin Vesztergombi at the Mathematics Genealogy Project ^ a b Reviews of Discrete Mathematics: Yadrenko, M. I., zbMATH, Zbl 1017.00002{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Pott, Alexander, "Review of 2005 German-language translation by Sabine Giese", zbMATH, Zbl 1068.05001 Wilson, Robin J. (2004), Mathematical Reviews, MR 1952453{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Intermont, Michele (June 2004), "Discrete Mathematics: Elementary and Beyond", MAA Reviews Leversha, Gerry (July 2004), The Mathematical Gazette, 88 (512): 378–379, doi:10.1017/s0025557200175655, JSTOR 3620907, S2CID 125699613{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) Benjamin, Arthur T. (August–September 2004), American Mathematical Monthly, 111 (7): 636–638, doi:10.2307/4145182, JSTOR 4145182{{citation}}: CS1 maint: untitled periodical (link) ^ "Édes teher: zseni az apám (interview with László Lovász)", NOL (in Hungarian), July 12, 2013 Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Israel United States Czech Republic Netherlands Academics MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"personal name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_name"},{"link_name":"Western name order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_name#Western_name_order"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hdc-1"},{"link_name":"graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_theory"},{"link_name":"discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"},{"link_name":"Vera T. Sós","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera_T._S%C3%B3s"},{"link_name":"Paul Erdős","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Erd%C5%91s"},{"link_name":"Eötvös Loránd University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s_Lor%C3%A1nd_University"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elte-2"},{"link_name":"Hungarian Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mta-3"}],"text":"The native form of this personal name is Vesztergombi Katalin. This article uses Western name order when mentioning individuals.Katalin L. Vesztergombi (born July 17, 1948)[1] is a Hungarian mathematician known for her contributions to graph theory and discrete geometry. A student of Vera T. Sós and a co-author of Paul Erdős, she is an emeritus associate professor at Eötvös Loránd University[2] and a member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences.[3]","title":"Katalin Vesztergombi"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fazekas Mihály Gimnázium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fazekas_Mih%C3%A1ly_Gimn%C3%A1zium_(Budapest)"},{"link_name":"László Lovász","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Lov%C3%A1sz"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tgl-4"},{"link_name":"Eötvös Loránd University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s_Lor%C3%A1nd_University"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hdc-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mgp-5"},{"link_name":"Erdős distinct distances problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erd%C5%91s_distinct_distances_problem"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mgp-5"}],"text":"As a high-school student in the 1960s, Vesztergombi became part of a special class for gifted mathematics students at Fazekas Mihály Gimnázium with her future collaborators László Lovász, József Pelikán, and others.[4] She completed her Ph.D. in 1987 at Eötvös Loránd University.[1][5] Her dissertation, Distribution of Distances in Finite Point Sets, is connected to the Erdős distinct distances problem and was supervised by Vera Sós.[5]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permutations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permutation"},{"link_name":"[PR]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFPR"},{"link_name":"graph coloring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_coloring"},{"link_name":"graph products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_product"},{"link_name":"[XN]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFXN"},{"link_name":"discrepancy theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrepancy_theory"},{"link_name":"[SS]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSS"},{"link_name":"discrete geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Discrete_geometry"},{"link_name":"[LD]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLD"},{"link_name":"geometric graph theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_graph_theory"},{"link_name":"[GR]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFGR"},{"link_name":"rectilinear crossing number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossing_number_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"complete graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_graph"},{"link_name":"[CQ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFCQ"},{"link_name":"graphons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphon"},{"link_name":"[D1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFD1"},{"link_name":"[D2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFD2"},{"link_name":"László Lovász","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Lov%C3%A1sz"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dm-6"},{"link_name":"[DM]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFDM"}],"text":"Vesztergombi's research contributions include works on permutations,[PR] graph coloring and graph products,[XN]\ncombinatorial discrepancy theory,[SS] distance problems in discrete geometry,[LD] geometric graph theory,[GR]\nthe rectilinear crossing number of the complete graph,[CQ] and graphons.[D1][D2]With László Lovász and József Pelikán, she is the author of the textbook Discrete Mathematics: Elementary and Beyond.[6][DM]","title":"Contributions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"László Lovász","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A1szl%C3%B3_Lov%C3%A1sz"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nol-7"}],"text":"Vesztergombi is married to László Lovász, with whom she is also a frequent research collaborator.[7]","title":"Personal"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Selected publications"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Books","title":"Selected publications"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Research articles","title":"Selected publications"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Vesztergombi Katalin, Hungarian Doctoral Council, retrieved 2018-02-10","urls":[{"url":"https://doktori.hu/index.php?menuid=192&sz_ID=5898","url_text":"Vesztergombi Katalin"}]},{"reference":"Katalin Vesztergombi, Eötvös Loránd University, retrieved 2018-02-10","urls":[{"url":"http://web.cs.elte.hu/u/veszterk?lang=en","url_text":"Katalin Vesztergombi"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s_Lor%C3%A1nd_University","url_text":"Eötvös Loránd University"}]},{"reference":"Vesztergombi Katalin, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, retrieved 2018-02-10","urls":[{"url":"http://mta.hu/koztestuleti_tagok?PersonId=8210","url_text":"Vesztergombi Katalin"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_Academy_of_Sciences","url_text":"Hungarian Academy of Sciences"}]},{"reference":"Taber, Keith S.; Sumida, Manabu; McClure, Lynne, eds. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_rime	Rime ice	["1 Origin of name","2 Hard rime","2.1 Characteristics","2.2 Formation on snow crystals","3 Soft rime","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]	Granular whitish deposit of ice formed by freezing fog Hard rime on a tree Wind blown rime ice formed on the summit cross of the Fronalpstock Rime ice forms when supercooled water droplets freeze onto surfaces. In the atmosphere, there are three basic types of rime ice: Soft rime forms when supercooled water freezes under calm wind conditions. It is milky and crystalline, like sugar, and similar to hoar frost. Hard rime forms by rapid freezing of supercooled water under at least moderate wind conditions. The droplets freeze more or less individually, leaving air gaps. Clear ice forms by slow freezing of supercooled water. Clear ice is typically transparent and homogeneous. Its amorphous and dense structure makes it adhesive. Soft and hard rime are less dense than clear ice and less adhesive, thus generally cause less damage. Glaze ice is similar in appearance to clear ice, however it is the result of a completely different process, occurring during freezing rain or drizzle. Rime ice also forms when ice forms on the surface of an aircraft, particularly on the leading edges and control surfaces when it flies through a cloud made of supercooled water liquid droplets. Rime ice is the least dense, milky ice is intermediately dense and clear ice is the most dense. All forms of ice can spoil lift and may have a catastrophic effect on an airborne aircraft. These hazardous effects are due to the ice's ability to disrupt airflow, increase weight, and add drag. Ice forming on propellers or engine inlets are especially dangerous as it can cause severe vibration and/or damage if ingested. Origin of name The word 'Rime' comes from Middle English – rime, ryme, rim from Old English – hrīm from Proto-West Germanic – hrīm from Proto-Germanic – hrīmaz, hrīmą (“hoarfrost”) from Proto-Indo-European – krey- (“to streak; graze; touch”). Hard rime Hard rime on trees in the Black Forest of Germany Hard rime is a white ice that forms when the water droplets in fog freeze to the outer surfaces of objects. It is often seen on trees atop mountains and ridges in winter, when low-hanging clouds cause freezing fog. This fog freezes to the windward (wind-facing) side of tree branches, buildings, or any other solid objects, usually with high wind velocities and air temperatures between −2 and −8 °C (28 and 18 °F). Characteristics Hard rime formations are more difficult to remove. They have a comb-like appearance, with the streaks of material parallel to that of the direction of the wind. This is unlike soft rime, which looks feathery or spiky, or clear ice, which looks homogeneous and transparent. Scientists at meteorologically extreme places, such as Mount Washington in New Hampshire, often have to break huge chunks of hard rime off weather equipment in order to keep anemometers and other measuring instruments operating. Formation on snow crystals Electron microscope image of rime ice on both ends of a "capped column" snowflake Under some specific atmospheric conditions, forming and descending snow crystals may encounter and pass via atmospheric supercooled cloud droplets. These droplets, which have a diameter of about 10 μm, can exist in an unfrozen state down to temperatures near −40 °C (−40 °F). Contact between the snow crystal and the supercooled droplets results in the freezing of the liquid droplets onto the surface of the crystals. This process of crystal growth is known as accretion. Crystals that exhibit frozen droplets on their surfaces are referred to as rimed. When this process continues to the point that the shape of the original snow crystal is no longer identifiable the resulting crystal gets referred to as graupel. The frozen droplets on the surface of rimed crystals are hard to resolve and the topography of a graupel particle is not easy to record with a visible-wavelength microscope because of the limited resolution and depth of field in the instrument. However, observations of snow crystals with a low-temperature scanning electron microscope (LT-SEM) clearly show cloud droplets measuring up to 50 μm on the surface of the crystals. The rime has been observed on all four basic forms of snow crystals, including plates, dendrites, columns and needles. As the riming process continues the mass of frozen, accumulated cloud droplets obscures the identity of the original snow crystal, giving rise to a graupel particle. Soft rime Soft rime Soft rime Soft rime is a white ice deposition that forms when the water droplets in light freezing fog or mist freeze to the outer surfaces of objects during calm or light wind. The fog usually freezes to the windward side of solid objects, particularly those with a likeness to that of tree branches and wires. Soft rime is similar in appearance to hoar frost; but while rime is formed by vapour first condensing to liquid droplets (of fog, mist or cloud) and then attaching to a surface, hoar frost is formed by direct deposition from water vapour to solid ice. A heavy coating of hoar frost, called white frost, is very similar in appearance to soft rime, but the formation process is different; it happens when there is no fog, but very high levels of air relative humidity (above 90%) and temperatures below −8 °C (18 °F). Soft rime formations appear as narrow white icy needles and scales. These needles are fragile and can be easily shaken off objects and removed. Factors that favour soft rime include: small drop size, the slow accretion of liquid water, a high degree of supercooling, and fast dissipation of latent heat of fusion. The opposite of these conditions favour ice with higher densities, such as the aforementioned hard rime or clear ice. See also Atmospheric icing References ^ "Rime". April 2023. ^ a b Rime and Graupel, Electron Microscopy Unit, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture., archived from the original on 1 May 2012, retrieved 25 August 2012 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Rime. Look up rime in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Hard Rime in Glossary, American Meteorological Society Soft Rime in Glossary, American Meteorological Society Weather Facts, WeatherOnline vteIceThe solid state of waterMajor phases Amorphous solid Crystalline phases Superionic Formations Anchor Cap Cave Dune Field Glacier Iceberg (calving) Icicle Jam Sea Sheet Spike Stalactites Volcano Phenomena Albedo feedback Black Circle or disc Clear Crystals Firn Fog Frazil Frost Frost heave Frost flower (sea ice) Glaze Hail Hair ice Jacking Névé Needle Nucleus Rime Shove Shuga Slurry Slush Snow Storm Ice-relatedactivities Bathing Blasting Blocking Climbing Fishing Rafting Sculpture Skating Sports Bandy Iceboating Cricket Curling Cycling Figure skating Ice hockey Ice racing Speed skating Short-track speed skating Tour skating Constructions Bar Bridge Hotel Igloo Palace Pier Pykrete Rink Road Work Cutting Icebox Icehouse Iceman (occupation) Pick Trade Yakhchāl Other uses Chips Core Cream Cube Pack Ice ages Glaciology Little Ice Age Pleistocene Snowball Earth Category Wikimedia Commons Wiktionary This article incorporates public domain material from websites or documents of the United States Government. Authority control databases: National Japan	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rime_ice.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rime-ice-found-on-summit-cross.jpg"},{"link_name":"Fronalpstock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronalpstock_(Schwyz)"},{"link_name":"supercooled water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooled_water"},{"link_name":"hoar frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoar_frost"},{"link_name":"Glaze ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaze_ice"},{"link_name":"freezing rain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_rain"},{"link_name":"drizzle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_drizzle"},{"link_name":"ice forms on the surface of an aircraft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icing_conditions"}],"text":"Hard rime on a treeWind blown rime ice formed on the summit cross of the FronalpstockRime ice forms when supercooled water droplets freeze onto surfaces. In the atmosphere, there are three basic types of rime ice:Soft rime forms when supercooled water freezes under calm wind conditions. It is milky and crystalline, like sugar, and similar to hoar frost.\nHard rime forms by rapid freezing of supercooled water under at least moderate wind conditions. The droplets freeze more or less individually, leaving air gaps.\nClear ice forms by slow freezing of supercooled water. Clear ice is typically transparent and homogeneous. Its amorphous and dense structure makes it adhesive.Soft and hard rime are less dense than clear ice and less adhesive, thus generally cause less damage. Glaze ice is similar in appearance to clear ice, however it is the result of a completely different process, occurring during freezing rain or drizzle.Rime ice also forms when ice forms on the surface of an aircraft, particularly on the leading edges and control surfaces when it flies through a cloud made of supercooled water liquid droplets. Rime ice is the least dense, milky ice is intermediately dense and clear ice is the most dense. All forms of ice can spoil lift and may have a catastrophic effect on an airborne aircraft. These hazardous effects are due to the ice's ability to disrupt airflow, increase weight, and add drag. Ice forming on propellers or engine inlets are especially dangerous as it can cause severe vibration and/or damage if ingested.","title":"Rime ice"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"The word 'Rime' comesfrom Middle English – rime, ryme, rim\nfrom Old English – hrīm\nfrom Proto-West Germanic – hrīm\nfrom Proto-Germanic – hrīmaz, hrīmą (“hoarfrost”)\nfrom Proto-Indo-European – krey- (“to streak; graze; touch”).[1]","title":"Origin of name"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Windbuchencom.jpg"},{"link_name":"Black Forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Forest"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"fog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fog"},{"link_name":"ridges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ridge"},{"link_name":"clouds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud"},{"link_name":"freezing fog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_fog"},{"link_name":"windward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windward"}],"text":"Hard rime on trees in the Black Forest of GermanyHard rime is a white ice that forms when the water droplets in fog freeze to the outer surfaces of objects. It is often seen on trees atop mountains and ridges in winter, when low-hanging clouds cause freezing fog. This fog freezes to the windward (wind-facing) side of tree branches, buildings, or any other solid objects, usually with high wind velocities and air temperatures between −2 and −8 °C (28 and 18 °F).","title":"Hard rime"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"soft rime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_rime"},{"link_name":"clear ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_ice"},{"link_name":"Mount Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Washington_(New_Hampshire)"},{"link_name":"New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"anemometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anemometer"}],"sub_title":"Characteristics","text":"Hard rime formations are more difficult to remove. They have a comb-like appearance, with the streaks of material parallel to that of the direction of the wind. This is unlike soft rime, which looks feathery or spiky, or clear ice, which looks homogeneous and transparent.Scientists at meteorologically extreme places, such as Mount Washington in New Hampshire, often have to break huge chunks of hard rime off weather equipment in order to keep anemometers and other measuring instruments operating.","title":"Hard rime"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snowflake_300um_LTSEM,_13368.jpg"},{"link_name":"snow crystals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow"},{"link_name":"accretion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accretion_(astrophysics)"},{"link_name":"graupel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graupel_(snow)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emu-2"},{"link_name":"microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microscope"},{"link_name":"scanning electron microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope"},{"link_name":"graupel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graupel"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-emu-2"}],"sub_title":"Formation on snow crystals","text":"Electron microscope image of rime ice on both ends of a \"capped column\" snowflakeUnder some specific atmospheric conditions, forming and descending snow crystals may encounter and pass via atmospheric supercooled cloud droplets. These droplets, which have a diameter of about 10 μm, can exist in an unfrozen state down to temperatures near −40 °C (−40 °F). Contact between the snow crystal and the supercooled droplets results in the freezing of the liquid droplets onto the surface of the crystals. This process of crystal growth is known as accretion. Crystals that exhibit frozen droplets on their surfaces are referred to as rimed. When this process continues to the point that the shape of the original snow crystal is no longer identifiable the resulting crystal gets referred to as graupel.[2]The frozen droplets on the surface of rimed crystals are hard to resolve and the topography of a graupel particle is not easy to record with a visible-wavelength microscope because of the limited resolution and depth of field in the instrument. However, observations of snow crystals with a low-temperature scanning electron microscope (LT-SEM) clearly show cloud droplets measuring up to 50 μm on the surface of the crystals. The rime has been observed on all four basic forms of snow crystals, including plates, dendrites, columns and needles. As the riming process continues the mass of frozen, accumulated cloud droplets obscures the identity of the original snow crystal, giving rise to a graupel particle.[2]","title":"Hard rime"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raureif2.JPG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fleurgivre-1.jpg"},{"link_name":"windward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windward"},{"link_name":"hoar frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost#Hoar_frost"},{"link_name":"condensing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensation"},{"link_name":"deposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deposition_(phase_transition)"},{"link_name":"white frost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frost#White_frost"},{"link_name":"relative humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relative_humidity"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"hard rime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_rime"},{"link_name":"clear ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_ice"}],"text":"Soft rimeSoft rimeSoft rime is a white ice deposition that forms when the water droplets in light freezing fog or mist freeze to the outer surfaces of objects during calm or light wind. The fog usually freezes to the windward side of solid objects, particularly those with a likeness to that of tree branches and wires.Soft rime is similar in appearance to hoar frost; but while rime is formed by vapour first condensing to liquid droplets (of fog, mist or cloud) and then attaching to a surface, hoar frost is formed by direct deposition from water vapour to solid ice. A heavy coating of hoar frost, called white frost, is very similar in appearance to soft rime, but the formation process is different; it happens when there is no fog, but very high levels of air relative humidity (above 90%) and temperatures below −8 °C (18 °F).Soft rime formations appear as narrow white icy needles and scales. These needles are fragile and can be easily shaken off objects and removed. Factors that favour soft rime include: small drop size, the slow accretion of liquid water, a high degree of supercooling, and fast dissipation of latent heat of fusion. The opposite of these conditions favour ice with higher densities, such as the aforementioned hard rime or clear ice.","title":"Soft rime"}]	[{"image_text":"Hard rime on a tree","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Rime_ice.jpg/220px-Rime_ice.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wind blown rime ice formed on the summit cross of the Fronalpstock","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Rime-ice-found-on-summit-cross.jpg/220px-Rime-ice-found-on-summit-cross.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hard rime on trees in the Black Forest of Germany","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Windbuchencom.jpg/220px-Windbuchencom.jpg"},{"image_text":"Electron microscope image of rime ice on both ends of a \"capped column\" snowflake","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Snowflake_300um_LTSEM%2C_13368.jpg/250px-Snowflake_300um_LTSEM%2C_13368.jpg"},{"image_text":"Soft rime","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Raureif2.JPG/220px-Raureif2.JPG"},{"image_text":"Soft rime","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Fleurgivre-1.jpg/220px-Fleurgivre-1.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Atmospheric icing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_icing"}]	[{"reference":"\"Rime\". April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rime","url_text":"\"Rime\""}]},{"reference":"Rime and Graupel, Electron Microscopy Unit, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, U.S. Department of Agriculture., archived from the original on 1 May 2012, retrieved 25 August 2012","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120501174031/http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/rimegraupel/rg.html","url_text":"Rime and Graupel"},{"url":"http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/rimegraupel/rg.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/rime","external_links_name":"\"Rime\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120501174031/http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/rimegraupel/rg.html","external_links_name":"Rime and Graupel"},{"Link":"http://emu.arsusda.gov/snowsite/rimegraupel/rg.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Hard_rime","external_links_name":"Hard Rime in Glossary, American Meteorological Society"},{"Link":"https://glossary.ametsoc.org/wiki/Soft_rime","external_links_name":"Soft Rime in Glossary, American Meteorological Society"},{"Link":"http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/wxfacts/Rime.htm","external_links_name":"Weather Facts, WeatherOnline"},{"Link":"https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00567891","external_links_name":"Japan"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mubadala_Investment_Company	Mubadala Investment Company	["1 History","2 Investments","3 Investment platforms","4 Mubadala Technology","5 Mubadala Energy","6 Notes","7 References","8 External links"]	United Arab Emirates sovereign wealth fund Mubadala Investment CompanyNative nameشركة مبادلة للاستثمارCompany typePrivate Joint Stock Company (Government owned)IndustryPrivate equity Asset managementFoundedJanuary 2017 (January 2017)HeadquartersAbu Dhabi, United Arab EmiratesKey peopleMansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, ChairmanKhaldoon Khalifa Al Mubarak, CEO and Managing DirectorAUMUS$302 billion (AED 1.11 trillion) (2024)OwnerGovernment of Abu DhabiSubsidiaries Abu Dhabi Investment Council Concessão Metroviária do Rio de Janeiro Dolphin Energy GlobalFoundries International Petroleum Investment Company Mamoura Diversified Global Holding Masdar Nova Chemicals Piaggio Aerospace Websitewww.mubadala.com Mubadala Investment Company PJSC (Arabic: شركة مبادلة للاستثمار), or simply Mubadala, is a state-owned global investment management holding company that acts as one of the sovereign wealth funds of the government of Abu Dhabi. The company was established in 2017 when then-named Mubadala Development Company (now Mamoura Diversified Global Holding) and the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC) merged. Headquartered in Abu Dhabi, Mubadala also has offices in London, Rio de Janeiro, New York, San Francisco and Beijing. History Established in 1984, the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC) was created to advance Abu Dhabi’s natural petroleum wealth for the development of the emirate. Mubadala Development Company followed in 2002 to further diversify the economy. In June 2016, it was announced that Mubadala Development Company would merge with the International Petroleum Investment Company. In 2017, ownership of both MDC and IPIC was transferred to a newly-created parent company, Mubadala Investment Company. The company is a wholly-owned investment vehicle of the government of Abu Dhabi, and Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, vice-president and deputy prime minister of the United Arab Emirates, is chairman of the company. Investments Mubadala has invested in logistics software startup Turvo, Alphabet-owned self-driving technology company Waymo, Reliance Jio Platforms, UK life sciences company Envision, and Telegram. Mubadala is a parent company of GlobalFoundries, a semiconductor foundry company. Mubadala owns stakes in numerous companies, including a 7.5 percent share in the Carlyle Group. In 2007 Mubadala announced an initial investment in AMD. As of 2017 Mubadala had a stake of 12.9 percent in the chipmaker. In 2019 Mubadala sold its entire stake in AMD. In November 2020, Mubadala transferred ownership of two information technology companies it previously owned, Injazat and Khazna, to artificial intelligence company, G42, and took a stake in G42. In 2021, Mubadala purchased a 2.6% stake in En+ Group, a manufacturer of green aluminum, from Polina Yumasheva, the former wife of Russian businessman Oleg Deripaska. The same year, Mubadala purchased MetrôRio, the company that holds the operations for the Rio de Janeiro metro, from Invepar. In 2016, Mubadala became the biggest external shareholder at Investcorp, after acquiring 20% stakes in the Bahraini firm. In 2023, a former UK minister, Gerry Grimstone was criticized for conducting and not declaring 13 meetings with Mubadala and Khaldoon al-Mubarak, after acquiring the role as an adviser and the chair of planned climate fund at Investcorp. In March 2021, Grimstone finalized a deal between the UK and Mubadala, allowing it to oversee investment of around £10 billion in the UK from the UAE. A senior research officer at Transparency International UK, Rose Whiffen said if a minister is working for a firm and meeting its shareholder several times while in office, it should be declared or assessed before approval. A unit of the company, Mubadala Capital, invested €50 million in the Novalpina Capital private equity fund of €1 billion, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Reports revealed that the UAE targeted human rights activists, journalists, and Princess Haya using the Pegasus spyware, during the same time. Mubadala Capital got a seat on Novalpina’s committee of largest investors. In May 2022, Mubadala Investment Company signed a preliminary agreement with French utility Engie for the development of a digital platform to charge electric vehicles in the UAE and across the Middle East. The two companies would also explore areas related to sustainable mobility. In May 2023, Mubadala agreed to buy a majority stake in a New York–based Fortress Investment Group from the SoftBank Group. The $3 billion takeover was intended to be closed in the first quarter of 2024. However, the deal that would give Mubadala 70% stakes in Fortress was being scrutinized by the U.S. national security officers. The deal, which raised concerns for the US over the UAE's ties with China, was being closely reviewed by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the US (Cfius). Investment platforms Mubadala operates through four investment platforms of significant scale. Direct Investments platform UAE Investments platform Disruptive Investments platform Real Estate & Infrastructure Investments platform Mubadala Technology Mubadala TechnologyFounded2014 (2014)SuccessorAdvanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC)HeadquartersAbu Dhabi, UAEKey peopleIbrahim Ajami (CEO)ParentMubadala Investment Company The company's Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC) in 2008, is an Global investment company in the high-technology sector. ATIC owns the semiconductor foundry companies GlobalFoundries, and Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing (which later merged with GlobalFoundries). ATIC has invested in Calxeda, a start-up company for producing ARM architecture–based computers for the server market. In 2011, ATIC announced investments of $5.5 billion to expand chip manufacturing in Singapore, Dresden, and New York. It also announced a $6–$8 billion computer chip factory in Abu Dhabi for completion in 2012. The company supports research initiatives in Khalifa University, UAE University, American University of Sharjah, Masdar Institute and New York University Abu Dhabi. In 2014, ATIC became Mubadala Technology. Mubadala Energy Mubadala Energy (formerly Mubadala Petroleum) plans to expand into LNG, blue hydrogen, and carbon capture. Mubadala Energy works in eleven markets and employs over 500 people. Notes References ^ "AUM 2024". www.mubadala.com. Mubadala. ^ a b "Fast FT". Financial Times. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016. ^ French, David; Tolba, Ahmed; Aboudi, Sam (29 June 2016). "Abu Dhabi government orders.merging of Mubadala And IPIC - state news agency". Reuters. Retrieved 7 July 2016. ^ Kerr, Simeon (29 June 2016). "Abu Dhabi to merge sovereign wealth funds Ipic and Mubadala". Financial Times. Retrieved 7 July 2016. ^ "Mubadala and IPIC Officially Merge". Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute. January 22, 2017. ^ "The Mubadala Story \| Mubadala Development Company \| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates". Mubadala.ae. Retrieved 2012-08-13. ^ Ennis, Crystal A. (2018). "Reading entrepreneurial power in small Gulf states: Qatar and the UAE". International Journal. 73 (4): 573–595. doi:10.1177/0020702018809980. hdl:1887/71834. ISSN 0020-7020. S2CID 150220133. ^ Fahaam, Tariq Al; Saleh, Amjad; WAM. "Mubadala board reconstituted with Mansour bin Zayed as Chairman". www.zawya.com. Retrieved 2023-09-17. ^ Phillips, Erica E. "Abu Dhabi State Fund Leads $60 Million Funding in Logistics Software Startup". WSJ. Retrieved 2018-11-09. ^ "Mubadala invests in autonomous, self-driving technology company Waymo". www.institutionalassetmanager.co.uk. 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2020-03-05. ^ "Investors Flock to Pick Up Stake in Ambani's Jio Platforms \| TopNews". topnews.in. Retrieved 2020-06-07. ^ "Mubadala, other investors acquire majority stake in UK life sciences company Envision". 5 November 2020. ^ Natasha Lomas (23 March 2021). "Telegram raises $150M from Mubadala and Abu Dhabi CP via pre-IPO convertible bonds". TechCrunch. Retrieved 23 March 2021. ^ a b "The National", accessed October 28, 2013. ^ Heath, Thomas (15 February 2008). "Pair of Proposals Take Aim at Carlyle Group". Washington Post. Retrieved 22 September 2008. ^ "AMD announces 622m investment by Mubadala Development Company \| Mubadala". www.mubadala.com. Retrieved 2024-04-01. ^ "Abu Dhabi's Mubadala sells 34.9 million shares in U.S. chipmaker AMD". Reuters. Retrieved 1 April 2024. ^ "MIC_2019_Annual_Review_Brochure.pdf" (PDF). www.ifswf.org. Retrieved 1 April 2024. ^ Khan, Sarmad (2020-11-02). "UAE's Mubadala takes stake in Abu Dhabi AI firm Group 42". The National. Retrieved 2024-04-01. ^ "Abu Dhabi's Mubadala buys 2.6% of Russia's En+ group". Reuters. 2021-06-23. Retrieved 2021-09-15. ^ a b Parasie, Nicolas (2016-07-28). "Investcorp Sells 20% Stake to Abu Dhabi-Based Fund Mubadala". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-08-31. ^ "Abu Dhabi state funds were used to buy Israeli spyware group NSO". The Financial Times. April 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2022. ^ "Mubadala teams up with France's Engie to develop electric vehicle charging platform in UAE". The National. 2022-05-10. Retrieved 2022-05-11. ^ Massoudi, Arash; Sevastopulo, Demetri (2023-07-24). "US security officials scrutinise Abu Dhabi's $3bn Fortress takeover". Financial Times. Retrieved 2023-07-30. ^ Kaur, Gursimran; Sayegh, Hadeel El (2023-07-24). "US security officials scrutinise Mubadala's $3 bln Fortress takeover". Reuters. Retrieved 2023-07-30. ^ "Investment Platforms". www.mubadala.com. Mubadala. ^ "Global Invest Company - Best Project Funding Website - GLOBAL MAP INVESTORS". 2019-10-30. Retrieved 2024-06-12. ^ "About Us", ATIC, accessed June 12, 2011. ^ “Press Release”, ATIC, accessed June 14, 2011. ^ “Abu Dhabi to take on Taiwan’s Chipmakers”, Financial Times, accessed June 14, 2011. ^ “Green chip start-up gets $48 million in funding”, CNET, accessed June 14, 2011. ^ "Abu Dhabi’s ATIC Investing in Chip Plant, Sees Acquisitions", “Bloomberg”, May 18, 2011, accessed June 12, 2011. ^ “A future built on silicon”, “Arab News”, accessed June 14, 2011. ^ “ATIC to raise Globalfoundries stake”, “The National”, accessed June 14, 2011. ^ "Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC) to become Mubadala Technology". www.mubadala.com. 2014-05-01. Retrieved 2020-11-20. ^ Salian, Neesha (2022-09-06). "Mubadala Petroleum rebrands as Mubadala Energy". Gulf Business. Retrieved 2022-09-06. External links Mubadala Investment Company ATIC official website Mubadala Investment Company SWFI Profile vte1Malaysia Development Berhad scandalTimelineInstitutionsSovereign wealth funds 1Malaysia Development Berhad International Petroleum Investment Company Banks Goldman Sachs Deutsche Bank Falcon Private Bank Maybank Law firms Clyde & Co Accounting firms KPMG Deloitte Key peopleMalaysians Najib Razak Jho Low Riza Aziz Arul Kanda Kandasamy Rosmah Mansor Americans Elliott Broidy Pras Others Khadem al-Qubaisi Turki bin Abdullah Al Saud Tim Leissner ResponsesInvestigations Malaysian Anti-Corruption Commission United States Department of Justice Political impact Malaysian Citizens' Declaration Bersih 2015 2016 Tangkap Najib rally 2015 Malay Dignity rally Media Billion Dollar Whale The Kleptocrats The Edge Sarawak Report The Wall Street Journal Man on the Run Assets and financing The Exchange 106 Merdeka 118 Equanamity The Wolf of Wall Street Dumb and Dumber To Daddy's Home Related Corruption in Malaysia 2018 Malaysian general election Najib Razak controversies Goldman Sachs controversies	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"sovereign wealth funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_wealth_funds"},{"link_name":"Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Dhabi"}],"text":"Mubadala Investment Company PJSC (Arabic: شركة مبادلة للاستثمار), or simply Mubadala, is a state-owned global investment management holding company that acts as one of the sovereign wealth funds of the government of Abu Dhabi. The company was established in 2017 when then-named Mubadala Development Company (now Mamoura Diversified Global Holding) and the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC) merged. Headquartered in Abu Dhabi, Mubadala also has offices in London, Rio de Janeiro, New York, San Francisco and Beijing.","title":"Mubadala Investment Company"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emirate_of_Abu_Dhabi"},{"link_name":"Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mansour_bin_Zayed_Al_Nahyan"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Established in 1984, the International Petroleum Investment Company (IPIC) was created to advance Abu Dhabi’s natural petroleum wealth for the development of the emirate. Mubadala Development Company followed in 2002 to further diversify the economy. In June 2016, it was announced that Mubadala Development Company would merge with the International Petroleum Investment Company.[2][3][4] In 2017, ownership of both MDC and IPIC was transferred to a newly-created parent company, Mubadala Investment Company.[5] The company is a wholly-owned investment vehicle of the government of Abu Dhabi, and Sheikh Mansour bin Zayed Al Nahyan, vice-president and deputy prime minister of the United Arab Emirates, is chairman of the company.[6][7][8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"logistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics"},{"link_name":"startup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_company"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_Inc."},{"link_name":"Waymo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waymo"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Telegram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram_(software)"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"GlobalFoundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlobalFoundries"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thenational-14"},{"link_name":"Carlyle Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlyle_Group"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"AMD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AMD"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"G42","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G42_(company)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"En+ Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En%2B_Group"},{"link_name":"Oleg Deripaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oleg_Deripaska"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Invepar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invepar"},{"link_name":"Investcorp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Investcorp"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parasie-21"},{"link_name":"Gerry Grimstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerry_Grimstone,_Baron_Grimstone_of_Boscobel"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Parasie-21"},{"link_name":"private equity fund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity_fund"},{"link_name":"NSO Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NSO_Group"},{"link_name":"Princess Haya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Haya"},{"link_name":"Pegasus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pegasus_(spyware)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Engie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engie"},{"link_name":"electric vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_vehicle"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Fortress Investment Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortress_Investment_Group"},{"link_name":"SoftBank Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SoftBank_Group"},{"link_name":"Cfius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cfius"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"Mubadala has invested in logistics software startup Turvo,[9] Alphabet-owned self-driving technology company Waymo,[10] Reliance Jio Platforms,[11] UK life sciences company Envision,[12] and Telegram.[13] Mubadala is a parent company of GlobalFoundries, a semiconductor foundry company.[14]Mubadala owns stakes in numerous companies, including a 7.5 percent share in the Carlyle Group.[15]In 2007 Mubadala announced an initial investment in AMD.[16] As of 2017 Mubadala had a stake of 12.9 percent in the chipmaker.[17] In 2019 Mubadala sold its entire stake in AMD.[18]In November 2020, Mubadala transferred ownership of two information technology companies it previously owned, Injazat and Khazna, to artificial intelligence company, G42, and took a stake in G42.[19]In 2021, Mubadala purchased a 2.6% stake in En+ Group, a manufacturer of green aluminum, from Polina Yumasheva, the former wife of Russian businessman Oleg Deripaska.[20] The same year, Mubadala purchased MetrôRio, the company that holds the operations for the Rio de Janeiro metro, from Invepar.\nIn 2016, Mubadala became the biggest external shareholder at Investcorp, after acquiring 20% stakes in the Bahraini firm.[21] In 2023, a former UK minister, Gerry Grimstone was criticized for conducting and not declaring 13 meetings with Mubadala and Khaldoon al-Mubarak, after acquiring the role as an adviser and the chair of planned climate fund at Investcorp. In March 2021, Grimstone finalized a deal between the UK and Mubadala, allowing it to oversee investment of around £10 billion in the UK from the UAE. A senior research officer at Transparency International UK, Rose Whiffen said if a minister is working for a firm and meeting its shareholder several times while in office, it should be declared or assessed before approval.[21]A unit of the company, Mubadala Capital, invested €50 million in the Novalpina Capital private equity fund of €1 billion, which bought the NSO Group in 2019. Reports revealed that the UAE targeted human rights activists, journalists, and Princess Haya using the Pegasus spyware, during the same time. Mubadala Capital got a seat on Novalpina’s committee of largest investors.[22]In May 2022, Mubadala Investment Company signed a preliminary agreement with French utility Engie for the development of a digital platform to charge electric vehicles in the UAE and across the Middle East. The two companies would also explore areas related to sustainable mobility.[23]In May 2023, Mubadala agreed to buy a majority stake in a New York–based Fortress Investment Group from the SoftBank Group. The $3 billion takeover was intended to be closed in the first quarter of 2024. However, the deal that would give Mubadala 70% stakes in Fortress was being scrutinized by the U.S. national security officers. The deal, which raised concerns for the US over the UAE's ties with China, was being closely reviewed by the Committee on Foreign Investment in the US (Cfius).[24][25]","title":"Investments"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"Mubadala operates through four investment platforms of significant scale.[26]Direct Investments platform\nUAE Investments platform\nDisruptive Investments platform\nReal Estate & Infrastructure Investments platform","title":"Investment platforms"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-2"},{"link_name":"high-technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-technology"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"semiconductor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"GlobalFoundries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GlobalFoundries"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thenational-14"},{"link_name":"Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_Semiconductor_Manufacturing"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Calxeda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calxeda"},{"link_name":"ARM architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARM_architecture"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Khalifa University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khalifa_University"},{"link_name":"New York University Abu Dhabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_University_Abu_Dhabi"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-35"}],"text":"The company's Advanced Technology Investment Company (ATIC) in 2008, is an Global investment[27] company[2] in the high-technology sector.[28] ATIC owns the semiconductor foundry companies GlobalFoundries,[14] and Chartered Semiconductor Manufacturing (which later merged with GlobalFoundries).[29][30] ATIC has invested in Calxeda, a start-up company for producing ARM architecture–based computers for the server market.[31] In 2011, ATIC announced investments of $5.5 billion to expand chip manufacturing in Singapore, Dresden, and New York.[32][33] It also announced a $6–$8 billion computer chip factory in Abu Dhabi for completion in 2012.[34] The company supports research initiatives in Khalifa University, UAE University, American University of Sharjah, Masdar Institute and New York University Abu Dhabi. In 2014, ATIC became Mubadala Technology.[35]","title":"Mubadala Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Mubadala Energy (formerly Mubadala Petroleum) plans to expand into LNG, blue hydrogen, and carbon capture. Mubadala Energy works in eleven markets and employs over 500 people.[36]","title":"Mubadala Energy"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"AUM 2024\". www.mubadala.com. Mubadala.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.mubadala.com/","url_text":"\"AUM 2024\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fast FT\". Financial Times. 29 June 2016. Retrieved 7 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://next.ft.com/content/03f7ac73-aedc-36f0-934d-b54e64cc13af","url_text":"\"Fast FT\""}]},{"reference":"French, David; Tolba, Ahmed; Aboudi, Sam (29 June 2016). \"Abu Dhabi government orders.merging of Mubadala And IPIC - state news agency\". Reuters. Retrieved 7 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/emirates-ma-mubadala-ipic-uae-idUSD5N17U015","url_text":"\"Abu Dhabi government orders.merging of Mubadala And IPIC - state news agency\""}]},{"reference":"Kerr, Simeon (29 June 2016). \"Abu Dhabi to merge sovereign wealth funds Ipic and Mubadala\". Financial Times. Retrieved 7 July 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://next.ft.com/content/99337866-3dcf-11e6-8716-a4a71e8140b0","url_text":"\"Abu Dhabi to merge sovereign wealth funds Ipic and Mubadala\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mubadala and IPIC Officially Merge\". Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute. January 22, 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.swfinstitute.org/news/52785/mubadala-and-ipic-officially-merge","url_text":"\"Mubadala and IPIC Officially Merge\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_Wealth_Fund_Institute","url_text":"Sovereign Wealth Fund Institute"}]},{"reference":"\"The Mubadala Story \| Mubadala Development Company \| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates\". Mubadala.ae. Retrieved 2012-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"http://mubadala.ae/about/history/","url_text":"\"The Mubadala Story \| Mubadala Development Company \| Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates\""}]},{"reference":"Ennis, Crystal A. (2018). \"Reading entrepreneurial power in small Gulf states: Qatar and the UAE\". International Journal. 73 (4): 573–595. doi:10.1177/0020702018809980. hdl:1887/71834. ISSN 0020-7020. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecil_Matthews_(priest)	Cecil Matthews (priest)	["1 Notes"]	The VenerableCecil Lloyd MatthewsMAArchdeacon of LeicesterIn office1938–1956 Personal detailsBorn8 February 1881Died26 February 1962SpouseEnnis née Beddoe Christianity portal The Venerable Cecil Lloyd Matthews (1881–1962) was an eminent Anglican priest and author in the mid 20th century. Matthews was educated at Monmouth Grammar School and Keble College, Oxford. In 1902-3 he was Assistant Master at The Limes Preparatory School Shrewsbury and from 1903-1907 was Assistant Master at Norwich School. He was ordained in 1904 and began his career with a curacy at SS Laurence and Gregory, Norwich after which he was Priest in charge at St Marks, Bourne End from 1907 to 1911. He was then Rector of Clophill and when World War I broke out a Temporary Chaplain to the Forces. When peace returned he held incumbencies at Hungarton, Hinckley and Knighton. He was Rural Dean of Christianity within the Diocese of Leicester from 1938 and from then until 1956 Archdeacon of Leicester. He retired in 1956. Notes ^ The Times, Tuesday, 27 February 1962; p. 15; Issue 55326; col A Ven. C. L. Matthews ^ "Who was Who" 1897–2007 London, A & C Black, 2007 ISBN 978-0-19-954087-7 ^ "Ampthill and District News". Clophill History. Retrieved 13 February 2014. ^ Crockford's Clerical Directory1947-48 Oxford, OUP,1947 ^ University of Leicester Church of England titles Preceded byFrederick Brodie MacNutt Archdeacon of Leicester 1927–1934 Succeeded byIrven David Edwards vteArchdeacons of LeicesterHigh Medieval Ranulph Godfrey Walter Robert de Chesney Hugh Barre Baldric de Segillo Hamo Roger de Rolleston Reimund of Lincoln Robert Grosseteste William de Dratton John of Basingstoke Solomon of Dover Roger de Saxenhurst Roger Martival Late Medieval Guillaume Cardinal de Farges Raynald Orsini Henry Chaddesden William Doune Philippe Cardinal de Cabassoles Giacomo Cardinal Orsini, Dean of Salisbury John Bottlesham John Elvet Richard Elvet John Legbourne Thomas Barnsley Richard Ewen William Witham Roger Rotherham John Morton Richard Lavender William Spark Henry Wilcocks Richard Maudeley Stephen Gardiner Edward Foxe Edmund Bonner William More Early modern Thomas Robertson Richard Barber Hugh Blythe Robert Johnson Richard Pilkington William Warr Henry Ferne Robert Hitch Clement Breton William Owtram Francis Meres Byrom Eaton John Rogers David Trimnel John Taylor James Bickham Andrew Burnaby Thomas Parkinson Thomas Bonney Late modern Henry Fearon Assheton Pownall John Mitchinson John Stocks Frederick MacNutt Cecil Matthews Irven Edwards Berkeley Cole David Silk Mike Edson Richard Atkinson Tim Stratford Richard Worsfold vteDiocese of Leicester Leicester Cathedral Bishop's Lodge, Knighton Bishop's House, Rothley St Martin's House, Leicester Launde Abbey Office holders Martyn Snow, Bishop of Leicester Saju Muthalaly, Bishop suffragan of Loughborough AEO: Bishop suffragan of Richborough (vacant) & Rob Munro, Bishop suffragan of Ebbsfleet Karen Rooms, Dean of Leicester Claire Wood, Archdeacon of Loughborough Richard Worsfold, Archdeacon of Leicester Historic offices Provost of Leicester (1927–2000; see Dean of Leicester) Assistant Bishop of Leicester (1987–2017; see Bishop of Loughborough) This biography of a United Kingdom religious figure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This biographical article about person in connection with Christianity is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg"},{"link_name":"Christianity portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Christianity"},{"link_name":"Venerable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venerable"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican"},{"link_name":"priest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest"},{"link_name":"author","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author"},{"link_name":"Monmouth Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monmouth_Grammar_School"},{"link_name":"Keble College, Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keble_College,_Oxford"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Norwich School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich_School"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"ordained","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordained"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"curacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curate"},{"link_name":"Norwich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwich"},{"link_name":"Priest in charge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest_in_charge"},{"link_name":"Bourne End","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_End,_Buckinghamshire"},{"link_name":"Rector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rector_(ecclesiastical)"},{"link_name":"Clophill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clophill"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"Temporary Chaplain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaplain"},{"link_name":"Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"peace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armistice_with_Germany"},{"link_name":"incumbencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incumbent_(ecclesiastical)"},{"link_name":"Hungarton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarton"},{"link_name":"Hinckley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinckley"},{"link_name":"Knighton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knighton,_Leicester"},{"link_name":"Rural Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rural_Dean"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Diocese of Leicester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diocese_of_Leicester"},{"link_name":"Archdeacon of Leicester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Archdeacons_of_Leicester"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Christianity portalThe Venerable Cecil Lloyd Matthews (1881–1962)[1] was an eminent Anglican priest and author in the mid 20th century.Matthews was educated at Monmouth Grammar School and Keble College, Oxford.[2] In 1902-3 he was Assistant Master at The Limes Preparatory School Shrewsbury and from 1903-1907 was Assistant Master at Norwich School.[3] He was ordained in 1904[4] and began his career with a curacy at SS Laurence and Gregory, Norwich after which he was Priest in charge at St Marks, Bourne End from 1907 to 1911. He was then Rector of Clophill and when World War I broke out a Temporary Chaplain to the Forces. When peace returned he held incumbencies at Hungarton, Hinckley and Knighton. He was Rural Dean of Christianity within the Diocese of Leicester from 1938 and from then until 1956 Archdeacon of Leicester.[5] He retired in 1956.","title":"Cecil Matthews (priest)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"The Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Who was Who\" 1897–2007","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Who%27s_Who"},{"link_name":"A & C Black","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_%26_C_Black"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-954087-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-954087-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Ampthill and District 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it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Matthews_(priest)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:UK-reli-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:UK-reli-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:UK-reli-bio-stub"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Christian_cross.svg"},{"link_name":"Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"stub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Stub"},{"link_name":"expanding it","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Matthews_(priest)&action=edit"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Christianity-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity-bio-stub"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity-bio-stub"}],"text":"^ The Times, Tuesday, 27 February 1962; p. 15; Issue 55326; col A Ven. C. L. Matthews\n\n^ \"Who was Who\" 1897–2007 London, A & C Black, 2007 ISBN 978-0-19-954087-7\n\n^ \"Ampthill and District News\". Clophill History. Retrieved 13 February 2014.\n\n^ Crockford's Clerical Directory1947-48 Oxford, OUP,1947\n\n^ University of LeicestervteArchdeacons of LeicesterHigh Medieval\nRanulph\nGodfrey\nWalter\nRobert de Chesney\nHugh Barre\nBaldric de Segillo\nHamo\nRoger de Rolleston\nReimund\nof Lincoln\nRobert Grosseteste\nWilliam de Dratton\nJohn of Basingstoke\nSolomon of Dover\nRoger de Saxenhurst\nRoger Martival\nLate Medieval\nGuillaume Cardinal de Farges\nRaynald Orsini\nHenry Chaddesden\nWilliam Doune\nPhilippe Cardinal de Cabassoles\nGiacomo Cardinal Orsini, Dean of Salisbury\nJohn Bottlesham\nJohn Elvet\nRichard Elvet\nJohn Legbourne\nThomas Barnsley\nRichard Ewen\nWilliam Witham\nRoger Rotherham\nJohn Morton\nRichard Lavender\nWilliam Spark\nHenry Wilcocks\nRichard Maudeley\nStephen Gardiner\nEdward Foxe\nEdmund Bonner\nWilliam More\nEarly modern\nThomas Robertson\nRichard Barber\nHugh Blythe\nRobert Johnson\nRichard Pilkington\nWilliam Warr\nHenry Ferne\nRobert Hitch\nClement Breton\nWilliam Owtram\nFrancis Meres\nByrom Eaton\nJohn Rogers\nDavid Trimnel\nJohn Taylor\nJames Bickham\nAndrew Burnaby\nThomas Parkinson\nThomas Bonney\nLate modern\nHenry Fearon\nAssheton Pownall\nJohn Mitchinson\nJohn Stocks\nFrederick MacNutt\nCecil Matthews\nIrven Edwards\nBerkeley Cole\nDavid Silk\nMike Edson\nRichard Atkinson\nTim Stratford\nRichard WorsfoldvteDiocese of Leicester\nLeicester Cathedral\nBishop's Lodge, Knighton\nBishop's House, Rothley\nSt Martin's House, Leicester\nLaunde Abbey\nOffice holders\nMartyn Snow, Bishop of Leicester\nSaju Muthalaly, Bishop suffragan of Loughborough\nAEO: Bishop suffragan of Richborough (vacant) & Rob Munro, Bishop suffragan of Ebbsfleet\nKaren Rooms, Dean of Leicester\nClaire Wood, Archdeacon of Loughborough\nRichard Worsfold, Archdeacon of Leicester\nHistoric offices\nProvost of Leicester (1927–2000; see Dean of Leicester)\nAssistant Bishop of Leicester (1987–2017; see Bishop of Loughborough)This biography of a United Kingdom religious figure is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vteThis biographical article about person in connection with Christianity is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte","title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Ampthill and District News\". Clophill History. Retrieved 13 February 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.clophillhistory.mooncarrot.org.uk/AmpthillNewsMay1911.php","url_text":"\"Ampthill and District News\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.clophillhistory.mooncarrot.org.uk/AmpthillNewsMay1911.php","external_links_name":"\"Ampthill and District News\""},{"Link":"http://www.le.ac.uk/lahs/downloads/CocksvolumeLXVII-5sm.pdf","external_links_name":"University of Leicester"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Matthews_(priest)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cecil_Matthews_(priest)&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inago_no_Tsukudani	Inago no tsukudani	["1 Background","2 Preparation","3 References"]	Inago no tsukudani (いなごの佃煮) is a Japanese dish featuring rice grasshoppers that are boiled in soy sauce and sugar. Inago is the Japanese word for locust. The locusts are prepared in the "tsukudani" style of cooking (boiled in soy sauce and sugar). The dish is traditional in Japan's inland and mountain regions, including Nagano and Fukushima, where it once served as an important nutritional supplement. Background Locusts have been regarded as natural enemies of agricultural crops since ancient times because of their ability to swarm, which can lead to plagues. There is no way of avoiding this phenomenon other than decreasing the number of locusts before they swarm. People suffered from locust plagues because the locusts left them with nothing to eat after they swarmed; thus, people started to eat them. Because they contain a large amount of protein, they can be a rich source of energy. Preparation Before cooking, the locusts are placed into a box or bag without food for one night to remove the feces from their bodies. The locusts are added to boiling water and drained. They are cooked in a hot frying pan without oil and stirred to remove all traces of water from their bodies. Oil is added, and they are stir-fried to be crispy. References ^ Alt, Matt. "Extreme cuisine: The 5 dishes even Japanese people are freaked to eat". travel.cnn.com. CNN. Retrieved 26 December 2015. ^ a b c "イナゴ". モグモグ昆虫食ランド. SEO. Retrieved 13 December 2015.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japanese dish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cuisine"},{"link_name":"grasshoppers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grasshoppers"},{"link_name":"soy sauce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soy_sauce"},{"link_name":"sugar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugar"},{"link_name":"tsukudani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsukudani"},{"link_name":"Nagano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagano_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"Fukushima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fukushima_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CNN-1"}],"text":"Inago no tsukudani (いなごの佃煮) is a Japanese dish featuring rice grasshoppers that are boiled in soy sauce and sugar. Inago is the Japanese word for locust. The locusts are prepared in the \"tsukudani\" style of cooking (boiled in soy sauce and sugar). The dish is traditional in Japan's inland and mountain regions, including Nagano and Fukushima, where it once served as an important nutritional supplement.[1]","title":"Inago no tsukudani"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inago-2"},{"link_name":"protein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inago-2"}],"text":"Locusts have been regarded as natural enemies of agricultural crops since ancient times because of their ability to swarm, which can lead to plagues. There is no way of avoiding this phenomenon other than decreasing the number of locusts before they swarm.[2] People suffered from locust plagues because the locusts left them with nothing to eat after they swarmed; thus, people started to eat them. Because they contain a large amount of protein, they can be a rich source of energy.[2]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Inago-2"}],"text":"Before cooking, the locusts are placed into a box or bag without food for one night to remove the feces from their bodies.The locusts are added to boiling water and drained. They are cooked in a hot frying pan without oil and stirred to remove all traces of water from their bodies. Oil is added, and they are stir-fried to be crispy.[2]","title":"Preparation"}]	[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Inago_no_tsukudani_02.jpg/220px-Inago_no_tsukudani_02.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Alt, Matt. \"Extreme cuisine: The 5 dishes even Japanese people are freaked to eat\". travel.cnn.com. CNN. Retrieved 26 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://travel.cnn.com/tokyo/eat/extreme-cuisine-5-dishes-even-japanese-are-freaked-eat-660426/","url_text":"\"Extreme cuisine: The 5 dishes even Japanese people are freaked to eat\""}]},{"reference":"\"イナゴ\". モグモグ昆虫食ランド. SEO. Retrieved 13 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eat-insect.com/japan/locust.html","url_text":"\"イナゴ\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://travel.cnn.com/tokyo/eat/extreme-cuisine-5-dishes-even-japanese-are-freaked-eat-660426/","external_links_name":"\"Extreme cuisine: The 5 dishes even Japanese people are freaked to eat\""},{"Link":"http://www.eat-insect.com/japan/locust.html","external_links_name":"\"イナゴ\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands_Party_for_Rural_Advancement	Solomon Islands Party for Rural Advancement	["1 Election results","2 References"]	"SIPRA" redirects here. For the Jat tribe, see Sipra. Political party in Solomon Islands Solomon Islands Party for Rural Development LeaderGordon Darcy LiloFounded2006National Parliament1 / 50Politics of Solomon IslandsPolitical partiesElections The Solomon Islands Party for Rural Advancement (SIPRA) is a political party in the Solomon Islands. It was founded in 2006 and is led by Gordon Darcy Lilo. The party was part of the National Coalition for Reform and Advancement, which governed the country between 2010 and 2014, with its leader Lilo being finance minister from 2010 to 2011 and then Prime Minister of Solomon Islands from 2011 to 2014. The party lost all but one seat in the 2014 Solomon Islands general election with Lilo losing his seat to his nephew. Election results Election Votes % Seats +/– 2006 12,030 6.31 (#2) 4 / 50 New 2010 8,074 3.43 (#3) 4 / 50 0 2014 10,022 3.90 (#6) 1 / 50 3 2019 9,878 3.19 (#8) 1 / 50 0 2024 15,735 4.55 (#5) 1 / 50 0 References ^ "Independent MPs, Political Party Legislation and Electoral Politics in Solomon Islands". Journal of Pacific Studies. doi:10.33318/jpacs.2020.40(2)-2. Retrieved 2024-05-03. ^ Desk, Editor's (2024-02-28). ""Rising Together to Make Changes" Lilo, Advocates for Change". Retrieved 2024-05-03. {{cite web}}: \|first= has generic name (help) ^ "Hon Gordon Darcy Lilo \| National Parliament of Solomon Islands". www.parliament.gov.sb. Retrieved 2024-05-03. ^ "Solomons caretaker PM concedes he has lost seat". ABC News. 2014-11-23. Retrieved 2024-05-03. vtePolitical parties in the Solomon Islands Extant Democratic Alliance Party Kadere Party Ownership, Unity and Responsibility Party People First Party People's Alliance Party Solomon Islands Democratic Party Solomon Islands Party for Rural Advancement Solomon Islands United Party Umi for Change Party Defunct Christian Alliance Party Democratic Party Labour Party Lafari Party National Party People's Congress Party People's Power Action Party People's Progressive Party Reform Democratic Party Rural Alliance Party Rural and Urban Political Party Solomon Islands Labour Party Solomon Islands Liberal Party Solomons United National Party Solomon Islands Social Credit Party Twelve Pillars to Peace and Prosperity Party United Democratic Party United Solomon Islands Party Portal:Politics List of political parties Politics of Solomon Islands This article about a Solomon Islands political party is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sipra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sipra"},{"link_name":"political party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_party"},{"link_name":"Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solomon_Islands"},{"link_name":"Gordon Darcy Lilo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gordon_Darcy_Lilo"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"National Coalition for Reform and Advancement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Coalition_for_Reform_and_Advancement"},{"link_name":"Prime Minister of Solomon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Solomon_Islands"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"2014 Solomon Islands general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Solomon_Islands_general_election"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"\"SIPRA\" redirects here. For the Jat tribe, see Sipra.Political party in Solomon IslandsThe Solomon Islands Party for Rural Advancement (SIPRA) is a political party in the Solomon Islands. It was founded in 2006 and is led by Gordon Darcy Lilo.[1][2] The party was part of the National Coalition for Reform and Advancement, which governed the country between 2010 and 2014, with its leader Lilo being finance minister from 2010 to 2011 and then Prime Minister of Solomon Islands from 2011 to 2014.[3] The party lost all but one seat in the 2014 Solomon Islands general election with Lilo losing his seat to his nephew.[4]","title":"Solomon Islands Party for Rural Advancement"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Election results"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Independent MPs, Political Party Legislation and Electoral Politics in Solomon Islands\". Journal of Pacific Studies. doi:10.33318/jpacs.2020.40(2)-2. Retrieved 2024-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usp.ac.fj/journal-of-pacific-studies/all-issues/volume-40-issue-2-2020-special-edition-on-general-elections/independent-mps-political-party-legislation-and-electoral-politics-in-solomon-islands/","url_text":"\"Independent MPs, Political Party Legislation and Electoral Politics in Solomon Islands\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.33318%2Fjpacs.2020.40%282%29-2","url_text":"10.33318/jpacs.2020.40(2)-2"}]},{"reference":"Desk, Editor's (2024-02-28). \"\"Rising Together to Make Changes\" Lilo, Advocates for Change\". Retrieved 2024-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://sundayisles.islesmedia.net/rising-together-to-make-changes-lilo-advocates-for-change/","url_text":"\"\"Rising Together to Make Changes\" Lilo, Advocates for Change\""}]},{"reference":"\"Hon Gordon Darcy Lilo \| National Parliament of Solomon Islands\". www.parliament.gov.sb. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevation_(emotion)	Elevation (emotion)	["1 Background/overview","2 Major theories","2.1 Haidt's third dimension of social cognition","2.2 Fredrickson's broaden and build theory","2.3 Elevation as an other-praising emotion","2.4 Elevation as a self-transcendent positive emotion","3 Major empirical findings","3.1 Difference from happiness","3.2 Increased oxytocin in nursing mothers","3.3 Increased prosocial behavior","3.4 Improving functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals","4 Applications","4.1 In the workplace","4.2 Promoting altruistic behavior","4.3 Increasing spirituality","5 Elevation emotion in other species","6 Further research directions","7 See also","8 References"]	Elevation is an emotion elicited by witnessing actual or imagined virtuous acts of remarkable moral goodness. It is experienced as a distinct feeling of warmth and expansion that is accompanied by appreciation and affection for the individual whose exceptional conduct is being observed. Elevation motivates those who experience it to open up to, affiliate with, and assist others. Elevation makes an individual feel lifted up and optimistic about humanity. Elevation can also be a deliberate act, characteristic habit, or virtue that is characterized by disdaining the trivial or undignified in favor of more exalted or noble themes. Thoreau recommended, for example that a person "read not the Times read the Eternities" so that he "elevates his aim." Background/overview Elevation is defined as an emotional response to moral beauty. It is related to awe and wonder. It encompasses both the physical feelings and motivational effects that an individual experiences after witnessing acts of compassion or virtue. Psychologist Jonathan Haidt also posits that elevation is the opposite of social disgust, which is the reaction to reading about or witnessing "any atrocious deed." Haidt insists that elevation is worth studying because we cannot fully understand human morality until we can explain how and why humans are so powerfully affected by the sight of strangers helping one another. The goal of positive psychology is to bring about a balanced reappraisal of human nature and human potential. Positive psychologists are interested in understanding the motivations behind prosocial behavior in order to learn how to encourage individuals to help and care for each other. Thus, the field attempts to discern what causes individuals to act altruistically. While there is a great deal of research about individual acts of altruism, the amount of research done about a person's reaction to the altruism of others is surprisingly low. It is an oversight that Jonathan Haidt and others like him have striven to correct. Major theories Haidt's third dimension of social cognition Haidt asserts that elevation elicits warm, pleasurable sensations in the chest, and it also motivates individuals to act more virtuously themselves. In his explanation of elevation, Haidt describes the three dimensions of social cognition: The horizontal dimension of solidarity People vary in distance to the self in regards to affection and mutual obligation. For example, across cultures individuals act differently toward their friends than toward strangers. The vertical dimension of hierarchy, status, or power People moderate their social exchanges by the relative status of the people whom they are interacting with. The vertical dimension of "elevation versus degradation" or "purity versus pollution" People vary in their state and trait levels of spiritual purity. When people feel disgust toward certain behaviors, this emotion informs them that someone else is moving down on this third dimension. Haidt defines elevation as the opposite of disgust, because witnessing others rise on the third dimension causes the viewer to also feel higher on this dimension. Fredrickson's broaden and build theory Elevation exemplifies Barbara Fredrickson's broaden and build theory of positive emotions, which asserts that positive emotions expand an individual's scope of attention and cognition in the moment while also building resources for the future. Elevation makes an individual feel admiration for the altruist and also more motivated to help others. Elevation has the potential to spread by creating an upward helping spiral in which individuals view others doing good deeds and then feel an increased urge to help others. Elevation as an other-praising emotion Sara Algoe and Jonathan Haidt claim that elevation is in the "other-praising" family of emotions along with gratitude and admiration. These three emotions are positive reactions to witnessing the actions of exemplary others. The outcome of all three "other-praising" emotions is a focus on other people. Algoe and Haidt provided empirical evidence to support this theory. They conducted a study in which participants were prompted to remember a time when they had experienced an event that would elicit elevation, gratitude, admiration, or joy. The participants then completed a questionnaire. Their results suggest that the "other-praising" emotions are different from happiness and distinct from each other due to differing motivational impulses. Elevation motivates individuals to be open and compassionate towards other people. Compared to joy or amusement, people experiencing elevation were more likely to express a desire to perform kind or helpful actions for others, become better people, and imitate the virtuous exemplar. Elevation as a self-transcendent positive emotion Michelle Shiota and others assert that elevation is a self-transcendent positive emotion that serves to direct attention away from the self towards appreciating an exceptional human action or remarkable aspect of the natural world. In doing so, elevation encourages individuals to transcend daily routines, limits, and perceived boundaries. Shiota et al. describe how elevation functions as a moral emotion. It directs a person's judgments regarding others' morality and influences the person's own ensuing moral decisions in ways that may circumvent or precede logical moral reasoning. Elevation may have the adaptive function of motivating people to help others while also assisting those who experience the emotion. For example, elevation may help individuals select with partiality their caring relationship partners by eliciting affection for people who exhibit altruism or compassion. Elevation may also help foster norms of helping in groups or communities. When one member of a community witnesses another helping, they are likely to feel elevated and immediately or briefly in time react by helping someone else in the group. This is due to the mutual benefits of biological altruism. Major empirical findings Difference from happiness Researchers illustrated that elevation elicits patterns of physical sensations and motivations that differ from those feelings and impulses caused by happiness. They induced elevation in a laboratory setting by showing undergraduates a ten-minute video clip documenting the life of Mother Teresa. In the control conditions, students were either shown a documentary that was emotionally neutral or a clip from America's Funniest Home Videos. Those in the elevation condition were more likely to report physical feelings of warmth or tingling in their chests. They were also more likely to express a desire to help or associate with others and to cultivate themselves to become better people. They found that happiness caused people to engage in more self-focused or internal pursuits, while elevation appeared to turn participants' attention outward toward other people. Increased oxytocin in nursing mothers Jennifer Silvers and Jonathan Haidt found that elevation may increase the amount of oxytocin circulating in the body by promoting the release of the hormone. In their study, nursing mothers and their infants watched video clips that either evoked elevation or amusement. Mothers who watched the elevation-inducing clip were more likely to nurse, leak milk, or cuddle their babies. These actions are associated with oxytocin and thus suggest a possible physiological mechanism underlying feelings of elevation. Increased prosocial behavior Results from two studies conducted by Simone Schnall and others suggest that viewing an altruistic act increases a person's motivation to act prosocially. In the first study, participants either viewed a clip of professional musicians expressing gratitude to their mentors, which was designed to elicit elevation, or a neutral video. People who watched the elevation-evoking video were more likely to agree to help with a later, uncompensated study than those in a neutral state. In the second experiment, participants were assigned to watch either an elevation film clip, control film clip, or a clip from a British comedy program. They were then asked if they would help the researcher complete a tedious questionnaire filled with math problems for as long as they agreed to keep going. Participants who reported feeling elevated helped the experimenter with the tedious task for almost twice as much time than the participants who were amused or were in the control condition. Also, the length of time that the participants assisted was predicted by self-reported characteristics of subjective elevation such as desiring to help others and feeling hopeful about humanity; however, helping time was individually variable and not predicted by positive affect in general. Keith Cox studied undergraduates on a spring break service trip and discovered that those who reported more extreme and repeated experiences of elevation during the trip did more trip-specific volunteer activities related to their outing when they arrived home. These findings imply that the experience of elevation moved students to volunteer in the area in which they felt elevation. Improving functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals Research shows that elevation can contribute to emotional and social functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals. For ten days, participants completed brief daily surveys to assess elevation, feelings of competence, interpersonal functioning, symptoms, and compassionate goals. Their findings indicated that on days that clinically distressed individuals experienced high elevation in relation to their normal levels, they reported a greater desire to help others and to be close to others. They also reported less interpersonal conflict and fewer symptoms of distress. This emotion thus motivates people for making them feel better. Applications In the workplace In a 2010 study, Michelangelo Vianello, Elisa Maria Galliani, and Jonathan Haidt found that an employer's ability to inspire elevation in employees strengthened positive attitudes and enhanced virtuous organizational behavior. It appears that employees pay a great deal of attention to the moral behavior of their superiors and respond positively to the display of fairness and moral integrity. Such displays inspire moral elevation and result in intense positive emotions. According to this study, employers could benefit from the positive effects associated with elevation and should actively strive to inspire it in their subordinates. Promoting altruistic behavior A study done at the University of Cambridge shows that elevation leads to an increase in altruism. In the study, individuals experiencing elevation were more likely to volunteer to participate in an unpaid study, and spent twice as long helping an experimenter perform tedious tasks compared to those experiencing mirth or in a neutral emotional state. The researchers concluded that witnessing another person's altruistic behavior elicits elevation, which leads to tangible increases in altruism. According to these results, the best method of encouraging biological altruistic behavior may be simply to lead by example. Increasing spirituality Researchers found that elevation and other self-transcendent positive emotions cause people to view others and the world as more benevolent. This perception leads to increased spirituality, because seeing a person or action that is greater than oneself results in greater faith in the goodness of people and the world. It may also cause those who experience the emotion to view life as more meaningful. The researchers observed the greatest effect of elevation on spirituality in people who were less or non-religious. Because spirituality has been connected to prosocial behavior, this link could indicate other benefits of elevation. Holding a more positive view of the world could lead to increased helping behavior, which could encourage many positive interactions. This increase in positive experiences could lead to improved well-being and better health outcomes in individuals; instead of getting caught up in daily stress and negativity, they will be better able to identify and cultivate the positive aspects of their lives through their actions towards others thus motivated. Elevation emotion in other species There has been some debate in the scientific community over whether elevation is a uniquely human trait. Primatologist Jane Goodall argues that other animals are capable of experiencing awe, elevation, and wonder. Goodall is famous for her execution of the longest uninterrupted study of a group of animals. She lived among wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, observing them for 45 years. Several times, she witnessed signs of heightened arousal in chimpanzees in the presence of spectacular waterfalls or rainstorms. Each time, the chimp would perform a magnificent display, swaying rhythmically from one foot to the other, stamping in the water, and throwing rocks. Goodall postulates that such displays are the precursors of religious ritual, and are inspired by feelings akin to elevation or awe. Further research directions Most research concerning elevation has emphasized its impact on social interactions and behaviors. However, researchers are investigating the precise physiological mechanisms responsible for the warm, open sensation in the chest elicited by elevation. Video clips designed to evoke elevation have been observed to lead to a decrease in vagal parasympathetic impact on the heart. However, further investigation is necessary in order to determine whether elevation has a unique physiological profile. Researchers are exploring the idea that profound experiences of elevation can be peak experiences that can alter people's identities and spiritual lives. While moral development is often conceptualized as a lifelong process, Haidt offers an "inspire and rewire" hypothesis which proposes that certain momentary experiences have the potential to induce temporary or even lasting moral changes by exposing individuals to these transformative experiences. Haidt suggests that instances of profound elevation can function as a "mental reset button," replacing cynical or pessimistic emotions with feelings of hope, love, and moral inspiration. See also Admiration – Social emotion Artistic inspiration – Unconscious burst of creativity Awe – Emotion comparable to wonder Gratitude – Feeling or attitude in acknowledgement of a benefit that one has received or will receive Kindness priming (psychology) Moral psychology – Field of study in both philosophy and psychology Mudita – Sympathetic or vicarious joy in Sanskrit and Pali Positive psychology – Approach of psychological scientific study References ^ Thomson, Andrew L.; Siegel, Jason T. (20 December 2016). "Elevation: A review of scholarship on a moral and other-praising emotion". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 12 (6): 628–638. doi:10.1080/17439760.2016.1269184. S2CID 151370046.Pohling, Rico; Diessner, Rhett (December 2016). "Moral Elevation and Moral Beauty: A Review of the Empirical Literature". Review of General Psychology. 20 (4): 412–425. doi:10.1037/gpr0000089. S2CID 151508946. ^ a b Aquino, Karl; Brent McFerran; Marjorie Laven (April 2011). "Moral identity and the experience of moral elevation in response to acts of uncommon goodness". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 100 (4): 703–718. doi:10.1037/a0022540. PMID 21443375. ^ a b c d e f g Haidt, Jonathan (2003). "Elevation and the positive psychology of morality". Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived. pp. 275–289. doi:10.1037/10594-012. ISBN 1-55798-930-3. ^ Thoreau, Henry David (October 1863). "Life Without Principle". Atlantic Monthly. XII (72): 4874–495. ^ Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). "The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 359 (1449): 1367–1378. doi:10.1098/rstb.2004.1512. PMC 1693418. PMID 15347528. ^ Haidt, Jonathan (7 March 2000). "The Positive Emotion of Elevation". Prevention & Treatment. 3 (1). doi:10.1037/1522-3736.3.1.33c. ^ Algoe, Sara; Haidt, Jonathan (2009). "Witnessing Excellence in Action: The other-praising emotions of elevation, admiration, and gratitude". Journal of Positive Psychology. 4 (2): 105–127. doi:10.1080/17439760802650519. PMC 2689844. PMID 19495425. ^ a b c d Shiota, Michelle; Thrash, T.M.; Danvers, A.F.; Dombrowski, J.T. (2014). "Transcending the self: Awe, elevation, and inspiration". In Tugade, M; Shiota, M.; Kirby, L. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Emotions. The Guilford Press. pp. 362–377. ^ a b Silvers, Jennifer; Haidt, Jonathan (2008). "Moral Elevation Can Induce Nursing". Emotion. 8 (2): 291–295. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.8.2.291. PMID 18410202. ^ a b c Schnall, Simone; Roper, Jean; Fessler, Daniel (2010). "Elevation Leads to Altruistic Behavior". Psychological Science. 21 (3): 315–320. doi:10.1177/0956797609359882. PMID 20424062. S2CID 9329586. ^ Cox, Keith (2010). "Elevation predicts domain-specific volunteerism 3 months later". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (5): 333–341. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.507468. S2CID 145004175. ^ Erickson, Thane; James Abelson (2012). "Even the downhearted may be uplifted: Moral elevation in the daily life of clinically depressed and anxious adults". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 31 (7): 707–728. doi:10.1521/jscp.2012.31.7.707. ^ Vianello, Michelangelo; Galliani, Maria; Haidt, Jonathan (20 October 2010). "Elevation at work: The effects of leaders' moral excellence" (PDF). The Journal of Positive Psychology. 5 (5): 390–411. doi:10.1080/17439760.2010.516764. S2CID 2594818. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-05-12. Retrieved 14 April 2014. ^ a b Van Cappellen, Patty; Saroglou, V.; Iweins, C.; Piovesana, M.; Fredrickson, B.L. (13 May 2013). "Self-transcendent positive emotions increase spirituality through basic world assumptions". Cognition & Emotion. 27 (8): 1378–1394. doi:10.1080/02699931.2013.787395. PMID 23662802. S2CID 14031666. ^ a b Goodall, Jane (2005). "Primate Spirituality" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature: 1303–1306. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 14 April 2014.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"Thoreau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoreau"},{"link_name":"Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper"},{"link_name":"Eternities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcendentals"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Elevation can also be a deliberate act, characteristic habit, or virtue that is characterized by disdaining the trivial or undignified in favor of more exalted or noble themes. Thoreau recommended, for example that a person \"read not the Times [but rather] read the Eternities\" so that he \"elevates his aim.\"[4]","title":"Elevation (emotion)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"awe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awe"},{"link_name":"wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"compassion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion"},{"link_name":"virtue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtue"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Haidt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Haidt"},{"link_name":"disgust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"},{"link_name":"morality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morality"},{"link_name":"positive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology"},{"link_name":"prosocial behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prosocial_behavior"},{"link_name":"altruism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altruism"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"}],"text":"Elevation is defined as an emotional response to moral beauty. It is related to awe and wonder. It encompasses both the physical feelings and motivational effects that an individual experiences after witnessing acts of compassion or virtue.Psychologist Jonathan Haidt also posits that elevation is the opposite of social disgust, which is the reaction to reading about or witnessing \"any atrocious deed.\"[3] Haidt insists that elevation is worth studying because we cannot fully understand human morality until we can explain how and why humans are so powerfully affected by the sight of strangers helping one another.The goal of positive psychology is to bring about a balanced reappraisal of human nature and human potential. Positive psychologists are interested in understanding the motivations behind prosocial behavior in order to learn how to encourage individuals to help and care for each other. Thus, the field attempts to discern what causes individuals to act altruistically. While there is a great deal of research about individual acts of altruism, the amount of research done about a person's reaction to the altruism of others is surprisingly low. It is an oversight that Jonathan Haidt and others like him have striven to correct.[3]","title":"Background/overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Major theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"social cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_cognition"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"},{"link_name":"disgust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disgust"}],"sub_title":"Haidt's third dimension of social cognition","text":"Haidt asserts that elevation elicits warm, pleasurable sensations in the chest, and it also motivates individuals to act more virtuously themselves. In his explanation of elevation, Haidt describes the three dimensions of social cognition:[3]The horizontal dimension of solidarity\nPeople vary in distance to the self in regards to affection and mutual obligation. For example, across cultures individuals act differently toward their friends than toward strangers.The vertical dimension of hierarchy, status, or power\nPeople moderate their social exchanges by the relative status of the people whom they are interacting with.The vertical dimension of \"elevation versus degradation\" or \"purity versus pollution\"\nPeople vary in their state and trait levels of spiritual purity. When people feel disgust toward certain behaviors, this emotion informs them that someone else is moving down on this third dimension. Haidt defines elevation as the opposite of disgust, because witnessing others rise on the third dimension causes the viewer to also feel higher on this dimension.","title":"Major theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"broaden and build","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broaden_and_build"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Fredrickson's broaden and build theory","text":"Elevation exemplifies Barbara Fredrickson's broaden and build theory of positive emotions,[5] which asserts that positive emotions expand an individual's scope of attention and cognition in the moment while also building resources for the future. Elevation makes an individual feel admiration for the altruist and also more motivated to help others. Elevation has the potential to spread by creating an upward helping spiral in which individuals view others doing good deeds and then feel an increased urge to help others.[6]","title":"Major theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gratitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude"},{"link_name":"admiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"joy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joy"},{"link_name":"compassionate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compassion"}],"sub_title":"Elevation as an other-praising emotion","text":"Sara Algoe and Jonathan Haidt claim that elevation is in the \"other-praising\" family of emotions along with gratitude and admiration.[7] These three emotions are positive reactions to witnessing the actions of exemplary others. The outcome of all three \"other-praising\" emotions is a focus on other people.Algoe and Haidt provided empirical evidence to support this theory. They conducted a study in which participants were prompted to remember a time when they had experienced an event that would elicit elevation, gratitude, admiration, or joy. The participants then completed a questionnaire. Their results suggest that the \"other-praising\" emotions are different from happiness and distinct from each other due to differing motivational impulses. Elevation motivates individuals to be open and compassionate towards other people. Compared to joy or amusement, people experiencing elevation were more likely to express a desire to perform kind or helpful actions for others, become better people, and imitate the virtuous exemplar.","title":"Major theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shiota-8"},{"link_name":"logical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"moral reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shiota-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shiota-8"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Elevation as a self-transcendent positive emotion","text":"Michelle Shiota and others assert that elevation is a self-transcendent positive emotion that serves to direct attention away from the self towards appreciating an exceptional human action or remarkable aspect of the natural world.[8] In doing so, elevation encourages individuals to transcend daily routines, limits, and perceived boundaries.Shiota et al. describe how elevation functions as a moral emotion. It directs a person's judgments regarding others' morality and influences the person's own ensuing moral decisions in ways that may circumvent or precede logical moral reasoning.[8] Elevation may have the adaptive function of motivating people to help others while also assisting those who experience the emotion. For example, elevation may help individuals select with partiality their caring relationship partners by eliciting affection for people who exhibit altruism or compassion. Elevation may also help foster norms of helping in groups or communities. When one member of a community witnesses another helping, they are likely to feel elevated and immediately or briefly in time react by helping someone else in the group.[8] This is due to the mutual benefits of biological[clarification needed] altruism.","title":"Major theories"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Major empirical findings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"happiness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happiness"},{"link_name":"needs copy edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"},{"link_name":"Mother Teresa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mother_Teresa"},{"link_name":"America's Funniest Home Videos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s_Funniest_Home_Videos"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"}],"sub_title":"Difference from happiness","text":"Researchers illustrated that elevation elicits patterns of physical sensations and motivations that differ from those feelings and impulses caused by happiness.[needs copy edit][3] They induced elevation in a laboratory setting by showing undergraduates a ten-minute video clip documenting the life of Mother Teresa. In the control conditions, students were either shown a documentary that was emotionally neutral or a clip from America's Funniest Home Videos. Those in the elevation condition were more likely to report physical feelings of warmth or tingling in their chests. They were also more likely to express a desire to help or associate with others and to cultivate themselves to become better people. They found that happiness caused people to engage in more self-focused or internal pursuits, while elevation appeared to turn participants' attention outward toward other people.[3]","title":"Major empirical findings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oxytocin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxytocin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Silvers-9"}],"sub_title":"Increased oxytocin in nursing mothers","text":"Jennifer Silvers and Jonathan Haidt found that elevation may increase the amount of oxytocin circulating in the body by promoting the release of the hormone. In their study, nursing mothers and their infants watched video clips that either evoked elevation or amusement. Mothers who watched the elevation-inducing clip were more likely to nurse, leak milk, or cuddle their babies. These actions are associated with oxytocin and thus suggest a possible physiological mechanism underlying feelings of elevation.[9]","title":"Major empirical findings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schnall-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schnall-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cox-11"}],"sub_title":"Increased prosocial behavior","text":"Results from two studies conducted by Simone Schnall and others suggest that viewing an altruistic act increases a person's motivation to act prosocially.[10]In the first study, participants either viewed a clip of professional musicians expressing gratitude to their mentors, which was designed to elicit elevation, or a neutral video. People who watched the elevation-evoking video were more likely to agree to help with a later, uncompensated study than those in a neutral state.In the second experiment, participants were assigned to watch either an elevation film clip, control film clip, or a clip from a British comedy program. They were then asked if they would help the researcher complete a tedious questionnaire filled with math problems for as long as they agreed to keep going. Participants who reported feeling elevated helped the experimenter with the tedious task for almost twice as much time than the participants who were amused or were in the control condition. Also, the length of time that the participants assisted was predicted by self-reported characteristics of subjective elevation such as desiring to help others and feeling hopeful about humanity; however, helping time was individually variable and not predicted by positive affect in general.[10]Keith Cox studied undergraduates on a spring break service trip and discovered that those who reported more extreme and repeated experiences of elevation during the trip did more trip-specific volunteer activities related to their outing when they arrived home. These findings imply that the experience of elevation moved students to volunteer in the area in which they felt elevation.[11]","title":"Major empirical findings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Erickson-12"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Elevation_(emotion)#Dubious"}],"sub_title":"Improving functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals","text":"Research shows that elevation can contribute to emotional and social functioning in clinically depressed and anxious individuals. For ten days, participants completed brief daily surveys to assess elevation, feelings of competence, interpersonal functioning, symptoms, and compassionate goals. Their findings indicated that on days that clinically distressed individuals experienced high elevation in relation to their normal levels, they reported a greater desire to help others and to be close to others. They also reported less interpersonal conflict and fewer symptoms of distress.[12] This emotion thus motivates people for making them feel better.[dubious – discuss]","title":"Major empirical findings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"In the workplace","text":"In a 2010 study, Michelangelo Vianello, Elisa Maria Galliani, and Jonathan Haidt found that an employer's ability to inspire elevation in employees strengthened positive attitudes and enhanced virtuous organizational behavior. It appears that employees pay a great deal of attention to the moral behavior of their superiors and respond positively to the display of fairness and moral integrity. Such displays inspire moral elevation and result in intense positive emotions. According to this study, employers could benefit from the positive effects associated with elevation and should actively strive to inspire it in their subordinates.[13]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"needs copy edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Basic_copyediting"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schnall-10"}],"sub_title":"Promoting altruistic behavior","text":"A study done at the University of Cambridge shows that elevation leads to an increase in altruism. In the study, individuals experiencing elevation were more likely to volunteer to participate in an unpaid study, and spent twice as long helping an experimenter perform tedious tasks compared to those experiencing mirth or in a neutral emotional state.[needs copy edit] The researchers concluded that witnessing another person's altruistic behavior elicits elevation, which leads to tangible increases in altruism. According to these results, the best method of encouraging biological[clarification needed] altruistic behavior may be simply to lead by example.[10]","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Van-14"},{"link_name":"spirituality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spirituality"},{"link_name":"non sequitur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Van-14"}],"sub_title":"Increasing spirituality","text":"Researchers found that elevation and other self-transcendent positive emotions cause people to view others and the world as more benevolent.[14] This perception leads to increased spirituality, because[non sequitur] seeing a person or action that is greater than oneself results in greater faith in the goodness of people and the world. It may also cause those who experience the emotion to view life as more meaningful. The researchers observed the greatest effect of elevation on spirituality in people who were less or non-religious.[14] Because spirituality has been connected to prosocial behavior, this link could indicate other benefits of elevation. Holding a more positive view of the world could lead to increased helping behavior, which could encourage many positive interactions. This increase in positive experiences could lead to improved well-being and better health outcomes in individuals; instead of getting caught up in daily stress and negativity, they will be better able to identify and cultivate the positive aspects of their lives through their actions towards others thus motivated.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jane Goodall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jane_Goodall"},{"link_name":"wonder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonder_(emotion)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jane-15"}],"text":"There has been some debate in the scientific community over whether elevation is a uniquely human trait. Primatologist Jane Goodall argues that other animals are capable of experiencing awe, elevation, and wonder.[15] Goodall is famous for her execution of the longest uninterrupted study of a group of animals. She lived among wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, observing them for 45 years. Several times, she witnessed signs of heightened arousal in chimpanzees in the presence of spectacular waterfalls or rainstorms. Each time, the chimp would perform a magnificent display, swaying rhythmically from one foot to the other, stamping in the water, and throwing rocks. Goodall postulates that such displays are the precursors of religious ritual, and are inspired by feelings akin to elevation or awe.[15]","title":"Elevation emotion in other species"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shiota-8"},{"link_name":"vagal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagal"},{"link_name":"parasympathetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasympathetic"},{"link_name":"vague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Silvers-9"},{"link_name":"peak experiences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peak_experiences"},{"link_name":"hope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hope"},{"link_name":"love","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Love"},{"link_name":"inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/inspiration"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haidt-3"}],"text":"Most research concerning elevation has emphasized its impact on social interactions and behaviors.[8] However, researchers are investigating the precise physiological mechanisms responsible for the warm, open sensation in the chest elicited by elevation. Video clips designed to evoke elevation have been observed to lead to a decrease in vagal parasympathetic impact[vague] on the heart.[9] However, further investigation is necessary in order to determine whether elevation has a unique physiological profile.Researchers are exploring the idea that profound experiences of elevation can be peak experiences that can alter people's identities and spiritual lives. While moral development is often conceptualized as a lifelong process, Haidt offers an \"inspire and rewire\" hypothesis which proposes that certain momentary experiences have the potential to induce temporary or even lasting moral changes by exposing individuals to these transformative experiences. Haidt suggests that instances of profound elevation can function as a \"mental reset button,\" replacing cynical or pessimistic emotions with feelings of hope, love, and moral inspiration.[3]","title":"Further research directions"}]	[]	[{"title":"Admiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Admiration"},{"title":"Artistic inspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_inspiration"},{"title":"Awe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awe"},{"title":"Gratitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gratitude"},{"title":"Kindness priming (psychology)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindness_priming_(psychology)"},{"title":"Moral psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_psychology"},{"title":"Mudita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudita"},{"title":"Positive psychology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_psychology"}]	[{"reference":"Thomson, Andrew L.; Siegel, Jason T. (20 December 2016). \"Elevation: A review of scholarship on a moral and other-praising emotion\". The Journal of Positive Psychology. 12 (6): 628–638. doi:10.1080/17439760.2016.1269184. S2CID 151370046.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17439760.2016.1269184","url_text":"10.1080/17439760.2016.1269184"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151370046","url_text":"151370046"}]},{"reference":"Pohling, Rico; Diessner, Rhett (December 2016). \"Moral Elevation and Moral Beauty: A Review of the Empirical Literature\". Review of General Psychology. 20 (4): 412–425. doi:10.1037/gpr0000089. S2CID 151508946.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fgpr0000089","url_text":"10.1037/gpr0000089"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:151508946","url_text":"151508946"}]},{"reference":"Aquino, Karl; Brent McFerran; Marjorie Laven (April 2011). \"Moral identity and the experience of moral elevation in response to acts of uncommon goodness\". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 100 (4): 703–718. doi:10.1037/a0022540. PMID 21443375.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fa0022540","url_text":"10.1037/a0022540"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21443375","url_text":"21443375"}]},{"reference":"Haidt, Jonathan (2003). \"Elevation and the positive psychology of morality\". Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived. pp. 275–289. doi:10.1037/10594-012. ISBN 1-55798-930-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/flourishingposit00keye_329","url_text":"Flourishing: Positive psychology and the life well-lived"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/flourishingposit00keye_329/page/n251","url_text":"275"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1037%2F10594-012","url_text":"10.1037/10594-012"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55798-930-3","url_text":"1-55798-930-3"}]},{"reference":"Thoreau, Henry David (October 1863). \"Life Without Principle\". Atlantic Monthly. XII (72): 4874–495.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_Without_Principle","url_text":"\"Life Without Principle\""}]},{"reference":"Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). \"The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions\". 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PMID 19495425.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689844","url_text":"\"Witnessing Excellence in Action: The other-praising emotions of elevation, admiration, and gratitude\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17439760802650519","url_text":"10.1080/17439760802650519"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2689844","url_text":"2689844"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19495425","url_text":"19495425"}]},{"reference":"Shiota, Michelle; Thrash, T.M.; Danvers, A.F.; Dombrowski, J.T. (2014). \"Transcending the self: Awe, elevation, and inspiration\". In Tugade, M; Shiota, M.; Kirby, L. (eds.). Handbook of Positive Emotions. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Chambers_(publisher_born_1802)	Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)	["1 Early life","1.1 Early works","2 Marriage","3 W. & R. Chambers","4 Vestiges","5 Other activities","6 Book of Days","7 Death","8 Works","8.1 Principal writings","8.2 Unpublished manuscripts","8.3 Editor and contributor","9 References","10 Bibliography","10.1 Works by Chambers","11 External links"]	Scottish publisher and writer Robert ChambersChambers c. 1863Born10 July 1802Peebles, Peeblesshire, ScotlandDied17 March 1871(1871-03-17) (aged 68)St Andrews, Fife, ScotlandResting placeSt Regulus Chapel, St AndrewsOccupationCo-founder and partner, W. & R. Chambers Publishers, EdinburghEducationThe High School, EdinburghNotable works Traditions of Edinburgh (1824) The Picture of Scotland (1827) Histories of the Rebellions in Scotland Vestiges of Creation (1844) Ancient Sea-margins (1848) Spouse Anne Kirkwood (m. 1829–1863) (unknown wife) (m. 1867–1879) Childrenson: Robert Chambers Jr. (1832–1888)Relatives mother: Jean Gibson brother: William Chambers (1800–1883) granddaughter: Violet Tweedale Robert Chambers FRSE FGS LLD (/ˈtʃeɪmbərz/; 10 July 1802 – 17 March 1871) was a Scottish publisher, geologist, evolutionary thinker, author and journal editor who, like his elder brother and business partner William Chambers, was highly influential in mid-19th-century scientific and political circles. Chambers was an early phrenologist in the Edinburgh Phrenological Society. He was also the anonymous author of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which was so controversial that his authorship was not acknowledged until after his death. Early life Chambers was born in Peebles in the Scottish Borders 10 July 1802 to Jean Gibson (c. 1781–1843) and James Chambers, a cotton manufacturer. He was their second son of six children. The town had changed little in centuries. The town had old and new parts, each consisting of little more than a single street. Peebles was mainly inhabited by weavers and labourers living in thatched cottages. His father, James Chambers, made his living as a cotton manufacturer. Their slate-roofed house was built by James Chambers' father as a wedding gift for his son, and the ground floor served as the family workshop. A small circulating library in the town, run by Alexander Elder, introduced Robert to books and developed his literary interests when he was young. Occasionally his father would buy books for the family library, and one day Robert found a complete set of the fourth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica hidden away in a chest in the attic. He eagerly read this for many years. Near the end of his life, Chambers remembered feeling "a profound thankfulness that such a convenient collection of human knowledge existed, and that here it was spread out like a well-plenished table before me." Robert's older brother, William, later recalled that for Robert, "the acquisition of knowledge was with him the highest of earthly enjoyments." Robert was sent to local schools and showed unusual literary taste and ability, though he found his schooling to be uninspiring. His education was typical for the day. The country school, directed by James Gray, taught the boys reading, writing, and, for an additional charge, arithmetic. In grammar school it was the classics—Latin and Ancient Greek, with some English composition. Boys bullied one another and the teacher administered corporal punishment in the classroom for unruly behaviour. Although uninspired by the school, Robert made up for this at the bookseller. Both Robert and William were born with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. Their parents attempted to correct this abnormality through operations, and while William's was successful Robert was left partially lame. So while other boys roughed it outside, Robert was content to stay indoors and study his books. Robert surpassed his elder brother in his education, which he continued for several years beyond William's. Robert had been destined for the ministry, but at the age of fifteen he dropped this intended career. The arrival of the power loom suddenly threatened James Chambers' cotton business, forcing him to close it down and become a draper. During this time, James began to socialise with a number of French prisoners of war on parole who were stationed in Peebles. Unfortunately, James Chambers lent these exiles a large amount of credit, and when they were abruptly transferred away he was forced to declare bankruptcy. The family moved to Edinburgh in 1813. Robert continued his education at the High School, and William became a bookseller's apprentice. In 1818 Robert, at sixteen years old, began his own business as a bookstall-keeper on Leith Walk. At first, his entire stock consisted of some old books belonging to his father, amounting to thirteen feet of shelf space and worth no more than a few pounds. By the end of the first year the value of his stock went up to twelve pounds, and modest success came gradually. Early works While Robert built up a business, his brother William expanded his own by purchasing a home-made printing press and publishing pamphlets as well as creating his own type. Soon afterwards, Robert and William decided to join forces—with Robert writing and William printing. Their first joint venture was a magazine series called The Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement, sold for threepence. This was issued every two weeks between 6 October 1821 and 12 January 1822. It was followed by Illustrations of the Author of Waverley (1822), which offered sketches of individuals believed to have been the inspirations for some of the characters in Walter Scott's works of fiction. The last book to be printed on William's old press was Traditions of Edinburgh (1824), derived from Robert's enthusiastic interest in the history and antiquities of Edinburgh. He followed this with Walks in Edinburgh (1825), Popular Rhymes of Scotland (1826) and Picture of Scotland (1826). This was followed by five volumes of Scottish history to form part of Constable's Miscellany. In 1832 he compiled Gazetteer of Scotland. These books gained him the approval and personal friendship of Walter Scott. After Scott's death, Robert paid tribute to him by writing a Life of Sir Walter Scott (1832). Robert also wrote a History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745 (5 vols, 1828) and numerous other works on Scotland and Scottish traditions. Marriage On 7 December 1829 Robert married Anne Kirkwood, the only child of Jane and John Kirkwood. Together they had 14 children, three of whom died in infancy. Excluding these three, their children were Robert (Robert Chambers Jr.), Nina (Mrs. Frederick Lehmann, and mother of Rudolf Chambers Lehmann), Mary (Mrs. Alexander Mackenzie Edwards, mother of satirist Bob Edwards), Anne (Mrs. Dowie, mother of Ménie Muriel Dowie), Janet, Eliza (Mrs. William Overend Priestley), Amelia (Mrs. Rudolf Lehmann), James, William, Phoebe (Mrs. Zeigler), and Alice. W. & R. Chambers Main article: Chambers (publisher) 21 November 1840, copy of the Chambers' Edinburgh Journal At the beginning of 1832 Robert's brother William Chambers started a weekly publication entitled Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, which speedily gained a large circulation. Robert was at first only a contributor, but after 14 volumes had appeared, he became joint editor with his brother, and his collaboration contributed more perhaps than anything else to the success of the Journal. The two brothers eventually united as partners in the book publishing firm of W. & R. Chambers Publishers. At the same time Robert ran a bookshop and circulating library from 48 Hanover Street with his younger brother, James Chambers. Meanwhile, William ran his shop from 47 Broughton Street. Robert at this time was living close to the shop, at 27 Elder Street (demolished in the 1960s to improve access to Edinburgh Bus Station). Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in whole or in part the author, the Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen (4 vols., Glasgow, 1832–1835), the Cyclopædia of English Literature (1844), the Life and Works of Robert Burns (4 vols., 1851), Ancient Sea Margins (1848), the Domestic Annals of Scotland (1859–1861) and the Book of Days (2 vols., 1862–1864) were the most important. Chambers's Encyclopaedia (1859–1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as editor, was carried out under the superintendence of the brothers. The Cyclopædia of English Literature contains a series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of every period, "set in a biographical and critical history of the literature itself." For the Life of Burns he made diligent and laborious original investigations, gathering many hitherto unrecorded facts from the poet's sister, Mrs Begg, to whose benefit the whole profits of the work were generously devoted. Vestiges Further information: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation During the 1830s, Robert Chambers took a particularly keen interest in the then rapidly expanding field of geology, and he was elected a fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1844. Prior to this, he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1840, which connected him through correspondence to numerous scientific men. William later recalls that "His mind had become occupied with speculative theories which brought him into communication with Sir Charles Bell, George Combe, his brother Dr. Andrew Combe, Dr. Neil Arnott, Professor Edward Forbes, Dr. Samuel Brown, and other thinkers on physiology and mental philosophy." In 1848 Chambers published his first geological book on Ancient Sea Margins. Later, he toured Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of geological exploration. The results of his travels were published in Tracings of the North of Europe (1851) and Tracings in Iceland and the Faroe Islands (1856). However, his most popular book, influenced by his geological studies and interest in speculative theories, was a work to which he never openly attached his name. In 1844, Chambers completed the dictation of his Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation to his wife, Anne Kirkwood, as he recuperated from depression at his holiday home in St Andrews. The composition of Vestiges may have served a therapeutic purpose. Chambers had been an enthusiastic phrenologist in Edinburgh in the 1830s, and the anonymously authored Vestiges became an international bestseller and a powerful public influence, subsequent to Combe's Constitution of Man (1828), and anticipating the publication of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859. The first edition of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation was released in 1844 and published anonymously. Literary anonymity was not uncommon at the time, especially in periodical journalism. However, in the science genre, anonymity was especially rare, due to the fact that science writers typically wanted to take credit for their work to claim priority for their findings. The reason for Chambers' anonymity was clear enough as soon as one began reading the text. The book was arguing for a developmental view of the cosmos combining stellar evolution with progressive transmutation of species in the same spirit as the late Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Lamarck had been discredited among intellectuals by this time, and evolutionary (or development) theories were exceedingly unpopular, except among political radicals, and materialists. Chambers, however, tried to explicitly distance his own theory from that of Lamarck's by denying Lamarck's evolutionary mechanism any plausibility. "Now it is possible that wants and the exercise of faculties have entered in some manner into the production of the phenomena which we have been considering; but certainly not in the way suggested by Lamarck, whose whole notion is obviously so inadequate to account for the rise of the organic kingdoms, that we only can place it with pity among the follies of the wise." Additionally, his work was far more sweeping in scope than any of his predecessors. "The book, as far as I am aware," he writes in his concluding chapter, "is the first attempt to connect the natural sciences in a history of creation." Robert Chambers was aware of the storm that would probably be raised by his treatment of the subject, and he did not wish to get his and his brother's publishing firm involved in any kind of scandal. The arrangements for publication, therefore, were made through a friend named Alexander Ireland, of Manchester. To further prevent the possibility of any unwanted revelations, Chambers only disclosed his authorship to four people: his wife, his brother William, Ireland, and George Combe's nephew, Robert Cox. All correspondence to and from Chambers passed through Ireland's hands first, and all letters and manuscripts were dutifully transcribed in Mrs. Chambers' hand to prevent the possibility of anyone recognizing Robert's handwriting. By implying that God might not actively sustain the natural and social hierarchies, the book threatened the social order and could provide ammunition to Chartists and revolutionaries. Anglican clergymen and naturalists attacked the book. The geologist Adam Sedgwick predicted "ruin and confusion in such a creed" which, if taken up by the working classes, "will undermine the whole moral and social fabric" bringing "discord and deadly mischief in its train". In contrast, many Quakers and Unitarians liked the book. The Unitarian physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter called it "a very beautiful and a very interesting book", and helped Chambers to correct later editions. Critics thanked God that the author began "in ignorance and presumption", for the revised versions "would have been much more dangerous". Nevertheless, the book caused a sensation and quickly went through a number of new editions. Vestiges brought widespread discussion of evolution out of the streets and gutter presses and into the drawing rooms of respectable men and women. Other activities Chambers gave a talk on ancient beaches at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at Oxford in May 1847. An observer named Andrew Crombie Ramsay at the meeting reported that Chambers "pushed his conclusions to a most unwarrantable length and got roughly handled on account of it by Buckland, De la Beche, Sedgwick, Murchison, and Lyell. The last told me afterwards that he did so purposely that might see that reasonings in the style of the author of the Vestiges would not be tolerated among scientific men." On the Sunday Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, used his sermon at St. Mary's Church on "the wrong way of doing science" to deliver a stinging attack obviously aimed at Chambers. The church, "crowded to suffocation" with geologists, astronomers and zoologists, heard jibes about the "half-learned" seduced by the "foul temptation" of speculation looking for a self-sustaining universe in a "mocking spirit of unbelief", showing a failure to understand the "modes of the Creator's acting" or to meet the responsibilities of a gentleman. Chambers denounced this as an attempt to stifle progressive opinion, but others thought he must have gone home "with the feeling of a martyr". Near the close of autumn 1848, Chambers allowed himself to be brought forward as a candidate for the administrative position of Lord Provost of Edinburgh. The timing was especially poor, with others seeking any means possible to try and discredit his character. His adversaries found the perfect opportunity to do so in the swirling allegations that he was the author of the much reviled Vestiges. William Chambers, in his Memoir of Robert Chambers, still sworn to secrecy despite his brother's recent passing, makes his only mention of Vestiges in connection with this affair: "(Robert) might have been well assured that a rumor to the effect that he was the author of 'Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation' would be used to his disadvantage, and that anything he might say on the subject would be unavailing." Robert withdrew his candidacy in disgust. In 1851 Chambers was one of a group of writers who joined the publisher John Chapman in reinvigorating the Westminster Review as a flagship of free thought and reform, spreading the ideas of evolutionism. Robert Chambers was a golfer and was elected an honorary member of the Musselburgh Golf Club (now Royal Musselburgh Golf Club) on 14 September 1833. His son, who followed him into the publishing business, was a renowned player and became Champion Golfer in 1858 as a member of Bruntsfield Links Golfing Society. Book of Days Main article: Chambers Book of Days The grave of Robert Chambers, St Andrews Cathedral churchyard The Book of Days was Chambers's last major publication, and perhaps his most elaborate. It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connection with the calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion with this book hastened his death. Two years before, the University of St Andrews had conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Laws, and he was elected a member of the Athenaeum Club in London. Death Robert Chambers died on 17 March 1871 in St Andrews. He was buried in the Cathedral burial ground in the interior of the old Church of St. Regulus, according to his wishes. The grave lies against the southern wall of the structure attaching the roofless section, east of the tower. A memorial window was also erected to Robert by his brother William in St Giles Cathedral next to a larger window to William himself, placed at the time of his restoration of the cathedral. The pair of windows lie in the northern transept. A year after Robert's death, his brother William published a biography under the title Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminiscences of William Chambers. However, the book did not reveal Robert's authorship of the Vestiges. Milton Millhauser, in his 1959 book Just Before Darwin, wrote the following about William's memoir: "The fraternal Memoir of Robert Chambers might have been an excellent biography had not the author been concerned to keep the Vestiges secret and one or two others. Despite the author's intelligence and sympathy, such omissions inevitably produced a distorted picture" (p. 191, note 7). The book contains some reminiscences by Robert of his early life, with the rest of the narration filled in by William. Alexander Ireland, in 1884, issued a 12th edition of Vestiges with Robert Chambers finally listed as the author and a preface giving an account of its authorship. Ireland felt that there was no longer any reason for concealing the author's name. Works Principal writings The Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement. October 1821 – January 1822. Illustrations of the Author of Waverley. 1822. Traditions of Edinburgh. W. & C. Tait. 1825. Notices of the Most Remarkable Fires with have Occurred in Edinburgh. 1825. Walks in Edinburgh. 1825. Popular Rhymes of Scotland. 1826. Picture of Scotland. 1827. History of the Rebellion of 1745. 1828. Scottish Ballads. 1829. Scottish Songs. 1829. The Picture of Stirling. 1830. Life of King James I. 1830. Gazetteer of Scotland (with William Chambers). 1832. Scottish Jests and Anecdotes. 1832. Life of Sir Walter Scott. 1832. History of Scotland. 1832. Reekiana, or Minor Antiquities of Edinburgh. 1833. Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. 1833–1835. Life and Works of Burns (based on Currie's edition). 1834. Jacobite Memoirs of the Rebellion. 1834. History of the English Language and Literature. 1835. Poems. 1835. The Land of Burns (with Professor John Wilson). 1840. Cyclopaedia of English Literature (with Robert Carruthers). 1840. History of the Rebellion of 1745. 1840. Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (published anonymously). 1844. Twelve Romantic Scottish Ballads. 1844. Explanations: A Sequal (published anonymously). 1845. Select Writings of Robert Chambers, in seven volumes. 1847. Ancient Sea Margins. 1848. Tracings of the North of Europe. 1851. Life and Works of Robert Burns. 1851. Tracings of Iceland and the Faroe Islands. 1856. Domestic Annals of Scotland. 1859–1861. Sketch of the History of Edinburgh Theatre Royal. 1859. Memoirs of a Banking House, by Sir William Forbes (ed. R. Chambers). 1859. Edinburgh Papers. 1861. Songs of Scotland Prior to Burns. 1862. Preface to Daniel Dunglas Home: Incidents in My Life, first series. 1863. The Book of Days. 1864. Life of Smollett. 1867. Traditions of Edinburgh. 1868. The Threiplands of Fingask. 1880. Unpublished manuscripts Life and Preachings of Jesus Christ, from the Evangelists. A Catechism for the Young. Private Prayers and Meditations. Antiquarian Papers. Several papers on spiritualism. Editor and contributor Chambers's Edinburgh Journal. 1832 ff. Chambers's Information for the People. 1833–1835. Chambers's Educational Course. 1835 ff. References ^ a b Cooney, Sondra Miley (2004). "Chambers, Robert (1802–1871), publisher and writer". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 1 (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5079. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Chisholm 1911, p. 820. ^ a b c d e f Chisholm 1911, p. 821. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 9. ^ Millhauser (1959), p. 11. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 56. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 114. ^ Millhauser (1959), p. 14. ^ Waterston & Macmillan Shearer (2006), p. 174. ^ Millhauser (1959), p. 18. ^ Memoir (1872), pp. 146, 154. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 156. ^ Grant's Old and New Edinburgh vol.2 p.225 ^ Memoir (1872), p. 175. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 307. ^ Chisholm 1911. ^ "Edinburgh Post Office annual directory, 1832–1833". National Library of Scotland. p. 35. Retrieved 25 February 2018. ^ "Biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen". National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 25 February 2018. ^ Chisholm 1911, pp. 820–821. ^ Collison & Preece (2015). ^ Memoir (1872), p. 254. ^ Crawford, Robert (2011) The Beginning and the End of the World: St Andrews, Scandal and the Birth of Photography Edinburgh: Birlinn ^ Vestiges (1844), p. 231. ^ Vestiges (1844), p. 388. ^ Ireland, "Introduction to the Twelfth Edition," in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation (1884), pp. vii–viii. Two years after the initial publication, in 1846, a Dr. Neil Arnott was also added to this inner circle. ^ Memoir (1872), p. 256. ^ Golf: A Royal and Ancient Game, by Robert Clark 1875 and 1893 Reprinted by EP Publishing 1975, page 92 ^ "Prestwick 1851". Scottish Golf History. Retrieved 5 February 2017. ^ Millhauser (1959), p. 189. Bibliography This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Chambers, Robert". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 820–821. Collison, Robert L.; Preece, Warren E. (2015). Robert Chambers. Encyclopædia Britannica. Millhauser, Milton (1959). Just Before Darwin: Robert Chambers and Vestiges. Wesleyan University. Waterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A (2006). Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (Volume I) (PDF). Edinburgh: Royal Society of Edinburgh. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-902198-84-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2014. Layman, C.H., ed. (1990). Man of Letters: The Early Life and love letters of Robert Chambers. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0193-6. Macfarlane, Iris; Macfarlane, Alan. The Life of Robert Chambers (rough draft ed.). Retrieved 27 March 2018. Secord, James A., ed. (1994). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation and other Evolutionary Writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10073-9. (Contains facsimiles of the 1st editions of Vestiges and Explanations) Secord, James A. (2001). Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-74410-0. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2007. Works by Chambers Chambers, Robert (1844). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. London: John Churchill. Chambers, Robert (1845). Explanations: A Sequel to "Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation". London: John Churchill. Chambers, Robert (1853). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 10th ed. London: John Churchill. Chambers, Robert (1860). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 11th ed. London: John Churchill. Chambers, William (1872). Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminisces of William Chambers. New York City: Scribner, Armstrong & Co. Chambers, Robert (1884). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 12th ed. with a preface by Alexander Ireland. Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers. External links Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802) at Wikipedia's sister projects Media from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from Wikisource Works by Robert Chambers at Project Gutenberg Works by or about Robert Chambers at Internet Archive Works by Robert Chambers at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) Works by Robert Chambers at Google Books (scanned books original editions illustrated) Robert Chambers, Poems (1835), and Popular Rhymes, Fireside Stories, & Amusements of Scotland (1842), complete texts. "Archival material relating to Robert Chambers". UK National Archives. vteHistory of biology (timeline)Fields,disciplines Agricultural science Anatomy Biochemistry Biotechnology Botany Ecology Evolutionary thought Genetics Geology Immunology Medicine Model organisms Molecular biology Molecular evolution Paleontology Phycology Plant systematics RNA biology Zoology (through 1859) Zoology (since 1859) Theories,concepts Germ theory of disease Central dogma of molecular biology Darwinism Great chain of being Hierarchy of life Lamarckism One gene–one enzyme hypothesis Protocell RNA world Sequence hypothesis Spontaneous generation Related History of science Philosophy of biology Teleology Ethnobotany Eugenics History of the creation-evolution controversy Human Genome Project Humboldtian science Natural history Natural philosophy Natural theology Relationship between religion and science Category Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Sweden Japan Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Portugal Vatican Academics CiNii People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"FRSE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"FGS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_the_Geological_Society_of_London"},{"link_name":"LLD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_Laws"},{"link_name":"/ˈtʃeɪmbərz/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911820-2"},{"link_name":"evolutionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_evolutionary_thought"},{"link_name":"William Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chambers_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"phrenologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrenology"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh Phrenological Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh_Phrenological_Society"},{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"}],"text":"Robert Chambers FRSE FGS LLD (/ˈtʃeɪmbərz/; 10 July 1802 – 17 March 1871)[2] was a Scottish publisher, geologist, evolutionary thinker, author and journal editor who, like his elder brother and business partner William Chambers, was highly influential in mid-19th-century scientific and political circles.Chambers was an early phrenologist in the Edinburgh Phrenological Society. He was also the anonymous author of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, which was so controversial that his authorship was not acknowledged until after his death.[3]","title":"Robert Chambers (publisher, born 1802)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peebles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peebles"},{"link_name":"Scottish Borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Borders"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''18729-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillhauser195911-5"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''187256-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872114-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911820-2"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"corporal punishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_corporal_punishment"},{"link_name":"six fingers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polydactyly"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillhauser195914-8"},{"link_name":"ministry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_ministry"},{"link_name":"power loom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_loom"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_High_School,_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaterstonMacmillan_Shearer2006174-9"},{"link_name":"Leith Walk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leith_Walk"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillhauser195918-10"}],"text":"Chambers was born in Peebles in the Scottish Borders 10 July 1802 to Jean Gibson (c. 1781–1843) and James Chambers, a cotton manufacturer. He was their second son of six children.[1] The town had changed little in centuries. The town had old and new parts, each consisting of little more than a single street. Peebles was mainly inhabited by weavers and labourers living in thatched cottages.[4] His father, James Chambers, made his living as a cotton manufacturer. Their slate-roofed house was built by James Chambers' father as a wedding gift for his son, and the ground floor served as the family workshop.[5]A small circulating library in the town, run by Alexander Elder, introduced Robert to books and developed his literary interests when he was young. Occasionally his father would buy books for the family library, and one day Robert found a complete set of the fourth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica hidden away in a chest in the attic. He eagerly read this for many years. Near the end of his life, Chambers remembered feeling \"a profound thankfulness that such a convenient collection of human knowledge existed, and that here it was spread out like a well-plenished table before me.\"[6] Robert's older brother, William, later recalled that for Robert, \"the acquisition of knowledge was with him the highest of earthly enjoyments.\"[7]Robert was sent to local schools and showed unusual literary taste and ability,[2] though he found his schooling to be uninspiring. His education was typical for the day. The country school, directed by James Gray, taught the boys reading, writing, and, for an additional charge, arithmetic. In grammar school it was the classics—Latin and Ancient Greek, with some English composition. Boys bullied one another and the teacher administered corporal punishment in the classroom for unruly behaviour. Although uninspired by the school, Robert made up for this at the bookseller.Both Robert and William were born with six fingers on each hand and six toes on each foot. Their parents attempted to correct this abnormality through operations, and while William's was successful Robert was left partially lame. So while other boys roughed it outside, Robert was content to stay indoors and study his books.[8]Robert surpassed his elder brother in his education, which he continued for several years beyond William's. Robert had been destined for the ministry, but at the age of fifteen he dropped this intended career. The arrival of the power loom suddenly threatened James Chambers' cotton business, forcing him to close it down and become a draper. During this time, James began to socialise with a number of French prisoners of war on parole who were stationed in Peebles. Unfortunately, James Chambers lent these exiles a large amount of credit, and when they were abruptly transferred away he was forced to declare bankruptcy. The family moved to Edinburgh in 1813. Robert continued his education at the High School,[9] and William became a bookseller's apprentice. In 1818 Robert, at sixteen years old, began his own business as a bookstall-keeper on Leith Walk. At first, his entire stock consisted of some old books belonging to his father, amounting to thirteen feet of shelf space and worth no more than a few pounds. By the end of the first year the value of his stock went up to twelve pounds, and modest success came gradually.[10]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872146,_154-11"},{"link_name":"Walter Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Scott"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872156-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Early works","text":"While Robert built up a business, his brother William expanded his own by purchasing a home-made printing press and publishing pamphlets as well as creating his own type. Soon afterwards, Robert and William decided to join forces—with Robert writing and William printing. Their first joint venture was a magazine series called The Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement, sold for threepence. This was issued every two weeks between 6 October 1821 and 12 January 1822.[11] It was followed by Illustrations of the Author of Waverley (1822), which offered sketches of individuals believed to have been the inspirations for some of the characters in Walter Scott's works of fiction.[12] The last book to be printed on William's old press was Traditions of Edinburgh (1824), derived from Robert's enthusiastic interest in the history and antiquities of Edinburgh. He followed this with Walks in Edinburgh (1825), Popular Rhymes of Scotland (1826) and Picture of Scotland (1826). This was followed by five volumes of Scottish history to form part of Constable's Miscellany. In 1832 he compiled Gazetteer of Scotland.[13]These books gained him the approval and personal friendship of Walter Scott. After Scott's death, Robert paid tribute to him by writing a Life of Sir Walter Scott (1832). Robert also wrote a History of the Rebellions in Scotland from 1638 to 1745 (5 vols, 1828) and numerous other works on Scotland and Scottish traditions.","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872175-14"},{"link_name":"Robert Chambers Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Chambers_Jr."},{"link_name":"Frederick Lehmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Lehmann"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Chambers Lehmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Chambers_Lehmann"},{"link_name":"Bob Edwards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Edwards_(satirist)"},{"link_name":"Ménie Muriel Dowie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9nie_Muriel_Dowie"},{"link_name":"William Overend Priestley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Overend_Priestley"},{"link_name":"Amelia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amelia_Lehmann"},{"link_name":"Rudolf Lehmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolf_Lehmann_(artist)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872307-15"}],"text":"On 7 December 1829 Robert married Anne Kirkwood, the only child of Jane and John Kirkwood.[14] Together they had 14 children, three of whom died in infancy. Excluding these three, their children were Robert (Robert Chambers Jr.), Nina (Mrs. Frederick Lehmann, and mother of Rudolf Chambers Lehmann), Mary (Mrs. Alexander Mackenzie Edwards, mother of satirist Bob Edwards), Anne (Mrs. Dowie, mother of Ménie Muriel Dowie), Janet, Eliza (Mrs. William Overend Priestley), Amelia (Mrs. Rudolf Lehmann), James, William, Phoebe (Mrs. Zeigler), and Alice.[15]","title":"Marriage"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Espy-6.jpg"},{"link_name":"William Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chambers_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"Chambers's Edinburgh Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers%27s_Edinburgh_Journal"},{"link_name":"book publishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Book_publishing_companies_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"W. & R. Chambers Publishers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/W._%26_R._Chambers_Publishers"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Robert Burns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Burns"},{"link_name":"Book of Days","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers_Book_of_Days"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911820%E2%80%93821-19"},{"link_name":"Chambers's Encyclopaedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chambers%27s_Encyclopaedia"},{"link_name":"Andrew Findlater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Findlater"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollisonPreece2015-20"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"}],"text":"21 November 1840, copy of the Chambers' Edinburgh JournalAt the beginning of 1832 Robert's brother William Chambers started a weekly publication entitled Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, which speedily gained a large circulation. Robert was at first only a contributor, but after 14 volumes had appeared, he became joint editor with his brother, and his collaboration contributed more perhaps than anything else to the success of the Journal. The two brothers eventually united as partners in the book publishing firm of W. & R. Chambers Publishers.[16]At the same time Robert ran a bookshop and circulating library from 48 Hanover Street with his younger brother, James Chambers. Meanwhile, William ran his shop from 47 Broughton Street. Robert at this time was living close to the shop, at 27 Elder Street[17] (demolished in the 1960s to improve access to Edinburgh Bus Station).Among the other numerous works of which Robert was in whole or in part the author, the Biographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen[18] (4 vols., Glasgow, 1832–1835), the Cyclopædia of English Literature (1844), the Life and Works of Robert Burns (4 vols., 1851), Ancient Sea Margins (1848), the Domestic Annals of Scotland (1859–1861) and the Book of Days (2 vols., 1862–1864) were the most important.[19]Chambers's Encyclopaedia (1859–1868), with Dr Andrew Findlater as editor, was carried out under the superintendence of the brothers. The Cyclopædia of English Literature contains a series of admirably selected extracts from the best authors of every period, \"set in a biographical and critical history of the literature itself.\" For the Life of Burns he made diligent and laborious original investigations, gathering many hitherto unrecorded facts from the poet's sister, Mrs Begg, to whose benefit the whole profits of the work were generously devoted.[20][3]","title":"W. & R. Chambers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation"},{"link_name":"Geological Society of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London"},{"link_name":"Royal Society of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"Charles Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bell"},{"link_name":"George Combe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Combe"},{"link_name":"Andrew Combe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Combe"},{"link_name":"Neil Arnott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Arnott"},{"link_name":"Edward Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Forbes"},{"link_name":"Samuel Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Morison_Brown"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872254-21"},{"link_name":"Scandinavia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scandinavia"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"},{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation"},{"link_name":"St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"Origin of Species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Origin_of_Species"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"stellar evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_evolution"},{"link_name":"transmutation of species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmutation_of_species"},{"link_name":"Jean-Baptiste Lamarck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Lamarck"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Vestiges''1844231-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Vestiges''1844388-24"},{"link_name":"Alexander Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Ireland_(journalist)"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"},{"link_name":"George Combe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Combe"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Chartists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartism"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican"},{"link_name":"Adam Sedgwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Sedgwick"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Quakers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakers"},{"link_name":"Unitarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unitarianism"},{"link_name":"William Benjamin Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Benjamin_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution"},{"link_name":"gutter presses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/gutter_press"}],"text":"Further information: Vestiges of the Natural History of CreationDuring the 1830s, Robert Chambers took a particularly keen interest in the then rapidly expanding field of geology, and he was elected a fellow of the Geological Society of London in 1844. Prior to this, he was elected a member of the Royal Society of Edinburgh in 1840, which connected him through correspondence to numerous scientific men. William later recalls that \"His mind had become occupied with speculative theories which brought him into communication with Sir Charles Bell, George Combe, his brother Dr. Andrew Combe, Dr. Neil Arnott, Professor Edward Forbes, Dr. Samuel Brown, and other thinkers on physiology and mental philosophy.\"[21] In 1848 Chambers published his first geological book on Ancient Sea Margins. Later, he toured Scandinavia and Canada for the purpose of geological exploration. The results of his travels were published in Tracings of the North of Europe (1851) and Tracings in Iceland and the Faroe Islands (1856).[3]However, his most popular book, influenced by his geological studies and interest in speculative theories, was a work to which he never openly attached his name. In 1844, Chambers completed the dictation of his Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation to his wife, Anne Kirkwood, as he recuperated from depression at his holiday home in St Andrews. The composition of Vestiges may have served a therapeutic purpose. Chambers had been an enthusiastic phrenologist in Edinburgh in the 1830s, and the anonymously authored Vestiges became an international bestseller and a powerful public influence, subsequent to Combe's Constitution of Man (1828), and anticipating the publication of Charles Darwin's Origin of Species in 1859. The first edition of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation was released in 1844 and published anonymously.[22] Literary anonymity was not uncommon at the time, especially in periodical journalism. However, in the science genre, anonymity was especially rare, due to the fact that science writers typically wanted to take credit for their work to claim priority for their findings.The reason for Chambers' anonymity was clear enough as soon as one began reading the text. The book was arguing for a developmental view of the cosmos combining stellar evolution with progressive transmutation of species in the same spirit as the late Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck. Lamarck had been discredited among intellectuals by this time, and evolutionary (or development) theories were exceedingly unpopular, except among political radicals, and materialists. Chambers, however, tried to explicitly distance his own theory from that of Lamarck's by denying Lamarck's evolutionary mechanism any plausibility. \"Now it is possible that wants and the exercise of faculties have entered in some manner into the production of the phenomena which we have been considering; but certainly not in the way suggested by Lamarck, whose whole notion is obviously so inadequate to account for the rise of the organic kingdoms, that we only can place it with pity among the follies of the wise.\"[23] Additionally, his work was far more sweeping in scope than any of his predecessors. \"The book, as far as I am aware,\" he writes in his concluding chapter, \"is the first attempt to connect the natural sciences in a history of creation.\"[24]Robert Chambers was aware of the storm that would probably be raised by his treatment of the subject, and he did not wish to get his and his brother's publishing firm involved in any kind of scandal. The arrangements for publication, therefore, were made through a friend named Alexander Ireland, of Manchester.[3] To further prevent the possibility of any unwanted revelations, Chambers only disclosed his authorship to four people: his wife, his brother William, Ireland, and George Combe's nephew, Robert Cox.[25] All correspondence to and from Chambers passed through Ireland's hands first, and all letters and manuscripts were dutifully transcribed in Mrs. Chambers' hand to prevent the possibility of anyone recognizing Robert's handwriting.By implying that God might not actively sustain the natural and social hierarchies, the book threatened the social order and could provide ammunition to Chartists and revolutionaries. Anglican clergymen and naturalists attacked the book. The geologist Adam Sedgwick predicted \"ruin and confusion in such a creed\" which, if taken up by the working classes, \"will undermine the whole moral and social fabric\" bringing \"discord and deadly mischief in its train\".[citation needed] In contrast, many Quakers and Unitarians liked the book. The Unitarian physiologist William Benjamin Carpenter called it \"a very beautiful and a very interesting book\", and helped Chambers to correct later editions. Critics thanked God that the author began \"in ignorance and presumption\", for the revised versions \"would have been much more dangerous\".[citation needed] Nevertheless, the book caused a sensation and quickly went through a number of new editions. Vestiges brought widespread discussion of evolution out of the streets and gutter presses and into the drawing rooms of respectable men and women.","title":"Vestiges"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Association for the Advancement of Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Science"},{"link_name":"Oxford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford"},{"link_name":"Samuel Wilberforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Wilberforce"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTE''Memoir''1872256-26"},{"link_name":"John Chapman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Chapman_(publisher)"},{"link_name":"Westminster Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_Review"},{"link_name":"evolutionism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionism"},{"link_name":"Royal Musselburgh Golf Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Musselburgh_Golf_Club"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Chambers gave a talk on ancient beaches at the British Association for the Advancement of Science meeting at Oxford in May 1847. An observer named Andrew Crombie Ramsay at the meeting reported that Chambers \"pushed his conclusions to a most unwarrantable length and got roughly handled on account of it by Buckland, De la Beche, Sedgwick, Murchison, and Lyell. The last told me afterwards that he did so purposely that [Chambers] might see that reasonings in the style of the author of the Vestiges would not be tolerated among scientific men.\" On the Sunday Samuel Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, used his sermon at St. Mary's Church on \"the wrong way of doing science\" to deliver a stinging attack obviously aimed at Chambers. The church, \"crowded to suffocation\" with geologists, astronomers and zoologists, heard jibes about the \"half-learned\" seduced by the \"foul temptation\" of speculation looking for a self-sustaining universe in a \"mocking spirit of unbelief\", showing a failure to understand the \"modes of the Creator's acting\" or to meet the responsibilities of a gentleman. Chambers denounced this as an attempt to stifle progressive opinion, but others thought he must have gone home \"with the feeling of a martyr\".Near the close of autumn 1848, Chambers allowed himself to be brought forward as a candidate for the administrative position of Lord Provost of Edinburgh. The timing was especially poor, with others seeking any means possible to try and discredit his character. His adversaries found the perfect opportunity to do so in the swirling allegations that he was the author of the much reviled Vestiges. William Chambers, in his Memoir of Robert Chambers, still sworn to secrecy despite his brother's recent passing, makes his only mention of Vestiges in connection with this affair: \"(Robert) might have been well assured that a rumor to the effect that he was the author of 'Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation' would be used to his disadvantage, and that anything he might say on the subject would be unavailing.\"[26] Robert withdrew his candidacy in disgust.In 1851 Chambers was one of a group of writers who joined the publisher John Chapman in reinvigorating the Westminster Review as a flagship of free thought and reform, spreading the ideas of evolutionism.Robert Chambers was a golfer and was elected an honorary member of the Musselburgh Golf Club (now Royal Musselburgh Golf Club) on 14 September 1833.[27] His son, who followed him into the publishing business, was a renowned player and became Champion Golfer in 1858 as a member of Bruntsfield Links Golfing Society.[28]","title":"Other activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_grave_of_Robert_Chambers,_St_Andrews_Cathedral_churchyard.jpg"},{"link_name":"St Andrews Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"University of St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"Athenaeum Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athenaeum_Club,_London"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"}],"text":"The grave of Robert Chambers, St Andrews Cathedral churchyardThe Book of Days was Chambers's last major publication, and perhaps his most elaborate. It was a miscellany of popular antiquities in connection with the calendar, and it is supposed that his excessive labour in connexion with this book hastened his death. Two years before, the University of St Andrews had conferred on him the degree of Doctor of Laws, and he was elected a member of the Athenaeum Club in London.[3]","title":"Book of Days"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMillhauser1959189-29"},{"link_name":"St Giles Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Giles_Cathedral"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChisholm1911821-3"}],"text":"Robert Chambers died on 17 March 1871 in St Andrews. He was buried in the Cathedral burial ground in the interior of the old Church of St. Regulus, according to his wishes.[29] The grave lies against the southern wall of the structure attaching the roofless section, east of the tower. A memorial window was also erected to Robert by his brother William in St Giles Cathedral next to a larger window to William himself, placed at the time of his restoration of the cathedral. The pair of windows lie in the northern transept.A year after Robert's death, his brother William published a biography under the title Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminiscences of William Chambers. However, the book did not reveal Robert's authorship of the Vestiges. Milton Millhauser, in his 1959 book Just Before Darwin, wrote the following about William's memoir: \"The fraternal Memoir of Robert Chambers might have been an excellent biography had not the author been concerned to keep the Vestiges secret and one or two others. Despite the author's intelligence and sympathy, such omissions inevitably produced a distorted picture\" (p. 191, note 7). The book contains some reminiscences by Robert of his early life, with the rest of the narration filled in by William.Alexander Ireland, in 1884, issued a 12th edition of Vestiges with Robert Chambers finally listed as the author and a preface giving an account of its authorship. Ireland felt that there was no longer any reason for concealing the author's name.[3]","title":"Death"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)&action=edit&section=10"},{"link_name":"Traditions of Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=vIQBAAAAYAAJ"},{"link_name":"Robert Carruthers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Carruthers"},{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestiges_of_the_Natural_History_of_Creation"},{"link_name":"Fingask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingask_Castle"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)&action=edit&section=11"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)&action=edit&section=12"}],"text":"Principal writings[edit]\nThe Kaleidoscope, or Edinburgh Literary Amusement. October 1821 – January 1822.\nIllustrations of the Author of Waverley. 1822.\nTraditions of Edinburgh. W. & C. Tait. 1825.\nNotices of the Most Remarkable Fires with have Occurred in Edinburgh. 1825.\nWalks in Edinburgh. 1825.\nPopular Rhymes of Scotland. 1826.\nPicture of Scotland. 1827.\nHistory of the Rebellion of 1745. 1828.\nScottish Ballads. 1829.\nScottish Songs. 1829.\nThe Picture of Stirling. 1830.\nLife of King James I. 1830.\nGazetteer of Scotland (with William Chambers). 1832.\nScottish Jests and Anecdotes. 1832.\nLife of Sir Walter Scott. 1832.\nHistory of Scotland. 1832.\nReekiana, or Minor Antiquities of Edinburgh. 1833.\nBiographical Dictionary of Eminent Scotsmen. 1833–1835.\nLife and Works of Burns (based on Currie's edition). 1834.\nJacobite Memoirs of the Rebellion. 1834.\nHistory of the English Language and Literature. 1835.\nPoems. 1835.\nThe Land of Burns (with Professor John Wilson). 1840.\nCyclopaedia of English Literature (with Robert Carruthers). 1840.\nHistory of the Rebellion of 1745. 1840.\nVestiges of the Natural History of Creation (published anonymously). 1844.\nTwelve Romantic Scottish Ballads. 1844.\nExplanations: A Sequal (published anonymously). 1845.\nSelect Writings of Robert Chambers, in seven volumes. 1847.\nAncient Sea Margins. 1848.\nTracings of the North of Europe. 1851.\nLife and Works of Robert Burns. 1851.\nTracings of Iceland and the Faroe Islands. 1856.\nDomestic Annals of Scotland. 1859–1861.\nSketch of the History of Edinburgh Theatre Royal. 1859.\nMemoirs of a Banking House, by Sir William Forbes (ed. R. Chambers). 1859.\nEdinburgh Papers. 1861.\nSongs of Scotland Prior to Burns. 1862.\nPreface to Daniel Dunglas Home: Incidents in My Life, first series. 1863.\nThe Book of Days. 1864.\nLife of Smollett. 1867.\nTraditions of Edinburgh. 1868.\nThe Threiplands of Fingask. 1880.\nUnpublished manuscripts[edit]\nLife and Preachings of Jesus Christ, from the Evangelists.\nA Catechism for the Young.\nPrivate Prayers and Meditations.\nAntiquarian Papers.\nSeveral papers on spiritualism.\nEditor and contributor[edit]\nChambers's Edinburgh Journal. 1832 ff.\nChambers's Information for the People. 1833–1835.\nChambers's Educational Course. 1835 ff.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"public domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain"},{"link_name":"Chisholm, Hugh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm"},{"link_name":"Chambers, Robert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Chambers,_Robert"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"Robert Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Chambers"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica"},{"link_name":"Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (Volume I)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20150919152306/https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-902198-84-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902198-84-5"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf"},{"link_name":"Man of Letters: The Early Life and love letters of Robert Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/manoflettersearl0000cham"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7486-0193-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0193-6"},{"link_name":"Macfarlane, Alan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Macfarlane"},{"link_name":"The Life of Robert Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.alanmacfarlane.com/FILES/chambers.html"},{"link_name":"Secord, James A.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_A._Secord"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-226-10073-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10073-9"},{"link_name":"Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-226-74410-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74410-0"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl"},{"link_name":"edit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Chambers_(publisher,_born_1802)&action=edit&section=15"},{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/vestigesnatural00chagoog"},{"link_name":"Explanations: A Sequel to \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/explanationssequ00chamuoft"},{"link_name":"Chambers, William","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chambers_of_Glenormiston"},{"link_name":"Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminisces of William Chambers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/memoirofrobertch00cham"},{"link_name":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 12th ed. with a preface by Alexander Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/vestigesnatural02chamgoog"}],"text":"This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Chambers, Robert\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 820–821.\nCollison, Robert L.; Preece, Warren E. (2015). Robert Chambers. Encyclopædia Britannica.\nMillhauser, Milton (1959). Just Before Darwin: Robert Chambers and Vestiges. Wesleyan University.\nWaterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A (2006). Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (Volume I) (PDF). Edinburgh: Royal Society of Edinburgh. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-902198-84-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2014.\nLayman, C.H., ed. (1990). Man of Letters: The Early Life and love letters of Robert Chambers. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0193-6.\nMacfarlane, Iris; Macfarlane, Alan. The Life of Robert Chambers (rough draft ed.). Retrieved 27 March 2018.\nSecord, James A., ed. (1994). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation and other Evolutionary Writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10073-9. (Contains facsimiles of the 1st editions of Vestiges and Explanations)\nSecord, James A. (2001). Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-74410-0. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2007.\nWorks by Chambers[edit]\nChambers, Robert (1844). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. London: John Churchill.\nChambers, Robert (1845). Explanations: A Sequel to \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\". London: John Churchill.\nChambers, Robert (1853). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 10th ed. London: John Churchill.\nChambers, Robert (1860). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 11th ed. London: John Churchill.\nChambers, William (1872). Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminisces of William Chambers. New York City: Scribner, Armstrong & Co.\nChambers, Robert (1884). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 12th ed. with a preface by Alexander Ireland. Edinburgh: W. & R. Chambers.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"21 November 1840, copy of the Chambers' Edinburgh Journal","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Espy-6.jpg/220px-Espy-6.jpg"},{"image_text":"The grave of Robert Chambers, St Andrews Cathedral churchyard","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/The_grave_of_Robert_Chambers%2C_St_Andrews_Cathedral_churchyard.jpg/220px-The_grave_of_Robert_Chambers%2C_St_Andrews_Cathedral_churchyard.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Traditions of Edinburgh. W. & C. Tait. 1825.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vIQBAAAAYAAJ","url_text":"Traditions of Edinburgh"}]},{"reference":"Cooney, Sondra Miley (2004). \"Chambers, Robert (1802–1871), publisher and writer\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Vol. 1 (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/5079.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-5079","url_text":"\"Chambers, Robert (1802–1871), publisher and writer\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F5079","url_text":"10.1093/ref:odnb/5079"}]},{"reference":"\"Edinburgh Post Office annual directory, 1832–1833\". National Library of Scotland. p. 35. Retrieved 25 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://digital.nls.uk/83400015","url_text":"\"Edinburgh Post Office annual directory, 1832–1833\""}]},{"reference":"\"Biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen\". National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 25 February 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://digital.nls.uk/74458002","url_text":"\"Biographical dictionary of eminent Scotsmen\""}]},{"reference":"\"Prestwick 1851\". Scottish Golf History. Retrieved 5 February 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.scottishgolfhistory.org/oldest-golf-courses/1851-prestwick/","url_text":"\"Prestwick 1851\""}]},{"reference":"Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). \"Chambers, Robert\". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 5 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 820–821.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm","url_text":"Chisholm, Hugh"},{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Chambers,_Robert","url_text":"Chambers, Robert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Collison, Robert L.; Preece, Warren E. (2015). Robert Chambers. Encyclopædia Britannica.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Chambers","url_text":"Robert Chambers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Millhauser, Milton (1959). Just Before Darwin: Robert Chambers and Vestiges. Wesleyan University.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Waterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A (2006). Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (Volume I) (PDF). Edinburgh: Royal Society of Edinburgh. p. 174. ISBN 978-0-902198-84-5. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 September 2015. Retrieved 27 March 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150919152306/https://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf","url_text":"Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index (Volume I)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902198-84-5","url_text":"978-0-902198-84-5"},{"url":"http://www.royalsoced.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp1.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Layman, C.H., ed. (1990). Man of Letters: The Early Life and love letters of Robert Chambers. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-0193-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/manoflettersearl0000cham","url_text":"Man of Letters: The Early Life and love letters of Robert Chambers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7486-0193-6","url_text":"978-0-7486-0193-6"}]},{"reference":"Macfarlane, Iris; Macfarlane, Alan. The Life of Robert Chambers (rough draft ed.). Retrieved 27 March 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Macfarlane","url_text":"Macfarlane, Alan"},{"url":"http://www.alanmacfarlane.com/FILES/chambers.html","url_text":"The Life of Robert Chambers"}]},{"reference":"Secord, James A., ed. (1994). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation and other Evolutionary Writings. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10073-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_A._Secord","url_text":"Secord, James A."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-10073-9","url_text":"978-0-226-10073-9"}]},{"reference":"Secord, James A. (2001). Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-74410-0. Archived from the original on 16 May 2008. Retrieved 26 January 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080516224806/http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl","url_text":"Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-74410-0","url_text":"978-0-226-74410-0"},{"url":"http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/14098.ctl","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1844). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation. London: John Churchill.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/vestigesnatural00chagoog","url_text":"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1845). Explanations: A Sequel to \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\". London: John Churchill.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/explanationssequ00chamuoft","url_text":"Explanations: A Sequel to \"Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation\""}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1853). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 10th ed. London: John Churchill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1860). Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation, 11th ed. London: John Churchill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Chambers, William (1872). Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminisces of William Chambers. New York City: Scribner, Armstrong & Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Chambers_of_Glenormiston","url_text":"Chambers, William"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/memoirofrobertch00cham","url_text":"Memoir of Robert Chambers; With Autobiographical Reminisces of William Chambers"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Robert (1884). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlos_Luis_Morales	Carlos Luis Morales	["1 Corruption scandals","2 References"]	Ecuadorian footballer and journalist (1965–2020) Carlos Luis Morales Personal informationFull name Carlos Luis Morales BenítezDate of birth (1965-06-12)June 12, 1965Place of birth Guayaquil, EcuadorDate of death June 22, 2020(2020-06-22) (aged 55)Place of death Samborondón, EcuadorPosition(s) GoalkeeperSenior careerYears Team Apps (Gls)1983–1993 Barcelona 1993–1995 Independiente 22 (0)1995 LDU Portoviejo 1996 Barcelona 1997 Emelec 1998 Palestino 1999–2000 ESPOLI 2001 Santa Rita International career‡1987–1999 Ecuador 40 (0) Club domestic league appearances and goals, correct as of 2009-07-11‡ National team caps and goals, correct as of 2009-07-11 Carlos Luis Morales Benítez (12 June 1965 – 22 June 2020) was a journalist and a football goalkeeper from Ecuador. He also served as elected prefect of Guayas Province. Corruption scandals On June 3, 2020, Carlos Luis Morales was detained in an investigation for alleged use of unfair influence in the acquisition of medical supplies, COVID-19 exams and masks. After 5 hours of persecution and police search, he was detained in San Isidro, a citadel on the road to Samborondón, after several houses were raided in the sector before he was captured, within investigations for alleged traffic crimes, of influence and embezzlement. The situation worsened after Morales presented 17 contracts in which his wife, Sandra Arcos, and his wife's children, Xavier and Andrés Vélez, fugitives from justice, involved in the awards, were involved in contracts with surcharges during the health emergency of COVID-19. The corruption scandals occurred a year after occupying the post of Prefect of Guayas. PSC assembly members of the party that promoted his candidacy, asked Carlos Luis Morales to explain corruption allegations or resign. The pronouncement of the social-Christian legislators was signed by: Vicente Taiano, César Rohón, Raúl Auquilla, Patricia Henriquez, Mercedes Serrano, Vicente Almeyda, Henry Cucalón, Dennis Marín, Magda Zambrano, Ramón Terán, Raúl Campoverde, Cristina Reyes, Dallyana Passailague, Javier Cadena, Henry Kronfle, and Esteban Torres. Morales died from COVID-19 in 2020. References ^ "Carlos Luis Morales, sus hinchas lo recordarán como un gran arquero". Teleamazonas (in Spanish). 2020-06-22. Archived from the original on 2020-06-27. Retrieved 2020-06-22. ^ "Los primeros resultados de las elecciones favorecen a Carlos Luis Morales y Cynthia Viteri del PSC". El Comercio (in Spanish). 24 March 2019. Retrieved 23 June 2020. ^ "Prosecutor's Office detains the prefect Carlos Luis Morales, in the framework of the investigation for alleged influence peddling". ^ "Carlos Luis Morales captured". ^ "Morales delivers to the Prosecutor's Office the 17 contracts he signed during the emergency". ^ "Carlos Luis Morales denounces his wife's children for corruption". ^ "Sandra Arcos, wife of Carlos Luis Morales, her whereabouts are unknown". ^ "Carlos Luis Morales, among eight arrested for alleged irregularities in the Guayas Prefecture". ^ "Guayas prefect, Carlos Luis Morales, arrested". 3 June 2020. ^ "How does the alleged corruption network linked to the prefect Carlos Luis Morales operate?". ^ "Members of the PSC ask Carlos Luis Morales to explain allegations of corruption or resign". 2 June 2020. ^ "Los últimos días de Carlos Luis Morales: Atormentado y con Covid-19". Carlos Luis Morales at National-Football-Teams.com rsssf: Ecuador record international footballers vteEcuador squad – 1987 Copa América 1 Chiriboga 2 Mosquera 3 Fajardo 4 Macías 5 Domínguez 6 Capurro 7 Baldeón 8 Aguinaga 9 Quiñónez 10 Cuvi 11 Mera 12 Morales 13 Marín 14 Avilés 15 Canga 16 Jácome 17 Marsetti 18 Vásquez 19 Vega 20 Enríquez Coach: Grimaldi vteEcuador squad – 1989 Copa América 1 Morales 2 Izquierdo 3 Quiñónez 4 Macías 5 Fajardo 6 Capurro 7 Marsetti 8 Aguinaga 9 Tenorio 10 Cuvi 11 Guerrero 12 Mendoza 13 Alcívar 14 Avilés 15 Verduga 16 Rosero 17 Muñoz 18 Quinteros 19 Benítez 20 Montanero Coach: Drašković vteEcuador squad – 1995 Copa América 1 Cevallos 2 Guamán 3 Tenorio 4 Capurro 5 I. Hurtado 6 Carcelén 7 Aguinaga 8 Garay 9 E. Hurtado 10 Ron 11 P. Hurtado 12 Morales 13 Asencio 14 Noriega 15 Coronel 16 Quiñónez 17 Díaz 18 Herrera 19 León 20 Mora 21 Carabalí 22 Espinoza Coach: Maturana Authority control databases ISNI VIAF WorldCat This biographical article related to a football goalkeeper from Ecuador is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"journalist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journalist"},{"link_name":"football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"},{"link_name":"goalkeeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalkeeper_(association_football)"},{"link_name":"Ecuador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecuador"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Carlos Luis Morales Benítez (12 June 1965 – 22 June 2020) was a journalist and a football goalkeeper from Ecuador. 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The situation worsened after Morales presented 17 contracts [5] in which his wife, Sandra Arcos, and his wife's children, Xavier and Andrés Vélez,[6] fugitives from justice,[7][8]\ninvolved in the awards, were involved in contracts with surcharges during the health emergency of COVID-19.[9][10]The corruption scandals occurred a year after occupying the post of Prefect of Guayas. PSC assembly members of the party that promoted his candidacy, asked Carlos Luis Morales to explain corruption allegations or resign. The pronouncement of the social-Christian legislators was signed by: Vicente Taiano, César Rohón, Raúl Auquilla, Patricia Henriquez, Mercedes Serrano, Vicente Almeyda, Henry Cucalón, Dennis Marín, Magda Zambrano, Ramón Terán, Raúl Campoverde, Cristina Reyes, Dallyana Passailague, Javier Cadena, Henry Kronfle, and Esteban Torres.[11]Morales died from COVID-19 in 2020.[12]","title":"Corruption scandals"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Carlos Luis Morales, sus hinchas lo recordarán como un gran arquero\". Teleamazonas (in Spanish). 2020-06-22. Archived from the original on 2020-06-27. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_unities	Classical unities	["1 History","1.1 Italy","1.2 France","1.3 England","2 Excerpts of Aristotle's Poetics","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 External links"]	16–19th-century prescriptive theory of dramatic tragedy "unities" redirects here. For the concept in common law, see four unities. The classical unities, Aristotelian unities, or three unities represent a prescriptive theory of dramatic tragedy that was introduced in Italy in the 16th century and was influential for three centuries. The three unities are: unity of action: a tragedy should have one principal action. unity of time: the action in a tragedy should occur over a period of no more than 24 hours. unity of place: a tragedy should exist in a single physical location. History Italy In 1514, author and critic Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478 – 1550) introduced the concept of the unities in his blank-verse tragedy, Sofonisba. Trissino claimed he was following Aristotle. However, Trissino had no access to Aristotle's most significant work on the tragic form, Poetics. Trissino expanded with his own ideas on what he was able to glean from Aristotle's book, Rhetoric. In Rhetoric Aristotle considers the dramatic elements of action and time, while focusing on audience reception. Poor translations at the time resulted in some misreadings by Trissino. Trissino's play Sofonisba followed classical Greek style by adhering to the unities, by omitting the usual act division, and even introducing a chorus. The many Italian playwrights that came after Trissino in the 16th Century, also wrote in accordance to the unities. However, according to The Cambridge Guide to Theatre, the imitation of classical forms and modes had a deadening effect on Italian drama, which became "rhetorical and inert". None of the 16th century tragedies that were influenced by the rediscovery of ancient literature have survived except as historic examples. One of the best is Pietro Aretino's Orazia (1546), which nevertheless is found to be stiff, distant and lacking in feeling. In 1570 the unities were codified and given new definition by Lodovico Castelvetro (c. 1505 – 1571) in his influential translation and interpretation of Aristotle's Poetics, Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata e sposta ("The Poetics of Aristotle translated in the Vulgar Language and commented on"). Though Castelvetro's translations are considered crude and inaccurate, and though he at times altered Aristotle's meanings to make his own points, his translations were influential and inspired the vast number of scholarly debates and discussions that followed all through Europe. France One hundred and twenty years after Sofonisba introduced the theory to Italy, it then introduced the concept once again, this time in France with a translation by Jean Mairet. Voltaire said that the Sophonisba of Mairet had "a merit which was then entirely new in France, — that of being in accordance with the rules of the theatre. The three unities of action, time, and place are there strictly observed, and the author was regarded as the father of the French stage." The new rules caught on very quickly in France. Corneille became an ardent supporter of them, and in his plays from Le Cid (1636) to Suréna (1674) he attempted to keep within the limits of time and place. In 1655 he published his Trois Discours, which includes his arguments for the unities. Corneille's principles drew the support of Racine and Voltaire, and for French playwrights they became hard rules, and a heresy to disobey them. Voltaire said: All nations begin to regard as barbarous those times when even the greatest geniuses, such as Lope de Vega and Shakespeare, were ignorant of this system, and they even confess the obligation they are under to us for having rescued them from this barbarism. . . . The fact that Corneille, Racine, Molière, Addison, Congreve, and Maffei have all observed the laws of the stage, that ought to be enough to restrain any one who should entertain the idea of violating them. However, in France opposition soon began to grow in the form of a Romantic movement, that wanted freedom from the strictures of the classical unities. It turned into a fierce literary conflict. The opposition included Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, and others. Victor Hugo, in the preface to his play, Cromwell, criticizes the unities, saying in part, Distinguished contemporaries, foreigners and Frenchmen, have already attacked, both in theory and in practice, that fundamental law of the pseudo-Aristotelian code. Indeed, the combat was not likely to be a long one. At the first blow it cracked, so worm-eaten was that timber of the old scholastic hovel! Hugo ridicules the unities of place and time, but not the unity of action, which he considers "true and well founded". The conflict came to a climax with the production of Victor Hugo's play Hernani at the Theatre Francais, on 21 February 1830. It was reported that the two sides, the "Classicists" and "Romanticists", both full of passion, met as on a field of battle. There was a lot of clamor in the theatre at each performance, even some fist fights. The newer Romantic movement carried the day, and French playwrights no longer had to confine their plays to one location, and have all of the action packed into one day. England The Classical Unities seem to have had less impact in England. It had adherents in Ben Jonson and John Dryden. Examples of plays that followed the theory include: Thomas Otway's Venice Preserv'd (1682), Joseph Addison's Cato, and Samuel Johnson's Irene (1749). Shakespeare's The Tempest (1610) takes place almost entirely on an island, during the course of four hours, and with one major action — that of Prospero reclaiming his role as the Duke of Milan. It is suggested that Prospero's way of regularly checking the time of day during the play might be satirizing the concept of the unities. In An Apology for Poetry (1595), Philip Sidney advocates for the unities, and complains that English plays are ignoring them. In Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale the chorus notes that the story makes a jump of 16 years: Impute it not a crime To me or my swift passage, that I slide O'er sixteen years and leave the growth untried Of that wide gap John Dryden discusses the unity of time in this passage criticizing Shakespeare's history plays: ... they are rather so many Chronicles of Kings, or the business many times of thirty or forty years, crampt into a representation of two hours and a half, which is not to imitate or paint Nature, but rather to draw her in miniature, to take her in little; to look upon her through the wrong end of a Perspective, and receive her Images not onely much less, but infinitely more imperfect then the life: this instead of making a Play delightful, renders it ridiculous. Samuel Johnson in the preface to his edition of Shakespeare in 1773 rejects the previous dogma of the classical unities and argues that drama should be faithful to life: The unities of time and place are not essential to a just drama, and that though they may sometimes conduce to pleasure, they are always to be sacrificed to the nobler beauties of variety and instruction; and that a play written with nice observation of the critical rules is to be contemplated as an elaborate curiosity, as the product of superfluous and ostentatious art, by which is shown rather what is possible than what is necessary. After Johnson's critique interest seemed to turn away from the theory. John Pitcher, in the Arden Shakespeare Third Series edition of The Winter's Tale (2010), suggests that Shakespeare was familiar with the unities due to an English translation of Poetics that became popular around 1608. Excerpts of Aristotle's Poetics Aristotle's Poetics may not have been available to Trissino when he formulated the unities, and the term "Aristotelian unities" is considered a misnomer, but in spite of this, Aristotle's name became attached to the theory from the beginning. As translations became available, theorists have looked to the Poetics retrospectively for support of the concept. In these passages from the Poetics, Aristotle considers action: Tragedy, then is a process of imitating an action which has serious implications, is complete, and possesses magnitude. ... A poetic imitation, then, ought to be unified in the same way as a single imitation in any other mimetic field, by having a single object: since the plot is an imitation of an action, the latter ought to be both unified and complete, and the component events ought to be so firmly compacted that if any one of them is shifted to another place, or removed, the whole is loosened up and dislocated; for an element whose addition or subtraction makes no perceptible extra difference is not really a part of the whole. Aristotle considers length or time in a distinction between the epic and tragedy: Well then, epic poetry followed in the wake of tragedy up to the point of being a (1) good-sized (2) imitation (3) in verse (4) of people who are to be taken seriously; but in its having its verse unmixed with any other and being narrative in character, there they differ. Further, so far as its length is concerned tragedy tries as hard as it can to exist during a single daylight period, or to vary but little, while the epic is not limited in its time and so differs in that respect. See also History of theatre Theatre technique Natyaguru Nurul Momen Nemesis (Momen play) Notes ^ Ascoli, Albert Russell, Renaissance Drama 36/37: Italy in the Drama of Europe. Northwestern University Press, 2010. p. 46-56 ISBN 9780810124158 ^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878) ^ Banham, Martin and Brandon, James, eds. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 9780521434379. p. 544 ^ Clarke, Barrett H. European Theories of Drama. Crown Publishers. (1969) P. 48 ^ Urban, Richard L. "All or Nothing at All: Another Look at the Unity of Time in Aristotle". The Classical Journal. Vol. 61, No. 6. (March 1966) pp. 262-264 ^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878) ^ Beck, Theodore Toulon. "A Note on the Preface de Cromwell". Italica. Vol. 39, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp. 197-204 ^ Hugo, Victor. Oliver Cromwell. Forgotten Books (September 11, 2017) pp. i-vi. ISBN 978-1528244343 ^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878) p. 55-60 ^ Shakespeare, William. The Winter's Tale. First Folio. Act IV, scene i, line 3-6. ^ Dryden, An Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668), para. 56. ^ Greene, Donald (1989), Samuel Johnson: Updated Edition, Boston: Twayne Publishers, ISBN 08057-6962-5 ^ Shakespeare, William. Vaughan, Virginia Mason. Vaughn, Alden T. editors. The Tempest. The Arden Shakespeare, Third Series. 1999. p. 14-18 ISBN 9781903436-08-0 ^ Friedland , Louis Sigmund. The Dramatic Unities in England. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan., 1911), pp. 56-89 ^ Shakespeare, William. Pitcher, John. editor. The Winter's Tale Third Series (2010). The Arden Shakespeare. ISBN 9781903436356 ^ Ascoli, Albert Russell, Renaissance Drama 36/37: Italy in the Drama of Europe. Northwestern University Press, 2010. p. 46-56 ISBN 9780810124158 ^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 25. ISBN 978-0472061662 ^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 32. ISBN 978-0472061662 ^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 24. ISBN 978-0472061662 References Aristotle (1907). The Poetics of Aristotle (Project Gutenberg e-text # 1974). Samuel Henry Butcher (trans.) (4th ed.). London: Macmillan. OCLC 3113766. Dryden, John (1668). Jack Lynch (ed.). An Essay of Dramatick Poesie. London: Henry Harringman. OCLC 4969880. Archived from the original (Online reprint) on 2005-07-31. Retrieved 2005-05-15. Johnson, Samuel (2005) . Mr. Johnson's Preface To his Edition of Shakespear's Plays (Online reprint). Ian Lancashire (Ed.) (online edition published by RPO Editors, Department of English, and University of Toronto Press as Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): Preface to his Edition of Shakespeare's Plays (1765). ed.). London: J. and R. Tonson and others. OCLC 10834559. External links The Poetics of Aristotle, translated by Samuel Henry Butcher at Project Gutenberg Samuel Johnson. 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For the concept in common law, see four unities.The classical unities, Aristotelian unities, or three unities represent a prescriptive theory of dramatic tragedy that was introduced in Italy in the 16th century and was influential for three centuries. The three unities are:unity of action: a tragedy should have one principal action.\nunity of time: the action in a tragedy should occur over a period of no more than 24 hours.\nunity of place: a tragedy should exist in a single physical location.","title":"Classical unities"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gian Giorgio Trissino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gian_Giorgio_Trissino"},{"link_name":"Sofonisba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophonisba"},{"link_name":"Poetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetics_(Aristotle)"},{"link_name":"Rhetoric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhetoric_(Aristotle)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pietro Aretino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pietro_Aretino"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Lodovico Castelvetro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lodovico_Castelvetro"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Italy","text":"In 1514, author and critic Gian Giorgio Trissino (1478 – 1550) introduced the concept of the unities in his blank-verse tragedy, Sofonisba. Trissino claimed he was following Aristotle. However, Trissino had no access to Aristotle's most significant work on the tragic form, Poetics. Trissino expanded with his own ideas on what he was able to glean from Aristotle's book, Rhetoric. In Rhetoric Aristotle considers the dramatic elements of action and time, while focusing on audience reception. Poor translations at the time resulted in some misreadings by Trissino.[1][2]Trissino's play Sofonisba followed classical Greek style by adhering to the unities, by omitting the usual act division, and even introducing a chorus. The many Italian playwrights that came after Trissino in the 16th Century, also wrote in accordance to the unities. However, according to The Cambridge Guide to Theatre, the imitation of classical forms and modes had a deadening effect on Italian drama, which became \"rhetorical and inert\". None of the 16th century tragedies that were influenced by the rediscovery of ancient literature have survived except as historic examples. One of the best is Pietro Aretino's Orazia (1546), which nevertheless is found to be stiff, distant and lacking in feeling.[3]In 1570 the unities were codified and given new definition by Lodovico Castelvetro (c. 1505 – 1571) in his influential translation and interpretation of Aristotle's Poetics, Poetica d'Aristotele vulgarizzata e sposta (\"The Poetics of Aristotle translated in the Vulgar Language and commented on\"). Though Castelvetro's translations are considered crude and inaccurate, and though he at times altered Aristotle's meanings to make his own points, his translations were influential and inspired the vast number of scholarly debates and discussions that followed all through Europe.[4][5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jean Mairet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Mairet"},{"link_name":"Le Cid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Cid"},{"link_name":"Suréna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sur%C3%A9na"},{"link_name":"Racine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Racine"},{"link_name":"Racine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Racine"},{"link_name":"Molière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moli%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Addison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Addison"},{"link_name":"Congreve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Congreve"},{"link_name":"Maffei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo_Alessandro_Maffei"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Alexandre Dumas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Dumas"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Hernani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hernani_(drama)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"France","text":"One hundred and twenty years after Sofonisba introduced the theory to Italy, it then introduced the concept once again, this time in France with a translation by Jean Mairet. Voltaire said that the Sophonisba of Mairet had \"a merit which was then entirely new in France, — that of being in accordance with the rules of the theatre. The three unities of action, time, and place are there strictly observed, and the author was regarded as the father of the French stage.\" The new rules caught on very quickly in France. Corneille became an ardent supporter of them, and in his plays from Le Cid (1636) to Suréna (1674) he attempted to keep within the limits of time and place. In 1655 he published his Trois Discours, which includes his arguments for the unities. Corneille's principles drew the support of Racine and Voltaire, and for French playwrights they became hard rules, and a heresy to disobey them. Voltaire said:All nations begin to regard as barbarous those times when even the greatest geniuses, such as Lope de Vega and Shakespeare, were ignorant of this system, and they even confess the obligation they are under to us for having rescued them from this barbarism. . . . The fact that Corneille, Racine, Molière, Addison, Congreve, and Maffei have all observed the laws of the stage, that ought to be enough to restrain any one who should entertain the idea of violating them.[6]However, in France opposition soon began to grow in the form of a Romantic movement, that wanted freedom from the strictures of the classical unities. It turned into a fierce literary conflict. The opposition included Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas, and others. Victor Hugo, in the preface to his play, Cromwell, criticizes the unities, saying in part,Distinguished contemporaries, foreigners and Frenchmen, have already attacked, both in theory and in practice, that fundamental law of the pseudo-Aristotelian code. Indeed, the combat was not likely to be a long one. At the first blow it cracked, so worm-eaten was that timber of the old scholastic hovel![7][8]Hugo ridicules the unities of place and time, but not the unity of action, which he considers \"true and well founded\". The conflict came to a climax with the production of Victor Hugo's play Hernani at the Theatre Francais, on 21 February 1830. It was reported that the two sides, the \"Classicists\" and \"Romanticists\", both full of passion, met as on a field of battle. There was a lot of clamor in the theatre at each performance, even some fist fights. The newer Romantic movement carried the day, and French playwrights no longer had to confine their plays to one location, and have all of the action packed into one day.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ben Jonson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben_Jonson"},{"link_name":"John Dryden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden"},{"link_name":"Venice Preserv'd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice_Preserv%27d"},{"link_name":"Joseph Addison's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Addison"},{"link_name":"Cato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cato,_a_Tragedy"},{"link_name":"Samuel Johnson's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Irene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irene_(play)"},{"link_name":"The Tempest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tempest"},{"link_name":"An Apology for Poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Apology_for_Poetry"},{"link_name":"Philip Sidney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Sidney"},{"link_name":"The Winter's Tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"John Dryden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden"},{"link_name":"Shakespeare's history plays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakespearean_histories"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Arden Shakespeare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arden_Shakespeare"},{"link_name":"The Winter's Tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"England","text":"The Classical Unities seem to have had less impact in England. It had adherents in Ben Jonson and John Dryden. Examples of plays that followed the theory include: Thomas Otway's Venice Preserv'd (1682), Joseph Addison's Cato, and Samuel Johnson's Irene (1749). Shakespeare's The Tempest (1610) takes place almost entirely on an island, during the course of four hours, and with one major action — that of Prospero reclaiming his role as the Duke of Milan. It is suggested that Prospero's way of regularly checking the time of day during the play might be satirizing the concept of the unities. In An Apology for Poetry (1595), Philip Sidney advocates for the unities, and complains that English plays are ignoring them. In Shakespeare's The Winter's Tale the chorus notes that the story makes a jump of 16 years:Impute it not a crime\nTo me or my swift passage, that I slide\nO'er sixteen years and leave the growth untried\nOf that wide gap[10]John Dryden discusses the unity of time in this passage criticizing Shakespeare's history plays:... they are rather so many Chronicles of Kings, or the business many times of thirty or forty years, crampt into a representation of two hours and a half, which is not to imitate or paint Nature, but rather to draw her in miniature, to take her in little; to look upon her through the wrong end of a Perspective, and receive her Images not onely much less, but infinitely more imperfect then the life: this instead of making a Play delightful, renders it ridiculous.[11]Samuel Johnson in the preface to his edition of Shakespeare in 1773 rejects the previous dogma of the classical unities and argues that drama should be faithful to life:The unities of time and place are not essential to a just drama, and that though they may sometimes conduce to pleasure, they are always to be sacrificed to the nobler beauties of variety and instruction; and that a play written with nice observation of the critical rules is to be contemplated as an elaborate curiosity, as the product of superfluous and ostentatious art, by which is shown rather what is possible than what is necessary.[12]After Johnson's critique interest seemed to turn away from the theory.[13][14]John Pitcher, in the Arden Shakespeare Third Series edition of The Winter's Tale (2010), suggests that Shakespeare was familiar with the unities due to an English translation of Poetics that became popular around 1608.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"epic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry"},{"link_name":"tragedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"text":"Aristotle's Poetics may not have been available to Trissino when he formulated the unities, and the term \"Aristotelian unities\" is considered a misnomer, but in spite of this, Aristotle's name became attached to the theory from the beginning. As translations became available, theorists have looked to the Poetics retrospectively for support of the concept.[16] In these passages from the Poetics, Aristotle considers action:Tragedy, then is a process of imitating an action which has serious implications, is complete, and possesses magnitude.[17] ... A poetic imitation, then, ought to be unified in the same way as a single imitation in any other mimetic field, by having a single object: since the plot is an imitation of an action, the latter ought to be both unified and complete, and the component events ought to be so firmly compacted that if any one of them is shifted to another place, or removed, the whole is loosened up and dislocated; for an element whose addition or subtraction makes no perceptible extra difference is not really a part of the whole.[18]Aristotle considers length or time in a distinction between the epic and tragedy:Well then, epic poetry followed in the wake of tragedy up to the point of being a (1) good-sized (2) imitation (3) in verse (4) of people who are to be taken seriously; but in its having its verse unmixed with any other and being narrative in character, there they differ. Further, so far as its length is concerned tragedy tries as hard as it can to exist during a single daylight period, or to vary but little, while the epic is not limited in its time and so differs in that respect.[19]","title":"Excerpts of Aristotle's Poetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780810124158","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810124158"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780521434379","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521434379"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1528244343","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1528244343"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"08057-6962-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/08057-6962-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781903436-08-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903436-08-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-15"},{"link_name":"The Winter's Tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Winter%27s_Tale"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781903436356","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781903436356"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780810124158","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780810124158"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0472061662","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061662"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-18"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0472061662","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061662"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0472061662","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0472061662"}],"text":"^ Ascoli, Albert Russell, Renaissance Drama 36/37: Italy in the Drama of Europe. Northwestern University Press, 2010. p. 46-56 ISBN 9780810124158\n\n^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878)\n\n^ Banham, Martin and Brandon, James, eds. The Cambridge Guide to Theatre. Cambridge University Press, 1995. ISBN 9780521434379. p. 544\n\n^ Clarke, Barrett H. European Theories of Drama. Crown Publishers. (1969) P. 48\n\n^ Urban, Richard L. \"All or Nothing at All: Another Look at the Unity of Time in Aristotle\". The Classical Journal. Vol. 61, No. 6. (March 1966) pp. 262-264\n\n^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878)\n\n^ Beck, Theodore Toulon. \"A Note on the Preface de Cromwell\". Italica. Vol. 39, No. 3 (Sep., 1962), pp. 197-204\n\n^ Hugo, Victor. Oliver Cromwell. Forgotten Books (September 11, 2017) pp. i-vi. ISBN 978-1528244343\n\n^ Simpson, Edwin. The Dramatic Unities. Trubner & Co. (1878) p. 55-60\n\n^ Shakespeare, William. The Winter's Tale. First Folio. Act IV, scene i, line 3-6.\n\n^ Dryden, An Essay of Dramatick Poesie (1668), para. 56.\n\n^ Greene, Donald (1989), Samuel Johnson: Updated Edition, Boston: Twayne Publishers, ISBN 08057-6962-5\n\n^ Shakespeare, William. Vaughan, Virginia Mason. Vaughn, Alden T. editors. The Tempest. The Arden Shakespeare, Third Series. 1999. p. 14-18 ISBN 9781903436-08-0\n\n^ Friedland , Louis Sigmund. The Dramatic Unities in England. The Journal of English and Germanic Philology, Vol. 10, No. 1 (Jan., 1911), pp. 56-89\n\n^ Shakespeare, William. Pitcher, John. editor. The Winter's Tale Third Series (2010). The Arden Shakespeare. ISBN 9781903436356\n\n^ Ascoli, Albert Russell, Renaissance Drama 36/37: Italy in the Drama of Europe. Northwestern University Press, 2010. p. 46-56 ISBN 9780810124158\n\n^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 25. ISBN 978-0472061662\n\n^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 32. ISBN 978-0472061662\n\n^ Aristotle. Else, Gerald F. Aristotle Poetics. University of Michigan Press (1967). p. 24. ISBN 978-0472061662","title":"Notes"}]	[]	[{"title":"History of theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_theatre"},{"title":"Theatre technique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_technique"},{"title":"Natyaguru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natyaguru"},{"title":"Nurul Momen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurul_Momen"},{"title":"Nemesis (Momen play)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemesis_(Momen_play)"}]	[{"reference":"Aristotle (1907). The Poetics of Aristotle (Project Gutenberg e-text # 1974). Samuel Henry Butcher (trans.) (4th ed.). London: Macmillan. OCLC 3113766.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle","url_text":"Aristotle"},{"url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1974","url_text":"The Poetics of Aristotle"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3113766","url_text":"3113766"}]},{"reference":"Dryden, John (1668). Jack Lynch (ed.). An Essay of Dramatick Poesie. London: Henry Harringman. OCLC 4969880. Archived from the original (Online reprint) on 2005-07-31. Retrieved 2005-05-15.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Dryden","url_text":"Dryden, John"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050731015658/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drampoet.html","url_text":"An Essay of Dramatick Poesie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4969880","url_text":"4969880"},{"url":"http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drampoet.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Samuel (2005) [1765]. Mr. Johnson's Preface To his Edition of Shakespear's Plays (Online reprint). Ian Lancashire (Ed.) (online edition published by RPO Editors, Department of English, and University of Toronto Press as Samuel Johnson (1709-1784): Preface to his Edition of Shakespeare's Plays (1765). ed.). London: J. and R. Tonson and others. OCLC 10834559.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_Johnson","url_text":"Johnson, Samuel"},{"url":"https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/displayprose274e.html","url_text":"Mr. Johnson's Preface To his Edition of Shakespear's Plays"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10834559","url_text":"10834559"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1974","external_links_name":"The Poetics of Aristotle"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/3113766","external_links_name":"3113766"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050731015658/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drampoet.html","external_links_name":"An Essay of Dramatick Poesie"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/4969880","external_links_name":"4969880"},{"Link":"http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Texts/drampoet.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/displayprose274e.html","external_links_name":"Mr. Johnson's Preface To his Edition of Shakespear's Plays"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/10834559","external_links_name":"10834559"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/1974","external_links_name":"The Poetics of Aristotle"},{"Link":"https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/5429","external_links_name":"Preface to Shakespeare"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Hoffman	Julien Hoffman	["1 Early years","2 Career","3 References"]	Not to be confused with Julien Hoffmann. Julien I.E. Hoffman, FRCP (July 26, 1925 in Salibury, S.Rhodesia - June 23, 2020) was a pediatric cardiologist and professor emeritus of pediatrics and a senior member of the Cardiovascular Research Institute at the University of California, San Francisco. He has also worked at the Moffitt-Long Hospital at the UCSF Medical Center, and served on the medical advisory committee for the SIDS Alliance. Early years In the 1940s, while an Honors student working on spermatogenesis, Hoffman developed a close relationship with Sydney Brenner and Phillip V. Tobias. Hoffman graduated from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1949 and began an internship in Internal Medicine at Johannesburg General Hospital in 1950 and in Surgery there in 1951. In 1952 he began an Internship in Internal Medicine at Central Middlesex Hospital, in London, England. Career Hoffman became a Registrar in Internal Medicine at Central Middlesex Hospital in 1953 and the same position at Johannesburg General Hospital in 1955. He became a Research Fellow in Cardiology at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School in London, in 1957, a fellow in Pediatric Cardiology at the Children's Hospital, Boston in 1959 and Senior Fellow in Cardiology at the Cardiovascular Research Institute in San Francisco in 1960, working there since 1966. Hoffman obtained his diplomate from the American Board of Pediatrics in 1968 and his MD in 1970. In 1989, Hoffman became Chairman of the UCSF Medical Center's Cardiovascular Research Institute Animal Research Committee and in 1991 chairman on the Oversight Committee on Fetal Surgery. He became Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics in 1994. He has considerable expertise in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and is cited as providing a valuable contribution to the field of cardiology. Hoffman also serves on the editorial board of Circulation Research Journal of the American Heart Association and is a reviewer for journals such as American Journal of Cardiology, the American Journal of Genetics, the American Review of Respiratory Disease Circulation, Pediatrics, and The Journal of Pediatrics. Hoffman has written books such as The Natural and Unnatural History of Congenital Heart Disease (2009). He is co-editor with James Moller and others of Pediatric Cardiovascular Medicine, published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2012. According to the University of California, his research is "currently related to the natural history of different congenital heart diseases and the results of surgery or other forms of treatment for these lesions in different age groups. He continues to study aspects of myocardial contraction and coronary blood flow in collaboration with investigators at other institutions." Hoffman lived in Tiburon, California. References ^ "Adler Museum of Medicine". Adler Museum Bulletin. 39 (2). Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand: 9. December 2013. ^ Rudolph, Abraham M.; Silverman, Norman H. (2020). "Julien Ivor Ellis Hoffman". Cardiology in the Young. 30 (9). Cambridge University Press: 1378–1379. doi:10.1017/S1047951120002802. S2CID 224910271. ^ Carachi, Robert; Young, Daniel Greer (2009). A history of surgical paediatrics. World Scientific. p. 763. ISBN 978-981-277-226-8. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ a b c d e f g "Julien I.E. Hoffman, MD - Pediatric Cardiology". Health.com. Archived from the original on 16 March 2012. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ Tobias, Phillip V. (31 December 1991). Images of humanity: the selected writings of Phillip V. Tobias. Ashanti Pub. p. 326. ISBN 978-1-874800-23-1. Retrieved 15 May 2011. ^ Caro, Colin Gerald (1978). The Mechanics of the circulation. Oxford University Press. p. Viii. ISBN 978-0-19-263323-1. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ Hoffman, Julien I. E. (4 September 2009). The Natural and Unnatural History of Congenital Heart Disease. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4051-7927-0. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ "Julien I.E. Hoffman , M.D.Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics, Senior Staff, CVRI". University of California. Archived from the original on 24 August 2011. Retrieved 14 May 2011. ^ Hoffman, J.I.E. (2010). "How Many Patients? How Many Doctors?". Circulation. 122 (22). American Heart Association: 2231–3. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.110.989350. PMID 21147727. S2CID 7582454. Retrieved 15 May 2011. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Germany Israel United States Netherlands	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Julien Hoffmann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julien_Hoffmann"},{"link_name":"FRCP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CarachiYoung2009-3"},{"link_name":"University of California, San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California,_San_Francisco"},{"link_name":"Moffitt-Long Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moffitt-Long_Hospital&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"UCSF Medical Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCSF_Medical_Center"},{"link_name":"SIDS Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SIDS_Alliance&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"}],"text":"Not to be confused with Julien Hoffmann.Julien I.E. Hoffman, FRCP (July 26, 1925 in Salibury, S.Rhodesia[1] - June 23, 2020) was a pediatric cardiologist[2][3] and professor emeritus of pediatrics and a senior member of the Cardiovascular Research Institute at the University of California, San Francisco. He has also worked at the Moffitt-Long Hospital at the UCSF Medical Center, and served on the medical advisory committee for the SIDS Alliance.[4]","title":"Julien Hoffman"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"spermatogenesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spermatogenesis"},{"link_name":"Sydney Brenner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Brenner"},{"link_name":"Phillip V. Tobias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phillip_V._Tobias"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tobias1991-5"},{"link_name":"University of the Witwatersrand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_the_Witwatersrand"},{"link_name":"Johannesburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg"},{"link_name":"South Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africa"},{"link_name":"Johannesburg General Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannesburg_General_Hospital"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"Central Middlesex Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Middlesex_Hospital"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"}],"text":"In the 1940s, while an Honors student working on spermatogenesis, Hoffman developed a close relationship with Sydney Brenner and Phillip V. Tobias.[5] Hoffman graduated from the University of the Witwatersrand in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1949 and began an internship in Internal Medicine at Johannesburg General Hospital in 1950 and in Surgery there in 1951.[4] In 1952 he began an Internship in Internal Medicine at Central Middlesex Hospital, in London, England.","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"Royal Postgraduate Medical School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Postgraduate_Medical_School"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"American Board of Pediatrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Board_of_Pediatrics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"sudden infant death syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_infant_death_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Caro1978-6"},{"link_name":"American Heart Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Heart_Association"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Cardiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Cardiology"},{"link_name":"American Review of Respiratory Disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Respiratory_and_Critical_Care_Medicine"},{"link_name":"Circulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circulation_(journal)"},{"link_name":"Pediatrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pediatrics_(journal)"},{"link_name":"The Journal of Pediatrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Journal_of_Pediatrics"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Health-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hoffman2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Tiburon, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiburon,_California"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ahajournals.org-9"}],"text":"Hoffman became a Registrar in Internal Medicine at Central Middlesex Hospital in 1953 and the same position at Johannesburg General Hospital in 1955.[4] He became a Research Fellow in Cardiology at the Royal Postgraduate Medical School in London, in 1957, a fellow in Pediatric Cardiology at the Children's Hospital, Boston in 1959 and Senior Fellow in Cardiology at the Cardiovascular Research Institute in San Francisco in 1960, working there since 1966.[4] Hoffman obtained his diplomate from the American Board of Pediatrics in 1968 and his MD in 1970.[4]In 1989, Hoffman became Chairman of the UCSF Medical Center's Cardiovascular Research Institute Animal Research Committee and in 1991 chairman on the Oversight Committee on Fetal Surgery.[4] He became Professor Emeritus of Pediatrics in 1994. He has considerable expertise in sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), and is cited as providing a valuable contribution to the field of cardiology.[6] Hoffman also serves on the editorial board of Circulation Research Journal of the American Heart Association and is a reviewer for journals such as American Journal of Cardiology, the American Journal of Genetics, the American Review of Respiratory Disease Circulation, Pediatrics, and The Journal of Pediatrics.[4] Hoffman has written books such as The Natural and Unnatural History of Congenital Heart Disease (2009).[7] He is co-editor with James Moller and others of Pediatric Cardiovascular Medicine, published by Wiley-Blackwell in 2012.According to the University of California, his research is \"currently related to the natural history of different congenital heart diseases and the results of surgery or other forms of treatment for these lesions in different age groups. He continues to study aspects of myocardial contraction and coronary blood flow in collaboration with investigators at other institutions.\"[8]Hoffman lived in Tiburon, California.[9]","title":"Career"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Adler Museum of Medicine\". Adler Museum Bulletin. 39 (2). Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand: 9. December 2013.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rudolph, Abraham M.; Silverman, Norman H. (2020). \"Julien Ivor Ellis Hoffman\". Cardiology in the Young. 30 (9). Cambridge University Press: 1378–1379. doi:10.1017/S1047951120002802. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_Peer_Discovery	Local Peer Discovery	["1 References"]	This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Local Peer Discovery" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The Local Peer Discovery protocol, specified as BEP-14, is an extension to the BitTorrent file-distribution system. It is designed to support the discovery of local BitTorrent peers, aiming to minimize the traffic through the Internet service provider's (ISP) channel and maximize use of higher-bandwidth local area network (LAN). Local Peer Discovery is implemented with HTTP-like messages on User Datagram Protocol (UDP) multicast group 239.192.152.143:6771 (IPv4) or ff15::efc0:988f (IPv6) which are administratively scoped multicast addresses. Since implementation is simple, Local Peer Discovery is implemented in several clients (μTorrent, BitTorrent/Mainline, MonoTorrent, libtorrent and its derivatives, Transmission, aria2). An alternative multicast peer discovery protocol is published as BEP 26, but is not widely adopted since it is considered too complex in comparison. References ^ a b "BitTorrent Enhancement Proposal 14: Local Service Discovery". BitTorrent.org. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2019. ^ "Protocol Design Discussion » Local Peer Discovery Documentation". 2009-10-30. Retrieved 2009-12-12. ^ "Announcements » μTorrent 1.7 Release Candidate 6". 2007-06-28. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2009-12-12. ^ "BitTorrent User Manual". Archived from the original on 2009-12-27. Retrieved 2009-12-12. ^ "MonoTorrent 0.80". Retrieved 2010-05-05. ^ "libtorrent manual: features". Retrieved 2009-12-12. ^ "Release Notes: Transmission 2.00". GitHub. 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2020-05-23. ^ "Aria2 Manual: OPTIONS". Retrieved 2015-09-14. ^ "Transmission Bug Tracker: Zeroconf Peer Advertising and Discovery". Retrieved 2016-10-26. vteBitTorrentCompanies BitTorrent, Inc. Vuze, Inc. People Bram Cohen Ross Cohen Eric Klinker Ashwin Navin Technology Glossary Broadcatching Distributed hash tables DNA I2P index Local Peer Discovery Peer exchange Protocol encryption Super-seeding Tracker Torrent file TCP UDP µTP WebRTC WebTorrent Clients(comparison, usage share) BitTorrent (original client) BitComet BitLord Deluge Free Download Manager Flashget FrostWire Getright Go!Zilla KTorrent libtorrent (library) LimeWire µTorrent Miro MLDonkey qBittorrent rTorrent Shareaza Tixati Transmission Tribler Vuze (formerly Azureus) WebTorrent Desktop Xunlei Tracker software(comparison) OpenBitTorrent opentracker PeerTracker Search engines(comparison) 1337x BTDigg Demonoid etree Nyaa Torrents Tamil Rockers The Pirate Bay Rutracker.org YggTorrent YourBittorrent Defunct sites(comparison) BTJunkie ExtraTorrent EZTV isoHunt KickassTorrents LokiTorrent Mininova Oink's Pink Palace RARBG Suprnova.org t411 Torrent Project TorrentSpy Torrentz What.CD YIFY YouTorrent Related topics aXXo BitTorrent Open Source License Glossary of BitTorrent terms Popcorn Time Slyck.com TorrentFreak Category Commons This computer networking article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bep-14-1"},{"link_name":"BitTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitTorrent_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"BitTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitTorrent_(protocol)"},{"link_name":"Internet service provider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_service_provider"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"},{"link_name":"local area network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_area_network"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"HTTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP"},{"link_name":"User Datagram Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_Datagram_Protocol"},{"link_name":"multicast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_multicast"},{"link_name":"IPv4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4"},{"link_name":"IPv6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bep-14-1"},{"link_name":"administratively scoped multicast addresses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicast_address#Administratively_Scoped_IPv4_Multicast_addresses"},{"link_name":"μTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9CTorrent"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"BitTorrent/Mainline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BitTorrent_(software)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"MonoTorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MonoTorrent"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"libtorrent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libtorrent_(Rasterbar)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(BitTorrent_client)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"BEP 26","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//bittorrent.org/beps/bep_0026.html"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"The Local Peer Discovery protocol, specified as BEP-14,[1] is an extension to the BitTorrent file-distribution system. It is designed to support the discovery of local BitTorrent peers, aiming to minimize the traffic through the Internet service provider's (ISP) channel and maximize use of higher-bandwidth local area network (LAN).Local Peer Discovery is implemented[2] with HTTP-like messages on User Datagram Protocol (UDP) multicast group 239.192.152.143:6771 (IPv4) or ff15::efc0:988f (IPv6)[1] which are administratively scoped multicast addresses. Since implementation is simple, Local Peer Discovery is implemented in several clients (μTorrent,[3] BitTorrent/Mainline,[4] MonoTorrent,[5] libtorrent[6] and its derivatives, Transmission,[7] aria2[8]). An alternative multicast peer discovery protocol is published as BEP 26, but is not widely adopted since it is considered too complex[9] in comparison.","title":"Local Peer Discovery"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"BitTorrent Enhancement Proposal 14: Local Service Discovery\". BitTorrent.org. 29 October 2015. Retrieved 17 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://bittorrent.org/beps/bep_0014.html","url_text":"\"BitTorrent Enhancement Proposal 14: Local Service Discovery\""}]},{"reference":"\"Protocol Design Discussion » Local Peer Discovery Documentation\". 2009-10-30. Retrieved 2009-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://forum.utorrent.com/topic/54306-local-peer-discovery-documentation/","url_text":"\"Protocol Design Discussion » Local Peer Discovery Documentation\""}]},{"reference":"\"Announcements » μTorrent 1.7 Release Candidate 6\". 2007-06-28. Archived from the original on 2012-03-08. Retrieved 2009-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120308170250/https://forum.utorrent.com/viewtopic.php?id=25655","url_text":"\"Announcements » μTorrent 1.7 Release Candidate 6\""},{"url":"http://forum.utorrent.com/viewtopic.php?id=25655","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"BitTorrent User Manual\". Archived from the original on 2009-12-27. Retrieved 2009-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091227225152/http://www.bittorrent.com/btusers/guides/bittorrent-user-manual/appendix-bittorrent-mainline-interface/preferences/bittorrent#Basic_BitTorrent_Features.Enable_Local_Peer_Discovery","url_text":"\"BitTorrent User Manual\""},{"url":"http://www.bittorrent.com/btusers/guides/bittorrent-user-manual/appendix-bittorrent-mainline-interface/preferences/bittorrent#Basic_BitTorrent_Features.Enable_Local_Peer_Discovery","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"MonoTorrent 0.80\". Retrieved 2010-05-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://projects.qnetp.net/news/show/6","url_text":"\"MonoTorrent 0.80\""}]},{"reference":"\"libtorrent manual: features\". Retrieved 2009-12-12.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rasterbar.com/products/libtorrent/features.html","url_text":"\"libtorrent manual: features\""}]},{"reference":"\"Release Notes: Transmission 2.00\". GitHub. 2010-06-15. Retrieved 2020-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://github.com/transmission/transmission/blob/master/NEWS.md#transmission-200-2010-06-15","url_text":"\"Release Notes: Transmission 2.00\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub","url_text":"GitHub"}]},{"reference":"\"Aria2 Manual: OPTIONS\". Retrieved 2015-09-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://aria2.sourceforge.net/manual/en/html/aria2c.html#options","url_text":"\"Aria2 Manual: OPTIONS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Transmission Bug Tracker: Zeroconf Peer Advertising and Discovery\". Retrieved 2016-10-26.","urls":[{"url":"https://trac.transmissionbt.com/ticket/1394#comment:13","url_text":"\"Transmission Bug Tracker: Zeroconf Peer Advertising and Discovery\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22","external_links_name":"\"Local Peer Discovery\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Local+Peer+Discovery%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://bittorrent.org/beps/bep_0026.html","external_links_name":"BEP 26"},{"Link":"http://bittorrent.org/beps/bep_0014.html","external_links_name":"\"BitTorrent Enhancement Proposal 14: Local Service Discovery\""},{"Link":"http://forum.utorrent.com/topic/54306-local-peer-discovery-documentation/","external_links_name":"\"Protocol Design Discussion » Local Peer Discovery Documentation\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120308170250/https://forum.utorrent.com/viewtopic.php?id=25655","external_links_name":"\"Announcements » μTorrent 1.7 Release Candidate 6\""},{"Link":"http://forum.utorrent.com/viewtopic.php?id=25655","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20091227225152/http://www.bittorrent.com/btusers/guides/bittorrent-user-manual/appendix-bittorrent-mainline-interface/preferences/bittorrent#Basic_BitTorrent_Features.Enable_Local_Peer_Discovery","external_links_name":"\"BitTorrent User Manual\""},{"Link":"http://www.bittorrent.com/btusers/guides/bittorrent-user-manual/appendix-bittorrent-mainline-interface/preferences/bittorrent#Basic_BitTorrent_Features.Enable_Local_Peer_Discovery","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://projects.qnetp.net/news/show/6","external_links_name":"\"MonoTorrent 0.80\""},{"Link":"http://www.rasterbar.com/products/libtorrent/features.html","external_links_name":"\"libtorrent manual: features\""},{"Link":"https://github.com/transmission/transmission/blob/master/NEWS.md#transmission-200-2010-06-15","external_links_name":"\"Release Notes: Transmission 2.00\""},{"Link":"http://aria2.sourceforge.net/manual/en/html/aria2c.html#options","external_links_name":"\"Aria2 Manual: OPTIONS\""},{"Link":"https://trac.transmissionbt.com/ticket/1394#comment:13","external_links_name":"\"Transmission Bug Tracker: Zeroconf Peer Advertising and Discovery\""},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Local_Peer_Discovery&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans	Le Méridien New Orleans	["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]	Coordinates: 29°56′56″N 90°04′00″W / 29.948863°N 90.066614°W / 29.948863; -90.066614Hotel in Louisiana, United StatesLe Méridien New OrleansGeneral informationTypeHotelLocation333 Poydras Street, New Orleans, Louisiana, United StatesCoordinates29°56′56″N 90°04′00″W / 29.948863°N 90.066614°W / 29.948863; -90.066614Construction started1982Completed1984Opening1984OwnerStonebridge Companies & Walton Street CapitalHeightRoof279 ft (85 m)Technical detailsFloor count23Design and constructionArchitect(s)DMJM, Eskew + Architects Le Méridien New Orleans is a 23-story high-rise building in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana. The building rises 279 feet (85 m), and is currently tied with Charity Hospital as the 29th-tallest building in the city. It also stands as the 8th-tallest hotel in New Orleans. The hotel was designed with a modern architecture style by architectural firm DMJM and was opened in 1984 as the Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza to accommodate crowds attending the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. It became the Four Points by Sheraton Downtown in the late 1990s and then the W New Orleans Hotel in 2000. The hotel was significantly damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Half of the hotel's rooms had their windows blown out. In April 2013 it was sold to Chesapeake Lodging Trust for $65 million. On July 15, 2014, the hotel was given the temporary name Hotel New Orleans Downtown while it underwent a $29 million renovation. It became the Le Méridien New Orleans on December 15, 2014. In 2019, Park Hotels & Resorts, which had acquired Chesapeake Lodging Trust, sold the hotel to Stonebridge Companies and Walton Street Capital for $84 million. The building houses a 4-star Le Méridien with 423 guest rooms. See also List of tallest buildings in New Orleans Buildings and architecture of New Orleans References ^ Communications, Emmis (1 August 1984). "Texas Monthly". Emmis Communications. Retrieved 9 July 2018 – via Google Books. ^ Johnson, Richard L. "The Former Hotel De La Poste and Four Points Sheraton in New Orleans Complete Conversion to W Hotels / April 2000". Hotel-online.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018. ^ Johnson, Pableaux (October 21, 2005). "Hotel Reopenings". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. ^ "Chesapeake to Convert W Orleans to Le Meridien Brand". Hotelnewsresource.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018. ^ "New Orleans Hotels \| Luxury New Orleans Hotels \| Le Méridien New Orleans". Lemeridienneworleanshotel.com. Retrieved March 2, 2016. ^ "Former W Hotel Converts to Le Méridien New Orleans Winter 2014". Hotelnewsresource.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018. ^ "Downtown New Orleans Hotels - Le Méridien New Orleans". Le Méridien New Orleans - Official Website - Best Rates, Guaranteed. Retrieved 9 July 2018. ^ Anthony McAuley (January 8, 2020). "Le Meridien New Orleans sold by Park Resorts for $84M to consortium". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved January 17, 2020. ^ "Park Hotels & Resorts Inc. announces the sale of the Le Meridien New Orleans" (Press release). Park Hotels & Resorts. December 23, 2019. Retrieved 2020-01-18. External links Official website W New Orleans on Emporis W New Orleans on SkyscraperPage vteNew Orleans SkyscrapersCentralBusinessDistrict 225 Baronne Street 400 Poydras Tower 930 Poydras 1010 Common 1250 Poydras Plaza 1440 Canal 1515 Poydras 1555 Poydras 1615 Poydras Benson Tower Charity Hospital Energy Centre Entergy Tower First Bank and Trust Tower First National Bank of Commerce Building Four Seasons Hotel and Private Residences New Orleans Four Winds Hancock Whitney Center Harrah's New Orleans - Poydras Street Hotel Hibernia Bank Building Hilton New Orleans Riverside Hyatt Regency New Orleans JW Marriott Hotel New Orleans Le Méridien New Orleans Mercedes-Benz Superdome National American Bank Building New Orleans Marriott One Canal Place Orleans Tower Pan American Life Center Place St. Charles Plaza Tower Poydras Center Sheraton New Orleans Westin New Orleans Canal Place Windsor Court Hotel This article about a hotel or resort in the United States is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a building or structure in Louisiana is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This New Orleans, Louisiana–related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"high-rise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-rise"},{"link_name":"Central Business District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans_Central_Business_District"},{"link_name":"New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Louisiana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana"},{"link_name":"Charity Hospital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charity_Hospital_(New_Orleans)"},{"link_name":"29th-tallest building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_New_Orleans"},{"link_name":"modern architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modern_architecture"},{"link_name":"DMJM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DMJM"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"1984 Louisiana World Exposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1984_Louisiana_World_Exposition"},{"link_name":"Four Points by Sheraton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Points_by_Sheraton"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Katrina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Katrina"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Park Hotels & Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Park_Hotels_%26_Resorts"},{"link_name":"Walton Street Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walton_Street_Capital"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"4-star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_(classification)"},{"link_name":"Le Méridien","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_M%C3%A9ridien"}],"text":"Hotel in Louisiana, United StatesLe Méridien New Orleans is a 23-story high-rise building in the Central Business District of New Orleans, Louisiana. The building rises 279 feet (85 m), and is currently tied with Charity Hospital as the 29th-tallest building in the city. It also stands as the 8th-tallest hotel in New Orleans.The hotel was designed with a modern architecture style by architectural firm DMJM and was opened in 1984 as the Holiday Inn Crowne Plaza[1] to accommodate crowds attending the 1984 Louisiana World Exposition. It became the Four Points by Sheraton Downtown in the late 1990s and then the W New Orleans Hotel in 2000.[2]The hotel was significantly damaged by Hurricane Katrina in 2005. Half of the hotel's rooms had their windows blown out.[3]In April 2013 it was sold to Chesapeake Lodging Trust for $65 million.[4] On July 15, 2014, the hotel was given the temporary name Hotel New Orleans Downtown while it underwent a $29 million renovation.[5] It became the Le Méridien New Orleans on December 15, 2014.[6][7] In 2019, Park Hotels & Resorts, which had acquired Chesapeake Lodging Trust, sold the hotel to Stonebridge Companies and Walton Street Capital for $84 million.[8][9]The building houses a 4-star Le Méridien with 423 guest rooms.","title":"Le Méridien New Orleans"}]	[]	[{"title":"List of tallest buildings in New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_tallest_buildings_in_New_Orleans"},{"title":"Buildings and architecture of New Orleans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buildings_and_architecture_of_New_Orleans"}]	[{"reference":"Communications, Emmis (1 August 1984). \"Texas Monthly\". Emmis Communications. Retrieved 9 July 2018 – via Google Books.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bSsEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22holiday+inn+crowne+plaza%22+%22new+orleans%22+1984&pg=PA155","url_text":"\"Texas Monthly\""}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Richard L. \"The Former Hotel De La Poste and Four Points Sheraton in New Orleans Complete Conversion to W Hotels / April 2000\". Hotel-online.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PressReleases2000_2nd/Apr00_WNewOrleans.html","url_text":"\"The Former Hotel De La Poste and Four Points Sheraton in New Orleans Complete Conversion to W Hotels / April 2000\""}]},{"reference":"Johnson, Pableaux (October 21, 2005). \"Hotel Reopenings\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/travel/hotel-reopenings.html","url_text":"\"Hotel Reopenings\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"Chesapeake to Convert W Orleans to Le Meridien Brand\". Hotelnewsresource.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hotelnewsresource.com/article71843.html","url_text":"\"Chesapeake to Convert W Orleans to Le Meridien Brand\""}]},{"reference":"\"New Orleans Hotels \| Luxury New Orleans Hotels \| Le Méridien New Orleans\". Lemeridienneworleanshotel.com. Retrieved March 2, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lemeridienneworleanshotel.com/","url_text":"\"New Orleans Hotels \| Luxury New Orleans Hotels \| Le Méridien New Orleans\""}]},{"reference":"\"Former W Hotel Converts to Le Méridien New Orleans Winter 2014\". Hotelnewsresource.com. Retrieved 9 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hotelnewsresource.com/article78858.html","url_text":"\"Former W Hotel Converts to Le Méridien New Orleans Winter 2014\""}]},{"reference":"\"Downtown New Orleans Hotels - Le Méridien New Orleans\". Le Méridien New Orleans - Official Website - Best Rates, Guaranteed. Retrieved 9 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lemeridienneworleanshotel.com/","url_text":"\"Downtown New Orleans Hotels - Le Méridien New Orleans\""}]},{"reference":"Anthony McAuley (January 8, 2020). \"Le Meridien New Orleans sold by Park Resorts for $84M to consortium\". The Times-Picayune. Retrieved January 17, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nola.com/news/business/article_52c4a052-3237-11ea-8133-bbe73ead2c8e.html","url_text":"\"Le Meridien New Orleans sold by Park Resorts for $84M to consortium\""}]},{"reference":"\"Park Hotels & Resorts Inc. announces the sale of the Le Meridien New Orleans\" (Press release). Park Hotels & Resorts. December 23, 2019. Retrieved 2020-01-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pkhotelsandresorts.com/investors/news-and-events/press-releases/2019/12-23-2019-215637628","url_text":"\"Park Hotels & Resorts Inc. announces the sale of the Le Meridien New Orleans\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans&params=29.948863_N_90.066614_W_region:US-LA_type:landmark","external_links_name":"29°56′56″N 90°04′00″W / 29.948863°N 90.066614°W / 29.948863; -90.066614"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans&params=29.948863_N_90.066614_W_region:US-LA_type:landmark","external_links_name":"29°56′56″N 90°04′00″W / 29.948863°N 90.066614°W / 29.948863; -90.066614"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=bSsEAAAAMBAJ&q=%22holiday+inn+crowne+plaza%22+%22new+orleans%22+1984&pg=PA155","external_links_name":"\"Texas Monthly\""},{"Link":"http://www.hotel-online.com/News/PressReleases2000_2nd/Apr00_WNewOrleans.html","external_links_name":"\"The Former Hotel De La Poste and Four Points Sheraton in New Orleans Complete Conversion to W Hotels / April 2000\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/21/travel/hotel-reopenings.html","external_links_name":"\"Hotel Reopenings\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.hotelnewsresource.com/article71843.html","external_links_name":"\"Chesapeake to Convert W Orleans to Le Meridien Brand\""},{"Link":"http://www.lemeridienneworleanshotel.com/","external_links_name":"\"New Orleans Hotels \| Luxury New Orleans Hotels \| Le Méridien New Orleans\""},{"Link":"http://www.hotelnewsresource.com/article78858.html","external_links_name":"\"Former W Hotel Converts to Le Méridien New Orleans Winter 2014\""},{"Link":"http://www.lemeridienneworleanshotel.com/","external_links_name":"\"Downtown New Orleans Hotels - Le Méridien New Orleans\""},{"Link":"https://www.nola.com/news/business/article_52c4a052-3237-11ea-8133-bbe73ead2c8e.html","external_links_name":"\"Le Meridien New Orleans sold by Park Resorts for $84M to consortium\""},{"Link":"https://www.pkhotelsandresorts.com/investors/news-and-events/press-releases/2019/12-23-2019-215637628","external_links_name":"\"Park Hotels & Resorts Inc. announces the sale of the Le Meridien New Orleans\""},{"Link":"https://www.marriott.com/hotels/travel/msymd-le-meridien-new-orleans/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070211075316/http://www.emporis.com/en/wm/bu/?id=wneworleans-neworleans-la-usa","external_links_name":"W New Orleans on Emporis"},{"Link":"http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=49839","external_links_name":"W New Orleans on SkyscraperPage"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Le_M%C3%A9ridien_New_Orleans&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoureide	Acylurea	["1 Uses","1.1 Insecticides","1.2 Anticonvulsants and sedatives","2 Related","2.1 Diureides","2.2 Hydantoins","3 References"]	Class of chemical compounds formally derived from the acylation of urea General chemical structure of an acylurea Acylureas (also called N-acylureas or ureides) are a class of chemical compounds formally derived from the acylation of urea. Uses Insecticides A subclass of acylureas known as benzoylureas are insecticides. They act as insect growth regulators by inhibiting the synthesis of chitin resulting in weakened cuticles and preventing molting. Members of this class include diflubenzuron, flufenoxuron, hexaflumuron, lufenuron, and teflubenzuron. Anticonvulsants and sedatives The acylurea functional group is also found in some pharmaceutical drugs such as the anticonvulsants phenacemide, pheneturide, chlorphenacemide, and acetylpheneturide (which are phenylureides), and the sedatives acecarbromal, bromisoval, and carbromal (which are bromoureides). Others include apronal (apronalide), capuride, and ectylurea. Barbiturates (a class of cyclic ureas) are structurally and mechanistically related to them. The phenylureides are also closely related to the hydantoins, such as phenytoin, and may be considered ring-opened analogues of them. Related Diureides A diureide is a complex nitrogenous substance regarded as containing two molecules of urea or their radicals, e.g. uric acid or allantoin. Hydantoins Hydantoin, or glycolylurea, can be considered the cyclic form of acylurea. References ^ "N-acylurea". European Molecular Biology Laboratory. ^ Vincent H. Resh and Ring T. Cardé, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780080920900. ^ Hans-Hasso Frey; D. Janz (6 December 2012). Antiepileptic Drugs. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 601–. ISBN 978-3-642-69518-6. ^ David A. Williams; William O. Foye; Thomas L. Lemke (January 2002). Foye's Principles of Medicinal Chemistry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. pp. 380–. ISBN 978-0-683-30737-5. ^ Dr. S. S. Kadam (1 July 2007). PRINCIPLES OF MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY Vol. - II. Pragati Books Pvt. Ltd. pp. 147–. ISBN 978-81-85790-03-9.	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They act as insect growth regulators by inhibiting the synthesis of chitin resulting in weakened cuticles and preventing molting.[2] Members of this class include diflubenzuron, flufenoxuron, hexaflumuron, lufenuron, and teflubenzuron.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anticonvulsants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anticonvulsant"},{"link_name":"phenacemide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacemide"},{"link_name":"pheneturide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pheneturide"},{"link_name":"chlorphenacemide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorphenacemide"},{"link_name":"acetylpheneturide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acetylpheneturide&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FreyJanz2012-3"},{"link_name":"sedatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sedative"},{"link_name":"acecarbromal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acecarbromal"},{"link_name":"bromisoval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromisoval"},{"link_name":"carbromal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbromal"},{"link_name":"bromoureides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bromoureide"},{"link_name":"apronal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apronal"},{"link_name":"Barbiturates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barbiturate"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WilliamsFoye2002-4"},{"link_name":"hydantoins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydantoin"},{"link_name":"phenytoin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenytoin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kadam2007-5"}],"sub_title":"Anticonvulsants and sedatives","text":"The acylurea functional group is also found in some pharmaceutical drugs such as the anticonvulsants phenacemide, pheneturide, chlorphenacemide, and acetylpheneturide (which are phenylureides),[3] and the sedatives acecarbromal, bromisoval, and carbromal (which are bromoureides). Others include apronal (apronalide), capuride, and ectylurea. Barbiturates (a class of cyclic ureas) are structurally and mechanistically related to them.[4] The phenylureides are also closely related to the hydantoins, such as phenytoin, and may be considered ring-opened analogues of them.[5]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"uric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uric_acid"},{"link_name":"allantoin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allantoin"}],"sub_title":"Diureides","text":"A diureide is a complex nitrogenous substance regarded as containing two molecules of urea or their radicals, e.g. uric acid or allantoin.","title":"Related"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydantoin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydantoin"}],"sub_title":"Hydantoins","text":"Hydantoin, or glycolylurea, can be considered the cyclic form of acylurea.","title":"Related"}]	[{"image_text":"General chemical structure of an acylurea","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Acylurea.svg/220px-Acylurea.svg.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"N-acylurea\". European Molecular Biology Laboratory.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/chebiOntology.do?treeView=true&chebiId=CHEBI:74266","url_text":"\"N-acylurea\""}]},{"reference":"Vincent H. Resh and Ring T. Cardé, ed. (2009). Encyclopedia of Insects. Academic Press. p. 157. ISBN 9780080920900.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Jk0Hym1yF0cC&q=Acylurea","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Insects"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780080920900","url_text":"9780080920900"}]},{"reference":"Hans-Hasso Frey; D. Janz (6 December 2012). Antiepileptic Drugs. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 601–. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Raiders_II	Star Raiders II	["1 Gameplay","1.1 Movie concept","1.2 Last Starfighter","1.3 Star Raiders II","1.4 Original Star Raiders II","2 Reception","3 References","4 External links"]	This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Star Raiders II" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (November 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 1986 video gameStar Raiders IICover artDeveloper(s)Atari CorporationPublisher(s)Atari CorporationElectric Dreams (C64)Programmer(s)Gary StarkBruce PoehlmanSeriesStar RaidersPlatform(s)Atari 8-bit, Amstrad CPC, Commodore 64, ZX SpectrumRelease1986: Atari 8-bit1987: Amstrad, C64, SpectrumGenre(s)Space combatMode(s)Single-player Star Raiders II is a space combat simulator released in 1986 for Atari 8-bit computers as a sequel to 1979's Star Raiders, which was the killer app for the system. The game was originally developed as part of a tie-in with the movie The Last Starfighter, which featured an arcade game of the same name as part of its plotline. Versions for the Atari 5200 and the Atari 8-bit computers were developed in 1984, although those were never released. Later the tie-in was dropped, and the game converted into a sequel to Star Raiders by changing a number of gameplay elements. The gameplay remained different from the original Star Raiders. Conversions for the ZX Spectrum, Amstrad CPC, and Commodore 64 were published under license by Electric Dreams Software in 1987. In 2015 it was revealed that a true sequel, also called Star Raiders II, had been under development for some time by Atari programmer Aric Wilmunder. It was nearing completion when he was laid off during the massive downsizing of the company in early 1984. Although the programmer continued talks with Atari after its takeover by Jack Tramiel, no deal was ever forthcoming. The source code, largely complete but not polished for release, was posted publicly in December the same year. This version is far more faithful to the original version in terms of gameplay. Gameplay Movie concept The plot of The Last Starfighter revolves around the latest outbreak in a long-running war between two races. In the past, the Rylan Star League protected themselves from the warlike Ko-Dan through their fleet of advanced "Gunstar" fighters, and the "Frontier", a space-based energy field. Their protection is removed when a member of the League defects to the Ko-Dan cause, destroying the Gunstar base and showing the Ko-Dan how to pass through the Frontier. The movie follows the protagonist Alex Rogan as he crews the remaining Gunstar fighter and defeats the Ko-Dan fleet. Rogan was discovered by the Rylans by his high scores in an arcade game that was actually a Gunstar simulator. Last Starfighter The original videogame remained faithful to this basic plotline, standing in for the arcade game in the movie. It expanded on the movie's action by having multiple Ko-Dan fleets attacking the League. Each fleet contained a group of Deckfighters for protection, Destroyers that attacked the cities on League planets, and a single command ship that was responsible for breaching the Frontier. The command ship left the fleet once the Frontier was breached, leaving the Destroyers and Deckfighters to attack. The game opened with the player in orbit above Rylos, being attacked by the fighters. After defeating this initial force, pressing space opened a display of the local solar system, showing the multiple planets, the Frontier, and any attacking fleets. The joystick is used to move between the various objects on the screen, which can be selected in order to warp to them. Fleets could be attacked at any point, but there was an advantage to attacking them while they were attempting to breach the Frontier; in this case the player immediately faced the command ship in a defenceless state, and destroying it before it burned its way through the Frontier would leave the rest of the fleet stranded on the other side. In the upper left of the map display was an icon representing a wormhole linking to the Ko-Dan solar system. Selecting this icon as a warp point flew the player to the Ko-Dan system. Ko-Dan fleets were generated by industrial sites on the planets, and flying here allowed attacks on the factories. As these were destroyed the spawn rate of new fleets was reduced, and when all of these were destroyed, the player won the game. Damage to the ship and energy use were replenished by flying to the local star and orbiting it. This also heated the ship up, to the point where it was possible to melt it. Several trips to and from the star might be needed to fully repair the Gunstar. This version was never published under this title, although copies did leak out. Star Raiders II Initial attack by fighters. The original Star Raiders was a graphical version of the classic text-based Star Trek game from the 1970s. The basic outline of Star Trek was to fly between the various "quadrants" in the galaxy and defeat the Klingon ships within. Damage could be repaired and energy topped off at the handful of starbases scattered around the map. This basic outline remained intact in Star Raiders, although updated with graphics, and with the names changed to avoid any tie-in with Star Trek. Combat was vastly improved with a complete 3D flying simulation and real-time combat with the enemy ships. The modifications from Starfighter to the Star Raiders universe was relatively limited; starbases were added as the only way to repair damage, as well as a secondary source of energy (the star remained as a primary fueling point). The Frontier was removed, and the command ships that were originally intended to attack it became additional powerful enemies. Shields were added to the player's ship, and a new "tactical scanner" was added that displayed status information about the fighter in a single overview. Names of the ships and planets were changed, with most of them names from the original Star Raiders being used or adapted. The original animated introduction, similar to one seen in the movie, was removed, and a simple "Star Raiders II" copyright splash-screen was put in its place. With those exceptions, the two versions are very similar in both gameplay and presentation. Star Raiders II thus has much less in common with its namesake than the game it was adapted from. This version was published in 1986. Original Star Raiders II In 2015, Kevin Savetz, host of the ANTIC Podcast, was contacted by former Atari programmer Aric Wilmunder. Wilmunder mentioned that he had been working on a true sequel to Star Raiders, also known as Star Raiders II. Wilmunder joined Atari after working at Epyx, where he worked on Atari ports of their games, notably the various Temple of Apshai series and Crush, Crumble and Chomp. After working for a time with Chris Crawford, Wilmunder moved to a secret team within the coin-op division that was working on games for the 8-bit, and had decided to make a sequel to Star Raiders. This version of Star Raiders II was faithful to the original in gameplay terms, but was designed to make use of new 32 kB cartridges that allowed the game code to be greatly expanded over the original 8 kB version. The most notable change in gameplay terms was the replacement of the torpedoes with a laser-like weapon that could be aimed semi-independently of the ship's motion, allowing for snap shots against the rapidly moving enemies. The enemies were now drawn as 3D wireframe ships instead of their former 2D sprites. Strategically the game also changed, removing the gridded galactic map and replacing it with a free-form version. In this version, the player's home planet is in the upper left of the map, and the enemy ships are ultimately attempting to attack it. A number of planets can also be attacked in a view based on the over-surface scene in the Atari arcade game Star Wars, which was being developed down the hall from Wilmunder's office. The main part of the game was completed by early 1984, but it still needed polishing before release. But by this time Atari was in disarray and undergoing a continual downsizing that Wilmunder described as a sort of mine field - to go into work every day to see the latest "crater", another employee that had been laid off. Eventually it was his turn to be laid off, but he kept the development code with him when he left. He continued to tweak it, and approached the "new" Atari once things had settled in the summer of 1984. In spite of several positive meetings, Atari would not commit to supporting a release, and the effort was forgotten when Wilmunder moved to Lucasfilm Games. The game remained unknown until Wilmunder contacted Savetz, who managed to convince Wilmunder to compile a version for disk and release it. The game is in an untuned state, but functionally complete and completely playable. This appeared on the Internet Archive along with a basic user manual and Wilmunder's telling of the history of the game. Reception Computer Gaming World wrote that "if Star Raiders for the Atari rated 6 out of 10 for graphics and 8.5 for design, Star Raiders II rates an 8.5 for graphics and a 4.5 for game design ... gets repetitious after a while". The ZX Spectrum version received mixed reviews; Your Sinclair awarded 8 out of 10, Sinclair User awarded 5 out of 5 stars, but CRASH only awarded 52%, feeling it did not compare favourably with the similar Codename MAT. References ^ Hague, James. "The Giant List of Classic Game Programmers". ^ "Denofgeek.com". 9 April 2018. ^ Reichert, Matt. "The Last Starfighter (Atari 5200)". AtariProtos.com. Retrieved 2011-03-05. ^ Reichert, Matt. "The Last Starfighter (Atari 8-bit)". AtariProtos.com. Retrieved 2011-03-05. ^ Star Raiders II at SpectrumComputing.co.uk ^ Star Raiders 2 at CPC Zone ^ Star Raiders 2 at Lemon64 ^ Wilmunder, Aric (2015), The Authoritative Star Raiders II v0.3.pdf, atariage.com ^ a b c Savetz, Kevin (10 December 2015). "ANTIC Interview 104 - Aric Wilmunder, Star Raiders II, Temple of Apshai" (Podcast). ^ "Star Raiders II". Internet Archive. December 2015. ^ Williams, Gregg (Sep–Oct 1986). "The Atari Playfield". Computer Gaming World. p. 35. ^ Lee, Tony (June 1987). "Star Raiders 2 review". Your Sinclair (18). Retrieved 2007-11-09. It's a good game, all in all, but limited - there's not a lot of variety, so anyone other than shoot 'em up freaks may get bored. ^ Taylor, Graham (May 1987). "Star Raiders 2 review". Sinclair User (62). One of the more entertaining space games. Despite its rather simple graphics, it's incredibly entertaining. ^ "Star Raiders 2 review". CRASH (40). May 1987. A dated arcade conversion of the 'left, right and fire' variety. External links Star Raiders II at Atari Mania	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"space combat simulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_combat_simulator"},{"link_name":"Atari 8-bit computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_8-bit_computers"},{"link_name":"Star Raiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Raiders"},{"link_name":"killer app","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Killer_application"},{"link_name":"tie-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tie-in"},{"link_name":"The Last Starfighter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Starfighter"},{"link_name":"arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-D-2"},{"link_name":"Atari 5200","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atari_5200"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Star Raiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Raiders"},{"link_name":"ZX Spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZX_Spectrum"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Amstrad CPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amstrad_CPC"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Commodore 64","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commodore_64"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Electric Dreams Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_Dreams_Software"},{"link_name":"1987","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1987_in_video_gaming"},{"link_name":"Jack Tramiel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Tramiel"},{"link_name":"source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source_code"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"1986 video gameStar Raiders II is a space combat simulator released in 1986 for Atari 8-bit computers as a sequel to 1979's Star Raiders, which was the killer app for the system. The game was originally developed as part of a tie-in with the movie The Last Starfighter, which featured an arcade game of the same name as part of its plotline.[2] Versions for the Atari 5200 and the Atari 8-bit computers were developed in 1984, although those were never released.[3][4] Later the tie-in was dropped, and the game converted into a sequel to Star Raiders by changing a number of gameplay elements. The gameplay remained different from the original Star Raiders.Conversions for the ZX Spectrum,[5] Amstrad CPC,[6] and Commodore 64[7] were published under license by Electric Dreams Software in 1987.In 2015 it was revealed that a true sequel, also called Star Raiders II, had been under development for some time by Atari programmer Aric Wilmunder. It was nearing completion when he was laid off during the massive downsizing of the company in early 1984. Although the programmer continued talks with Atari after its takeover by Jack Tramiel, no deal was ever forthcoming. The source code, largely complete but not polished for release, was posted publicly in December the same year. This version is far more faithful to the original version in terms of gameplay.[8]","title":"Star Raiders II"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"}],"sub_title":"Movie concept","text":"The plot of The Last Starfighter revolves around the latest outbreak in a long-running war between two races. In the past, the Rylan Star League protected themselves from the warlike Ko-Dan through their fleet of advanced \"Gunstar\" fighters, and the \"Frontier\", a space-based energy field. Their protection is removed when a member of the League defects to the Ko-Dan cause, destroying the Gunstar base and showing the Ko-Dan how to pass through the Frontier. The movie follows the protagonist Alex Rogan as he crews the remaining Gunstar fighter and defeats the Ko-Dan fleet. Rogan was discovered by the Rylans by his high scores in an arcade game that was actually a Gunstar simulator.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"leak out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_leak"}],"sub_title":"Last Starfighter","text":"The original videogame remained faithful to this basic plotline, standing in for the arcade game in the movie. It expanded on the movie's action by having multiple Ko-Dan fleets attacking the League. Each fleet contained a group of Deckfighters for protection, Destroyers that attacked the cities on League planets, and a single command ship that was responsible for breaching the Frontier. The command ship left the fleet once the Frontier was breached, leaving the Destroyers and Deckfighters to attack.The game opened with the player in orbit above Rylos, being attacked by the fighters. After defeating this initial force, pressing space opened a display of the local solar system, showing the multiple planets, the Frontier, and any attacking fleets. The joystick is used to move between the various objects on the screen, which can be selected in order to warp to them. Fleets could be attacked at any point, but there was an advantage to attacking them while they were attempting to breach the Frontier; in this case the player immediately faced the command ship in a defenceless state, and destroying it before it burned its way through the Frontier would leave the rest of the fleet stranded on the other side.In the upper left of the map display was an icon representing a wormhole linking to the Ko-Dan solar system. Selecting this icon as a warp point flew the player to the Ko-Dan system. Ko-Dan fleets were generated by industrial sites on the planets, and flying here allowed attacks on the factories. As these were destroyed the spawn rate of new fleets was reduced, and when all of these were destroyed, the player won the game.Damage to the ship and energy use were replenished by flying to the local star and orbiting it. This also heated the ship up, to the point where it was possible to melt it. Several trips to and from the star might be needed to fully repair the Gunstar.This version was never published under this title, although copies did leak out.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Star_Raiders_II_A800_ingame.png"},{"link_name":"Star Raiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Raiders"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek_(text_game)"},{"link_name":"copyright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"}],"sub_title":"Star Raiders II","text":"Initial attack by fighters.The original Star Raiders was a graphical version of the classic text-based Star Trek game from the 1970s. The basic outline of Star Trek was to fly between the various \"quadrants\" in the galaxy and defeat the Klingon ships within. Damage could be repaired and energy topped off at the handful of starbases scattered around the map. This basic outline remained intact in Star Raiders, although updated with graphics, and with the names changed to avoid any tie-in with Star Trek. Combat was vastly improved with a complete 3D flying simulation and real-time combat with the enemy ships.The modifications from Starfighter to the Star Raiders universe was relatively limited; starbases were added as the only way to repair damage, as well as a secondary source of energy (the star remained as a primary fueling point). The Frontier was removed, and the command ships that were originally intended to attack it became additional powerful enemies. Shields were added to the player's ship, and a new \"tactical scanner\" was added that displayed status information about the fighter in a single overview. Names of the ships and planets were changed, with most of them names from the original Star Raiders being used or adapted. The original animated introduction, similar to one seen in the movie, was removed, and a simple \"Star Raiders II\" copyright splash-screen was put in its place.With those exceptions, the two versions are very similar in both gameplay and presentation. Star Raiders II thus has much less in common with its namesake than the game it was adapted from.This version was published in 1986.","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ANTIC Podcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//ataripodcast.libsyn.com"},{"link_name":"Epyx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epyx"},{"link_name":"Temple of Apshai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temple_of_Apshai"},{"link_name":"Crush, Crumble and Chomp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crush,_Crumble_and_Chomp"},{"link_name":"Chris Crawford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Crawford_(game_designer)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pod-9"},{"link_name":"arcade game","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcade_game"},{"link_name":"Star Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Wars_(1983_video_game)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pod-9"},{"link_name":"Lucasfilm Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasfilm_Games"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pod-9"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Original Star Raiders II","text":"In 2015, Kevin Savetz, host of the ANTIC Podcast, was contacted by former Atari programmer Aric Wilmunder. Wilmunder mentioned that he had been working on a true sequel to Star Raiders, also known as Star Raiders II. Wilmunder joined Atari after working at Epyx, where he worked on Atari ports of their games, notably the various Temple of Apshai series and Crush, Crumble and Chomp. After working for a time with Chris Crawford, Wilmunder moved to a secret team within the coin-op division that was working on games for the 8-bit, and had decided to make a sequel to Star Raiders.[9]This version of Star Raiders II was faithful to the original in gameplay terms, but was designed to make use of new 32 kB cartridges that allowed the game code to be greatly expanded over the original 8 kB version. The most notable change in gameplay terms was the replacement of the torpedoes with a laser-like weapon that could be aimed semi-independently of the ship's motion, allowing for snap shots against the rapidly moving enemies. The enemies were now drawn as 3D wireframe ships instead of their former 2D sprites. Strategically the game also changed, removing the gridded galactic map and replacing it with a free-form version. In this version, the player's home planet is in the upper left of the map, and the enemy ships are ultimately attempting to attack it. A number of planets can also be attacked in a view based on the over-surface scene in the Atari arcade game Star Wars, which was being developed down the hall from Wilmunder's office.[9]The main part of the game was completed by early 1984, but it still needed polishing before release. But by this time Atari was in disarray and undergoing a continual downsizing that Wilmunder described as a sort of mine field - to go into work every day to see the latest \"crater\", another employee that had been laid off. Eventually it was his turn to be laid off, but he kept the development code with him when he left. He continued to tweak it, and approached the \"new\" Atari once things had settled in the summer of 1984. In spite of several positive meetings, Atari would not commit to supporting a release, and the effort was forgotten when Wilmunder moved to Lucasfilm Games.[9]The game remained unknown until Wilmunder contacted Savetz, who managed to convince Wilmunder to compile a version for disk and release it. The game is in an untuned state, but functionally complete and completely playable. This appeared on the Internet Archive along with a basic user manual and Wilmunder's telling of the history of the game.[10]","title":"Gameplay"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Computer Gaming World","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-williams198610-11"},{"link_name":"Your Sinclair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Your_Sinclair"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Sinclair User","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinclair_User"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"CRASH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRASH_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"Codename MAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codename_MAT"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Computer Gaming World wrote that \"if Star Raiders for the Atari rated 6 out of 10 for graphics and 8.5 for design, Star Raiders II rates an 8.5 for graphics and a 4.5 for game design ... gets repetitious after a while\".[11]The ZX Spectrum version received mixed reviews; Your Sinclair awarded 8 out of 10,[12] Sinclair User awarded 5 out of 5 stars,[13] but CRASH only awarded 52%, feeling it did not compare favourably with the similar Codename MAT.[14]","title":"Reception"}]	[{"image_text":"Initial attack by fighters.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8b/Star_Raiders_II_A800_ingame.png/220px-Star_Raiders_II_A800_ingame.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"Hague, James. \"The Giant List of Classic Game Programmers\".","urls":[{"url":"https://dadgum.com/giantlist/","url_text":"\"The Giant List of Classic Game Programmers\""}]},{"reference":"\"Denofgeek.com\". 9 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.denofgeek.com/us/movies/the-last-starfighter/271531/the-last-starfighter-the-atari-arcade-game-that-never-was","url_text":"\"Denofgeek.com\""}]},{"reference":"Reichert, Matt. \"The Last Starfighter (Atari 5200)\". AtariProtos.com. Retrieved 2011-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atariprotos.com/5200/software/tlsf/tlsf.htm","url_text":"\"The Last Starfighter (Atari 5200)\""}]},{"reference":"Reichert, Matt. \"The Last Starfighter (Atari 8-bit)\". AtariProtos.com. Retrieved 2011-03-05.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atariprotos.com/8bit/software/tlsf/tlsf.htm","url_text":"\"The Last Starfighter (Atari 8-bit)\""}]},{"reference":"Wilmunder, Aric (2015), The Authoritative Star Raiders II v0.3.pdf, atariage.com","urls":[{"url":"http://atariage.com/forums/index.php?app=core&module=attach&section=attach&attach_id=424438","url_text":"The Authoritative Star Raiders II v0.3.pdf"}]},{"reference":"Savetz, Kevin (10 December 2015). \"ANTIC Interview 104 - Aric Wilmunder, Star Raiders II, Temple of Apshai\" (Podcast).","urls":[{"url":"http://ataripodcast.libsyn.com/antic-interview-104-aric-wilmunder-star-raiders-ii-temple-of-apshai","url_text":"\"ANTIC Interview 104 - Aric Wilmunder, Star Raiders II, Temple of Apshai\""}]},{"reference":"\"Star Raiders II\". Internet Archive. December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/StarRaidersII_Wilmunder","url_text":"\"Star Raiders II\""}]},{"reference":"Williams, Gregg (Sep–Oct 1986). \"The Atari Playfield\". Computer Gaming World. p. 35.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_Gaming_World","url_text":"Computer Gaming World"}]},{"reference":"Lee, Tony (June 1987). \"Star Raiders 2 review\". Your Sinclair (18). Retrieved 2007-11-09. It's a good game, all in all, but limited - there's not a lot of variety, so anyone other than shoot 'em up freaks may get bored.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ysrnry.co.uk/articles/starraidersii.htm","url_text":"\"Star Raiders 2 review\""}]},{"reference":"Taylor, Graham (May 1987). \"Star Raiders 2 review\". Sinclair User (62). One of the more entertaining space games. Despite its rather simple graphics, it's incredibly entertaining.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Star Raiders 2 review\". CRASH (40). May 1987. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluestone	Bluestone	["1 Stonehenge","1.1 Glacial erratic theory","1.2 Human transport theory","2 Australia","2.1 Victoria","2.2 South Australia","2.3 Tasmania","3 New Zealand","4 United States and Canada","5 See also","6 References","7 Bibliography","8 External links"]	Cultural or commercial name for a number of dimension or building stone varieties This article is about various "blue" building stones. For other uses, see Bluestone (disambiguation). Not to be confused with Copper(II) sulfate. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Bluestone" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Carn Menyn bluestones. These dolerite slabs, split by frost action, seem to be stacked ready for the taking, and many have been removed over the centuries for local use. Research favors the theory that humans also transported stones from Carn Menyn to Stonehenge, about 250 kilometers away. Bluestone is a cultural or commercial name for a number of natural dimension or building stone varieties, including: basalt in Victoria, Australia, and in New Zealand dolerites in Tasmania, Australia; and in Britain (including Stonehenge) feldspathic sandstone in the US and Canada limestone in the Shenandoah Valley in the US, from the Hainaut quarries in Soignies, Belgium, and from quarries in County Carlow, County Galway and County Kilkenny in Ireland slate in South Australia It is unrelated to human-made blue brick. Stonehenge Bluestone monument and Carn Menyn, Preseli Hills The term "bluestone" in Britain is used in a loose sense to cover all of the "foreign," not intrinsic, stones and rock debris at Stonehenge. It is a "convenience" label rather than a geological term, since at least 46 different rock types are represented. One of the most common rocks in the assemblage is known as Preseli Spotted Dolerite—a chemically altered igneous rock containing spots or clusters of secondary minerals replacing plagioclase feldspar. It is a medium grained dark and heavy rock, harder than granite. Preseli bluestone tools, such as axes, have been discovered elsewhere within the British Isles. Many of them appear to have been made in or near Stonehenge, since there are petrographic similarities with some of the spotted dolerites there. The bluestones at Stonehenge were first used there during the third phase of construction at Stonehenge around 2300 BC. It is assumed that there were about 80 monoliths originally, but this has never been proven since only 43 remain. The stones are estimated to weigh between 2 and 4 tons each. The majority of them are believed to have come from the Preseli Hills, about 250 kilometres (150 miles) away in Wales, either through glaciation (glacial erratic theory) or through humans organizing their transportation. Glacial erratic theory A summary of the major aspects of the Stonehenge "bluestone conundrum" was published in 2008. In 2018 a book devoted specifically to the problem of bluestone provenance and transport concluded that the Stonehenge bluestones are essentially an ill-sorted assemblage of glacial erratics. Much further research into the origin of the bluestones has been published between 2012 and 2022 particularly by geologists Richard Bevins and Rob Ixer. If a glacier transported the stones, then it must have been the Irish Sea Glacier. In support of the glacial erratic theory, researchers reporting in 2015 found no firm evidence of quarrying at Rhosyfelin in the Preselis. However, in such event, one might expect to find other bluestone boulders or slabs near the Stonehenge site, but no such bluestones (apart from fragments) have been found. Human transport theory The archaeological find of the Boscombe Bowmen has been cited in support of the human transport theory. Preseli Bluestone dolerite axe heads have been found around the Preseli Hills as well, indicating that there was a population who knew how to work with the stones, In 2015, researchers claimed that some of the stones at Stonehenge came from Neolithic quarries at Carn Goedog and Craig Rhos-y-felin in the Preseli Hills. The quarrying hypothesis has been hotly disputed by Brian John, Dyfed Elis-Gruffydd and John Downes, whose own detailed research led to the conclusion that the so-called quarrying features were all natural, created over a long period of glacial and periglacial landscape change. Further, no independent evidence has ever been found to support the thesis of long overland or sea transport of Preseli bluestones from Wales to Salisbury Plain. Australia HM Prison Pentridge was one of the many buildings constructed of local bluestone in Melbourne in the 19th century There are three distinct building materials called "bluestone" in Australia. Victoria In Victoria, what is known as bluestone is a basalt or olivine basalt. It was one of the favoured building materials during the Victorian Gold Rush period of the 1850s. In Melbourne, it was extracted from quarries throughout the inner northern suburbs, such as Clifton Hill, Brunswick and Coburg, where the quarry used to source the stone for Pentridge Prison is now Coburg Lake. Bluestone was also sourced in many other regions of the Victorian volcanic plains, and used in towns and cities in the state's central and western regions, including Ballarat, Geelong, Kyneton, Port Fairy and Portland. It is still quarried at a number of places around the state. Bluestone is a very hard material and therefore difficult to work, so it was predominantly used for warehouses, miscellaneous walls, and the foundations of buildings. However, a number of significant bluestone buildings exist, including the Old Melbourne Gaol, Pentridge Prison, St Patrick's Cathedral, Victoria Barracks, Melbourne Grammar School, Deaf Children Australia and Victorian College for the Deaf, Vision Australia, the Goldsbrough Mort warehouses (Bourke Street) and the Timeball Tower at Williamstown, as well as St Mary's Basilica in Geelong. Some examples of other major structures that use bluestone include Princes Bridge, the adjacent Federation Wharf, and Hawthorn Bridge. Because of its distinctive qualities, post-modern Melbourne buildings have also made use of bluestone for nostalgic reasons. They include the Southgate complex and the promenade in Southbank, Victoria. Bluestone was used extensively as cobblestone, and for kerbs and gutters, many examples of which still exist in Melbourne's smaller city lanes, and 19th-century inner-suburban streets and lanes. Crushed bluestone aggregate, known as "blue metal" (or "bluemetal"), is used extensively in Victoria as railway ballast, as road base, and in making concrete. Combined with bitumen, it is used as a road surfacing material. South Australia Typical colouring caused by mineralisation in Adelaide bluestone In South Australia, the name bluestone is given to a form of slate which is much less durable than Victorian bluestone, but was valued for its decorative appearance. The interior of the stone is usually pale grey or beige in colour, but is given attractively coloured surfaces by ferric oxide and other minerals deposited in joints and bedding planes. The slate is laid in masonry with the mineralised surfaces exposed. Bluestone was most popular from about the 1850s to the 1920s, quarried in the Adelaide Hills at Dry Creek, O'Halloran Hill (formerly Tapley's Hill) and Glen Osmond, as well as a number of other places in rural areas. Tasmania In Tasmania, the name bluestone is given to dolerite (diabase), which is a dominant stone variety in the landscape, and used in a variety of building roles. New Zealand Dunedin Railway Station and Law Courts, New Zealand, showing dark bluestone and creamy Oamaru stone construction Timaru bluestone (also known as Port Chalmers bluestone) is an attractive building material, used both historically and to the present. It is a grey basalt similar to Victorian bluestone, quarried near Timaru in the South Island. Bluestone from near Kokonga in Central Otago is also widely used, and is the main construction material (often with facing of Oamaru stone, a local compact limestone) in many of the notable historic buildings in the southern South Island, most of which were constructed during the financial boom following the Central Otago gold rush. Prominent structures to use this combination include Otago University Registry Building, Dunedin Law Courts, and Dunedin Railway Station. Similar construction using Timaru bluestone was used for Christchurch Arts Centre. United States and Canada Starrucca Viaduct, Pennsylvania There are two distinct building materials called "bluestone" in the United States, one of which is also found in Canada. Bluestone from Pennsylvania and New York is a sandstone defined as feldspathic greywacke. The sand-sized grains from which bluestone is constituted were deposited in the Catskill Delta during the Middle to Upper Devonian Period of the Paleozoic Era, approximately 370 to 345 million years ago. The Catskill Delta was created from runoff from the Acadian Mountains ("Ancestral Appalachians"). This delta ran in a narrow band from southwest to northeast and today provides the bluestone quarried from the Catskill Mountains and Northeastern Pennsylvania. The term "bluestone" is derived from a deep-blue-colored sandstone first found in Ulster County, New York. It can, however, appear in many other hues, mostly shades of grays and browns. Bluestone quarrying is of particular value to the economy of Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. The Starrucca Viaduct, finished in 1848, is an example of Pennsylvania bluestone as a building material. Bluestone is quarried in western New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and eastern New York. It is also quarried in the Canadian Appalachians near Deer Lake in Western Newfoundland. The Pennsylvania Bluestone Association has 105 members, the vast majority of them quarriers. The other, lesser known, type of American "bluestone" is a blue-tinted limestone abundant in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. It is a limestone formed during the Ordovician Period approximately 450 to 500 million years ago, at the bottom of a relatively shallow ocean that covered what is today Rockingham County, Virginia. The limestone that accumulated there was darker in color than most other limestone deposits because it was in deeper waters exposed to less light. The darker blue color resulted in limestone from this region being dubbed "bluestone" and with two sequences measuring about 10,000 feet (3,000 m) thick, it gives the area one of the largest limestone deposits in the world. The stone eventually fades from a deep blue to a light grey after prolonged exposure to sun and rain. Given the abundance of the stone in the Rockingham County area, the first settlers used it as foundations and chimneys for their houses. When James Madison University was built, the local bluestone was used to construct the buildings because of its high quality and cultural heritage. See also Theories about Stonehenge References ^ Swaine, Jon (2008-09-22). "Stonehenge birthdate discovered by archaeologists". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-09-22. ^ Anthony Johnson "Solving Stonehenge: The New Key to an Ancient Enigma" (fig.89.P165.) (Thames and Hudson 2008) ISBN 978-0-500-05155-9 ^ Brian John, "The Stonehenge Bluestones" (Greencroft Books, 2018) page 157. ISBN 978-0-905559-94-0 ^ Bevins, Richard E., Ixer, Rob A., Webb, Peter C., Watson, John S. 2012. Provenancing the rhyolitic and dacitic components of the stonehenge landscape bluestone lithology: New petrographical and geochemical evidence. Journal of Archaeological Science, Volume 39, Issue 4, April 2012, pages 1005–1019 ^ Chiverrekk RC, Thrasher I, Thomas GS, Lang A, et al (2013). Bayesian modelling the retreat of the Irish Sea Ice Stream. Journal of Quaternary Science 28, 200-209. ^ "New research undermines Welsh bluestone quarry theory". Western Telegraph. 13 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015. ^ "National Geographic Channel, Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?". Archived from the original on May 2, 2013. ^ N. P. Figgis, "Prehistoric Preseli" (Atelier Productions, 2001). ISBN 1-899793-06-2 ^ "Stonehenge 'bluestone' quarries confirmed 140 miles away in Wales". University College London. 7 December 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2018. ^ Brian John, Dyfed Elis-Gruffydd and John Downes. 2015. OBSERVATIONS ON THE SUPPOSED “NEOLITHIC BLUESTONE QUARRY” AT CRAIG RHOSYFELIN, PEMBROKESHIRE". Archaeology in Wales 54, pp 139-148. ^ History of Brunswick, City of Moreland, http://moreland.vic.gov.au/moreland-libraries/services/local-history/history-brunswick.html Archived 2011-03-28 at the Wayback Machine, accessed 11 September 2012 ^ Encyclopedia of Melbourne: Quarries and Brickmaking, http://www.emelbourne.net.au/biogs/EM01213b.htm, accessed 11 September 2012 ^ R. Lockhart Jack, "The Building Stones of South Australia" (Adelaide 1923) pp. 18-28. ^ "Building Stone". Companion to Tasmanian History. Retrieved 18 May 2017. ^ Ettensohn, F (1985). "The Catskill Delta complex and the Acadian Orogeny". The Catskill Delta. Geological Society of America. 39-49. doi:10.1130/SPE201-p39. ^ Mahayes. "Bluestone Quarries \| Welcome to the Hudson Valley: A Guidebook of Topics in Local Environmental History". Retrieved 2019-10-23. ^ a b "Susquehanna County: The Heart of Pennsylvania Bluestone". Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Chacon, Mark A. (1999-10-11). Architectural Stone: Fabrication, Installation, and Selection. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471246596. Retrieved 2019-01-31. ^ Evans, DT; Dickson, WL (2004). "Dimension Stone in Newfoundland and Labrador" (PDF). Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ Sherwood, WC. "A Brief Geologic History of Rockingham County". James Madison University. Retrieved 25 January 2019. ^ "JMU Centennial Celebration - The History of Bluestone". James Madison University. 2007. Retrieved 26 January 2019. Bibliography Jack, R Lockhart. The Building Stones of South Australia. Bulletin No. 10, Geological Survey of South Australia, Adelaide, 1923. John, Brian. The Bluestone Enigma: Stonehenge, Preseli and the Ice Age. Greencroft Books, 2008, page 95. ISBN 978-0-905559-89-6. Jones, Nancy. Rooted on Bluestone Hill: A History of James Madison University. Center for American Places, Inc. Santa Fe, NM. 2004. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bluestones. Examination of the conflicting theories relating to the Stonehenge bluestones Enigma of the Stonehenge Bluestones and the Preseli Hills Wessex Archaeology's Bluestone information Secrets of the Preseli Bluestones Dig Pinpoints Stonehenge Origins "Bluestone Sidewalks" (Bluestone quarried in the state of New York), Scientific American, Vol. LXIII, No. 21, New York, November 22, 1890	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bluestone (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluestone_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Copper(II) sulfate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carn_Menyn_bluestones_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1451509.jpg"},{"link_name":"Carn Menyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carn_Menyn"},{"link_name":"dimension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimension_stone"},{"link_name":"basalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basalt"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"dolerites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabase"},{"link_name":"Tasmania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tasmania"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"feldspathic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"sandstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"Shenandoah Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley"},{"link_name":"Hainaut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hainaut_(province)"},{"link_name":"Soignies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soignies"},{"link_name":"County Carlow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Carlow"},{"link_name":"County Galway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Galway"},{"link_name":"County Kilkenny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Kilkenny"},{"link_name":"slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"blue brick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_brick"}],"text":"This article is about various \"blue\" building stones. For other uses, see Bluestone (disambiguation).Not to be confused with Copper(II) sulfate.Carn Menyn bluestones. These dolerite slabs, split by frost action, seem to be stacked ready for the taking, and many have been removed over the centuries for local use. Research favors the theory that humans also transported stones from Carn Menyn to Stonehenge, about 250 kilometers away.Bluestone is a cultural or commercial name for a number of natural dimension or building stone varieties, including:basalt in Victoria, Australia, and in New Zealand\ndolerites in Tasmania, Australia; and in Britain (including Stonehenge)\nfeldspathic sandstone in the US and Canada\nlimestone in the Shenandoah Valley in the US, from the Hainaut quarries in Soignies, Belgium, and from quarries in County Carlow, County Galway and County Kilkenny in Ireland\nslate in South AustraliaIt is unrelated to human-made blue brick.","title":"Bluestone"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Carnmenyn_Monument_H1a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Preseli Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preseli_Hills"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"igneous rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igneous_rock"},{"link_name":"plagioclase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagioclase"},{"link_name":"feldspar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"dolerites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolerite"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Preseli Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preseli_Hills"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales"},{"link_name":"glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glaciation"},{"link_name":"glacial erratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_erratic"}],"text":"Bluestone monument and Carn Menyn, Preseli HillsThe term \"bluestone\" in Britain is used in a loose sense to cover all of the \"foreign,\" not intrinsic, stones and rock debris at Stonehenge. It is a \"convenience\" label rather than a geological term, since at least 46 different rock types are represented. One of the most common rocks in the assemblage is known as Preseli Spotted Dolerite—a chemically altered igneous rock containing spots or clusters of secondary minerals replacing plagioclase feldspar. It is a medium grained dark and heavy rock, harder than granite.Preseli bluestone tools, such as axes, have been discovered elsewhere within the British Isles. Many of them appear to have been made in or near Stonehenge, since there are petrographic similarities with some of the spotted dolerites there. The bluestones at Stonehenge were first used there during the third phase of construction at Stonehenge around 2300 BC.[1] It is assumed that there were about 80 monoliths originally, but this has never been proven since only 43 remain. The stones are estimated to weigh between 2 and 4 tons each. The majority of them are believed to have come from the Preseli Hills, about 250 kilometres (150 miles) away in Wales, either through glaciation (glacial erratic theory) or through humans organizing their transportation.","title":"Stonehenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Irish Sea Glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_Sea_Glacier"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"glacial erratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacial_erratic"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Glacial erratic theory","text":"A summary of the major aspects of the Stonehenge \"bluestone conundrum\" was published in 2008.[2] In 2018 a book devoted specifically to the problem of bluestone provenance and transport concluded that the Stonehenge bluestones are essentially an ill-sorted assemblage of glacial erratics.[3] Much further research into the origin of the bluestones has been published between 2012 and 2022 particularly by geologists Richard Bevins and Rob Ixer.[4] If a glacier transported the stones, then it must have been the Irish Sea Glacier.[5] In support of the glacial erratic theory, researchers reporting in 2015 found no firm evidence of quarrying at Rhosyfelin in the Preselis.[6] However, in such event, one might expect to find other bluestone boulders or slabs near the Stonehenge site, but no such bluestones (apart from fragments) have been found.[7]","title":"Stonehenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boscombe Bowmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boscombe_Bowmen"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Craig Rhos-y-felin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craig_Rhos-y-felin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Human transport theory","text":"The archaeological find of the Boscombe Bowmen has been cited in support of the human transport theory. Preseli Bluestone dolerite axe heads have been found around the Preseli Hills as well, indicating that there was a population who knew how to work with the stones,[8] In 2015, researchers claimed that some of the stones at Stonehenge came from Neolithic quarries at Carn Goedog and Craig Rhos-y-felin in the Preseli Hills. [9] The quarrying hypothesis has been hotly disputed by Brian John, Dyfed Elis-Gruffydd and John Downes, whose own detailed research led to the conclusion that the so-called quarrying features were all natural, created over a long period of glacial and periglacial landscape change. [10] Further, no independent evidence has ever been found to support the thesis of long overland or sea transport of Preseli bluestones from Wales to Salisbury Plain.","title":"Stonehenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pentridge.jpg"}],"text":"HM Prison Pentridge was one of the many buildings constructed of local bluestone in Melbourne in the 19th centuryThere are three distinct building materials called \"bluestone\" in Australia.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"olivine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olivine"},{"link_name":"Victorian Gold Rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Gold_Rush"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Clifton Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton_Hill,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Brunswick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brunswick,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Coburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coburg,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Pentridge Prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_Prison_Pentridge"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Ballarat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballarat"},{"link_name":"Geelong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geelong"},{"link_name":"Kyneton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyneton"},{"link_name":"Port Fairy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Fairy"},{"link_name":"Portland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portland,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Old Melbourne Gaol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Melbourne_Gaol"},{"link_name":"Pentridge Prison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HM_Prison_Pentridge"},{"link_name":"St Patrick's Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_Cathedral,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Victoria Barracks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_Barracks,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Melbourne Grammar School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne_Grammar_School"},{"link_name":"Deaf Children Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_Children_Australia"},{"link_name":"Victorian College for the Deaf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_College_for_the_Deaf"},{"link_name":"Vision Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Victorian_Institute_for_the_Blind"},{"link_name":"Goldsbrough Mort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldsbrough_Mort_%26_Co"},{"link_name":"Bourke Street","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourke_Street,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Timeball Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamstown_Lighthouse"},{"link_name":"Williamstown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamstown,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"St Mary's Basilica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St_Mary_of_the_Angels_Basilica,_Geelong"},{"link_name":"Geelong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geelong"},{"link_name":"Princes Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princes_Bridge,_Melbourne"},{"link_name":"Hawthorn Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawthorn_Bridge"},{"link_name":"post-modern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodern_architecture"},{"link_name":"Southbank, Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southbank,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"cobblestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobblestone"},{"link_name":"aggregate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction_aggregate"},{"link_name":"ballast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Track_ballast"},{"link_name":"road base","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_course"},{"link_name":"bitumen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitumen"}],"sub_title":"Victoria","text":"In Victoria, what is known as bluestone is a basalt or olivine basalt. It was one of the favoured building materials during the Victorian Gold Rush period of the 1850s. In Melbourne, it was extracted from quarries throughout the inner northern suburbs, such as Clifton Hill, Brunswick and Coburg, where the quarry used to source the stone for Pentridge Prison is now Coburg Lake.[11][12] Bluestone was also sourced in many other regions of the Victorian volcanic plains, and used in towns and cities in the state's central and western regions, including Ballarat, Geelong, Kyneton, Port Fairy and Portland. It is still quarried at a number of places around the state.Bluestone is a very hard material and therefore difficult to work, so it was predominantly used for warehouses, miscellaneous walls, and the foundations of buildings. However, a number of significant bluestone buildings exist, including the Old Melbourne Gaol, Pentridge Prison, St Patrick's Cathedral, Victoria Barracks, Melbourne Grammar School, Deaf Children Australia and Victorian College for the Deaf, Vision Australia, the Goldsbrough Mort warehouses (Bourke Street) and the Timeball Tower at Williamstown, as well as St Mary's Basilica in Geelong. Some examples of other major structures that use bluestone include Princes Bridge, the adjacent Federation Wharf, and Hawthorn Bridge. Because of its distinctive qualities, post-modern Melbourne buildings have also made use of bluestone for nostalgic reasons. They include the Southgate complex and the promenade in Southbank, Victoria.Bluestone was used extensively as cobblestone, and for kerbs and gutters, many examples of which still exist in Melbourne's smaller city lanes, and 19th-century inner-suburban streets and lanes. Crushed bluestone aggregate, known as \"blue metal\" (or \"bluemetal\"), is used extensively in Victoria as railway ballast, as road base, and in making concrete. Combined with bitumen, it is used as a road surfacing material.","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bluestone33.jpg"},{"link_name":"South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Australia"},{"link_name":"slate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slate"},{"link_name":"Adelaide Hills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide_Hills"},{"link_name":"Dry Creek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_Creek,_South_Australia"},{"link_name":"O'Halloran Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Halloran_Hill"},{"link_name":"Glen Osmond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glen_Osmond"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"South Australia","text":"Typical colouring caused by mineralisation in Adelaide bluestoneIn South Australia, the name bluestone is given to a form of slate which is much less durable than Victorian bluestone, but was valued for its decorative appearance. The interior of the stone is usually pale grey or beige in colour, but is given attractively coloured surfaces by ferric oxide and other minerals deposited in joints and bedding planes. The slate is laid in masonry with the mineralised surfaces exposed. Bluestone was most popular from about the 1850s to the 1920s, quarried in the Adelaide Hills at Dry Creek, O'Halloran Hill (formerly Tapley's Hill) and Glen Osmond, as well as a number of other places in rural areas.[13]","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Tasmania","text":"In Tasmania, the name bluestone is given to dolerite (diabase), which is a dominant stone variety in the landscape, and used in a variety of building roles.[14]","title":"Australia"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dunedin_Railway_Station_and_Dunedin_Law_Courts.jpg"},{"link_name":"Timaru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timaru"},{"link_name":"Port Chalmers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_Chalmers"},{"link_name":"Central Otago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Otago"},{"link_name":"Oamaru stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oamaru_stone"},{"link_name":"Central Otago gold rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otago_Gold_Rush"},{"link_name":"Otago University Registry Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otago_University_Registry_Building"},{"link_name":"Dunedin Law Courts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunedin_Law_Courts"},{"link_name":"Dunedin Railway Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dunedin_Railway_Station"},{"link_name":"Christchurch Arts Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christchurch_Arts_Centre"}],"text":"Dunedin Railway Station and Law Courts, New Zealand, showing dark bluestone and creamy Oamaru stone constructionTimaru bluestone (also known as Port Chalmers bluestone) is an attractive building material, used both historically and to the present. It is a grey basalt similar to Victorian bluestone, quarried near Timaru in the South Island. Bluestone from near Kokonga in Central Otago is also widely used, and is the main construction material (often with facing of Oamaru stone, a local compact limestone) in many of the notable historic buildings in the southern South Island, most of which were constructed during the financial boom following the Central Otago gold rush. Prominent structures to use this combination include Otago University Registry Building, Dunedin Law Courts, and Dunedin Railway Station. Similar construction using Timaru bluestone was used for Christchurch Arts Centre.","title":"New Zealand"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Starrucca_Viaduct,_Oct_2014.jpg"},{"link_name":"Starrucca Viaduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starrucca_Viaduct"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"sandstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandstone"},{"link_name":"feldspathic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldspar"},{"link_name":"greywacke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greywacke"},{"link_name":"Catskill Delta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catskill_Delta"},{"link_name":"Devonian Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devonian_Period"},{"link_name":"Paleozoic Era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleozoic_Era"},{"link_name":"Acadian Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acadian_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Catskill Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catskill_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Northeastern Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Ulster County, New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_County,_New_York"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susquehanna_County,_Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Starrucca Viaduct","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starrucca_Viaduct"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SusCounty-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SusCounty-17"},{"link_name":"limestone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone"},{"link_name":"Shenandoah Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley"},{"link_name":"Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virginia"},{"link_name":"Ordovician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordovician"},{"link_name":"Rockingham County, Virginia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockingham_County,_Virginia"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"James Madison University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison_University"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Starrucca Viaduct, PennsylvaniaThere are two distinct building materials called \"bluestone\" in the United States, one of which is also found in Canada.Bluestone from Pennsylvania and New York is a sandstone defined as feldspathic greywacke. The sand-sized grains from which bluestone is constituted were deposited in the Catskill Delta during the Middle to Upper Devonian Period of the Paleozoic Era, approximately 370 to 345 million years ago. The Catskill Delta was created from runoff from the Acadian Mountains (\"Ancestral Appalachians\").[15] This delta ran in a narrow band from southwest to northeast and today provides the bluestone quarried from the Catskill Mountains and Northeastern Pennsylvania. The term \"bluestone\" is derived from a deep-blue-colored sandstone first found in Ulster County, New York.[16] It can, however, appear in many other hues, mostly shades of grays and browns. Bluestone quarrying is of particular value to the economy of Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. The Starrucca Viaduct, finished in 1848, is an example of Pennsylvania bluestone as a building material.[17] Bluestone is quarried in western New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and eastern New York.[18] It is also quarried in the Canadian Appalachians near Deer Lake in Western Newfoundland.[19] The Pennsylvania Bluestone Association has 105 members, the vast majority of them quarriers.[17]The other, lesser known, type of American \"bluestone\" is a blue-tinted limestone abundant in the Shenandoah Valley of Virginia. It is a limestone formed during the Ordovician Period approximately 450 to 500 million years ago, at the bottom of a relatively shallow ocean that covered what is today Rockingham County, Virginia. The limestone that accumulated there was darker in color than most other limestone deposits because it was in deeper waters exposed to less light. The darker blue color resulted in limestone from this region being dubbed \"bluestone\" and with two sequences measuring about 10,000 feet (3,000 m) thick, it gives the area one of the largest limestone deposits in the world.[20] The stone eventually fades from a deep blue to a light grey after prolonged exposure to sun and rain. Given the abundance of the stone in the Rockingham County area, the first settlers used it as foundations and chimneys for their houses. When James Madison University was built, the local bluestone was used to construct the buildings because of its high quality and cultural heritage.[21]","title":"United States and Canada"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-905559-89-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-905559-89-6"}],"text":"Jack, R Lockhart. The Building Stones of South Australia. Bulletin No. 10, Geological Survey of South Australia, Adelaide, 1923.\nJohn, Brian. The Bluestone Enigma: Stonehenge, Preseli and the Ice Age. Greencroft Books, 2008, page 95. ISBN 978-0-905559-89-6.\nJones, Nancy. Rooted on Bluestone Hill: A History of James Madison University. Center for American Places, Inc. Santa Fe, NM. 2004.","title":"Bibliography"}]	[{"image_text":"Carn Menyn bluestones. These dolerite slabs, split by frost action, seem to be stacked ready for the taking, and many have been removed over the centuries for local use. Research favors the theory that humans also transported stones from Carn Menyn to Stonehenge, about 250 kilometers away.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Carn_Menyn_bluestones_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1451509.jpg/300px-Carn_Menyn_bluestones_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1451509.jpg"},{"image_text":"Bluestone monument and Carn Menyn, Preseli Hills","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Carnmenyn_Monument_H1a.jpg/220px-Carnmenyn_Monument_H1a.jpg"},{"image_text":"HM Prison Pentridge was one of the many buildings constructed of local bluestone in Melbourne in the 19th century","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Pentridge.jpg/170px-Pentridge.jpg"},{"image_text":"Typical colouring caused by mineralisation in Adelaide bluestone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Bluestone33.jpg/220px-Bluestone33.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dunedin Railway Station and Law Courts, New Zealand, showing dark bluestone and creamy Oamaru stone construction","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Dunedin_Railway_Station_and_Dunedin_Law_Courts.jpg/220px-Dunedin_Railway_Station_and_Dunedin_Law_Courts.jpg"},{"image_text":"Starrucca Viaduct, Pennsylvania","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Starrucca_Viaduct%2C_Oct_2014.jpg/220px-Starrucca_Viaduct%2C_Oct_2014.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Theories about Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_about_Stonehenge"}]	[{"reference":"Swaine, Jon (2008-09-22). \"Stonehenge birthdate discovered by archaeologists\". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 2008-09-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/3046095/Stonehenge-birthdate-discovered-by-archaeologists.html","url_text":"\"Stonehenge birthdate discovered by archaeologists\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph","url_text":"The Daily Telegraph"}]},{"reference":"\"New research undermines Welsh bluestone quarry theory\". Western Telegraph. 13 November 2015. Retrieved 13 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.westerntelegraph.co.uk/news/14030126.New_research_undermines_Welsh_bluestone_quarry_theory/","url_text":"\"New research undermines Welsh bluestone quarry theory\""}]},{"reference":"\"National Geographic Channel, Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?\". Archived from the original on May 2, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130502033832/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/episodes/who-built-stonehenge/","url_text":"\"National Geographic Channel, Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?\""},{"url":"http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/episodes/who-built-stonehenge/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Stonehenge 'bluestone' quarries confirmed 140 miles away in Wales\". University College London. 7 December 2015. Retrieved 3 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/1215/071215-stonehenge-bluestone-quarries","url_text":"\"Stonehenge 'bluestone' quarries confirmed 140 miles away in Wales\""}]},{"reference":"\"Building Stone\". Companion to Tasmanian History. Retrieved 18 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/B/Building%20stone.htm","url_text":"\"Building Stone\""}]},{"reference":"Ettensohn, F (1985). \"The Catskill Delta complex and the Acadian Orogeny\". The Catskill Delta. Geological Society of America. 39-49. doi:10.1130/SPE201-p39.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2FSPE201-p39","url_text":"10.1130/SPE201-p39"}]},{"reference":"Mahayes. \"Bluestone Quarries \| Welcome to the Hudson Valley: A Guidebook of Topics in Local Environmental History\". Retrieved 2019-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://pages.vassar.edu/hudsonvalleyguidebook/2013/06/03/bluestone-quarries/","url_text":"\"Bluestone Quarries \| Welcome to the Hudson Valley: A Guidebook of Topics in Local Environmental History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Susquehanna County: The Heart of Pennsylvania Bluestone\". Susquehanna County, Pennsylvania. Retrieved 25 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://susqco.com/economic-development/pennsylvania-bluestone/","url_text":"\"Susquehanna County: The Heart of Pennsylvania Bluestone\""}]},{"reference":"Chacon, Mark A. (1999-10-11). Architectural Stone: Fabrication, Installation, and Selection. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 9780471246596. Retrieved 2019-01-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2K8rqyKwUP8C&q=bluestone%2520is%2520a%2520feldspathic%2520%255B%255Bsandstone%255D%255D%252C%2520which%2520is%2520produced%2520in%2520hundreds%2520of%2520small%2520quarries%2520in%2520adjacent%2520areas%2520of%2520Pennsylvania%2520and%2520New%2520York&pg=PA202","url_text":"Architectural Stone: Fabrication, Installation, and Selection"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780471246596","url_text":"9780471246596"}]},{"reference":"Evans, DT; Dickson, WL (2004). \"Dimension Stone in Newfoundland and Labrador\" (PDF). Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. Retrieved 25 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/mines/geoscience/publications/of_nfld2865.pdf","url_text":"\"Dimension Stone in Newfoundland and Labrador\""}]},{"reference":"Sherwood, WC. \"A Brief Geologic History of Rockingham County\". James Madison University. Retrieved 25 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/vageol/outreach/fieldtrips/rockingham/whole.html","url_text":"\"A Brief Geologic History of Rockingham County\""}]},{"reference":"\"JMU Centennial Celebration - The History of Bluestone\". James Madison University. 2007. Retrieved 26 January 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.jmu.edu/centennialcelebration/bluestone.shtml","url_text":"\"JMU Centennial Celebration - The History of Bluestone\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Bluestone%22","external_links_name":"\"Bluestone\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Bluestone%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Bluestone%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Bluestone%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Bluestone%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Bluestone%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/3046095/Stonehenge-birthdate-discovered-by-archaeologists.html","external_links_name":"\"Stonehenge birthdate discovered by archaeologists\""},{"Link":"http://www.westerntelegraph.co.uk/news/14030126.New_research_undermines_Welsh_bluestone_quarry_theory/","external_links_name":"\"New research undermines Welsh bluestone quarry theory\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130502033832/http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/episodes/who-built-stonehenge/","external_links_name":"\"National Geographic Channel, Naked Science: Who Built Stonehenge?\""},{"Link":"http://channel.nationalgeographic.com/channel/episodes/who-built-stonehenge/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/news-articles/1215/071215-stonehenge-bluestone-quarries","external_links_name":"\"Stonehenge 'bluestone' quarries confirmed 140 miles away in Wales\""},{"Link":"http://moreland.vic.gov.au/moreland-libraries/services/local-history/history-brunswick.html","external_links_name":"http://moreland.vic.gov.au/moreland-libraries/services/local-history/history-brunswick.html"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110328164911/http://www.moreland.vic.gov.au/moreland-libraries/services/local-history/history-brunswick.html","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.emelbourne.net.au/biogs/EM01213b.htm","external_links_name":"http://www.emelbourne.net.au/biogs/EM01213b.htm"},{"Link":"http://www.utas.edu.au/library/companion_to_tasmanian_history/B/Building%20stone.htm","external_links_name":"\"Building Stone\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1130%2FSPE201-p39","external_links_name":"10.1130/SPE201-p39"},{"Link":"https://pages.vassar.edu/hudsonvalleyguidebook/2013/06/03/bluestone-quarries/","external_links_name":"\"Bluestone Quarries \| Welcome to the Hudson Valley: A Guidebook of Topics in Local Environmental History\""},{"Link":"http://susqco.com/economic-development/pennsylvania-bluestone/","external_links_name":"\"Susquehanna County: The Heart of Pennsylvania Bluestone\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=2K8rqyKwUP8C&q=bluestone%2520is%2520a%2520feldspathic%2520%255B%255Bsandstone%255D%255D%252C%2520which%2520is%2520produced%2520in%2520hundreds%2520of%2520small%2520quarries%2520in%2520adjacent%2520areas%2520of%2520Pennsylvania%2520and%2520New%2520York&pg=PA202","external_links_name":"Architectural Stone: Fabrication, Installation, and Selection"},{"Link":"https://www.nr.gov.nl.ca/nr/mines/geoscience/publications/of_nfld2865.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Dimension Stone in Newfoundland and Labrador\""},{"Link":"http://csmres.jmu.edu/geollab/vageol/outreach/fieldtrips/rockingham/whole.html","external_links_name":"\"A Brief Geologic History of Rockingham County\""},{"Link":"http://www.jmu.edu/centennialcelebration/bluestone.shtml","external_links_name":"\"JMU Centennial Celebration - The History of Bluestone\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150214203942/http://brianjohn.info/bluestones59.html","external_links_name":"Examination of the conflicting theories relating to the Stonehenge bluestones"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140811011622/http://www.brianjohn.info/bluestonesimp58.html","external_links_name":"Enigma of the Stonehenge Bluestones and the Preseli Hills"},{"Link":"http://www.wessexarch.co.uk/projects/wiltshire/boscombe/bowmen/stonehenge_bluestones.html","external_links_name":"Wessex Archaeology's Bluestone information"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080716053344/http://www.britannia.com/history/preseli_blue.html","external_links_name":"Secrets of the Preseli Bluestones"},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7625145.stm","external_links_name":"Dig Pinpoints Stonehenge Origins"},{"Link":"http://quarriesandbeyond.org/articles_and_books/pdf/bluestone_sidewalks_scientific_american_november_22_1890.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Bluestone Sidewalks\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alligator_Records	Alligator Records	["1 History","2 Discography","2.1 Blues","2.2 Reggae","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	American blues record label Alligator RecordsFounded1971; 53 years ago (1971)FounderBruce IglauerDistributor(s)ADA (US), Warner Music (Canada)GenreBluesCountry of originU.S.LocationChicago, IllinoisOfficial websitewww.alligator.com Alligator Records is an American, Chicago-based independent blues record label founded by Bruce Iglauer in 1971. Iglauer was also one of the founders of the Living Blues magazine in Chicago in 1970. History Iglauer started the label using his savings to record and produce his favorite band Hound Dog Taylor and the HouseRockers, whom his employer, Bob Koester of Delmark Records, declined to record. Nine months after the release of the first album, he stopped working at Delmark Records to concentrate fully on the band and his label. Only 1,000 copies of the Taylor's debut album were made, while Iglauer took over managing the group. Other early releases for the fledgling label included recordings by Big Walter Horton with Carey Bell and Fenton Robinson. In 1976, Koko Taylor's I Got What It Takes was nominated for a Grammy Award, and Albert Collins soon signed to the label. Iglauer mainly worked as executive producer. In 1982, the label won its first Grammy Award for the album, I'm Here, by Clifton Chenier. The second Grammy came in 1985 for Showdown! by Albert Collins, Johnny Copeland, and Robert Cray. In 1991, a 20th anniversary compilation album was issued. Since its founding, Alligator Records has released over 250 blues and blues/rock albums, as well as a defunct reggae series. Alligator artists include Lonnie Mack, Marcia Ball, Koko Taylor, Lonnie Brooks, Lil' Ed & The Blues Imperials, Eddy Clearwater, Sam Lay, Smokin' Joe Kubek, Roomful of Blues, Eric Lindell, JJ Grey & MOFRO, Lee Rocker, Cephas & Wiggins, and Michael Burks. More recently, veterans Charlie Musselwhite and James Cotton have re-signed to the label. Alligator celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2011 while reporting a profit for the previous year. In January 2021, Exceleration Records invested in Alligator, becoming a financial and administrative partner with Iglauer. In 2021, Alligator celebrated its 50th anniversary, in observance of which Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot declared June 18, 2021 as “Alligator Records Day” in Chicago, and U.S. Rep. Jan Schakowsky added comments on Iglauer's and Alligator's part in the "American cultural legacy of Chicago blues music" to the Congressional Record. Discography Alligator Records commenced releasing LPs in 1971 continuing through to the present with a focus on Chicago blues artists. Blues Catalog No. (AL) Album Artist Details 4701 Hound Dog Taylor and the HouseRockers Hound Dog Taylor 4702 Big Walter Horton with Carey Bell Big Walter Horton and Carey Bell 4703 The Son Seals Blues Band Son Seals 4704 Natural Boogie Hound Dog Taylor 4705 Somebody Loan Me a Dime Fenton Robinson 4706 I Got What It Takes Koko Taylor 4707 Beware of the Dog Hound Dog Taylor 4708 Midnight Son Son Seals 4709 Stomping on a Saturday Night Blind John Davis 4710 I Hear Some Blues Downstairs Fenton Robinson 4711 The Earthshaker Koko Taylor 4712 Live and Burning Son Seals 4713 Ice Pickin' Albert Collins 4714 Bayou Lightning Lonnie Brooks 4715 Someday You'll Have These Blues Phillip Walker 4716 Been Gone Too Long Lonesome Sundown 4717 Johnny Jones with Billy Boy Arnold Johnny Jones and Billy Boy Arnold 4718 Crawfish Fiesta Professor Longhair 4719 Frostbite Albert Collins 4720 Chicago Fire Son Seals 4721 Turn On the Night Lonnie Brooks 4722 Condition: Blue Tony Mathews 4723 Stone Crazy! Buddy Guy 4724 From the Heart of a Woman Koko Taylor 4725 Frozen Alive! Albert Collins 4726 The New Johnny Otis Show with Shuggie Otis Johnny Otis and Shuggie Otis 4727 Genuine Houserocking Music Hound Dog Taylor 4728 Raw Magic Magic Slim 4729 I'm Here! Clifton Chenier and His Red Hot Louisiana Band 4730 Don't Lose Your Cool Albert Collins 4731 Hot Shot Lonnie Brooks 4732 Playing for Keeps Big Twist and the Mellow Fellows 4733 Live in Japan Albert Collins 4734 Whoopin' Sonny Terry with Johnny Winter and Willie Dixon 4735 Guitar Slinger Johnny Winter 4736 Nightflight Fenton Robinson 4737 High Compression James Cotton 4738 Bad Axe Son Seals 4739 Strike Like Lightning Lonnie Mack 4740 Queen of the Blues Koko Taylor 4741 When a Guitar Plays the Blues Roy Buchanan 4742 Serious Business Johnny Winter 4743 Showdown! Albert Collins, Robert Cray and Johnny Copeland 4744 Bar Room Preacher Jimmy Johnson 4745 Pressure Cooker Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown 4746 Live from Chicago - Mr. Superharp Himself! James Cotton 4747 Dancing on the Edge Roy Buchanan 4748 3rd Degree Johnny Winter 4749 Roughhousin' Lil' Ed and the Blues Imperials 4750 Second Sight Lonnie Mack 4751 Wound Up Tight Lonnie Brooks 4752 Cold Snap Albert Collins 4753 All the Way Crazy Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4754 An Audience with the Queen Koko Taylor 4755 Live from Chicago! Bigger Than Life!! Big Twist and the Mellow Fellows 4756 Hot Wires Roy Buchanan 4757 I'm in the Wrong Business! A.C. Reed 4758 Edge of the City The Kinsey Report 4759 Live from Chicago: Bayou Lightning Strikes Lonnie Brooks 4760 The Siegel–Schwall Reunion Concert Siegel–Schwall Band 4761 Disturbing the Peace Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4762 Years Since Yesterday The Paladins 4763 Generic Blues Album Maurice John Vaughn 4764 Big News from Baton Rouge!! Kenny Neal 4765 Georgia Blue Tinsley Ellis 4766 The Swamp Boogie Queen Katie Webster 4767 Big Fun Elvin Bishop 4768 Harp and Soul Lazy Lester 4769 That Woman is Poison! Rufus Thomas 4770 Lucky Strikes! Lucky Peterson 4771 One More for the Road Charles Brown reissue of Blue Side LP 4772 Chicken, Gravy and Biscuits Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4773 Live from Austin Delbert McClinton 4774 Devil Child Kenny Neal 4775 Midnight Drive The Kinsey Report 4776 The Big Break Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4777 Two-Fisted Mama Katie Webster 4778 Fanning the Flames Tinsley Ellis 4779 Standing My Ground Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown 4780 The Uppity Blues Women Saffire – The Uppity Blues Women 4781 Ace of Harps Charlie Musselwhite 4782 Let's Buzz! The Paladins 4783 Louisiana Legend Raful Neal 4784 Jump for Joy Koko Taylor 4785 Return of the Thin Man Noble "Thin Man" Watts 4786 Live! Attack of the Killer V Lonnie Mack 4787 Keep It To Ourselves Sonny Boy Williamson recorded in 1963 4788 Blowin' Like Hell William Clarke 4789 Triple Play Lucky Peterson 4790 Harp Attack! James Cotton, Carey Bell, Junior Wells and Billy Branch 4791 Don't Let the Bossman Get You Down! Elvin Bishop 4792 Tore Up! Nappy Brown 4793 Street Party The Mellow Fellows 4794 Captured Live Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4795 Walking On Fire Kenny Neal 4796 Hot Flash Saffire – The Uppity Blues Women 4797 Lost in the Blues Otis Rush 4798 Living in the Danger Zone Son Seals 4799 Satisfaction Guaranteed Lonnie Brooks 4800 The Touch Johnny Heartsman 4801 Signature Charlie Musselwhite 4802 Alone & Acoustic Buddy Guy and Junior Wells 4803 No Foolin'! Katie Webster 4804 No Looking Back Clarence "Gatemouth" Brown 4805 Trouble Time Tinsley Ellis 4806 Serious Intentions William Clarke 4807 Short Fuse Blues Dave Hole 4809 ...What You See Is What You Get Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4810 Bayou Blood Kenny Neal 4811 Broadcasting Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4812 Night Vision Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4813 In the Shadow of the City Maurice John Vaughn 4814 Working Overtime Dave Hole 4815 Back Where I Belong Billy Boy Arnold 4816 Down in the Alley Bob Margolin 4817 Force of Nature Koko Taylor 4818 In My Time Charlie Musselwhite 4819 Blue Blazes Sugar Blue 4820 Soul Fixin' Man Luther Allison 4821 Bloodlines Michael Hill's Blues Mob 4822 Nothing but the Truth Son Seals 4823 Storm Warning Tinsley Ellis 4824 Corky Siegel's Chamber Blues Corky Siegel 4825 Hoodoo Moon Kenny Neal 4826 Old, New, Borrowed & Blue Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4827 Groove Time William Clarke 4828 Deep Down Carey Bell 4829 Straight Up! Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4830 Too Much Fun C. J. Chenier and the Red Hot Louisiana Band 4831 In Your Eyes Sugar Blue 4832 Steel on Steel Dave Hole 4833 Ace in the Hole Elvin Bishop 4834 Blue Streak Luther Allison 4835 My Blues & My Guitar Bob Margolin 4836 Eldorado Cadillac Billy Boy Arnold 4837 Between Midnight and Day Corey Harris 4838 Cool Down Cephas & Wiggins 4839 Border Town Legend Long John Hunter 4840 Cleaning House Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4841 Wake Up and Live! Floyd Dixon 4842 The Hard Way William Clarke 4843 Roadhouse Rules Lonnie Brooks 4844 The Big Squeeze C. J. Chenier and the Red Hot Louisiana Band 4845 Have Mercy! Michael Hill's Blues Mob 4846 Son Seals Live: Spontaneous Combustion Son Seals 4847 Ticket to Chicago Dave Hole 4848 Music Makin' Mama Ann Rabson 4849 Reckless Luther Allison 4850 Fish Ain't Bitin' Corey Harris 4851 Up and In Bob Margolin 4852 Fire It Up Tinsley Ellis 4853 Swinging from the Rafters Long John Hunter 4854 Good Luck Man Carey Bell 4855 Hound Dog Taylor: A Tribute Various Artists 4856 Live & Uppity Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4857 Turn the Heat Up Shemekia Copeland 4858 New York State of Blues Michael Hill's Blues Mob 4859 The Skin I'm In Elvin Bishop 4860 Smoke and Steel The Kinsey Report 4861 Ride with Me Long John Hunter 4862 Shadow of the Blues Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4863 Homemade Cephas & Wiggins 4864 Greens from the Garden Corey Harris 4865 Under the Spell Dave Hole 4866 Lone Star Shootout Lonnie Brooks, Long John Hunter and Phillip Walker 4867 Front Porch Blues John Jackson 4868 Get Wild! Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4869 Live in Chicago Luther Allison 4870 Bitter Sweet Blues Gaye Adegbalola 4871 Suspicion Coco Montoya 4872 Vü-Dü Menz Corey Harris and Henry Butler 4873 Royal Blue Koko Taylor 4874 That's My Partner! Elvin Bishop and Little Smokey Smothers 4875 Wicked Shemekia Copeland 4876 The Chill Rusty Zinn 4877 Speaking in Tongues The Holmes Brothers 4878 Make It Rain Michael Burks 4879 Presumed Innocent Marcia Ball 4880 Ain't Gonna Hush! Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4881 Outside Looking In Dave Hole 4882 Step It Up! C. J. Chenier and the Red Hot Louisiana Band 4883 That's Big! Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4884 From Austin with Soul W. C. Clark 4885 Can't Look Back Coco Montoya 4886 Heads Up! Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4887 Talking to Strangers Shemekia Copeland 4888 Somebody Told the Truth Cephas & Wiggins 4889 That's Right! Roomful of Blues 4890 The Live One Dave Hole 4891 So Many Rivers Marcia Ball 4892 I Smell Smoke Michael Burks 4993 Simple Truths The Holmes Brothers 4894 Double Take Kenny Neal and Billy Branch 4895 Watch Your Back Guitar Shorty 4896 Release the Hound Hound Dog Taylor 4897 Deep in the Heart W. C. Clark 4898 Second Nature Carey Bell and Lurrie Bell 4899 Have a Little Faith Mavis Staples 4900 Standing Room Only Roomful of Blues 4901 Corky Siegel's Traveling Chamber Blues Show! Corky Siegel 4902 Nine Lives Little Charlie & the Nightcats 4903 Live! Down the Road Marcia Ball 4904 Live - Highwayman Tinsley Ellis 4905 The Soul Truth Shemekia Copeland 4906 Flash Forward The Siegel-Schwall Band 4907 Racin' the Devil Lee Rocker 4908 Change in the Weather Eric Lindell 4909 Rattleshake Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4910 Shoulder to Shoulder Cephas & Wiggins 4911 We The People Guitar Shorty 4912 State of Grace The Holmes Brothers 4913 Dirty Deal Coco Montoya 4914 Country Ghetto JJ Grey & Mofro 4915 Old School Koko Taylor 4916 Moment of Truth Tinsley Ellis 4917 Black Cat Bone Lee Rocker 4918 Low on Cash, Rich in Love Eric Lindell 4919 Raisin' a Ruckus Roomful of Blues 4920 Blood Brothers Smokin' Joe Kubek and Bnois King 4921 West Side Strut Eddy Clearwater 4922 Peace, Love & BBQ Marcia Ball 4923 Iron Man Michael Burks 4924 What Love Will Do Janiva Magness 4925 Orange Blossoms JJ Grey & Mofro 4926 Full Tilt Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4927 Havin' the Last Word Saffire − The Uppity Blues Women 4928 Gulf Coast Highway Eric Lindell 4929 Lay Your Burden Down Buckwheat Zydeco 4930 Twisted Rick Estrin & The Nightcats 4931 Hard Believer Tommy Castro 4932 Speak No Evil Tinsley Ellis 4933 Feed My Soul The Holmes Brothers 4934 Bare Knuckle Guitar Shorty 4935 The Devil is an Angel Too Janiva Magness 4936 American Patchwork Anders Osborne 4937 Have Blues, Will Travel Smokin' Joe Kubek and Bnois King 4938 Georgia Warhorse JJ Grey & Mofro 4939 The Well Charlie Musselwhite 4940 Giant James Cotton 4941 Hook, Line & Sinker Roomful of Blues 4942 Roadside Attractions Marcia Ball 4943 The Legendary Rhythm & Blues Revue Live! Various Artists 4944 Brighter Days: The Film and Live Concert Album JJ Grey & Mofro CD and DVD 4945 Hellfire Joe Louis Walker 4946 Stronger For It Janiva Magness 4947 Soul Shot Curtis Salgado 4948 Black Eye Galaxy Anders Osborne 4949 Jump Start Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4950 One Wrong Turn Rick Estrin & The Nightcats 4951 Show of Strength Michael Burks 4952 On My Mind / In My Heart Jesse Dee 4953 This River JJ Grey & Mofro 4954 Cotton Mouth Man James Cotton 4955 45 Live Roomful of Blues 4956 Peace Anders Osborne 4957 Brotherhood The Holmes Brothers 4958 The Devil You Know Tommy Castro and the Pain Killers 4959 Hornet's Nest Joe Louis Walker 4960 Refuse to Lose Jarekus Singleton 4961 Don't Call No Ambulance Selwyn Birchwood 4962 You Asked For It...Live Rick Estrin & The Nightcats 4963 Can't Even Do Wrong Right Elvin Bishop 4964 The Tattooed Lady and the Alligator Man Marcia Ball 4965 Meet Me in Bluesland The Kentucky Headhunters with Johnnie Johnson 4966 Outskirts of Love Shemekia Copeland 4967 Method to My Madness Tommy Castro and The Painkillers 4968 God Don't Never Change: The Songs of Blind Willie Johnson Various Artists 4969 The Chicago Way Toronzo Cannon 4970 The Beautiful Lowdown Curtis Salgado 4971 Promised Land or Bust Moreland and Arbuckle 4972 The Big Sound of Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials Lil' Ed & the Blues Imperials 4973 Elvin Bishop's Big Fun Trio Elvin Bishop 4974 Hard Truth Coco Montoya 4975 Pick Your Poison Selwyn Birchwood 4976 Royal Mint The Cash Box Kings 4977 Groovin' in Greaseland Rick Estrin & The Nightcats 4978 Stompin' Ground Tommy Castro and The Painkillers 4979 Winning Hand Tinsley Ellis 4980 Rough Cut Curtis Salgado and Alan Hager 4981 The High Cost of Low Living Nick Moss Band featuring Dennis Gruenling 4982 Shine Bright Marcia Ball 4983 Something Smells Funky Round Here Elvin Bishop 4984 America's Child Shemekia Copeland 4985 Revolution in Your Heart Eric Lindell 4986 Tough as Love Lindsay Beaver 4987 Journeys to the Heart of the Blues Joe Louis Walker, Bruce Katz and Giles Robson 4988 Live at the Ramblin' Man Fair The Kentucky Headhunters 4989 Killin' It Live Tommy Castro and The Pain Killers 4990 Kingfish Christone "Kingfish" Ingram 4991 Hail to the Kings! The Cash Box Kings 4992 Roots and Branches: The Songs of Little Walter Billy Branch 4993 Lucky Guy! Nick Moss Band featuring Dennis Gruenling 4994 Coming in Hot Coco Montoya 4995 The Preacher, the Politician or the Pimp Toronzo Cannon 4996 Contemporary Rick Estrin & The Nightcats 4997 Ice Cream In Hell Tinsley Ellis 4998 In A Roomfull Of Blues Roomfull Of Blues 4999 Living In A Burning House Selwyn Birchwood 5001 Uncivil War Shemekia Copeland 5002 Damage Control Curtis Salgado 5003 Raisin' Cain Chris Cain 5004 100 Years Of Blues Elvin Bishop & Charlie Musselwhite Reggae Catalog No. Album Artist Details 8302 Rasta Festival Black Slate 8303 Indestructible Mighty Diamonds 8304 Youthman Penitentiary Edi Fitzroy and the Roots Radics Band 8305 Forward The Abyssinians 8306 Check It! Mutabaruka 8307 King David's Melody Augustus Pablo 8308 In the Future Pablo Moses 8309 Scattered Lights The Skatalites 8310 Rockers All-Star Explosion Various Artists 8311 Tension Pablo Moses 8312 High Times All-Star Explosion Various Artists 8313 Triumph! Joe Higgs See also List of record labels Chicago record labels Mutabaruka References ^ Trakin, Roy Alligator Records Founder Bruce Iglauer to Receive A2IM Lifetime Achievement Award Archived 2015-09-24 at the Wayback Machine Hollywood Reporter. August 4, 2015 ^ Reich, Howard (November 28, 2018). "Alligator Records Boss Bruce Iglauer Finally Tells the Story Behind the Legendary Chicago Blues Label". Chicago Tribune. Archived from the original on December 1, 2018. Retrieved December 2, 2018. ^ "Past Honorees - Chicago". Chicagomag.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-29. Retrieved 2013-03-11. ^ a b "Alligator Records Albums of the Month". Blues.about.com. 2012-04-09. Archived from the original on 2013-03-26. Retrieved 2013-03-11. ^ a b c Alligator Records : Encyclopedia of Popular Music Oxford Reference. Oxfordreference.com. 2012-02-17. ISBN 9780195313734. Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2013-03-11. ^ Reich, Howard (2011-10-11). "Alligator Records celebrates 40th anniversary at SPACE - Chicago Tribune". Articles.chicagotribune.com. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-03-11. ^ Guarino, Mark (October 22, 2021). "Bloodshot Records is bought by Exceleration Music". Chicago Reader. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-10-25. ^ a b Moore, Evan F. (June 15, 2021). "Chicago's Alligator Records celebrates 50th anniversary in 'home of the blues'". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 2021-06-16. ^ Sweet, Lynn (November 22, 2022). "Alligator Records founder Iglauer honored in D.C. for 50th anniversary of Chicago blues label". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on November 29, 2022. Retrieved November 30, 2022. ^ Multiple sources: Alligator Records discography Archived 2020-02-26 at the Wayback Machine, accessed November 5, 2019 Emerson, Dan Lowertown Blues Festival takes over Mears Park on Saturday Archived 2015-08-10 at the Wayback Machine Twin Cities Pioneer-Press. August 4, 2015 Dickens, Tad Tinsley Ellis helps Blue Ridge Blues Blues & BBQ Festival celebrate 10 years Archived 2019-06-06 at the Wayback Machine Roanoke Times, August 4, 2015 Robert Palmer (1982). Deep Blues. Penguin Books. p. 273. ISBN 978-0-14-006223-6. External links Official website Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National France BnF data Other MusicBrainz label	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"independent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independent_record_label"},{"link_name":"Bruce Iglauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Iglauer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Living Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Living_Blues"}],"text":"Alligator Records is an American, Chicago-based independent blues record label founded by Bruce Iglauer in 1971.[1][2] Iglauer was also one of the founders of the Living Blues magazine in Chicago in 1970.","title":"Alligator Records"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hound Dog Taylor and the HouseRockers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hound_Dog_Taylor"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Bob Koester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob_Koester"},{"link_name":"Delmark Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delmark_Records"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About-4"},{"link_name":"Big Walter Horton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Walter_Horton"},{"link_name":"Carey Bell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carey_Bell"},{"link_name":"Fenton Robinson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fenton_Robinson"},{"link_name":"Koko Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Grammy Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammy_Award"},{"link_name":"Albert Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Collins"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oxford-5"},{"link_name":"Clifton Chenier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clifton_Chenier"},{"link_name":"Albert Collins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Collins"},{"link_name":"Johnny Copeland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnny_Copeland"},{"link_name":"Robert Cray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Cray"},{"link_name":"compilation album","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compilation_album"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oxford-5"},{"link_name":"reggae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reggae"},{"link_name":"Lonnie Mack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonnie_Mack"},{"link_name":"Marcia Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcia_Ball"},{"link_name":"Koko Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koko_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Lonnie Brooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lonnie_Brooks"},{"link_name":"Lil' Ed & The Blues Imperials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lil%27_Ed_Williams"},{"link_name":"Eddy Clearwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddy_Clearwater"},{"link_name":"Sam Lay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam_Lay"},{"link_name":"Smokin' Joe Kubek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smokin%27_Joe_Kubek"},{"link_name":"Roomful of Blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roomful_of_Blues"},{"link_name":"Eric Lindell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Lindell"},{"link_name":"JJ Grey & MOFRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JJ_Grey_%26_MOFRO"},{"link_name":"Lee Rocker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lee_Rocker"},{"link_name":"Cephas & Wiggins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cephas_%26_Wiggins"},{"link_name":"Michael Burks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Burks"},{"link_name":"Charlie Musselwhite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Musselwhite"},{"link_name":"James Cotton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Cotton"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Exceleration Records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exceleration_Records&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"Lori Lightfoot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lori_Lightfoot"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-8"},{"link_name":"Jan Schakowsky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Schakowsky"},{"link_name":"Congressional Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congressional_Record"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sun_Times_Sweet-9"}],"text":"Iglauer started the label using his savings to record and produce his favorite band Hound Dog Taylor and the HouseRockers,[3] whom his employer, Bob Koester of Delmark Records, declined to record. Nine months after the release of the first album, he stopped working at Delmark Records to concentrate fully on the band and his label.[4] Only 1,000 copies of the Taylor's debut album were made, while Iglauer took over managing the group. Other early releases for the fledgling label included recordings by Big Walter Horton with Carey Bell and Fenton Robinson. In 1976, Koko Taylor's I Got What It Takes was nominated for a Grammy Award, and Albert Collins soon signed to the label. Iglauer mainly worked as executive producer.[5]In 1982, the label won its first Grammy Award for the album, I'm Here, by Clifton Chenier. The second Grammy came in 1985 for Showdown! by Albert Collins, Johnny Copeland, and Robert Cray. In 1991, a 20th anniversary compilation album was issued.[5]Since its founding, Alligator Records has released over 250 blues and blues/rock albums, as well as a defunct reggae series. Alligator artists include Lonnie Mack, Marcia Ball, Koko Taylor, Lonnie Brooks, Lil' Ed & The Blues Imperials, Eddy Clearwater, Sam Lay, Smokin' Joe Kubek, Roomful of Blues, Eric Lindell, JJ Grey & MOFRO, Lee Rocker, Cephas & Wiggins, and Michael Burks. More recently, veterans Charlie Musselwhite and James Cotton have re-signed to the label.Alligator celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2011 while reporting a profit for the previous year.[6] In January 2021, Exceleration Records invested in Alligator, becoming a financial and administrative partner with Iglauer.[7] In 2021, Alligator celebrated its 50th anniversary,[8] in observance of which Chicago Mayor Lori Lightfoot declared June 18, 2021 as “Alligator Records Day” in Chicago,[8] and U.S. Rep. Jan Schakowsky added comments on Iglauer's and Alligator's part in the \"American cultural legacy of Chicago blues music\" to the Congressional Record.[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chicago blues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_blues"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-About-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oxford-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Alligator Records commenced releasing LPs in 1971 continuing through to the present with a focus on Chicago blues artists.[4][5][10]","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Blues","title":"Discography"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reggae","title":"Discography"}]	[]	[{"title":"List of record labels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_record_labels"},{"title":"Chicago record labels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_record_labels"},{"title":"Mutabaruka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutabaruka"}]	[{"reference":"Reich, Howard (November 28, 2018). \"Alligator Records Boss Bruce Iglauer Finally Tells the Story Behind the Legendary Chicago Blues Label\". 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Retrieved 2013-03-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-10-11/entertainment/ct-ent-1012-jazz-alligator-records-20111012_1_chicago-s-alligator-records-bruce-iglauer-blues-imperials","url_text":"\"Alligator Records celebrates 40th anniversary at SPACE - Chicago Tribune\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131029211840/http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2011-10-11/entertainment/ct-ent-1012-jazz-alligator-records-20111012_1_chicago-s-alligator-records-bruce-iglauer-blues-imperials","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Guarino, Mark (October 22, 2021). \"Bloodshot Records is bought by Exceleration Music\". Chicago Reader. Archived from the original on 2021-10-25. Retrieved 2021-10-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mark_Guarino&action=edit&redlink=1","url_text":"Guarino, Mark"},{"url":"https://chicagoreader.com/music/bloodshot-records-is-bought-by-exceleration-music/","url_text":"\"Bloodshot Records is bought by Exceleration Music\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211025160425/https://chicagoreader.com/music/bloodshot-records-is-bought-by-exceleration-music/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Moore, Evan F. (June 15, 2021). \"Chicago's Alligator Records celebrates 50th anniversary in 'home of the blues'\". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on 2021-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://chicago.suntimes.com/2021/6/15/22534013/blues-alligator-records-50th-anniversary-chicago-bruce-iglauer-lil-ed-toronzo-cannon-koko-taylor","url_text":"\"Chicago's Alligator Records celebrates 50th anniversary in 'home of the blues'\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210616000631/https://chicago.suntimes.com/2021/6/15/22534013/blues-alligator-records-50th-anniversary-chicago-bruce-iglauer-lil-ed-toronzo-cannon-koko-taylor","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Sweet, Lynn (November 22, 2022). \"Alligator Records founder Iglauer honored in D.C. for 50th anniversary of Chicago blues label\". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on November 29, 2022. Retrieved November 30, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn_Sweet","url_text":"Sweet, Lynn"},{"url":"https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/11/22/23465223/alligator-records-bruce-iglauer-50th-anniversary-of-chicago-blues-label","url_text":"\"Alligator Records founder Iglauer honored in D.C. for 50th anniversary of Chicago blues label\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20221129005652/https://chicago.suntimes.com/2022/11/22/23465223/alligator-records-bruce-iglauer-50th-anniversary-of-chicago-blues-label","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Robert Palmer (1982). Deep Blues. Penguin Books. p. 273. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz	Oswaldo Cruz	["1 Early years","2 Career","2.1 Work in Brazil","2.2 Smallpox vaccination controversy","2.3 Later work","3 Death and legacy","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]	Brazilian physician and bacteriologist (1872–1917) For other uses, see Oswaldo Cruz (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Oswaldo Cruz" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (January 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In this Portuguese name, the first or maternal family name is Gonçalves and the second or paternal family name is Cruz. Oswaldo CruzBornOswaldo Gonçalves CruzAugust 5, 1872São Luís do Paraitinga, São Paulo, Empire of BrazilDiedFebruary 11, 1917(1917-02-11) (aged 44)Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro, BrazilNationalityBrazilianCitizenshipBrazilianAlma materFederal University of Rio de JaneiroScientific careerFieldsPhysicianInstitutionsInstituto Oswaldo Cruz Oswaldo Gonçalves Cruz (Portuguese pronunciation: ; August 5, 1872 – February 11, 1917), was a Brazilian physician, pioneer bacteriologist, epidemiologist and public health officer and the founder of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute. He occupied the fifth chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1912 until his death in 1917. Early years Oswaldo Gonçalves Cruz was born on August 5, 1872, in São Luis do Paraitinga, a small city in São Paulo Province, to the physician Bento Gonçalvez Cruz and Amália Bulhões Cruz. As a child, he moved to Rio de Janeiro with his family. At the age of 15 he started to study at the Faculty of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro and in 1892 he graduated as a medical doctor, with a thesis on water as vehicle for the propagation of microbes. Inspired by the work of Louis Pasteur, who had developed the germ theory of disease, four years later he went to Paris to specialize in bacteriology at the Pasteur Institute, which gathered the great names of this branch of science of that time. He was financed by his father-in-law, a wealthy Portuguese merchant. Career Work in Brazil Cruz found that the seaport of Santos was ravaged by an epidemic of bubonic plague that threatened to reach Rio de Janeiro, and engaged himself immediately in the combat of this disease. The mayor of Rio de Janeiro authorized the construction of a plant for manufacturing the serum against the disease which had been developed at the Pasteur Institute by Alexandre Yersin and coworkers. He asked the institution for a scientist who could bring this know-how to Brazil. The Pasteur Institute responded that such a person was already available in Brazil: Oswaldo Cruz. On May 25, 1900, the Federal Serum Therapy Institute was created, intended for the production of sera and vaccines against the bubonic plague, with Baron Pedro Afonso as director general and the young bacteriologist Oswaldo Cruz as technical director. The new institute was established in the old farm of Manguinhos at the western shores of Guanabara Bay. In 1902, Cruz accepted the office of director general of the institute and soon expanded the scope of its activities, now no longer restricted to the production of sera but also dedicated to basic and applied research and to the building of human resources. In the following year, Cruz was appointed director general of Public Health, a position corresponding to today's Brazilian Minister of Health. Using the Federal Serum Therapy Institute as a technical-scientific base, he embarked on a quick succession of important sanitation campaigns. His first challenge was a series of yellow fever endemics, which had earned Rio de Janeiro the sinister reputation of 'Foreigners' Grave'. Between 1897 and 1906, 4,000 European immigrants had died there from the disease. Cruz pursued the new technique of eradicating mosquitoes and their breeding grounds, fumigating houses, and isolation of the ill. There was opposition to the campaign by many, including physicians, the military, and the poor, but the campaign was successful. Cruz was initially successful in the sanitary campaign against the bubonic plague, to which end he used obligatory notification of cases, isolation of sick people, treatment with the sera produced at Manguinhos and extermination of the rats populating the city. Smallpox vaccination controversy He was not successful in implementing a widespread vaccination against smallpox, due to popular resistance to it. In 1904, a smallpox epidemic was threatening the capital. In the first five months of the year, more than 1,800 people had been hospitalized. A law imposing smallpox vaccination of children had existed since 1837 but had never been put into practice. Therefore, on June 9, 1904, following a proposal by Oswaldo Cruz, the government presented a bill to the Congress requesting the reestablishment of obligatory smallpox vaccination. The extremely rigid and severe provisions of this instrument terrified the people. Popular opposition against Cruz increased sharply and opposition newspapers started a violent campaign against this and the federal government in general. Members of the parliament and labor unions protested. An anti-vaccination league was organized. On November 10, the Vaccine Revolt exploded in Rio. Violent confrontations with the police ensued, with strikes, barricades, and shootings in the streets, as the population rose in protest against the government. On November 14, the cadets of the Military Academy joined the revolt, but were dispersed after intense shooting. The government declared a state of siege. On November 16, the uprising was controlled, but the obligatory vaccination was suspended. In 1908, a violent smallpox epidemic made the people rush en masse to the vaccination units. Some 9,000 people died. Cruz was vindicated and his merit recognized. Later work Among the international scientific community, his prestige was already uncontested. In 1907, on occasion of the 14th International Congress on Hygiene and Demography in Berlin, Cruz was awarded with the gold medal in recognition of the sanitation of Rio de Janeiro. In 1909, he retired from the position as director general for Public Health, dedicating himself exclusively to the Manguinhos Institute, which has been named after him. From the institute he organized important scientific expeditions, which allowed a better knowledge about the health and life conditions in the interior of the country and contributed to the colonization of regions. Cruz eradicated urban yellow fever in the state of Pará. His sanitation campaign in the state of Amazonas allowed the completion of construction of the Madeira-Mamoré railroad, which had been interrupted due to the great number of deaths from malaria and yellow fever among the workers. In 1913, Cruz was elected a member of the Brazilian Academy of Arts and Letters. In 1915, due to health problems, he resigned from the directorship of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute and moved to Petrópolis, a small city in the mountains near Rio. On August 18, 1916, he was elected mayor of that city and outlined an extensive urbanization project he would not see implemented. Death and legacy Oswaldo Cruz on a 1986 50 Brazilian cruzados banknote In the morning of February 11, 1917, at 44 years of age, he died of kidney failure in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro state. As a consequence of the short, fruitful life of Oswaldo Cruz, an extremely important scientific and health institution was born, which marked the beginning of experimental medicine in Brazil in many areas. To this day it exerts a strong influence on Brazilian science, technology and public health. In Brazil, several neighborhoods, schools, and public institutions are named after him. Some examples are the neighborhood of Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, the Rodovia Oswaldo Cruz in São Paulo, and the aformentioned health institute Oswaldo Cruz Foundation. References ^ a b c Stepan, "Cruz", p. 303. ^ "Osvaldo Cruz". Academia Brasileira de Letras (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-03-18. Buss, Paulo (June 2001). The Oswaldo Cruz Foundation: 100 years. TDRNews 65. Retrieved 2005-03-02. Oswaldo Cruz (1872-1917) at FIOCRUZ: Oswald Cruz Foundation. Retrieved 2005-03-02. (website in Portuguese with English section) Further reading Cooper, Donald B. "Oswaldo Cruz and the Impact of Yellow Fever in Brazilian History," Bulletin of the Tulane Medical Faculty 26 (1967)L 49-52. Fraga, Clementino. Vida e obra de Osvaldo Cruz. 1972. (tr. "Life and work of Oswaldo Cruz") Stepan, Nancy. Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research, and Policy, 1890-1920. New York: Science History Publications, 1981. Stepan, Nancy Leys. "Osvaldo Gonçalves Cruz" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996. External links Cruz on the Brazilian 50 Cruzados banknote Museum of Life (online exhibition on Oswaldo Cruz Preceded byRaimundo Correia (founder) Brazilian Academy of Letters - Occupant of the 5th chair 1912 — 1917 Succeeded byAloísio de Castro vtePatrons and members of the Brazilian Academy of LettersChairs1 to 10 1 (Adelino Fontoura): Luís Murat ► Afonso d'Escragnolle Taunay ► Ivan Monteiro de Barros Lins ► Bernardo Élis ► Evandro Lins e Silva ► Ana Maria Machado 2 (Álvares de Azevedo): Coelho Neto ► João Neves da Fontoura ► João Guimarães Rosa ► Mário Palmério ► Tarcísio Padilha ► Eduardo Giannetti da Fonseca 3 (Artur de Oliveira): Filinto de Almeida ► Roberto Simonsen ► Aníbal Freire da Fonseca ► Herberto Sales ► Carlos Heitor Cony ► Joaquim Falcão 4 (Basílio da Gama): Aluísio Azevedo ► Alcides Maia ► Viana Moog ► Carlos Nejar 5 (Bernardo Guimarães): Raimundo Correia ► Oswaldo Cruz ► Aloísio de Castro ► Cândido Mota Filho ► Rachel de Queiroz ► José Murilo de Carvalho ► Ailton Krenak 6 (Casimiro de Abreu): Teixeira de Melo ► Artur Jaceguai ► Goulart de Andrade ► Barbosa Lima Sobrinho ► Raimundo Faoro ► Cícero Sandroni 7 (Castro Alves): Valentim Magalhães ► Euclides da Cunha ► Afrânio Peixoto ► Afonso Pena Júnior ► Hermes Lima ► Pontes de Miranda ► Diná Silveira de Queirós ► Sérgio Correia da Costa ► Nelson Pereira dos Santos ► Cacá Diegues 8 (Cláudio Manuel da Costa): Alberto de Oliveira ► Oliveira Viana ► Austregésilo de Athayde ► Antônio Calado ► Antônio Olinto ► Cleonice Berardinelli ► Ricardo Cavaliere 9 (Gonçalves de Magalhães): Carlos Magalhães de Azeredo ► Marques Rebelo ► Carlos Chagas Filho ► Alberto da Costa e Silva ► Vacant 10 (Evaristo da Veiga): Rui Barbosa ► Laudelino Freire ► Osvaldo Orico ► Orígenes Lessa ► Lêdo Ivo ► Rosiska Darcy de Oliveira Chairs11 to 20 11 (Fagundes Varela): Lúcio de Mendonça ► Pedro Augusto Carneiro Lessa ► Eduardo Ramos ► João Luís Alves ► Adelmar Tavares ► Deolindo Couto ► Darcy Ribeiro ► Celso Furtado ► Hélio Jaguaribe ► Ignácio de Loyola Brandão 12 (França Júnior): Urbano Duarte de Oliveira ► Antônio Augusto de Lima ► Vítor Viana ► José Carlos de Macedo Soares ► Abgar Renault ► Lucas Moreira Neves ► Alfredo Bosi ► Paulo Niemeyer Filho 13 (Francisco Otaviano): Alfredo d'Escragnolle Taunay ► Francisco de Castro ► Martins Júnior ► Sousa Bandeira ► Hélio Lobo ► Augusto Meyer ► Francisco de Assis Barbosa ► Sérgio Paulo Rouanet ► Ruy Castro 14 (Franklin Távora): Clóvis Beviláqua ► Antônio Carneiro Leão ► Fernando de Azevedo ► Miguel Reale ► Celso Lafer 15 (Gonçalves Dias): Olavo Bilac ► Amadeu Amaral ► Guilherme de Almeida ► Odilo Costa Filho ► Marcos Barbosa ► Fernando Bastos de Ávila ► Marco Lucchesi 16 (Gregório de Matos): Araripe Júnior ► Félix Pacheco ► Pedro Calmon ► Lygia Fagundes Telles ► Jorge Caldeira 17 (Hipólito da Costa): Sílvio Romero ► Osório Duque-Estrada ► Edgar Roquette-Pinto ► Álvaro Lins ► Antônio Houaiss ► Affonso Arinos de Mello Franco ► Fernanda Montenegro 18 (João Francisco Lisboa): José Veríssimo ► Barão Homem de Melo ► Alberto Faria ► Luís Carlos ► Pereira da Silva ► Peregrino Júnior ► Arnaldo Niskier 19 (Joaquim Caetano): Alcindo Guanabara ► Silvério Gomes Pimenta ► Gustavo Barroso ► Silva Melo ► Américo Jacobina Lacombe ► Marcos Almir Madeira ► Antônio Carlos Secchin 20 (Joaquim Manuel de Macedo): Salvador de Mendonça ► Emílio de Meneses ► Humberto de Campos ► Múcio Leão ► Aurélio de Lira Tavares ► Murilo Melo Filho ► Gilberto Gil Chairs21 to 30 21 (Joaquim Serra): José do Patrocínio ► Mário de Alencar ► Olegário Mariano ► Álvaro Moreira ► Adonias Filho ► Dias Gomes ► Roberto Campos ► Paulo Coelho 22 (José Bonifácio the Younger): Medeiros e Albuquerque ► Miguel Osório de Almeida ► Luís Viana Filho ► Ivo Pitanguy ► João Almino 23 (José de Alencar): Machado de Assis ► Lafayette Rodrigues Pereira ► Alfredo Pujol ► Otávio Mangabeira ► Jorge Amado ► Zélia Gattai ► Luiz Paulo Horta ► Antônio Torres 24 (Júlio Ribeiro): Garcia Redondo ► Luís Guimarães Filho ► Manuel Bandeira ► Cyro dos Anjos ► Sábato Magaldi ► Geraldo Carneiro 25 (Junqueira Freire): Franklin Dória ► Artur Orlando da Silva ► Ataulfo de Paiva ► José Lins do Rego ► Afonso Arinos de Melo Franco ► Alberto Venancio Filho 26 (Laurindo Rabelo): Guimarães Passos ► João do Rio ► Constâncio Alves ► Ribeiro Couto ► Gilberto Amado ► Mauro Mota ► Marcos Vilaça 27 (Antônio Peregrino Maciel Monteiro): Joaquim Nabuco ► Dantas Barreto ► Gregório da Fonseca ► Levi Carneiro ► Otávio de Faria ► Eduardo Portella ► Antonio Cícero 28 (Manuel Antônio de Almeida): Inglês de Sousa ► Xavier Marques ► Menotti Del Picchia ► Oscar Dias Correia ► Domício Proença Filho 29 (Martins Pena): Artur Azevedo ► Vicente de Carvalho ► Cláudio de Sousa ► Josué Montello ► José Mindlin ► Geraldo Holanda Cavalcanti 30 (Pardal Mallet): Pedro Rabelo ► Heráclito Graça ► Antônio Austregésilo ► Aurélio Buarque de Holanda Ferreira ► Nélida Piñon ► Heloísa Teixeira Chairs31 to 40 31 (Pedro Luís Pereira de Sousa): Luís Caetano Pereira Guimarães Júnior ► João Batista Ribeiro de Andrade Fernandes ► Paulo Setúbal ► Cassiano Ricardo ► José Cândido de Carvalho ► Geraldo França de Lima ► Moacyr Scliar ► Merval Pereira 32 (Manuel de Araújo Porto-Alegre): Carlos de Laet ► Ramiz Galvão ► Viriato Correia ► Joracy Camargo ► Genolino Amado ► Ariano Suassuna ► Zuenir Ventura 33 (Raul Pompeia): Domício da Gama ► Fernando Magalhães ► Luís Edmundo ► Afrânio Coutinho ► Evanildo Bechara 34 (Sousa Caldas): João Manuel Pereira da Silva ► José Maria da Silva Paranhos Jr. ► Lauro Müller ► Aquino Correia ► Magalhães Júnior ► Carlos Castelo Branco ► João Ubaldo Ribeiro ► Zuenir Ventura ► Evaldo Cabral de Mello 35 (Tavares Bastos): Rodrigo Otávio ► Rodrigo Otávio Filho ► José Honório Rodrigues ► Celso Cunha ► Cândido Mendes de Almeida ► Godofredo de Oliveira Neto 36 (Teófilo Dias): Afonso Celso ► Clementino Fraga ► Paulo Carneiro ► José Guilherme Merquior ► João de Scantimburgo ► Fernando Henrique Cardoso 37 (Tomás António Gonzaga): José Júlio da Silva Ramos ► José de Alcântara Machado ► Getúlio Vargas ► Assis Chateaubriand ► João Cabral de Melo Neto ► Ivan Junqueira ► Ferreira Gullar ► Arno Wehling 38 (Tobias Barreto): Graça Aranha ► Alberto Santos-Dumont ► Celso Vieira ► Maurício Campos de Medeiros ► José Américo de Almeida ► José Sarney 39 (Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen): Manuel de Oliveira Lima ► Alberto de Faria ► Rocha Pombo ► Rodolfo Garcia ► Elmano Cardim ► Otto Lara Resende ► Roberto Marinho ► Marco Maciel ► José Paulo Cavalcanti Filho 40 (José Maria da Silva Paranhos Sr.): Eduardo Prado ► Afonso Arinos ► Miguel Couto ► Alceu Amoroso Lima ► Evaristo de Moraes Filho ► Edmar Bacha Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Spain France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Portugal Vatican Academics CiNii People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Portuguese name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_name"},{"link_name":"family name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surname"},{"link_name":"[ozˈvawdu ˈkɾus]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Portuguese"},{"link_name":"physician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physician"},{"link_name":"bacteriologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriologist"},{"link_name":"epidemiologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemiology"},{"link_name":"public health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_health"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Oswaldo_Cruz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stepanp303-1"},{"link_name":"Brazilian Academy of Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academia_Brasileira_de_Letras"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"For other uses, see Oswaldo Cruz (disambiguation).In this Portuguese name, the first or maternal family name is Gonçalves and the second or paternal family name is Cruz.Oswaldo Gonçalves Cruz (Portuguese pronunciation: [ozˈvawdu ˈkɾus]; August 5, 1872 – February 11, 1917), was a Brazilian physician, pioneer bacteriologist, epidemiologist and public health officer and the founder of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute.[1]He occupied the fifth chair of the Brazilian Academy of Letters from 1912 until his death in 1917.[2]","title":"Oswaldo Cruz"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Faculty of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_University_of_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"microbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbes"},{"link_name":"Louis Pasteur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur"},{"link_name":"germ theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_theory"},{"link_name":"disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease"},{"link_name":"bacteriology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacteriology"},{"link_name":"Pasteur Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pasteur_Institute"}],"text":"Oswaldo Gonçalves Cruz was born on August 5, 1872, in São Luis do Paraitinga, a small city in São Paulo Province, to the physician Bento Gonçalvez Cruz and Amália Bulhões Cruz. As a child, he moved to Rio de Janeiro with his family. At the age of 15 he started to study at the Faculty of Medicine of Rio de Janeiro and in 1892 he graduated as a medical doctor, with a thesis on water as vehicle for the propagation of microbes. Inspired by the work of Louis Pasteur, who had developed the germ theory of disease, four years later he went to Paris to specialize in bacteriology at the Pasteur Institute, which gathered the great names of this branch of science of that time. He was financed by his father-in-law, a wealthy Portuguese merchant.","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Santos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santos_(S%C3%A3o_Paulo)"},{"link_name":"epidemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic"},{"link_name":"bubonic plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubonic_plague"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Alexandre Yersin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandre_Yersin"},{"link_name":"Serum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiserum"},{"link_name":"vaccines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine"},{"link_name":"Guanabara Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanabara_Bay"},{"link_name":"sanitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanitation"},{"link_name":"yellow fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_fever"},{"link_name":"rats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat"}],"sub_title":"Work in Brazil","text":"Cruz found that the seaport of Santos was ravaged by an epidemic of bubonic plague that threatened to reach Rio de Janeiro, and engaged himself immediately in the combat of this disease. The mayor of Rio de Janeiro authorized the construction of a plant for manufacturing the serum against the disease which had been developed at the Pasteur Institute by Alexandre Yersin and coworkers. He asked the institution for a scientist who could bring this know-how to Brazil. The Pasteur Institute responded that such a person was already available in Brazil: Oswaldo Cruz.On May 25, 1900, the Federal Serum Therapy Institute was created, intended for the production of sera and vaccines against the bubonic plague, with Baron Pedro Afonso as director general and the young bacteriologist Oswaldo Cruz as technical director. The new institute was established in the old farm of Manguinhos at the western shores of Guanabara Bay. In 1902, Cruz accepted the office of director general of the institute and soon expanded the scope of its activities, now no longer restricted to the production of sera but also dedicated to basic and applied research and to the building of human resources. In the following year, Cruz was appointed director general of Public Health, a position corresponding to today's Brazilian Minister of Health.Using the Federal Serum Therapy Institute as a technical-scientific base, he embarked on a quick succession of important sanitation campaigns. His first challenge was a series of yellow fever endemics, which had earned Rio de Janeiro the sinister reputation of 'Foreigners' Grave'. Between 1897 and 1906, 4,000 European immigrants had died there from the disease. Cruz pursued the new technique of eradicating mosquitoes and their breeding grounds, fumigating houses, and isolation of the ill. There was opposition to the campaign by many, including physicians, the military, and the poor, but the campaign was successful. Cruz was initially successful in the sanitary campaign against the bubonic plague, to which end he used obligatory notification of cases, isolation of sick people, treatment with the sera produced at Manguinhos and extermination of the rats populating the city.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"smallpox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stepanp303-1"},{"link_name":"smallpox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox"},{"link_name":"Vaccine Revolt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaccine_Revolt"},{"link_name":"strikes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strike_action"},{"link_name":"barricades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barricade"},{"link_name":"state of siege","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_siege"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Stepanp303-1"}],"sub_title":"Smallpox vaccination controversy","text":"He was not successful in implementing a widespread vaccination against smallpox, due to popular resistance to it.[1] In 1904, a smallpox epidemic was threatening the capital. In the first five months of the year, more than 1,800 people had been hospitalized. A law imposing smallpox vaccination of children had existed since 1837 but had never been put into practice. Therefore, on June 9, 1904, following a proposal by Oswaldo Cruz, the government presented a bill to the Congress requesting the reestablishment of obligatory smallpox vaccination. The extremely rigid and severe provisions of this instrument terrified the people. Popular opposition against Cruz increased sharply and opposition newspapers started a violent campaign against this and the federal government in general. Members of the parliament and labor unions protested. An anti-vaccination league was organized.On November 10, the Vaccine Revolt exploded in Rio. Violent confrontations with the police ensued, with strikes, barricades, and shootings in the streets, as the population rose in protest against the government. On November 14, the cadets of the Military Academy joined the revolt, but were dispersed after intense shooting. The government declared a state of siege. On November 16, the uprising was controlled, but the obligatory vaccination was suspended.In 1908, a violent smallpox epidemic made the people rush en masse to the vaccination units. Some 9,000 people died.[1] Cruz was vindicated and his merit recognized.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pará","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Par%C3%A1"},{"link_name":"Amazonas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonas_State,_Brazil"},{"link_name":"railroad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Railroad"},{"link_name":"malaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaria"},{"link_name":"Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"urbanization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urbanization"}],"sub_title":"Later work","text":"Among the international scientific community, his prestige was already uncontested. In 1907, on occasion of the 14th International Congress on Hygiene and Demography in Berlin, Cruz was awarded with the gold medal in recognition of the sanitation of Rio de Janeiro. In 1909, he retired from the position as director general for Public Health, dedicating himself exclusively to the Manguinhos Institute, which has been named after him. From the institute he organized important scientific expeditions, which allowed a better knowledge about the health and life conditions in the interior of the country and contributed to the colonization of regions. Cruz eradicated urban yellow fever in the state of Pará. His sanitation campaign in the state of Amazonas allowed the completion of construction of the Madeira-Mamoré railroad, which had been interrupted due to the great number of deaths from malaria and yellow fever among the workers.In 1913, Cruz was elected a member of the Brazilian Academy of Arts and Letters. In 1915, due to health problems, he resigned from the directorship of the Oswaldo Cruz Institute and moved to Petrópolis, a small city in the mountains near Rio. On August 18, 1916, he was elected mayor of that city and outlined an extensive urbanization project he would not see implemented.","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brazilian_50_cruzados_obverse.jpg"},{"link_name":"Brazilian cruzados","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_cruzado"},{"link_name":"kidney failure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney_failure"},{"link_name":"Petrópolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petr%C3%B3polis"},{"link_name":"Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_de_Janeiro_(state)"},{"link_name":"Brazilian science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_science"},{"link_name":"public health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Healthcare_in_Brazil"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz,_Rio_de_Janeiro"},{"link_name":"Rodovia Oswaldo Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodovia_Oswaldo_Cruz"},{"link_name":"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oswaldo_Cruz_Foundation"}],"text":"Oswaldo Cruz on a 1986 50 Brazilian cruzados banknoteIn the morning of February 11, 1917, at 44 years of age, he died of kidney failure in Petrópolis, Rio de Janeiro state.As a consequence of the short, fruitful life of Oswaldo Cruz, an extremely important scientific and health institution was born, which marked the beginning of experimental medicine in Brazil in many areas. To this day it exerts a strong influence on Brazilian science, technology and public health.In Brazil, several neighborhoods, schools, and public institutions are named after him. Some examples are the neighborhood of Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, the Rodovia Oswaldo Cruz in São Paulo, and the aformentioned health institute Oswaldo Cruz Foundation.","title":"Death and legacy"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Cooper, Donald B. \"Oswaldo Cruz and the Impact of Yellow Fever in Brazilian History,\" Bulletin of the Tulane Medical Faculty 26 (1967)L 49-52.\nFraga, Clementino. Vida e obra de Osvaldo Cruz. 1972. (tr. \"Life and work of Oswaldo Cruz\")\nStepan, Nancy. Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research, and Policy, 1890-1920. New York: Science History Publications, 1981.\nStepan, Nancy Leys. \"Osvaldo Gonçalves Cruz\" in Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture, vol. 2, New York: Charles Scribner's Sons 1996.","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Oswaldo Cruz on a 1986 50 Brazilian cruzados banknote","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Brazilian_50_cruzados_obverse.jpg/300px-Brazilian_50_cruzados_obverse.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Osvaldo Cruz\". Academia Brasileira de Letras (in Brazilian Portuguese). Retrieved 2020-03-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.academia.org.br/academicos/osvaldo-cruz/biografia","url_text":"\"Osvaldo Cruz\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22","external_links_name":"\"Oswaldo Cruz\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Oswaldo+Cruz%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"http://www.academia.org.br/academicos/osvaldo-cruz/biografia","external_links_name":"\"Osvaldo Cruz\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20010821092516/http://www.who.int/tdr/publications/tdrnews/news65/oswaldo-cruz.htm","external_links_name":"The Oswaldo Cruz Foundation: 100 years"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070610120623/http://www.fiocruz.br/cgi/cgilua.exe/sys/start.htm?UserActiveTemplate=template%5Fingles&infoid=2299&sid=281","external_links_name":"Oswaldo Cruz (1872-1917)"},{"Link":"http://www.fiocruz.br/","external_links_name":"FIOCRUZ: Oswald Cruz Foundation"},{"Link":"http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money3.htm","external_links_name":"Cruz on the Brazilian 50 Cruzados banknote"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110825095923/http://www.museudavida.fiocruz.br/english/","external_links_name":"Museum of Life (online exhibition on Oswaldo Cruz"},{"Link":"http://id.worldcat.org/fast/199848/","external_links_name":"FAST"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000113597887","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/50019295","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJj8QQ6qrQfKwyGfFWqPcP","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1564464","external_links_name":"Spain"},{"Link":"https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13422011t","external_links_name":"France"},{"Link":"https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb13422011t","external_links_name":"BnF data"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/118670654","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007260101905171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85342992","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=nlk20000083909&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/1143392","external_links_name":"Portugal"},{"Link":"https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/229013","external_links_name":"Vatican"},{"Link":"https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA14602985?l=en","external_links_name":"CiNii"},{"Link":"https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd118670654.html?language=en","external_links_name":"Deutsche Biographie"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/114100500","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Tony_Awards	65th Tony Awards	["1 Eligibility","2 Ceremony","2.1 Presenters","2.2 Hosting","3 Special awards","4 Competitive awards","4.1 Summary","4.2 Awards","5 Productions with multiple nominations and awards","6 In Memoriam","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]	65th Tony AwardsDateJune 12, 2011LocationBeacon TheatreHosted byNeil Patrick HarrisMost awardsThe Book of Mormon (9)Most nominationsThe Book of Mormon (14)Websitetonyawards.comTelevision/radio coverageNetworkCBSViewership6.9 millionProduced byNeil Patrick HarrisRicky KirshnerGlenn WeissDirected byGlenn Weiss ← 64th · Tony Awards · 66th → The 65th Annual Tony Awards was held on June 12, 2011, to recognize achievement in Broadway productions during the 2010–2011 season. They were held at the Beacon Theatre, ending a fourteen-year tradition of holding the ceremony at Radio City Music Hall. The Awards ceremony was broadcast live on CBS and was hosted by Neil Patrick Harris. The award nominations were announced on May 3, 2011. The ceremony received extremely positive reviews from critics, with many citing it as a major improvement over the previous year. Numerous critics credited host Neil Patrick Harris with the success of the production, with one critic calling him "America's next great awards host." Neil Patrick Harris opened the show with a comic and edgy number "Broadway's Not Just for Gays Anymore". The song was written by David Javerbaum and Adam Schlesinger. Harris and Hugh Jackman performed another comic number, a revised version of Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better), as rival awards-show hosts. This was Harris' second time hosting previously in 2009. He went on to host again in 2012 and 2013. The smash hit musical The Book of Mormon was nominated for 14 Tony Awards winning 9 including the Tony Award's for Best Musical, Best Original Score, and Best Book of a Musical. The musical The Scottsboro Boys was nominated for 12 awards winning none. Eligibility Shows that opened during the 2010–11 Broadway season before April 28, 2011, were eligible. The category of "Lead Actress in a Musical" has only four nominees. According to Tony Award rules, "Because only six actresses are eligible for nomination in the Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical category, only four of those actors can be nominated." Original plays Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo Brief Encounter Colin Quinn's Long Story Short Elling A Free Man of Color John Leguizamo's Ghetto Klown Good People High Jerusalem Lombardi The Motherf*ker with the Hat The Pee-wee Herman Show The Pitmen Painters War Horse Original Musicals Baby It's You! Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson The Book of Mormon Catch Me If You Can Elf The People in the Picture Priscilla Queen of the Desert Rain: A Tribute to the Beatles The Scottsboro Boys Sister Act Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown Wonderland Play Revivals Arcadia Born Yesterday Driving Miss Daisy The House of Blue Leaves The Importance of Being Earnest La Bête A Life in the Theatre The Merchant of Venice Mrs. Warren's Profession The Normal Heart That Championship Season Musical Revivals Anything Goes How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Ceremony In addition to the CBS television broadcast, the ceremony was simulcast live to Times Square and included the Tony Awards Red Carpet and the complete Tony Awards show, including the Creative Arts Awards. Presenters The creative arts awards presentation was hosted by Laura Benanti and Katie Finneran and were presented prior to the network broadcast of the rest of the awards and the entertainment. The awards in this portion of the ceremony included those for Best Original Score, Choreography, Best Orchestrations, and others. Presenters at the ceremony included: Daniel Radcliffe Catherine Zeta-Jones Whoopi Goldberg Chris Rock Alec Baldwin Samuel L. Jackson Kelsey Grammer Viola Davis John Leguizamo Vanessa Redgrave James Earl Jones Harry Connick, Jr. Christie Brinkley David Hyde Pierce Marg Helgenberger Matthew Broderick Angela Lansbury Jim Parsons Robert Morse Joel Grey Patrick Wilson Brooke Shields Robin Williams Hosting Neil Patrick Harris, with costumed dancers and singers, opened the show with a comic and edgy number "arguing that Broadway, with its con artists, Mormons and nuns this season, is 'not just for gays anymore.'" The song was written by David Javerbaum and Adam Schlesinger. Harris and Hugh Jackman performed another comic number as rival awards-show hosts. Performances from nominated musicals included: Catch Me If You Can with Norbert Leo Butz and Aaron Tveit; Sister Act with Patina Miller; The Book of Mormon with Andrew Rannells; The Scottsboro Boys with Joshua Henry; Anything Goes with Sutton Foster; and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying with Daniel Radcliffe and John Laroquette. Other musical numbers were performed from Memphis, Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark, Priscilla Queen of the Desert and Company. Harris ended the broadcast with a rap-style recap of the show. The rap was notable because Lin-Manuel Miranda and Thomas Kail wrote the lyrics during the show—in 80 minutes while writing backstage, Miranda and Kail created all the lyrics, and Harris, aided by a teleprompter, learned and performed the rap without rehearsal. Special awards The Tony Awards Administration Committee announced special non-competitive awards prior to the ceremony. The Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre is given to Athol Fugard and Philip J. Smith, Chairman of The Shubert Organization. The Isabelle Stevenson Award is awarded to Eve Ensler, founder of V-Day. The Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre is given to animal trainer William Berloni, The Drama Book Shop (West 40th Street in Manhattan), and Sharon Jensen and Alliance for Inclusion in the Arts. The Special Tony Award is given to Handspring Puppet Company, "for creating lifelike horses (manipulated by three actor-puppeteers)". The Regional Theatre Tony Award is presented to Lookingglass Theatre Company (Chicago, Illinois). Competitive awards Source: Tony Awards Summary The Book of Mormon received 14 nominations, the most of any production, and won nine, including Best Musical; The Scottsboro Boys received 12 nominations, winning none. The revival of Anything Goes won three awards, including Best Revival of a Musical. War Horse won five awards, including Best Play. The Normal Heart won three awards, including Best Revival of a Play. Several director-choreographers were double-nominated: Rob Ashford, Kathleen Marshall, Casey Nicholaw and Susan Stroman were nominated for both Best Director and Best Choreographer. Marshall (Choreography) and Nicholaw (Best Direction of a Musical with Trey Parker) won. The revival of The Merchant of Venice received seven nominations, the most for any play, but won none, followed by Jerusalem with six, winning one, for Best Actor, for the performance of Mark Rylance. Awards Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface. Best Play Best Musical War Horse – Nick Stafford Good People – David Lindsay-Abaire Jerusalem – Jez Butterworth The Motherfucker with the Hat – Stephen Adly Guirgis The Book of Mormon Catch Me If You Can The Scottsboro Boys Sister Act Best Revival of a Play Best Revival of a Musical The Normal Heart Arcadia The Importance of Being Earnest The Merchant of Venice Anything Goes How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Play Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Play Mark Rylance – Jerusalem as Johnny "Rooster" Byron Brian Bedford – The Importance of Being Earnest as Lady Bracknell Bobby Cannavale – The Motherfucker with the Hat as Jackie Joe Mantello – The Normal Heart as Ned Weeks Al Pacino – The Merchant of Venice as Shylock Frances McDormand – Good People as Margie Walsh Nina Arianda – Born Yesterday as Emma 'Billie' Dawn Lily Rabe – The Merchant of Venice as Portia Vanessa Redgrave – Driving Miss Daisy as Daisy Werthan Hannah Yelland – Brief Encounter as Laura Jesson Best Performance by a Leading Actor in a Musical Best Performance by a Leading Actress in a Musical Norbert Leo Butz – Catch Me If You Can as Carl Hanratty Josh Gad – The Book of Mormon as Elder Cunningham Joshua Henry – The Scottsboro Boys as Haywood Patterson Andrew Rannells – The Book of Mormon as Elder Price Tony Sheldon – Priscilla, Queen of the Desert as Bernadette Sutton Foster – Anything Goes as Reno Sweeney Beth Leavel – Baby It's You! as Florence Greenberg Patina Miller – Sister Act as Deloris Van Cartier Donna Murphy – The People in the Picture as Bubbie/Raisel Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Play Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Play John Benjamin Hickey – The Normal Heart as Felix Turner Mackenzie Crook – Jerusalem as Ginger Billy Crudup – Arcadia as Bernard Nightingale Arian Moayed – Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo as Musa Yul Vázquez – The Motherfucker with the Hat as Cousin Julio Ellen Barkin – The Normal Heart as Dr. Emma Brookner Edie Falco – The House of Blue Leaves as Bananas Judith Light – Lombardi as Marie Lombardi Joanna Lumley – La Bête as The Princess Elizabeth Rodriguez – The Motherfucker with the Hat as Veronica Best Performance by a Featured Actor in a Musical Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical John Larroquette – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying as J.B. Biggley Colman Domingo – The Scottsboro Boys as Mr. Bones Adam Godley – Anything Goes as Lord Evelyn Oakleigh Forrest McClendon – The Scottsboro Boys as Mr. Tambo Rory O'Malley – The Book of Mormon as Elder McKinley Nikki M. James – The Book of Mormon as Nabulungi Hatimbi Laura Benanti – Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown as Candela Tammy Blanchard – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying as Hedy La Rue Victoria Clark – Sister Act as Mother Superior Patti LuPone – Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown as Lucia Best Book of a Musical Best Original Score (Music and/or Lyrics) Written for the Theatre Trey Parker, Robert Lopez and Matt Stone – The Book of Mormon Alex Timbers – Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson David Thompson – The Scottsboro Boys Cheri Steinkellner, Bill Steinkellner and Douglas Carter Beane – Sister Act The Book of Mormon – Trey Parker, Robert Lopez and Matt Stone (music and lyrics) The Scottsboro Boys – John Kander and Fred Ebb (music and lyrics) Sister Act – Alan Menken (music) and Glenn Slater (lyrics) Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown – David Yazbek (music and lyrics) Best Scenic Design of a Play Best Scenic Design of a Musical Rae Smith – War Horse Todd Rosenthal – The Motherfucker with the Hat Ultz – Jerusalem Mark Wendland – The Merchant of Venice Scott Pask – The Book of Mormon Beowulf Boritt – The Scottsboro Boys Derek McLane – Anything Goes Donyale Werle – Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson Best Costume Design of a Play Best Costume Design of a Musical Desmond Heeley – The Importance of Being Earnest Jess Goldstein – The Merchant of Venice Mark Thompson – La Bête Catherine Zuber – Born Yesterday Tim Chappel and Lizzy Gardiner – Priscilla, Queen of the Desert Martin Pakledinaz – Anything Goes Ann Roth – The Book of Mormon Catherine Zuber – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Best Lighting Design of a Play Best Lighting Design of a Musical Paule Constable – War Horse David Lander – Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo Kenneth Posner – The Merchant of Venice Mimi Jordan Sherin – Jerusalem Brian MacDevitt – The Book of Mormon Ken Billington – The Scottsboro Boys Howell Binkley – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Peter Kaczorowski – Anything Goes Best Sound Design of a Play Best Sound Design of a Musical Christopher Shutt – War Horse Acme Sound Partners and Cricket S. Myers – Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo Simon Baker – Brief Encounter Ian Dickinson for Autograph – Jerusalem Brian Ronan – The Book of Mormon Peter Hylenski – The Scottsboro Boys Steve Canyon Kennedy – Catch Me If You Can Brian Ronan – Anything Goes Best Direction of a Play Best Direction of a Musical Marianne Elliott and Tom Morris – War Horse Joel Grey and George C. Wolfe – The Normal Heart Anna D. Shapiro – The Motherfucker with the Hat Daniel J. Sullivan – The Merchant of Venice Casey Nicholaw and Trey Parker – The Book of Mormon Rob Ashford – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Kathleen Marshall – Anything Goes Susan Stroman – The Scottsboro Boys Best Choreography Best Orchestrations Kathleen Marshall – Anything Goes Rob Ashford – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Casey Nicholaw – The Book of Mormon Susan Stroman – The Scottsboro Boys Larry Hochman and Stephen Oremus – The Book of Mormon Doug Besterman – How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying Larry Hochman – The Scottsboro Boys Marc Shaiman and Larry Blank – Catch Me If You Can Productions with multiple nominations and awards The following 21 productions received multiple nominations (the number of nominations is shown at left): 14: The Book of Mormon 12: The Scottsboro Boys 9: Anything Goes 8: How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying 7: The Merchant of Venice 6: Jerusalem and The Motherfucker with the Hat 5: The Normal Heart, Sister Act and War Horse 4: Catch Me if You Can 3: Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo, The Importance of Being Earnest and Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown 2: Arcadia, Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson, Born Yesterday, Brief Encounter, Good People, La Bête and Priscilla, Queen of the Desert The following four productions received multiple awards (the number is shown at left): 9: The Book of Mormon 5: War Horse 3: Anything Goes and The Normal Heart In Memoriam Arthur Laurents Michael Langham Michael Gough Ellen Stewart James Gammon Marcia Lewis Bryan Jill Clayburgh Sidney Michaels Hillard Elkins Betty Garrett Tom Bosley Pam Gems Israel Hicks Shannon Tavarez Douglas Leeds Marian Mercer Patricia Neal Arthur Penn Beverley Randolph John Willis Elizabeth Taylor Jerry Bock Theoni V. Aldredge Philip Rose Romulus Linney John Cossette Sandy Speer Sada Thompson Helen Stenborg Randall Wreghitt Lanford Wilson Joseph Stein See also Drama Desk Awards 2011 Laurence Olivier Awards – equivalent awards for West End theatre productions Obie Award New York Drama Critics' Circle Theatre World Award Lucille Lortel Awards References ^ a b c d e Pesner, Ben. "Dates and Venue Announced for 2011 Tony Awards". TonyAwards.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-06. Retrieved 10 November 2010. ^ a b Broadway.com Staff. "The Beacon Theatre Will Host the 2011 Tony Awards". Broadway.com. Archived from the original on 13 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. ^ "Tony Awards producers choose new home for the show". Associated Press. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 10 November 2010. ^ a b Lyons, Margaret (4 May 2011). "Neil Patrick Harris Will Resume Tony-Hosting Duties This Year". New York Magazine. Retrieved 4 May 2011. ^ Ng, David (June 13, 2011). "CBS sees slight drop in overall Tony Awards viewers". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved April 14, 2017. ^ Gans, Andrew."Neil Patrick Harris Will Host 2011 Tony Awards" Archived 2011-05-13 at the Wayback Machine Playbill.com, May 10, 2011 ^ BWW News Desk. "2011 Tony Nominations to Be Announced May 3". Broadwayworld.com, March 16, 2011 ^ a b c "Tony Award nominees, 2010–11". 2011-05-03. Archived from the original on 10 May 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-03. ^ "Entertainment". ^ Healy, Patrick. "Book of Mormon and War Horse Win Top Tonys". The New York Times, June 12, 2011 ^ Gans, Andrew and Gioia, Michael. "Cry-Baby Composers Wrote Tony Awards Opening Number: Read It Here" Archived 2011-06-16 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, June 13, 2011 ^ Gans, Andrew."Leading Actress in a Musical Tony Category Will Have Maximum of Four Nominees" Archived 2011-05-04 at the Wayback Machine Playbill.com, May 2, 2011 ^ "Tony Awards Will Be Simulcast Live to Times Square" Archived 2011-06-13 at the Wayback Machine playbill.com, June 8, 2011 ^ Jones, Kenneth. "Laura Benanti and Katie Finneran Will Host "Creative Arts" Portion of Tony Awards" Archived 2012-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, June 6, 2011 ^ Hetrick, Adam."Playbill.com Tony Blog: The Tony Awards Press Room" Archived 2011-06-15 at the Wayback Machine playbill.com, June 12, 2011 ^ Gans, Andrew."Brooke Shields and Robin Williams Will Be Tony Presenters; Daniel Radcliffe To Sing" Archived 2012-10-21 at the Wayback Machine Playbill.com, June 7, 2011 ^ O'Neil, Tom (May 24, 2011). "Daniel Radcliffe, Whoopi Goldberg among Tony Awards presenters". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 May 2011. ^ Healy, Patrick. "Book of Mormon and War Horse Win Top Tonys". The New York Times, June 12, 2011 ^ Gans, Andrew and Gioia, Michael. "Cry-Baby Composers Wrote Tony Awards Opening Number: Read It Here" Archived 2011-06-16 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, June 13, 2011 ^ Stewart, Zachary. "The 2011 Tony Award Winners". Theatermania.com, June 12, 2011 ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Neil Patrick Harris Closing Rap Tony Awards 2011". YouTube. ^ Archived at Ghostarchive and the Wayback Machine: "Writing The Closing Number--Backstage at the Tonys". YouTube. ^ Gans, Andrew. "Athol Fugard, Philip J. Smith, Eve Ensler Win Special Tony Awards" Archived 2011-04-08 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, April 6, 2011 ^ a b c Jones, Kenneth. "War Horse, Book of Mormon, Anything Goes, Normal Heart Win 2011 Tony Awards" Archived 2011-06-14 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, June 12, 2011 ^ Hetrick, Adam. "Twice As Nice: Several Tony Nominees Nab Recognition in Two Categories" Archived 2012-10-21 at the Wayback Machine. Playbill.com, May 3, 2011 External links Tony Awards Official Site Beacon Theatre - Official Web Site - New York City vteTony Awards American Theatre Wing The Broadway League EGOT Triple Crown of Acting Play Best Play Revival Direction Leading Actor Leading Actress Featured Actor Featured Actress Costume Design Lighting Design Scenic Design Sound Design Musical Best Musical Revival Direction Leading Actor Leading Actress Featured Actor Featured Actress Book Choreography Costume Design Lighting Design Orchestrations Original Score Scenic Design Sound Design Special (non-competitive) Regional Theatre Tony Award Special Tony Award Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre Isabelle Stevenson Award Retired Author Conductor and Musical Director Costume Design Director* Lighting Design* Newcomer Revival* Scenic Design* Special Theatrical Event Stage Technician Ceremonies 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020/21 2022 2023 2024 * Divided into separate awards for plays and musicals vtePrimetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Variety Special (Live)1977–2000 American Ballet Theatre: Swan Lake (Live from Lincoln Center) (1977) American Ballet Theatre's "Giselle" (Live from Lincoln Center) (1978) Balanchine IV (Dance in America: Great Performances) (1979) Live from Studio 8H: An Tribute to Toscanini (1980) Live from Studio 8H: An Evening of Jerome Robbins (1981) La Bohème (Live from the Met) (1982) Paravotti in Philadelphia: La Bohème (1983) Placido Domingo Celebrates Seville (Great Performances) (1984) Tosca (Live from the Met) (1985) Wolf Trap Presents The Kirov: Swan Lake (1986) Vladimir Horowitz: The Last Romantic (1987) Nixon in China (Great Performances) (1988) Bernstein at 70! (Great Performances) (1989) Aida (The Metropolitan Opera Presents) (1990) Tchaikovsky: 150th Birthday Gala from Leningrad (1991) Perlman in Russia (1992) Tosca: In the Settings and at the Times of Tosca (1993) Vladimir Horowitz: A Reminiscence (1994) Verdi's La Traviata with the New York City Opera (Live from Lincoln Center) (1995) Itzhak Perlman: In the Fiddler's House (Great Performances) (1996) Puccini's La Bohème with the New York City Opera (Live from Lincoln Center) (1997) Yo-Yo Ma Inspired by Bach: Six Gestures (1998) Itzhak Perlman: Fiddling for the Future (1999) Dance in America: American Ballet Theatre in Le Corsaire (Great Performances) (2000) 2001–present La Traviata from Paris (Great Performances) / Survivor (2001) Sweeney Todd in Concert / The West Wing Documentary Special (2002) Contact (Live from Lincoln Center) (2003) New York City Ballet – Lincoln Center Celebrates Balanchine 100 (Live from Lincoln Center) (2004) Stephen Sondheim's "Passion" (Live from Lincoln Center) (2005) Dance in America: Swan Lake with American Ballet Theatre (Great Performances) (2006) The 60th Annual Tony Awards (2007) The 61st Annual Tony Awards / Eric Clapton Crossroads Guitar Festival Chicago (Great Performances) / New York City Opera: Madama Butterfly (Live from Lincoln Center) (2008) Beijing 2008 Olympic Games Opening Ceremony (2009) The 63rd Annual Tony Awards (2010) The 64th Annual Tony Awards (2011) The 65th Annual Tony Awards (2012) The 66th Annual Tony Awards (2013) The 67th Annual Tony Awards (2014) Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (Live from Lincoln Center) (2015) Grease Live! (2016) The 70th Annual Tony Awards (2017) Jesus Christ Superstar Live in Concert (2018) Live in Front of a Studio Audience: Norman Lear's All in the Family and The Jeffersons (2019) Live in Front of a Studio Audience: "All in the Family" and "Good Times" (2020) Stephen Colbert's Election Night 2020: Democracy's Last Stand Building Back America Great Again Better 2020 (2021) The Pepsi Super Bowl LVI Halftime Show Starring Dr. Dre, Snoop Dogg, Mary J. Blige, Eminem, Kendrick Lamar and 50 Cent (2022) Elton John Live: Farewell from Dodger Stadium (2023)	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Broadway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadway_theatre"},{"link_name":"Beacon Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beacon_Theatre_(New_York_City)"},{"link_name":"Radio City Music Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_City_Music_Hall"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tonys_announce-1"},{"link_name":"live","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_television"},{"link_name":"CBS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tonys_announce-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bwaycom_tonyannounce-2"},{"link_name":"Neil Patrick Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Patrick_Harris"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hostnph-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony_noms-8"},{"link_name":"the previous year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64th_Tony_Awards"},{"link_name":"Neil Patrick Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Patrick_Harris"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"David Javerbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Javerbaum"},{"link_name":"Adam Schlesinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Schlesinger"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Hugh Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Jackman"},{"link_name":"Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_You_Can_Do_(I_Can_Do_Better)"},{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Tony Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Awards"},{"link_name":"Tony Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award"},{"link_name":"Best Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Musical"},{"link_name":"Best Original Score","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Original_Score"},{"link_name":"Best Book of a Musical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Award_for_Best_Book_of_a_Musical"},{"link_name":"The Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scottsboro_Boys"}],"text":"The 65th Annual Tony Awards was held on June 12, 2011, to recognize achievement in Broadway productions during the 2010–2011 season. They were held at the Beacon Theatre, ending a fourteen-year tradition of holding the ceremony at Radio City Music Hall.[1] The Awards ceremony was broadcast live on CBS[1][2] and was hosted by Neil Patrick Harris.[4][6] The award nominations were announced on May 3, 2011.[7][8]The ceremony received extremely positive reviews from critics, with many citing it as a major improvement over the previous year. Numerous critics credited host Neil Patrick Harris with the success of the production, with one critic calling him \"America's next great awards host.\"[9]Neil Patrick Harris opened the show with a comic and edgy number \"Broadway's Not Just for Gays Anymore\".[10] The song was written by David Javerbaum and Adam Schlesinger.[11] Harris and Hugh Jackman performed another comic number, a revised version of Anything You Can Do (I Can Do Better), as rival awards-show hosts. This was Harris' second time hosting previously in 2009. He went on to host again in 2012 and 2013.The smash hit musical The Book of Mormon was nominated for 14 Tony Awards winning 9 including the Tony Award's for Best Musical, Best Original Score, and Best Book of a Musical. The musical The Scottsboro Boys was nominated for 12 awards winning none.","title":"65th Tony Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tonys_announce-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Tiger_at_the_Baghdad_Zoo"},{"link_name":"Brief Encounter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_Encounter"},{"link_name":"Colin Quinn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Quinn"},{"link_name":"Elling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elling_(play)"},{"link_name":"A Free Man of Color","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Free_Man_of_Color"},{"link_name":"John Leguizamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Leguizamo"},{"link_name":"Good People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_People_(play)"},{"link_name":"High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_(play)"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_(play)"},{"link_name":"Lombardi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardi_(play)"},{"link_name":"The Motherfker with the Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Motherfker_with_the_Hat"},{"link_name":"The Pee-wee Herman Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pee-wee_Herman_Show"},{"link_name":"The Pitmen Painters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pitmen_Painters"},{"link_name":"War Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Horse_(play)"},{"link_name":"Baby It's You!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baby_It%27s_You!"},{"link_name":"Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson"},{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Catch Me If You Can","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_Me_If_You_Can_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Elf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elf_(musical)"},{"link_name":"The People in the Picture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_People_in_the_Picture"},{"link_name":"Priscilla Queen of the Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla_Queen_of_the_Desert_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Rain: A Tribute to the Beatles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain:_A_Tribute_to_the_Beatles"},{"link_name":"The Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scottsboro_Boys_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Sister Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Act_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_on_the_Verge_of_a_Nervous_Breakdown_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Wonderland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wonderland_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Arcadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_(play)"},{"link_name":"Born Yesterday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_Yesterday_(play)"},{"link_name":"Driving Miss Daisy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driving_Miss_Daisy_(play)"},{"link_name":"The House of Blue Leaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_House_of_Blue_Leaves"},{"link_name":"The Importance of Being Earnest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest"},{"link_name":"La Bête","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_B%C3%AAte_(play)"},{"link_name":"A Life in the Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Life_in_the_Theatre"},{"link_name":"The Merchant of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Mrs. Warren's Profession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mrs._Warren%27s_Profession"},{"link_name":"The Normal Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Normal_Heart"},{"link_name":"That Championship Season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/That_Championship_Season"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes"},{"link_name":"How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Succeed_in_Business_Without_Really_Trying_(musical)"}],"text":"Shows that opened during the 2010–11 Broadway season before April 28, 2011, were eligible.[1] The category of \"Lead Actress in a Musical\" has only four nominees. According to Tony Award rules, \"Because only six actresses are eligible for nomination in the Best Performance by an Actress in a Leading Role in a Musical category, only four of those actors can be nominated.\"[12]Original plays\nBengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo\nBrief Encounter\nColin Quinn's Long Story Short\nElling\nA Free Man of Color\nJohn Leguizamo's Ghetto Klown\nGood People\nHigh\nJerusalem\nLombardi\nThe Motherf**ker with the Hat\nThe Pee-wee Herman Show\nThe Pitmen Painters\nWar Horse\n\n\nOriginal Musicals\nBaby It's You!\nBloody Bloody Andrew Jackson\nThe Book of Mormon\nCatch Me If You Can\nElf\nThe People in the Picture\nPriscilla Queen of the Desert\nRain: A Tribute to the Beatles\nThe Scottsboro Boys\nSister Act\nWomen on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown\nWonderland\n\n\nPlay Revivals\nArcadia\nBorn Yesterday\nDriving Miss Daisy\nThe House of Blue Leaves\nThe Importance of Being Earnest\nLa Bête\nA Life in the Theatre\nThe Merchant of Venice\nMrs. Warren's Profession\nThe Normal Heart\nThat Championship Season\n\n\nMusical Revivals\nAnything Goes\nHow to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying","title":"Eligibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Times Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Times_Square"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"In addition to the CBS television broadcast, the ceremony was simulcast live to Times Square and included the Tony Awards Red Carpet and the complete Tony Awards show, including the Creative Arts Awards.[13]","title":"Ceremony"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Laura Benanti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laura_Benanti"},{"link_name":"Katie Finneran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katie_Finneran"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PlaybillPresenters-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LATpresenters-17"},{"link_name":"Daniel Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe"},{"link_name":"Catherine Zeta-Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Zeta-Jones"},{"link_name":"Whoopi Goldberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whoopi_Goldberg"},{"link_name":"Chris Rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Rock"},{"link_name":"Alec Baldwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alec_Baldwin"},{"link_name":"Samuel L. Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_L._Jackson"},{"link_name":"Kelsey Grammer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelsey_Grammer"},{"link_name":"Viola Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viola_Davis"},{"link_name":"John Leguizamo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Leguizamo"},{"link_name":"Vanessa Redgrave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanessa_Redgrave"},{"link_name":"James Earl Jones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Earl_Jones"},{"link_name":"Harry Connick, Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Connick,_Jr."},{"link_name":"Christie Brinkley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christie_Brinkley"},{"link_name":"David Hyde Pierce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hyde_Pierce"},{"link_name":"Marg Helgenberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marg_Helgenberger"},{"link_name":"Matthew Broderick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_Broderick"},{"link_name":"Angela Lansbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angela_Lansbury"},{"link_name":"Jim Parsons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Parsons"},{"link_name":"Robert Morse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Morse"},{"link_name":"Joel Grey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joel_Grey"},{"link_name":"Patrick Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Brooke Shields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooke_Shields"},{"link_name":"Robin Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin_Williams"}],"sub_title":"Presenters","text":"The creative arts awards presentation was hosted by Laura Benanti and Katie Finneran and were presented prior to the network broadcast of the rest of the awards and the entertainment.[14] The awards in this portion of the ceremony included those for Best Original Score, Choreography, Best Orchestrations, and others.[15]Presenters at the ceremony included:[16][17]Daniel Radcliffe\nCatherine Zeta-Jones\nWhoopi Goldberg\nChris Rock\nAlec Baldwin\nSamuel L. Jackson\nKelsey Grammer\nViola Davis\nJohn Leguizamo\nVanessa Redgrave\nJames Earl Jones\nHarry Connick, Jr.\nChristie Brinkley\nDavid Hyde Pierce\nMarg Helgenberger\nMatthew Broderick\nAngela Lansbury\nJim Parsons\nRobert Morse\nJoel Grey\nPatrick Wilson\nBrooke Shields\nRobin Williams","title":"Ceremony"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neil Patrick Harris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Patrick_Harris"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"David Javerbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Javerbaum"},{"link_name":"Adam Schlesinger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Schlesinger"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Hugh Jackman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Jackman"},{"link_name":"Catch Me If You Can","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_Me_If_You_Can"},{"link_name":"Norbert Leo Butz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Leo_Butz"},{"link_name":"Aaron Tveit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Tveit"},{"link_name":"Sister Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Act_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Patina Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patina_Miller"},{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Andrew Rannells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Rannells"},{"link_name":"The Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scottsboro_Boys"},{"link_name":"Joshua Henry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joshua_Henry"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes"},{"link_name":"Sutton Foster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutton_Foster"},{"link_name":"How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Succeed_in_Business_Without_Really_Trying_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Radcliffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Radcliffe"},{"link_name":"John Laroquette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Laroquette"},{"link_name":"Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spider-Man:_Turn_Off_the_Dark"},{"link_name":"Priscilla Queen of the Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla_Queen_of_the_Desert"},{"link_name":"Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_(musical)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Lin-Manuel Miranda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lin-Manuel_Miranda"},{"link_name":"Thomas Kail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Kail"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"sub_title":"Hosting","text":"Neil Patrick Harris, with costumed dancers and singers, opened the show with a comic and edgy number \"arguing that Broadway, with its con artists, Mormons and nuns this season, is 'not just for gays anymore.'\"[18] The song was written by David Javerbaum and Adam Schlesinger.[19] Harris and Hugh Jackman performed another comic number as rival awards-show hosts. Performances from nominated musicals included: Catch Me If You Can with Norbert Leo Butz and Aaron Tveit; Sister Act with Patina Miller; The Book of Mormon with Andrew Rannells; The Scottsboro Boys with Joshua Henry; Anything Goes with Sutton Foster; and How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying with Daniel Radcliffe and John Laroquette. Other musical numbers were performed from Memphis, Spider-Man: Turn Off the Dark, Priscilla Queen of the Desert and Company.[20]Harris ended the broadcast with a rap-style recap of the show.[21] The rap was notable because Lin-Manuel Miranda and Thomas Kail wrote the lyrics during the show—in 80 minutes while writing backstage, Miranda and Kail created all the lyrics, and Harris, aided by a teleprompter, learned and performed the rap without rehearsal.[22]","title":"Ceremony"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Tony_Award"},{"link_name":"Athol Fugard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athol_Fugard"},{"link_name":"Isabelle Stevenson Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabelle_Stevenson_Award"},{"link_name":"Eve Ensler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eve_Ensler"},{"link_name":"V-Day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-Day_(movement)"},{"link_name":"Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Honors_for_Excellence_in_Theatre"},{"link_name":"William Berloni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Berloni"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Special Tony Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_Tony_Award"},{"link_name":"Handspring Puppet Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handspring_Puppet_Company"},{"link_name":"Regional Theatre Tony Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Theatre_Tony_Award"},{"link_name":"Lookingglass Theatre Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lookingglass_Theatre_Company"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony_noms-8"}],"text":"The Tony Awards Administration Committee announced special non-competitive awards prior to the ceremony. The Tony Award for Lifetime Achievement in the Theatre is given to Athol Fugard and Philip J. Smith, Chairman of The Shubert Organization. The Isabelle Stevenson Award is awarded to Eve Ensler, founder of V-Day. The Tony Honors for Excellence in Theatre is given to animal trainer William Berloni, The Drama Book Shop (West 40th Street in Manhattan), and Sharon Jensen and Alliance for Inclusion in the Arts.[23] The Special Tony Award is given to Handspring Puppet Company, \"for creating lifelike horses (manipulated by three actor-puppeteers)\". The Regional Theatre Tony Award is presented to Lookingglass Theatre Company (Chicago, Illinois).[8]","title":"Special awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony_noms-8"}],"text":"Source: Tony Awards[8]","title":"Competitive awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"The Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scottsboro_Boys_(musical)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony-24"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes"},{"link_name":"War Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Horse_(play)"},{"link_name":"The Normal Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Normal_Heart"},{"link_name":"Rob Ashford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rob_Ashford"},{"link_name":"Kathleen Marshall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kathleen_Marshall"},{"link_name":"Casey Nicholaw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casey_Nicholaw"},{"link_name":"Susan Stroman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susan_Stroman"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony-24"},{"link_name":"The Merchant of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_(play)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tony-24"}],"sub_title":"Summary","text":"The Book of Mormon received 14 nominations, the most of any production, and won nine, including Best Musical; The Scottsboro Boys received 12 nominations, winning none.[24] The revival of Anything Goes won three awards, including Best Revival of a Musical. War Horse won five awards, including Best Play. The Normal Heart won three awards, including Best Revival of a Play. Several director-choreographers were double-nominated: Rob Ashford, Kathleen Marshall, Casey Nicholaw and Susan Stroman were nominated for both Best Director and Best Choreographer.[25] Marshall (Choreography) and Nicholaw (Best Direction of a Musical with Trey Parker) won.[24] The revival of The Merchant of Venice received seven nominations, the most for any play, but won none, followed by Jerusalem with six, winning one, for Best Actor, for the performance of Mark Rylance.[24]","title":"Competitive awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Awards","text":"Winners are listed first and highlighted in boldface.","title":"Competitive awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"The Scottsboro Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Scottsboro_Boys_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes"},{"link_name":"How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_to_Succeed_in_Business_Without_Really_Trying_(musical)"},{"link_name":"The Merchant of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Merchant_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Jerusalem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerusalem_(play)"},{"link_name":"The Motherfucker with the Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Motherfucker_with_the_Hat"},{"link_name":"The Normal Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Normal_Heart"},{"link_name":"Sister Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sister_Act_(musical)"},{"link_name":"War Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Horse_(play)"},{"link_name":"Catch Me if You Can","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catch_Me_If_You_Can_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengal_Tiger_at_the_Baghdad_Zoo"},{"link_name":"The Importance of Being Earnest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Importance_of_Being_Earnest"},{"link_name":"Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_on_the_Verge_of_a_Nervous_Breakdown_(musical)"},{"link_name":"Arcadia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arcadia_(play)"},{"link_name":"Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloody_Bloody_Andrew_Jackson"},{"link_name":"Born Yesterday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born_Yesterday_(play)"},{"link_name":"Brief Encounter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brief_Encounter#Theatre"},{"link_name":"Good People","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Good_People_(play)"},{"link_name":"La Bête","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_B%C3%AAte_(play)"},{"link_name":"Priscilla, Queen of the Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priscilla,_Queen_of_the_Desert_(musical)"},{"link_name":"The Book of Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Book_of_Mormon_(musical)"},{"link_name":"War Horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_Horse_(play)"},{"link_name":"Anything Goes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anything_Goes"},{"link_name":"The Normal Heart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Normal_Heart"}],"text":"The following 21 productions received multiple nominations (the number of nominations is shown at left):14: The Book of Mormon\n12: The Scottsboro Boys\n9: Anything Goes\n8: How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying\n7: The Merchant of Venice\n6: Jerusalem and The Motherfucker with the Hat\n5: The Normal Heart, Sister Act and War Horse\n4: Catch Me if You Can\n3: Bengal Tiger at the Baghdad Zoo, The Importance of Being Earnest and Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown\n2: Arcadia, Bloody Bloody Andrew Jackson, Born Yesterday, Brief Encounter, Good People, La Bête and Priscilla, Queen of the DesertThe following four productions received multiple awards (the number is shown at left):9: The Book of Mormon\n5: War Horse\n3: Anything Goes and The Normal Heart","title":"Productions with multiple nominations and awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arthur Laurents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Laurents"},{"link_name":"Michael Langham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Langham"},{"link_name":"Michael Gough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Gough"},{"link_name":"Ellen Stewart","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ellen_Stewart"},{"link_name":"James Gammon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Gammon"},{"link_name":"Jill Clayburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Clayburgh"},{"link_name":"Sidney Michaels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Michaels"},{"link_name":"Hillard Elkins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hillard_Elkins"},{"link_name":"Betty Garrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betty_Garrett"},{"link_name":"Tom Bosley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom_Bosley"},{"link_name":"Pam Gems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pam_Gems"},{"link_name":"Israel Hicks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Hicks"},{"link_name":"Shannon Tavarez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shannon_Tavarez"},{"link_name":"Douglas Leeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas_Leeds"},{"link_name":"Marian Mercer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marian_Mercer"},{"link_name":"Patricia Neal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patricia_Neal"},{"link_name":"Arthur Penn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Penn"},{"link_name":"Beverley Randolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beverley_Randolph"},{"link_name":"John Willis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Willis"},{"link_name":"Elizabeth Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Jerry Bock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry_Bock"},{"link_name":"Theoni V. Aldredge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoni_V._Aldredge"},{"link_name":"Philip Rose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Rose_(theatrical_producer)"},{"link_name":"Romulus Linney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romulus_Linney_(playwright)"},{"link_name":"John Cossette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Cossette"},{"link_name":"Sada Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sada_Thompson"},{"link_name":"Helen Stenborg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helen_Stenborg"},{"link_name":"Lanford Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanford_Wilson"},{"link_name":"Joseph Stein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Stein"}],"text":"Arthur Laurents\nMichael Langham\nMichael Gough\nEllen Stewart\nJames Gammon\nMarcia Lewis Bryan\nJill Clayburgh\nSidney Michaels\nHillard Elkins\nBetty Garrett\nTom Bosley\nPam Gems\nIsrael Hicks\nShannon Tavarez\nDouglas Leeds\nMarian Mercer\nPatricia Neal\nArthur Penn\nBeverley Randolph\nJohn Willis\nElizabeth Taylor\nJerry Bock\nTheoni V. Aldredge\nPhilip Rose\nRomulus Linney\nJohn Cossette\nSandy Speer\nSada Thompson\nHelen Stenborg\nRandall Wreghitt\nLanford Wilson\nJoseph Stein","title":"In Memoriam"}]	[]	[{"title":"Drama Desk Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama_Desk_Awards"},{"title":"2011 Laurence Olivier Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Laurence_Olivier_Awards"},{"title":"West End theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_End_theatre"},{"title":"Obie Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obie_Award"},{"title":"New York Drama Critics' Circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Drama_Critics%27_Circle"},{"title":"Theatre World Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theatre_World_Award"},{"title":"Lucille Lortel Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucille_Lortel_Awards"}]	[{"reference":"Pesner, Ben. \"Dates and Venue Announced for 2011 Tony Awards\". TonyAwards.com. Archived from the original on 2011-09-06. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizanthella_slateri	Rhizanthella slateri	["1 Description","2 Taxonomy and naming","3 Distribution and habitat","4 Conservation status","5 References","6 External links"]	Species of orchid Eastern underground orchid Conservation status Endangered (EPBC Act) Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Clade: Tracheophytes Clade: Angiosperms Clade: Monocots Order: Asparagales Family: Orchidaceae Subfamily: Orchidoideae Tribe: Diurideae Genus: Rhizanthella Species: R. slateri Binomial name Rhizanthella slateri(Rupp) M.A.Clem. & P.J.Cribb Synonyms Cryptanthemis slateri Rupp Rhizanthella slateri, commonly known as the eastern underground orchid, is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family and is endemic to New South Wales. It is a mycoheterotrophic herb that spends most of its life under the soil surface, its flowers only sometimes appearing a few millimetres about ground level. Description Rhizanthella slateri is a leafless, sympodial herb with a branching, whitish, underground stem up to 150 mm (5.9 in) long and about 15 mm (0.59 in) in diameter with prominent overlapping bracts. The stem is often branched with up to four flowering heads. The heads are up to 20 mm (0.79 in) in diameter and have up to thirty tube-shaped, purplish flowers surrounded by whitish, triangular floral bracts up to 8 mm (0.31 in) long. The dorsal sepal is curved with a thread-like tip and has a broad base that forms a hood over the column and the lateral sepals, sometimes protruding above the floral bracts. The petals are about half as long as the lateral sepals. The labellum is thick, tongue-like, heart-shaped and covered with fine, pimply papillae. The column is short and broad with narrow "wings". Flowering occurs in October and November with the heads maturing below the soil surface or up to 20 mm (0.79 in) above ground level. Taxonomy and naming The eastern underground orchid was first formally described in 1932 by Herman Rupp and given the name Cryptanthemis slateri in Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales from specimens collected near Bulahdelah in 1931. In 1985, Mark Clements and Phillip Cribb changed the name to Rhizanthella slateri. The specific epithet (slateri) honours Ernest William Slater who discovered the species. Distribution and habitat Rhizanthella slateri grows in forest, usually under a deep layer of organic litter. It is known from populations in the Buladelah area, the Watagan Mountains, Blue Mountains, Dharug National Park and near Nowra, each population only known from a few individuals. Records from the Lamington Plateau in Queensland are now recognised as R. omissa. Conservation status This underground orchid is listed as "endangered" under the Australian Government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and as "vulnerable" under the New South Wales Government Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016. The Bulahdelah population in the Great Lakes Local Government Area is listed as "endangered". That population was threatened by the building of a new highway, but a small diversion saved some individuals and some were able to be relocated. References ^ a b "Rhizanthella slateri". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 28 September 2019. ^ a b c d "Approved Conservation Advice for Rhizanthella slateri (eastern underground orchid)" (PDF). Australian Government Department of the Environment. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ Weston, Peter H. "Rhizanthella slateri". Royal Botanic Garden Sydney. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ a b c "Eastern Australian Underground Orchid - profile". New South Wales Government Office of Environment and Heritage. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ a b c "Rhizanthella slateri population in the Great Lakes local government area - endangered population listing". New South Wales Government Office of Environment and Heritage. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ "Cryptanthemis slateri". APNI. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ a b Rupp, Herman (1932). "Notes on New South Wales Orchids". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 57: 58–61. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ "Rhizanthella slateri". APNI. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ "Australian Plant Collectors and Illustrators (S)". Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Australian National Herbarium. Retrieved 28 September 2020. ^ Allen, Craig (5 November 2010). "Rare orchid successfully relocated". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 September 2020. External links Media related to Eastern underground orchid (Rhizanthella slateri) at Wikimedia Commons Documentation of discovery and photo of specimen Taxon identifiersRhizanthella slateri Wikidata: Q2148150 Wikispecies: Rhizanthella slateri APNI: 68289 ARKive: rhizanthella-slateri CoL: 4SBTQ EoL: 1131743 GBIF: 2816805 iNaturalist: 429702 IPNI: 914531-1 NCBI: 177053 Open Tree of Life: 840225 Plant List: kew-178056 POWO: urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:75519-3 Species+: 18033 SPRAT: 11768 Tropicos: 50027135 WFO: wfo-0000296266	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-environment-2"},{"link_name":"orchid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orchid"},{"link_name":"endemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endemism"},{"link_name":"mycoheterotrophic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy"},{"link_name":"herb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbaceous_plant"}],"text":"Rhizanthella slateri, commonly known as the eastern underground orchid,[2] is a species of flowering plant in the orchid family and is endemic to New South Wales. It is a mycoheterotrophic herb that spends most of its life under the soil surface, its flowers only sometimes appearing a few millimetres about ground level.","title":"Rhizanthella slateri"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sympodial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympodial"},{"link_name":"bracts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bract"},{"link_name":"dorsal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dorsal"},{"link_name":"sepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepal"},{"link_name":"column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column_(botany)"},{"link_name":"lateral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lateral"},{"link_name":"labellum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labellum_(botany)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-environment-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RBGS-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH-5"}],"text":"Rhizanthella slateri is a leafless, sympodial herb with a branching, whitish, underground stem up to 150 mm (5.9 in) long and about 15 mm (0.59 in) in diameter with prominent overlapping bracts. The stem is often branched with up to four flowering heads. The heads are up to 20 mm (0.79 in) in diameter and have up to thirty tube-shaped, purplish flowers surrounded by whitish, triangular floral bracts up to 8 mm (0.31 in) long. The dorsal sepal is curved with a thread-like tip and has a broad base that forms a hood over the column and the lateral sepals, sometimes protruding above the floral bracts. The petals are about half as long as the lateral sepals. The labellum is thick, tongue-like, heart-shaped and covered with fine, pimply papillae. The column is short and broad with narrow \"wings\". Flowering occurs in October and November with the heads maturing below the soil surface or up to 20 mm (0.79 in) above ground level.[2][3][4][5]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Herman Rupp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Rupp"},{"link_name":"Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linnean_Society_of_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Bulahdelah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulahdelah,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APNI1-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rupp-7"},{"link_name":"Mark Clements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Alwin_Clements"},{"link_name":"Phillip Cribb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phillip_James_Cribb&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-APNI-8"},{"link_name":"specific epithet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binomial_nomenclature"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rupp-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANBG-9"}],"text":"The eastern underground orchid was first formally described in 1932 by Herman Rupp and given the name Cryptanthemis slateri in Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales from specimens collected near Bulahdelah in 1931.[6][7] In 1985, Mark Clements and Phillip Cribb changed the name to Rhizanthella slateri.[8] The specific epithet (slateri) honours Ernest William Slater who discovered the species.[7][9]","title":"Taxonomy and naming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Watagan Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watagan_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Blue Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Mountains,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Dharug National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dharug_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Nowra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nowra,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Lamington Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lamington_National_Park"},{"link_name":"R. omissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhizanthella_omissa"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-environment-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH-5"}],"text":"Rhizanthella slateri grows in forest, usually under a deep layer of organic litter. It is known from populations in the Buladelah area, the Watagan Mountains, Blue Mountains, Dharug National Park and near Nowra, each population only known from a few individuals. Records from the Lamington Plateau in Queensland are now recognised as R. omissa.[2][4][5]","title":"Distribution and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environment_Protection_and_Biodiversity_Conservation_Act_1999"},{"link_name":"Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiversity_Conservation_Act_2016_(NSW)"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes Local Government Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes_Council"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-environment-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH2-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OEH-5"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ABC-10"}],"text":"This underground orchid is listed as \"endangered\" under the Australian Government Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 and as \"vulnerable\" under the New South Wales Government Biodiversity Conservation Act 2016. The Bulahdelah population in the Great Lakes Local Government Area is listed as \"endangered\". That population was threatened by the building of a new highway, but a small diversion saved some individuals and some were able to be relocated.[2][4][5][10]","title":"Conservation status"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 28 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apc-format/display/68289","url_text":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""}]},{"reference":"\"Approved Conservation Advice for Rhizanthella slateri (eastern underground orchid)\" (PDF). Australian Government Department of the Environment. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/11768-conservation-advice.pdf","url_text":"\"Approved Conservation Advice for Rhizanthella slateri (eastern underground orchid)\""}]},{"reference":"Weston, Peter H. \"Rhizanthella slateri\". Royal Botanic Garden Sydney. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Rhizanthella~slateri","url_text":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eastern Australian Underground Orchid - profile\". New South Wales Government Office of Environment and Heritage. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=10730","url_text":"\"Eastern Australian Underground Orchid - profile\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rhizanthella slateri population in the Great Lakes local government area - endangered population listing\". New South Wales Government Office of Environment and Heritage. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/nsw-threatened-species-scientific-committee/determinations/final-determinations/2004-2007/rhizanthella-slateri-population-in-the-great-lakes-endangered-population-listing","url_text":"\"Rhizanthella slateri population in the Great Lakes local government area - endangered population listing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Cryptanthemis slateri\". APNI. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/508632","url_text":"\"Cryptanthemis slateri\""}]},{"reference":"Rupp, Herman (1932). \"Notes on New South Wales Orchids\". Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. 57: 58–61. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/108708#page/96/mode/1up","url_text":"\"Notes on New South Wales Orchids\""}]},{"reference":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\". APNI. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/477196","url_text":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""}]},{"reference":"\"Australian Plant Collectors and Illustrators (S)\". Council of Heads of Australasian Herbaria Australian National Herbarium. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.anbg.gov.au/bot-biog/bot-biog-S.html","url_text":"\"Australian Plant Collectors and Illustrators (S)\""}]},{"reference":"Allen, Craig (5 November 2010). \"Rare orchid successfully relocated\". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 September 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-11-05/rare-orchid-successfully-relocated/2325796","url_text":"\"Rare orchid successfully relocated\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://biodiversity.org.au/nsl/services/apc-format/display/68289","external_links_name":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""},{"Link":"http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/species/pubs/11768-conservation-advice.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Approved Conservation Advice for Rhizanthella slateri (eastern underground orchid)\""},{"Link":"https://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/NSWfl.pl?page=nswfl&lvl=sp&name=Rhizanthella~slateri","external_links_name":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""},{"Link":"https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/profile.aspx?id=10730","external_links_name":"\"Eastern Australian Underground Orchid - profile\""},{"Link":"https://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/topics/animals-and-plants/threatened-species/nsw-threatened-species-scientific-committee/determinations/final-determinations/2004-2007/rhizanthella-slateri-population-in-the-great-lakes-endangered-population-listing","external_links_name":"\"Rhizanthella slateri population in the Great Lakes local government area - endangered population listing\""},{"Link":"https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/508632","external_links_name":"\"Cryptanthemis slateri\""},{"Link":"https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/108708#page/96/mode/1up","external_links_name":"\"Notes on New South Wales Orchids\""},{"Link":"https://id.biodiversity.org.au/instance/apni/477196","external_links_name":"\"Rhizanthella slateri\""},{"Link":"http://www.anbg.gov.au/bot-biog/bot-biog-S.html","external_links_name":"\"Australian Plant Collectors and Illustrators (S)\""},{"Link":"https://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-11-05/rare-orchid-successfully-relocated/2325796","external_links_name":"\"Rare orchid successfully relocated\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050317080040/http://www.geocities.com/e_carrall/","external_links_name":"Documentation of discovery and photo of specimen"},{"Link":"https://id.biodiversity.org.au/name/apni/68289","external_links_name":"68289"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.arkive.org/wd/rhizanthella-slateri/","external_links_name":"rhizanthella-slateri"},{"Link":"https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/4SBTQ","external_links_name":"4SBTQ"},{"Link":"https://eol.org/pages/1131743","external_links_name":"1131743"},{"Link":"https://www.gbif.org/species/2816805","external_links_name":"2816805"},{"Link":"https://inaturalist.org/taxa/429702","external_links_name":"429702"},{"Link":"https://www.ipni.org/n/914531-1","external_links_name":"914531-1"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=177053","external_links_name":"177053"},{"Link":"https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=840225","external_links_name":"840225"},{"Link":"http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-178056","external_links_name":"kew-178056"},{"Link":"https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn%3Alsid%3Aipni.org%3Anames%3A75519-3","external_links_name":"urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:75519-3"},{"Link":"https://speciesplus.net/#/taxon_concepts/18033","external_links_name":"18033"},{"Link":"https://www.environment.gov.au/cgi-bin/sprat/public/publicspecies.pl?taxon_id=11768","external_links_name":"11768"},{"Link":"http://legacy.tropicos.org/Name/50027135","external_links_name":"50027135"},{"Link":"https://list.worldfloraonline.org/wfo-0000296266","external_links_name":"wfo-0000296266"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rokovoko	Rokovoko	["1 References","2 External links"]	For the New Zealand-Fijian rugby player whose name is pronounced approximately as Rokovoko, see Joe Rokocoko. Rokovoko or Kokovoko is the fictional island home of the character Queequeg, as described in Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick. Rokovoko is said to be "an island far away to the West and South. It is not down in any map; true places never are", Melville writes. The geography of this island is unclear, but Queequeg is said to have traveled "twenty thousand miles from home, by way of Cape Horn" before arriving in Massachusetts, perhaps placing his home in Polynesia. The island was ruled by Queequeg's father, who is described as both high chief and king. Queequeg's uncle is the island's High Priest. Ishmael feared this island's inhabitants practiced cannibalism. The spelling of the name differs in the initial British and American editions of the book. References ^ "Versions of Moby-Dick - Chapter 12: Biographical". Melville Electronic Library. Retrieved 2023-03-19. Queequeg was a native of Kokovoko, an island far away to the West and South. External links Moby-Dick: Chapter 12 - Biographical - Queequeg's account of Rokovoko, as presented in Chapter 12 of Moby-Dick. This fictional location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joe Rokocoko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Rokocoko"},{"link_name":"Queequeg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queequeg"},{"link_name":"Herman Melville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_Melville"},{"link_name":"Moby-Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moby-Dick"},{"link_name":"Cape Horn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Horn"},{"link_name":"Polynesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynesia"},{"link_name":"Ishmael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishmael_(Moby-Dick)"},{"link_name":"cannibalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_cannibalism"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"For the New Zealand-Fijian rugby player whose name is pronounced approximately as Rokovoko, see Joe Rokocoko.Rokovoko or Kokovoko is the fictional island home of the character Queequeg, as described in Herman Melville's 1851 novel Moby-Dick.Rokovoko is said to be \"an island far away to the West and South. It is not down in any map; true places never are\", Melville writes. The geography of this island is unclear, but Queequeg is said to have traveled \"twenty thousand miles from home, by way of Cape Horn\" before arriving in Massachusetts, perhaps placing his home in Polynesia. The island was ruled by Queequeg's father, who is described as both high chief and king. Queequeg's uncle is the island's High Priest. Ishmael feared this island's inhabitants practiced cannibalism.The spelling of the name differs in the initial British and American editions of the book.[1]","title":"Rokovoko"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Versions of Moby-Dick - Chapter 12: Biographical\". Melville Electronic Library. Retrieved 2023-03-19. Queequeg was a native of Kokovoko, an island far away to the West and South.","urls":[{"url":"https://melville.electroniclibrary.org/editions/versions-of-moby-dick/12-biographical","url_text":"\"Versions of Moby-Dick - Chapter 12: Biographical\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://melville.electroniclibrary.org/editions/versions-of-moby-dick/12-biographical","external_links_name":"\"Versions of Moby-Dick - Chapter 12: Biographical\""},{"Link":"https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2701/2701-h/2701-h.htm#link2HCH0012","external_links_name":"Moby-Dick: Chapter 12 - Biographical"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rokovoko&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenian_Muslims	Islam in Slovenia	["1 Demographics","2 Muslim buildings in Slovenia","2.1 Ljubljana Mosque","3 See also","4 References"]	Religion in Slovenia Islam in Europeby percentage of country population 90–100% AzerbaijanKosovoTurkey 70–90% AlbaniaKazakhstan 50–70% Bosnia and Herzegovina 30–40% North Macedonia 10–20% BulgariaFranceGeorgiaMontenegroRussia 5–10% AustriaSwedenBelgiumGermanyGreece LiechtensteinNetherlandsSwitzerlandUnited KingdomNorwayDenmark 4–5% ItalySerbia 2–4% LuxembourgMaltaSloveniaSpain 1–2% CroatiaIrelandUkraine < 1% AndorraBelarusCzech RepublicEstoniaFinlandHungaryIcelandLatviaLithuaniaMoldovaMonacoPolandPortugalRomaniaSan MarinoSlovakia Islam by countryWorld percentage of Muslims by country Africa Algeria Angola Benin Botswana Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Cape Verde Central African Republic Chad Comoros Democratic Republic of the Congo Republic of the Congo Djibouti Egypt Equatorial Guinea Eritrea Eswatini Ethiopia Gabon Gambia Ghana Guinea Guinea-Bissau Ivory Coast Kenya Lesotho Liberia Libya Madagascar Malawi Mali Mauritania Mauritius Mayotte Morocco Western Sahara Mozambique Namibia Niger Nigeria Réunion Rwanda São Tomé and Príncipe Senegal Seychelles Sierra Leone Somalia South Africa South Sudan Sudan Tanzania Togo Tunisia Uganda Zambia Zimbabwe Asia Afghanistan Armenia Azerbaijan Bahrain Bangladesh Bhutan Brunei Cambodia China Cyprus East Timor Georgia Hong Kong India Indonesia Iran Iraq Israel Japan Jordan Kazakhstan Korea North Korea South Korea Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Laos Lebanon Macau Malaysia Maldives Mongolia Myanmar Nepal Oman Pakistan Palestine Philippines Qatar Saudi Arabia Singapore Sri Lanka Syria Taiwan Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Emirates Uzbekistan Vietnam Yemen Americas Antigua and Barbuda Argentina Bahamas Barbados Belize Bolivia Brazil Canada Chile Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Dominica Dominican Republic Ecuador El Salvador French Guiana Grenada Guatemala Guyana Haiti Honduras Jamaica Mexico Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Saint Kitts and Nevis Saint Lucia Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Suriname Trinidad and Tobago United States Uruguay Venezuela Europe Albania Andorra Austria Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Czechia Denmark Estonia Finland France Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Monaco Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Tatarstan San Marino Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales Oceania Australia Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Cook Islands Fiji Guam Kiribati Marshall Islands Micronesia Nauru New Caledonia New Zealand Northern Mariana Islands Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu Islam portalvte The Muslims in Slovenia are ethnically mostly Bosniaks and ethnic Muslims. In 2014, there were 48,266 Muslims in Slovenia, making up about 2 percent of the total population. The Muslim community of Slovenia is headed by Nedžad Grabus . There are also a few Muslim migrant workers from Central Asia; however, they are not counted in the census, because they are not citizens of Slovenia. Demographics Demographics of Muslims In Slovenia by ethnicity in 2002 Ethnicity Muslims Percentage Bosniaks 19,923 41.95% ethnic Muslims 9,328 19.64% "Bosnians"(otherwise undeclared) 5,724 12.05% Albanians 5,237 11.03% Slovene Muslims 2,804 5.90% Roma 868 1.83% Montenegrins 634 1.33% Macedonians 507 1.07% "Yugoslavs"(otherwise undeclared) 55 0.12% Serbs 53 0.11% Croats 30 0.06% Hungarians 8 0.02% Undeclared or unknown 1,846 3.89% Others 445 0.94% Regionally declared 15 0.03% Total 47,477 100% Muslim buildings in Slovenia An old Austro-Hungarian Mosque in Log pod Mangartom, pulled down after World War I There was a mosque in Log pod Mangartom, a village now in the extreme northwest of Slovenia, Log pod Mangartom Mosque, built by the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry Regiment No. 4 during World War I and probably demolished soon after the war. In 2013, works begun to build a mosque in Ljubljana, to be completed in 2016. Ljubljana Mosque In September 2013 the foundation stone was laid for a mosque to be 70% funded by Qatar 44 years after the a petition was filed to build a mosque. The mosque will include a cultural centre at a cost of US$16 million to be completed in 2016 with construction commencing in November. The groundbreaking was attended by Prime Minister Alenka Bratušek who said the building would be a "symbolic victory against all forms of religious intolerance" and that Europe would not be as culturally rich without Islam. There were about 10,000 others in attendance including Ljubljana Mayor Zoran Jankovic and an unnamed government minister from Qatar. Slovenia's highest Islamic authority Mufti Nedzad Grabus said: "We are happy to be starting this civic project in Ljubljana, which will thus become a better-known and a more pluralistic city." The ceremony was also attended by the Bosniak member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bakir Izetbegović. Other attendees were former President of Slovenia Danilo Turk and Mufti of the Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina Husein Kavazović. The project had faced administrative hurdles and was a political risk in a majority Roman Catholic country. It also faced a possible referendum on the matter in 2004 with 12,000 signatures for it; however, the Constitutional Court of Slovenia rejected the petition on the grounds of freedom of religion. It was also controversial due to the financial crisis afflicting the country. At the ceremony, there was also a rare sight of women in headscarves. See also Demographics of Slovenia Slovenes Muslims (ethnicity) References ^ "Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050". Pew Research Center. 12 April 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2017. ^ Bajt, Veronika (2011). "The Muslim Other in Slovenia. Intersection of a Religious and Ethnic Minority". In Górak-Sosnowska, Katarzyna (ed.). Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe: Widening the European Discourse on Islam. University of Warsaw Press. pp. 307–326. ISBN 9788390322957. ^ "Muslim Population by Country: S - T". Ministry of Hajj Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 17 April 2014. ^ "Predsednik Mešihata – Mufti Nedžad Grabus" (in Slovenian). Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2015. ^ "Population by religion and ethnic affiliation, Slovenia, 2002 Census". Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Retrieved 9 June 2015. ^ Sejko Mekanović, Husein (2011). Džamija (PDF) (in Slovenian). ^ "Slovenia starts work on its first mosque". ^ "Turkey and World News". ^ Reuters Wikimedia Commons has media related to Islam in Slovenia. vteIslam in EuropeMiddle Ages Conquest of Hispania Al-Andalus Islam in southern Italy Transmission of the Classics Cultural transmission Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture Medieval Christian views on Muhammad Crusades Reconquista Tatar yoke Early Modern Reception of Islam in early modern Europe Protestantism and Islam Anglo-Moroccan alliance Ottoman wars in Europe Ottoman–Habsburg wars Barbary pirates Barbary slave trade Islamization of Bosnia and Herzegovina Russo-Turkish wars Islamization of Albania Orientalism in early modern France Modern Islam in the Far North Orientalism Islam and modernity Islam in the USSR Partition of the Ottoman Empire Nazi Germany and the Arab world Islam and secularism Islamic democracy Contemporary issues Islam in Europe European Islam Islamic terrorism Liberal and progressive Islam in Europe Religion in the European Union Hijab and burka controversies in Europe Islamophobia Jihadi tourism By country Albania Andorra Armenia Austria Azerbaijan Belarus Belgium Bosnia and Herzegovina Bulgaria Croatia Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland France Georgia Germany Greece Hungary Iceland Ireland Italy Kosovo Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania Luxembourg Malta Moldova Montenegro Netherlands North Macedonia Norway Poland Portugal Romania Russia Serbia Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden Switzerland Turkey Ukraine United Kingdom England Northern Ireland Scotland Wales	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Islam_in_Europe-2010.svg"},{"link_name":"Islam in 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Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Norway"},{"link_name":"Denmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Denmark"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Italy"},{"link_name":"Serbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Serbia"},{"link_name":"Luxembourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Luxembourg"},{"link_name":"Malta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Malta"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Spain"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Croatia"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Ireland"},{"link_name":"Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"Andorra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Andorra"},{"link_name":"Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Belarus"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_the_Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"Estonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Estonia"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Finland"},{"link_name":"Hungary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Hungary"},{"link_name":"Iceland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Iceland"},{"link_name":"Latvia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Latvia"},{"link_name":"Lithuania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Lithuania"},{"link_name":"Moldova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Moldova"},{"link_name":"Monaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Monaco"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Portugal"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Romania"},{"link_name":"San Marino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_San_Marino"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Bosniaks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bosniaks"},{"link_name":"ethnic Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims_(South-Slavic_ethnic_group)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Nedžad Grabus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ned%C5%BEad_Grabus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ned%C5%BEad_Grabus"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Central Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Asia"}],"text":"Islam in Europeby percentage of country population[1] 90–100% AzerbaijanKosovoTurkey 70–90% AlbaniaKazakhstan 50–70% Bosnia and Herzegovina 30–40% North Macedonia 10–20% BulgariaFranceGeorgiaMontenegroRussia 5–10% AustriaSwedenBelgiumGermanyGreece LiechtensteinNetherlandsSwitzerlandUnited KingdomNorwayDenmark 4–5% ItalySerbia 2–4% LuxembourgMaltaSloveniaSpain 1–2% CroatiaIrelandUkraine < 1% AndorraBelarusCzech RepublicEstoniaFinlandHungaryIcelandLatviaLithuaniaMoldovaMonacoPolandPortugalRomaniaSan MarinoSlovakiaThe Muslims in Slovenia are ethnically mostly Bosniaks and ethnic Muslims.[2] In 2014, there were 48,266 Muslims in Slovenia, making up about 2 percent of the total population.[3] The Muslim community of Slovenia is headed by Nedžad Grabus [sl].[4] There are also a few Muslim migrant workers from Central Asia; however, they are not counted in the census, because they are not citizens of Slovenia.","title":"Islam in Slovenia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Demographics of Muslims In Slovenia by ethnicity in 2002[5]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mo%C5%A1eja-Log_pod_Mangartom4.jpg"},{"link_name":"Log pod Mangartom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_pod_Mangartom"},{"link_name":"Log pod Mangartom Mosque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Log_pod_Mangartom_Mosque"},{"link_name":"Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry Regiment No. 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bosnian-Herzegovinian_Infantry_Regiment_No._4&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"An old Austro-Hungarian Mosque in Log pod Mangartom, pulled down after World War IThere was a mosque in Log pod Mangartom, a village now in the extreme northwest of Slovenia, Log pod Mangartom Mosque, built by the Bosnian-Herzegovinian Infantry Regiment No. 4 during World War I and probably demolished soon after the war.[6] In 2013, works begun to build a mosque in Ljubljana, to be completed in 2016.","title":"Muslim buildings in Slovenia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Qatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qatar"},{"link_name":"Alenka Bratušek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alenka_Bratu%C5%A1ek"},{"link_name":"Zoran Jankovic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoran_Jankovi%C4%87_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Nedzad Grabus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nedzad_Grabus&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Bakir Izetbegović","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakir_Izetbegovi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"Danilo Turk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danilo_Turk"},{"link_name":"Husein Kavazović","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husein_Kavazovi%C4%87"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Constitutional Court of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Slovenia"},{"link_name":"freedom of religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_religion"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Ljubljana Mosque","text":"In September 2013 the foundation stone was laid for a mosque to be 70% funded by Qatar 44 years after the a petition was filed to build a mosque. The mosque will include a cultural centre at a cost of US$16 million to be completed in 2016 with construction commencing in November. The groundbreaking was attended by Prime Minister Alenka Bratušek who said the building would be a \"symbolic victory against all forms of religious intolerance\" and that Europe would not be as culturally rich without Islam. There were about 10,000 others in attendance including Ljubljana Mayor Zoran Jankovic and an unnamed government minister from Qatar. Slovenia's highest Islamic authority Mufti Nedzad Grabus said: \"We are happy to be starting this civic project in Ljubljana, which will thus become a better-known and a more pluralistic city.\"[7] The ceremony was also attended by the Bosniak member of the Presidency of Bosnia and Herzegovina Bakir Izetbegović. Other attendees were former President of Slovenia Danilo Turk and Mufti of the Islamic Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina Husein Kavazović.[8] The project had faced administrative hurdles and was a political risk in a majority Roman Catholic country. It also faced a possible referendum on the matter in 2004 with 12,000 signatures for it; however, the Constitutional Court of Slovenia rejected the petition on the grounds of freedom of religion. It was also controversial due to the financial crisis afflicting the country. At the ceremony, there was also a rare sight of women in headscarves.[9]","title":"Muslim buildings in Slovenia"}]	[{"image_text":"Islam in Europeby percentage of country population[1] 90–100% AzerbaijanKosovoTurkey 70–90% AlbaniaKazakhstan 50–70% Bosnia and Herzegovina 30–40% North Macedonia 10–20% BulgariaFranceGeorgiaMontenegroRussia 5–10% AustriaSwedenBelgiumGermanyGreece LiechtensteinNetherlandsSwitzerlandUnited KingdomNorwayDenmark 4–5% ItalySerbia 2–4% LuxembourgMaltaSloveniaSpain 1–2% CroatiaIrelandUkraine < 1% AndorraBelarusCzech RepublicEstoniaFinlandHungaryIcelandLatviaLithuaniaMoldovaMonacoPolandPortugalRomaniaSan MarinoSlovakia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Islam_in_Europe-2010.svg/280px-Islam_in_Europe-2010.svg.png"},{"image_text":"An old Austro-Hungarian Mosque in Log pod Mangartom, pulled down after World War I","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Mo%C5%A1eja-Log_pod_Mangartom4.jpg/260px-Mo%C5%A1eja-Log_pod_Mangartom4.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Demographics of Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Slovenia"},{"title":"Slovenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenes"},{"title":"Muslims (ethnicity)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslims_(ethnicity)"}]	[{"reference":"\"Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050\". Pew Research Center. 12 April 2015. Retrieved 22 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/","url_text":"\"Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pew_Research_Center","url_text":"Pew Research Center"}]},{"reference":"Bajt, Veronika (2011). \"The Muslim Other in Slovenia. Intersection of a Religious and Ethnic Minority\". In Górak-Sosnowska, Katarzyna (ed.). Muslims in Poland and Eastern Europe: Widening the European Discourse on Islam. University of Warsaw Press. pp. 307–326. ISBN 9788390322957.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dCAU6Bz5QIEC&pg=PA312","url_text":"\"The Muslim Other in Slovenia. Intersection of a Religious and Ethnic Minority\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788390322957","url_text":"9788390322957"}]},{"reference":"\"Muslim Population by Country: S - T\". Ministry of Hajj Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 17 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hajinformation.com/main/d21s.htm","url_text":"\"Muslim Population by Country: S - T\""}]},{"reference":"\"Predsednik Mešihata – Mufti Nedžad Grabus\" [The President of Meshihat – Mufti Nedžad Grabus] (in Slovenian). Archived from the original on 12 April 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140412154812/http://www.islamska-skupnost.si/mesihat/predstavnik-mesihata-mufti/","url_text":"\"Predsednik Mešihata – Mufti Nedžad Grabus\""},{"url":"http://www.islamska-skupnost.si/mesihat/predstavnik-mesihata-mufti/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Population by religion and ethnic affiliation, Slovenia, 2002 Census\". Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia. Retrieved 9 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.stat.si/popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=57","url_text":"\"Population by religion and ethnic affiliation, Slovenia, 2002 Census\""}]},{"reference":"Sejko Mekanović, Husein (2011). Džamija [The Mosque] (PDF) (in Slovenian).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.logpodmangartom.si/dzamija.pdf","url_text":"Džamija"}]},{"reference":"\"Slovenia starts work on its first mosque\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/09/2013914161756283157.html","url_text":"\"Slovenia starts work on its first mosque\""}]},{"reference":"\"Turkey and World News\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=117944","url_text":"\"Turkey and World News\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/29/europes-growing-muslim-population/","external_links_name":"\"Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2050\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=dCAU6Bz5QIEC&pg=PA312","external_links_name":"\"The Muslim Other in Slovenia. Intersection of a Religious and Ethnic Minority\""},{"Link":"http://www.hajinformation.com/main/d21s.htm","external_links_name":"\"Muslim Population by Country: S - T\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140412154812/http://www.islamska-skupnost.si/mesihat/predstavnik-mesihata-mufti/","external_links_name":"\"Predsednik Mešihata – Mufti Nedžad Grabus\""},{"Link":"http://www.islamska-skupnost.si/mesihat/predstavnik-mesihata-mufti/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.stat.si/popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=SLO&st=57","external_links_name":"\"Population by religion and ethnic affiliation, Slovenia, 2002 Census\""},{"Link":"http://www.logpodmangartom.si/dzamija.pdf","external_links_name":"Džamija"},{"Link":"http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2013/09/2013914161756283157.html","external_links_name":"\"Slovenia starts work on its first mosque\""},{"Link":"http://www.worldbulletin.net/?aType=haber&ArticleID=117944","external_links_name":"\"Turkey and World News\""},{"Link":"http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-slovenia-mosque-idUKBRE98D07A20130914","external_links_name":"Reuters"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piolet_d%27Or	Piolets d'Or	["1 History","1.1 Multiple winners","2 Criteria","3 Reception","3.1 Criticism","4 2023 award (31st awards)","5 2022 award (30th awards)","6 2021 award","7 2020 award","8 2019 award (deaths of Lama and Auer)","9 2018 award (leaves France)","10 2017 award","11 2016 award","12 2015 award (pre-announced)","13 2014 award","14 2013 award (everybody wins)","15 2012 award (20th awards)","16 2011 award","17 2010 award","18 2009 award (new Charter)","19 2008 award (cancelled)","20 2007 award (controversy)","21 Pre-2007 (only one winner)","22 See also","23 References","23.1 Further reading","24 External links"]	International mountaineering award AwardLes Piolets d'Or2017 winners Dmitry Golovchenko and Sergey Nilov with their "Golden Ice Axe"Awarded forMountaineering ascents with emphasis on style, spirit and creativity, self-sufficiency, and technical difficultyDateSpring (1992 to 2017)Autumn (2018 onward)LocationFrance (1992 to 2007)France/Italy (2009 to 2017)Various (2018 onward)Presented byGroupe de Haute Montagne Formerly calledLe Piolet d'Or (pre-2009)Reward(s)A single Golden ice axe (per team), made by GrivelFirst awarded1992 (1992) (for ascents in 1991)Most awardsPaul Ramsden (2003, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2023)(As at the 2023 awards)WebsitePiolet d'Or The Piolets d'Or (, "Golden Ice Axe") is an annual mountaineering and alpine climbing award organized by the Groupe de Haute Montagne (GHM), and previously with co-founder Montagnes Magazine, since its founding in 1992. Golden ice axes are presented to the annual winners at a weekend awards festival based on their achievements in the previous year. It is considered mountaineering's highest honor and is referred to as the "Oscars of mountaineering". The Piolets have progressed from being a competition-like single-award event (Le Piolet d'Or) into a broader celebration of mountaineering and alpinism, with several awards made (Les Piolets d'Or). After a crisis in 2008, the Charter for the awards was rewritten to focus on the style and innovation of the nominations, respect for the mountain, environment, and future climbing generations, and to increase the independence and transparency of the award process; the official name was also changed to the plural. History At the start of the 1990s, it was difficult to raise funds for major mountaineering expeditions in France. The French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing could no longer fund expeditions (as it had done since the French Annapurna expeditions). Alpinist Jean-Claude Marmier, then president of the Groupe de Haute Montagne (or GHM), suggested an annual prize for "outstanding achievement in the world of alpinism" might increase the public profile (and thus sponsorship) of French mountaineering. He won the support of Guy Chaumereuil , then editor of the Grenoble-based French monthly climbing and mountaineering magazine, Montagnes, and in 1992 GHM and Montagnes announced the first Piolet d'Or award for the best alpine ascent of 1991 at the Autrans Mountain Film Festival. From the outset, there was some concern over the ethics of rewarding and promoting the dangerous undertaking of modern extreme alpine climbing. After a controversial 1998 Piolet was awarded to a Russian team of which two had died on the route, the rules were changed the following year so that nominees had to have completed their climbs safely. The New York Times remarked on the proportion of Piolet d'Or winners who have subsequently died while mountaineering, but that the awards criteria had been further amended over time to emphasize "style" over pure "risk-taking". There was also a concern, particularly within the alpine climbing community, on the decision to select a single winner from a list of alpine ascents. The situation came to a head during the 2007 Piolet d'Or awards over accusations by then GHM president, Leslie Fuscko, that Chaumereuil had imposed the shortlist, which led to the resignation of Jury President Andrej Štremfelj. Further controversy occurred when Marko Prezelj, a 2007 Piolet d'Or winner, wrote a public article criticizing the premise of the awards, and whether it was possible, or ethical, to have a single winner. The 2007 controversy led to a fundamental re-think of the structure of the awards, a long process that required the 2008 awards to be canceled. A new Charter was drawn up and the 2009 Piolet d'Or, the 17th awards, followed a very different format; multiple winners were announced (initially under different headings, but the headings were later dropped), a new "Lifetime Achievement Award" was announced (some awards were accused as being such an award in disguise), and the first female winner was announced. Jury President Doug Scott heralded the post-2008 Charter, saying: "This edition signals the rebirth of the Piolets d'Or. For us there are no winners, no losers. The honored are the ambassadors of an art, a passion." In 2013, the jury embraced the new Charter awarding Piolets to all six shortlisted nominees, an act that drew criticism from Montagnes. Since 2015, the winners have been announced in advance of the ceremony to emphasize that the ceremony was "a not a competition, but a celebration". In 2016, two of the award's biggest critics, Voytek Kurtyka and Marko Prezelj accepted their awards at the 2016 Piolets d'Or ceremony at La Grave; where only GHM remained from the original founders. In 2018, for the first time in its history, none of the award ceremony was held in France, when the Piolet d'Or ceremony was held at the Mountain Festival in Lądek-Zdrój, Poland. The awards in 2019 and 2020 were also presented at the festival in Lądek-Zdrój. The 2019 awards were overshadowed by the recent deaths of two of the three winners, David Lama and Hansjörg Auer. Multiple winners Paul Ramsden, Troll Wall, Norway The following climbers have won more than one Piolet d'Or since its inception in 1992: 5 times. Paul Ramsden (2003, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2023). 4 times. Marko Prezelj (1992, 2007, 2015, 2016). 3 times. Mick Fowler (2003, 2013, 2016), Kazuya Hiraide (2009, 2018, 2020). 2 times. Valery Babanov (2002, 2004), Aleš Česen (2015, 2019), Dmitry Golovchenko (2013, 2017), Zdenek Hák (2018, 2020), Marek Holeček (2018, 2020), Kenro Nakajima (2018, 2020), Sergey Nilov (2013, 2017), Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll (2011, 2022), Mark Richey (2012, 2020), Ueli Steck (2009, 2014), Luka Stražar (2012, 2019), Steve Swenson (2012, 2020), Hayden Kennedy (2013, 2016). Criteria Post 2008, a new Charter was drafted to clarify the basis and values for deciding awards: In modern mountaineering, questions of style and means of ascent take precedence over reaching the objective itself. It is no longer a matter of employing huge financial and technical resources (bottled oxygen, fixed ropes, high-altitude porters, so-called 'performance-enhancing' substances…) and large numbers of people to reach the top at all costs. The Piolets d’Or throw the spotlight on imaginative and innovative new routes, using a minimum amount of equipment, and building on experience.— Piloet d'Or Charter, 2008. In addition, the Charter laid out the specific criteria under which all future nominees would be assessed: Style of ascent. Spirit of exploration: original (previously unclimbed) route and/or mountain, creative and innovative approach. Level of commitment and self-sufficiency. High level of technical ability required. Suitability of route in light of objective dangers. Efficient and sparing use of resources. Transparency regarding the use of these resources. Respect for people, climbing partners, members of other teams, porters, and local agents. Respect for the environment. Respect for future generations of mountaineers by leaving them the possibility of enjoying the same kind of experiences and adventures. The new Charter also underlined that awards, and the ceremony, should be a "celebration of mountaineering", and not a "climbing competition". The term "winners", and even the term "award", was downplayed in favor of terms such as "nominees". In 2014, National Geographic said of the revised Piolet charter: "The Piolet d’Or is about sharing our experiences as alpinists with a wider audience, trying to learn about the human experience through adventure. The era of the heroic warrior climber who climbs themselves literally to death in the high mountains is over." Reception The Piolet d'Or is the highest honor in mountaineering and alpine climbing. In 2021, the New York Times described it as "Alpinism's biggest prize", and that even though it had some vocal critics, it had widespread support amongst the climbing community. On receiving a Piolet in 2015, Alex Honnold told National Geographic, "I've always joked that if I won a Piolet d’Or I'd retire from climbing ... and I do think it’s appropriate to honor some climbs for pushing the sport in positive directions. Whether our ascent is deserving or not is open to debate, that’s fine. But people definitely climb inspiring things every year and I think it’s worth celebrating that in some way." They are often called the "Oscars of mountaineering". Criticism Over the years, a number of climbers have openly criticized and even rejected awards/or asked not to be considered: In 2005, British climber Ian Parnell, who was nominated on several previous occasions, asked for his nomination to be withdrawn to allow what he considered to be superior American ascents to be shortlisted; in 2006, Parnell wrote a lengthy critique of the awards in Alpinist, and concluded "The Piolet d'Or is certainly here to stay; in fact, its recent controversy has elevated its profile ..." In 2006, Italian climbers Alessandro Beltrami, Rolando Garibotti, and Ermanno Salvaterra asked their ascent of the north face of Cerro Torre not be considered, saying: "It was the essence of the experience that interested us most. An award such as the Piolet d'Or tries to quantify this essence and attempts to judge the quality of the experience.... How could there be any real value to such a subjective judgment? How to judge elusive concepts like elegance and imagination?" In 2008, Garibotti also asked the jury not to consider the Torre Traverse he completed with Colin Haley. In 2007, multiple award winner Marko Prezelj publicly rejected the award on stage to express his opposition to competition in alpinism; Prezelj then wrote a brutal critique of the awards in Alpinist magazine, that finished with the line: "I apologize if I have offended anyone who is addicted to Miss Fame; she gets around so watch out for STDs." After the new Charter in 2009, Prezelj would later reconcile himself with the awards, and accepted his 3rd Piolet in 2015 in Chamonix, and his 4th Piolet d'Or in 2016 at the ceremony in La Grave. In 2010, Polish climber Wojciech Kurtyka declined the invitation to accept the newly created "Lifetime Achievement Award" by GHM President Christian Trommsdorff, saying "I always had a sense of escaping to the mountains from everyday social bullshit, and now you propose to me to take part in it." Kurtyka was even more forceful in declining it in 2011 and 2012, saying: "Sorry. NO. NO! I will not be talking about Piolets d’Or anymore." However, in 2016, Kurtyka accepted the 8th "Lifetime Achievement Award" at the ceremony in La Grave. 2023 award (31st awards) The 2023 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2023 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Lise Billon, Ines Papert, Nikita Balabanov, Ales Cesen, Martin Elias, Genki Narumi and Jack Tackle. George Lowe won the 15th Lifetime Achievement Award. South-southeast spur (Reino Hongo) of Jirishanca (1,000m, M7 AI5+ 3-days, alpine style) in the Cordillera Huayhuash by Alik Berg and Quentin Roberts. North face (Phantom Line) of the Jugal Spire (1,300m, ED, 5-days) in the Jugal Himal , Nepal, by Tim Miller and Paul Ramsden (5th Piolet). South face (The Crystal Ship) of Pumari Chhish East (1,600m, 5.10+ M7 A2, 5-days) in the Hispar Muztagh by Christophe Ogier, Victor Saucède and Jérôme Sullivan. "Special Mention" for the first ascent of the East face (Via Sedna) of the Northern Sun Spire (780m, 6b to 7b+) in East Greenland by Capucine Cotteaux, Caro North, and Nadia Royo; noted as 'minimal carbon footprint' expedition that used sailing boats. 2022 award (30th awards) The 2022 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2022 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Conrad Anker, Alex Bluemel, Genki Narumi, Paul Ramsden, Patrick Wagnon, and Mikel Zabalza: Silvo Karo won the 14th Lifetime Achievement award. Northwest face of Saraghrar (7,340m, ED2 5.10 A3+ M5+, 8-days, alpine style) in Hindu Kush, Pakistan, by Georgians Archil Badriashvili, Baqar Gelashvili, and Giorgi Tepnadze. Moonwalk Traverse of the Cerro Chaltén Group (South-to-North, 5,000-metres, 10 summits, 5-days, rope solo) in Patagonia, by Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll (2nd Piolet) "Special Jury Award" for the Southeast Ridge (Patience) of Annapurna III (7,555m, 5.10a A3 M6, 16-days) in Nepal, by Ukrainians Mykyta Balabanov, Mykhailo Fomin, and Viacheslav Polezhaiko. 2021 award The 2021 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2021 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Ines Papert, Kelly Cordes, Victor Saunders, Valery Babanov, and Helias Millerioux: Yasushi Yamanoi won the 13th Lifetime Achievement award. Emperor face (Running in the Shadows) of Mount Robson (2,500m, VI M6 AI5 A0, 2-days, alpine style) in the Canadian Rockies, by American Ethan Berman and Briton Uisdean Hawthorn. South face and southwest ridge (Revers Gagnant) of Sani Pakkush (2,600m, M4+ WI 4+, 2-days, alpine style) in the Tolltar Valley, Pakistan, by French climbers Pierrick Fine and Symon Welfringer. "Special Mention" for Catalan climber Silvia Vidal for her "cutting edge big wall solo ascents around the world". 2020 award The 2020 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in August 2020 by an 8-person technical jury consisting of Kazuaki Amano, Nikita Balabanov, Aleš Česen, Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner, Helias Millerioux, Enrico Rosso, Victor Saunders and Raphael Slawinski. Catherine Destivelle won the 12th Lifetime Achievement award. Northwest face (the UFO Line) of Chamlang (2,500m, WI5 M6, 6-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by Czech climbers Marek Holeček (2nd Piolet) and Zdeněk Hák (2nd Piolet). West face (Release The Kraken) of Tengi Ragi Tau (1,600m, AI5 M5+, 4-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by American climbers Alan Rousseau and Tino Villanueva. South face and southeast ridge of Rakaposhi (4,000m, 6-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kenro Nakajima (2nd Piolet). Southeast face of Link Sar (2,300m, AI4 M6+, 8-days) in Pakistan, by American climbers Mark Richey (2nd Piolet), Steve Swenson (2nd Piolet), Chris Wright, and Graham Zimmerman. 2019 award (deaths of Lama and Auer) The 2019 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in July 2019 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Sandy Allan, Kazu Amano, Valeri Babanov, Jordi Corominas, Fred Degoulet, Ines Papert, Andrej Štremfelj; for a second time the awards were held at the Ladek Mountain Festival, but were overshadowed by the recent deaths of two of the winners, David Lama and Hansjörg Auer. Krzysztof Wielicki won the 11th Lifetime Achievement Award. West ridge and the first ascent of Lunag Ri (1,500m, 2-days, solo) on the border of Tibet and Nepal, by recently deceased Austrian climber David Lama; his award was accepted by his family. West face and the first ascent of Lupghar Sar West (1,000m, M4, 1-day, solo) in the Hispar Muztagh, by recently deceased Austrian climber Hansjörg Auer; his award was accepted by his friends. North ridge and South face of Latok I (2,500m, ED+, 8-days) in the Karakoram, by Slovanian climbers Aleš Česen (2nd Piolet) and Luka Stražar (2nd Piolet), and British climber Tom Livingstone. 2018 award (leaves France) The 2018 Piolet d'Or winners were announced at the new later time of August 2018 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Valeri Babanov, Kelly Cordes, Jordi Corominas, Mick Fowler, Yannick Graziani, Silvo Karo, and Raphael Slawinsky; it was also announced that the ceremony would be held at the Ladek Film Festival in Poland, the first time there was no French ceremony. Andrej Štremfelj won the 10th Lifetime Achievement award. Southwest face (Satisfaction!) of Gasherbrum I (2,600m, ED+ WI5+ M7, 8-days) in Pakistan, by Czech climbers Marek Holeček and Zdeněk Hák. Northeast face and traverse of Shispare (2,700m, WI5 M6, 7-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kenro Nakajima . South face of Nuptse Nup II (2,200m, WI6 M5+, 8-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by French climbers Frédéric Degoulet, Benjamin Guigonnet and Hélias Millerioux . "Special mention" for the southwest face of Nilkantha (1,400m, WI5 M6 A0, 5-days) in India, by American climbers Chantel Astorga, Anne Gilbert Chase, and Jason Thompson. "Special mention" to Alex Honnold for outstanding contribution to climbing throughout the 2017 year. 2017 award The 2017 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2017 by an 8-person technical jury consisting of Kazu Amano, Valery Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Kelly Cordes, Andy Houseman, Thomas Huber, Sebastien Ratel, and Raphael Slawinski. Jeff Lowe won the 9th Lifetime Achievement award. North buttress and the first ascent of Nyainqentangla South East (1,600m, ED+) in Tibet, by British climbers Paul Ramsden (4th Piolet), and Nick Bullock. North buttress of Thalay Sagar (1,400m, ED2, M7 WI5 5.10a A3, 8-days) in Gangotri, India, by Russian climbers Dmitry Golovchenko (2nd Piolet), Dmitry Grigoriev, and Sergey Nilov (2nd Piolet). "Special mention" for the south face of Gangapurna (1,500m, ED+) in Nepal, by Korean climbers Cho Seok-mun, Kim Chang-ho, and Park Joung-yong. "Special mention" for the Travesia del Torre Cerro Torre Group (1,600m, 5.10c, C1, 1-day) in Patagonia, by American climbers Colin Haley and Alex Honnold. 2016 award The 2016 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2016 by a 9-person technical jury consisting of Valeri Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Seb Bohin, Simon Elias, Yasuhiro Hanatani, Silvo Karo, Michael Kennedy, Victor Saunders, and Raphael Slawinski. After several years of lobbying, Wojciech Kurtyka agreed to accept a "Lifetime Achievement Award". Wojciech Kurtyka won the 8th Lifetime Achievement award. North-northwest pillar (Daddy Magnum Force) of Talung (1,700m, ED+ M6 A3, 5-days, alpine style) on the Nepalese-Indian border, by Ukrainian climbers Mikhail Fomin and Nikita Balabanov . North face and the first ascent of Gave Ding (1,600m, ED+, 5-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by British climbers Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden (3rd Piolet for each). Northwest pillar (Hasta las Webas) of Cerro Riso Paron (1,000m, ED-, AI5+ M5, 3-days) in Patagonia, by French Jerome Sullivan, Lise Billon , and Antoine Moineville, and Argentine Diego Simari. East face (Light before Wisdom) of Cerro Kishtwar (1,200m, ED+, 5.11 WI6 M6 A2, 3-days) in the Indian Himalayas, by an international climbing team of Marko Prezelj (Slovenia; 4th Piolet), Hayden Kennedy (USA; 2nd Piolet ), Manu Pellissier (France), and Urban Novak (Slovenia). 2015 award (pre-announced) The 2015 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2015 by a 9-person technical jury consisting of Kazuki Amano, Valeri Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Stephane Benoist, Andy Houseman, Michael Kennedy, Ines Papert, Raphael Slawinski, and Andrej Štremfelj; in a departure from previous years, the winners were announced before the ceremony so the event was "not a competition, but a celebration". National Geographic noted that Alex Honnold's Piolet was the first to a climber who had never previously led an ice climb. Chris Bonington won the 7th Lifetime Achievement award. Southwest face (Shy Girl) of Thamserku (1,620m, M4/M5, A2, 8-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by Russian climbers Aleksander Gukov and Aleksey Lonchinskiy. North face of Hagshu (1,350m, ED, 2-days, alpine style) India, by Slovenian climbers Aleš Česen, Luka Lindič, and Marko Prezelj (3rd Piolet). Fitz Traverse of the Cerro Chaltén Group (North-to-South and opposite of the Moonwalk Traverse, 5 km, 8-peaks, up to 5.11d C1, 4-days, alpine style) in Patagonia, by American climbers Tommy Caldwell and Alex Honnold. 2014 award The 2014 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2014 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of George Lowe, Denis Urubko, Catherine Destivelle, Erri De Luca (the Italian writer), Karen Steinbach, and Lim Sung-muk; in a compromise, the jury decided to award two Piolet awards out of the six shortlisted ascents. John Roskelley won the 6th Lifetime Achievement award. South face of Annapurna (2,700m, 28-hours, solo climb) in Nepal, by Swiss climber Ueli Steck (2nd Piolet); the provenance for this ascent was questioned, but upheld by witnesses. Northwest face and west ridge of K6 (2,700m, 5-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Canadian climbers Ian Welsted and Raphael Slawinski. 2013 award (everybody wins) The 2013 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2013 by a 4-person technical jury consisting of Stephen Venables, Silvo Karo, Katsutaka Yokoyama, and Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner; in an unprecedented move, the jury announced that the entire short-list of six nominated ascents would receive a Piolet d'Or. Montagnes magazine issued a statement condemning the decision saying that it: "weakens the event and its status, blurs the image of mountaineering in the eyes of the public and does not reflect the true personality of mountaineers who make history". Kurt Diemberger won the 5th Lifetime Achievement award. South pillar (Nima Line) of Kyashar (2,200m, 5.10a A0 M5, 7-days) in Nepal, by the Japanese climbers Tatsuya Aoki, Yasuhiro Hanatani, and Hiroyoshi Manome. Northwest buttress (Prow of Shiva) of Shiva (6-days, ED+, alpine style) in Himachal Pradesh, India, by British climbers Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden (2nd Piolet for each). Northeast spur of Muztagh Tower (18-days, semi-Alpine style) in Pakistan, by Russian climbers Dmitry Golovchenko, Alexander Lange, and Sergey Nilov. South face (The Torch and The Brotherhood) of Ogre I (5.9X AI5 M6R) in Pakistan, by American climbers Hayden Kennedy and Kyle Dempster. Southwest face (Spicy Game) of Kamet (2,000m, ED-: 5.10-, alpine style), Uttarakhand, India, by French climbers Sébastien Bohin, Didier Jourdain, Sébastien Moatti, and Sébastien Ratel. Mazeno Ridge of Nanga Parbat (13 km traverse, 18-days) in Pakistan, by Scottish climbers Sandy Allan and Rick Allen. "Special recognition" was made of Hayden Kennedy and Jason Kruk's fair-means ascent of Compressor Route on Cerro Torre, and David Lama and Peter Ortner's first free ascent of the line. 2012 award (20th awards) The 2012 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2012 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Michael Kennedy, Valeri Babanov, Alberto Iñurrategi, Ines Papert, Liu Yong, and Alessandro Filippini (Italian journalist). The event was held in France and Italy and two Piolets were awarded from the short-list of 6 ascents, as well as a "Special mention". Robert Paragot won the 4th Lifetime Achievement Award. Southwest face (The Old Breed) and the first ascent of Saser Kangri II East (1,700m, WI4 M3, 4-days) in Eastern Karakorum in India, by American climbers Mark Richey, Steve Swenson, and Freddie Wilkinson; at the time, it was the second highest unclimbed peak in the world (after Gangkhar Puensum, which is closed to climbing). Northwest face (Sanjači zlatih jam) of K7 West (1,600m, VI/5, M5, A2, 6-days) in the Karakorum, by Slovenian climbers Nejc Marcic and Luka Strazar. "Special mention" for the south face of Torre Egger (950m, 6b+ A1 AI6, 2-days) in Patagonia, by Norwegian climbers Bjørn-Eivind Årtun and Ole Lied. 2011 award The 2011 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2011 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Greg Child (Jury President), Enrico Rosso, Yannick Graziani, Simon Anthamatten, Michael Pause (German journalist), and Hiroshi Hagiwara (Japanese journalist); underlying the "new post-2008 Charter" for assessing ascents, the winners were very diverse expeditions underlining the "spirit of Alpinism". Doug Scott won the 3rd Lifetime Achievement Award. Southwest face (I-TO) of Mount Logan (2,500m, ED+, WI5 M6, 5-days, ultra-lightweight alpine style) in Canada, by Japanese climbers Yasushi Okada and Katsutaka Yokoyama. Sean Villanueva O'Driscoll , Nicolas Favresse , and Olivier Favresse (Belgian), Ben Ditto (USA), and Bob Shepton (UK) for their "Greenland Big Walls" expedition. 2010 award The winners of the 2010 Piolet d'Or were announced in Chamonix (France) and Courmayeur (Italy) from 8–10 April 2010 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Andrej Štremfelj (Jury President), Jordi Corominas, Lindsay Griffin (British journalist), Anna Piunova (Russian journalist), Robert Schauer, and Kei Taniguchi. In a break with tradition, Christian Trommsdorff, chairman of Piolets d'Or organizer Groupe de Haute Montagne, said at the ceremony that the winners exemplified the new post-2008 Charter, while the other nominees did not make the cut. Also at the ceremony, Reinhold Messner was supportive of the new Charter, saying: "Alpinism starts where tourism stops. Today's trade routes on the 8000-meter peaks—climbed by commercial expeditions using fixed ropes, camps and Sherpas—are pure tourism that has nothing to do with alpinism. The Piolet d'Or celebrates alpinism." Reinhold Messner won the 2nd Lifetime Achievement Award. Southeast face of Cho Oyu (2,600m, M6 6b A2/3) in Nepal, by Kazakh climbers Denis Urubko and Boris Dedeshko. North face of Xuelian (2,650m, M6 WI5 5.7 R) in Chinese Tien Shan, by American climbers Jed Brown and Kyle Dempster, and Scottish climber Bruce Normand. 2009 award (new Charter) The Piolet d'or 2009 took place in Chamonix-Mont-Blanc (France) and Courmayeur in the Aosta Valley (Italy) on the 24th and 25 April 2009 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Doug Scott (Jury President), Dario Rodriguez, Dodo Kopold, Jim Donini, Peter Habeler, and Yong ImDuck. Jury President Doug Scott heralded the new post-2008 Charter, saying: "This edition signals the rebirth of the Piolets d'Or. For us there are no winners, no losers. The honored are the ambassadors of an art, a passion." Jury member Peter Habeler added: "It is not a question of reaching success at all costs, by using financial or technical means (such as oxygen, fixed ropes, Sherpas, doping products etc.…). What counts is the style. Today even if the summit hasn't been reached, the expedition can be honoured if it is innovative." In a new departure, three winners were announced under the headings of "Spirit of Exploration", "Commitment", and "Technical Difficulty" (this explicit sub-categorization would not be repeated in the future), a new "Lifetime Achievement Award" was created with Bonatti as the first recipient, and the first female Piolet winner, Kei Taniguchi, was announced. Walter Bonatti won the first Lifetime Achievement Award. North face (Checkmate) or Tengkampoche (2,000m, M7, WI5 5.10 A0) in the Khumbu Valley in Nepal, by Swiss climbers Ueli Steck and Simon Anthamatten ; for "Technical Difficulty" award. Southwest face (Samurai Direct) of Kamet (1,800m, M5+, WI5+, 12-days) in India, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kei Taniguchi (first female winner); the "Spirit of Exploration" award. North face of Kalanka (1,800m, M5) in India, by Japanese climbers Fumitaka Ichimura, Yusuke Sato, and Kazuki Amano; the "Commitment" award. 2008 award (cancelled) After the controversy of the 2007 awards, Philippe Descamps, the editor of Montagnes, looked for a wider opinion on how to improve the awards. The three co-founders of the awards, the GHM, Montagnes and Guy Chaumereuil (the editor of Montagnes when the awards were founded), produced a new "Charter", and decided to hold the 2008 ceremony not exclusively in France, as in the past, but south of the border in the Val d'Aosta, in Italy. Concern still lingered over the need for stronger independent jury panels in deciding a winner, and whether there should be just a single winner. These issues could not be resolved easily, and in January 2008, it was announced that the 2008 Piolet d'Or would be canceled while these debates were still in process. 2007 award (controversy) The 2007 Piolet d'Or was awarded on 26 January 2007 in Grenoble, France. The awards were marked by controversy from the outset, with accusations by GHM president Leslie Fuscko that the shortlist was imposed by Montagnes magazine, making it a "journalist award". GHM and the president of the jury, Slovenian climber Andrej Štremfelj, resigned from the awards. Further controversy occurred when Marko Prezelj, the co-winner of the 2007 Piolet d'Or, rejected his award and wrote a scathing article criticizing the whole premise of the awards, and whether it was possible, or ethical, to have a single winner, saying: "I don't believe in awards for alpinism, much less trophies or titles presented by the public or the media," and "At the ceremony, I could see and feel the competitive spirit created and fueled by the event's organizers. Most of the climbers readily accepted this mood without understanding that they had been pushed into an arena where spectators thrive on drama, where winner and loser are judged." The winners were: Slovenian climbers Marko Prezelj (2nd Piolet) and Boris Lorencic, for the first ascent of Chomolhari's north-west pillar (2,000m, M6+, 6-days). The other four shortlisted ascents were: Kazakhstan climber Denis Urubko and Sergey Samoilov, for a new route in alpine style on the northeast face of Manaslu; won the 2007 Asian Piolet d'Or. Slovenian climber Pavle Kozjek, for a new route, and in 1-day, on Cho Oyu, and for submitting images of the Nangpa La killings; won the 3rd "People's Choice Award". Ukrainian climbers Igor Chaplinsky, Andrey Rodiontsev, and Orest Verbitsky for a first ascent on the north ridge of Shingu Charpa (1,500m, elements of 5.11d). British climbers Ian Parnell and Tim Emmett for the southeast pillar of Kedarnath Dome (1,500m, elements of 5.11c). Pre-2007 (only one winner) The following is the list of annual winners from inception in 1992 to 2006 (there was only one winner in these years). 2006 Steve House and Vince Anderson for the rapid light ascent of the Rupal Face of Nanga Parbat; after the controversy of 2006, the jury, and the 2nd "People's Choice Award", were unanimous. 2005 Russian team led by Alexander Odintsov for the first direct ascent of the north face of Jannu; a controversial decision given the "heavy-style" siege tactics employed by the Russians, and the initial absence of some major American ascents (Ian Parnell withdrew to enable one through); the audience booed the decision at the ceremony and gave Steve House's "ultra-light" solo of K7 40% of their vote, in the newly created "People's Choice Award" (they gave Russians 5%); later that year, House wrote a strongly critical piece in Vertical Magazine of the jury's decision. 2004 Valery Babanov (2nd Piolet) and Yuri Koshelenko for an ascent on the south face of Nuptse. 2003 Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden for a new route on the north face of Siguniang (6250m) in China. 2002 Valery Babanov for a solo first ascent of Meru Central (6310m). 2001 (10th awards) Thomas Huber and Iwan Wolf for the first ascent of the direct north pillar of Shivling (6543m). 2000 Lionel Daudet and Sébastien Foissac for the ascent of the south-east face of the Burkett Needle; the jury controversially passed over Tomaž Humar's attempt to solo the south face of Dhaulagiri, calling it "a step too far" in risk and "heavily slanted toward media coverage", ex-juror Jean-Claude Marmier called Daudet and Foissac's ascent as something seen "two or three times a year in The American Alpine Journal for the last fifty years". The jury defended their choice as "a kind of philosophy of mountaineering, where the performance is not the only criterion ...". 1999 Andrew Lindblade of Australia and Athol Whimp of New Zealand for the first direct ascent of the north face of Thalay Sagar 1998 Russian team from Ekaterinburg led by Sergey Efimov for the first ascent of the coveted west face of Makalu; GHM President Jean-Claude Marmier resigned from the jury calling the decision "a real disaster", as the Russians had used "heavy-style" siege-tactics (unlike other unsuccessful "light-style" teams, adhering to the Piolet's ethos), and two of the Russian team were killed. 1997 Slovenians Tomaž Humar and Vanja Furlan for a new route on the northwest face of Ama Dablam. 1996 Andreas Orgler , Heli Neswabba, and Arthur Wutsher Germany for numerous new routes in the Ruth Glacier area of the Alaska Range and especially a new route on the south face of Mount Bradley; this award drew some criticism as being akin to a "lifetime achievement award" for Orgler, and not for the specific climbs in 1995. 1995 François Marsigny of France and Andy Parkin of England for the new ice and rock route up the Esperance Col on Cerro Torre. 1994 The youth high altitude expedition of the French Alpine Club (median age 20 years) for ascents in the Pamir Mountains. 1993 Michel Piola and Vincent Sprungli for the ascent of the east face of Torre South del Paine in Patagonia (the name of the route is "Dans l'Oeil du Cyclone"). 1992 Slovenians Andrej Štremfelj and Marko Prezelj for the south pillar of Kanchenjunga's south summit; the beating of French favorites Pierre Béghin and Christophe Profit , and their "K2 enchainment", was considered a "political decision" so the award was "international", but with the passing of time, the Slovenian ascent is considered a more important milestone. See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Piolet d’Or. Boardman Tasker Prize for Mountain Literature Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award Snow Leopard award References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v McDonald, Bernadette (2017). "Piolets d'Or: A Short History of the Golden Ice Axe". Himalayan Journal. 72. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d Griffin, Lindsay (29 January 2007). "MORE CONTROVERSY FOR THE PIOLET D'OR". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g Levy, Michael (29 November 2021). "A Climbing Award That May Be a Winner's Last". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 November 2021. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Parnell, Ian (1 July 2006). "Victors of the Unwinnable". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Boermans, Menno (14 April 2015). "Highlights from the 23rd Piolets d'Or". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. The Piolets d'Or (Golden Ice Axes) were long considered to be the "Oscars of Mountaineering," ^ a b Griffin, Lindsay (23 January 2008). "2008 Piolet d'Or Canceled". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Piolet d'Or 2009, the winners". PlanetMountain. 2 May 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f McDonald, Dougald (1 May 2009). "Three Teams Receive Piolets d'Or". Climbing. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b Douglas, Ed (4 April 2013). "Everyone's a winner at the Piolets d'Or (almost)". British Mountaineering Council. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Cameron, Gwen (12 April 2013). "Piolets d'Or 2013: Six Nominees, Six Awards". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h Franz, Derek (3 August 2018). "Four climbs and one person to be recognized at 2018 Piolets d'Or in Ladek, Poland". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f "Piolets d'Or 2019: jury and big list of world's most significant, innovative mountain climbs". PlanetMountain. 5 July 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f "Piolets d'Or 2019 Goes to Lama, Auer, Livingstone, Strazar, Cesen". Gripped Magazine. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f Burnside, Peter (1 August 2019). "Latok I, Lunag Ri, Lupghar Sar West ascents awarded with Piolets d'Or 2019". British Mountaineering Council. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h i Franz, Derek (11 August 2020). "Four "significant ascents" announced for 2020 Piolets d'Or". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h Bisharat, Andrew (16 March 2015). "Mountaineering's Top Award Winners Announced". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023. ^ a b c d Welstead, Ian (30 March 2014). "Why We Climb: Piolet d'Or Honorees on the Value of a Life in the Mountains". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f Walsh, Anthony (19 October 2022). "Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2022 Piolets d'Or Recipients". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ Chavez, Nicole (30 April 2017). "Famed Swiss climber Ueli Steck dies in Everest training accident". CNN. Retrieved 14 February 2020. ^ McMillan, Kelley (4 April 2014). "Swiss Climber's Feat Honored Despite Lack of Proof". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 14 February 2020. ^ a b "Scots pair win climbing's 'Oscars'". BBC News. 22 April 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ Mettler, Katie (1 May 2017). "Ueli Steck, famed Swiss mountain climber, dead after plunging 3,280 feet near Mount Everest". Washington Post. Retrieved 1 January 2023. But Steck returned in 2013 and achieved the first solo climb of the Annapurna south face, receiving the "Piolet d'Or" — the Oscar of mountaineering — for his feat, reported the AP ^ a b c d e f Walsh, Anthony (19 October 2023). "Ascents of Jirishanca, Pumari Chhish East, and Jugal Spire are Awarded the 2023 Piolets d'Or". Climbing. Retrieved 15 April 2024. ^ a b c d e "The Piolets d'Or 2022 list of significant ascents". PlanetMountain. 16 November 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e Walsh, Anthony (29 October 2022). "Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2021 Piolets d'Or Recipients". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e "Piolets d'Or 2021 announces awarded ascents, Silvia Vidal receives Special Mention". PlanetMountain. 8 October 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f Walsh, Anthony (13 August 2020). "4 Climbs Honored With 2020 Piolet d'Or Awards". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f "Piolets d'Or 2020: Chamlang, Tengi Ragi Tau, Link Sar and Rakaposhi the winning climbs". PlanetMountain. 12 August 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f g "Piolets d'Or 2018: Gasherbrum I, Shispare, Nilkanth win, Nilkanth and Alex Honnold receive special mention". PlanetMountain. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f Franz, Derek (15 April 2017). "Jury selects two teams for Piolets d'Or awards this year for 2016 ascents". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f "Piolets d'Or 2016: four ascents honoured". PlanetMountain. 7 April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f "2016 Piolets d'Or Award Recipients Announced". Rock & Ice. April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d e Samet, Matt (11 March 2015). "2015 Piolets d'Or Recipients Announced". Alpine. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d Griffin, Lindsay (2014). "The 2014 Piolets d'Or" (PDF). Alpine Journal. 118. The Alpine Club: 397–399. ISBN 9780956930934. Retrieved 1 January 2014. ^ a b c d "Ueli Steck and Raphael Slawinski & Ian Welsted win the Piolets d'Or 2014". PlanetMountain. 29 March 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b c d McDonald, Dougald (29 March 2014). "Annapurna, K6 West Win Piolets d'Or". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ Douglas, Ed (17 May 2017). "Ueli Steck obituary". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 January 2023. ^ "Piolets d'Or 2013, the nominations for the 21st edition". PlanetMountain. 11 March 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ "Piolets d'Or 2013: everyone wins". PlanetMountain. 6 April 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ "Piolets d'Or, special mention to Kennedy, Kruk, Lama and Ornter". PlanetMountain. 22 March 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2023. ^ a b "Piolet d'Or 2012, the 6 nominations". PlanetMountain. 14 February 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e Kennedy, Michael (24 March 2012). "Piolets D'Or 2012". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e >"Piolets d'Or 2012, the videos of the ascents". PlanetMountain. 29 March 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d Stefanello, Vinicio (19 April 2011). "Piolet d'Or 2011, winners, diversity and the challenges of alpinism". PlanetMountain. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d Land, Kesse (15 April 2011). "Spirit of Alpinism Strong at 2011 Piolet d'Or". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d Stefanello, Vinicio (12 April 2010). "Piolet d'Or, the winners and alpinism of the future". PlanetMountain. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e f Falt, David (14 April 2010). "2010 Piolets d'Or: Struggling for Identity". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ "Le Piolet d'Or: Whither prized for Alpinism?". American Alpine Journal. 49 (81): 124–127. 2007. Retrieved 2 January 2023. ^ a b c d e Lambert, Erik (29 January 2007). "Prezelj, Lorencic Win 2007 Piolet D'Or". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023. Further reading Chambre, David; Gardien, Claude (November 2021). Piolets d'Or: 1991-2021 30 ans d'exploits extraordinaires sur les montagnes du monde. Les Éditions du Mont Blanc. ISBN 978-2365451154. External links 2007 Piolet d'Or winner question awards, Marko Prezelj, (February 2007, Alpinist) Piolets d'Or: A Short History of the Golden Ice Axe, Bernadette McDonald (2017, Himalayan Journal) Russian and Asian Piolet d'Or: The "other" Piolets d'Or, Lindsay Griffin (2013, British Mountaineering Council Les Piolets d'Or: Retrospective 1992 - 2021, Archive of past winners from 1992 to 2021. vteClimbingTypesRock climbingDisciplines Aid Big wall Multi-pitch Bouldering Highball Competition Speed Free Sport Traditional Solo Free solo Deep-water solo Rope solo Top roping Rock types Crack Face Slab Mountaineering Alpine Via ferrata Himalayan Alpine style Expedition style Ice Mixed Dry-tooling Scrambling Hillwalking Other Buildering Canyoning Crane Grass Commercial Parkour Pole Ropes course Rooftopping Roof and tunnel hacking Slide Tree Lists Alpine clubs Climbers Piolet d'Or winners IFSC World Cup winners IFSC World Championships winners IFSC victories Deaths Eight-thousanders Everest Equipment Brands Knots Historical events Grade milestones First ascents Technique Terminology TerminologyEquipmentRock Anchor Ascender Croll Belay device Auto belay Glasses Figure-8 Bolt Boulder mat Carabiner Maillon Climbing rope Dynamic Static Chalk Harness Fifi hook Hammer Hex Nut Copperhead Piton Portaledge Quickdraw SLDs Grigri Revo Sling SCLDs Camalot Shoes Tricam Ice and snow Alpenstock Abalakov thread Bottled oxygen Crampons Ice axe Ice tool Ice screw Mountaineering boot Rescue Avalanche cord RECCO Transeiver Snow anchor Snowshoe Action Abseiling Australian Dülfersitz Belaying Crevasse rescue Front pointing Glissading Jumaring Leading Flashing Onsighting Redpointing Roof climbing Self-rescuing Simul Spotting Traversing Tyrolean Other Ape index Approach shoe Clean Climbing route Beta Guidebook Climbing wall Chipping First ascent Pitch Topo Exposure Fall factor Grades Guides Training Bachar ladder Campus board Hangboard MediaMagazines and journals Alpine Journal Alpinist American Alpine Journal Canadian Alpine Journal Climbing Desnivel Himalayan Journal Planinski Vestnik Rock & Ice Summit Non-fiction films The Alpinist El Capitan The Dawn Wall Free Solo Hard Grit Companies Black Diamond CAMP Cascade Designs Deuter Early Winters Eastern Mountain Sports Five Ten Frostline Kits GERRY Mountain Sports Grivel Holubar Mountaineering JanSport Sierra Designs Kelty La Sportiva Lowe Alpine Mammut Marmot Mountain Works Millet Mountain Equipment Co-op Mountain Safety Research Outdoor Research Patagonia Petzl Rab REI The North Face Therm-a-Rest Wild Country OrganizationsNational Access Fund Alpine Club Alpine Club of Canada American Alpine Club Appalachian Mountain Club Austrian Alpine Club British Mountaineering Council Club Alpin Français Club Alpino Italiano Federación Española de Deportes de Montaña y Escalada Fédération française de la montagne et de l'escalade German Alpine Club South African Climbing Federation South Tyrol Alpine Club Swiss Alpine Club USA Climbing International International Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC) International Climbing and Mountaineering Federation (UIAA) Union Internationale des Associations de Guides de Montagnes (UIAGM) Union of International Mountain Leader Associations (UIMLA) Portal Category Commons WikiProject Authority control databases: National France BnF data	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[pjɔ.lɛ dɔʁ]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"Ice Axe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_axe"},{"link_name":"mountaineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountaineering"},{"link_name":"alpine climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_climbing"},{"link_name":"Groupe de Haute Montagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groupe_de_Haute_Montagne&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_de_haute_montagne"}],"text":"AwardThe Piolets d'Or ([pjɔ.lɛ dɔʁ], \"Golden Ice Axe\") is an annual mountaineering and alpine climbing award organized by the Groupe de Haute Montagne [fr] (GHM), and previously with co-founder Montagnes Magazine, since its founding in 1992. Golden ice axes are presented to the annual winners at a weekend awards festival based on their achievements in the previous year. It is considered mountaineering's highest honor and is referred to as the \"Oscars of mountaineering\".The Piolets have progressed from being a competition-like single-award event (Le Piolet d'Or) into a broader celebration of mountaineering and alpinism, with several awards made (Les Piolets d'Or). After a crisis in 2008, the Charter for the awards was rewritten to focus on the style and innovation of the nominations, respect for the mountain, environment, and future climbing generations, and to increase the independence and transparency of the award process; the official name was also changed to the plural.","title":"Piolets d'Or"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Federation_of_Mountaineering_and_Climbing"},{"link_name":"French Annapurna expeditions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1950_French_Annapurna_expedition"},{"link_name":"Groupe de Haute Montagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Groupe_de_Haute_Montagne&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupe_de_haute_montagne"},{"link_name":"Guy Chaumereuil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Guy_Chaumereuil&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy_Chaumereuil"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL12007-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL12007-2"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2008-6"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"},{"link_name":"Doug Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Scott"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2013-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"Voytek Kurtyka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voytek_Kurtyka"},{"link_name":"La Grave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Grave"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"Lądek-Zdrój","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C4%85dek-Zdr%C3%B3j"},{"link_name":"Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"David Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lama"},{"link_name":"Hansjörg Auer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansj%C3%B6rg_Auer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"}],"text":"At the start of the 1990s, it was difficult to raise funds for major mountaineering expeditions in France. The French Federation of Mountaineering and Climbing could no longer fund expeditions (as it had done since the French Annapurna expeditions). Alpinist Jean-Claude Marmier, then president of the Groupe de Haute Montagne [fr] (or GHM), suggested an annual prize for \"outstanding achievement in the world of alpinism\" might increase the public profile (and thus sponsorship) of French mountaineering. He won the support of Guy Chaumereuil [fr], then editor of the Grenoble-based French monthly climbing and mountaineering magazine, Montagnes, and in 1992 GHM and Montagnes announced the first Piolet d'Or award for the best alpine ascent of 1991 at the Autrans Mountain Film Festival.[1][2]From the outset, there was some concern over the ethics of rewarding and promoting the dangerous undertaking of modern extreme alpine climbing.[3][4] After a controversial 1998 Piolet was awarded to a Russian team of which two had died on the route, the rules were changed the following year so that nominees had to have completed their climbs safely.[3] The New York Times remarked on the proportion of Piolet d'Or winners who have subsequently died while mountaineering, but that the awards criteria had been further amended over time to emphasize \"style\" over pure \"risk-taking\".[3]There was also a concern, particularly within the alpine climbing community, on the decision to select a single winner from a list of alpine ascents.[4][5] The situation came to a head during the 2007 Piolet d'Or awards over accusations by then GHM president, Leslie Fuscko, that Chaumereuil had imposed the shortlist, which led to the resignation of Jury President Andrej Štremfelj.[2] Further controversy occurred when Marko Prezelj, a 2007 Piolet d'Or winner, wrote a public article criticizing the premise of the awards, and whether it was possible, or ethical, to have a single winner.[5]The 2007 controversy led to a fundamental re-think of the structure of the awards, a long process that required the 2008 awards to be canceled.[6] A new Charter was drawn up and the 2009 Piolet d'Or, the 17th awards, followed a very different format; multiple winners were announced (initially under different headings, but the headings were later dropped), a new \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" was announced (some awards were accused as being such an award in disguise),[4] and the first female winner was announced.[7][8] Jury President Doug Scott heralded the post-2008 Charter, saying: \"This edition signals the rebirth of the Piolets d'Or. For us there are no winners, no losers. The honored are the ambassadors of an art, a passion.\"[7]In 2013, the jury embraced the new Charter awarding Piolets to all six shortlisted nominees, an act that drew criticism from Montagnes.[9][10] Since 2015, the winners have been announced in advance of the ceremony to emphasize that the ceremony was \"a not a competition, but a celebration\".[5] In 2016, two of the award's biggest critics, Voytek Kurtyka and Marko Prezelj accepted their awards at the 2016 Piolets d'Or ceremony at La Grave; where only GHM remained from the original founders.[1] In 2018, for the first time in its history, none of the award ceremony was held in France, when the Piolet d'Or ceremony was held at the Mountain Festival in Lądek-Zdrój, Poland.[11] The awards in 2019 and 2020 were also presented at the festival in Lądek-Zdrój. The 2019 awards were overshadowed by the recent deaths of two of the three winners, David Lama and Hansjörg Auer.[12][13][14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Ramsden_Troll_Wall_Norway.webp"},{"link_name":"Troll Wall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troll_Wall"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"Mick Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Fowler"},{"link_name":"Kazuya Hiraide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuya_Hiraide"},{"link_name":"Valery Babanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valery_Babanov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery_Babanov"},{"link_name":"Aleš Česen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_%C4%8Cesen"},{"link_name":"Zdenek Hák","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zdenek_H%C3%A1k&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"cs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_H%C3%A1k_(horolezec)"},{"link_name":"Marek Holeček","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marek_Hole%C4%8Dek"},{"link_name":"Kenro Nakajima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenro_Nakajima&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B3%B6%E5%81%A5%E9%83%8E"},{"link_name":"Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sean_Villanueva_O%E2%80%99Driscoll&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Villanueva_O%E2%80%99Driscoll"},{"link_name":"Mark Richey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Richey"},{"link_name":"Ueli Steck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ueli_Steck"},{"link_name":"Luka Stražar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Luka_Stra%C5%BEar&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luka_Stra%C5%BEar"},{"link_name":"Steve Swenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Swenson"},{"link_name":"Hayden Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_Kennedy_(climber)"}],"sub_title":"Multiple winners","text":"Paul Ramsden, Troll Wall, NorwayThe following climbers have won more than one Piolet d'Or since its inception in 1992:5 times. Paul Ramsden (2003, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2023).\n4 times. Marko Prezelj (1992, 2007, 2015, 2016).\n3 times. Mick Fowler (2003, 2013, 2016), Kazuya Hiraide (2009, 2018, 2020).\n2 times. Valery Babanov [fr] (2002, 2004), Aleš Česen (2015, 2019), Dmitry Golovchenko (2013, 2017), Zdenek Hák [cs] (2018, 2020), Marek Holeček (2018, 2020), Kenro Nakajima [ja] (2018, 2020), Sergey Nilov (2013, 2017), Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll [fr] (2011, 2022), Mark Richey (2012, 2020), Ueli Steck (2009, 2014), Luka Stražar [sl] (2012, 2019), Steve Swenson (2012, 2020), Hayden Kennedy (2013, 2016).","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG2-17"}],"text":"Post 2008, a new Charter was drafted to clarify the basis and values for deciding awards:[1][15]In modern mountaineering, questions of style and means of ascent take precedence over reaching the objective itself. It is no longer a matter of employing huge financial and technical resources (bottled oxygen, fixed ropes, high-altitude porters, so-called 'performance-enhancing' substances…) and large numbers of people to reach the top at all costs. The Piolets d’Or throw the spotlight on imaginative and innovative new routes, using a minimum amount of equipment, and building on experience.— Piloet d'Or Charter, 2008.[1]In addition, the Charter laid out the specific criteria under which all future nominees would be assessed:[1][15]Style of ascent.\nSpirit of exploration: original (previously unclimbed) route and/or mountain, creative and innovative approach.\nLevel of commitment and self-sufficiency.\nHigh level of technical ability required.\nSuitability of route in light of objective dangers.\nEfficient and sparing use of resources.\nTransparency regarding the use of these resources.\nRespect for people, climbing partners, members of other teams, porters, and local agents.\nRespect for the environment.\nRespect for future generations of mountaineers by leaving them the possibility of enjoying the same kind of experiences and adventures.The new Charter also underlined that awards, and the ceremony, should be a \"celebration of mountaineering\", and not a \"climbing competition\".[1][15] The term \"winners\", and even the term \"award\", was downplayed in favor of terms such as \"nominees\".[16] In 2014, National Geographic said of the revised Piolet charter: \"The Piolet d’Or is about sharing our experiences as alpinists with a wider audience, trying to learn about the human experience through adventure. The era of the heroic warrior climber who climbs themselves literally to death in the high mountains is over.\"[17]","title":"Criteria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"Alex Honnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Honnold"},{"link_name":"National Geographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC2013-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"The Piolet d'Or is the highest honor in mountaineering and alpine climbing.[1][3][16][18][19][20] In 2021, the New York Times described it as \"Alpinism's biggest prize\", and that even though it had some vocal critics, it had widespread support amongst the climbing community.[3] On receiving a Piolet in 2015, Alex Honnold told National Geographic, \"I've always joked that if I won a Piolet d’Or I'd retire from climbing ... and I do think it’s appropriate to honor some climbs for pushing the sport in positive directions. Whether our ascent is deserving or not is open to debate, that’s fine. But people definitely climb inspiring things every year and I think it’s worth celebrating that in some way.\"[16] They are often called the \"Oscars of mountaineering\".[5][21][22]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Alpinist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Rolando Garibotti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rolando_Garibotti"},{"link_name":"Cerro Torre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerro_Torre"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Colin Haley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Haley"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-3"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"Wojciech Kurtyka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojciech_Kurtyka"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"}],"sub_title":"Criticism","text":"Over the years, a number of climbers have openly criticized and even rejected awards/or asked not to be considered:[3][4]In 2005, British climber Ian Parnell, who was nominated on several previous occasions, asked for his nomination to be withdrawn to allow what he considered to be superior American ascents to be shortlisted; in 2006, Parnell wrote a lengthy critique of the awards in Alpinist, and concluded \"The Piolet d'Or is certainly here to stay; in fact, its recent controversy has elevated its profile ...\"[1][4]\nIn 2006, Italian climbers Alessandro Beltrami, Rolando Garibotti, and Ermanno Salvaterra asked their ascent of the north face of Cerro Torre not be considered, saying: \"It was the essence of the experience that interested us most. An award such as the Piolet d'Or tries to quantify this essence and attempts to judge the quality of the experience.... How could there be any real value to such a subjective judgment? How to judge elusive concepts like elegance and imagination?\"[4] In 2008, Garibotti also asked the jury not to consider the Torre Traverse he completed with Colin Haley.[3]\nIn 2007, multiple award winner Marko Prezelj publicly rejected the award on stage to express his opposition to competition in alpinism;[5] Prezelj then wrote a brutal critique of the awards in Alpinist magazine,[5] that finished with the line: \"I apologize if I have offended anyone who is addicted to Miss Fame; she gets around so watch out for STDs.\"[1] After the new Charter in 2009, Prezelj would later reconcile himself with the awards, and accepted his 3rd Piolet in 2015 in Chamonix, and his 4th Piolet d'Or in 2016 at the ceremony in La Grave.[1]\nIn 2010, Polish climber Wojciech Kurtyka declined the invitation to accept the newly created \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" by GHM President Christian Trommsdorff, saying \"I always had a sense of escaping to the mountains from everyday social bullshit, and now you propose to me to take part in it.\" Kurtyka was even more forceful in declining it in 2011 and 2012, saying: \"Sorry. NO. NO! I will not be talking about Piolets d’Or anymore.\" However, in 2016, Kurtyka accepted the 8th \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" at the ceremony in La Grave.[1]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ines Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ines_Papert"},{"link_name":"Ales Cesen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_%C4%8Cesen"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"},{"link_name":"George Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lowe_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"},{"link_name":"Jirishanca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jirishanca"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Cordillera Huayhuash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordillera_Huayhuash"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"},{"link_name":"Jugal Himal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugal_Himal"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jugal_Himal"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"},{"link_name":"Pumari Chhish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pumari_Chhish"},{"link_name":"Hispar Muztagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispar_Muztagh"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"},{"link_name":"East Greenland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenland"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CL2023-23"}],"text":"The 2023 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2023 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Lise Billon, Ines Papert, Nikita Balabanov, Ales Cesen, Martin Elias, Genki Narumi and Jack Tackle.[23]George Lowe won the 15th Lifetime Achievement Award.[23]\nSouth-southeast spur (Reino Hongo) of Jirishanca (1,000m, M7 AI5+ 3-days, alpine style) in the Cordillera Huayhuash by Alik Berg and Quentin Roberts.[23]\nNorth face (Phantom Line) of the Jugal Spire (1,300m, ED, 5-days) in the Jugal Himal [de], Nepal, by Tim Miller and Paul Ramsden (5th Piolet).[23]\nSouth face (The Crystal Ship) of Pumari Chhish East (1,600m, 5.10+ M7 A2, 5-days) in the Hispar Muztagh by Christophe Ogier, Victor Saucède and Jérôme Sullivan.[23]\n\"Special Mention\" for the first ascent of the East face (Via Sedna) of the Northern Sun Spire (780m, 6b to 7b+) in East Greenland by Capucine Cotteaux, Caro North, and Nadia Royo; noted as 'minimal carbon footprint' expedition that used sailing boats.[23]","title":"2023 award (31st awards)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conrad Anker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conrad_Anker"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2022-24"},{"link_name":"Silvo Karo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silvo_Karo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvo_Karo"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2022-24"},{"link_name":"Saraghrar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraghrar"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2022-24"},{"link_name":"Cerro Chaltén Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitz_Roy"},{"link_name":"rope solo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rope_soloing"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sean_Villanueva_O%E2%80%99Driscoll&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Villanueva_O%E2%80%99Driscoll"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2022-24"},{"link_name":"Annapurna III","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapurna_III"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Mykyta Balabanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0_%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"Mykhailo Fomin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD_%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%BE_%D0%9E%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2022-18"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2022-24"}],"text":"The 2022 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2022 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Conrad Anker, Alex Bluemel, Genki Narumi, Paul Ramsden, Patrick Wagnon, and Mikel Zabalza:[18][24]Silvo Karo [sl] won the 14th Lifetime Achievement award.[18][24]\nNorthwest face of Saraghrar (7,340m, ED2 5.10 A3+ M5+, 8-days, alpine style) in Hindu Kush, Pakistan, by Georgians Archil Badriashvili, Baqar Gelashvili, and Giorgi Tepnadze.[18][24]\nMoonwalk Traverse of the Cerro Chaltén Group (South-to-North, 5,000-metres, 10 summits, 5-days, rope solo) in Patagonia, by Sean Villanueva O’Driscoll [fr] (2nd Piolet)[18][24]\n\"Special Jury Award\" for the Southeast Ridge (Patience) of Annapurna III (7,555m, 5.10a A3 M6, 16-days) in Nepal, by Ukrainians Mykyta Balabanov, Mykhailo Fomin, and Viacheslav Polezhaiko.[18][24]","title":"2022 award (30th awards)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ines Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ines_Papert"},{"link_name":"Victor Saunders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Saunders"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2021-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2021-26"},{"link_name":"Yasushi Yamanoi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yasushi_Yamanoi&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yasushi_Yamanoi"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2021-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2021-26"},{"link_name":"Mount Robson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Robson"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Canadian Rockies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Rockies"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2021-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2021-26"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2021-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2021-26"},{"link_name":"Silvia Vidal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silvia_Vidal"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2021-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2021-26"}],"text":"The 2021 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in October 2021 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Ines Papert, Kelly Cordes, Victor Saunders, Valery Babanov, and Helias Millerioux:[25][26]Yasushi Yamanoi [fr] won the 13th Lifetime Achievement award.[25][26]\nEmperor face (Running in the Shadows) of Mount Robson (2,500m, VI M6 AI5 A0, 2-days, alpine style) in the Canadian Rockies, by American Ethan Berman and Briton Uisdean Hawthorn.[25][26]\nSouth face and southwest ridge (Revers Gagnant) of Sani Pakkush (2,600m, M4+ WI 4+, 2-days, alpine style) in the Tolltar Valley, Pakistan, by French climbers Pierrick Fine and Symon Welfringer.[25][26]\n\"Special Mention\" for Catalan climber Silvia Vidal for her \"cutting edge big wall solo ascents around the world\".[25][26]","title":"2021 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aleš Česen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_%C4%8Cesen"},{"link_name":"Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerlinde_Kaltenbrunner"},{"link_name":"Victor Saunders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Saunders"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"Catherine Destivelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Destivelle"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"Chamlang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamlang"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Marek Holeček","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marek_Hole%C4%8Dek"},{"link_name":"Zdeněk Hák","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_H%C3%A1k_(horolezec)"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"Tengi Ragi Tau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tengi_Ragi_Tau&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"Rakaposhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakaposhi"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Kazuya Hiraide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuya_Hiraide"},{"link_name":"Kenro Nakajima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenro_Nakajima&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B3%B6%E5%81%A5%E9%83%8E"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"},{"link_name":"Link Sar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_Sar"},{"link_name":"Mark Richey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Richey"},{"link_name":"Steve Swenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Swenson"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2020-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2020-28"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2020-15"}],"text":"The 2020 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in August 2020 by an 8-person technical jury consisting of Kazuaki Amano, Nikita Balabanov, Aleš Česen, Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner, Helias Millerioux, Enrico Rosso, Victor Saunders and Raphael Slawinski.[27][28][15]Catherine Destivelle won the 12th Lifetime Achievement award.[27][28][15]\nNorthwest face (the UFO Line) of Chamlang (2,500m, WI5 M6, 6-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by Czech climbers Marek Holeček (2nd Piolet) and Zdeněk Hák (2nd Piolet).[27][28][15]\nWest face (Release The Kraken) of Tengi Ragi Tau (1,600m, AI5 M5+, 4-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by American climbers Alan Rousseau and Tino Villanueva.[27][28][15]\nSouth face and southeast ridge of Rakaposhi (4,000m, 6-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kenro Nakajima [ja] (2nd Piolet).[27][28][15]\nSoutheast face of Link Sar (2,300m, AI4 M6+, 8-days) in Pakistan, by American climbers Mark Richey (2nd Piolet), Steve Swenson (2nd Piolet), Chris Wright, and Graham Zimmerman.[27][28][15]","title":"2020 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ines Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ines_Papert"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"David Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lama"},{"link_name":"Hansjörg Auer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansj%C3%B6rg_Auer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"},{"link_name":"Krzysztof Wielicki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krzysztof_Wielicki"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"},{"link_name":"Lunag Ri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunag_Ri"},{"link_name":"Tibet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tibet"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"David Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lama"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"},{"link_name":"Lupghar Sar West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lupghar_Sar"},{"link_name":"Hispar Muztagh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispar_Muztagh"},{"link_name":"Hansjörg Auer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hansj%C3%B6rg_Auer"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"},{"link_name":"Latok I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latok"},{"link_name":"Karakoram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakoram"},{"link_name":"Aleš Česen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_%C4%8Cesen"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2019-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GR2019-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2019-14"}],"text":"The 2019 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in July 2019 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Sandy Allan, Kazu Amano, Valeri Babanov, Jordi Corominas, Fred Degoulet, Ines Papert, Andrej Štremfelj; for a second time the awards were held at the Ladek Mountain Festival, but were overshadowed by the recent deaths of two of the winners, David Lama and Hansjörg Auer.[12][13][14]Krzysztof Wielicki won the 11th Lifetime Achievement Award.[12][13][14]\nWest ridge and the first ascent of Lunag Ri (1,500m, 2-days, solo) on the border of Tibet and Nepal, by recently deceased Austrian climber David Lama; his award was accepted by his family.[12][13][14]\nWest face and the first ascent of Lupghar Sar West (1,000m, M4, 1-day, solo) in the Hispar Muztagh, by recently deceased Austrian climber Hansjörg Auer; his award was accepted by his friends.[12][13][14]\nNorth ridge and South face of Latok I (2,500m, ED+, 8-days) in the Karakoram, by Slovanian climbers Aleš Česen (2nd Piolet) and Luka Stražar (2nd Piolet), and British climber Tom Livingstone.[12][13][14]","title":"2019 award (deaths of Lama and Auer)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mick Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Fowler"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Gasherbrum I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasherbrum_I"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Marek Holeček","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marek_Hole%C4%8Dek"},{"link_name":"Zdeněk Hák","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zden%C4%9Bk_H%C3%A1k_(horolezec)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Shispare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shispare"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Kazuya Hiraide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuya_Hiraide"},{"link_name":"Kenro Nakajima","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kenro_Nakajima&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ja","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%B3%B6%E5%81%A5%E9%83%8E"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Nuptse Nup II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuptse"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Hélias Millerioux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H%C3%A9lias_Millerioux&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A9lias_Millerioux"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Nilkantha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilkantha_(mountain)"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"},{"link_name":"Alex Honnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Honnold"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2018-29"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2018-11"}],"text":"The 2018 Piolet d'Or winners were announced at the new later time of August 2018 by a 7-person technical jury consisting of Valeri Babanov, Kelly Cordes, Jordi Corominas, Mick Fowler, Yannick Graziani, Silvo Karo, and Raphael Slawinsky; it was also announced that the ceremony would be held at the Ladek Film Festival in Poland, the first time there was no French ceremony.[29][11]Andrej Štremfelj won the 10th Lifetime Achievement award.[29][11]\nSouthwest face (Satisfaction!) of Gasherbrum I (2,600m, ED+ WI5+ M7, 8-days) in Pakistan, by Czech climbers Marek Holeček and Zdeněk Hák.[29][11]\nNortheast face and traverse of Shispare (2,700m, WI5 M6, 7-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kenro Nakajima [ja].[29][11]\nSouth face of Nuptse Nup II (2,200m, WI6 M5+, 8-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by French climbers Frédéric Degoulet, Benjamin Guigonnet and Hélias Millerioux [fr].[29][11]\n\"Special mention\" for the southwest face of Nilkantha (1,400m, WI5 M6 A0, 5-days) in India, by American climbers Chantel Astorga, Anne Gilbert Chase, and Jason Thompson.[29][11]\n\"Special mention\" to Alex Honnold for outstanding contribution to climbing throughout the 2017 year.[29][11]","title":"2018 award (leaves France)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hervé Barmasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Barmasse"},{"link_name":"Thomas Huber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Huber"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"},{"link_name":"Jeff Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeff_Lowe"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"},{"link_name":"Nyainqentangla South East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Nyenchen_Tanglha"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"},{"link_name":"Thalay Sagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalay_Sagar"},{"link_name":"Gangotri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangotri"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"},{"link_name":"Gangapurna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangapurna"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Kim Chang-ho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Chang-ho_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"},{"link_name":"Cerro Torre Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_Egger"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Colin Haley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colin_Haley"},{"link_name":"Alex Honnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Honnold"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2017-30"}],"text":"The 2017 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2017 by an 8-person technical jury consisting of Kazu Amano, Valery Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Kelly Cordes, Andy Houseman, Thomas Huber, Sebastien Ratel, and Raphael Slawinski.[30]Jeff Lowe won the 9th Lifetime Achievement award.[30]\nNorth buttress and the first ascent of Nyainqentangla South East (1,600m, ED+) in Tibet, by British climbers Paul Ramsden (4th Piolet), and Nick Bullock.[30]\nNorth buttress of Thalay Sagar (1,400m, ED2, M7 WI5 5.10a A3, 8-days) in Gangotri, India, by Russian climbers Dmitry Golovchenko (2nd Piolet), Dmitry Grigoriev, and Sergey Nilov (2nd Piolet).[30]\n\"Special mention\" for the south face of Gangapurna (1,500m, ED+) in Nepal, by Korean climbers Cho Seok-mun, Kim Chang-ho, and Park Joung-yong.[30]\n\"Special mention\" for the Travesia del Torre Cerro Torre Group (1,600m, 5.10c, C1, 1-day) in Patagonia, by American climbers Colin Haley and Alex Honnold.[30]","title":"2017 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hervé Barmasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Barmasse"},{"link_name":"Michael Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Victor Saunders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Saunders"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"},{"link_name":"Wojciech Kurtyka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojciech_Kurtyka"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"Wojciech Kurtyka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wojciech_Kurtyka"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"},{"link_name":"Talung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talung"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Fomin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mikhail_Fomin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mychailo_Fomin"},{"link_name":"Nikita Balabanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nikita_Balabanov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mykyta_Balabanow"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"},{"link_name":"Gave Ding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gave_Ding&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Mick Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Fowler"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"},{"link_name":"Cerro Riso Paron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cerro_Riso_Paron&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Lise Billon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lise_Billon&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lise_Billon"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"},{"link_name":"Cerro Kishtwar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cerro_Kishtwar&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerro_Kishtwar"},{"link_name":"uk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%80%D0%BE_%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"Hayden Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Urban Novak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Urban_Novak&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_Novak"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2016-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RI2016-32"}],"text":"The 2016 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2016 by a 9-person technical jury consisting of Valeri Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Seb Bohin, Simon Elias, Yasuhiro Hanatani, Silvo Karo, Michael Kennedy, Victor Saunders, and Raphael Slawinski.[31][32] After several years of lobbying, Wojciech Kurtyka agreed to accept a \"Lifetime Achievement Award\".[1]Wojciech Kurtyka won the 8th Lifetime Achievement award.[31][32]\nNorth-northwest pillar (Daddy Magnum Force) of Talung (1,700m, ED+ M6 A3, 5-days, alpine style) on the Nepalese-Indian border, by Ukrainian climbers Mikhail Fomin [de] and Nikita Balabanov [de].[31][32]\nNorth face and the first ascent of Gave Ding (1,600m, ED+, 5-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by British climbers Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden (3rd Piolet for each).[31][32]\nNorthwest pillar (Hasta las Webas) of Cerro Riso Paron (1,000m, ED-, AI5+ M5, 3-days) in Patagonia, by French Jerome Sullivan, Lise Billon [de], and Antoine Moineville, and Argentine Diego Simari.[31][32]\nEast face (Light before Wisdom) of Cerro Kishtwar [de; uk] (1,200m, ED+, 5.11 WI6 M6 A2, 3-days) in the Indian Himalayas, by an international climbing team of Marko Prezelj (Slovenia; 4th Piolet), Hayden Kennedy (USA; 2nd Piolet ), Manu Pellissier (France), and Urban Novak [de] (Slovenia).[31][32]","title":"2016 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hervé Barmasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Barmasse"},{"link_name":"Michael Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Ines Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ines_Papert"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALP2015-33"},{"link_name":"Alex Honnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Honnold"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"Chris Bonington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Bonington"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALP2015-33"},{"link_name":"Thamserku","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thamserku"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALP2015-33"},{"link_name":"Hagshu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagshu&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hagshu"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Aleš Česen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ale%C5%A1_%C4%8Cesen"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALP2015-33"},{"link_name":"Cerro Chaltén Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fitz_Roy"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Tommy Caldwell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tommy_Caldwell"},{"link_name":"Alex Honnold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Honnold"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG1-16"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ALP2015-33"}],"text":"The 2015 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2015 by a 9-person technical jury consisting of Kazuki Amano, Valeri Babanov, Hervé Barmasse, Stephane Benoist, Andy Houseman, Michael Kennedy, Ines Papert, Raphael Slawinski, and Andrej Štremfelj; in a departure from previous years, the winners were announced before the ceremony so the event was \"not a competition, but a celebration\".[5][16][33] National Geographic noted that Alex Honnold's Piolet was the first to a climber who had never previously led an ice climb.[16]Chris Bonington won the 7th Lifetime Achievement award.[5][33]\nSouthwest face (Shy Girl) of Thamserku (1,620m, M4/M5, A2, 8-days, alpine style) in Nepal, by Russian climbers Aleksander Gukov and Aleksey Lonchinskiy.[16][5][33]\nNorth face of Hagshu [de] (1,350m, ED, 2-days, alpine style) India, by Slovenian climbers Aleš Česen, Luka Lindič, and Marko Prezelj (3rd Piolet).[16][5][33]\nFitz Traverse of the Cerro Chaltén Group (North-to-South and opposite of the Moonwalk Traverse, 5 km, 8-peaks, up to 5.11d C1, 4-days, alpine style) in Patagonia, by American climbers Tommy Caldwell and Alex Honnold.[16][5][33]","title":"2015 award (pre-announced)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"George Lowe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Lowe_(American_alpinist)"},{"link_name":"Denis Urubko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Urubko"},{"link_name":"Catherine Destivelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_Destivelle"},{"link_name":"Erri De Luca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erri_De_Luca"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJ2014-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2014-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2014-36"},{"link_name":"John Roskelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Roskelley"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG2-17"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2014-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2014-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJ2014-34"},{"link_name":"Annapurna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annapurna"},{"link_name":"solo climb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solo_climbing"},{"link_name":"Ueli Steck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ueli_Steck"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG2-17"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2014-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2014-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJ2014-34"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GUAR-37"},{"link_name":"K6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K6_(mountain)"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NG2-17"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2014-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2014-36"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AJ2014-34"}],"text":"The 2014 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2014 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of George Lowe, Denis Urubko, Catherine Destivelle, Erri De Luca (the Italian writer), Karen Steinbach, and Lim Sung-muk;[34] in a compromise, the jury decided to award two Piolet awards out of the six shortlisted ascents.[35][36]John Roskelley won the 6th Lifetime Achievement award.[17][35][36][34]\nSouth face of Annapurna (2,700m, 28-hours, solo climb) in Nepal, by Swiss climber Ueli Steck (2nd Piolet);[17][35][36] the provenance for this ascent was questioned,[34] but upheld by witnesses.[37]\nNorthwest face and west ridge of K6 (2,700m, 5-days, alpine style) in Pakistan, by Canadian climbers Ian Welsted and Raphael Slawinski.[17][35][36][34]","title":"2014 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stephen Venables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Venables"},{"link_name":"Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerlinde_Kaltenbrunner"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BMC2013-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Kurt Diemberger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_Diemberger"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Kyashar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyashar"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Himachal Pradesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himachal_Pradesh"},{"link_name":"Mick Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Fowler"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Muztagh Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muztagh_Tower"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Ogre I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baintha_Brakk"},{"link_name":"Hayden Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Kamet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamet"},{"link_name":"alpine style","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_style"},{"link_name":"Uttarakhand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttarakhand"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"Mazeno Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazeno_Ridge"},{"link_name":"Nanga Parbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanga_Parbat"},{"link_name":"Rick Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rick_Allen_(mountaineer)"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BBC2013-21"},{"link_name":"Hayden Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hayden_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Cerro Torre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerro_Torre"},{"link_name":"David Lama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lama"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2013-10"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"}],"text":"The 2013 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2013 by a 4-person technical jury consisting of Stephen Venables, Silvo Karo, Katsutaka Yokoyama, and Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner;[38] in an unprecedented move, the jury announced that the entire short-list of six nominated ascents would receive a Piolet d'Or.[39] Montagnes magazine issued a statement condemning the decision saying that it: \"weakens the event and its status, blurs the image of mountaineering in the eyes of the public and does not reflect the true personality of mountaineers who make history\".[9][10]Kurt Diemberger won the 5th Lifetime Achievement award.[10]\nSouth pillar (Nima Line) of Kyashar (2,200m, 5.10a A0 M5, 7-days) in Nepal, by the Japanese climbers Tatsuya Aoki, Yasuhiro Hanatani, and Hiroyoshi Manome.[10]\nNorthwest buttress (Prow of Shiva) of Shiva (6-days, ED+, alpine style) in Himachal Pradesh, India, by British climbers Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden (2nd Piolet for each).[10]\nNortheast spur of Muztagh Tower (18-days, semi-Alpine style) in Pakistan, by Russian climbers Dmitry Golovchenko, Alexander Lange, and Sergey Nilov.[10]\nSouth face (The Torch and The Brotherhood) of Ogre I (5.9X AI5 M6R) in Pakistan, by American climbers Hayden Kennedy and Kyle Dempster.[10]\nSouthwest face (Spicy Game) of Kamet (2,000m, ED-: 5.10-, alpine style), Uttarakhand, India, by French climbers Sébastien Bohin, Didier Jourdain, Sébastien Moatti, and Sébastien Ratel.[10]\nMazeno Ridge of Nanga Parbat (13 km traverse, 18-days) in Pakistan, by Scottish climbers Sandy Allan and Rick Allen.[10][21]\n\"Special recognition\" was made of Hayden Kennedy and Jason Kruk's fair-means ascent of Compressor Route on Cerro Torre, and David Lama and Peter Ortner's first free ascent of the line.[10][40]","title":"2013 award (everybody wins)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Michael Kennedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Kennedy_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Alberto Iñurrategi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberto_I%C3%B1urrategi"},{"link_name":"Ines Papert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ines_Papert"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM12012-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2012-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM22012-43"},{"link_name":"Robert Paragot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Robert_Paragot&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Paragot"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM12012-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2012-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM22012-43"},{"link_name":"Saser Kangri II East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saser_Kangri_II"},{"link_name":"Mark Richey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Richey"},{"link_name":"Steve Swenson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Swenson"},{"link_name":"Gangkhar Puensum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangkhar_Puensum"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2012-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM22012-43"},{"link_name":"Karakorum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakorum"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2012-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM22012-43"},{"link_name":"Torre Egger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_Egger"},{"link_name":"Patagonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagonia"},{"link_name":"Bjørn-Eivind Årtun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bj%C3%B8rn-Eivind_%C3%85rtun&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"no","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B8rn-Eivind_%C3%85rtun"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2012-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM22012-43"}],"text":"The 2012 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in March 2012 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Michael Kennedy, Valeri Babanov, Alberto Iñurrategi, Ines Papert, Liu Yong, and Alessandro Filippini (Italian journalist).[41] The event was held in France and Italy and two Piolets were awarded from the short-list of 6 ascents, as well as a \"Special mention\".[42][43]Robert Paragot [fr] won the 4th Lifetime Achievement Award.[41][42][43]\nSouthwest face (The Old Breed) and the first ascent of Saser Kangri II East (1,700m, WI4 M3, 4-days) in Eastern Karakorum in India, by American climbers Mark Richey, Steve Swenson, and Freddie Wilkinson; at the time, it was the second highest unclimbed peak in the world (after Gangkhar Puensum, which is closed to climbing).[42][43]\nNorthwest face (Sanjači zlatih jam) of K7 West (1,600m, VI/5, M5, A2, 6-days) in the Karakorum, by Slovenian climbers Nejc Marcic and Luka Strazar.[42][43]\n\"Special mention\" for the south face of Torre Egger (950m, 6b+ A1 AI6, 2-days) in Patagonia, by Norwegian climbers Bjørn-Eivind Årtun [no] and Ole Lied.[42][43]","title":"2012 award (20th awards)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Greg Child","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greg_Child"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2011-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2011-45"},{"link_name":"Doug Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Scott"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2011-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2011-45"},{"link_name":"Mount Logan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Logan"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2011-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2011-45"},{"link_name":"Sean Villanueva O'Driscoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sean_Villanueva_O%27Driscoll&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sean_Villanueva_O%27Driscoll"},{"link_name":"Nicolas Favresse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_Favresse&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Favresse"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2011-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2011-45"}],"text":"The 2011 Piolet d'Or winners were announced in April 2011 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Greg Child (Jury President), Enrico Rosso, Yannick Graziani, Simon Anthamatten, Michael Pause (German journalist), and Hiroshi Hagiwara (Japanese journalist); underlying the \"new post-2008 Charter\" for assessing ascents, the winners were very diverse expeditions underlining the \"spirit of Alpinism\".[44][45]Doug Scott won the 3rd Lifetime Achievement Award.[44][45]\nSouthwest face (I-TO) of Mount Logan (2,500m, ED+, WI5 M6, 5-days, ultra-lightweight alpine style) in Canada, by Japanese climbers Yasushi Okada and Katsutaka Yokoyama.[44][45]\nSean Villanueva O'Driscoll [fr], Nicolas Favresse [fr], and Olivier Favresse (Belgian), Ben Ditto (USA), and Bob Shepton (UK) for their \"Greenland Big Walls\" expedition.[44][45]","title":"2011 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chamonix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamonix"},{"link_name":"Courmayeur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courmayeur"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2010-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"},{"link_name":"Reinhold Messner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold_Messner"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"},{"link_name":"Reinhold Messner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold_Messner"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2010-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"},{"link_name":"Cho Oyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cho_Oyu"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Denis Urubko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Urubko"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2010-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"},{"link_name":"Xuelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xuelian_Feng"},{"link_name":"Tien Shan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tien_Shan"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2010-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2010-47"}],"text":"The winners of the 2010 Piolet d'Or were announced in Chamonix (France) and Courmayeur (Italy) from 8–10 April 2010 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Andrej Štremfelj (Jury President), Jordi Corominas, Lindsay Griffin (British journalist), Anna Piunova (Russian journalist), Robert Schauer, and Kei Taniguchi.[46][47] In a break with tradition, Christian Trommsdorff, chairman of Piolets d'Or organizer Groupe de Haute Montagne, said at the ceremony that the winners exemplified the new post-2008 Charter, while the other nominees did not make the cut.[47] Also at the ceremony, Reinhold Messner was supportive of the new Charter, saying: \"Alpinism starts where tourism stops. Today's trade routes on the 8000-meter peaks—climbed by commercial expeditions using fixed ropes, camps and Sherpas—are pure tourism that has nothing to do with alpinism. The Piolet d'Or celebrates alpinism.\"[47]Reinhold Messner won the 2nd Lifetime Achievement Award.[46][47]\nSoutheast face of Cho Oyu (2,600m, M6 6b A2/3) in Nepal, by Kazakh climbers Denis Urubko and Boris Dedeshko.[46][47]\nNorth face of Xuelian (2,650m, M6 WI5 5.7 R) in Chinese Tien Shan, by American climbers Jed Brown and Kyle Dempster, and Scottish climber Bruce Normand.[46][47]","title":"2010 award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doug Scott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Scott"},{"link_name":"Jim Donini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Donini"},{"link_name":"Peter Habeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Habeler"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"Walter Bonatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Bonatti"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"},{"link_name":"Nepal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nepal"},{"link_name":"Ueli Steck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ueli_Steck"},{"link_name":"Simon Anthamatten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Simon_Anthamatten&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Anthamatten"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"},{"link_name":"Kamet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamet"},{"link_name":"Kazuya Hiraide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazuya_Hiraide"},{"link_name":"Kei Taniguchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kei_Taniguchi_(Mountaineer)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"},{"link_name":"Kalanka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalanka"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PM2009-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CM2009-8"}],"text":"The Piolet d'or 2009 took place in Chamonix-Mont-Blanc (France) and Courmayeur in the Aosta Valley (Italy) on the 24th and 25 April 2009 by a 6-person technical jury consisting of Doug Scott (Jury President), Dario Rodriguez, Dodo Kopold, Jim Donini, Peter Habeler, and Yong ImDuck.[7][8] Jury President Doug Scott heralded the new post-2008 Charter, saying: \"This edition signals the rebirth of the Piolets d'Or. For us there are no winners, no losers. The honored are the ambassadors of an art, a passion.\"[7] Jury member Peter Habeler added: \"It is not a question of reaching success at all costs, by using financial or technical means (such as oxygen, fixed ropes, Sherpas, doping products etc.…). What counts is the style. Today even if the summit hasn't been reached, the expedition can be honoured if it is innovative.\"[7] In a new departure, three winners were announced under the headings of \"Spirit of Exploration\", \"Commitment\", and \"Technical Difficulty\" (this explicit sub-categorization would not be repeated in the future), a new \"Lifetime Achievement Award\" was created with Bonatti as the first recipient, and the first female Piolet winner, Kei Taniguchi, was announced.[7]Walter Bonatti won the first Lifetime Achievement Award.[7][8]\nNorth face (Checkmate) or Tengkampoche (2,000m, M7, WI5 5.10 A0) in the Khumbu Valley in Nepal, by Swiss climbers Ueli Steck and Simon Anthamatten [de]; for \"Technical Difficulty\" award.[7][8]\nSouthwest face (Samurai Direct) of Kamet (1,800m, M5+, WI5+, 12-days) in India, by Japanese climbers Kazuya Hiraide and Kei Taniguchi (first female winner); the \"Spirit of Exploration\" award.[7][8]\nNorth face of Kalanka (1,800m, M5) in India, by Japanese climbers Fumitaka Ichimura, Yusuke Sato, and Kazuki Amano; the \"Commitment\" award.[7][8]","title":"2009 award (new Charter)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2008-6"}],"text":"After the controversy of the 2007 awards, Philippe Descamps, the editor of Montagnes, looked for a wider opinion on how to improve the awards.[48] The three co-founders of the awards, the GHM, Montagnes and Guy Chaumereuil (the editor of Montagnes when the awards were founded), produced a new \"Charter\", and decided to hold the 2008 ceremony not exclusively in France, as in the past, but south of the border in the Val d'Aosta, in Italy. Concern still lingered over the need for stronger independent jury panels in deciding a winner, and whether there should be just a single winner. These issues could not be resolved easily, and in January 2008, it was announced that the 2008 Piolet d'Or would be canceled while these debates were still in process.[6]","title":"2008 award (cancelled)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grenoble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grenoble"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL12007-2"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL12007-2"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL2015-5"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"Chomolhari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chomolhari"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL22007-49"},{"link_name":"Denis Urubko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denis_Urubko"},{"link_name":"Manaslu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manaslu"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL22007-49"},{"link_name":"Pavle Kozjek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pavle_Kozjek"},{"link_name":"Cho Oyu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cho_Oyu"},{"link_name":"Nangpa La killings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nangpa_La_killings"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL22007-49"},{"link_name":"Shingu Charpa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shingu_Charpa"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL22007-49"},{"link_name":"Tim Emmett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Emmett"},{"link_name":"Kedarnath Dome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kedarnath_(Mountain)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AL22007-49"}],"text":"The 2007 Piolet d'Or was awarded on 26 January 2007 in Grenoble, France. The awards were marked by controversy from the outset, with accusations by GHM president Leslie Fuscko that the shortlist was imposed by Montagnes magazine, making it a \"journalist award\".[2] GHM and the president of the jury, Slovenian climber Andrej Štremfelj, resigned from the awards.[2] Further controversy occurred when Marko Prezelj, the co-winner of the 2007 Piolet d'Or, rejected his award and wrote a scathing article criticizing the whole premise of the awards, and whether it was possible, or ethical, to have a single winner, saying: \"I don't believe in awards for alpinism, much less trophies or titles presented by the public or the media,\" and \"At the ceremony, I could see and feel the competitive spirit created and fueled by the event's organizers. Most of the climbers readily accepted this mood without understanding that they had been pushed into an arena where spectators thrive on drama, where winner and loser are judged.\"[5]The winners were:Slovenian climbers Marko Prezelj (2nd Piolet) and Boris Lorencic, for the first ascent of Chomolhari's north-west pillar (2,000m, M6+, 6-days).[49]The other four shortlisted ascents were:Kazakhstan climber Denis Urubko and Sergey Samoilov, for a new route in alpine style on the northeast face of Manaslu; won the 2007 Asian Piolet d'Or.[49]\nSlovenian climber Pavle Kozjek, for a new route, and in 1-day, on Cho Oyu, and for submitting images of the Nangpa La killings; won the 3rd \"People's Choice Award\".[49]\nUkrainian climbers Igor Chaplinsky, Andrey Rodiontsev, and Orest Verbitsky for a first ascent on the north ridge of Shingu Charpa (1,500m, elements of 5.11d).[49]\nBritish climbers Ian Parnell and Tim Emmett for the southeast pillar of Kedarnath Dome (1,500m, elements of 5.11c).[49]","title":"2007 award (controversy)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"Steve House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_House_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Vince Anderson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vince_Anderson"},{"link_name":"Rupal Face","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupal_Face"},{"link_name":"Nanga Parbat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanga_Parbat"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Jannu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jannu"},{"link_name":"Steve House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_House_(climber)"},{"link_name":"K7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K7_(mountain)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Valery Babanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valery_Babanov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery_Babanov"},{"link_name":"Nuptse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuptse"},{"link_name":"Mick Fowler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mick_Fowler"},{"link_name":"Paul Ramsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Ramsden_(climber)"},{"link_name":"Siguniang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siguniang"},{"link_name":"Valery Babanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valery_Babanov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valery_Babanov"},{"link_name":"Meru Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meru_Peak"},{"link_name":"Thomas Huber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Huber"},{"link_name":"Shivling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shivling_(Garhwal_Himalaya)"},{"link_name":"Burkett Needle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burkett_Needle&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tomaž Humar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toma%C5%BE_Humar"},{"link_name":"Dhaulagiri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dhaulagiri"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Athol Whimp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athol_Whimp_(mountaineer)"},{"link_name":"Thalay Sagar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalay_Sagar"},{"link_name":"Ekaterinburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ekaterinburg"},{"link_name":"Makalu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makalu"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"Tomaž Humar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toma%C5%BE_Humar"},{"link_name":"Vanja Furlan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vanja_Furlan&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"sl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanja_Furlan"},{"link_name":"Ama Dablam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ama_Dablam"},{"link_name":"Andreas Orgler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Andreas_Orgler&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andreas_Orgler"},{"link_name":"Ruth Glacier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Glacier"},{"link_name":"Alaska Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Range"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"},{"link_name":"François Marsigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fran%C3%A7ois_Marsigny&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Marsigny"},{"link_name":"Cerro Torre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerro_Torre"},{"link_name":"Pamir Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamir_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Michel Piola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michel_Piola&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michel_Piola"},{"link_name":"Torre South del Paine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordillera_del_Paine"},{"link_name":"Andrej Štremfelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrej_%C5%A0tremfelj"},{"link_name":"Marko Prezelj","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marko_Prezelj"},{"link_name":"Kanchenjunga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanchenjunga"},{"link_name":"Pierre Béghin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pierre_B%C3%A9ghin&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_B%C3%A9ghin"},{"link_name":"Christophe Profit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Christophe_Profit&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christophe_Profit"},{"link_name":"K2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K2"},{"link_name":"enchainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchainment"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HJ-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IanParnell-4"}],"text":"The following is the list of annual winners from inception in 1992 to 2006 (there was only one winner in these years).[1]2006 Steve House and Vince Anderson for the rapid light ascent of the Rupal Face of Nanga Parbat; after the controversy of 2006, the jury, and the 2nd \"People's Choice Award\", were unanimous.[1][4]\n2005 Russian team led by Alexander Odintsov for the first direct ascent of the north face of Jannu; a controversial decision given the \"heavy-style\" siege tactics employed by the Russians, and the initial absence of some major American ascents (Ian Parnell withdrew to enable one through); the audience booed the decision at the ceremony and gave Steve House's \"ultra-light\" solo of K7 40% of their vote, in the newly created \"People's Choice Award\" (they gave Russians 5%); later that year, House wrote a strongly critical piece in Vertical Magazine of the jury's decision.[1][4]\n2004 Valery Babanov [fr] (2nd Piolet) and Yuri Koshelenko for an ascent on the south face of Nuptse.\n2003 Mick Fowler and Paul Ramsden for a new route on the north face of Siguniang (6250m) in China.\n2002 Valery Babanov [fr] for a solo first ascent of Meru Central (6310m).\n2001 (10th awards) Thomas Huber and Iwan Wolf for the first ascent of the direct north pillar of Shivling (6543m).\n2000 Lionel Daudet and Sébastien Foissac for the ascent of the south-east face of the Burkett Needle; the jury controversially passed over Tomaž Humar's attempt to solo the south face of Dhaulagiri, calling it \"a step too far\" in risk and \"heavily slanted toward media coverage\", ex-juror Jean-Claude Marmier called Daudet and Foissac's ascent as something seen \"two or three times a year in The American Alpine Journal for the last fifty years\". The jury defended their choice as \"a kind of philosophy of mountaineering, where the [physical] performance is not the only criterion ...\".[1][4]\n1999 Andrew Lindblade of Australia and Athol Whimp of New Zealand for the first direct ascent of the north face of Thalay Sagar\n1998 Russian team from Ekaterinburg led by Sergey Efimov for the first ascent of the coveted west face of Makalu; GHM President Jean-Claude Marmier resigned from the jury calling the decision \"a real disaster\", as the Russians had used \"heavy-style\" siege-tactics (unlike other unsuccessful \"light-style\" teams, adhering to the Piolet's ethos), and two of the Russian team were killed.[1][4]\n1997 Slovenians Tomaž Humar and Vanja Furlan [sl] for a new route on the northwest face of Ama Dablam.\n1996 Andreas Orgler [de], Heli Neswabba, and Arthur Wutsher Germany for numerous new routes in the Ruth Glacier area of the Alaska Range and especially a new route on the south face of Mount Bradley; this award drew some criticism as being akin to a \"lifetime achievement award\" for Orgler, and not for the specific climbs in 1995.[4]\n1995 François Marsigny [fr] of France and Andy Parkin of England for the new ice and rock route up the Esperance Col on Cerro Torre.\n1994 The youth high altitude expedition of the French Alpine Club (median age 20 years) for ascents in the Pamir Mountains.\n1993 Michel Piola [fr] and Vincent Sprungli for the ascent of the east face of Torre South del Paine in Patagonia (the name of the route is \"Dans l'Oeil du Cyclone\").\n1992 Slovenians Andrej Štremfelj and Marko Prezelj for the south pillar of Kanchenjunga's south summit; the beating of French favorites Pierre Béghin [fr] and Christophe Profit [fr], and their \"K2 enchainment\", was considered a \"political decision\" so the award was \"international\", but with the passing of time, the Slovenian ascent is considered a more important milestone.[1][4]","title":"Pre-2007 (only one winner)"}]	[{"image_text":"Paul Ramsden, Troll Wall, Norway","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Paul_Ramsden_Troll_Wall_Norway.webp/220px-Paul_Ramsden_Troll_Wall_Norway.webp.png"}]	[{"title":"Piolet d’Or","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Piolet_d%E2%80%99Or"},{"title":"Boardman Tasker Prize for Mountain Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boardman_Tasker_Prize_for_Mountain_Literature"},{"title":"Francis P. Farquhar Mountaineering Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_P._Farquhar_Mountaineering_Award"},{"title":"Snow Leopard award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_Leopard_award"}]	[{"reference":"McDonald, Bernadette (2017). \"Piolets d'Or: A Short History of the Golden Ice Axe\". Himalayan Journal. 72. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernadette_McDonald","url_text":"McDonald, Bernadette"},{"url":"https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/72/9/piolets-dor/","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or: A Short History of the Golden Ice Axe\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_Journal","url_text":"Himalayan Journal"}]},{"reference":"Griffin, Lindsay (29 January 2007). \"MORE CONTROVERSY FOR THE PIOLET D'OR\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP18/newswire-controversy-piolet-d'or","url_text":"\"MORE CONTROVERSY FOR THE PIOLET D'OR\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Levy, Michael (29 November 2021). \"A Climbing Award That May Be a Winner's Last\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/29/sports/piolet-dor-climbing.html","url_text":"\"A Climbing Award That May Be a Winner's Last\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_New_York_Times","url_text":"The New York Times"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"Parnell, Ian (1 July 2006). \"Victors of the Unwinnable\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP16/unwinnable-parnell","url_text":"\"Victors of the Unwinnable\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Boermans, Menno (14 April 2015). \"Highlights from the 23rd Piolets d'Or\". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023. The Piolets d'Or (Golden Ice Axes) were long considered to be the \"Oscars of Mountaineering,\"","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web15s/newswire-23rd-piolets-d-or-highlights","url_text":"\"Highlights from the 23rd Piolets d'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Griffin, Lindsay (23 January 2008). \"2008 Piolet d'Or Canceled\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web07-08w/newswire-piolet-2008-cancel","url_text":"\"2008 Piolet d'Or Canceled\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"\"Piolet d'Or 2009, the winners\". PlanetMountain. 2 May 2009. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/events/piolet-dor-2009-the-winners.html","url_text":"\"Piolet d'Or 2009, the winners\""}]},{"reference":"McDonald, Dougald (1 May 2009). \"Three Teams Receive Piolets d'Or\". Climbing. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/three-teams-receive-piolets-dor/","url_text":"\"Three Teams Receive Piolets d'Or\""}]},{"reference":"Douglas, Ed (4 April 2013). \"Everyone's a winner at the Piolets d'Or (almost)\". British Mountaineering Council. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebmc.co.uk/everyones-a-winner-at-the-piolets-dor","url_text":"\"Everyone's a winner at the Piolets d'Or (almost)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Mountaineering_Council","url_text":"British Mountaineering Council"}]},{"reference":"Cameron, Gwen (12 April 2013). \"Piolets d'Or 2013: Six Nominees, Six Awards\". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web13s/newswire-piolets-d-or-2013","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2013: Six Nominees, Six Awards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Franz, Derek (3 August 2018). \"Four climbs and one person to be recognized at 2018 Piolets d'Or in Ladek, Poland\". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web18c/newswire-2018-piolets-dor-preview","url_text":"\"Four climbs and one person to be recognized at 2018 Piolets d'Or in Ladek, Poland\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2019: jury and big list of world's most significant, innovative mountain climbs\". PlanetMountain. 5 July 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2019-jury-big-list-worlds-most-significant-innovative-mountain-climbs.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2019: jury and big list of world's most significant, innovative mountain climbs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2019 Goes to Lama, Auer, Livingstone, Strazar, Cesen\". Gripped Magazine. 31 July 2019. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://gripped.com/news/piolets-dor-2019-goes-to-lama-auer-livingstone-strazar-cesen/","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2019 Goes to Lama, Auer, Livingstone, Strazar, Cesen\""}]},{"reference":"Burnside, Peter (1 August 2019). \"Latok I, Lunag Ri, Lupghar Sar West ascents awarded with Piolets d'Or 2019\". British Mountaineering Council. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thebmc.co.uk/piolets-dor-tom-livingstone-latok-david-lama-lunag-ri","url_text":"\"Latok I, Lunag Ri, Lupghar Sar West ascents awarded with Piolets d'Or 2019\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Mountaineering_Council","url_text":"British Mountaineering Council"}]},{"reference":"Franz, Derek (11 August 2020). \"Four \"significant ascents\" announced for 2020 Piolets d'Or\". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web20c/newswire-2020-piolets-dor#:~:text=%2D%20Link%20Sar%20(7041m)%2C,advanced%20base%20camp%20at%204700m.","url_text":"\"Four \"significant ascents\" announced for 2020 Piolets d'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Bisharat, Andrew (16 March 2015). \"Mountaineering's Top Award Winners Announced\". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 18 September 2021. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210918194455/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/top-mountaineering-awards-announced-including-tommy-caldwell-alex-honnold","url_text":"\"Mountaineering's Top Award Winners Announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic","url_text":"National Geographic"},{"url":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/top-mountaineering-awards-announced-including-tommy-caldwell-alex-honnold","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Welstead, Ian (30 March 2014). \"Why We Climb: Piolet d'Or Honorees on the Value of a Life in the Mountains\". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 3 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230103122815/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/why-we-climb-piolet-dor-honorees-on-the-value-of-a-life-in-the-mountains","url_text":"\"Why We Climb: Piolet d'Or Honorees on the Value of a Life in the Mountains\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic","url_text":"National Geographic"},{"url":"https://www.nationalgeographic.com/adventure/article/why-we-climb-piolet-dor-honorees-on-the-value-of-a-life-in-the-mountains","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Anthony (19 October 2022). \"Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2022 Piolets d'Or Recipients\". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/2022-piolets-dor-recipients/","url_text":"\"Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2022 Piolets d'Or Recipients\""}]},{"reference":"Chavez, Nicole (30 April 2017). \"Famed Swiss climber Ueli Steck dies in Everest training accident\". CNN. Retrieved 14 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/30/europe/swiss-climber-death/index.html","url_text":"\"Famed Swiss climber Ueli Steck dies in Everest training accident\""}]},{"reference":"McMillan, Kelley (4 April 2014). \"Swiss Climber's Feat Honored Despite Lack of Proof\". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 14 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/05/sports/swiss-climbers-feat-honored-despite-lack-of-proof.html","url_text":"\"Swiss Climber's Feat Honored Despite Lack of Proof\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","url_text":"0362-4331"}]},{"reference":"\"Scots pair win climbing's 'Oscars'\". BBC News. 22 April 2013. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-22246000","url_text":"\"Scots pair win climbing's 'Oscars'\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"Mettler, Katie (1 May 2017). \"Ueli Steck, famed Swiss mountain climber, dead after plunging 3,280 feet near Mount Everest\". Washington Post. Retrieved 1 January 2023. But Steck returned in 2013 and achieved the first solo climb of the Annapurna south face, receiving the \"Piolet d'Or\" — the Oscar of mountaineering — for his feat, reported the AP","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/05/01/ueli-steck-famed-swiss-mountain-climber-dead-after-plunging-3280-feet-near-mt-everest/","url_text":"\"Ueli Steck, famed Swiss mountain climber, dead after plunging 3,280 feet near Mount Everest\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post","url_text":"Washington Post"}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Anthony (19 October 2023). \"Ascents of Jirishanca, Pumari Chhish East, and Jugal Spire are Awarded the 2023 Piolets d'Or\". Climbing. Retrieved 15 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/2023-piolets-dor-recipients-announced/","url_text":"\"Ascents of Jirishanca, Pumari Chhish East, and Jugal Spire are Awarded the 2023 Piolets d'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climbing_(magazine)","url_text":"Climbing"}]},{"reference":"\"The Piolets d'Or 2022 list of significant ascents\". PlanetMountain. 16 November 2022. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2022-list-significant-ascents.html","url_text":"\"The Piolets d'Or 2022 list of significant ascents\""}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Anthony (29 October 2022). \"Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2021 Piolets d'Or Recipients\". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/2021-piolets-dor-recipients-announced/","url_text":"\"Alpinism's Highest Honors Announced: The 2021 Piolets d'Or Recipients\""}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2021 announces awarded ascents, Silvia Vidal receives Special Mention\". PlanetMountain. 8 October 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2021-announces-awarded-ascents-silvia-vidal-receives-special-mention.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2021 announces awarded ascents, Silvia Vidal receives Special Mention\""}]},{"reference":"Walsh, Anthony (13 August 2020). \"4 Climbs Honored With 2020 Piolet d'Or Awards\". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/4-climbs-honored-with-2020-piolet-dor-awards/","url_text":"\"4 Climbs Honored With 2020 Piolet d'Or Awards\""}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2020: Chamlang, Tengi Ragi Tau, Link Sar and Rakaposhi the winning climbs\". PlanetMountain. 12 August 2020. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2020-chamlang-tengi-ragi-tau-link-sar-rakaposhi-the-winning-climbs.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2020: Chamlang, Tengi Ragi Tau, Link Sar and Rakaposhi the winning climbs\""}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2018: Gasherbrum I, Shispare, Nilkanth win, Nilkanth and Alex Honnold receive special mention\". PlanetMountain. 2 August 2018. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2018-gasherbrum-1-shispare-nilkanth-win-nilkanth-alex-honnold-receive-special-mention.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2018: Gasherbrum I, Shispare, Nilkanth win, Nilkanth and Alex Honnold receive special mention\""}]},{"reference":"Franz, Derek (15 April 2017). \"Jury selects two teams for Piolets d'Or awards this year for 2016 ascents\". Alpinist. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web17w/newswire-piolets-dor-2017-recipients","url_text":"\"Jury selects two teams for Piolets d'Or awards this year for 2016 ascents\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2016: four ascents honoured\". PlanetMountain. 7 April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolets-dor-2016-four-honoured-ascents.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2016: four ascents honoured\""}]},{"reference":"\"2016 Piolets d'Or Award Recipients Announced\". Rock & Ice. April 2016. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rockandice.com/climbing-news/2016-piolets-dor-award-recipients-announced/","url_text":"\"2016 Piolets d'Or Award Recipients Announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_%26_Ice","url_text":"Rock & Ice"}]},{"reference":"Samet, Matt (11 March 2015). \"2015 Piolets d'Or Recipients Announced\". Alpine. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web15w/newswire-2015-piolets-d-or-recipients-announced","url_text":"\"2015 Piolets d'Or Recipients Announced\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpine"}]},{"reference":"Griffin, Lindsay (2014). \"The 2014 Piolets d'Or\" (PDF). Alpine Journal. 118. The Alpine Club: 397–399. ISBN 9780956930934. Retrieved 1 January 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.alpinejournal.org.uk/Contents/Contents_2014_files/AJ%202014%20397-399%20Piolets%20d'Or.pdf","url_text":"\"The 2014 Piolets d'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Journal","url_text":"Alpine Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_Club_(UK)","url_text":"The Alpine Club"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780956930934","url_text":"9780956930934"}]},{"reference":"\"Ueli Steck and Raphael Slawinski & Ian Welsted win the Piolets d'Or 2014\". PlanetMountain. 29 March 2014. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/events/ueli-steck-and-raphael-slawinsky-ian-welsted-win-the-piolets-dor-2014.html","url_text":"\"Ueli Steck and Raphael Slawinski & Ian Welsted win the Piolets d'Or 2014\""}]},{"reference":"McDonald, Dougald (29 March 2014). \"Annapurna, K6 West Win Piolets d'Or\". Climbing. Retrieved 1 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.climbing.com/news/annapurna-k6-west-win-piolets-dor/","url_text":"\"Annapurna, K6 West Win Piolets d'Or\""}]},{"reference":"Douglas, Ed (17 May 2017). \"Ueli Steck obituary\". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/01/ueli-steck-obituary","url_text":"\"Ueli Steck obituary\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2013, the nominations for the 21st edition\". PlanetMountain. 11 March 2013. 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Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/piolet-dor-2012-the-6-nominations.html","url_text":"\"Piolet d'Or 2012, the 6 nominations\""}]},{"reference":"Kennedy, Michael (24 March 2012). \"Piolets D'Or 2012\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web12w/newswire-piolets-dor-2012","url_text":"\"Piolets D'Or 2012\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"\"Piolets d'Or 2012, the videos of the ascents\". PlanetMountain. 29 March 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/events/piolets-dor-2012-the-videos-of-the-ascents.html","url_text":"\"Piolets d'Or 2012, the videos of the ascents\""}]},{"reference":"Stefanello, Vinicio (19 April 2011). \"Piolet d'Or 2011, winners, diversity and the challenges of alpinism\". PlanetMountain. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/events/piolet-dor-2011-winners-diversity-and-the-challenges-of-alpinism.html","url_text":"\"Piolet d'Or 2011, winners, diversity and the challenges of alpinism\""}]},{"reference":"Land, Kesse (15 April 2011). \"Spirit of Alpinism Strong at 2011 Piolet d'Or\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web11s/newswire-piolet-dor-2011","url_text":"\"Spirit of Alpinism Strong at 2011 Piolet d'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Stefanello, Vinicio (12 April 2010). \"Piolet d'Or, the winners and alpinism of the future\". PlanetMountain. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/events/piolet-dor-the-winners-and-alpinism-of-the-future.html","url_text":"\"Piolet d'Or, the winners and alpinism of the future\""}]},{"reference":"Falt, David (14 April 2010). \"2010 Piolets d'Or: Struggling for Identity\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/web10s/newswire-piolets-dor-2010-identity","url_text":"\"2010 Piolets d'Or: Struggling for Identity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"\"Le Piolet d'Or: Whither prized for Alpinism?\". American Alpine Journal. 49 (81): 124–127. 2007. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12200712400/Le-Piolet-dOr-Whither-Prized-for-Alpinism","url_text":"\"Le Piolet d'Or: Whither prized for Alpinism?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Alpine_Journal","url_text":"American Alpine Journal"}]},{"reference":"Lambert, Erik (29 January 2007). \"Prezelj, Lorencic Win 2007 Piolet D'Or\". Alpinist. Retrieved 2 January 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP18/newswire-piolet-d'or-2007-winner-prezelj-lorencic","url_text":"\"Prezelj, Lorencic Win 2007 Piolet D'Or\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpinist_(magazine)","url_text":"Alpinist"}]},{"reference":"Chambre, David; Gardien, Claude (November 2021). Piolets d'Or: 1991-2021 30 ans d'exploits extraordinaires sur les montagnes du monde. Les Éditions du Mont Blanc. ISBN 978-2365451154.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2365451154","url_text":"978-2365451154"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.pioletsdor.net/","external_links_name":"Piolet d'Or"},{"Link":"https://www.himalayanclub.org/hj/72/9/piolets-dor/","external_links_name":"\"Piolets d'Or: A Short History of the Golden Ice Axe\""},{"Link":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP18/newswire-controversy-piolet-d'or","external_links_name":"\"MORE CONTROVERSY FOR THE PIOLET D'OR\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/29/sports/piolet-dor-climbing.html","external_links_name":"\"A Climbing Award That May Be a Winner's Last\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"http://www.alpinist.com/doc/ALP16/unwinnable-parnell","external_links_name":"\"Victors of the 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Highest Honors Announced: The 2022 Piolets d'Or Recipients\""},{"Link":"https://www.cnn.com/2017/04/30/europe/swiss-climber-death/index.html","external_links_name":"\"Famed Swiss climber Ueli Steck dies in Everest training accident\""},{"Link":"https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/05/sports/swiss-climbers-feat-honored-despite-lack-of-proof.html","external_links_name":"\"Swiss Climber's Feat Honored Despite Lack of Proof\""},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331","external_links_name":"0362-4331"},{"Link":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-highlands-islands-22246000","external_links_name":"\"Scots pair win climbing's 'Oscars'\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2017/05/01/ueli-steck-famed-swiss-mountain-climber-dead-after-plunging-3280-feet-near-mt-everest/","external_links_name":"\"Ueli Steck, famed Swiss mountain climber, dead after plunging 3,280 feet near Mount 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immethridine	Immethridine	["1 References"]	Immethridine Names Preferred IUPAC name 4-pyridine Identifiers CAS Number 87976-03-2 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChEMBL ChEMBL82298 N ChemSpider 8165087 N ECHA InfoCard 100.163.679 IUPHAR/BPS 4024 PubChem CID 9989505 UNII F8ZT2IBM1X Y CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID401027207 DTXSID70587878, DTXSID401027207 InChI InChI=1S/C9H9N3/c1-3-10-4-2-8(1)5-9-6-11-7-12-9/h1-4,6-7H,5H2,(H,11,12) NKey: DFVSGZHJSIEEQQ-UHFFFAOYSA-N NInChI=1/C9H9N3/c1-3-10-4-2-8(1)5-9-6-11-7-12-9/h1-4,6-7H,5H2,(H,11,12)Key: DFVSGZHJSIEEQQ-UHFFFAOYAF SMILES C1=CN=CC=C1CC2=CN=CN2 Properties Chemical formula C9H9N3 Molar mass 159.188 g/mol Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound Immethridine is a histamine agonist selective for the H3 subtype. References ^ Kitbunnadaj, R; Zuiderveld, OP; Christophe, B; Hulscher, S; Menge, WM; Gelens, E; Snip, E; Bakker, RA; et al. (2004). "Identification of 4-(1H-imidazol-4(5)-ylmethyl)pyridine (immethridine) as a novel, potent, and highly selective histamine H(3) receptor agonist". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 47 (10): 2414–7. doi:10.1021/jm049932u. PMID 15115383. vteHistamine receptor modulatorsH1Agonists 2-Pyridylethylamine Betahistine Histamine HTMT L-Histidine UR-AK49 Antagonists First-generation: 4-Methyldiphenhydramine Alimemazine Antazoline Azatadine Bamipine Benzatropine (benztropine) Bepotastine Bromazine Brompheniramine Buclizine Captodiame Carbinoxamine Chlorcyclizine Chloropyramine Chlorothen Chlorphenamine Chlorphenoxamine Cinnarizine Clemastine Clobenzepam Clocinizine Cloperastine Cyclizine Cyproheptadine Dacemazine Decloxizine Deptropine Dexbrompheniramine Dexchlorpheniramine Dimenhydrinate Dimetindene Diphenhydramine Diphenylpyraline Doxylamine Embramine Etodroxizine Etybenzatropine (ethylbenztropine) Etymemazine Fenethazine Flunarizine Histapyrrodine Homochlorcyclizine Hydroxyethylpromethazine Hydroxyzine Isopromethazine Isothipendyl Meclozine Medrylamine Mepyramine (pyrilamine) Mequitazine Methafurylene Methapyrilene Methdilazine Moxastine Orphenadrine Oxatomide Oxomemazine Perlapine Phenindamine Pheniramine Phenyltoloxamine Pimethixene Piperoxan Pipoxizine Promethazine Propiomazine Pyrrobutamine Talastine Thenalidine Thenyldiamine Thiazinamium Thonzylamine Tolpropamine Tripelennamine Triprolidine Second/third-generation: Acrivastine Alinastine Astemizole Azelastine Bamirastine Barmastine Bepiastine Bepotastine Bilastine Cabastinen Carebastine Cetirizine Clemastine Clemizole Clobenztropine Desloratadine Dorastine Ebastine Efletirizine Emedastine Epinastine Fexofenadine Flezelastine Ketotifen Latrepirdine Levocabastine Levocetirizine Linetastine Loratadine Mapinastine Mebhydrolin Mizolastine Moxastine Noberastine Octastine Olopatadine Perastine Pibaxizine Piclopastine Quifenadine (phencarol) Rocastine Rupatadine Setastine Sequifenadine (bicarphen) Talastine Temelastine Terfenadine Vapitadine Zepastine Others: Atypical antipsychotics (e.g., aripiprazole, asenapine, brexpiprazole, brilaroxazine, clozapine, iloperidone, olanzapine, paliperidone, quetiapine, risperidone, ziprasidone, zotepine) Phenylpiperazine antidepressants (e.g., hydroxynefazodone, nefazodone, trazodone, triazoledione) Tetracyclic antidepressants (e.g., amoxapine, loxapine, maprotiline, mianserin, mirtazapine, oxaprotiline) Tricyclic antidepressants (e.g., amitriptyline, butriptyline, clomipramine, desipramine, dosulepin (dothiepin), doxepin, imipramine, iprindole, lofepramine, nortriptyline, protriptyline, trimipramine) Typical antipsychotics (e.g., chlorpromazine, flupenthixol, fluphenazine, loxapine, perphenazine, prochlorperazine, thioridazine, thiothixene) Unknown/unsorted: Azanator Belarizine Elbanizine Flotrenizine GSK1004723 Napactadine Tagorizine Trelnarizine Trenizine H2Agonists Amthamine Betazole Dimaprit Histamine HTMT Impromidine L-Histidine UR-AK49 Antagonists Bisfentidine Burimamide Cimetidine Dalcotidine Donetidine Ebrotidine Etintidine Famotidine Isolamtidine Lafutidine Lamtidine Lavoltidine (loxtidine) Lupitidine Metiamide Mifentidine Niperotidine Nizatidine Osutidine Oxmetidine Pibutidine Quisultazine (quisultidine) Ramixotidine Ranitidine Roxatidine Sufotidine Tiotidine Tuvatidine Venritidine Xaltidine Zolantidine H3Agonists α-Methylhistamine Cipralisant Histamine Imetit Immepip Immethridine L-Histidine Methimepip Proxyfan Antagonists A-349821 A-423579 ABT-239 ABT-652 AZD5213 Bavisant Betahistine Burimamide Ciproxifan Clobenpropit Conessine Enerisant GSK-189254 Impentamine Iodophenpropit Irdabisant JNJ-5207852 NNC 38-1049 PF-03654746 Pitolisant SCH-79687 Thioperamide VUF-5681 H4Agonists 4-Methylhistamine α-Methylhistamine Histamine L-Histidine OUP-16 VUF-8430 Antagonists JNJ-7777120 Mianserin Seliforant Thioperamide Toreforant VUF-6002 See also Receptor/signaling modulators Monoamine metabolism modulators Monoamine reuptake inhibitors This pharmacology-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"histamine agonist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamine_agonist"},{"link_name":"H3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histamine_H3_receptor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Chemical compoundImmethridine is a histamine agonist selective for the H3 subtype.[1]","title":"Immethridine"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Kitbunnadaj, R; Zuiderveld, OP; Christophe, B; Hulscher, S; Menge, WM; Gelens, E; Snip, E; Bakker, RA; et al. (2004). \"Identification of 4-(1H-imidazol-4(5)-ylmethyl)pyridine (immethridine) as a novel, potent, and highly selective histamine H(3) receptor agonist\". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 47 (10): 2414–7. doi:10.1021/jm049932u. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawson_City_Nuggets	Dawson City Nuggets	["1 1905 Stanley Cup challenge","1.1 Background","1.2 Series","2 1997 re-enactment","3 Notes","4 References"]	Historic ice hockey team in Yukon, Canada Group photo of the Dawson City Nuggets on January 14, 1905, posed outside Dey's Arena The Dawson City Nuggets (also known as the Klondikes) were an ice hockey team from Dawson City, Yukon, that challenged the reigning champion Ottawa Hockey Club, aka "the Silver Seven", in January 1905, for the Stanley Cup. The Dawson City team was composed of hockey players from the city, most of whom did not have any elite hockey experience. The Nuggets made the 4,000 mile (6,400 km) journey to Ottawa over several weeks, travelling by dog sled, bicycle, foot, train, and ship. They arrived in time to play the best-of-three game series. In the first game, Ottawa defeated Dawson City 9–2. In the second game, Ottawa defeated Dawson City 23–2 to win the series. The second game remains the most lopsided game in Stanley Cup playoff history. Ottawa's Frank McGee scored 14 goals alone in the second game, which is a record for a player in a Stanley Cup playoff game. 1905 Stanley Cup challenge Further information: 1904–05 Ottawa Hockey Club season § Ottawa vs. Dawson_City Background The Ottawa Hockey Club in 1905 The Nuggets issued a Stanley Cup challenge against the reigning champion Ottawa Hockey Club, known at the time as "The Silver Seven", in the summer of 1904. Ottawa accepted the challenge in October. The Dawson City team was sponsored and managed by the Klondike entrepreneur Joseph W. Boyle, and it was composed of men from the mining camps during the tail-end of the Yukon gold rush. Dawson City had two former elite hockey players, Weldy Young who had played for Ottawa in the 1890s and Randy McLennan who had played for Queen's College against the Montreal Victorias in the challenge of 1895. Other players were selected from other Dawson City clubs. Dawson City's challenge was accepted in the summer of 1904 by the Stanley Cup trustees, scheduled (inauspiciously) to start on Friday, January 13, 1905. It was to be a best-of-three series. The date of the challenge meant that Young had to travel later, as he had to work in a federal election that December, and meet the club in Ottawa. Some historians have since questioned why Dawson City was even granted a chance at the Cup, as Dawson City had won no championships and did not belong to any recognized senior league. On the other hand, Ottawa had considerable championship experience, having defeated all challengers since winning the Stanley Cup in March 1903. To get to Ottawa, 4,000 miles (6,400 km) away, the Dawson City club would have to get to Whitehorse (which was approximately 600 km away) by road, catch a train from there to Skagway, Alaska, then catch a steamer to Vancouver, and a train from there to Ottawa. On December 18, 1904 several players set out by dog sled and the rest left the next day by bicycle for a 330-mile trek to Whitehorse. At first the team made good progress, but the weather turned warm enough to thaw the roads, meaning the players had to walk several hundred miles. The team spent the nights in police sheds along the road. At Whitehorse, the weather turned bad, causing the trains not to run for three days, causing the Nuggets to miss their steamer in Skagway. The next one could not dock for three days due to the ice buildup. The club found the sea journey treacherous, causing seasickness amongst the team. When the steamer reached Vancouver, the area was too fogged in to dock, and the steamer docked in Seattle. The team from there caught a train to Vancouver, and finally left Vancouver on January 6, 1905, arriving in Ottawa on January 11. However Young would not arrive in Ottawa on time to play for Dawson. Despite the difficult journey, the Ottawa squad refused to change the date of the first game, only two days away. Otherwise, Ottawa was hospitable. The Klondikers received a huge welcome at the train station, had a welcoming dinner, and used the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Club's rooms for the duration of their stay. Series Eight men played for each team during the best-of-three series. The Dawson City roster consisted of: goaltender Albert Forrest, point Jim Johnston, cover point Lorne Hannay, rovers Randy McLennan and Dave Fairburn, centre Hector Smith, left winger Norman Watt, and right winger George Kennedy. The Ottawa roster consisted of: goaltender Dave Finnie, points Bones Allen and Harvey Pulford, cover point Art Moore, rover Rat Westwick, centre Frank McGee, left winger Fred White, and right winger Alf Smith. Ottawa's Pulford, Westwick, McGee, and Alf Smith would eventually be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame. The first game started decently for Dawson, being down only 3–1 at the half, but things turned ugly afterwards. Norman Watt of Dawson tripped Ottawa's Art Moore, who retaliated with a stick to the mouth of Watt. Watt promptly knocked Moore out, hitting him on the head with his stick. The game ended 9–2 for Ottawa (the Frank McGee entry says 9-3), with Alf Smith scoring a game-high four goals. The game left a poor taste in the Yukoners, who claimed that several goals were offside. After the game, Watt was quoted as saying that " McGee doesn't look like too much", as McGee had only scored once in the first game. In the second game of the series on January 16, McGee scored 4 goals in the first half and 10 in the second half, leading Ottawa to a 23–2 series-clinching win. This game was, and remains, the most lopsided in Stanley Cup playoff history. McGee's 14-goal game, which included eight consecutive goals scored in less than nine minutes, is still the record for the most goals scored by a single player in a Stanley Cup game or any other major senior hockey game. After the second game, The Globe reported: The visiting team was outclassed to-night quite as decisively as the score indicates. In fact had it not been for the fact of Forrest's presence in the Dawson goal the score against them might have been a great deal larger. Ottawa simply skated away from them at the whistle, and continued to pile up the goals with a merciless monotonous regularity which was farcical in the extreme. Ottawa celebrated its victory by hosting Dawson at a banquet at the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association clubhouse, after which the players took the Cup and attempted to drop-kick it over the Rideau Canal. The stunt was unsuccessful, with the Cup landing on the frozen ice, to be retrieved the next day. The news got worse for McLennan and Watt, who were employed by the Yukon Territory gold commissioner's office when not playing hockey. The day after the second game, the Yukon Territory announced that the pair would be laid off from work, effective immediately, albeit with pay until June 30, 1905. After playing Ottawa, the Nuggets team played a series of exhibition games in the east before returning to the Yukon. 1997 re-enactment Shortly before a 1997 re-enactment, Michael Onesi, a Whitehorse newspaper columnist, wryly commented that had the Dawson team triumphed in 1905, they would have had the longest dynasty in Stanley Cup history. Challenges normally took place in the cup-holder's town, and visiting teams could not effectively play, after the brutal journey by overland coach to Dawson, their bodies blacker than a hockey puck from all the bruises of a dog sled ride. In 1997, a team from Dawson competed against Ottawa Senators alumni in a re-enactment of the 1905 match, this time at the Corel Centre, complete with organ music, spotlights, and other such hullabaloo. The team symbolically recreated the trip to Ottawa, though train service no longer ran between Whitehorse and the Pacific coast. Dawson managed a slight improvement in score: 18–0, with 25 shots-on-goal. The event was held for charity with 45 percent, the Senators' take of receipts, was contributed to the Heart Institute, while the Dawson team donated 25 ounces of gold, or the cash equivalent, to the Yukon Special Olympics, another 45 percent of the receipts. The rest was designated to Yukon Minor Hockey. Notes ^ Falconer 2021, p. 250 ^ Falconer 2021, p. 260 ^ McKinley(2000), pp. 48–49 ^ McKinley(2000), pp. 50–51 ^ McKinley(2000), pg. 51 ^ Powell, James. "Remember This? Dawson City challenges Ottawa for Stanley Cup". ottawamatters.com. 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019. ^ a b McKinley(2000), pg. 52 ^ Fischler 1990, p. 261. ^ "none". The Globe. January 17, 1905. p. 12. ^ "Details as to the Dismissals". Yukon World. January 18, 1905. p. 4. References Falconer, Tim (2021), Klondikers: Dawson City's Stanley Cup Challenge and How a Nation Fell in Love with Hockey, Toronto, Ontario: ECW Press, ISBN 978-1-77041-607-9 Fischler, Stan (1990). Golden ice : the greatest teams in hockey history. Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-07-549963-0. McKinley, Michael (1998). Etched in Ice. Vancouver, British Columbia: Greystone Books. ISBN 1-55054-654-6. McKinley, Michael (2000). Putting a roof on winter. Vancouver, British Columbia: Greystone Books. ISBN 1-55054-798-4. Authority control databases International VIAF National United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dawson_City_Nuggets.png"},{"link_name":"Dey's Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dey%27s_Arena"},{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"Dawson City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawson_City"},{"link_name":"Ottawa Hockey Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Senators_(original)"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cup"},{"link_name":"dog sled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dog_sled"},{"link_name":"Frank McGee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_McGee_(ice_hockey)"}],"text":"Group photo of the Dawson City Nuggets on January 14, 1905, posed outside Dey's ArenaThe Dawson City Nuggets (also known as the Klondikes) were an ice hockey team from Dawson City, Yukon, that challenged the reigning champion Ottawa Hockey Club, aka \"the Silver Seven\", in January 1905, for the Stanley Cup. The Dawson City team was composed of hockey players from the city, most of whom did not have any elite hockey experience. The Nuggets made the 4,000 mile (6,400 km) journey to Ottawa over several weeks, travelling by dog sled, bicycle, foot, train, and ship. They arrived in time to play the best-of-three game series. In the first game, Ottawa defeated Dawson City 9–2. In the second game, Ottawa defeated Dawson City 23–2 to win the series. The second game remains the most lopsided game in Stanley Cup playoff history. Ottawa's Frank McGee scored 14 goals alone in the second game, which is a record for a player in a Stanley Cup playoff game.","title":"Dawson City Nuggets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1904–05 Ottawa Hockey Club season § Ottawa vs. Dawson_City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1904%E2%80%9305_Ottawa_Hockey_Club_season#Ottawa_vs._Dawson_City"}],"text":"Further information: 1904–05 Ottawa Hockey Club season § Ottawa vs. Dawson_City","title":"1905 Stanley Cup challenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silver7.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stanley Cup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_Cup"},{"link_name":"Ottawa Hockey Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Hockey_Club"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Joseph W. Boyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_W._Boyle"},{"link_name":"Yukon gold rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon_gold_rush"},{"link_name":"Weldy Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weldy_Young"},{"link_name":"Montreal Victorias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal_Victorias"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"sub_title":"Background","text":"The Ottawa Hockey Club in 1905The Nuggets issued a Stanley Cup challenge against the reigning champion Ottawa Hockey Club, known at the time as \"The Silver Seven\", in the summer of 1904.[1] Ottawa accepted the challenge in October.[2] The Dawson City team was sponsored and managed by the Klondike entrepreneur Joseph W. Boyle, and it was composed of men from the mining camps during the tail-end of the Yukon gold rush. Dawson City had two former elite hockey players, Weldy Young who had played for Ottawa in the 1890s and Randy McLennan who had played for Queen's College against the Montreal Victorias in the challenge of 1895. Other players were selected from other Dawson City clubs.Dawson City's challenge was accepted in the summer of 1904 by the Stanley Cup trustees, scheduled (inauspiciously) to start on Friday, January 13, 1905. It was to be a best-of-three series. The date of the challenge meant that Young had to travel later, as he had to work in a federal election that December, and meet the club in Ottawa.[3] Some historians have since questioned why Dawson City was even granted a chance at the Cup, as Dawson City had won no championships and did not belong to any recognized senior league. On the other hand, Ottawa had considerable championship experience, having defeated all challengers since winning the Stanley Cup in March 1903.To get to Ottawa, 4,000 miles (6,400 km) away, the Dawson City club would have to get to Whitehorse (which was approximately 600 km away) by road, catch a train from there to Skagway, Alaska, then catch a steamer to Vancouver, and a train from there to Ottawa. On December 18, 1904 several players set out by dog sled and the rest left the next day by bicycle for a 330-mile trek to Whitehorse. At first the team made good progress, but the weather turned warm enough to thaw the roads, meaning the players had to walk several hundred miles. The team spent the nights in police sheds along the road. At Whitehorse, the weather turned bad, causing the trains not to run for three days, causing the Nuggets to miss their steamer in Skagway. The next one could not dock for three days due to the ice buildup. The club found the sea journey treacherous, causing seasickness amongst the team. When the steamer reached Vancouver, the area was too fogged in to dock, and the steamer docked in Seattle. The team from there caught a train to Vancouver, and finally left Vancouver on January 6, 1905, arriving in Ottawa on January 11. However Young would not arrive in Ottawa on time to play for Dawson. [4]Despite the difficult journey, the Ottawa squad refused to change the date of the first game, only two days away. Otherwise, Ottawa was hospitable. The Klondikers received a huge welcome at the train station, had a welcoming dinner, and used the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Club's rooms for the duration of their stay. [5]","title":"1905 Stanley Cup challenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dave Finnie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Finnie"},{"link_name":"Bones Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bones_Allen"},{"link_name":"Harvey Pulford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvey_Pulford"},{"link_name":"Art Moore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_A._C._Moore"},{"link_name":"Rat Westwick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rat_Westwick"},{"link_name":"Frank McGee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_McGee_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"Alf Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alf_Smith_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Hockey Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hockey_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Frank McGee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank_McGee_(ice_hockey)"},{"link_name":"offside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Offside_(sport)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckinley-52-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischler1990261-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gm19050117-9"},{"link_name":"drop-kick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drop-kick"},{"link_name":"Rideau Canal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rideau_Canal"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mckinley-52-7"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"sub_title":"Series","text":"Eight men played for each team during the best-of-three series. The Dawson City roster consisted of: goaltender Albert Forrest, point Jim Johnston, cover point Lorne Hannay, rovers Randy McLennan and Dave Fairburn, centre Hector Smith, left winger Norman Watt, and right winger George Kennedy. The Ottawa roster consisted of: goaltender Dave Finnie, points Bones Allen and Harvey Pulford, cover point Art Moore, rover Rat Westwick, centre Frank McGee, left winger Fred White, and right winger Alf Smith.[6] Ottawa's Pulford, Westwick, McGee, and Alf Smith would eventually be inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.The first game started decently for Dawson, being down only 3–1 at the half, but things turned ugly afterwards. Norman Watt of Dawson tripped Ottawa's Art Moore, who retaliated with a stick to the mouth of Watt. Watt promptly knocked Moore out, hitting him on the head with his stick. The game ended 9–2 for Ottawa (the Frank McGee entry says 9-3), with Alf Smith scoring a game-high four goals. The game left a poor taste in the Yukoners, who claimed that several goals were offside.[7]After the game, Watt was quoted as saying that \"[Frank] McGee doesn't look like too much\", as McGee had only scored once in the first game.[8] In the second game of the series on January 16, McGee scored 4 goals in the first half and 10 in the second half, leading Ottawa to a 23–2 series-clinching win. This game was, and remains, the most lopsided in Stanley Cup playoff history. McGee's 14-goal game, which included eight consecutive goals scored in less than nine minutes, is still the record for the most goals scored by a single player in a Stanley Cup game or any other major senior hockey game.After the second game, The Globe reported:The visiting team was outclassed to-night quite as decisively as the score indicates. In fact had it not been for the fact of Forrest's presence in the Dawson goal the score against them might have been a great deal larger. Ottawa simply skated away from them at the whistle, and continued to pile up the goals with a merciless monotonous regularity which was farcical in the extreme.[9]Ottawa celebrated its victory by hosting Dawson at a banquet at the Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association clubhouse, after which the players took the Cup and attempted to drop-kick it over the Rideau Canal. The stunt was unsuccessful, with the Cup landing on the frozen ice, to be retrieved the next day.[7]The news got worse for McLennan and Watt, who were employed by the Yukon Territory gold commissioner's office when not playing hockey. The day after the second game, the Yukon Territory announced that the pair would be laid off from work, effective immediately, albeit with pay until June 30, 1905.[10] After playing Ottawa, the Nuggets team played a series of exhibition games in the east before returning to the Yukon.","title":"1905 Stanley Cup challenge"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ottawa Senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Senators"},{"link_name":"Corel Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corel_Centre"}],"text":"Shortly before a 1997 re-enactment, Michael Onesi, a Whitehorse newspaper columnist, wryly commented that had the Dawson team triumphed in 1905, they would have had the longest dynasty in Stanley Cup history. Challenges normally took place in the cup-holder's town, and visiting teams could not effectively play, after the brutal journey by overland coach to Dawson, their bodies blacker than a hockey puck from all the bruises of a dog sled ride.In 1997, a team from Dawson competed against Ottawa Senators alumni in a re-enactment of the 1905 match, this time at the Corel Centre, complete with organ music, spotlights, and other such hullabaloo. The team symbolically recreated the trip to Ottawa, though train service no longer ran between Whitehorse and the Pacific coast. Dawson managed a slight improvement in score: 18–0, with 25 shots-on-goal. The event was held for charity with 45 percent, the Senators' take of receipts, was contributed to the Heart Institute, while the Dawson team donated 25 ounces of gold, or the cash equivalent, to the Yukon Special Olympics, another 45 percent of the receipts. The rest was designated to Yukon Minor Hockey.","title":"1997 re-enactment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Falconer 2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFalconer2021"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"Falconer 2021","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFalconer2021"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"Remember This? Dawson City challenges Ottawa for Stanley Cup\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ottawamatters.com/remember-this/remember-this-dawson-city-challenges-ottawa-for-stanley-cup-1194838"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mckinley-52_7-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-mckinley-52_7-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFischler1990261_8-0"},{"link_name":"Fischler 1990","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFFischler1990"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-gm19050117_9-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"}],"text":"^ Falconer 2021, p. 250\n\n^ Falconer 2021, p. 260\n\n^ McKinley(2000), pp. 48–49\n\n^ McKinley(2000), pp. 50–51\n\n^ McKinley(2000), pg. 51\n\n^ Powell, James. \"Remember This? Dawson City challenges Ottawa for Stanley Cup\". ottawamatters.com. 14 January 2019. Retrieved 14 May 2019.\n\n^ a b McKinley(2000), pg. 52\n\n^ Fischler 1990, p. 261.\n\n^ \"none\". The Globe. January 17, 1905. p. 12.\n\n^ \"Details as to the Dismissals\". Yukon World. January 18, 1905. p. 4.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"Group photo of the Dawson City Nuggets on January 14, 1905, posed outside Dey's Arena","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Dawson_City_Nuggets.png/300px-Dawson_City_Nuggets.png"},{"image_text":"The Ottawa Hockey Club in 1905","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Silver7.jpg/300px-Silver7.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"none\". The Globe. January 17, 1905. p. 12.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Details as to the Dismissals\". Yukon World. January 18, 1905. p. 4.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Falconer, Tim (2021), Klondikers: Dawson City's Stanley Cup Challenge and How a Nation Fell in Love with Hockey, Toronto, Ontario: ECW Press, ISBN 978-1-77041-607-9","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECW_Press","url_text":"ECW Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-77041-607-9","url_text":"978-1-77041-607-9"}]},{"reference":"Fischler, Stan (1990). Golden ice : the greatest teams in hockey history. Toronto, Ontario: McGraw-Hill Ryerson. ISBN 0-07-549963-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_Fischler","url_text":"Fischler, Stan"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/goldenicegreates00fisc","url_text":"Golden ice : the greatest teams in hockey history"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ryerson_Press","url_text":"McGraw-Hill Ryerson"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-549963-0","url_text":"0-07-549963-0"}]},{"reference":"McKinley, Michael (1998). Etched in Ice. Vancouver, British Columbia: Greystone Books. ISBN 1-55054-654-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/etchedinicetribu00mcki","url_text":"Etched in Ice"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greystone_Books","url_text":"Greystone Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55054-654-6","url_text":"1-55054-654-6"}]},{"reference":"McKinley, Michael (2000). Putting a roof on winter. Vancouver, British Columbia: Greystone Books. ISBN 1-55054-798-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/puttingroofonwin0000mcki","url_text":"Putting a roof on winter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greystone_Books","url_text":"Greystone Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55054-798-4","url_text":"1-55054-798-4"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.ottawamatters.com/remember-this/remember-this-dawson-city-challenges-ottawa-for-stanley-cup-1194838","external_links_name":"\"Remember This? 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argininosuccinic_acid	Argininosuccinic acid	["1 Reactions","2 Synonyms","3 See also","4 References"]	Argininosuccinic acid Names IUPAC name N-amino}(imino)methyl]-L-aspartic acid Identifiers CAS Number 2387-71-5 N 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChemSpider 16059 Y IUPHAR/BPS 5324 PubChem CID 16950 UNII T67NZ5MU4H Y CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID80178574 InChI InChI=1S/C10H18N4O6/c11-5(8(17)18)2-1-3-13-10(12)14-6(9(19)20)4-7(15)16/h5-6H,1-4,11H2,(H,15,16)(H,17,18)(H,19,20)(H3,12,13,14)/t5-,6-/m0/s1 YKey: KDZOASGQNOPSCU-WDSKDSINSA-N YInChI=1/C10H18N4O6/c11-5(8(17)18)2-1-3-13-10(12)14-6(9(19)20)4-7(15)16/h5-6H,1-4,11H2,(H,15,16)(H,17,18)(H,19,20)(H3,12,13,14)/t5-,6-/m0/s1Key: KDZOASGQNOPSCU-WDSKDSINBJ SMILES O=C(O)C(C(=O)O)NC(=N/CCC(N)C(=O)O)/N Properties Chemical formula C10H18N4O6 Molar mass 290.27312 Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound Argininosuccinic acid is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that is an important intermediate in the urea cycle. Reactions Some cells synthesize argininosuccinic acid from citrulline and aspartic acid and use it as a precursor for arginine in the urea cycle or citrulline-NO cycle. The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is argininosuccinate synthetase. Argininosuccinic acid is a precursor to fumarate in the citric acid cycle via argininosuccinate lyase. Synonyms Argininosuccinate See also Succinic acid References ^ Ganetzky, Rebecca D.; Bedoukian, Emma; Deardorff, Matthew A.; Ficicioglu, Can (2017). "Argininosuccinic Acid Lyase Deficiency Missed by Newborn Screen". JIMD Reports. 34: 43–47. doi:10.1007/8904_2016_2. ISBN 978-3-662-55585-9. ISSN 2192-8304. PMC 5509549. PMID 27515243. ^ González-Noriega, A.; Verduzco, J.; Prieto, E.; Velázquez, A. (1980). "Argininosuccinic acid synthetase deficiency in a hamster cell line and its complementation of argininosuccinic aciduria human fibroblasts". Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 3 (2): 45–48. doi:10.1007/BF02312521. ISSN 0141-8955. PMID 6777600. S2CID 27912636. ^ Nakata, M.; Yada, T.; Nakagawa, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Maruyama, I. (1997-06-27). "Citrulline-argininosuccinate-arginine cycle coupled to Ca2+-signaling in rat pancreatic beta-cells". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 235 (3): 619–624. doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.6854. ISSN 0006-291X. PMID 9207208. ^ Nagamani, Sandesh C. Sreenath; Erez, Ayelet; Lee, Brendan (1993), Adam, Margaret P.; Everman, David B.; Mirzaa, Ghayda M.; Pagon, Roberta A. (eds.), "Argininosuccinate Lyase Deficiency", GeneReviews®, Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle, PMID 21290785, retrieved 2023-01-01 ^ PubChem. "Argininosuccinate". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2023-01-01. vteUrea cycle Metabolic Pathway Carbamoyl phosphate L-citrulline Pi L-ornithine Urea L-aspartate + ATP PPi + AMP H2O L-argininosuccinate L-arginine Fumarate	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"non-proteinogenic amino acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-proteinogenic_amino_acid"},{"link_name":"urea cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea_cycle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Chemical compoundArgininosuccinic acid is a non-proteinogenic amino acid that is an important intermediate in the urea cycle. [1]","title":"Argininosuccinic acid"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citrulline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citrulline"},{"link_name":"aspartic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspartic_acid"},{"link_name":"arginine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arginine"},{"link_name":"urea cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urea_cycle"},{"link_name":"citrulline-NO cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Citrulline-NO_cycle&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"argininosuccinate synthetase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argininosuccinate_synthetase"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"fumarate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumarate"},{"link_name":"citric acid cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citric_acid_cycle"},{"link_name":"argininosuccinate lyase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argininosuccinate_lyase"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Some cells synthesize argininosuccinic acid from citrulline and aspartic acid and use it as a precursor for arginine in the urea cycle or citrulline-NO cycle. The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is argininosuccinate synthetase.[2][3]Argininosuccinic acid is a precursor to fumarate in the citric acid cycle via argininosuccinate lyase.[4]","title":"Reactions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Argininosuccinate[5]","title":"Synonyms"}]	[]	[{"title":"Succinic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succinic_acid"}]	[{"reference":"Ganetzky, Rebecca D.; Bedoukian, Emma; Deardorff, Matthew A.; Ficicioglu, Can (2017). \"Argininosuccinic Acid Lyase Deficiency Missed by Newborn Screen\". JIMD Reports. 34: 43–47. doi:10.1007/8904_2016_2. ISBN 978-3-662-55585-9. ISSN 2192-8304. PMC 5509549. PMID 27515243.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5509549","url_text":"\"Argininosuccinic Acid Lyase Deficiency Missed by Newborn Screen\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F8904_2016_2","url_text":"10.1007/8904_2016_2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-662-55585-9","url_text":"978-3-662-55585-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2192-8304","url_text":"2192-8304"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5509549","url_text":"5509549"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27515243","url_text":"27515243"}]},{"reference":"González-Noriega, A.; Verduzco, J.; Prieto, E.; Velázquez, A. (1980). \"Argininosuccinic acid synthetase deficiency in a hamster cell line and its complementation of argininosuccinic aciduria human fibroblasts\". Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease. 3 (2): 45–48. doi:10.1007/BF02312521. ISSN 0141-8955. PMID 6777600. S2CID 27912636.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6777600/","url_text":"\"Argininosuccinic acid synthetase deficiency in a hamster cell line and its complementation of argininosuccinic aciduria human fibroblasts\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02312521","url_text":"10.1007/BF02312521"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0141-8955","url_text":"0141-8955"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6777600","url_text":"6777600"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27912636","url_text":"27912636"}]},{"reference":"Nakata, M.; Yada, T.; Nakagawa, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Maruyama, I. (1997-06-27). \"Citrulline-argininosuccinate-arginine cycle coupled to Ca2+-signaling in rat pancreatic beta-cells\". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 235 (3): 619–624. doi:10.1006/bbrc.1997.6854. ISSN 0006-291X. PMID 9207208.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9207208/","url_text":"\"Citrulline-argininosuccinate-arginine cycle coupled to Ca2+-signaling in rat pancreatic beta-cells\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fbbrc.1997.6854","url_text":"10.1006/bbrc.1997.6854"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0006-291X","url_text":"0006-291X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9207208","url_text":"9207208"}]},{"reference":"Nagamani, Sandesh C. Sreenath; Erez, Ayelet; Lee, Brendan (1993), Adam, Margaret P.; Everman, David B.; Mirzaa, Ghayda M.; Pagon, Roberta A. (eds.), \"Argininosuccinate Lyase Deficiency\", GeneReviews®, Seattle (WA): University of Washington, Seattle, PMID 21290785, retrieved 2023-01-01","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK51784/","url_text":"\"Argininosuccinate Lyase Deficiency\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21290785","url_text":"21290785"}]},{"reference":"PubChem. \"Argininosuccinate\". pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov. Retrieved 2023-01-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/828","url_text":"\"Argininosuccinate\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=2387-71-5","external_links_name":"2387-71-5"},{"Link":"https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=O%3DC%28O%29C%5BC%40%40H%5D%28C%28%3DO%29O%29NC%28%3DN%2FCCC%5BC%40H%5D%28N%29C%28%3DO%29O%29%2FN","external_links_name":"Interactive image"},{"Link":"https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.16059.html","external_links_name":"16059"},{"Link":"http://www.guidetopharmacology.org/GRAC/LigandDisplayForward?tab=summary&ligandId=5324","external_links_name":"5324"},{"Link":"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/16950","external_links_name":"16950"},{"Link":"https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/T67NZ5MU4H","external_links_name":"T67NZ5MU4H"},{"Link":"https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID80178574","external_links_name":"DTXSID80178574"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:ComparePages&rev1=457813295&page2=Argininosuccinic+acid","external_links_name":"verify"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5509549","external_links_name":"\"Argininosuccinic Acid Lyase Deficiency Missed by Newborn Screen\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F8904_2016_2","external_links_name":"10.1007/8904_2016_2"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/2192-8304","external_links_name":"2192-8304"},{"Link":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5509549","external_links_name":"5509549"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27515243","external_links_name":"27515243"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6777600/","external_links_name":"\"Argininosuccinic acid synthetase deficiency in a hamster cell line and its complementation of argininosuccinic aciduria human fibroblasts\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF02312521","external_links_name":"10.1007/BF02312521"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0141-8955","external_links_name":"0141-8955"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6777600","external_links_name":"6777600"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27912636","external_links_name":"27912636"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9207208/","external_links_name":"\"Citrulline-argininosuccinate-arginine cycle coupled to Ca2+-signaling in rat pancreatic beta-cells\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fbbrc.1997.6854","external_links_name":"10.1006/bbrc.1997.6854"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0006-291X","external_links_name":"0006-291X"},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9207208","external_links_name":"9207208"},{"Link":"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK51784/","external_links_name":"\"Argininosuccinate Lyase Deficiency\""},{"Link":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21290785","external_links_name":"21290785"},{"Link":"https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/828","external_links_name":"\"Argininosuccinate\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shena_Simon	Shena Simon, Baroness Simon of Wythenshawe	["1 Early years","2 Career","3 Publications","4 References","5 Further reading"]	English politician, feminist, educationalist and writer The Right HonourableThe Lady Simon of WythenshawePersonal detailsBornShena Dorothy Potter(1883-10-21)21 October 1883Croydon, EnglandDied17 July 1972(1972-07-17) (aged 88)Manchester, EnglandSpouseErnest Simon, 1st Baron Simon of WythenshaweChildren3, including Roger Simon, 2nd Baron Simon of Wythenshawe and Brian SimonOccupationPoliticianfeministeducationalistwriter Shena Dorothy Simon, Baroness Simon of Wythenshawe (21 October 1883 – 17 July 1972), was an English politician, feminist, educationalist and writer. Early years Shena Dorothy Potter was born on 21 October 1883, daughter of John Wilson Potter and Jane Boyd Potter. She had a privileged upbringing in a liberal, upper-middle-class family. Although she studied at Newnham College, Cambridge and then the London School of Economics, she was not granted a formal degree since the University of Cambridge did not grant full membership to women until 1946. She received an Ad eundem degree from Trinity College Dublin as a 'Steamboat lady'. In 1911 Shena Potter became secretary of a committee for safeguarding women's rights under David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act 1911. She was introduced to Ernest Simon by Sydney and Beatrice Webb, who thought she would make an ideal wife for him. Ernest was the son of Henry Gustav Simon, a wealthy Victorian industrialist. Shena married him in 1912, and they had two sons, Roger and Brian, and a daughter, Antonia. Career Simon founded the Women Citizens' Association in Manchester, a local branch of the National Women Citizens' Association. Her husband was Lord Mayor of Manchester from 1921 to 1922. As Lady Mayoress, Simon caused a stir by refusing to attend a function at St Mary's Hospital for Women because there were no women on the Board or among the medical staff. Shena Simon was a member of the Manchester City Council from 1924 to 1933, when she was voted out by the Conservatives. She was a member of the Royal Committee on Licensing in 1929 and a member of the Manchester Estate Council from 1931 to 1933. Blue Plaque In 1926, Shena and Ernest Simon donated the Wythenshawe Park to the city of Manchester for use of the people living on the Wythenshawe estate. She felt that parks were important, and later was to observe that there was a severe shortage of such open space in Manchester. She devoted much energy to planning the Wythenshawe housing estate, but her recommendations were not always practical. For example, she fought for glazing bars in windows since they would make the housing more cottage-like in appearance, although the windows would be harder to clean. She accepted the conventional division of labour between men and women, at least for the working classes, where the woman minded the home. She became Chairperson of the Education Committee 1932–1933. From 1933 she was actively involved in the Spens Report on secondary education reform, serving as a representative of the Local Education Authorities. On the committee she argued forcefully for abolition of fees in secondary schools, although she could not always get her way. In 1933 Simon, her husband and Eva Marian Hubback co-founded the Association for Education in Citizenship. Her husband was knighted in 1932. He became chairman of the council of Victoria University of Manchester in 1939, was a sponsor of construction of the Jodrell Bank Observatory, and from 1947 to 1952 was chairman of the BBC. Lady Simon became a member of the Labour Party in 1935, and was appointed to the Departmental Committee on Valuation of Dwelling Houses in 1938. She was Chair of the Further Education Sub-Committee for seven years. In 1946 she became Chair of the Education Advisory Committee of the Workers Educational Associations. In 1964 she was made a freeman of the city. Speaking at that occasion, she said: "Happiness, a much more fundamental conception than mere enjoyment or pleasure, depends upon the existence of life and liberty, but it cannot be pursued by the individual unless he has had a chance to develop, first as a child, and then as an adult, all his interests and faculties, varied as they are between each member of society. I do not for a moment suggest that we are even yet in sight of that goal, but that it must be our "guiding light" has been my belief for the forty years that I have been a member of the Education Committee". Shena Simon died on 17 July 1972. The Shena Simon Campus of The Manchester College is named after her. Publications Shena Simon was co-author with her husband Ernest Simon, William Alexander Robson and John Jewkes of the 1937 book Moscow in the Making. In 1939 Shena Simon published her book A Hundred Years of City Government, Manchester 1838–1938. She was also the author of several pamphlets on education. For example, in 1944 she published The four freedoms in secondary education. The Fabian Society published her pamphlet on The Education Act, 1944,: Provisions and possibilities in 1945. Her pamphlet Three Schools or One? (1948) called for establishment of multilateral or comprehensive schools. References ^ a b c d e f g h i "SIMON, Shena Dorothy (1883–1972), Lady Simon of Wythenshawe". Archives in London and the M25 area. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ a b Jane Martin. "Beyond Suffrage: feminism, education and the politics of class in the inter-war years" (PDF). Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ Parkes, Susan M. "Steamboat ladies". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 April 2021. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.) ^ a b Andrew Davies; Steven Fielding (1992). Workers' Worlds: Cultures and Communities in Manchester and Salford, 1880–1939. Manchester University Press ND. p. 81ff. ISBN 0-7190-2543-5. ^ a b c John J. Parkinson-Bailey (2000). Manchester: an architectural history. Manchester University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0-7190-5606-3. ^ Gary McCulloch; Tom Woodin (April 2010). "Learning and liberal education: the case of the Simon family, 1912–1939". Oxford Review of Education. 36 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1080/03054981003696697. S2CID 145082951. ^ "Manchester Public Parks & Gardens". Manchester UK. Archived from the original on 22 September 2007. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ Ian R. Taylor; Karen Evans; Penny Fraser (1996). A tale of two cities: global change, local feeling and everyday life in the North of England : a study in Manchester and Sheffield. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 0-415-13828-0. ^ Joyce Goodman; Sylvia A. Harrop (2000). Women, educational policy-making, and administration in England: authoritative women since 1800. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 0-415-19858-5. ^ Eugenio F. Biagini (2002). Citizenship and Community: Liberals, Radicals and Collective Identities in the British Isles, 1865–1931. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-89360-7. ^ "Simon Building, the University of Manchester". Our Manchester. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ Ernest Darwin Simon, Shena Dorothy (Potter) Simon (lady), William Alexander Robson, John Jewkes (1937). Moscow in the making. Longmans, Green and co. pp. 252 pages.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) ^ "The four freedoms in secondary education". University of Manchester. 1944. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ "Books " Antiquarian, Rare & Collectable " By Subject " "Fabian Society"". Amazon UK. Retrieved 17 December 2010. ^ "Three Schools or One?". London Metropolitan University. Retrieved 17 December 2010. Further reading Joan Simon (1986). Shena Simon: Feminist and Educationist. privately printed. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Netherlands People Trove Other SNAC IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"feminist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminism"}],"text":"Shena Dorothy Simon, Baroness Simon of Wythenshawe (21 October 1883 – 17 July 1972), was an English politician, feminist, educationalist and writer.","title":"Shena Simon, Baroness Simon of Wythenshawe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"upper-middle-class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_United_Kingdom#Upper_middle_class"},{"link_name":"Newnham College, Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newnham_College,_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"London School of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_School_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"University of Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin-2"},{"link_name":"Ad eundem degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_eundem_degree"},{"link_name":"Trinity College Dublin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_College_Dublin"},{"link_name":"Steamboat lady","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steamboat_ladies"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"David Lloyd George","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Lloyd_George"},{"link_name":"National Insurance Act 1911","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Insurance_Act_1911"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"Ernest Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest_Simon,_1st_Baron_Simon_of_Wythenshawe"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sidney_Webb,_1st_Baron_Passfield"},{"link_name":"Beatrice Webb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beatrice_Webb"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies1992-4"},{"link_name":"Henry Gustav Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Gustav_Simon"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ParkinsonBailey2000-5"},{"link_name":"Roger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Simon,_2nd_Baron_Simon_of_Wythenshawe"},{"link_name":"Brian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Simon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McCulloch2010-6"}],"text":"Shena Dorothy Potter was born on 21 October 1883, daughter of John Wilson Potter and Jane Boyd Potter.[1]\nShe had a privileged upbringing in a liberal, upper-middle-class family. \nAlthough she studied at Newnham College, Cambridge and then the London School of Economics, she was not granted a formal degree since the University of Cambridge did not grant full membership to women until 1946.[2] She received an Ad eundem degree from Trinity College Dublin as a 'Steamboat lady'.[3]In 1911 Shena Potter became secretary of a committee for safeguarding women's rights under David Lloyd George's National Insurance Act 1911.[1]\nShe was introduced to Ernest Simon by Sydney and Beatrice Webb, who thought she would make an ideal wife for him.[4]\nErnest was the son of Henry Gustav Simon, a wealthy Victorian industrialist.[5]\nShena married him in 1912, and they had two sons, Roger and Brian, and a daughter, Antonia.[1][6]","title":"Early years"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Mayor of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Mayors_and_Lord_Mayors_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"St Mary's Hospital for Women","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Mary%27s_Hospital,_Manchester"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"Manchester City Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_City_Council"},{"link_name":"Conservatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WH_Plaque.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wythenshawe Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wythenshawe_Hall"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ManchesterParks-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Wythenshawe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wythenshawe"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies1992-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"Spens Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spens_Report"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goodman2000-9"},{"link_name":"Eva Marian Hubback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eva_Marian_Hubback"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Biagini2002-10"},{"link_name":"Victoria University of Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_University_of_Manchester"},{"link_name":"Jodrell Bank Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jodrell_Bank_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ParkinsonBailey2000-5"},{"link_name":"Labour Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labour_Party_(UK)"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ParkinsonBailey2000-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Martin-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"Shena Simon Campus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shena_Simon_Campus"},{"link_name":"The Manchester College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Manchester_College"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OurManchester-11"}],"text":"Simon founded the Women Citizens' Association in Manchester, a local branch of the National Women Citizens' Association.\nHer husband was Lord Mayor of Manchester from 1921 to 1922.\nAs Lady Mayoress, Simon caused a stir by refusing to attend a function at St Mary's Hospital for Women because there were no women on the Board or among the medical staff.[1]\nShena Simon was a member of the Manchester City Council from 1924 to 1933, when she was voted out by the Conservatives.\nShe was a member of the Royal Committee on Licensing in 1929 and a member of the Manchester Estate Council from 1931 to 1933.[1]Blue PlaqueIn 1926, Shena and Ernest Simon donated the Wythenshawe Park to the city of Manchester for use of the people living on the Wythenshawe estate.[7]\nShe felt that parks were important, and later was to observe that there was a severe shortage of such open space in Manchester.[8] \nShe devoted much energy to planning the Wythenshawe housing estate, but her recommendations were not always practical. For example, she fought for glazing bars in windows since they would make the housing more cottage-like in appearance, although the windows would be harder to clean. She accepted the conventional division of labour between men and women, at least for the working classes, where the woman minded the home.[4]She became Chairperson of the Education Committee 1932–1933.[1] From 1933 she was actively involved in the Spens Report on secondary education reform, serving as a representative of the Local Education Authorities. On the committee she argued forcefully for abolition of fees in secondary schools, although she could not always get her way.[9]\nIn 1933 Simon, her husband and Eva Marian Hubback co-founded the Association for Education in Citizenship.[10]Her husband was knighted in 1932. He became chairman of the council of Victoria University of Manchester in 1939, was a sponsor of construction of the Jodrell Bank Observatory, and from 1947 to 1952 was chairman of the BBC.[5]\nLady Simon became a member of the Labour Party in 1935, and was appointed to the Departmental Committee on Valuation of Dwelling Houses in 1938. \nShe was Chair of the Further Education Sub-Committee for seven years. In 1946 she became Chair of the Education Advisory Committee of the Workers Educational Associations.[1] In 1964 she was made a freeman of the city.[5]\nSpeaking at that occasion, she said:\"Happiness, a much more fundamental conception than mere enjoyment or pleasure, depends upon the existence of life and liberty, but it cannot be pursued by the individual unless he has had a chance to develop, first as a child, and then as an adult, all his interests and faculties, varied as they are between each member of society. I do not for a moment suggest that we are even yet in sight of that goal, but that it must be our \"guiding light\" has been my belief for the forty years that I have been a member of the Education Committee\".[2]Shena Simon died on 17 July 1972.[1] The Shena Simon Campus of The Manchester College is named after her.[11]","title":"Career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Alexander Robson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Alexander_Robson"},{"link_name":"John Jewkes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Jewkes_(economist)"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Archive25-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Fabian Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabian_Society"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Shena Simon was co-author with her husband Ernest Simon, William Alexander Robson and John Jewkes of the 1937 book Moscow in the Making.[12]\nIn 1939 Shena Simon published her book A Hundred Years of City Government, Manchester 1838–1938.\nShe was also the author of several pamphlets on education.[1]\nFor example, in 1944 she published The four freedoms in secondary education.[13]\nThe Fabian Society published her pamphlet on The Education Act, 1944,: Provisions and possibilities in 1945.[14]\nHer pamphlet Three Schools or One? (1948) called for establishment of multilateral or comprehensive schools.[15]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joan Simon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Simon"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7494146#identifiers"},{"link_name":"ISNI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isni.org/isni/0000000039206314"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/66004819"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJgt8x3CQJK3Y4gvCQFh73"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/1193740185"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2008022208"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p130241636"},{"link_name":"Trove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//trove.nla.gov.au/people/1528773"},{"link_name":"SNAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w67f827g"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/182232409"}],"text":"Joan Simon (1986). Shena Simon: Feminist and Educationist. privately printed.Authority control databases International\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nGermany\nUnited States\nNetherlands\nPeople\nTrove\nOther\nSNAC\nIdRef","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"Blue Plaque","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/WH_Plaque.jpg/150px-WH_Plaque.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"SIMON, Shena Dorothy (1883–1972), Lady Simon of Wythenshawe\". Archives in London and the M25 area. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=10340&inst_id=65&nv1=search&nv2=","url_text":"\"SIMON, Shena Dorothy (1883–1972), Lady Simon of Wythenshawe\""}]},{"reference":"Jane Martin. \"Beyond Suffrage: feminism, education and the politics of class in the inter-war years\" (PDF). Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/2166/1/BJSE_Martin_Mar_08beyond_suffrage.pdf","url_text":"\"Beyond Suffrage: feminism, education and the politics of class in the inter-war years\""}]},{"reference":"Parkes, Susan M. \"Steamboat ladies\". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 23 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/61643","url_text":"\"Steamboat ladies\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography","url_text":"Oxford Dictionary of National Biography"}]},{"reference":"Andrew Davies; Steven Fielding (1992). Workers' Worlds: Cultures and Communities in Manchester and Salford, 1880–1939. Manchester University Press ND. p. 81ff. ISBN 0-7190-2543-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8JjIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98","url_text":"Workers' Worlds: Cultures and Communities in Manchester and Salford, 1880–1939"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-2543-5","url_text":"0-7190-2543-5"}]},{"reference":"John J. Parkinson-Bailey (2000). Manchester: an architectural history. Manchester University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0-7190-5606-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ush5WC9BM_gC&pg=RA2-PA307","url_text":"Manchester: an architectural history"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5606-3","url_text":"0-7190-5606-3"}]},{"reference":"Gary McCulloch; Tom Woodin (April 2010). \"Learning and liberal education: the case of the Simon family, 1912–1939\". Oxford Review of Education. 36 (2): 187–201. doi:10.1080/03054981003696697. S2CID 145082951.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03054981003696697","url_text":"10.1080/03054981003696697"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145082951","url_text":"145082951"}]},{"reference":"\"Manchester Public Parks & Gardens\". Manchester UK. Archived from the original on 22 September 2007. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070922182525/http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/daytrips/parks-gardens.html","url_text":"\"Manchester Public Parks & Gardens\""},{"url":"http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/daytrips/parks-gardens.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ian R. Taylor; Karen Evans; Penny Fraser (1996). A tale of two cities: global change, local feeling and everyday life in the North of England : a study in Manchester and Sheffield. Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 0-415-13828-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rdFg3mkO9OYC&pg=PA84","url_text":"A tale of two cities: global change, local feeling and everyday life in the North of England : a study in Manchester and Sheffield"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-13828-0","url_text":"0-415-13828-0"}]},{"reference":"Joyce Goodman; Sylvia A. Harrop (2000). Women, educational policy-making, and administration in England: authoritative women since 1800. Routledge. p. 168. ISBN 0-415-19858-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=z0Db5egIAZoC&pg=PA168","url_text":"Women, educational policy-making, and administration in England: authoritative women since 1800"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-19858-5","url_text":"0-415-19858-5"}]},{"reference":"Eugenio F. Biagini (2002). Citizenship and Community: Liberals, Radicals and Collective Identities in the British Isles, 1865–1931. Cambridge University Press. p. 72. ISBN 0-521-89360-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UTDauLdA5lAC&pg=PA72","url_text":"Citizenship and Community: Liberals, Radicals and Collective Identities in the British Isles, 1865–1931"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-89360-7","url_text":"0-521-89360-7"}]},{"reference":"\"Simon Building, the University of Manchester\". Our Manchester. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://manchesterhistory.net/manchester/tours/tour8/area8Bpage34.html","url_text":"\"Simon Building, the University of Manchester\""}]},{"reference":"Ernest Darwin Simon, Shena Dorothy (Potter) Simon (lady), William Alexander Robson, John Jewkes (1937). Moscow in the making. Longmans, Green and co. pp. 252 pages.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hIQwAAAAIAAJ","url_text":"Moscow in the making"}]},{"reference":"\"The four freedoms in secondary education\". University of Manchester. 1944. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://catalogue.library.manchester.ac.uk/items/1044085?query=subject:(Education,+Secondary+Great+Britain)&resultsUri=items%3Fquery%3Dsubject%253A%2528Education%252C%2BSecondary%2BGreat%2BBritain%2529%26offset%3D0&offset=0","url_text":"\"The four freedoms in secondary education\""}]},{"reference":"\"Books \" Antiquarian, Rare & Collectable \" By Subject \" \"Fabian Society\"\". Amazon UK. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/fabian-society-Subject-Books/s?ie=UTF8&keywords=Fabian%20Society&rh=n:349778011,k:Fabian%20Society&page=1","url_text":"\"Books \" Antiquarian, Rare & Collectable \" By Subject \" \"Fabian Society\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Three Schools or One?\". London Metropolitan University. Retrieved 17 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unionhistory.info/workerswar/display.php?irn=371&QueryPage=/workerswar/imagesdocs.php","url_text":"\"Three Schools or One?\""}]},{"reference":"Joan Simon (1986). Shena Simon: Feminist and Educationist. privately printed.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joan_Simon","url_text":"Joan Simon"}]}]	[{"Link":"http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/vcdf/detail?coll_id=10340&inst_id=65&nv1=search&nv2=","external_links_name":"\"SIMON, Shena Dorothy (1883–1972), Lady Simon of Wythenshawe\""},{"Link":"http://eprints.ioe.ac.uk/2166/1/BJSE_Martin_Mar_08beyond_suffrage.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Beyond Suffrage: feminism, education and the politics of class in the inter-war years\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093/ref:odnb/61643","external_links_name":"\"Steamboat ladies\""},{"Link":"https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public","external_links_name":"UK public library membership"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8JjIAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA98","external_links_name":"Workers' Worlds: Cultures and Communities in Manchester and Salford, 1880–1939"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ush5WC9BM_gC&pg=RA2-PA307","external_links_name":"Manchester: an architectural history"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03054981003696697","external_links_name":"10.1080/03054981003696697"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145082951","external_links_name":"145082951"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070922182525/http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/daytrips/parks-gardens.html","external_links_name":"\"Manchester Public Parks & Gardens\""},{"Link":"http://www.manchester2002-uk.com/daytrips/parks-gardens.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rdFg3mkO9OYC&pg=PA84","external_links_name":"A tale of two cities: global change, local feeling and everyday life in the North of England : a study in Manchester and Sheffield"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=z0Db5egIAZoC&pg=PA168","external_links_name":"Women, educational policy-making, and administration in England: authoritative women since 1800"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=UTDauLdA5lAC&pg=PA72","external_links_name":"Citizenship and Community: Liberals, Radicals and Collective Identities in the British Isles, 1865–1931"},{"Link":"http://manchesterhistory.net/manchester/tours/tour8/area8Bpage34.html","external_links_name":"\"Simon Building, the University of Manchester\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=hIQwAAAAIAAJ","external_links_name":"Moscow in the making"},{"Link":"http://catalogue.library.manchester.ac.uk/items/1044085?query=subject:(Education,+Secondary+Great+Britain)&resultsUri=items%3Fquery%3Dsubject%253A%2528Education%252C%2BSecondary%2BGreat%2BBritain%2529%26offset%3D0&offset=0","external_links_name":"\"The four freedoms in secondary education\""},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.co.uk/fabian-society-Subject-Books/s?ie=UTF8&keywords=Fabian%20Society&rh=n:349778011,k:Fabian%20Society&page=1","external_links_name":"\"Books \" Antiquarian, Rare & Collectable \" By Subject \" \"Fabian Society\"\""},{"Link":"http://www.unionhistory.info/workerswar/display.php?irn=371&QueryPage=/workerswar/imagesdocs.php","external_links_name":"\"Three Schools or One?\""},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000039206314","external_links_name":"ISNI"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/66004819","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJgt8x3CQJK3Y4gvCQFh73","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1193740185","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/nb2008022208","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p130241636","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/1528773","external_links_name":"Trove"},{"Link":"https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w67f827g","external_links_name":"SNAC"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/182232409","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Diablerets	Les Diablerets	["1 Skiing","2 Other events","3 Notes","4 External links"]	Coordinates: 46°21′05″N 7°09′29″E / 46.35139°N 7.15806°E / 46.35139; 7.15806Village and ski resort in Ormont-Dessus, Vaud, Switzerland This article is about the village. For the mountain, see Diablerets. Les Diablerets with the massif of the Diablerets Les Diablerets is a village and ski resort located in the municipality of Ormont-Dessus in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland. The village lies at an altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) on the north side of the massif of the Diablerets, 3,210 metres (10,530 ft), in the Swiss Alps. It can be accessed on the Aigle–Sépey–Diablerets railway line or by road from Aigle. The Col du Pillon (1,546 m) on the east give access to the Bernese Oberland region and is the lowest station of the Glacier 3000 cable car. The resort has a ski school, hotels and a small town centre. Les Diablerets is known for its traditional mountain architecture. Les Diablerets is home to the Diablerets Alpine Centre (DAC), an official Swiss Ski alpine training and performance centre. Founded in 2020, the DAC is a legacy project of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympic Games. Skiing Les Diablerets has three main ski areas: Scex Rouge (marketed as Glacier 3000) consists of beginner and intermediate slopes at its highest altitudes with more challenging pistes such as Martisburg further down the mountain. Glacier 3000 is also home to the infamous Combe d'Audon which sweeps past the summit of Oldehorn (3,122m) and drops down to the valley below at Reusch. Aside from skiing, Glacier 3000 is home to "Peak Walk by Tissot" - the only peak to peak suspension bridge in the world, the Alpine Coaster and Dog Sled trips. The Isenau sector was known for wide, sweeping slopes suitable for beginners and the sector's all-day sunshine ensured its popularity. As well as pistes at the top of the area there is a run down to the village and a long run down to the Col du Pillon - the first station of the Glacier 3000 cable car. In 2017 the slopes were closed after the failure of a tether to renew the old cable car system. In 2020 the association Isenau360 was set up with the aim of restoring the ski resort. The Meilleret area is on the slopes to the south east of the village. The area is Diablerets' connection to the extensive Villars/Gryon/Diablerets ski area. Meilleret has the longest sledge run in Europe from its summit down to the village via the Col de la Croix. The slopes of Meilleret hosted the alpine skiing events of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics. Other events Les Diablerets has hosted the Les Diablerets Film Festival every year since 1969. Notes ^ "Aux Diablerets, mélodrame pour une télécabine - Le Temps" (in French). 3 August 2018. ISSN 1423-3967. Retrieved 18 February 2024. ^ "Principes communautaires \| ISENAU 360°" (in French). Retrieved 18 February 2024. ^ "Festival du Film des Diablerets, Montagneexploits-environnement Les Diablerets, Switzerland". International Alliance for Mountain Film. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2014. External links Media related to Les Diablerets (village) at Wikimedia Commons Official website Portal: Switzerland 46°21′05″N 7°09′29″E / 46.35139°N 7.15806°E / 46.35139; 7.15806 Authority control databases International VIAF National Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Diablerets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablerets"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Diablerets_et_Diablerets.jpg"},{"link_name":"village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village"},{"link_name":"ski resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_resort"},{"link_name":"Ormont-Dessus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ormont-Dessus"},{"link_name":"Vaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaud"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Diablerets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diablerets"},{"link_name":"Swiss Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Alps"},{"link_name":"Aigle–Sépey–Diablerets railway line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigle%E2%80%93S%C3%A9pey%E2%80%93Diablerets_railway_line"},{"link_name":"Aigle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aigle"},{"link_name":"Col du Pillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col_du_Pillon"},{"link_name":"Bernese Oberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernese_Oberland"},{"link_name":"Glacier 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_3000"},{"link_name":"Diablerets Alpine Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Diablerets_Alpine_Centre&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Swiss Ski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_Ski"},{"link_name":"2020 Winter Youth Olympic Games","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Winter_Youth_Olympic_Games"}],"text":"Village and ski resort in Ormont-Dessus, Vaud, SwitzerlandThis article is about the village. For the mountain, see Diablerets.Les Diablerets with the massif of the DiableretsLes Diablerets is a village and ski resort located in the municipality of Ormont-Dessus in the canton of Vaud, Switzerland.The village lies at an altitude of 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) on the north side of the massif of the Diablerets, 3,210 metres (10,530 ft), in the Swiss Alps. It can be accessed on the Aigle–Sépey–Diablerets railway line or by road from Aigle. The Col du Pillon (1,546 m) on the east give access to the Bernese Oberland region and is the lowest station of the Glacier 3000 cable car.The resort has a ski school, hotels and a small town centre. Les Diablerets is known for its traditional mountain architecture.Les Diablerets is home to the Diablerets Alpine Centre (DAC), an official Swiss Ski alpine training and performance centre. Founded in 2020, the DAC is a legacy project of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympic Games.","title":"Les Diablerets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scex Rouge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scex_Rouge"},{"link_name":"Glacier 3000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glacier_3000"},{"link_name":"Oldehorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oldehore"},{"link_name":"Tissot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tissot"},{"link_name":"Col du Pillon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col_du_Pillon"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"2020 Winter Youth Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_Winter_Youth_Olympics"}],"text":"Les Diablerets has three main ski areas:Scex Rouge (marketed as Glacier 3000) consists of beginner and intermediate slopes at its highest altitudes with more challenging pistes such as Martisburg further down the mountain. Glacier 3000 is also home to the infamous Combe d'Audon which sweeps past the summit of Oldehorn (3,122m) and drops down to the valley below at Reusch. Aside from skiing, Glacier 3000 is home to \"Peak Walk by Tissot\" - the only peak to peak suspension bridge in the world, the Alpine Coaster and Dog Sled trips.The Isenau sector was known for wide, sweeping slopes suitable for beginners and the sector's all-day sunshine ensured its popularity. As well as pistes at the top of the area there is a run down to the village and a long run down to the Col du Pillon - the first station of the Glacier 3000 cable car. In 2017 the slopes were closed after the failure of a tether to renew the old cable car system.[1] In 2020 the association Isenau360 was set up with the aim of restoring the ski resort.[2]The Meilleret area is on the slopes to the south east of the village. The area is Diablerets' connection to the extensive Villars/Gryon/Diablerets ski area. Meilleret has the longest sledge run in Europe from its summit down to the village via the Col de la Croix. The slopes of Meilleret hosted the alpine skiing events of the 2020 Winter Youth Olympics.","title":"Skiing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Les Diablerets Film Festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Les_Diablerets_Film_Festival&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"fr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival_du_film_des_Diablerets"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Les Diablerets has hosted the Les Diablerets Film Festival [fr] every year since 1969.[3]","title":"Other events"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"\"Aux Diablerets, mélodrame pour une télécabine - Le Temps\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.letemps.ch/suisse/vaud/aux-diablerets-melodrame-une-telecabine"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1423-3967","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1423-3967"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Principes communautaires \| ISENAU 360°\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isenau360.ch/communaute/principes-communautaires/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"\"Festival du Film des Diablerets, Montagneexploits-environnement Les Diablerets, Switzerland\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140519012940/http://www.mountainfilmalliance.org/member-festival/festival-du-film-des-diablerets-montagneexploits-environnement"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.mountainfilmalliance.org/member-festival/festival-du-film-des-diablerets-montagneexploits-environnement"}],"text":"^ \"Aux Diablerets, mélodrame pour une télécabine - Le Temps\" (in French). 3 August 2018. ISSN 1423-3967. Retrieved 18 February 2024.\n\n^ \"Principes communautaires \| ISENAU 360°\" (in French). Retrieved 18 February 2024.\n\n^ \"Festival du Film des Diablerets, Montagneexploits-environnement Les Diablerets, Switzerland\". International Alliance for Mountain Film. Archived from the original on 19 May 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2014.","title":"Notes"}]	[{"image_text":"Les Diablerets with the massif of the Diablerets","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Diablerets_et_Diablerets.jpg/300px-Diablerets_et_Diablerets.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Aux Diablerets, mélodrame pour une télécabine - Le Temps\" (in French). 3 August 2018. ISSN 1423-3967. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogendra_Yadav	Yogendra Yadav	["1 Early life","2 Academics and research","3 Politics","4 Political positions","4.1 Anti-English and Hindi as the medium of instruction","5 Awards and honours","6 Publications","6.1 Books","6.2 Research papers","7 References","8 External links"]	Indian politician For the soldier, see Yogendra Singh Yadav. Yogendra YadavYadav in 2014Born (1963-09-05) 5 September 1963 (age 60)Saharanwas, Haryana, IndiaNationalityIndianAlma materRajasthan University (BA)Jawaharlal Nehru University (MA)Panjab University (MPhil) Occupation(s)Psephologist, writer, activist, politicianPolitical partySwaraj India (2016-present)Aam Aadmi Party (2012-2015)SpouseMadhulika BanerjeeWebsiteYogendra Yadav on X Yogendra Yadav (born 5 September 1963) is an Indian activist, psephologist and politician whose primary interests are in the political and social sciences. He was a Senior Fellow at the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi from 2004 to 2016. He is a former member of University Grants Commission (UGC) and National Advisory Council on the Right to Education Act (NAC-RTE) constituted by Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Govt of India, in 2010. He was a member of the National Executive of the Aam Aadmi Party until 2015. Yadav is a founding member of Swaraj Abhiyan and Jai Kisan Andolan. He was the founding National President of Swaraj India, a registered political party. Early life Yogendra Yadav addressing a rally in Mumbai. Yogendra Yadav's father was a professor of economics and his paternal grandfather was a teacher. His wife, Madhulika Banerjee, is a professor at the University of Delhi. His childhood name was Salim, which is commonly associated with people of the Muslim faith. It was changed to Yogendra when he was aged five because he was being mocked by children at school. Yadav says that his original name, and its continued usage among family members and friends, reflects a familial response to the murder of his grandfather in a communal riot in 1936. Academics and research Before joining CSDS, he was an assistant professor of Political Science at Panjab University, Chandigarh (1985-1993). Between 1995–2002, Yadav was the founder-convenor of the Lokniti network. He was also founder-director of the CSDS Lokniti research programme on comparative democracy between 1997 and 2003. Since 1996, he has been a psephologist and political commentator on a number of television channels in India including Doordarshan, NDTV and CNN-IBN. Yadav was appointed as a member of the National Advisory Council for the implementation of the Right to Education Act in 2010. He was appointed a Senior Fellow at the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies in 2004. Politics In 2011, Yadav supported the general aims of, and spoke publicly at events, during the nationwide anti-corruption protests and later joined the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), formed by anti-corruption activists. Yadav served as a member of the National Executive of the party. His involvement with the AAP was perceived as creating a conflict of interest with his July 2011 appointment as a member of the University Grants Commission, resulting in the Ministry of Human Resource Development ejecting him from the latter role in September 2013. Yadav had argued that there was no conflict. Yadav contested the 2014 Indian general elections from Gurgaon constituency as an AAP candidate. He came fourth and lost his deposit. On 4 March 2015, Yadav was voted out of AAP's Political Affairs Committee (PAC). Subsequently, on 28 March, he was expelled from the party's National Executive for alleged "anti-party activities". In April, he was expelled from the party. Yadav denied being involved in anti-party activities and stated that he was victimised for challenging "dictatorial ways" of the party's chief Arvind Kejriwal. Together with Prashant Bhushan, Anand Kumar (sociologist) and Ajit Jha, Yadav has formed a new political organisation called Swaraj Abhiyan. Yogendra Yadav urged Delhi voters to choose NOTA in 2019 Indian general election as no political parties in Delhi have fulfilled their promises. He termed NOTA as “No Till an Alternative”. Yadav is a member of Samyukt Kisan Morcha coordination committee, which spearheaded the 2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest. In 2022, Yogendra Yadav joined Rahul Gandhi-led Bharat Jodo Yatra and described the Yatra as a Dakshinayana movement of India, where the influences of the South are carried to the North. Political positions Anti-English and Hindi as the medium of instruction He supports removing English language as a medium of teaching from higher education while opposing replacing it with Hindi. He stated "Bringing Hindi as a substitute for English is as barbaric to me as the dominance of English today." He supports higher education through mother tongues. Awards and honours In 2008, Yadav received the Malcolm Adiseshiah Award for Development Studies. In 2009, he received the Global South Solidarity Award by the International Political Science Association. Publications Yadav has published many articles and books. He was an editor and advisor for various publications, such as the European Journal of Political Research, Samayik Varta and the Hindi-language social science anthologies titled Lokchhintan and Lokchintak Granthamala. Books Making Sense of Indian Democracy: Theory as Practice (2020) State of Democracy in South Asia (2008) co-authored and co-edited (with Sandeep Shastri and K C Suri). Electoral Politics in Indian States (2009). Democracy in Multi-national Societies (2010) co-authored with Alfred Stepan and Juan Linz. Democratic Politics - 1 (2006) Chief Advisor with Suhas Palshikar, published by NCERT. Democratic Politics - 2 (2006) Chief Advisor with Suhas Palshikar, published by NCERT. Modiraj Main Kisan, Double Aamad, ya Double Aafat (2018) on agrarian crisis under the Modi government Research papers Redesigning Affirmative Action : Castes and Benefits in Higher Education (with Satish Deshpande). References ^ "Yogendra Yadav \| Center for Contemporary South Asia". ^ "ECs stubborn stand on VVPAT audit of just one booth per constituency must change". 27 March 2019. ^ "Real reason no govt wants OBC count in Census – it will reveal inconvenient truths". 7 April 2021. ^ "HRD panel". ^ "Swaraj India: Yadav, Bhushan finalise national team, launch farmer movement". Firstpost. 21 May 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2015. ^ Gass, Saul I.; Harris, Carl M. (2001). "Malcolm baldridge award". Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. p. 471. doi:10.1007/1-4020-0611-X_571. ISBN 978-0-7923-7827-3. ^ Sharma, Mohit (5 April 2014). "Yogendra Yadav says his family, friends know him as Salim". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019. ^ "AAP's Yogendra Yadav was called Salim as a child". DNA. IANS. 6 April 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2014. ^ Sandhu, Veenu (29 March 2014). "Yogendra Yadav: From theory to practice". Business Standard. Retrieved 30 March 2014. ^ a b c d "Professor Yogendra Yadav". Delhi: Centre for the Study of Developing Societies. Retrieved 21 January 2012. ^ "Yogendra Yadav \| Center for Contemporary South Asia". watson.brown.edu. Retrieved 1 February 2024. ^ "HRD panel to oversee RTE rollout". The Times of India. TNN. 26 June 2010. Retrieved 21 January 2012. ^ "Kejriwal's A-Team: The who's who of the Aam Aadmi Party". FirstPost. 26 November 2012. ^ "Rajneeti is the yogdharma of the anti-corruption movement'". Rediff. 17 October 2012. Retrieved 15 January 2016. ^ "National Executive". Aam Aadmi Party. Retrieved 19 July 2013. ^ "Yogendra Yadav – 'They have been trying to put pressure on my family'". India Opines. 26 October 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2013. ^ Mukul, Akshaya (18 September 2013). "HRD ministry 'retires' Yogendra Yadav as UGC member". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 21 September 2013. Retrieved 20 September 2013. ^ "AAP releases its list of first 20 Candidates for Lok Sabha Polls 2014". Bihar Prabha. IANS. Retrieved 16 February 2014. ^ Aggarwal, Mayank (16 May 2014). "All said it is a good start for AAP: Yogendra Yadav". DNA. Retrieved 17 May 2014. ^ Mehrotra, Sonal (4 March 2015). "Yogendra Yadav, Prashant Bhushan Removed From Key AAP Panel". NDTV. Retrieved 4 March 2015. ^ Ghose, Dipankar; Vatsa, Aditi (29 March 2015). "Aam Aadmi Party split: Prashant Bhushan, Yogendra Yadav out of national executive". Indian Express. Retrieved 20 April 2015. ^ Sriram, Jayant. "AAP expels four rebel leaders". The Hindu. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ a b Mehrotra, Sonal (21 April 2015). "'AAP has Turned into a Khap:' Expelled Leaders Prashant Bhushan, Yogendra Yadav Target Arvind Kejriwal". NDTV.com. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ Dhawn, Himanshi. "350 volunteers quit AAP in Maharashtra". The Times of India. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ "Former AAP leader Yogendra Yadav finds support in Haryana". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 20 May 2015. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ "Yogendra Yadav urges Delhiites to opt for NOTA". The Hindu. 21 April 2019. ^ "Swaraj India's NOTA Appeal Restricted Only to Delhi: Yogendra Yadav". 27 April 2019. ^ "No contradiction between seeing BJP as threat to India & voting NOTA this election". May 2019. ^ MG Arun (2 March 2019). "Farmers' issues need to take centrestage, say panelists at India Today Conclave". India Today. Retrieved 6 May 2020. ^ Kumar, B. S. Satish (28 September 2022). "Bharat Jodo Yatra is Dakshinayana movement where influences of South are carried to North: Yogendra Yadav". The Hindu. ^ "Arc of Yogendra Yadav's journey: 'Congress must die' to 'Bharat Jodo Yatra', AAP to Swaraj India". 10 September 2022. ^ "Video \| 'English Must Be Phased Out': Yogendra Yadav". NDTV. 11 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022. ^ "CSDS" (PDF). CSDS. ^ "Yogendra Yadav". CSDS. Retrieved 29 December 2013. ^ Yadav, Yogendra. Making Sense Of Indian Democracy: Theory as Practice. ASIN 8178245469. ^ a b "National Council Of Educational Research And Training :: Home". ncert.nic.in. Retrieved 16 August 2015. ^ "Redesigning Affirmative Action: Castes and Benefits in Higher Education \| Request PDF". ResearchGate. Retrieved 26 September 2020. External links Profile Authority control databases International VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Netherlands Other IdRef	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Yogendra Singh Yadav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogendra_Singh_Yadav"},{"link_name":"psephologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psephology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Centre for the Study of Developing Societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_the_Study_of_Developing_Societies"},{"link_name":"University Grants Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_Grants_Commission_(India)"},{"link_name":"National Advisory Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Advisory_Council"},{"link_name":"Right to Education Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_Education_Act"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Aam Aadmi Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party"},{"link_name":"Swaraj Abhiyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaraj_Abhiyan"},{"link_name":"Jai Kisan Andolan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jai_Kisan_Andolan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Indian politicianFor the soldier, see Yogendra Singh Yadav.Yogendra Yadav (born 5 September 1963) is an Indian activist, psephologist and politician whose primary interests are in the political and social sciences.[2][3] He was a Senior Fellow at the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS), Delhi from 2004 to 2016. He is a former member of University Grants Commission (UGC) and National Advisory Council on the Right to Education Act (NAC-RTE) constituted by Ministry of Human Resources and Development, Govt of India, in 2010.[4] He was a member of the National Executive of the Aam Aadmi Party until 2015.Yadav is a founding member of Swaraj Abhiyan and Jai Kisan Andolan.[5] He was the founding National President of Swaraj India, a registered political party.[6]","title":"Yogendra Yadav"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yogendra_Yadav_addressing_a_rally_in_Mumbai.jpg"},{"link_name":"University of Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Delhi"},{"link_name":"communal riot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communal_violence"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HT-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DNA-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BS-9"}],"text":"Yogendra Yadav addressing a rally in Mumbai.Yogendra Yadav's father was a professor of economics and his paternal grandfather was a teacher. His wife, Madhulika Banerjee, is a professor at the University of Delhi. His childhood name was Salim, which is commonly associated with people of the Muslim faith. It was changed to Yogendra when he was aged five because he was being mocked by children at school. Yadav says that his original name, and its continued usage among family members and friends, reflects a familial response to the murder of his grandfather in a communal riot in 1936.[7][8][9]","title":"Early life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-10"},{"link_name":"Doordarshan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doordarshan"},{"link_name":"NDTV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NDTV"},{"link_name":"CNN-IBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN-IBN"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Right to Education Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right_to_Education_Bill"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NAC-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-10"}],"text":"Before joining CSDS, he was an assistant professor of Political Science at Panjab University, Chandigarh (1985-1993).[10] Between 1995–2002, Yadav was the founder-convenor of the Lokniti network. He was also founder-director of the CSDS Lokniti research programme on comparative democracy between 1997 and 2003.[10] Since 1996, he has been a psephologist and political commentator on a number of television channels in India including Doordarshan, NDTV and CNN-IBN. [11]Yadav was appointed as a member of the National Advisory Council for the implementation of the Right to Education Act in 2010.[12] He was appointed a Senior Fellow at the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies in 2004.[10]","title":"Academics and research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"anti-corruption protests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2011_Indian_anti-corruption_movement"},{"link_name":"Aam Aadmi Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aam_Aadmi_Party"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Human Resource Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Human_Resource_Development_(India)"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"2014 Indian general elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2014_Indian_general_election"},{"link_name":"Gurgaon constituency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gurgaon_(Lok_Sabha_constituency)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Arvind Kejriwal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvind_Kejriwal"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehrotra1-23"},{"link_name":"Prashant Bhushan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prashant_Bhushan"},{"link_name":"Anand Kumar (sociologist)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anand_Kumar_(sociologist)"},{"link_name":"Swaraj Abhiyan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swaraj_Abhiyan"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mehrotra1-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"NOTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/None_of_the_above_(India)"},{"link_name":"2019 Indian general election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2019_Indian_general_election"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"NOTA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/None_of_the_above_(India)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Samyukt Kisan Morcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samyukt_Kisan_Morcha"},{"link_name":"2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Indian_farmers%27_protest"},{"link_name":"Rahul Gandhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahul_Gandhi"},{"link_name":"Bharat Jodo Yatra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat_Jodo_Yatra"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"text":"In 2011, Yadav supported the general aims of, and spoke publicly at events, during the nationwide anti-corruption protests and later joined the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP), formed by anti-corruption activists.[13][14] Yadav served as a member of the National Executive of the party.[15] His involvement with the AAP was perceived as creating a conflict of interest with his July 2011 appointment as a member of the University Grants Commission, resulting in the Ministry of Human Resource Development ejecting him from the latter role in September 2013.[16] Yadav had argued that there was no conflict.[17]Yadav contested the 2014 Indian general elections from Gurgaon constituency as an AAP candidate.[18] He came fourth and lost his deposit.[19]On 4 March 2015, Yadav was voted out of AAP's Political Affairs Committee (PAC).[20] Subsequently, on 28 March, he was expelled from the party's National Executive for alleged \"anti-party activities\".[21] In April, he was expelled from the party.[22] Yadav denied being involved in anti-party activities and stated that he was victimised for challenging \"dictatorial ways\" of the party's chief Arvind Kejriwal.[23]Together with Prashant Bhushan, Anand Kumar (sociologist) and Ajit Jha, Yadav has formed a new political organisation called Swaraj Abhiyan.[23][24][25] Yogendra Yadav urged Delhi voters to choose NOTA in 2019 Indian general election as no political parties in Delhi have fulfilled their promises.[26][27] He termed NOTA as “No Till an Alternative”.[28][29]Yadav is a member of Samyukt Kisan Morcha coordination committee, which spearheaded the 2020–2021 Indian farmers' protest. In 2022, Yogendra Yadav joined Rahul Gandhi-led Bharat Jodo Yatra and described the Yatra as a Dakshinayana movement of India, where the influences of the South are carried to the North.[30][31]","title":"Politics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Political positions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Anti-English and Hindi as the medium of instruction","text":"He supports removing English language as a medium of teaching from higher education while opposing replacing it with Hindi. He stated \"Bringing Hindi as a substitute for English is as barbaric to me as the dominance of English today.\" He supports higher education through mother tongues.[32]","title":"Political positions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv2-33"},{"link_name":"International Political Science Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Political_Science_Association"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"In 2008, Yadav received the Malcolm Adiseshiah Award for Development Studies.[33] In 2009, he received the Global South Solidarity Award by the International Political Science Association.[34]","title":"Awards and honours"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"European Journal of Political Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Journal_of_Political_Research"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cv-10"}],"text":"Yadav has published many articles and books. He was an editor and advisor for various publications, such as the European Journal of Political Research, Samayik Varta and the Hindi-language social science anthologies titled Lokchhintan and Lokchintak Granthamala.[10]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Suhas Palshikar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhas_Palshikar_(academic)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncert-36"},{"link_name":"Suhas Palshikar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suhas_Palshikar_(academic)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncert-36"}],"sub_title":"Books","text":"Making Sense of Indian Democracy: Theory as Practice (2020)[35]\nState of Democracy in South Asia (2008) co-authored and co-edited (with Sandeep Shastri and K C Suri).\nElectoral Politics in Indian States (2009).\nDemocracy in Multi-national Societies (2010) co-authored with Alfred Stepan and Juan Linz.\nDemocratic Politics - 1 (2006) Chief Advisor with Suhas Palshikar, published by NCERT.[36]\nDemocratic Politics - 2 (2006) Chief Advisor with Suhas Palshikar, published by NCERT.[36]\nModiraj Main Kisan, Double Aamad, ya Double Aafat (2018) on agrarian crisis under the Modi government","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Research papers","text":"Redesigning Affirmative Action : Castes and Benefits in Higher Education (with Satish Deshpande).[37]","title":"Publications"}]	[{"image_text":"Yogendra Yadav addressing a rally in Mumbai.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Yogendra_Yadav_addressing_a_rally_in_Mumbai.jpg/220px-Yogendra_Yadav_addressing_a_rally_in_Mumbai.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"\"Yogendra Yadav \| Center for Contemporary South Asia\".","urls":[{"url":"https://watson.brown.edu/southasia/people/yogendra-yadav","url_text":"\"Yogendra Yadav \| Center for Contemporary South Asia\""}]},{"reference":"\"ECs stubborn stand on VVPAT audit of just one booth per constituency must change\". 27 March 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://theprint.in/opinion/ecs-stubborn-stand-on-vvpat-audit-of-just-one-booth-per-constituency-must-change/212855/","url_text":"\"ECs stubborn stand on VVPAT audit of just one booth per constituency must change\""}]},{"reference":"\"Real reason no govt wants OBC count in Census – it will reveal inconvenient truths\". 7 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://theprint.in/opinion/real-reason-no-govt-wants-obc-count-in-census-it-will-reveal-inconvenient-truths/635541/","url_text":"\"Real reason no govt wants OBC count in Census – it will reveal inconvenient truths\""}]},{"reference":"\"HRD panel\".","urls":[{"url":"https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/HRD-panel-to-oversee-RTE-rollout/articleshow/6091867.cms","url_text":"\"HRD panel\""}]},{"reference":"\"Swaraj India: Yadav, Bhushan finalise national team, launch farmer movement\". Firstpost. 21 May 2015. Retrieved 23 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://firstpost.com/politics/swaraj-abhiyan-yadav-bhushan-finalise-national-team-launch-farmer-movement-2256776.html","url_text":"\"Swaraj India: Yadav, Bhushan finalise national team, launch farmer movement\""}]},{"reference":"Gass, Saul I.; Harris, Carl M. (2001). \"Malcolm baldridge award\". Encyclopedia of Operations Research and Management Science. p. 471. doi:10.1007/1-4020-0611-X_571. ISBN 978-0-7923-7827-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-0611-X_571","url_text":"10.1007/1-4020-0611-X_571"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7923-7827-3","url_text":"978-0-7923-7827-3"}]},{"reference":"Sharma, Mohit (5 April 2014). \"Yogendra Yadav says his family, friends know him as Salim\". Hindustan Times. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 10 August 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/yogendra-yadav-says-his-family-friends-know-him-as-salim/story-Ub8zXbmfETCuBLy0cvK2OI.html","url_text":"\"Yogendra Yadav says his family, friends know him as Salim\""},{"url":"https://archive.today/20190420033347/https://www.hindustantimes.com/punjab/yogendra-yadav-says-his-family-friends-know-him-as-salim/story-Ub8zXbmfETCuBLy0cvK2OI.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"AAP's Yogendra Yadav was called Salim as a child\". DNA. IANS. 6 April 2014. Retrieved 11 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-aap-s-yogendra-yadav-was-called-salim-as-a-child-1975680","url_text":"\"AAP's Yogendra Yadav was called Salim as a child\""}]},{"reference":"Sandhu, Veenu (29 March 2014). \"Yogendra Yadav: From theory to practice\". Business Standard. 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Yadav\""},{"Link":"http://www.csds.in/pdfs_dataunit/yogendra%20yadav/cv.pdf","external_links_name":"\"CSDS\""},{"Link":"http://www.csds.in/faculty_yogendra_yadav.htm","external_links_name":"\"Yogendra Yadav\""},{"Link":"https://www.amazon.in/dp/8178245469","external_links_name":"8178245469"},{"Link":"http://www.ncert.nic.in/ncerts/textbook/textbook.htm?iess4=ps-6","external_links_name":"\"National Council Of Educational Research And Training :: Home\""},{"Link":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262126300","external_links_name":"\"Redesigning Affirmative Action: Castes and Benefits in Higher Education \| Request PDF\""},{"Link":"http://www.lokniti.org/people_lokniti_yogendrayadav.htm","external_links_name":"Profile"},{"Link":"https://viaf.org/viaf/92681702","external_links_name":"VIAF"},{"Link":"https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJdrMJktKjkgFGgbH7C84q","external_links_name":"WorldCat"},{"Link":"https://d-nb.info/gnd/1221820486","external_links_name":"Germany"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007422696505171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n2009200046","external_links_name":"United States"},{"Link":"https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=mub2011653732&CON_LNG=ENG","external_links_name":"Czech Republic"},{"Link":"http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p332732347","external_links_name":"Netherlands"},{"Link":"https://www.idref.fr/146382749","external_links_name":"IdRef"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_water_oxidation	Supercritical water oxidation	["1 Basic research","2 Commercial applications","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Supercritical water oxidation" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2008) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Supercritical Water (Red Area) Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) is a process that occurs in water at temperatures and pressures above a mixture's thermodynamic critical point. Under these conditions water becomes a fluid with unique properties that can be used to advantage in the destruction of recalcitrant and hazardous wastes such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Supercritical water has a density between that of water vapor and liquid at standard conditions, and exhibits high gas-like diffusion rates along with high liquid-like collision rates. In addition, the behavior of water as a solvent is altered (in comparison to that of subcritical liquid water) - it behaves much less like a polar solvent. As a result, the solubility behavior is "reversed" so that oxygen, and organics such as chlorinated hydrocarbons become soluble in the water, allowing single-phase reaction of aqueous waste with a dissolved oxidizer. The reversed solubility also causes salts to precipitate out of solution, meaning they can be treated using conventional methods for solid-waste residuals. Efficient oxidation reactions occur at low temperature (400-650 °C) with reduced NOx production. SCWO can be classified as green chemistry or as a clean technology. The elevated pressures and temperatures required for SCWO are routinely encountered in industrial applications such as petroleum refining and chemical synthesis. A unique addition (mostly of academic interest) to the world of supercritical water (SCW) oxidation is generating high-pressure flames inside the SCW medium. The pioneer works on high-pressure supercritical water flames were carried out by professor EU Franck at the German University of Karlsruhe in the late 80s. The works were mainly aimed at anticipating conditions which would cause spontaneous generation of non-desirable flames in the flameless SCW oxidation process. These flames would cause instabilities to the system and its components. ETH Zurich pursued the investigation of hydrothermal flames in continuously operated reactors. The rising needs for waste treatment and destruction methods motivated a Japanese Group in the Ebara Corporation to explore SCW flames as an environmental tool. Research on hydrothermal flames has also begun at NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio. The supercritical fluids reactor (SFR) at Sandia National Laboratories' Combustion Research Facility (CRF), 1995. High-pressure, high-temperature optical cell. Basic research Basic research on supercritical water oxidation was undertaken in the 1990s at Sandia National Laboratory's Combustion Research Facility (CRF), in Livermore, CA. Originally proposed as a hazardous waste destruction technology in response to the Kyoto protocol, multiple waste streams were studied by Steven F. Rice and Russ Hanush, and hydrothermal (supercritical water) flames were investigated by Richard R. Steeper and Jason D. Aiken. Among the waste streams studied were military dyes and pyrotechnics, methanol, and isopropyl alcohol. Hydrogen peroxide was used as an oxidizing agent, and Eric Croiset was tasked with detailed measurements of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide at supercritical water conditions. In mid-1992, Thomas G. McGuinness, PE invented what is now known as the "transpiring-wall SCWO reactor" (TWR) while seconded to Los Alamos National Laboratory on behalf of Summit Research Corporation. McGuinness subsequently received the first US patent for a TWR in early 1995. The TWR was designed to mitigate problems of salt/solids deposition, corrosion and thermal limitations occurring in other SCWO reactor designs (eg. tubular & vat-type reactors) at the time. The upper part of the vertical reactor incorporates a permeable liner through which a clean fluid permeates to help prevent salts and other solids from accumulating at the inner surface of the liner. The liner also insulates the outer pressure containment vessel from high temperatures within the reaction zone. The liner can be manufactured from a variety of materials resistant to corrosion and high reaction temperatures. The bottom end of the TWR incorporates a "quench cooler" for cooling the reaction byproducts while neutralizing any components that might form acids during transition to subcritical temperature. Proof-of-concept and performance advantages of the TWR for a variety of feedstocks was demonstrated by Eckhard Dinjus and Johannes Abeln at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK), via direct comparison between a TWR and an adjacent tubular reactor. Major engineering challenges were associated with the deposition of salts and chemical corrosion in these supercritical water reactors. Anthony Lajeunesse led the team investigating these issues. To address these issues Lajeunesse designed a transpiring wall reactor which introduced a pressure differential through the walls of an inner sleeve filled with pores to continuously rinse the inner walls of the reactor with fresh water. Russ Hanush was charged with the construction and operation of the supercritical fluids reactor (SFR) used for these studies. Among its design intricacies were the Inconel 625 alloy necessary for operation at such extreme temperatures and pressures, and the design of the high-pressure, high-temperature optical cells used for photometric access to the reacting flows which incorporated 24 carat gold pressure seals and sapphire windows. Commercial applications This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Several companies in the United States are now working to commercialize supercritical reactors to destroy hazardous wastes. Widespread commercial application of SCWO technology requires a reactor design capable of resisting fouling and corrosion under supercritical conditions. In Japan a number of commercial SCWO applications exist, among them one unit for treatment of halogenated waste built by Organo. In Korea two commercial size units have been built by Hanwha. In Europe, Chematur Engineering AB of Sweden commercialized the SCWO technology for treatment of spent chemical catalysts to recover the precious metal, the AquaCat process. The unit has been built for Johnson Matthey in the UK. It is the only commercial SCWO unit in Europe and with its capacity of 3000 l/h it is the largest SCWO unit in the world. Chematur's Super Critical Fluids technology was acquired by SCFI Group (Cork, Ireland) who are actively commercializing the Aqua Critox SCWO process for treatment of sludge, e.g. de-inking sludge and sewage sludge. Many long duration trials on these applications have been made and thanks to the high destruction efficiency of 99.9%+ the solid residue after the SCWO process is well suited for recycling – in the case of de-inking sludge as paper filler and in the case of sewage sludge as phosphorus and coagulant. SCFI Group operate a 250 l/h Aqua Critox demonstration plant in Cork, Ireland. Turbosystems Engineering (California, USA) is actively commercializing their patented transpiring wall SCWO reactor ("TWR") with a focus on renewable energy applications. 374Water Inc. is a company offering commercial SCWO systems that convert organic wastes to clean water, energy and minerals. It is spun out after more than seven years of research and development funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to Prof. Deshusses laboratory based at Duke University. The founders of 374Water, Prof. Marc Deshusses and Kobe Nagar, possess the waste processing reactor patent relevant to SCWO. 374Water is actively commercializing its AirSCWO systems for the treatment of biosolids and wastewater sludges, organic chemical wastes, and PFAS wastes including unspent Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFFs), rinsates or spent resins and adsorption media. The first commercial sale was announced in February 2022. Aquarden Technologies (Skaevinge, Denmark) provides modular SCWO plants for the destruction of hazardous pollutants such as PFAS, pesticides, and other problematic hydrocarbons in industrial wastestreams. Aquarden is also providing remediation of hazardous energetic wastes and chemical warfare agents with SCWO, where a full-scale SCWO system has been operating for some years in France for the Defense Industry. See also Supercritical fluid Wet oxidation Incineration References ^ Rice, Steven (1994). "Supercritical Water Oxidation of Colored Smoke, Dye, and Pyrotechnic Compositions" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Rice, Steven (1995). "Destruction of Hazardous Munitions by Supercritical Water Oxidation" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Rice, Steven (1995). "Hydrothermal Oxidation Kinetics of Methanol" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Rice, Steven (1996). "Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Methanol to Formaldehyde" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Hunter, Thomas (1996). "Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Isopropanol to Acetone" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Croiset, Eric (1997). "Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition in Supercritical Water" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Lajeunesse, Anthony (1993). "Salt Deposition Studies in a Supercritical Water Reactor" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Lajeunesse, Anthony (1997). "Kinetic Investigation of the Oxidation of Naval Excess Hazardous Materials in Supercritical Water for the Design of a Transpiration-Wall Reactor" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Hanush, Russ (1995). "Operation and Performance of the Supercritical Fluids Reactor" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Rice, Steven (1997). "Design Strategies for High-Temperature, High-Pressure Optical Cells" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Rice, Steven (2000). "Design strategies for Optically-Accessible High-Temperature, High-Pressure Reactor Cells" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun. ^ Yang, Shu (2013). "New Design of Supercritical Water Oxidation Reactor for Sewage Sludge Treatment". Advanced Materials Research – via ResearchGate. ^ "Companies merge to offer water resource recovery system using supercritical water oxidation". Water Technology Online. 1 October 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2022. ^ US Pending 20200277213A1, Yaacov Nagar; Kathleen Jooss & Marc Deshusses et al., "Systems, methods, and techniques for waste processing", published 2020, assigned to Duke University ^ MarketScreener. "374Water, Inc.: OC San and 374Water Enter into an Agreement to Deploy the First Commercial-Scale AirSCWO System". www.marketscreener.com. Retrieved 2022-02-02. ^ "PFAS Destruction Through Supercritical Water Oxidation". External links There are some research groups working in this topic throughout the world: The Deshusses lab at Duke University has a Nix1 (1 ton/day) prototype in Durham, North Carolina SCFI have a working AquaCritox A10 plant in Cork (Ireland) UVa High Pressure Processes Group (Spain) Clean Technology Group (UK) FZK Karlsruhe (Germany) ETH Zurich, Transport Processes and Reactions Laboratory (Switzerland) UCL (London, UK) Clean Materials technology group working on Continuous Hydrothermal Flow Synthesis UBC (Vancouver, BC) Mechanical Engineering Research Activities, including projects on SCWO Turbosystems Engineering SCWO technology Universidad de Cádiz (UCA). Supercritical Fluids Group vteEnvironmental technologyGeneral Appropriate technology Clean technology Climate smart agriculture Environmental design Environmental impact assessment Eco-innovation Ecotechnology Electric vehicle Energy recycling Environmental Design Environmental impact assessment Environmental impact design Green building Green vehicle Environmentally healthy community design Public interest design Sustainability Sustainability science Sustainable (agriculture architecture design development food systems industries procurement refurbishment technology transport) Pollution Air pollution (control dispersion modeling) Industrial ecology Solid waste treatment Waste management Water (agricultural wastewater treatment industrial wastewater treatment sewage treatment waste-water treatment technologies water purification) Sustainable energy Efficient energy use Electrification Energy development Energy recovery Fuel (alternative fuel biofuel carbon-neutral fuel hydrogen technologies) List of energy storage projects Renewable energy commercialization transition Sustainable lighting Transportation (electric vehicle hybrid vehicle) Conservation Building (green insulation natural sustainable architecture New Urbanism New Classical) Conservation biology Ecoforestry Efficient energy use Energy conservation Energy recovery Energy recycling Environmental movement Environmental remediation Glass in green buildings Green computing Heat recovery ventilation High-performance buildings Land rehabilitation Nature conservation Permaculture Recycling Water heat recycling	[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg"},{"link_name":"water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"pressures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pressure"},{"link_name":"critical point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical_point_(thermodynamics)"},{"link_name":"hazardous wastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste"},{"link_name":"polychlorinated biphenyls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polychlorinated_biphenyl"},{"link_name":"per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per-_and_polyfluoroalkyl_substances"},{"link_name":"density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density"},{"link_name":"vapor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor"},{"link_name":"gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gas"},{"link_name":"liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid"},{"link_name":"solubility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility"},{"link_name":"chlorinated hydrocarbons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chlorinated_hydrocarbon"},{"link_name":"single-phase reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_and_heterogeneous_reactions"},{"link_name":"oxidizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizer"},{"link_name":"salts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"precipitate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"NOx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NOx"},{"link_name":"green chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_chemistry"},{"link_name":"supercritical water flames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Supercritical_Water_Flames&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Supercritical_Fluids_Reactor.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Optical_cell.jpg"}],"text":"Supercritical Water (Red Area)Supercritical water oxidation (SCWO) is a process that occurs in water at temperatures and pressures above a mixture's thermodynamic critical point. Under these conditions water becomes a fluid with unique properties that can be used to advantage in the destruction of recalcitrant and hazardous wastes such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) or per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Supercritical water has a density between that of water vapor and liquid at standard conditions, and exhibits high gas-like diffusion rates along with high liquid-like collision rates. In addition, the behavior of water as a solvent is altered (in comparison to that of subcritical liquid water) - it behaves much less like a polar solvent. As a result, the solubility behavior is \"reversed\" so that oxygen, and organics such as chlorinated hydrocarbons become soluble in the water, allowing single-phase reaction of aqueous waste with a dissolved oxidizer. The reversed solubility also causes salts to precipitate out of solution, meaning they can be treated using conventional methods for solid-waste residuals. Efficient oxidation reactions occur at low temperature (400-650 °C) with reduced NOx production.SCWO can be classified as green chemistry or as a clean technology. The elevated pressures and temperatures required for SCWO are routinely encountered in industrial applications such as petroleum refining and chemical synthesis.A unique addition (mostly of academic interest) to the world of supercritical water (SCW) oxidation is generating high-pressure flames inside the SCW medium. The pioneer works on high-pressure supercritical water flames were carried out by professor EU Franck at the German University of Karlsruhe in the late 80s. The works were mainly aimed at anticipating conditions which would cause spontaneous generation of non-desirable flames in the flameless SCW oxidation process. These flames would cause instabilities to the system and its components. ETH Zurich pursued the investigation of hydrothermal flames in continuously operated reactors. The rising needs for waste treatment and destruction methods motivated a Japanese Group in the Ebara Corporation to explore SCW flames as an environmental tool. Research on hydrothermal flames has also begun at NASA Glenn Research Center in Cleveland, Ohio.The supercritical fluids reactor (SFR) at Sandia National Laboratories' Combustion Research Facility (CRF), 1995.High-pressure, high-temperature optical cell.","title":"Supercritical water oxidation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kyoto protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyoto_protocol"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Inconel 625","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inconel_625"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Basic research on supercritical water oxidation was undertaken in the 1990s at Sandia National Laboratory's Combustion Research Facility (CRF), in Livermore, CA. Originally proposed as a hazardous waste destruction technology in response to the Kyoto protocol, multiple waste streams were studied by Steven F. Rice and Russ Hanush, and hydrothermal (supercritical water) flames were investigated by Richard R. Steeper and Jason D. Aiken. Among the waste streams studied were military dyes and pyrotechnics,[1][2] methanol,[3][4] and isopropyl alcohol.[5] Hydrogen peroxide was used as an oxidizing agent, and Eric Croiset was tasked with detailed measurements of the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide at supercritical water conditions.[6]In mid-1992, Thomas G. McGuinness, PE invented what is now known as the \"transpiring-wall SCWO reactor\" (TWR) while seconded to Los Alamos National Laboratory on behalf of Summit Research Corporation. McGuinness subsequently received the first US patent for a TWR in early 1995. The TWR was designed to mitigate problems of salt/solids deposition, corrosion and thermal limitations occurring in other SCWO reactor designs (eg. tubular & vat-type reactors) at the time. The upper part of the vertical reactor incorporates a permeable liner through which a clean fluid permeates to help prevent salts and other solids from accumulating at the inner surface of the liner. The liner also insulates the outer pressure containment vessel from high temperatures within the reaction zone. The liner can be manufactured from a variety of materials resistant to corrosion and high reaction temperatures. The bottom end of the TWR incorporates a \"quench cooler\" for cooling the reaction byproducts while neutralizing any components that might form acids during transition to subcritical temperature. Proof-of-concept and performance advantages of the TWR for a variety of feedstocks was demonstrated by Eckhard Dinjus and Johannes Abeln at Forschungszentrum Karlsruhe (FZK), via direct comparison between a TWR and an adjacent tubular reactor.Major engineering challenges were associated with the deposition of salts[7] and chemical corrosion in these supercritical water reactors. Anthony Lajeunesse led the team investigating these issues. To address these issues Lajeunesse designed a transpiring wall reactor[8] which introduced a pressure differential through the walls of an inner sleeve filled with pores to continuously rinse the inner walls of the reactor with fresh water. Russ Hanush was charged with the construction and operation of the supercritical fluids reactor (SFR)[9] used for these studies. Among its design intricacies were the Inconel 625 alloy necessary for operation at such extreme temperatures and pressures, and the design of the high-pressure, high-temperature optical cells used for photometric access to the reacting flows which incorporated 24 carat gold pressure seals and sapphire windows.[10][11]","title":"Basic research"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"hazardous wastes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hazardous_waste"},{"link_name":"fouling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fouling"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Hanwha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanwha"},{"link_name":"Johnson Matthey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnson_Matthey"},{"link_name":"Cork, Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"PFAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per-_and_polyfluoroalkyl_substances"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Several companies in the United States are now working to commercialize supercritical reactors to destroy hazardous wastes. Widespread commercial application of SCWO technology requires a reactor design capable of resisting fouling and corrosion under supercritical conditions.[12]In Japan a number of commercial SCWO applications exist, among them one unit for treatment of halogenated waste built by Organo. In Korea two commercial size units have been built by Hanwha.In Europe, Chematur Engineering AB of Sweden commercialized the SCWO technology for treatment of spent chemical catalysts to recover the precious metal, the AquaCat process. The unit has been built for Johnson Matthey in the UK. It is the only commercial SCWO unit in Europe and with its capacity of 3000 l/h it is the largest SCWO unit in the world. Chematur's Super Critical Fluids technology was acquired by SCFI Group (Cork, Ireland) who are actively commercializing the Aqua Critox SCWO process for treatment of sludge, e.g. de-inking sludge and sewage sludge. Many long duration trials on these applications have been made and thanks to the high destruction efficiency of 99.9%+ the solid residue after the SCWO process is well suited for recycling – in the case of de-inking sludge as paper filler and in the case of sewage sludge as phosphorus and coagulant. SCFI Group operate a 250 l/h Aqua Critox demonstration plant in Cork, Ireland.Turbosystems Engineering (California, USA) is actively commercializing their patented transpiring wall SCWO reactor (\"TWR\") with a focus on renewable energy applications.374Water Inc. is a company offering commercial SCWO systems that convert organic wastes to clean water, energy and minerals. It is spun out after more than seven years of research and development funded by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation to Prof. Deshusses laboratory based at Duke University.[13] The founders of 374Water, Prof. Marc Deshusses and Kobe Nagar, possess the waste processing reactor patent relevant to SCWO.[14] 374Water is actively commercializing its AirSCWO systems for the treatment of biosolids and wastewater sludges, organic chemical wastes, and PFAS wastes including unspent Aqueous Film Forming Foams (AFFFs), rinsates or spent resins and adsorption media. The first commercial sale was announced in February 2022.[15]Aquarden Technologies (Skaevinge, Denmark) provides modular SCWO plants for the destruction of hazardous pollutants such as PFAS, pesticides, and other problematic hydrocarbons in industrial wastestreams.[16] Aquarden is also providing remediation of hazardous energetic wastes and chemical warfare agents with SCWO, where a full-scale SCWO system has been operating for some years in France for the Defense Industry.","title":"Commercial applications"}]	[{"image_text":"Supercritical Water (Red Area)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg/220px-Supercritical_H2Olr.jpg"},{"image_text":"The supercritical fluids reactor (SFR) at Sandia National Laboratories' Combustion Research Facility (CRF), 1995.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Supercritical_Fluids_Reactor.jpg/220px-Supercritical_Fluids_Reactor.jpg"},{"image_text":"High-pressure, high-temperature optical cell.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Optical_cell.jpg/220px-Optical_cell.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Supercritical fluid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercritical_fluid"},{"title":"Wet oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_oxidation"},{"title":"Incineration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incineration"}]	[{"reference":"Rice, Steven (1994). \"Supercritical Water Oxidation of Colored Smoke, Dye, and Pyrotechnic Compositions\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/supercritical_water_oxidation_of_colored_smoke_dye_and_pyrothechnic_compositions.pdf","url_text":"\"Supercritical Water Oxidation of Colored Smoke, Dye, and Pyrotechnic Compositions\""}]},{"reference":"Rice, Steven (1995). \"Destruction of Hazardous Munitions by Supercritical Water Oxidation\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/destruction_of_hazardous_munitions_by_supercritical_water_oxidation.pdf","url_text":"\"Destruction of Hazardous Munitions by Supercritical Water Oxidation\""}]},{"reference":"Rice, Steven (1995). \"Hydrothermal Oxidation Kinetics of Methanol\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/hydrothermal_oxidation_kinetics_of_methanol.pdf","url_text":"\"Hydrothermal Oxidation Kinetics of Methanol\""}]},{"reference":"Rice, Steven (1996). \"Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Methanol to Formaldehyde\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/raman_spectroscopic_measurement_of_oxidation_in_supercritical_water_-_1_conversion_of_methanol_to_formaldehyde.pdf","url_text":"\"Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Methanol to Formaldehyde\""}]},{"reference":"Hunter, Thomas (1996). \"Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Isopropanol to Acetone\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/raman_spectroscopic_measurement_of_oxidation_in_supercritical_water_-_2_conversion_of_isopropyl_alcohol_to_acetone.pdf","url_text":"\"Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - Conversion of Isopropanol to Acetone\""}]},{"reference":"Croiset, Eric (1997). \"Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition in Supercritical Water\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/hydrogen_peroxide_decomposition_in_supercritical_water.pdf","url_text":"\"Hydrogen Peroxide Decomposition in Supercritical Water\""}]},{"reference":"Lajeunesse, Anthony (1993). \"Salt Deposition Studies in a Supercritical Water Reactor\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/salt_deposition_studies_in_a_supercritical_water_oxidation_reactor.pdf","url_text":"\"Salt Deposition Studies in a Supercritical Water Reactor\""}]},{"reference":"Lajeunesse, Anthony (1997). \"Kinetic Investigation of the Oxidation of Naval Excess Hazardous Materials in Supercritical Water for the Design of a Transpiration-Wall Reactor\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/kinetic_investigation_of_the_oxidation_of_naval_excess_hazardous_materials_in_supercritical_water_for_the_design_of_a_transpiration-wall_reactor.pdf","url_text":"\"Kinetic Investigation of the Oxidation of Naval Excess Hazardous Materials in Supercritical Water for the Design of a Transpiration-Wall Reactor\""}]},{"reference":"Hanush, Russ (1995). \"Operation and Performance of the Supercritical Fluids Reactor\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/operation_and_performance_of_the_supercritical_fluids_reactor__sfr_.pdf","url_text":"\"Operation and Performance of the Supercritical Fluids Reactor\""}]},{"reference":"Rice, Steven (1997). \"Design Strategies for High-Temperature, High-Pressure Optical Cells\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/design_strategies_for_high-temperature_high-pressure_optical_cells.pdf","url_text":"\"Design Strategies for High-Temperature, High-Pressure Optical Cells\""}]},{"reference":"Rice, Steven (2000). \"Design strategies for Optically-Accessible High-Temperature, High-Pressure Reactor Cells\" (PDF). Physics Phor Phun.","urls":[{"url":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/design_strategies_for_optically-accessible_high-temperature_high-pressure_reactor_cells.pdf","url_text":"\"Design strategies for Optically-Accessible High-Temperature, High-Pressure Reactor Cells\""}]},{"reference":"Yang, Shu (2013). \"New Design of Supercritical Water Oxidation Reactor for Sewage Sludge Treatment\". Advanced Materials Research – via ResearchGate.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272103907","url_text":"\"New Design of Supercritical Water Oxidation Reactor for Sewage Sludge Treatment\""}]},{"reference":"\"Companies merge to offer water resource recovery system using supercritical water oxidation\". Water Technology Online. 1 October 2020. Retrieved 15 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.watertechonline.com/water-reuse/press-release/14184469/power-verde-inc-companies-merge-to-offer-water-resource-recovery-system-using-supercritical-water-oxidation","url_text":"\"Companies merge to offer water resource recovery system using supercritical water oxidation\""}]},{"reference":"MarketScreener. \"374Water, Inc.: OC San and 374Water Enter into an Agreement to Deploy the First Commercial-Scale AirSCWO System\". www.marketscreener.com. Retrieved 2022-02-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.marketscreener.com/news/latest/374Water-Inc-OC-San-and-374Water-Enter-into-an-Agreement-to-Deploy-the-First-Commercial-Scale-Air--37712558/","url_text":"\"374Water, Inc.: OC San and 374Water Enter into an Agreement to Deploy the First Commercial-Scale AirSCWO System\""}]},{"reference":"\"PFAS Destruction Through Supercritical Water Oxidation\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wateronline.com/doc/pfas-destruction-through-supercritical-water-oxidation-0001","url_text":"\"PFAS Destruction Through Supercritical Water Oxidation\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22","external_links_name":"\"Supercritical water oxidation\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Supercritical+water+oxidation%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/supercritical_water_oxidation_of_colored_smoke_dye_and_pyrothechnic_compositions.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Supercritical Water Oxidation of Colored Smoke, Dye, and Pyrotechnic Compositions\""},{"Link":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/destruction_of_hazardous_munitions_by_supercritical_water_oxidation.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Destruction of Hazardous Munitions by Supercritical Water Oxidation\""},{"Link":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/hydrothermal_oxidation_kinetics_of_methanol.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Hydrothermal Oxidation Kinetics of Methanol\""},{"Link":"https://physicsphorphun.com/uploads/1/2/2/5/122590908/raman_spectroscopic_measurement_of_oxidation_in_supercritical_water_-_1_conversion_of_methanol_to_formaldehyde.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Raman-Spectroscopic Measurement of Oxidation in Supercritical Water - 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Supercritical Fluids Group"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession	War of the Mantuan Succession	["1 Background","2 Strategic objectives","3 Phase I; January 1628 to June 1629","4 Phase II; June 1629 to October 1630","5 Peace and its aftermath","6 Notes","7 References","8 Sources","9 External links"]	War in Northern Italy War of the Mantuan SuccessionPart of the Thirty Years' WarThe successful claimant, Charles I GonzagaDate1628–1631LocationNorthern ItalyResult Treaty of Cherasco recognises the Duke of Nevers as ruler of MantuaBelligerents Supporting the Duke of Nevers: France Republic of Venice Mantua Supporting the Duke of Guastalla: Spain Holy Roman Empire SavoyCommanders and leaders Duke of Nevers Louis XIII of France Cardinal Richelieu Montmorency Schomberg Duke of Guastalla Collalto Gallas Aldringen Ambrogio Spinola † Córdoba Charles EmmanuelStrength 1628:Up to 14,000 Mantuan and French troops 1628:29,000 Spanish8,000 Savoyard1630:34,000 Spanish30,000 Imperial Army25,000 Savoyard troops4,000 Tuscan2,000 Parman vteWar of the Mantuan Succession Siege of Casale Battle of Susa Battle of Pinerolo Battle of Villabuona Battle of Veillane Battle of Saluzzo Sack of Mantua vteFranco-Spanish wars (1495–1498 1502–1504 1512–1516 1521–1526 1526–1529 1536–1538 1542–1544 1551–1559) 1580–1583 1595–1598 1625 1628–1631 1635–1659 (1640–1659, 1641–1659, 1648–1653) 1667–1668 1673–1678 1683–1684 1688–1697 1718–1720 1793–1795 1808–1814 1815 1823 The War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–1631) was a conflict related to the Thirty Years' War and was caused by the death in December 1627 of Vincenzo II, the last male heir in the direct line of the House of Gonzaga and the ruler of the duchies of Mantua and Montferrat. Those territories were key to control of the Spanish Road, an overland route that allowed Habsburg Spain to move recruits and supplies from Italy to their army in Flanders. The result was a proxy war between France, which supported the French-born Duke of Nevers, and Spain, which backed a distant cousin, the Duke of Guastalla. Fighting centred on the fortress of Casale Monferrato, which the Spanish besieged twice, from March 1628 to April 1629 and from September 1629 to October 1630. French intervention on behalf of Nevers in April 1629 led Emperor Ferdinand II to support Spain by transferring Imperial troops from Northern Germany, who captured Mantua in July 1630. However, French reinforcements enabled Nevers to retain Casale, while Ferdinand withdrew his troops in response to Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War, and both sides agreed a truce in October 1630. The June 1631 Treaty of Cherasco confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat in return for minor territorial losses. More importantly, the treaty left France in possession of Pinerolo and Casale, key fortresses that controlled access to passes through the Alps and protected its southern borders. The diversion of Imperial and Spanish resources from Germany allowed the Swedes to establish themselves within the Holy Roman Empire and was one reason that the Thirty Years' War continued until 1648. Background Since 1308, the Duchy of Mantua had been ruled by the House of Gonzaga, who also acquired the Duchy of Montferrat in 1574 by marriage. Both territories were part of the Holy Roman Empire and were also of strategic importance to the area known as Lombardy, dominated by the Spanish-governed Duchy of Milan. Control of this region allowed the Habsburg rulers of Spain and Austria to threaten France's restive southern provinces of Languedoc and the Dauphiné, as well as protecting the overland supply route known as the Spanish Road. Spanish possessions in Lombardy and the Kingdom of Naples were a key source of recruits and supplies for their military and formed the basis of "Spanish power in Europe throughout the 17th century". In recent decades, their position had been strengthened by the acquisition of Finale, and control over the independent Principalities of Piombino and Monaco, as well as fortresses in Modena and Mirandola. However, this expansion was viewed with increasing concern by their regional rivals, the Republic of Venice and Pope Urban VIII, ruler of the Papal States. In February 1627, Vincenzo II, last Gonzaga male in the direct line, became Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, and conscious of his poor health, tried to resolve the succession internally. The legal position was complicated since Montferrat allowed female inheritance while Mantua did not; in addition, while the duchies had effectively been ruled as independent states, technically their status as Imperial fiefs gave the Holy Roman Emperor a measure of control over the succession. Notwithstanding these issues, the strongest contender was Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, cousin of Vincenzo II and a French peer. Legalities were less important than the perceived threat to Spanish interests if the Duchies fell under French influence and Córdoba, governor of Spanish Lombardy, began discussions with Madrid on potential military action to prevent this. Alternatives included Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, whose claim extended primarily to Montferrat, and Ferrante II Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla, another distant Gonzaga cousin and Imperial General Commissar in Italy. To cement his position, Charles of Nevers arranged for his son Charles II Gonzaga to marry Vincenzo's niece Maria Gonzaga, heiress of Montferrat; the ceremony was performed on 23 December 1627, three days before Vincenzo died. Nevers arrived in Mantua on 17 January and sent an envoy to Emperor Ferdinand II requesting Imperial recognition. Strategic objectives Vincenco II, whose death in December 1627 sparked the war Historian Peter H. Wilson argues "none of the major powers ... was looking for a fight in Italy" and conflict was caused by a combination of events, including miscommunication between Córdoba and Madrid, as well as Nevers' refusal to compromise. Despite their family connections, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs did not necessarily share the same objectives. While Spain was always seeking to strengthen its position in northern Italy, Ferdinand wanted to avoid diverting resources from Germany, as well as to assert Imperial authority by deciding the succession question himself. He agreed to confirm Nevers as duke in return for the newly built fortress of Casale Monferrato, capital of Montferrat, a compromise suggested by his wife Empress Eleonora, sister of the recently deceased duke Vincenzo II. This solution appeared acceptable, especially as French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu viewed Nevers as a Habsburg client and was fully occupied with the Siege of La Rochelle. However, it was undermined by the combined ambition of Córdoba and Charles Emmanuel, who from 1613 to 1617 had fought for possession of Montferrat. Shortly before Vincenzo's death, they agreed to partition the duchy, most of it going to Savoy while Spain took Casale, a deal approved by Philip IV of Spain and his chief minister Olivares. On 26 January, Ferdinand ordered Córdoba not to send troops into Mantua or Montferrat and on 1 April confiscated both territories pending a final decision on the succession. By then, it was too late to stop the fighting. Since even large states like France struggled to fight simultaneously in multiple theatres, 17th century diplomacy focused on opening new fronts by building alliances against opponents, or freeing resources by ending an existing conflict. The same principle applied to the Habsburgs; lacking his own army, Ferdinand relied on support from his often reluctant German allies, or expensive mercenaries like Albrecht von Wallenstein. While the huge resources of the Spanish Empire meant they were better able to replace their losses, funding an offensive in Italy required suspending operations in Flanders. By forcing the Habsburgs onto the defensive in Germany, the conflict over the Mantuan succession had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years' War. Phase I; January 1628 to June 1629 In giving their approval, both Olivares and Philip assumed Casale would be quickly taken but Córdoba took several months to mobilise 12,000 troops for operations in Montferrat, along with 8,000 supplied by Savoy. They joined 11,000 troops already assembled in the Duchy of Milan, while another 6,000 soldiers were used to screen the strategic town of Cremona and block the Alpine passes. Siege operations only began in March and since Casale was one of the largest and most modern fortifications in Europe, taking it would be a lengthy operation, giving Nevers time to recruit an army. Including militia and French mercenaries, he managed to raise a force of 14,000, including 2,000 cavalry, a significant number for a duchy with a population of only 300,000. In addition to support from Empress Eleonora, Venice and the Pope, Nevers was also backed by Ferdinand's military commander Wallenstein, who wanted his army to focus on capturing Stralsund in Northern Germany. These factors ultimately delayed any Imperial intervention until September 1629. FinaleTurinMantuaCasaleMilanGenoaPineroloModenaMirandolaVeniceTrinoNizza MonferratoCremonaAviglianaCarignanoclass=notpageimage\| Northern Italy 1628 to 1631; key locations Led by Charles Emmanuel, Savoyard forces captured Trino in April, then Nizza Monferrato in June, but the siege of Casale dragged on. The diversion of money and men from the war against the Dutch Republic weakened the Spanish position in Flanders and forced them onto the defensive. Philip later admitted attacking Casale was the one political act he regretted, but once committed Spanish prestige made it impossible to withdraw. Although Olivares accepted 'the duke of Nevers is the legitimate heir to all the Mantuan territories', Spain now recognised Guastalla as Duke of Mantua. Nevers raised another 6,600 men by mortgaging his French estates, most of whom were ambushed and destroyed by Charles Emmanuel while crossing the Alps. The surrender of La Rochelle in October 1628 allowed France to intervene directly and in March 1629, an army led by Louis XIII of France stormed barricades blocking the Pas de Suse. By the end of the month, they had lifted the siege of Casale and taken the strategic Savoyard fortress of Pinerolo. In April, France, England and Savoy signed the Treaty of Susa, facilitated by Cardinal Mazarin, the papal Nuncio. It consisted of two separate agreements, the first ending the Anglo-French War (1627–1629), the second making peace between France and Savoy. In return for Trino, Charles Emmanuel allowed French troops to garrison Casale and Pinerolo, as well as providing free passage across his territory to reinforce Mantua. Louis XIII and the bulk of the French army then returned to Languedoc to suppress the latest in a series of Huguenot rebellions. Phase II; June 1629 to October 1630 Philip was determined to reverse the Susa treaty and replaced Córdoba with Spinola, a native of Genoa and former commander in the Spanish Netherlands. Nevers unwisely led 2,500 troops in an attack on Spanish-held Cremona, which his Venetian allies refused to support. Combined with the withdrawal of the main French army, this left him vulnerable to a counter-offensive. Richelieu positioned 18,000 troops on the Savoyard frontier to deter Imperial intervention, but Ferdinand viewed opposing the French in Italy as a higher priority than supporting Spain against the Dutch. The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck that ended his war with Denmark-Norway allowed Ferdinand to send 30,000 troops from Germany under the Mantuan exile Ramboldo, Count of Collalto. Hoping to overwhelm Casale and prevent interference by Charles Emmanuel, Spinola sought to expand his existing force of 16,000 with another 12,000 mercenaries and 6,000 reinforcements from Naples. He also invoked treaties with Tuscany and Parma to supply 4,000 and 2,000 men respectively but despite its size, his army contained many poor quality troops. Although Ferdinando II undertook to provide 6,000 men for two years along with use of the Tuscan navy, he ultimately avoided doing so. The siege of Casale and its French garrison of 2,500 resumed in June; in late October, Collalto dispersed a Venetian force of 7,000 before moving onto Mantua, held by a garrison of 4,000. Siege of Casale Monferrato, 1630 Neither siege made much progress; Mantua was protected by two artificial lakes which made it difficult to position siege artillery and Collalto withdrew after an unsuccessful assault in late November. As Collalto fell ill, he left command to his deputies Gallas and Aldringen. Casale continued to hold out, while the Spanish were unable to pay or support so many men and large numbers were lost to desertion and disease. Charles Emmanuel switched sides again and in December joined Spinola at Casale with 6,500 men, leaving 12,500 to guard Piedmont and another 6,000 in Savoy, while Tuscany, Parma and other Spanish allies provided additional recruits and money. A French army of 18,000 under Henri II de Montmorency overran Savoy, before invading Piedmont in February 1630; on 10 July, he defeated a combined Savoyard-Spanish force at Avigliana. Both sides were badly affected by an outbreak of bubonic plague, allegedly brought from Germany by French and Imperial soldiers. The "worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the early modern period", approximately 35% of the population of Northern Italy died between 1629 and 1631. The increasing brutality of the war led to a number of massacres, most notably at Ostiglia in April 1630, when local bandits, or "Formigotti", cut off an Imperial foraging party and assaulted the nearby garrison in Ostiglia. After its defeat, Imperial troops retaliated by attacking the civilian population, with contemporary sources estimating the number killed as around 600, including women and children. When the siege of Mantua resumed in May 1630, its defenders had been reduced by disease to under 2,000, while a hastily assembled and poorly equipped relief force of 17,500 Venetian auxiliaries was routed by the Imperials at Villabuona. With the mutinous and unpaid garrison down to only 700 effectives, it surrendered to Gallas and Aldringen on 18 July; the sack that followed reportedly produced booty worth over 18 million ducats. Plague and the sack combined to reduce the population of Mantua by over 70% between 1628 and 1631 and it took decades to recover. Despite this, the retention of Casale meant Nevers' cause remained alive; on 26 July, Charles Emmanuel died and was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus, who was married to Christine of France, Louis XIII's younger sister. On 6 August, Montmorency defeated the Savoyards at Carignano; losses from disease and desertion left him too weak to relieve Casale, but reinforcements under Charles de Schomberg reached the fortress in early October. The siege works were flooded by heavy rain while the besiegers had been reduced by plague to under 4,000, their casualties including Spinola; on 29 October, the Spanish finally withdrew and the two sides agreed a truce, negotiated by the papal representative Mazarin. Peace and its aftermath French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu; the war ultimately proved a major foreign policy success for France In June 1630, Richelieu dispatched his close aide Father Joseph and Nicolas Brûlart to open peace talks with Ferdinand at Regensburg, where he was attending a meeting of the Imperial Diet. At the same time, Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania with 18,000 troops, beginning the Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War. Father Joseph also had secret instructions to seek an alliance with Ferdinand's main Catholic supporter, Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria. However, the loss of Mantua on 18 July appeared to jeopardise the French position in Italy, while Maximilian had no interest in an alliance. Seeing an opportunity, Ferdinand offered to confirm Nevers as Duke of Mantua, in return for France agreeing to cede Casale and Pinerolo to Spain, and withdraw support for Ferdinand's opponents within the Empire, ending French backing for both the Swedes and the Dutch. The offer coincided with Louis falling seriously ill and a concerted attack on Richelieu by his internal enemies, effectively paralysing the government. Unable to get a response to requests for further instructions, on 13 October Father Joseph reluctantly signed the Treaty of Ratisbonne. Such an agreement compromised the entire basis of French foreign policy, which was to weaken the Habsburgs wherever possible, and threatened their alliance with the Pope, for whom liberating Italy from the "Spanish yoke" was a primary objective. Having recovered from his illness, Louis refused to ratify the treaty, while Richelieu outlasted his opponents and resumed control over French policy, which lasted until his death in 1642. In January 1631 Louis provided Gustavus with financial backing in the Treaty of Bärwalde, allowing the Swedes to establish themselves in the Empire, where they would remain until 1648. It was followed in May by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, an eight-year pact of mutual assistance between France and Maximilian of Bavaria. The need to transfer Imperial troops from Italy to face the Swedish threat forced Ferdinand to sign the Treaty of Cherasco with France on 19 June 1631, which confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, in return for minor concessions to Savoy. Although both sides agreed to withdraw their armies, Nevers and Victor Amadeus allowed French garrisons to remain in Casale and Pinerolo, which meant despite the expenditure of 10 million escudos and thousands of men, Spain gained nothing from the conflict. The war proved a major foreign policy success for Richelieu by strengthening the French position in Northern Italy, disrupting the Spanish Road and permanently souring relationships between Spain and Austria. Of even greater long term significance was the split it created between the Habsburgs and the papacy, making it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against fellow Catholics. Notes ^ This was the subject of the 1960s French television series Le Chevalier Tempête. ^ Other sources suggest 10,000 References ^ Thion 2013, p. 18. ^ Rizzo 2005, pp. 24–25. ^ Kamen 2002, p. 382. ^ a b Wedgwood 1938, p. 247. ^ Parrott 1997, pp. 20–21. ^ Stradling 1990, p. 771. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 438. ^ a b Wilson 2009, p. 439. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 440. ^ Stradling 1990, p. 772. ^ Stradling 1990, p. 773. ^ Parrott 2001, pp. 85–88. ^ Hanlon 2016, p. 110. ^ a b Hanlon 1998, p. 111. ^ Arnold 1994, pp. 124–125. ^ Parker 1984, pp. 95–96. ^ a b Kamen 2002, p. 383. ^ Thion 2013, p. 62. ^ Hanlon 1998, pp. 111–112. ^ Parker 1984, p. 97. ^ a b c Wilson 2009, p. 443. ^ a b c Hanlon 2016, p. 113. ^ De Périni 1896, p. 160. ^ Arnold 1994, pp. 127–128. ^ a b Rebitsch 2006, pp. 51–53. ^ Hanlon 1998, p. 113. ^ De Périni 1896, pp. 149–150. ^ Alfani & Percoco 2016, p. 2. ^ D'Arco 1857, p. 52-53. ^ Portoguaro 1979, p. 34. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 444. ^ Alfani & Percoco 2016, p. 8. ^ De Périni 1896, p. 151. ^ De Périni 1896, pp. 159–160. ^ Fagniez 1885, pp. 38–40. ^ Wedgwood 1938, pp. 263–264. ^ Parker 1984, p. 102. ^ Parker 1984, p. 103. ^ Wilson 2009, p. 458. Sources Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2016). "Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities" (PDF). The Economic History Review. 72 (4): 1175–1201. doi:10.1111/ehr.12652. ISSN 1468-0289. S2CID 131730725. Arnold, Thomas F. (1994). "Gonzaga Fortifications and the Mantuan Succession Crisis of 1613–1631". Mediterranean Studies. 4: 113–30. D'Arco, Carlo (1857). Due cronache di Mantova dal 1628 al 1631 la prima di Scipione Capilupi la seconda di Giovanni Mambrino (in Italian). Milano appresso Francesco Colombo. De Périni, Hardÿ (1896). Batailles françaises; Volume III, 1621-1643 (in French). Ernest Flammarion, Paris. Fagniez, G (1885). "LA MISSION DU PÈRE JOSEPH A RATISBONNE 1630". Revue Historique (in French). 27 (1): 38–67. JSTOR 40937243. Hanlon, Gregory (2016). The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560-1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138158276. Hanlon, Gregory (1998). Italy 1636: Cemetery of Armies. OUP. ISBN 978-0198738244. Kamen, Henry (2002). Spain's Road to Empire (2003 ed.). Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0140285284. Parker, Geoffrey, ed. (1984). The Thirty Years' War (1997 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12883-4. Parrott, David (1997). "The Mantuan Succession, 1627–31: A Sovereignty Dispute in Early Modern Europe". English Historical Review. 112 (445): 20–65. doi:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20. Parrott, David (2001). Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521792097. Portoguaro, Davide da (1979). Storia dei Cappucini Veneti Vol. 3, Curia Provinciale den FF.MM (in Italian). Curia Provinciale dei FF.MM a Venezia. Rebitsch, Robert (2006). Matthias Gallas (1588–1647). Generalleutnant des Kaisers zur Zeit des Dreißigjährigen Krieges. Eine militärische Biographie (in German). Münster: Aschendorff Verlag. ISBN 978-3-402065761. Rizzo, Mario (2005). "Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)". Cahiers de la Méditerranée (71): 145–184. doi:10.4000/cdlm.991. Stradling, R. A. (1990). "Prelude to Disaster; the Precipitation of the War of the Mantuan Succession, 1627–29". Historical Journal. 33 (4): 769–85. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013753. S2CID 154817316. Thion, Stephane (2013). French Armies of the Thirty Years' War. Histoire et Collections. ISBN 978-2917747018. Wedgwood, C.V. (1938). The Thirty Years War (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-146-2. Wilson, Peter H. (2009). Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9592-3. External links Map of the Territories Involved Chronology: Louis XIII (1610–1643) Authority control databases: National Israel United States	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Campaignbox_War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Campaignbox_War_of_the_Mantuan_Succession"},{"link_name":"War of the Mantuan Succession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Siege of Casale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Siege_of_Casale&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Battle of Susa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Susa_(1629)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Battle of Pinerolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Battle_of_Pinerolo&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Battle of 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Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Vincenzo II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincenzo_II"},{"link_name":"House of Gonzaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gonzaga"},{"link_name":"Mantua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"Montferrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat"},{"link_name":"Spanish Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Road"},{"link_name":"Habsburg Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_Spain"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_of_Flanders"},{"link_name":"proxy war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_war"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_France"},{"link_name":"Duke of Nevers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"Duke of Guastalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrante_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Guastalla"},{"link_name":"Casale Monferrato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casale_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"Emperor Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor_Ferdinand_II"},{"link_name":"Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy"},{"link_name":"Northern Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Germany"},{"link_name":"Mantua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_intervention_in_the_Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Pinerolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinerolo"},{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"}],"text":"vteWar of the Mantuan Succession\nSiege of Casale\nBattle of Susa\nBattle of Pinerolo\nBattle of Villabuona\nBattle of Veillane\nBattle of Saluzzo\nSack of MantuavteFranco-Spanish wars\n(1495–1498\n1502–1504\n1512–1516\n1521–1526\n1526–1529\n1536–1538\n1542–1544\n1551–1559)\n1580–1583\n1595–1598\n1625\n1628–1631\n1635–1659 (1640–1659, 1641–1659, \t1648–1653)\n1667–1668\n1673–1678\n1683–1684\n1688–1697\n1718–1720\n1793–1795\n1808–1814\n1815\n1823The War of the Mantuan Succession (1628–1631) was a conflict related to the Thirty Years' War and was caused by the death in December 1627 of Vincenzo II, the last male heir in the direct line of the House of Gonzaga and the ruler of the duchies of Mantua and Montferrat. Those territories were key to control of the Spanish Road, an overland route that allowed Habsburg Spain to move recruits and supplies from Italy to their army in Flanders. The result was a proxy war between France, which supported the French-born Duke of Nevers, and Spain, which backed a distant cousin, the Duke of Guastalla.Fighting centred on the fortress of Casale Monferrato, which the Spanish besieged twice, from March 1628 to April 1629 and from September 1629 to October 1630. French intervention on behalf of Nevers in April 1629 led Emperor Ferdinand II to support Spain by transferring Imperial troops from Northern Germany, who captured Mantua in July 1630. However, French reinforcements enabled Nevers to retain Casale, [a] while Ferdinand withdrew his troops in response to Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War, and both sides agreed a truce in October 1630.The June 1631 Treaty of Cherasco confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat in return for minor territorial losses. More importantly, the treaty left France in possession of Pinerolo and Casale, key fortresses that controlled access to passes through the Alps and protected its southern borders. The diversion of Imperial and Spanish resources from Germany allowed the Swedes to establish themselves within the Holy Roman Empire and was one reason that the Thirty Years' War continued until 1648.","title":"War of the Mantuan Succession"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Duchy of Mantua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"House of Gonzaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Gonzaga"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Montferrat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Montferrat"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Lombardy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lombardy"},{"link_name":"Duchy of Milan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan"},{"link_name":"Habsburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Habsburg"},{"link_name":"Languedoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languedoc"},{"link_name":"Dauphiné","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dauphin%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Spanish Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Road"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThion201318-2"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERizzo200524%E2%80%9325-3"},{"link_name":"Finale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finale_Ligure"},{"link_name":"Piombino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principality_of_Piombino"},{"link_name":"Monaco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monaco"},{"link_name":"Modena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modena"},{"link_name":"Mirandola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mirandola"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2002382-4"},{"link_name":"Republic of Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Pope Urban VIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_Urban_VIII"},{"link_name":"Papal States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papal_States"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938247-5"},{"link_name":"Vincenzo II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Holy Roman Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_I_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott199720%E2%80%9321-6"},{"link_name":"Córdoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gonzalo_Fern%C3%A1ndez_de_C%C3%B3rdoba_(1585%E2%80%931635)"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStradling1990771-7"},{"link_name":"Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Emmanuel_I,_Duke_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Ferrante II Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrante_II_Gonzaga"},{"link_name":"Charles II Gonzaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Nevers"},{"link_name":"Maria Gonzaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Gonzaga,_Duchess_of_Montferrat"},{"link_name":"Mantua","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mantua"},{"link_name":"Emperor Ferdinand II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_II,_Holy_Roman_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009438-8"}],"text":"Since 1308, the Duchy of Mantua had been ruled by the House of Gonzaga, who also acquired the Duchy of Montferrat in 1574 by marriage. Both territories were part of the Holy Roman Empire and were also of strategic importance to the area known as Lombardy, dominated by the Spanish-governed Duchy of Milan. Control of this region allowed the Habsburg rulers of Spain and Austria to threaten France's restive southern provinces of Languedoc and the Dauphiné, as well as protecting the overland supply route known as the Spanish Road.[1]Spanish possessions in Lombardy and the Kingdom of Naples were a key source of recruits and supplies for their military and formed the basis of \"Spanish power in Europe throughout the 17th century\".[2] In recent decades, their position had been strengthened by the acquisition of Finale, and control over the independent Principalities of Piombino and Monaco, as well as fortresses in Modena and Mirandola.[3] However, this expansion was viewed with increasing concern by their regional rivals, the Republic of Venice and Pope Urban VIII, ruler of the Papal States.[4]In February 1627, Vincenzo II, last Gonzaga male in the direct line, became Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, and conscious of his poor health, tried to resolve the succession internally. The legal position was complicated since Montferrat allowed female inheritance while Mantua did not; in addition, while the duchies had effectively been ruled as independent states, technically their status as Imperial fiefs gave the Holy Roman Emperor a measure of control over the succession. Notwithstanding these issues, the strongest contender was Charles Gonzaga, Duke of Nevers, cousin of Vincenzo II and a French peer.[5]Legalities were less important than the perceived threat to Spanish interests if the Duchies fell under French influence and Córdoba, governor of Spanish Lombardy, began discussions with Madrid on potential military action to prevent this.[6] Alternatives included Charles Emmanuel I, Duke of Savoy, whose claim extended primarily to Montferrat, and Ferrante II Gonzaga, Duke of Guastalla, another distant Gonzaga cousin and Imperial General Commissar in Italy. To cement his position, Charles of Nevers arranged for his son Charles II Gonzaga to marry Vincenzo's niece Maria Gonzaga, heiress of Montferrat; the ceremony was performed on 23 December 1627, three days before Vincenzo died. Nevers arrived in Mantua on 17 January and sent an envoy to Emperor Ferdinand II requesting Imperial recognition.[7]","title":"Background"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ritratto_del_Duca_Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vincenco II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga,_Duke_of_Mantua"},{"link_name":"Peter H. Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_H._Wilson"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009439-9"},{"link_name":"Austrian Habsburgs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy"},{"link_name":"Casale Monferrato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casale_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"Empress Eleonora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eleonora_Gonzaga_(1598%E2%80%931655)"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009440-10"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu"},{"link_name":"Siege of La Rochelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_La_Rochelle"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStradling1990772-11"},{"link_name":"fought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_the_Montferrat_Succession"},{"link_name":"Savoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savoyard_state"},{"link_name":"Philip IV of Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_IV_of_Spain"},{"link_name":"Olivares","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspar_de_Guzm%C3%A1n,_Count-Duke_of_Olivares"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStradling1990773-12"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009439-9"},{"link_name":"Albrecht von Wallenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albrecht_von_Wallenstein"},{"link_name":"Spanish Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Empire"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParrott200185%E2%80%9388-13"}],"text":"Vincenco II, whose death in December 1627 sparked the warHistorian Peter H. Wilson argues \"none of the major powers ... was looking for a fight in Italy\" and conflict was caused by a combination of events, including miscommunication between Córdoba and Madrid, as well as Nevers' refusal to compromise.[8] Despite their family connections, the Spanish and Austrian Habsburgs did not necessarily share the same objectives. While Spain was always seeking to strengthen its position in northern Italy, Ferdinand wanted to avoid diverting resources from Germany, as well as to assert Imperial authority by deciding the succession question himself. He agreed to confirm Nevers as duke in return for the newly built fortress of Casale Monferrato, capital of Montferrat, a compromise suggested by his wife Empress Eleonora, sister of the recently deceased duke Vincenzo II.[9]This solution appeared acceptable, especially as French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu viewed Nevers as a Habsburg client and was fully occupied with the Siege of La Rochelle.[10] However, it was undermined by the combined ambition of Córdoba and Charles Emmanuel, who from 1613 to 1617 had fought for possession of Montferrat. Shortly before Vincenzo's death, they agreed to partition the duchy, most of it going to Savoy while Spain took Casale, a deal approved by Philip IV of Spain and his chief minister Olivares.[11] On 26 January, Ferdinand ordered Córdoba not to send troops into Mantua or Montferrat and on 1 April confiscated both territories pending a final decision on the succession. By then, it was too late to stop the fighting.[8]Since even large states like France struggled to fight simultaneously in multiple theatres, 17th century diplomacy focused on opening new fronts by building alliances against opponents, or freeing resources by ending an existing conflict. The same principle applied to the Habsburgs; lacking his own army, Ferdinand relied on support from his often reluctant German allies, or expensive mercenaries like Albrecht von Wallenstein. While the huge resources of the Spanish Empire meant they were better able to replace their losses, funding an offensive in Italy required suspending operations in Flanders. By forcing the Habsburgs onto the defensive in Germany, the conflict over the Mantuan succession had a disproportionate impact on the Thirty Years' War.[12]","title":"Strategic objectives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cremona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremona"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016110-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon1998111-15"},{"link_name":"Stralsund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siege_of_Stralsund_(1628)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994124%E2%80%93125-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:North_Italy_relief_location_map.png"},{"link_name":"class=notpageimage\|","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:North_Italy_relief_location_map.png"},{"link_name":"Trino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trino"},{"link_name":"Nizza Monferrato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nizza_Monferrato"},{"link_name":"war","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eighty_Years_War"},{"link_name":"Dutch Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_Republic"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198495%E2%80%9396-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2002383-18"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThion201362-20"},{"link_name":"Louis XIII of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France"},{"link_name":"Pinerolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinerolo"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon1998111%E2%80%93112-21"},{"link_name":"England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingdom_of_England"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Susa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Susa"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Mazarin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Mazarin"},{"link_name":"Nuncio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuncio"},{"link_name":"Anglo-French War (1627–1629)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-French_War_(1627%E2%80%931629)"},{"link_name":"Languedoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Languedoc"},{"link_name":"Huguenot rebellions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huguenot_rebellions"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker198497-22"}],"text":"In giving their approval, both Olivares and Philip assumed Casale would be quickly taken but Córdoba took several months to mobilise 12,000 troops for operations in Montferrat, along with 8,000 supplied by Savoy. They joined 11,000 troops already assembled in the Duchy of Milan, while another 6,000 soldiers were used to screen the strategic town of Cremona and block the Alpine passes.[13] Siege operations only began in March and since Casale was one of the largest and most modern fortifications in Europe, taking it would be a lengthy operation, giving Nevers time to recruit an army. Including militia and French mercenaries, he managed to raise a force of 14,000, including 2,000 cavalry, a significant number for a duchy with a population of only 300,000.[14] In addition to support from Empress Eleonora, Venice and the Pope, Nevers was also backed by Ferdinand's military commander Wallenstein, who wanted his army to focus on capturing Stralsund in Northern Germany. These factors ultimately delayed any Imperial intervention until September 1629.[15]FinaleTurinMantuaCasaleMilanGenoaPineroloModenaMirandolaVeniceTrinoNizza MonferratoCremonaAviglianaCarignanoclass=notpageimage\| Northern Italy 1628 to 1631; key locationsLed by Charles Emmanuel, Savoyard forces captured Trino in April, then Nizza Monferrato in June, but the siege of Casale dragged on. The diversion of money and men from the war against the Dutch Republic weakened the Spanish position in Flanders and forced them onto the defensive. Philip later admitted attacking Casale was the one political act he regretted, but once committed Spanish prestige made it impossible to withdraw.[16] Although Olivares accepted 'the duke of Nevers is the legitimate heir to all the Mantuan territories', Spain now recognised Guastalla as Duke of Mantua.[17]Nevers raised another 6,600 men [b] by mortgaging his French estates, most of whom were ambushed and destroyed by Charles Emmanuel while crossing the Alps.[18] The surrender of La Rochelle in October 1628 allowed France to intervene directly and in March 1629, an army led by Louis XIII of France stormed barricades blocking the Pas de Suse. By the end of the month, they had lifted the siege of Casale and taken the strategic Savoyard fortress of Pinerolo.[19]In April, France, England and Savoy signed the Treaty of Susa, facilitated by Cardinal Mazarin, the papal Nuncio. It consisted of two separate agreements, the first ending the Anglo-French War (1627–1629), the second making peace between France and Savoy. In return for Trino, Charles Emmanuel allowed French troops to garrison Casale and Pinerolo, as well as providing free passage across his territory to reinforce Mantua. Louis XIII and the bulk of the French army then returned to Languedoc to suppress the latest in a series of Huguenot rebellions.[20]","title":"Phase I; January 1628 to June 1629"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spinola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambrosio_Spinola,_marqu%C3%A9s_de_los_Balbases"},{"link_name":"Genoa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa"},{"link_name":"Spanish Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Cremona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cremona"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2002383-18"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Lübeck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_L%C3%BCbeck"},{"link_name":"Denmark-Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denmark-Norway"},{"link_name":"Ramboldo, Count of Collalto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramboldo,_Count_of_Collalto"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009443-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016113-24"},{"link_name":"Tuscany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"Parma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Parma"},{"link_name":"Ferdinando II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinando_II_de%27_Medici,_Grand_Duke_of_Tuscany"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016113-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_P%C3%A9rini1896160-25"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009443-23"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold1994127%E2%80%93128-26"},{"link_name":"Gallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias_Gallas"},{"link_name":"Aldringen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_von_Aldringen"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERebitsch200651%E2%80%9353-27"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon1998113-28"},{"link_name":"Piedmont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedmont"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon2016113-24"},{"link_name":"Henri II de Montmorency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_II_de_Montmorency"},{"link_name":"Avigliana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Veillane"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_P%C3%A9rini1896149%E2%80%93150-29"},{"link_name":"bubonic plague","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1629%E2%80%931631_Italian_plague"},{"link_name":"early modern period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_modern_period"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlfaniPercoco20162-30"},{"link_name":"Ostiglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ostiglia"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTED'Arco185752-53-31"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPortoguaro197934-32"},{"link_name":"Villabuona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Villabuona"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009443-23"},{"link_name":"ducats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ducat"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009444-33"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERebitsch200651%E2%80%9353-27"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlfaniPercoco20168-34"},{"link_name":"Victor Amadeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victor_Amadeus_I,_Duke_of_Savoy"},{"link_name":"Christine of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_of_France"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_P%C3%A9rini1896151-35"},{"link_name":"Carignano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carignano,_Piedmont"},{"link_name":"Charles de Schomberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_de_Schomberg"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_P%C3%A9rini1896159%E2%80%93160-36"}],"text":"Philip was determined to reverse the Susa treaty and replaced Córdoba with Spinola, a native of Genoa and former commander in the Spanish Netherlands. Nevers unwisely led 2,500 troops in an attack on Spanish-held Cremona, which his Venetian allies refused to support. Combined with the withdrawal of the main French army, this left him vulnerable to a counter-offensive.[17] Richelieu positioned 18,000 troops on the Savoyard frontier to deter Imperial intervention, but Ferdinand viewed opposing the French in Italy as a higher priority than supporting Spain against the Dutch. The June 1629 Treaty of Lübeck that ended his war with Denmark-Norway allowed Ferdinand to send 30,000 troops from Germany under the Mantuan exile Ramboldo, Count of Collalto.[21]Hoping to overwhelm Casale and prevent interference by Charles Emmanuel, Spinola sought to expand his existing force of 16,000 with another 12,000 mercenaries and 6,000 reinforcements from Naples.[22] He also invoked treaties with Tuscany and Parma to supply 4,000 and 2,000 men respectively but despite its size, his army contained many poor quality troops. Although Ferdinando II undertook to provide 6,000 men for two years along with use of the Tuscan navy, he ultimately avoided doing so.[22] The siege of Casale and its French garrison of 2,500 resumed in June; [23] in late October, Collalto dispersed a Venetian force of 7,000 before moving onto Mantua, held by a garrison of 4,000.[21]Siege of Casale Monferrato, 1630Neither siege made much progress; Mantua was protected by two artificial lakes which made it difficult to position siege artillery and Collalto withdrew after an unsuccessful assault in late November.[24] As Collalto fell ill, he left command to his deputies Gallas and Aldringen.[25] Casale continued to hold out, while the Spanish were unable to pay or support so many men and large numbers were lost to desertion and disease.[26] Charles Emmanuel switched sides again and in December joined Spinola at Casale with 6,500 men, leaving 12,500 to guard Piedmont and another 6,000 in Savoy, while Tuscany, Parma and other Spanish allies provided additional recruits and money.[22] A French army of 18,000 under Henri II de Montmorency overran Savoy, before invading Piedmont in February 1630; on 10 July, he defeated a combined Savoyard-Spanish force at Avigliana.[27]Both sides were badly affected by an outbreak of bubonic plague, allegedly brought from Germany by French and Imperial soldiers. The \"worst mortality crisis to affect Italy during the early modern period\",[28] approximately 35% of the population of Northern Italy died between 1629 and 1631. The increasing brutality of the war led to a number of massacres, most notably at Ostiglia in April 1630, when local bandits, or \"Formigotti\", cut off an Imperial foraging party and assaulted the nearby garrison in Ostiglia.[29] After its defeat, Imperial troops retaliated by attacking the civilian population, with contemporary sources estimating the number killed as around 600, including women and children.[30]When the siege of Mantua resumed in May 1630, its defenders had been reduced by disease to under 2,000, while a hastily assembled and poorly equipped relief force of 17,500 Venetian auxiliaries was routed by the Imperials at Villabuona.[21] With the mutinous and unpaid garrison down to only 700 effectives, it surrendered to Gallas and Aldringen on 18 July; the sack that followed reportedly produced booty worth over 18 million ducats.[31][25] Plague and the sack combined to reduce the population of Mantua by over 70% between 1628 and 1631 and it took decades to recover.[32]Despite this, the retention of Casale meant Nevers' cause remained alive; on 26 July, Charles Emmanuel died and was succeeded by his son Victor Amadeus, who was married to Christine of France, Louis XIII's younger sister.[33] On 6 August, Montmorency defeated the Savoyards at Carignano; losses from disease and desertion left him too weak to relieve Casale, but reinforcements under Charles de Schomberg reached the fortress in early October. The siege works were flooded by heavy rain while the besiegers had been reduced by plague to under 4,000, their casualties including Spinola; on 29 October, the Spanish finally withdrew and the two sides agreed a truce, negotiated by the papal representative Mazarin.[34]","title":"Phase II; June 1629 to October 1630"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Champaigne_portrait_richelieu_eb.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cardinal Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu"},{"link_name":"Father Joseph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Leclerc_du_Tremblay"},{"link_name":"Regensburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regensburg"},{"link_name":"Imperial Diet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Diet_(Holy_Roman_Empire)"},{"link_name":"Gustavus Adolphus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustavus_Adolphus"},{"link_name":"Pomerania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy_of_Pomerania"},{"link_name":"Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_intervention_in_the_Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Elector_of_Bavaria"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFagniez188538%E2%80%9340-37"},{"link_name":"concerted attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day_of_the_Dupes"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938263%E2%80%93264-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1984102-39"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Bärwalde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_B%C3%A4rwalde"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Fontainebleau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1631)"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker1984103-40"},{"link_name":"escudos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escudo"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilson2009458-41"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWedgwood1938247-5"}],"text":"French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu; the war ultimately proved a major foreign policy success for FranceIn June 1630, Richelieu dispatched his close aide Father Joseph and Nicolas Brûlart to open peace talks with Ferdinand at Regensburg, where he was attending a meeting of the Imperial Diet. At the same time, Gustavus Adolphus landed in Pomerania with 18,000 troops, beginning the Swedish intervention in the Thirty Years' War. Father Joseph also had secret instructions to seek an alliance with Ferdinand's main Catholic supporter, Maximilian I, Elector of Bavaria.[35]However, the loss of Mantua on 18 July appeared to jeopardise the French position in Italy, while Maximilian had no interest in an alliance. Seeing an opportunity, Ferdinand offered to confirm Nevers as Duke of Mantua, in return for France agreeing to cede Casale and Pinerolo to Spain, and withdraw support for Ferdinand's opponents within the Empire, ending French backing for both the Swedes and the Dutch. The offer coincided with Louis falling seriously ill and a concerted attack on Richelieu by his internal enemies, effectively paralysing the government. Unable to get a response to requests for further instructions, on 13 October Father Joseph reluctantly signed the Treaty of Ratisbonne.[36]Such an agreement compromised the entire basis of French foreign policy, which was to weaken the Habsburgs wherever possible, and threatened their alliance with the Pope, for whom liberating Italy from the \"Spanish yoke\" was a primary objective. Having recovered from his illness, Louis refused to ratify the treaty, while Richelieu outlasted his opponents and resumed control over French policy, which lasted until his death in 1642.[37] In January 1631 Louis provided Gustavus with financial backing in the Treaty of Bärwalde, allowing the Swedes to establish themselves in the Empire, where they would remain until 1648. It was followed in May by the Treaty of Fontainebleau, an eight-year pact of mutual assistance between France and Maximilian of Bavaria.[38]The need to transfer Imperial troops from Italy to face the Swedish threat forced Ferdinand to sign the Treaty of Cherasco with France on 19 June 1631, which confirmed Nevers as Duke of Mantua and Montferrat, in return for minor concessions to Savoy. Although both sides agreed to withdraw their armies, Nevers and Victor Amadeus allowed French garrisons to remain in Casale and Pinerolo, which meant despite the expenditure of 10 million escudos and thousands of men, Spain gained nothing from the conflict.[39] The war proved a major foreign policy success for Richelieu by strengthening the French position in Northern Italy, disrupting the Spanish Road and permanently souring relationships between Spain and Austria. Of even greater long term significance was the split it created between the Habsburgs and the papacy, making it acceptable for France to employ Protestant allies against fellow Catholics.[4]","title":"Peace and its aftermath"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Le Chevalier Tempête","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Flashing_Blade"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-19"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHanlon1998111-15"}],"text":"^ This was the subject of the 1960s French television series Le Chevalier Tempête.\n\n^ Other sources suggest 10,000 [14]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ehes.org/wp/EHES_106.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1111/ehr.12652","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12652"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1468-0289","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0289"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"131730725","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131730725"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"40937243","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/40937243"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1138158276","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138158276"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0198738244","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198738244"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0140285284","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140285284"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-415-12883-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12883-4"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCXII.445.20"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0521792097","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521792097"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-402065761","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-402065761"},{"link_name":"\"Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.4000/cdlm.991","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1017/S0018246X00013753","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00013753"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"154817316","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154817316"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-2917747018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2917747018"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-59017-146-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-7139-9592-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9592-3"}],"text":"Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2016). \"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities\" (PDF). The Economic History Review. 72 (4): 1175–1201. doi:10.1111/ehr.12652. ISSN 1468-0289. S2CID 131730725.\nArnold, Thomas F. (1994). \"Gonzaga Fortifications and the Mantuan Succession Crisis of 1613–1631\". Mediterranean Studies. 4: 113–30.\nD'Arco, Carlo (1857). Due cronache di Mantova dal 1628 al 1631 la prima di Scipione Capilupi la seconda di Giovanni Mambrino (in Italian). Milano appresso Francesco Colombo.\nDe Périni, Hardÿ (1896). Batailles françaises; Volume III, 1621-1643 (in French). Ernest Flammarion, Paris.\nFagniez, G (1885). \"LA MISSION DU PÈRE JOSEPH A RATISBONNE 1630\". Revue Historique (in French). 27 (1): 38–67. JSTOR 40937243.\nHanlon, Gregory (2016). The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560-1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138158276.\nHanlon, Gregory (1998). Italy 1636: Cemetery of Armies. OUP. ISBN 978-0198738244.\nKamen, Henry (2002). Spain's Road to Empire (2003 ed.). Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0140285284.\nParker, Geoffrey, ed. (1984). The Thirty Years' War (1997 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12883-4.\nParrott, David (1997). \"The Mantuan Succession, 1627–31: A Sovereignty Dispute in Early Modern Europe\". English Historical Review. 112 (445): 20–65. doi:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20.\nParrott, David (2001). Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521792097.\nPortoguaro, Davide da (1979). Storia dei Cappucini Veneti Vol. 3, Curia Provinciale den FF.MM (in Italian). Curia Provinciale dei FF.MM a Venezia.\nRebitsch, Robert (2006). Matthias Gallas (1588–1647). Generalleutnant des Kaisers zur Zeit des Dreißigjährigen Krieges. Eine militärische Biographie (in German). Münster: Aschendorff Verlag. ISBN 978-3-402065761.\nRizzo, Mario (2005). \"Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)\". Cahiers de la Méditerranée (71): 145–184. doi:10.4000/cdlm.991.\nStradling, R. A. (1990). \"Prelude to Disaster; the Precipitation of the War of the Mantuan Succession, 1627–29\". Historical Journal. 33 (4): 769–85. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013753. S2CID 154817316.\nThion, Stephane (2013). French Armies of the Thirty Years' War. Histoire et Collections. ISBN 978-2917747018.\nWedgwood, C.V. (1938). The Thirty Years War (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-146-2.\nWilson, Peter H. (2009). Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9592-3.","title":"Sources"}]	[{"image_text":"Vincenco II, whose death in December 1627 sparked the war","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ritratto_del_Duca_Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga.jpg/180px-Ritratto_del_Duca_Vincenzo_II_Gonzaga.jpg"},{"image_text":"Siege of Casale Monferrato, 1630","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Dankaerts-Historis-9287.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"French chief minister Cardinal Richelieu; the war ultimately proved a major foreign policy success for France","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Champaigne_portrait_richelieu_eb.jpg/180px-Champaigne_portrait_richelieu_eb.jpg"}]	null	[{"reference":"Alfani, Guido; Percoco, Marco (2016). \"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities\" (PDF). The Economic History Review. 72 (4): 1175–1201. doi:10.1111/ehr.12652. ISSN 1468-0289. S2CID 131730725.","urls":[{"url":"https://ehes.org/wp/EHES_106.pdf","url_text":"\"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12652","url_text":"10.1111/ehr.12652"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0289","url_text":"1468-0289"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131730725","url_text":"131730725"}]},{"reference":"Arnold, Thomas F. (1994). \"Gonzaga Fortifications and the Mantuan Succession Crisis of 1613–1631\". Mediterranean Studies. 4: 113–30.","urls":[]},{"reference":"D'Arco, Carlo (1857). Due cronache di Mantova dal 1628 al 1631 la prima di Scipione Capilupi la seconda di Giovanni Mambrino (in Italian). Milano appresso Francesco Colombo.","urls":[]},{"reference":"De Périni, Hardÿ (1896). Batailles françaises; Volume III, 1621-1643 (in French). Ernest Flammarion, Paris.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Fagniez, G (1885). \"LA MISSION DU PÈRE JOSEPH A RATISBONNE 1630\". Revue Historique (in French). 27 (1): 38–67. JSTOR 40937243.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40937243","url_text":"40937243"}]},{"reference":"Hanlon, Gregory (2016). The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560-1800. Routledge. ISBN 978-1138158276.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1138158276","url_text":"978-1138158276"}]},{"reference":"Hanlon, Gregory (1998). Italy 1636: Cemetery of Armies. OUP. ISBN 978-0198738244.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0198738244","url_text":"978-0198738244"}]},{"reference":"Kamen, Henry (2002). Spain's Road to Empire (2003 ed.). Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0140285284.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0140285284","url_text":"978-0140285284"}]},{"reference":"Parker, Geoffrey, ed. (1984). The Thirty Years' War (1997 ed.). Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-12883-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-12883-4","url_text":"978-0-415-12883-4"}]},{"reference":"Parrott, David (1997). \"The Mantuan Succession, 1627–31: A Sovereignty Dispute in Early Modern Europe\". English Historical Review. 112 (445): 20–65. doi:10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCXII.445.20","url_text":"10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20"}]},{"reference":"Parrott, David (2001). Richelieu's Army: War, Government and Society in France, 1624–1642. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521792097.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521792097","url_text":"978-0521792097"}]},{"reference":"Portoguaro, Davide da (1979). Storia dei Cappucini Veneti Vol. 3, Curia Provinciale den FF.MM (in Italian). Curia Provinciale dei FF.MM a Venezia.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Rebitsch, Robert (2006). Matthias Gallas (1588–1647). Generalleutnant des Kaisers zur Zeit des Dreißigjährigen Krieges. Eine militärische Biographie (in German). Münster: Aschendorff Verlag. ISBN 978-3-402065761.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-402065761","url_text":"978-3-402065761"}]},{"reference":"Rizzo, Mario (2005). \"Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)\". Cahiers de la Méditerranée (71): 145–184. doi:10.4000/cdlm.991.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991","url_text":"\"Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991","url_text":"10.4000/cdlm.991"}]},{"reference":"Stradling, R. A. (1990). \"Prelude to Disaster; the Precipitation of the War of the Mantuan Succession, 1627–29\". Historical Journal. 33 (4): 769–85. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00013753. S2CID 154817316.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00013753","url_text":"10.1017/S0018246X00013753"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154817316","url_text":"154817316"}]},{"reference":"Thion, Stephane (2013). French Armies of the Thirty Years' War. Histoire et Collections. ISBN 978-2917747018.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2917747018","url_text":"978-2917747018"}]},{"reference":"Wedgwood, C.V. (1938). The Thirty Years War (2005 ed.). New York Review of Books. ISBN 978-1-59017-146-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59017-146-2","url_text":"978-1-59017-146-2"}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Peter H. (2009). Europe's Tragedy: A History of the Thirty Years War. Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9592-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7139-9592-3","url_text":"978-0-7139-9592-3"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://ehes.org/wp/EHES_106.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Plague and long-term development: the lasting effects of the 1629–30 epidemic on the Italian cities\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fehr.12652","external_links_name":"10.1111/ehr.12652"},{"Link":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1468-0289","external_links_name":"1468-0289"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:131730725","external_links_name":"131730725"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40937243","external_links_name":"40937243"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fehr%2FCXII.445.20","external_links_name":"10.1093/ehr/CXII.445.20"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991","external_links_name":"\"Sticks, Carrots and all the Rest: Lombardy and the Spanish strategy in Northern Italy between Europe and the Mediterranean (part. 1)\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Fcdlm.991","external_links_name":"10.4000/cdlm.991"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0018246X00013753","external_links_name":"10.1017/S0018246X00013753"},{"Link":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154817316","external_links_name":"154817316"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120101031114/http://history.wisc.edu/sommerville/351/351-043.htm","external_links_name":"Map of the Territories Involved"},{"Link":"http://www.france.diplomatie.fr/archives.gb/dossiers/140ministres.gb/louis13/chrono.html","external_links_name":"Chronology: Louis XIII (1610–1643)"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012408559305171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2017003035","external_links_name":"United States"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CamelBak	CamelBak	["1 History","2 Products","2.1 Hydration packs","2.2 Water purification","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]	American outdoor equipment company CamelBak Products, LLCIndustrySports equipmentFounded1989; 35 years ago (1989)FounderMichael EidsonHeadquartersPetaluma, California, U.S.Key peopleGreg Williamson (President)Products Hydration pack bottles gloves large combat/tactical packs accessories OwnerVista OutdoorNumber of employees51–200Websitecamelbak.com CamelBak Products, LLC is an American outdoor equipment company based in Petaluma, California, best known for its hydration products, such as hydration packs and water bottles. CamelBak is also a supplier of protective gear and other products to the U.S. military. History In 1989, CamelBak founder Michael Eidson was competing in the Hotter 'n Hell 100 bicycle race in Wichita Falls, Texas. Eidson, who was an emergency medical technician by trade, filled an IV bag with water and stuck it in a tube sock. He then pinned the tube sock to the back of his jersey, pulled the tube over his shoulder, and secured it with a clothes pin. Within a few months, he brought the idea to Roger Fawcett, who tested it in scientific studies, and began selling the first CamelBak product, the ThermalBak. This product failed to catch on at first because cyclists thought it looked "geeky". After almost giving up, Fawcett decided to spend his last $50,000 on an advertising agency and marketing the product. Barbara Mizuno came up with the slogan "Hydrate or Die", and sales skyrocketed. It is now one of the most popular water bottle companies for mountain bikers. A Thermobak in the DPM Pattern in use by a British Soldier U.S. troops took CamelBak products into battle in the Gulf War and they quickly became a popular product at military exchanges. CamelBak's defense sales grew further during the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan. U.S. and foreign government contracts made up about 40% of CamelBak's business as of 2012. CamelBak was sold to San Francisco toymaker Kransco in 1996 for $5 million. Bear Stearns Merchant Banking bought it for $210 million in 2004. In 2006, CamelBak expanded into the water bottle business. The company differentiated its bottles by making them taste-free, using bite valves designed to stop leaks while allowing easy sipping. Eliminating the use of BPA In 2011, water bottles accounted for about 31% of CamelBak's sales. Compass Diversified Holdings, a private equity firm, purchased the company in August 2010 for $258 million. In February 2015, CamelBak filed a patent-infringement suit against Osprey to protect its hands-free reservoir hydration systems. The suit was settled in July 2015 on confidential terms. CamelBak was purchased by Vista Outdoor in July 2015 for $412.5 million. Vista Outdoor was to integrate CamelBak's 300 employees into its outdoor products division. CamelBak moved to Petaluma, California, in 1999. As of 2017, about 150 people work at its headquarters there. The company converted its rented office space into a LEED-certified facility. All CamelBak products are designed and tested in Petaluma. The company manufactures its products at other locations in the United States, Mexico, and Asia. Greg Williamson, formerly of Arctic Cat and Black & Decker, became president of CamelBak in July 2018. In February 2024 it was announced CamelBak’s headquarters in Petaluma would be closing, and its President Greg Williamson was being laid off. Products Hydration packs An example of a civilian CamelBak pack. The blue tube coming off the top enables the wearer to drink from the internal water bladder without removing the pack. CamelBak's hydration packs come in capacities of 1.5 to 3.0 litres (50–100 US fluid oz) in a backpack style primarily for biking, hiking and other outdoor activities, with smaller belt-type 0.83 to 1.3 litre (28–45 US fluid oz) packs designed for runners and walkers. CamelBak also makes bottles, general purpose backpacks, and some specialized military and law-enforcement gear, ranging from simple back-worn water reservoirs with little to no cargo capacity, to large rucksacks with various accessories, even PALS webbing to accommodate MOLLE gear. One of CamelBak's military lines features reservoirs that resist chemical and biological weapons; they are designed to be used with gas masks. The United States Army approved the use of CamelBak CBR X hydration packs in November 2015. The Army's office of the Product Manager-Soldier Clothing and Individual Equipment and the Army's Test and Evaluation Command approved the three-liter CBR X after exposing it to nerve agents for six hours, after thirty days of use in the field, and then verifying that the water inside remained uncontaminated, and, performing numerous other tests since 2006. Water purification In January 2012, CamelBak started selling its All Clear portable water purification system which uses ultraviolet light to make untreated water potable in about one minute. In 2014, CamelBak released a filtered water pitcher called the Relay. CamelBak claims that the Relay filters water ten times faster than competing products; this is fast enough to keep up with the flow rate of a kitchen faucet. The Relay uses large pleated filters that last about four months. In 2021, CamelBak introduced a new line of filtration water bottles and reservoirs in a partnership with LifeStraw. The product line includes Vacuum Stainless Steel and Tritan Renew water bottles, and a 2 liter reservoir filtration kit. See also Hydration system References ^ "About Us". www.camelbak.com. Retrieved October 7, 2014. ^ Felton, Vernon. "Bag to the Future: How CamelBak changed the way we all ride". www.bikemag.com. Bike Magazine. Retrieved October 7, 2014. ^ a b c d e f g Hart, Steve (April 8, 2012). "CamelBak expands into new markets". The Press Democrat. Santa Rosa, California. ^ Staff, Brain (July 28, 2015). "CamelBak and Osprey settle patent infringement lawsuit". Bicycle Retailer. United States. Retrieved January 7, 2016. ^ "Camelbak acquired for $412 million". BikeBiz. July 28, 2015. Archived from the original on September 16, 2015. Retrieved July 31, 2015. ^ Arvesen, Amelia (July 19, 2018). "CamelBak names new president". Outside Business Journal. Retrieved March 10, 2022. ^ a b Tipton, Nancy (March 27, 2014). "Gadgets can help you spring into fitness; A water vessel, snacks help you get off on the right foot". Albuquerque Journal. New Mexico. ^ "US Army approves Camelbak CBR X for use in the worst environments". Military Times. August 8, 2017. Retrieved January 20, 2021. ^ "CamelBak® Taps Lifestraw® to Launch Exclusive Collaboration". Outside Business Journal. October 13, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2022. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to CamelBak. Official website vteVista OutdoorBrands Bell Sports Bushnell Corporation CamelBak CCI Ammunition Federal Premium Ammunition Fox Racing Giro Savage Arms Stevens Arms Tasco Authority control databases ISNI	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Petaluma, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petaluma,_California"},{"link_name":"hydration packs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydration_pack"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces"}],"text":"American outdoor equipment companyCamelBak Products, LLC is an American outdoor equipment company based in Petaluma, California, best known for its hydration products, such as hydration packs and water bottles. CamelBak is also a supplier of protective gear and other products to the U.S. military.","title":"CamelBak"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"emergency medical technician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_medical_technician"},{"link_name":"IV bag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IV_bag"},{"link_name":"tube sock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_sock"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Exercise_Saffron_Sands_-_New_kit_MOD_45148119.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War"},{"link_name":"War in Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"Bear Stearns Merchant Banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_Stearns_Merchant_Banking"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"BPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bisphenol_A"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"Osprey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osprey_Packs"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Suit-4"},{"link_name":"Vista Outdoor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vista_Outdoor"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"LEED-certified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"Arctic Cat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Cat"},{"link_name":"Black & Decker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%2BDecker"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"it was announced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.northbaybusinessjournal.com/article/article/camelbak-plans-to-close-petaluma-headquarters-43-jobs-affected/"}],"text":"In 1989, CamelBak founder Michael Eidson was competing in the Hotter 'n Hell 100 bicycle race in Wichita Falls, Texas.[1] Eidson, who was an emergency medical technician by trade, filled an IV bag with water and stuck it in a tube sock. He then pinned the tube sock to the back of his jersey, pulled the tube over his shoulder, and secured it with a clothes pin. Within a few months, he brought the idea to Roger Fawcett, who tested it in scientific studies, and began selling the first CamelBak product, the ThermalBak. This product failed to catch on at first because cyclists thought it looked \"geeky\". After almost giving up, Fawcett decided to spend his last $50,000 on an advertising agency and marketing the product. Barbara Mizuno came up with the slogan \"Hydrate or Die\", and sales skyrocketed. It is now one of the most popular water bottle companies for mountain bikers.[2]A Thermobak in the DPM Pattern in use by a British SoldierU.S. troops took CamelBak products into battle in the Gulf War and they quickly became a popular product at military exchanges. CamelBak's defense sales grew further during the Iraq War and the War in Afghanistan. U.S. and foreign government contracts made up about 40% of CamelBak's business as of 2012.[3]CamelBak was sold to San Francisco toymaker Kransco in 1996 for $5 million. Bear Stearns Merchant Banking bought it for $210 million in 2004.[3]In 2006, CamelBak expanded into the water bottle business. The company differentiated its bottles by making them taste-free, using bite valves designed to stop leaks while allowing easy sipping. Eliminating the use of BPA In 2011, water bottles accounted for about 31% of CamelBak's sales.[3]Compass Diversified Holdings, a private equity firm, purchased the company in August 2010 for $258 million.[3]In February 2015, CamelBak filed a patent-infringement suit against Osprey to protect its hands-free reservoir hydration systems. The suit was settled in July 2015 on confidential terms.[4]CamelBak was purchased by Vista Outdoor in July 2015 for $412.5 million. Vista Outdoor was to integrate CamelBak's 300 employees into its outdoor products division.[5]CamelBak moved to Petaluma, California, in 1999. As of 2017, about 150 people work at its headquarters there. The company converted its rented office space into a LEED-certified facility. All CamelBak products are designed and tested in Petaluma. The company manufactures its products at other locations in the United States, Mexico, and Asia.[3] Greg Williamson, formerly of Arctic Cat and Black & Decker, became president of CamelBak in July 2018.[6]\nIn February 2024 it was announced CamelBak’s headquarters in Petaluma would be closing, and its President Greg Williamson was being laid off.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hydration_pack.jpg"},{"link_name":"PALS webbing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pouch_Attachment_Ladder_System"},{"link_name":"MOLLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MOLLE"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Filter-7"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"sub_title":"Hydration packs","text":"An example of a civilian CamelBak pack. The blue tube coming off the top enables the wearer to drink from the internal water bladder without removing the pack.CamelBak's hydration packs come in capacities of 1.5 to 3.0 litres (50–100 US fluid oz) in a backpack style primarily for biking, hiking and other outdoor activities, with smaller belt-type 0.83 to 1.3 litre (28–45 US fluid oz) packs designed for runners and walkers.CamelBak also makes bottles, general purpose backpacks, and some specialized military and law-enforcement gear, ranging from simple back-worn water reservoirs with little to no cargo capacity, to large rucksacks with various accessories, even PALS webbing to accommodate MOLLE gear.[7]One of CamelBak's military lines features reservoirs that resist chemical and biological weapons; they are designed to be used with gas masks.[3] The United States Army approved the use of CamelBak CBR X hydration packs in November 2015. The Army's office of the Product Manager-Soldier Clothing and Individual Equipment and the Army's Test and Evaluation Command approved the three-liter CBR X after exposing it to nerve agents for six hours, after thirty days of use in the field, and then verifying that the water inside remained uncontaminated, and, performing numerous other tests since 2006.[8]","title":"Products"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Filter-7"},{"link_name":"Tritan Renew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tritan_Renew"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Water purification","text":"In January 2012, CamelBak started selling its All Clear portable water purification system which uses ultraviolet light to make untreated water potable in about one minute.[3]In 2014, CamelBak released a filtered water pitcher called the Relay. CamelBak claims that the Relay filters water ten times faster than competing products; this is fast enough to keep up with the flow rate of a kitchen faucet. The Relay uses large pleated filters that last about four months.[7]In 2021, CamelBak introduced a new line of filtration water bottles and reservoirs in a partnership with LifeStraw. The product line includes Vacuum Stainless Steel and Tritan Renew water bottles, and a 2 liter reservoir filtration kit.[9]","title":"Products"}]	[{"image_text":"A Thermobak in the DPM Pattern in use by a British Soldier","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Exercise_Saffron_Sands_-_New_kit_MOD_45148119.jpg/220px-Exercise_Saffron_Sands_-_New_kit_MOD_45148119.jpg"},{"image_text":"An example of a civilian CamelBak pack. 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Santa Rosa, California.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.pressdemocrat.com/news/2310616-181/camelbak-expands-into-new-markets","url_text":"\"CamelBak expands into new markets\""}]},{"reference":"Staff, Brain (July 28, 2015). \"CamelBak and Osprey settle patent infringement lawsuit\". Bicycle Retailer. United States. Retrieved January 7, 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bicycleretailer.com/north-america/2015/07/28/camelbak-and-osprey-settle-patent-infringement-lawsuit#.Vjzp6LwhZE4","url_text":"\"CamelBak and Osprey settle patent infringement lawsuit\""}]},{"reference":"\"Camelbak acquired for $412 million\". BikeBiz. July 28, 2015. Archived from the original on September 16, 2015. Retrieved July 31, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150916003048/http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/camelbak-acquired-for-412-million/018180","url_text":"\"Camelbak acquired for $412 million\""},{"url":"http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/camelbak-acquired-for-412-million/018180","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Arvesen, Amelia (July 19, 2018). \"CamelBak names new president\". Outside Business Journal. Retrieved March 10, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/brands/greg-williamson-named-camelbak-president/","url_text":"\"CamelBak names new president\""}]},{"reference":"Tipton, Nancy (March 27, 2014). \"Gadgets can help you spring into fitness; A water vessel, snacks help you get off on the right foot\". Albuquerque Journal. New Mexico.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"US Army approves Camelbak CBR X for use in the worst environments\". Military Times. August 8, 2017. Retrieved January 20, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.militarytimes.com/off-duty/gearscout/2010/11/17/us-army-approves-camelbak-cbr-x-for-use-in-the-worst-environments/","url_text":"\"US Army approves Camelbak CBR X for use in the worst environments\""}]},{"reference":"\"CamelBak® Taps Lifestraw® to Launch Exclusive Collaboration\". Outside Business Journal. October 13, 2021. Retrieved March 10, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/press-releases/partnerships-press-releases/camelbak-taps-lifestraw-to-launch-exclusive-collaboration/","url_text":"\"CamelBak® Taps Lifestraw® to Launch Exclusive Collaboration\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://camelbak.com/","external_links_name":"camelbak.com"},{"Link":"https://www.northbaybusinessjournal.com/article/article/camelbak-plans-to-close-petaluma-headquarters-43-jobs-affected/","external_links_name":"it was announced"},{"Link":"http://www.camelbak.com/en/Sports-Recreation/About-Us/Our-Story.aspx","external_links_name":"\"About Us\""},{"Link":"http://www.bikemag.com/ephemera/matter-bag-to-the-future/","external_links_name":"\"Bag to the Future: How CamelBak changed the way we all ride\""},{"Link":"http://www.pressdemocrat.com/news/2310616-181/camelbak-expands-into-new-markets","external_links_name":"\"CamelBak expands into new markets\""},{"Link":"http://www.bicycleretailer.com/north-america/2015/07/28/camelbak-and-osprey-settle-patent-infringement-lawsuit#.Vjzp6LwhZE4","external_links_name":"\"CamelBak and Osprey settle patent infringement lawsuit\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150916003048/http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/camelbak-acquired-for-412-million/018180","external_links_name":"\"Camelbak acquired for $412 million\""},{"Link":"http://www.bikebiz.com/index.php/news/read/camelbak-acquired-for-412-million/018180","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/brands/greg-williamson-named-camelbak-president/","external_links_name":"\"CamelBak names new president\""},{"Link":"https://www.militarytimes.com/off-duty/gearscout/2010/11/17/us-army-approves-camelbak-cbr-x-for-use-in-the-worst-environments/","external_links_name":"\"US Army approves Camelbak CBR X for use in the worst environments\""},{"Link":"https://www.outsidebusinessjournal.com/press-releases/partnerships-press-releases/camelbak-taps-lifestraw-to-launch-exclusive-collaboration/","external_links_name":"\"CamelBak® Taps Lifestraw® to Launch Exclusive Collaboration\""},{"Link":"http://www.camelbak.com/","external_links_name":"Official website"},{"Link":"https://isni.org/isni/0000000404271764","external_links_name":"ISNI"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_of_Marga	Thomas of Marga	["1 References"]	Thomas of Marga, (Classical Syriac: ܬܐܘܡܐ ܒܪ ܝܥܩܘܒ, Taomá bár Yaˁqub) was an East Syriac bishop and author of an important monastic history in Syriac, who flourished in the 9th century CE. He was born early in the century in the region of Salakh to the north-east of Mosul. As a young man he became in 832 a monk of the monastery of Beth 'Abhe, which was situated at the confluence of the Great Zab with one of its tributaries, about 25 miles east of Mosul. A few years later he was acting as secretary to Abraham, who had been abbot of Beth 'Abhe, and was patriarch of the Church of the East from 837 to 850. At some date during these 13 years Thomas was promoted by Abraham to be bishop of the diocese of Marga in the same district as Beth 'Abhe, and afterwards he was further advanced to be a metropolitan of Beth Garmai, a district farther to the southeast in the mountains which border the Tigris basin. It was during the period of his life at Beth 'Abhe and his bishopric that he composed The Book of Governors, which is in the main a history of his own monastery, but includes lives of Assyrian Christian holy men in other parts of Mesopotamia and the regions east of the Tigris. The work was probably planned in imitation of the famous Paradise of Palladius, the history of Egyptian monasticism which had become well known to Syriac-speaking Christians in the version of Anan-Isho (6th century). The Book of Governors has been edited with an English translation and a copious introduction by E. W. Budge (2 vols., London, 1893; Google Books), who claims that "it occupies a unique position in Syriac literature, and it fully deserves the veneration with which it has been and is still regarded by all classes of Assyrians to whom it is known." It gives a detailed history of the great monastery cf Beth 'Abhe during its three centuries of existence down to the author's time. It is full of interesting narratives of saintly men told in a naive and candid spirit, and it throws much light on the history of Christianity in the Persian dominions. There is a later edition by P. Bedjan (Paris, 1901). References ^ a b c McLean 1911. This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: McLean, Norman (1911). "Thomas of Margā". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 865. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany Israel United States Sweden Netherlands Academics CiNii People Deutsche Biographie	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diocese of Marga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marga_(East_Syrian_Diocese)"},{"link_name":"Beth Garmai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_Garmai"},{"link_name":"Tigris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigris"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Palladius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladius_of_Galatia"},{"link_name":"Anan-Isho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anan-Isho"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLean1911-1"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"Google Books","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=jWxQ4VUIhvUC&dq=%22Book+of+Governors%22+Thomas+of+Marga+translation&pg=PP7"},{"link_name":"Syriac literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syriac_literature"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLean1911-1"}],"text":"At some date during these 13 years Thomas was promoted by Abraham to be bishop of the diocese of Marga in the same district as Beth 'Abhe, and afterwards he was further advanced to be a metropolitan of Beth Garmai, a district farther to the southeast in the mountains which border the Tigris basin. It was during the period of his life at Beth 'Abhe and his bishopric that he composed The Book of Governors, which is in the main a history of his own monastery, but includes lives of Assyrian Christian holy men in other parts of Mesopotamia and the regions east of the Tigris. The work was probably planned in imitation of the famous Paradise of Palladius, the history of Egyptian monasticism which had become well known to Syriac-speaking Christians in the version of Anan-Isho (6th century).[1]The Book of Governors has been edited with an English translation and a copious introduction by E. W. Budge (2 vols., London, 1893; Google Books), who claims that \"it occupies a unique position in Syriac literature, and it fully deserves the veneration with which it has been and is still regarded by all classes of Assyrians to whom it is known.\" It gives a detailed history of the great monastery cf Beth 'Abhe during its three centuries of existence down to the author's time. It is full of interesting narratives of saintly men told in a naive and candid spirit, and it throws much light on the history of Christianity in the Persian dominions. There is a later edition by P. Bedjan (Paris, 1901).[1]","title":"Thomas of Marga"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"McLean, Norman (1911). \"Thomas of Margā\". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 26 (11th ed.). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_colonization_of_the_Americas	Russian colonization of North America	["1 Exploration","2 Trading company","3 Russian colonization","3.1 1740s to 1800","3.2 1800 to 1867","4 Colonies","4.1 Alaska","4.2 California","5 Missionary activity","6 Russian settlements in North America","7 Purchase of Alaska","8 Legacy","9 Russian settlements in North America","10 See also","11 References","12 Further reading","12.1 Natives","12.2 Primary sources","12.3 Historiography","13 External links"]	Coordinates: 57°03′N 135°19′W / 57.050°N 135.317°W / 57.050; -135.317 Russian AmericaРусская АмерикаRusskaya AmerikaColony of the Russian Empire1741–1867 Flag (1806–1867) Coat of arms Russian Creole settlementsRussian possessions in North America (1835)Anthem"Боже, Царя храни!"Bozhe Tsarya khrani! (1833–1867)("God Save the Tsar!")CapitalKodiak (1799–1804)Novo-ArkhangelskDemonymAlaskan CreoleArea • Coordinates57°03′N 135°19′W / 57.050°N 135.317°W / 57.050; -135.317 GovernmentGovernor • 1799–1818 (first) Alexander Baranov• 1863–1867 (last) Dmitry Maksutov History • Great Northern Expedition 15 July 1741• Alaska Purchase 18 October 1867 Preceded by Succeeded by Alaska Natives Department of Alaska Today part ofUnited States Alaska Part of a series on theHistory of Alaska Prehistory Russian America (1733–1867) Department of Alaska (1867–1884) District of Alaska (1884–1912) Territory of Alaska (1912–1959) State of Alaska (1959–present) Other topics vte From 1732 to 1867, the Russian Empire laid claim to northern Pacific Coast territories in the Americas. Russian colonial possessions in the Americas are collectively known as Russian America (Russian: Русская Америка, romanized: Russkaya Amerika; 1799 to 1867). It consisted mostly of present-day Alaska in the United States, but also included the outpost of Fort Ross in California, and three forts in Hawaii, including Russian Fort Elizabeth. Russian Creole settlements were concentrated in Alaska, including the capital, New Archangel (Novo-Arkhangelsk), which is now Sitka. Russian expansion eastward began in 1552, and in 1639 Russian explorers reached the Pacific Ocean. In 1725, Emperor Peter the Great ordered navigator Vitus Bering to explore the North Pacific for potential colonization. The Russians were primarily interested in the abundance of fur-bearing mammals on Alaska's coast, as stocks had been depleted by overhunting in Siberia. Bering's first voyage was foiled by thick fog and ice, but in 1741 a second voyage by Bering and Aleksei Chirikov made sight of the North American mainland. Bering claimed the Alaskan country for the Russian Empire. Russia later confirmed its rule over the territory with the Ukase of 1799 which established the southern border of Russian America along the 55th parallel north. The decree also provided monopolistic privileges to the state-sponsored Russian-American Company and established the Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska. Russian promyshlenniki (trappers and hunters) quickly developed the maritime fur trade, which instigated several conflicts between the Aleuts and Russians in the 1760s. The fur trade proved to be a lucrative enterprise, capturing the attention of other European nations. In response to potential competitors, the Russians extended their claims eastward from the Commander Islands to the shores of Alaska. In 1784, with encouragement from Empress Catherine the Great, explorer Grigory Shelekhov founded Russia's first permanent settlement in Alaska at Three Saints Bay. Ten years later, the first group of Orthodox Christian missionaries began to arrive, evangelizing thousands of Native Americans, many of whose descendants continue to maintain the religion. By the late 1780s, trade relations had opened with the Tlingits, and in 1799 the Russian-American Company (RAC) was formed in order to monopolize the fur trade, also serving as an imperialist vehicle for the Russification of Alaska Natives. Angered by encroachment on their land and other grievances, the indigenous peoples' relations with the Russians deteriorated. In 1802, Tlingit warriors destroyed several Russian settlements, most notably Redoubt Saint Michael (Old Sitka), leaving New Russia as the only remaining outpost on mainland Alaska. This failed to expel the Russians, who reestablished their presence two years later following the Battle of Sitka. (Peace negotiations between the Russians and Native Americans would later establish a modus vivendi, a situation that, with few interruptions, lasted for the duration of Russian presence in Alaska.) In 1808, Redoubt Saint Michael was rebuilt as New Archangel and became the capital of Russian America after the previous colonial headquarters were moved from Kodiak. A year later, the RAC began expanding its operations to more abundant sea otter grounds in Northern California, where Fort Ross was built in 1812. By the middle of the 19th century, profits from Russia's North American colonies were in steep decline. Competition with the British Hudson's Bay Company had brought the sea otter to near extinction, while the population of bears, wolves, and foxes on land was also nearing depletion. Faced with the reality of periodic Native American revolts, the political ramifications of the Crimean War, and unable to fully colonize the Americas to their satisfaction, the Russians concluded that their North American colonies were too expensive to retain. Eager to release themselves of the burden, the Russians sold Fort Ross in 1841, and in 1867, after less than a month of negotiations, the United States accepted Emperor Alexander II's offer to sell Alaska. The purchase of Alaska for $7.2 million (equivalent to $157 million in 2023) ended Imperial Russia's colonial presence in the Americas. Exploration A 1773 map of northwestern America based on reports from Russian explorers. The earliest written accounts indicate that the Eurasian Russians were the first Europeans to reach Alaska. There is an unofficial assumption that Eurasian Slavic navigators reached the coast of Alaska long before the 18th century. In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev sailed from the mouth of the Kolyma River through the Arctic Ocean and around the eastern tip of Asia to the Anadyr River. One legend holds that some of his boats were carried off course and reached Alaska. However, no evidence of settlement survives. Dezhnev's discovery was never forwarded to the central government, leaving open the question of whether or not Siberia was connected to North America. The first sighting of the Alaskan coastline was in 1732; this sighting was made by the Russian maritime explorer and navigator Ivan Fedorov from sea near present-day Cape Prince of Wales on the eastern boundary of the Bering Strait opposite Russian Cape Dezhnev. He did not land. The first landfall happened in southern Alaska in 1741 during the Russian exploration by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov. In the early 1720s, Tsar Peter the Great called for another expedition. As a part of the 1733–1743 Second Kamchatka expedition, the Sv. Petr under the Dane Vitus Bering and the Sv. Pavel under the Russian Alexei Chirikov set sail from the Kamchatkan port of Petropavlovsk in June 1741. They were soon separated, but each continued sailing east. On 15 July, Chirikov sighted land, probably the west side of Prince of Wales Island in southeast Alaska. He sent a group of men ashore in a longboat, making them the first Europeans to land on the northwestern coast of North America. On roughly 16 July, Bering and the crew of Sv. Petr sighted Mount Saint Elias on the Alaskan mainland; they turned westward toward Russia soon afterward. Meanwhile, Chirikov and the Sv. Pavel headed back to Russia in October with news of the land they had found. In November, Bering's ship was wrecked on Bering Island. There Bering fell ill and died, and high winds dashed the Sv. Petr to pieces. After the stranded crew wintered on the island, the survivors built a boat from the wreckage and set sail for Russia in August 1742. Bering's crew reached the shore of Kamchatka in 1742, carrying word of the expedition. The high quality of the sea otter pelts they brought sparked Russian settlement in Alaska. Due to the distance from central authority in St. Petersburg, and combined with the difficult geography and lack of adequate resources, the next state-sponsored expedition would wait more than two decades until 1766, when captains Pyotr Krenitsyn and Mikhail Levashov embarked for the Aleutian Islands, eventually reaching their destination after initially been wrecked on Bering Island. Between 1774 and 1800 Spain also led several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. These claims were later abandoned at the turn of the 19th century following the aftermath of the Nootka Crisis. Count Nikolay Rumyantsev funded Russia's first naval circumnavigation under the joint command of Adam Johann von Krusenstern and Nikolai Rezanov in 1803–1806, and was instrumental in the outfitting of the voyage of the Riurik's circumnavigation of 1814–1816, which provided substantial scientific information on Alaska's and California's flora and fauna, and important ethnographic information on Alaskan and Californian (among other) natives. Trading company Main article: Russian-American Company Imperial Russia was unique among European empires for having no state sponsorship of foreign expeditions or territorial (conquest) settlement. The first state-protected trading company for sponsoring such activities in the Americas was the Shelikhov-Golikov Company of Grigory Shelikhov and Ivan Larionovich Golikov. A number of other companies were operating in Russian America during the 1780s. Shelikhov petitioned the government for exclusive control, but in 1788 Catherine II decided to grant his company a monopoly only over the area it had already occupied. Other traders were free to compete elsewhere. Catherine's decision was issued as the imperial ukase (proclamation) of September 28, 1788. The Shelikhov-Golikov Company formed the basis for the Russian-American Company (RAC). Its charter was laid out in a 1799, by the new Tsar Paul I, which granted the company monopolistic control over trade in the Aleutian Islands and the North America mainland, south to 55° north latitude.: 102 The RAC was Russia's first joint stock company, and came under the direct authority of the Ministry of Commerce of Imperial Russia. Siberian merchants based in Irkutsk were initial major stockholders, but soon replaced by Russia's nobility and aristocracy based in Saint Petersburg. The company constructed settlements in what is today Alaska, Hawaii, and California. Russian colonization 1740s to 1800 Further information: Russian-American Company, Aleutian Islands, and promyshlenniki Beginning in 1743, small associations of fur-traders began to sail from the shores of the Russian Pacific coast to the Aleutian islands. The Bering Strait, where Russia's east coast lies closest to Alaska's west coast. Early Russian colonization occurred well south of the strait, in the Aleutian Islands. Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki, frontiersmen. Rather than hunting the marine life themselves, the Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, often by taking hostage family-members in exchange for hunted seal-furs. This pattern of colonial exploitation resembled some of the promyshlenniki practices in their expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East. As word spread of the potential riches in furs, competition among Russian companies increased and a large number of Aleuts were apparently enserfed. Flag of the Russian-American Company (1806–1881). Tlingit Chieftain of Sitka As the animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already too dependent on the new barter-economy fostered by the Russian fur-trade, were increasingly coerced into taking greater and greater risks in the highly dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter. As the Shelekhov-Golikov Company of 1783-1799 developed a monopoly, its use of skirmishes and violent incidents turned into systematic violence as a tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleutian serfs revolted and won some victories, the promyshlenniki retaliated, killing many and destroying their boats and hunting gear, leaving them no means of survival. The most devastating effects came from disease: during the first two generations (1741-1759 & 1781-1799) of Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki contact, 80 percent of the Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases; these were by then endemic among Eurasians, but the Aleuts had no immunity against the new diseases. Though the Alaskan colony was never very profitable because of the costs of transportation, most Russian traders were determined to keep the land for themselves. In 1784 Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov, who later set up the Russian-American Company that developed into the Alaskan colonial administration, arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island with two ships, the Three Saints (Russian: Три Святителя) and the St. Simon. The Koniag Alaska Natives harassed the Russian party and Shelekhov responded by killing hundreds and taking hostages to enforce the obedience of the rest. Having established his authority on Kodiak Island, Shelekhov founded the second permanent Russian settlement in Alaska (after Unalaska, permanently settled since 1774) on the island's Three Saints Bay. In 1790 Shelekhov, back in Russia, hired Alexander Andreyevich Baranov to manage his Alaskan fur-enterprise. Baranov moved the colony to the northeast end of Kodiak Island, where timber was available. The site later developed as what is now the city of Kodiak. Russian colonists took Koniag wives and started families whose surnames continue today, such as Panamaroff, Petrikoff, and Kvasnikoff. In 1795 Baranov, concerned by the sight of non-Russian Europeans trading with the natives in southeast Alaska, established Mikhailovsk six miles (10 km) north of present-day Sitka. He bought the land from the Tlingit, but in 1802, while Baranov was away, Tlingit from a neighboring settlement attacked and destroyed Mikhailovsk. Baranov returned with a Russian warship and razed the Tlingit village. He built the settlement of New Archangel (Russian: Ново-Архангельск, romanized: Novo-Arkhangelsk) on the ruins of Mikhailovsk. It became the capital of Russian America – and later the city of Sitka. As Baranov secured the Russians' settlements in Alaska, the Shelekhov family continued to work among the top leaders to win a monopoly on Alaska's fur trade. In 1799 Shelekhov's son-in-law, Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, had acquired a monopoly on the American fur trade from Emperor Paul I. Rezanov formed the Russian-American Company. As part of the deal, the Emperor expected the company to establish new settlements in Alaska and to carry out an expanded colonization program. 1800 to 1867 Aleutian & Russian allied forces defeat the Tlingit tribe at the Battle of Sitka, 1804. By 1804, Baranov, now manager of the Russian–American Company, had consolidated the company's hold on fur trade activities in the Americas following his suppression of the Tlingit clan at the Battle of Sitka. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska. For the most part, they clung to the coast and shunned the interior. Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, called "Lord of Alaska" by Hector Chevigny, played an active role in the Russian–American Company and was the first governor of Russian America. From 1812 to 1841, the Russians operated Fort Ross, California. From 1814 to 1817, Russian Fort Elizabeth was operating in the Kingdom of Hawaii. By the 1830s, the Russian monopoly on trade was weakening. The British Hudson's Bay Company was leased the southern edge of Russian America in 1839 under the RAC-HBC Agreement, establishing Fort Stikine which began siphoning off trade. A company ship visited the Russian American outposts only every two or three years to give provisions. Because of the limited stock of supplies, trading was incidental compared to trapping operations under the Aleutian laborers. This left the Russian outposts dependent upon British and American merchants for sorely needed food and materials; in such a situation Baranov knew that the RAC establishments "could not exist without trading with foreigners." Ties with Americans were particularly advantageous since they could sell furs at Guangzhou, closed to the Russians at the time. The downside was that American hunters and trappers encroached on territory Russians considered theirs. Starting with the destruction of the Phoenix in 1799, several RAC ships sank or were damaged in storms, leaving the RAC outposts with scant resources. On 24 June 1800, an American vessel sailed to Kodiak Island. Baranov negotiated the sale of over 12,000 rubles worth of goods carried on the ship, averting "imminent starvation." During his tenure Baranov traded over 2 million rubles worth of furs for American supplies, to the consternation of the board of directors. From 1806 to 1818 Baranov shipped 15 million rubles worth of furs to Russia, only receiving under 3 million rubles in provisions, barely half of the expenses spent solely on the Saint Petersburg company office. The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 recognized exclusive Russian rights to the fur trade north of latitude 54°40'N, with the American rights and claims restricted to below that line. This division was repeated in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, a parallel agreement with the British in 1825 (which also settled most of the border with British North America). However, the agreements soon went by the wayside, and with the retirement of Alexandr Baranov in 1818, the Russian hold on Alaska was further weakened. When the Russian-American Company's charter was renewed in 1821, it stipulated that the chief managers from then on be naval officers. Most naval officers did not have any experience in the fur trade, so the company suffered. The second charter also tried to cut off all contact with foreigners, especially the competitive Americans. This strategy backfired since the Russian colony had become used to relying on American supply ships, and the United States had become a valued customer for furs. Eventually the Russian–American Company entered into an agreement with the Hudson's Bay Company, which gave the British rights to sail through Russian territory. Colonies Part of a series onEuropean colonizationof the Americas First wave Basque British Curonian Danish Dutch French German Hospitaller Italian Norse Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish Swedish Colonization of Canada Colonization of the United States Decolonization History portalvte The first Russian colony in Alaska was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov.: 102 Subsequently, Russian explorers and settlers continued to establish trading posts in mainland Alaska, on the Aleutian Islands, Hawaii, and Northern California. Alaska See also: Alaska boundary dispute The Russian-American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov for the purpose of hunting sea otters for their fur.: 40 The peak population of the Russian colonies was about 4,000 although almost all of these were Aleuts, Tlingits and other Native Alaskans. The number of Russians rarely exceeded 500 at any one time.: xiii California Main article: Fort Ross, California The Russians established an outpost called Fortress Ross (Russian: Крѣпость Россъ, or Krepostʹ Ross) in 1812 near Bodega Bay in Northern California,: 181 north of San Francisco Bay. The Fort Ross colony included a sealing station on the Farallon Islands off San Francisco. By 1818 Fort Ross had a population of 128, consisting of 26 Russians and of 102 Native Americans.: 181 The Russians maintained it until 1841, when they left the region. As of 2015 Fort Ross is a Federal National Historical Landmark on the National Register of Historic Places. It is preserved—restored in California's Fort Ross State Historic Park, about 80 miles (130 km) northwest of San Francisco. Spanish concern about Russian colonial intrusion prompted the authorities in New Spain to initiate the upper Las Californias Province settlement, with presidios (forts), pueblos (towns), and the California missions. After declaring their independence in 1821 the Mexicans also asserted themselves in opposition to the Russians: the Mission San Francisco de Solano (Sonoma Mission-1823) specifically responded to the presence of the Russians at Fort Ross; and Mexico established the El Presidio Real de Sonoma or Sonoma Barracks in 1836, with General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo as the 'Commandant of the Northern Frontier' of the Alta California Province. The fort was the northernmost Mexican outpost to halt any further Russian settlement southward. The restored Presidio and mission are in the present day city of Sonoma, California. In 1920 a one-hundred-pound bronze church bell was unearthed in an orange grove near Mission San Fernando Rey de España in the San Fernando Valley of Southern California. It has an inscription in the Russian language (translated here): "In the Year 1796, in the month of January, this bell was cast on the Island of Kodiak by the blessing of Juvenaly of Alaska, during the sojourn of Alexander Andreyevich Baranov." How this Russian Orthodox Kodiak church artifact from Kodiak Island in Alaska arrived at a Roman Catholic Mission Church in Southern California remains unknown. Missionary activity Further information: Russian Orthodox Church and Alaskan Creole people Russian Orthodox cathedral in present-day Sitka St.Peter the Aleut, a martyred Aleutian Creole. An Aleutian man and woman. The Sanctuary of St.Michael's Cathedral. At Three Saints Bay, Shelekov built a school to teach the natives to read and write Russian, and introduced the first resident missionaries and clergymen who spread the Russian Orthodox faith. This faith (with its liturgies and texts, translated into Aleut at a very early stage) had been informally introduced, in the 1740s–1780s. Some fur traders founded local families or symbolically adopted Aleut trade partners as godchildren to gain their loyalty through this special personal bond. The missionaries soon opposed the exploitation of the indigenous populations, and their reports provide evidence of the violence exercised to establish colonial rule in this period. The RAC's monopoly was continued by Emperor Alexander I in 1821, on the condition that the company would financially support missionary efforts. Company board ordered chief manager Etholén to build a residency in New Archangel for bishop Veniaminov When a Lutheran church was planned for the Finnish population of New Archangel, Veniamiov prohibited any Lutheran priests from proselytizing to neighboring Tlingits. Veniamiov faced difficulties in exercising influence over the Tlingit people outside New Archangel, due to their political independence from the RAC leaving them less receptive to Russian cultural influences than Aleuts. A smallpox epidemic spread throughout Alaska in 1835-1837 and the medical aid given by Veniamiov created converts to Orthodoxy. Inspired by the same pastoral theology as Bartolomé de las Casas or St. Francis Xavier, the origins of which come from early Christianity's need to adapt to the cultures of Antiquity, missionaries in Russian America applied a strategy that placed value on local cultures and encouraged indigenous leadership in parish life and missionary activity. When compared to later Protestant missionaries, the Orthodox policies "in retrospect proved to be relatively sensitive to indigenous Alaskan cultures." This cultural policy was originally intended to gain the loyalty of the indigenous populations by establishing the authority of Church and State as protectors of over 10,000 inhabitants of Russian America. (The number of ethnic Russian settlers had always been less than the record 812, almost all concentrated in Sitka and Kodiak). Difficulties arose in training Russian priests to attain fluency in any of the various Alaskan Indigenous languages. To redress this, Veniaminov opened a seminary for mixed race and native candidates for the Church in 1845. Promising students were sent to additional schools in either Saint Petersburg or Irkutsk, the later city becoming the original seminary's new location in 1858. The Holy Synod instructed for the opening of four missionary schools in 1841, to be located in Amlia, Chiniak, Kenai, Nushagak. Veniamiov established the curriculum, which included Russian history, literacy, mathematics and religious studies. A side effect of the missionary strategy was the development of a new and autonomous form of indigenous identity. Many native traditions survived within local "Russian" Orthodox tradition and in the religious life of the villages. Part of this modern indigenous identity is an alphabet and the basis for written literature in nearly all of the ethnic-linguistic groups in the Southern half of Alaska. Father Ivan Veniaminov (later St. Innocent of Alaska), famous throughout Russian America, developed an Aleut dictionary for hundreds of language and dialect words based on the Russian alphabet. The most visible trace of the Russian colonial period in contemporary Alaska is the nearly 90 Russian Orthodox parishes with a membership of over 20,000 men, women, and children, almost exclusively indigenous people. These include several Athabascan groups of the interior, very large Yup'ik communities, and quite nearly all of the Aleut and Alutiiq populations. Among the few Tlingit Orthodox parishes, the large group in Juneau adopted Orthodox Christianity only after the Russian colonial period, in an area where there had been no Russian settlers nor missionaries. The widespread and continuing local Russian Orthodox practices are likely the result of the syncretism of local beliefs with Christianity. In contrast, the Spanish Roman Catholic colonial intentions, methods, and consequences in California and the Southwest were the product of the Laws of Burgos and the Indian Reductions of conversions and relocations to missions; while more force and coercion was used, the indigenous peoples likewise created a kind of Christianity that reflected many of their traditions. Observers noted that while their religious ties were tenuous, before the sale of Alaska there were 400 native converts to Orthodoxy in New Archangel. Tlingit practitioners declined in number after the lapse of Russian rule, until there were only 117 practitioners in 1882 residing in the place, by then renamed as Sitka. Russian settlements in North America New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837 Alaska Unalaska, Alaska – 1774 Three Saints Bay, Alaska – 1784 Fort St. George in Kasilof, Alaska – 1786 St. Paul, Alaska – 1788 Fort St. Nicholas in Kenai, Alaska – 1791 Pavlovskaya, Alaska (now Kodiak) – 1791 Fort Saints Constantine and Helen on Nuchek Island, Alaska – 1793 Fort on Hinchinbrook Island, Alaska – 1793 New Russia near present-day Yakutat, Alaska – 1796 Redoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska near Sitka – 1799 Novo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska (now Sitka) – 1804 Fort (New) Alexandrovsk at Bristol Bay, Alaska – 1819 Redoubt St. Michael, Alaska – 1833 Nulato, Alaska – 1834 Redoubt St. Dionysius in present-day Wrangell, Alaska (now Fort Stikine) – 1834 Pokrovskaya Mission, Alaska – 1837 Kolmakov Redoubt, Alaska – 1844 California Fort Ross, California – 1812 Hawaii Fort Elizabeth near Waimea, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Fort Alexander near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Fort Barclay-de-Tolly near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Purchase of Alaska Check used for the purchase of Alaska A map depicting the territory of Alaska in 1867, immediately after the Alaska Purchase Main article: Alaska Purchase By the 1860s, the Russian government was ready to abandon its Russian America colony. Over-hunting had severely reduced the fur-bearing animal population, and competition from the British and Americans exacerbated the situation. This, combined with the difficulties of supplying and protecting such a distant colony, reduced interest in the territory. In addition, Russia was in a difficult financial position and feared losing Russian Alaska without compensation in some future conflict, especially to the British. The Russians believed that in a dispute with Britain, their hard-to-defend region might become a prime target for British aggression from British Columbia, and would be easily captured. So following the Union victory in the American Civil War, Tsar Alexander II instructed the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl, to enter into negotiations with the United States Secretary of State William H. Seward in the beginning of March 1867. At the instigation of Seward the United States Senate approved the purchase, known as the Alaska Purchase, from the Russian Empire. The cost was set at 2 cents an acre, which came to a total of $7,200,000 on 9 April 1867. The canceled check is in the present day United States National Archives. After Russian America was sold to the U.S. in 1867, for $7.2 million (2 cents per acre, equivalent to $156,960,000 in 2023), all the holdings of the Russian–American Company were liquidated. Following the transfer, many elders of the local Tlingit tribe maintained that "Castle Hill" comprised the only land that Russia was entitled to sell. Other indigenous groups also argued that they had never given up their land; the Americans encroached on it and took it over. Native land claims were not fully addressed until the latter half of the 20th century, with the signing by Congress and leaders of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act. At the height of Russian America, the Russian population had reached 700, compared to 40,000 Aleuts. They and the Creoles, who had been guaranteed the privileges of citizens in the United States, were given the opportunity of becoming citizens within a three-year period, but few decided to exercise that option. General Jefferson C. Davis ordered the Russians out of their homes in Sitka, maintaining that the dwellings were needed for the Americans. The Russians complained of rowdiness of the American troops and assaults. Many Russians returned to Russia, while others migrated to the Pacific Northwest and California. Legacy The Soviet Union (USSR) released a series of commemorative coins in 1990 and 1991 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the first sighting of and claiming domain over Alaska–Russian America. The commemoration consisted of a silver coin, a platinum coin and two palladium coins in both years. At the beginning of the 21st century, a resurgence of Russian ultra nationalism has spurred regret and recrimination over the sale of Alaska to the United States. There are periodic mass media stories in the Russian Federation that Alaska was not sold to the United States in the 1867 Alaska Purchase, but only leased for 99 years (= to 1966), or 150 years (= to 2017)—and would be returned to Russia. During the war in Ukraine claims gained again in Russian media. Those claims of illegitimacy derive from wrong or misleading interpretations of a policy of the Russian Federation to re-acquire formerly held properties. The Alaska Purchase Treaty is absolutely clear that the agreement was for a complete Russian cession of the territory. Not the purchase from the Russian Empire, but the legitimacy of colonial rule altogether has been an issue of the Alaskan Native American peoples in their struggle to democracy and indigenous rights. Russian settlements in North America New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837 Unalaska, Alaska – 1774 Three Saints Bay, Alaska – 1784 Fort St. George in Kasilof, Alaska – 1786 St. Paul, Alaska – 1788 Fort St. Nicholas in Kenai, Alaska – 1791 Pavlovskaya, Alaska (now Kodiak) – 1791 Fort Saints Constantine and Helen on Nuchek Island, Alaska – 1793 Fort on Hinchinbrook Island, Alaska – 1793 New Russia near present-day Yakutat, Alaska – 1796 Redoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska near Sitka – 1799 Novo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska (now Sitka) – 1804 Fort Ross, California – 1812 Fort Elizabeth near Waimea, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Fort Alexander near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Fort Barclay-de-Tolly near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817 Fort (New) Alexandrovsk at Bristol Bay, Alaska – 1819 Kolmakov Redoubt, Alaska – 1832 Redoubt St. Michael, Alaska – 1833 Nulato, Alaska – 1834 Redoubt St. Dionysius in present-day Wrangell, Alaska (now Fort Stikine) – 1834 Pokrovskaya Mission, Alaska – 1837 Ninilchik, Alaska – 1847 See also History portalAlaska portalRussia portal Native Americans Juana Maria Peter the Aleut Jacob Netsvetov Russians List of Russian explorers Herman of Alaska Mikhail Tebenkov Johan Hampus Furuhjelm Nikolai Rezanov Vitus Bering History Russian Colonialism Territorial evolution of Russia Great Northern Expedition California Fur Rush Awa'uq Massacre Russo-American Treaty of 1824 History of the west coast of North America Other topics Alaska boundary dispute Flag of the Russian-American Company Alaskan Creole people Russian Americans Russian–American Telegraph Slavic Voice of America Ukase of 1821 References Footnotes ^ Charles P. Wohlforth (2011). Alaska For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18. ^ United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, Text of Ukase of 1779 in Behring sea arbitration (London: Harrison and Sons, 1893), pp. 25-27 ^ Sergei., Kan (July 2014). Memory eternal : Tlingit culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through two centuries (First paperback ed.). Seattle, Wash. ISBN 9780295805344. OCLC 901270092.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Campbell, Robert (2007). In Darkest Alaska: Travel and Empire Along the Inside Passage. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8122-4021-4. ^ a b c d e f g Black, Lydia T. (2004). Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. ^ ""The People You May Visit"". Russia's Great Voyages. California Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 13 April 2003. Retrieved 23 September 2005. ^ Pethick, Derek (1976). First Approaches to the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: J.J. Douglas. pp. 26–33. ISBN 0-88894-056-4. ^ "Russian Fort". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 18 October 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2008. ^ Compare: Isto, Sarah Crawford (2012). "Chapter One: The Russian Period 1749-1866". The Fur Farms of Alaska: Two Centuries of History and a Forgotten Stampede. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-60223-171-9. Russian merchants along the route from Kamchatka to Kiakhta must have been elated when Vitus Bering's expedition returned in 1742 to report that the northern coast of America was nearby and that its waters teemed with fur seals and sea otters. By the following year, the first commercial vessel had already been constructed in Kamchatka and had set off for a two-year voyage to the Aleutians. A rush of fur-seeking expeditions followed ^ a b Carpenter, Roger M. (2015). "Times Are Altered with Us": American Indians from First Contact to the New Republic. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-1-118-73315-8. ^ Etkind, Alexander (2011). Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience. Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons (published 2013). p. 68. ISBN 9780745673547. Agreeing with Soloviev that the history of Russia was the history of colonization, Shchapov described the process . Two methods of colonization were primary: 'fur colonization,' with hunters harvesting and depleting the habitats of fur animals and moving further and further across Siberia all the way to Alaska; and 'fishing colonization,' which supplied Russian centers with fresh- or salt-water fish and caviar. ^ Stephen W. Haycox, Mary Childers Mangusso (2011). An Alaska Anthology: Interpreting the Past. University of Washington Press. p. 27. ^ Compare: Grinëv, Andrei Val'terovic (2016). "Russian Promyshlenniki in Alaska at the end of the Eighteenth Century". Russian Colonization of Alaska: Preconditions, Discovery, and Initial Development, 1741-1799 . Translated by Bland, Richard L. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (published 2018). p. 198. ISBN 9781496210852. The Aleuts and other dependent Natives of the Russian colonies could never be considered slaves, or feudal serfs, or civilian workers in the usual sense of the terms. Up to the 1790s the Natives were obligated to pay tribute to the royal treasury, demonstrating personal dependence on the Russian emperor. Some of the Natives, evidently making up from a twelfth to an eighth of the adult population, belonged to the so-called kayury, whose position was in fact that of slaves, since they received nothing for their labor besides scanty clothing and food. However, this was not slavery as once existed in ancient Rome or in the American South . ^ Compare: Gwenn, Miller (15 December 2015). "Introduction". Kodiak Kreol: Communities of Empire in Early Russian America. Ithaca: Cornell University (published 2010). p. 2. ISBN 978-1-5017-0069-9. The people of Kodiak kept some slaves, kalgi, outsiders whom they acquired through trading and warfare with people from other areas. ^ "Aleut History". The Aleut Corporation. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007. ^ Mathews-Benham, Sandra K. (10 March 2008). "5: From the Aleutian Chain to Northern California". American Indians in the Early West. Cultures in the American West. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO (published 2008). p. 246. ISBN 9781851098248. before he died, Shelikhov had appointed Alexandr Baranov as governor of the Russian Alaska Company, the first functional and approved Russian monopoly in Alaska. ^ "Alaska History Timeline". Kodiakisland.net. Archived from the original on 27 October 2005. Retrieved 31 August 2005. ^ a b c d e Wheeler, Mary E. (1971). "Empires in Conflict and Cooperation: The "Bostonians" and the Russian-American Company". Pacific Historical Review. 40 (4): 419–441. doi:10.2307/3637703. JSTOR 3637703. ^ Tikhmenev, P. A. (1978). Pierce, Richard A.; Donnelly, Alton S. (eds.). A History of the Russia-American Company. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9780295955643. ^ Schoenherr, Allan A.; Feldmeth, C. Robert (1999). Natural History of the Islands of California. California natural history guides. Vol. 61. University of California Press. p. 375. ISBN 9780520211971. Retrieved 27 April 2015. ^ "Fort Ross Cultural History Fort Ross Interpretive Association". www.fortrossinterpretive.org. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2022. ^ "Fort Ross SHP". ^ a b c d e f g h i Nordlander, David (1995). "Innokentii Veniaminov and the Expansion of Orthodoxy in Russian America". Pacific Historical Review. 64 (1): 19–35. doi:10.2307/3640333. JSTOR 3640333. ^ a b c d Kan, Sergei (1985). "Russian Orthodox Brotherhoods among the Tlingit: Missionary Goals and Native Response". Ethnohistory. 32 (3): 196–222. doi:10.2307/481921. JSTOR 481921. ^ Nelson, Soraya Sarhaddi (1 April 2014). "Not An April Fools' Joke: Russians Petition To Get Alaska Back". NPR. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Tetrault-Farber, Gabrielle (31 March 2014). "After Crimea, Russians Say They Want Alaska Back". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Gershkovich, Evan (30 March 2017). "150 Years After Sale of Alaska, Some Russians Have Second Thoughts". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Haycox, Steve (18 May 2017). "Russian extremists want Alaska back". Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Stepanova, Alexandra (31 January 2024). "Analysis: Russian decree on its assets overseas (no, Alaska was not mentioned)". annie lab. Retrieved 22 May 2024. ^ Metcalfe, Peter (24 August 2017). "The Purchase of Alaska: 1867 or 1971". Alaska Historical Society - Dedicated to the promotion of Alaska history by the exchange of ideas and information. Retrieved 22 May 2024. ^ "Transcription of the English text of the Alaska Treaty of Cession". Our Documents. The United States National Archives. Retrieved 26 November 2019. ^ Magazine, Smithsonian (29 March 2017). "There Are Two Versions of the Story of How the U.S. Purchased Alaska From Russia". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 22 May 2024. Further reading See also: Bibliography of California history and Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917) Black, Lydia T. (2004). Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 978-1-889963-05-1. Black, Lydia T.; Dauenhauer, Nora; Dauenhauer, Richard (2008). Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká/Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98601-2. Essig, Edward Oliver. Fort Ross: California Outpost of Russian Alaska, 1812–1841 (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1991.) Frost, Orcutt (2003). Bering: The Russian Discovery of America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10059-4. Gibson, James R. "Old Russia in the New World: adversaries and adversities in Russian America." in European Settlement and Development in North America (University of Toronto Press, 2019) pp. 46–65. Gibson, James R. Imperial Russia in frontier America: the changing geography of supply of Russian America, 1784–1867 (Oxford University Press, 1976) Gibson, James R. "Russian America in 1821." Oregon Historical Quarterly (1976): 174–188. online Grinev, Andrei Valterovich (2008). The Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2071-3. Grinëv, Andrei Val’terovich. "The External Threat to Russian America: Myth and Reality." Journal of Slavic Military Studies 30.2 (2017): 266–289. Grinëv, Andrei Val’terovich. Russian Colonization of Alaska: Preconditions, Discovery, and Initial Development, 1741–1799 Translated by Richard L. Bland. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. ISBN 978-1-4962-0762-3. online review Kobtzeff, Oleg (1985). La Colonization russe en Amérique du Nord: 18 - 19 ème siècles (Russian Colonization in North- America, 18th-19th Centuries). Paris: thesis, University of Paris 1 - Panthéon Sorbonne (available in limited editions in specialized libraries). Miller, Gwenn A. (2010). Kodiak Kreol: Communities of Empire in Early Russian America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4642-9. Oleksa, Michael J. (1992). Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission. Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-092-1. Oleksa, Michael J., ed. (2010). Alaskan Missionary Spirituality (2nd ed.). Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-340-3. Pierce, Richard A. Russian America, 1741–1867: A Biographical Dictionary (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1990) Starr, S. Frederick, ed. (1987). Russia's American Colony. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0688-7. Saul, Norman E. "Empire Maker: Aleksandr Baranov and Russian Colonial Expansion into Alaska and Northern California." Journal of American Ethnic History 36.3 (2017): 91–93. Saul, Norman. "California-Alaska trade, 1851–1867: The American Russian commercial company and the Russian America company and the sale/purchase of Alaska." Journal of Russian American Studies 2.1 (2018): 1–14. online Vinkovetsky, Ilya (2011). Russian America: An Overseas Colony of a Continental Empire, 1804–1867. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539128-2. Natives Grinëv, Andrei V. "Natives and Creoles of Alaska in the maritime service in Russian America." The Historian 82.3 (2020): 328–345. online The Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867, Andreĭ Valʹterovich Grinev (GoogleBooks) Luehrmann, Sonja. Alutiiq villages under Russian and US rule (University of Alaska Press, 2008.) Smith-Peter, Susan (2013). ""A Class of People Admitted to the Better Ranks": The First Generation of Creoles in Russian America, 1810s–1820s". Ethnohistory. 60 (3): 363–384. doi:10.1215/00141801-2140758. Savelev, Ivan. "Patterns in the Adoption of Russian Linguistic and National Traditions by Alaskan Natives." International Conference on European Multilingualism: Shaping Sustainable Educational and Social Environment EMSSESE, 2019. (Atlantis Press, 2019). online Primary sources Gibson, James R. (1972). "Russian America in 1833: The Survey of Kirill Khlebnikov". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 63 (1): 1–13. JSTOR 40488966. Golovin, Pavel Nikolaevich, Basil Dmytryshyn, and E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughan. The end of Russian America: Captain PN Golovin's last report, 1862(Oregon Historical Society Press, 1979.) Khlebnikov, Kyrill T. Colonial Russian America: Kyrill T. Khlebnikov's Reports, 1817–1832 (Oregon Historical Society, 1976) baron Wrangel, Ferdinand Petrovich. Russian America: Statistical and ethnographic information (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1980) Historiography Grinëv, Andrei. V.; Bland, Richard L. (2010). "A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years" (PDF). Pacific Historical Review. 79 (2): 265–278. doi:10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265. JSTOR 10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Russian America. The Russian-American Treaty of 1867 Official Website of Fort Ross State Historic Park Fort Ross Cultural History Fort Ross Interpretive Association vteRussian America: Russian colonization of the AmericasGovernors Alexander Baranov Ludwig von Hagemeister Semyon Yanovsky Matvey Muravyev Pyotr Chistyakov Ferdinand von Wrangel Ivan Kupreyanov Adolf Etholén Mikhail Tebenkov Nikolay Rosenberg Aleksander Rudakov Stepan Voyevodsky Johan Furuhjelm Dmitri Maksutov People Vitus Bering Mikhail Gvozdev Gerasim Izmailov Ivan Kuskov Nikolai Rezanov Grigory Shelikhov Evstratii Delarov Demid Ilyich Kulikalov Lavrenty Zagoskin Missionaries Ioasaph Bolotov Herman of Alaska Juvenaly of Alaska Innocent of Alaska Iakov Netsvetov Settlements Fort Elizabeth (Hawai'i) Fort Alexander Fort Nikolaevskaia Fort Ross (California) Kasilof Kodiak New Archangel (Sitka) New Russia Redoubt Saint Dionysius (Fort Stikine) Redoubt Saint Michael (Old Sitka) Russian Mission St. Michael Three Saints Bay Unalaska Other Juno 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of Independence Lithuanian–Soviet War Georgian–Ossetian conflict (1918–1920) Polish–Soviet War Red Army invasion of Azerbaijan Red Army invasion of Armenia Red Army invasion of Georgia Red Army intervention in Mongolia East Karelian uprising Central Asian Revolt August Uprising Urtatagai conflict (1925–1926) Sino-Soviet conflict (1929) Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1929) Red Army intervention in Afghanistan (1930) Chechen uprising of 1932 Soviet–Japanese border conflicts Soviet invasion of Xinjiang Xinjiang War (1937) World War II Soviet invasion of Poland Winter War Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940) Soviet occupation of Latvia in 1940 Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina Continuation War Eastern Front (World War II) Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944) Soviet re-occupation of Latvia in 1944 Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran Soviet–Japanese War Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Guerilla war in Ukraine Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953) Ili Rebellion First Indochina War Korean War East German uprising of 1953 Hungarian Revolution of 1956 Vietnam War Vlora incident Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia Sino-Soviet border conflict War of Attrition Eritrean War of Independence Angolan Civil War Ogaden War South African Border War Soviet–Afghan War Gulf War Soviet OMON assaults on Lithuanian border posts First Nagorno-Karabakh War War in Abkhazia (1992–1993) South Ossetia war (1991–1992) Transnistria War Georgian Civil War Tajikistani Civil War First Chechen War War of Dagestan Second Chechen War 21stcentury Russo-Georgian War Russo-Ukrainian War Outline Annexation of Crimea War in Donbas 2022 invasion Intervention in Syria Western Libya campaign Deployment in Nagorno-Karabakh (2020) Deployment in Kazakhstan (2022) Russian Winter Russian Revolution Cold War Sphere of influence vteHistory of AlaskaTimeline of Alaska Prehistory Russian America (1733–1867) Department of Alaska (1867–1884) District of Alaska (1884–1912) Territory of Alaska (1912–1959) Recent history (1959–present) Topics and events Russian-American Company Alaska Purchase Gold Rush era Klondike Nome Fairbanks Alaska boundary dispute 1925 serum run to Nome World War II Aleutian Islands campaign Project Hula Alaska Statehood Act 1964 earthquake Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act Exxon Valdez oil spill History of Anchorage timeline History of Fairbanks Other topics vteHistory of California Before 1900 Native Californian Precontact First explorations Later explorations Genocide of indigenous population Spanish colonization Mexican rule California Trail Mexican–American War Californios California Republic Conquest of California Interim government of California United States rule Gold Rush Civil War Since 1900 Labor Engineering Water wars Industrial growth Postwar culture Development Legal revolution Tech boom Present day By topic Etymology Highways Maritime Missions Railroads Ranchos Slavery Territorial evolution By region Bay Area San Fernando Valley Santa Catalina Island Yosemite Regions San Fernando Valley By county Alameda Alpine Amador Butte Calaveras Colusa Contra Costa Del Norte El Dorado Fresno Glenn Humboldt Imperial Inyo Kern Kings Lake Lassen Los Angeles Madera Marin Mariposa Mendocino Merced Modoc Mono Monterey Napa Nevada Orange Placer Plumas Riverside Sacramento San Benito San Bernardino San Diego San Francisco San Joaquin San Luis Obispo San Mateo Santa Barbara Santa Clara Santa Cruz Shasta Sierra Siskiyou Solano Sonoma Stanislaus Sutter Tehama Trinity Tulare Tuolumne Ventura Yolo Yuba By city Los Angeles San Diego San Jose San Francisco Fresno Sacramento Long Beach Oakland Bakersfield Anaheim Santa Ana Riverside Stockton Chula Vista Fremont Irvine San Bernardino Modesto Oxnard Fontana Moreno Valley Glendale Huntington Beach Santa Clarita Garden Grove Santa Rosa Oceanside Rancho Cucamonga Ontario Lancaster Elk Grove Palmdale Corona Salinas Pomona Torrance Hayward Escondido Sunnyvale Pasadena Fullerton Orange Thousand Oaks Visalia Simi Valley Concord Roseville Santa Clara Vallejo Victorville El Monte Berkeley Downey Costa Mesa Inglewood Ventura Fairfield Santa Maria Redding Santa Monica Santa Barbara Chico Merced Napa Redwood City Yuba City Madera Santa Cruz San Rafael Woodland Hanford San Luis Obispo El Centro Lompoc Martinez Hollister Eureka Susanville Ukiah Oroville Red Bluff Auburn Marysville Piedmont Placerville Yreka Crescent City Willows Colusa Sonora Lakeport Jackson Nevada City Alturas vteFormer colonies and territories in CanadaNorse Named territories Vinland Sites: L'Anse aux Meadows French Claims New France Acadia Isle St-Jean Île Royale Canada Domaine du roy Louisiana Pays d'en Haut Terre Neuve Important sites Port Royal (Annapolis Royal) Quebec Trois-Rivières Montreal Louisbourg Plaisance List of towns List of forts Spanish Claims New Spain Important sites Fort San Miguel, Nootka Sound Expeditions Newfoundland Pacific Northwest Scottish Claims Nova Scotia (1621) Sites Port Royal Colony Russian Claims Russian America American Claims Oregon Country Danish Claims Nova Dania English andBritish Claims Newfoundland (1583) British Arctic Territories New Albion (?) New Britain New Yorkshire Rupert's Land Nova Scotia (1710) Quebec Lower and Upper Canada New Brunswick Prince Edward Island Cape Breton United Canada New Caledonia Columbia District Queen Charlotte Islands Vancouver Island British Columbia (1858–1866) British Columbia (1866–1871) Stickeen North-Western Territory (districts) Red River Important sites Cuper's Cove Avalon (1620) York Factory Halifax Victoria Fort Langley Norwegian Claims Sverdrup Islands Related Territorial evolution after 1867 Areas disputed by Canada and the United States Proposed provinces and territories of Canada Population of Canada Category Canada portal vte History of the AmericasHistory North America Mesoamerica Central America Caribbean Latin America South America Andean South America Genetics Settlement Indigenous peoples Indigenous population Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact theories Christopher Columbus Exploration European colonization Spanish colonization French colonization Portuguese colonization British colonization Columbian Exchange Decolonization Societies Paleo-Indians Pre-Columbian era Aztec Maya Muisca Inca Related Maps Culture Geography Indigenous languages Epidemics Slavery Lists Pre-Columbian cultures Indigenous peoples Population Conflicts North America South America Chronology Archaeology of the Americas North America by period North American timelines Mesoamerica by period Mesoamerica timeline Era: By period By region Three-age system Ancient history Pre-Columbian era Classical Antiquity Middle Ages Modern history Future vteThirteen Colonies New England Colonies Middle Colonies Chesapeake Colonies Tobacco Colonies Southern Colonies United Colonies Virginia (1607–1776) New Hampshire (1629–1641; 1679–1686; 1689–1776) Maryland (1632–1776) Connecticut (1636–1776) Rhode Island (1636–1776) Delaware (1664–1776) New Jersey (1664–1673; 1702–1776) New York (1664–1776) Pennsylvania (1681–1776) Massachusetts Bay (1691–1776) North Carolina (1712–1776) South Carolina (1712–1776) Georgia (1732–1776) Other British colonial entities in the contemporary United States Roanoke (1585–1590) Popham (1607–1608) Jamestown (1607–1699) Berkeley Hundred (1619) Plymouth (1620–1686; 1689–1691) Maine (1622–1658) Saint Croix (1625–1650) Carolana (1629–1663) Massachusetts Bay Colony (1629–1686; 1689–1691) Saybrook (1635–1644) New Haven (1638–1664) New England Confederation (1643–1654; 1675–c. 1680) Carolina (1663–1712) Rupert's Land (1670–1811) North-Western Territory (1670–1870) East Jersey (1674–1702) West Jersey (1674–1702) Dominion of New England (1686–1689) Indian Reserve (1763–1783) Quebec (1763–1783) East Florida (1763–1783) West Florida (1763–1783) New Ireland (1779–1783; 1814–1815) Columbia District (1810–1846) Red River Colony (1811–1818) Stickeen Territories (1862–1863) Colony of British Columbia (1863–1866) Colony of British Columbia and Vancouver Island (1866–1871) Province of British Columbia (1871–1903) Non-British colonial entities in the contemporary United States Columbian Viceroyalty (1492–1535) New Spain 1521–1821; Spanish Florida, 1565–1763 New Navarre, 1565–1821 Captaincy General of the Philippines, 1565–1898 Captaincy General of Puerto Rico, 1580–1898 Santa Fe de Nuevo México, 1598–1821 Captaincy General of Cuba, 1607–1801 Spanish Saint Croix, 1650–1651 Spanish Texas, 1690–1821 Las Californias, 1767–1804 Spanish Louisiana, 1769–1801 Provincias Internas, 1776–1821 Spanish East Florida, 1783–1821 Spanish West Florida, 1783–1821 Alta California, 1804–1821 New France 1534–1763; French Florida, 1562–1565 Hospitaller Saint Croix, 1651–1665 French Saint Croix, 1665–1733 French Louisiana, 1682–1763 and 1801–1803 New Netherland (1614–1667) Dutch Virgin Islands (1625–1672) New Sweden (1638–1655) Danish West Indies (1672–1917) Brandenburger Saint Thomas (1685–1754) Krabbeninsel (1689–1693) Scottish Darien Company (1698) Russian America (1799–1867) Related Documents Discourse Concerning Western Planting (1584) Mayflower Compact (1620) Mourt's Relation (1622) Of Plymouth Plantation (1630–1651) Fundamental Orders of Connecticut (1638) Quintipartite Deed (1676) Category vteEuropean colonization of North America British Belgian Curonian Danish German Dutch French Hospitaller Norse Norwegian Erik the Red's Land Fridtjof Nansen Land Sverdrup Islands Portuguese Russian Scottish Spanish1 Swedish 1 Article also discusses colonization in Central and South America and Asia	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Pacific Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Coast"},{"link_name":"Americas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americas"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"Russian Fort Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth"},{"link_name":"Russian Creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Creole"},{"link_name":"New Archangel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Archangel"},{"link_name":"Arkhangelsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkhangelsk"},{"link_name":"Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka"},{"link_name":"Russian expansion eastward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-Kazan_Wars"},{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Vitus Bering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Bering"},{"link_name":"overhunting in Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_fur_trade"},{"link_name":"first voyage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Kamchatka_expedition"},{"link_name":"second voyage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition"},{"link_name":"Aleksei Chirikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov"},{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-charlespwohlforth-1"},{"link_name":"Ukase of 1799","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukase_of_1799"},{"link_name":"55th parallel north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55th_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ukase-2"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Russian Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"promyshlenniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyshlenniki"},{"link_name":"maritime fur trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_fur_trade"},{"link_name":"Aleuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleut_people"},{"link_name":"Commander Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commander_Islands"},{"link_name":"Catherine the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Grigory Shelekhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Shelekhov"},{"link_name":"Three Saints Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Saints_Bay"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Tlingits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_people"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Russification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russification"},{"link_name":"Alaska Natives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Natives"},{"link_name":"Redoubt Saint Michael","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Sitka_Site"},{"link_name":"New Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Russia_(trading_post)"},{"link_name":"Battle of Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sitka"},{"link_name":"modus vivendi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modus_vivendi"},{"link_name":"New Archangel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kodiak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"sea otter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_otter"},{"link_name":"Northern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_California"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross"},{"link_name":"Hudson's Bay Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company"},{"link_name":"Crimean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_War"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Alexander II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"purchase of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Purchase"}],"text":"From 1732 to 1867, the Russian Empire laid claim to northern Pacific Coast territories in the Americas. Russian colonial possessions in the Americas are collectively known as Russian America (Russian: Русская Америка, romanized: Russkaya Amerika; 1799 to 1867). It consisted mostly of present-day Alaska in the United States, but also included the outpost of Fort Ross in California, and three forts in Hawaii, including Russian Fort Elizabeth. Russian Creole settlements were concentrated in Alaska, including the capital, New Archangel (Novo-Arkhangelsk), which is now Sitka.Russian expansion eastward began in 1552, and in 1639 Russian explorers reached the Pacific Ocean. In 1725, Emperor Peter the Great ordered navigator Vitus Bering to explore the North Pacific for potential colonization. The Russians were primarily interested in the abundance of fur-bearing mammals on Alaska's coast, as stocks had been depleted by overhunting in Siberia. Bering's first voyage was foiled by thick fog and ice, but in 1741 a second voyage by Bering and Aleksei Chirikov made sight of the North American mainland. Bering claimed the Alaskan country for the Russian Empire.[1] Russia later confirmed its rule over the territory with the Ukase of 1799 which established the southern border of Russian America along the 55th parallel north.[2] The decree also provided monopolistic privileges to the state-sponsored Russian-American Company and established the Russian Orthodox Church in Alaska.Russian promyshlenniki (trappers and hunters) quickly developed the maritime fur trade, which instigated several conflicts between the Aleuts and Russians in the 1760s. The fur trade proved to be a lucrative enterprise, capturing the attention of other European nations. In response to potential competitors, the Russians extended their claims eastward from the Commander Islands to the shores of Alaska. In 1784, with encouragement from Empress Catherine the Great, explorer Grigory Shelekhov founded Russia's first permanent settlement in Alaska at Three Saints Bay. Ten years later, the first group of Orthodox Christian missionaries began to arrive, evangelizing thousands of Native Americans, many of whose descendants continue to maintain the religion.[3] By the late 1780s, trade relations had opened with the Tlingits, and in 1799 the Russian-American Company (RAC) was formed in order to monopolize the fur trade, also serving as an imperialist vehicle for the Russification of Alaska Natives.Angered by encroachment on their land and other grievances, the indigenous peoples' relations with the Russians deteriorated. In 1802, Tlingit warriors destroyed several Russian settlements, most notably Redoubt Saint Michael (Old Sitka), leaving New Russia as the only remaining outpost on mainland Alaska. This failed to expel the Russians, who reestablished their presence two years later following the Battle of Sitka. (Peace negotiations between the Russians and Native Americans would later establish a modus vivendi, a situation that, with few interruptions, lasted for the duration of Russian presence in Alaska.) In 1808, Redoubt Saint Michael was rebuilt as New Archangel and became the capital of Russian America after the previous colonial headquarters were moved from Kodiak. A year later, the RAC began expanding its operations to more abundant sea otter grounds in Northern California, where Fort Ross was built in 1812.By the middle of the 19th century, profits from Russia's North American colonies were in steep decline. Competition with the British Hudson's Bay Company had brought the sea otter to near extinction, while the population of bears, wolves, and foxes on land was also nearing depletion. Faced with the reality of periodic Native American revolts, the political ramifications of the Crimean War, and unable to fully colonize the Americas to their satisfaction, the Russians concluded that their North American colonies were too expensive to retain. Eager to release themselves of the burden, the Russians sold Fort Ross in 1841, and in 1867, after less than a month of negotiations, the United States accepted Emperor Alexander II's offer to sell Alaska. The purchase of Alaska for $7.2 million (equivalent to $157 million in 2023) ended Imperial Russia's colonial presence in the Americas.","title":"Russian colonization of North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Map_of_the_Russian_discoveries_in_northwestern_America_(18th_century).jpg"},{"link_name":"Slavic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavs"},{"link_name":"Semyon Dezhnev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semyon_Dezhnev"},{"link_name":"Kolyma River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolyma_(river)"},{"link_name":"Arctic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Anadyr River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anadyr_(river)"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberia"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ivan Fedorov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Fedorov_(navigator)"},{"link_name":"Cape Prince of Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Prince_of_Wales"},{"link_name":"Bering Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Strait"},{"link_name":"Cape Dezhnev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Dezhnev"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Vitus Bering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Bering"},{"link_name":"Aleksei Chirikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov"},{"link_name":"Peter the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Second Kamchatka expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition"},{"link_name":"Vitus Bering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Bering"},{"link_name":"Alexei Chirikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksei_Chirikov"},{"link_name":"Kamchatkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamchatka_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Petropavlovsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"Prince of Wales Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_of_Wales_Island_(Alaska)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Mount Saint Elias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Saint_Elias"},{"link_name":"Bering Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Island"},{"link_name":"sea otter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_otter"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Bering Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Island"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_Spain"},{"link_name":"several expeditions to Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_expeditions_to_the_Pacific_Northwest"},{"link_name":"Nootka Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nootka_Crisis"},{"link_name":"Nikolay Rumyantsev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Rumyantsev"},{"link_name":"Russia's first naval circumnavigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Russian_circumnavigation"},{"link_name":"Adam Johann von Krusenstern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam_Johann_von_Krusenstern"},{"link_name":"Nikolai Rezanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Rezanov"}],"text":"A 1773 map of northwestern America based on reports from Russian explorers.The earliest written accounts indicate that the Eurasian Russians were the first Europeans to reach Alaska. There is an unofficial assumption that Eurasian Slavic navigators reached the coast of Alaska long before the 18th century.In 1648 Semyon Dezhnev sailed from the mouth of the Kolyma River through the Arctic Ocean and around the eastern tip of Asia to the Anadyr River. One legend holds that some of his boats were carried off course and reached Alaska. However, no evidence of settlement survives. Dezhnev's discovery was never forwarded to the central government, leaving open the question of whether or not Siberia was connected to North America.[4]The first sighting of the Alaskan coastline was in 1732; this sighting was made by the Russian maritime explorer and navigator Ivan Fedorov from sea near present-day Cape Prince of Wales on the eastern boundary of the Bering Strait opposite Russian Cape Dezhnev. He did not land.The first landfall happened in southern Alaska in 1741 during the Russian exploration by Vitus Bering and Aleksei Chirikov. In the early 1720s, Tsar Peter the Great called for another expedition. As a part of the 1733–1743 Second Kamchatka expedition, the Sv. Petr under the Dane Vitus Bering and the Sv. Pavel under the Russian Alexei Chirikov set sail from the Kamchatkan port of Petropavlovsk in June 1741. They were soon separated, but each continued sailing east.[5] On 15 July, Chirikov sighted land, probably the west side of Prince of Wales Island in southeast Alaska.[6] He sent a group of men ashore in a longboat, making them the first Europeans to land on the northwestern coast of North America. On roughly 16 July, Bering and the crew of Sv. Petr sighted Mount Saint Elias on the Alaskan mainland; they turned westward toward Russia soon afterward. Meanwhile, Chirikov and the Sv. Pavel headed back to Russia in October with news of the land they had found. In November, Bering's ship was wrecked on Bering Island. There Bering fell ill and died, and high winds dashed the Sv. Petr to pieces. After the stranded crew wintered on the island, the survivors built a boat from the wreckage and set sail for Russia in August 1742. Bering's crew reached the shore of Kamchatka in 1742, carrying word of the expedition. The high quality of the sea otter pelts they brought sparked Russian settlement in Alaska.Due to the distance from central authority in St. Petersburg, and combined with the difficult geography and lack of adequate resources, the next state-sponsored expedition would wait more than two decades until 1766, when captains Pyotr Krenitsyn and Mikhail Levashov embarked for the Aleutian Islands, eventually reaching their destination after initially been wrecked on Bering Island. Between 1774 and 1800 Spain also led several expeditions to Alaska in order to assert its claim over the Pacific Northwest. These claims were later abandoned at the turn of the 19th century following the aftermath of the Nootka Crisis. Count Nikolay Rumyantsev funded Russia's first naval circumnavigation under the joint command of Adam Johann von Krusenstern and Nikolai Rezanov in 1803–1806, and was instrumental in the outfitting of the voyage of the Riurik's circumnavigation of 1814–1816, which provided substantial scientific information on Alaska's and California's flora and fauna, and important ethnographic information on Alaskan and Californian (among other) natives.","title":"Exploration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"trading company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trading_company"},{"link_name":"Shelikhov-Golikov Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelikhov-Golikov_Company"},{"link_name":"Grigory Shelikhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Shelikhov"},{"link_name":"Ivan Larionovich Golikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Larionovich_Golikov&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Russian America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_America"},{"link_name":"Catherine II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_II_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"ukase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukase"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Tsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar"},{"link_name":"Paul I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands"},{"link_name":"55° north latitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/55th_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"joint stock company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_stock_company"},{"link_name":"Irkutsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irkutsk"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nhlsum-8"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"text":"Imperial Russia was unique among European empires for having no state sponsorship of foreign expeditions or territorial (conquest) settlement. The first state-protected trading company for sponsoring such activities in the Americas was the Shelikhov-Golikov Company of Grigory Shelikhov and Ivan Larionovich Golikov. A number of other companies were operating in Russian America during the 1780s. Shelikhov petitioned the government for exclusive control, but in 1788 Catherine II decided to grant his company a monopoly only over the area it had already occupied. Other traders were free to compete elsewhere. Catherine's decision was issued as the imperial ukase (proclamation) of September 28, 1788.[7]The Shelikhov-Golikov Company formed the basis for the Russian-American Company (RAC). Its charter was laid out in a 1799, by the new Tsar Paul I, which granted the company monopolistic control over trade in the Aleutian Islands and the North America mainland, south to 55° north latitude.[5]: 102 The RAC was Russia's first joint stock company, and came under the direct authority of the Ministry of Commerce of Imperial Russia. Siberian merchants based in Irkutsk were initial major stockholders, but soon replaced by Russia's nobility and aristocracy based in Saint Petersburg. The company constructed settlements in what is today Alaska, Hawaii,[8] and California.","title":"Trading company"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Russian colonization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands"},{"link_name":"promyshlenniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyshlenniki"},{"link_name":"fur-traders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_American_fur_trade"},{"link_name":"Aleutian islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Isto2012-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bering_Strait.jpeg"},{"link_name":"Bering Strait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_Strait"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Advancement_of_the_Promyshlenniki_to_the_East.jpg"},{"link_name":"promyshlenniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyshlenniki"},{"link_name":"promyshlenniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Promyshlenniki"},{"link_name":"Aleuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleut"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carpenter2015-10"},{"link_name":"colonial exploitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonialism"},{"link_name":"practices in their expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_fur_trade"},{"link_name":"Siberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Siberia"},{"link_name":"Russian Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_East"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"enserfed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-alaskananthology-12"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carpenter2015-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company,_1806_Replica.jpg"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sitka_Island_Chief_Katlian_With_His_Wife.jpg"},{"link_name":"Tlingit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit"},{"link_name":"Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka"},{"link_name":"barter-economy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barter"},{"link_name":"North Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Shelekhov-Golikov Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelikhov-Golikov_Company"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"infectious diseases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infection"},{"link_name":"immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunity_(medical)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony"},{"link_name":"Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Shelikhov"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"},{"link_name":"Three Saints Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Saints_Bay"},{"link_name":"Kodiak Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak_Island"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Alaska Natives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Natives"},{"link_name":"Unalaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unalaska,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Alexander Andreyevich Baranov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Baranov"},{"link_name":"timber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lumber"},{"link_name":"Kodiak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Tlingit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Russian"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"leaders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leadership"},{"link_name":"monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopoly"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Rezanov"},{"link_name":"Paul I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Emperor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emperor"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"1740s to 1800","text":"Further information: Russian-American Company, Aleutian Islands, and promyshlennikiBeginning in 1743, small associations of fur-traders began to sail from the shores of the Russian Pacific coast to the Aleutian islands.[9]The Bering Strait, where Russia's east coast lies closest to Alaska's west coast. Early Russian colonization occurred well south of the strait, in the Aleutian Islands.Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki, frontiersmen.Rather than hunting the marine life themselves, the Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki forced the Aleuts to do the work for them, often by taking hostage family-members in exchange for hunted seal-furs.[10] This pattern of colonial exploitation resembled some of the promyshlenniki practices in their expansion into Siberia and the Russian Far East.[11]\nAs word spread of the potential riches in furs, competition among Russian companies increased and a large number of Aleuts were apparently enserfed.[12][10][13][14]Flag of the Russian-American Company (1806–1881).Tlingit Chieftain of SitkaAs the animal populations declined, the Aleuts, already too dependent on the new barter-economy fostered by the Russian fur-trade, were increasingly coerced into taking greater and greater risks in the highly dangerous waters of the North Pacific to hunt for more otter.[citation needed] As the Shelekhov-Golikov Company of 1783-1799 developed a monopoly, its use of skirmishes and violent incidents turned into systematic violence as a tool of colonial exploitation of the indigenous people. When the Aleutian serfs revolted and won some victories, the promyshlenniki retaliated, killing many and destroying their boats and hunting gear, leaving them no means of survival.[citation needed] The most devastating effects came from disease: during the first two generations (1741-1759 & 1781-1799) of Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki contact, 80 percent of the Aleut population died from Eurasian infectious diseases; these were by then endemic among Eurasians, but the Aleuts had no immunity against the new diseases.[15]Though the Alaskan colony was never very profitable because of the costs of transportation, most Russian traders were determined to keep the land for themselves. In 1784 Grigory Ivanovich Shelekhov, who later set up the Russian-American Company[16][better source needed]\nthat developed into the Alaskan colonial administration, arrived in Three Saints Bay on Kodiak Island with two ships, the Three Saints (Russian: Три Святителя) and the St. Simon.[17] The Koniag Alaska Natives harassed the Russian party and Shelekhov responded by killing hundreds and taking hostages to enforce the obedience of the rest. Having established his authority on Kodiak Island, Shelekhov founded the second permanent Russian settlement in Alaska (after Unalaska, permanently settled since 1774) on the island's Three Saints Bay.[citation needed]In 1790 Shelekhov, back in Russia, hired Alexander Andreyevich Baranov to manage his Alaskan fur-enterprise. Baranov moved the colony to the northeast end of Kodiak Island, where timber was available. The site later developed as what is now the city of Kodiak. Russian colonists took Koniag wives and started families whose surnames continue today, such as Panamaroff, Petrikoff, and Kvasnikoff.[citation needed] In 1795 Baranov, concerned by the sight of non-Russian Europeans trading with the natives in southeast Alaska, established Mikhailovsk six miles (10 km) north of present-day Sitka.[citation needed] He bought the land from the Tlingit, but in 1802, while Baranov was away, Tlingit from a neighboring settlement attacked and destroyed Mikhailovsk. Baranov returned with a Russian warship and razed the Tlingit village. He built the settlement of New Archangel (Russian: Ново-Архангельск, romanized: Novo-Arkhangelsk) on the ruins of Mikhailovsk.[citation needed] It became the capital of Russian America – and later the city of Sitka.[citation needed]As Baranov secured the Russians' settlements in Alaska, the Shelekhov family continued to work among the top leaders to win a monopoly on Alaska's fur trade.[citation needed] In 1799 Shelekhov's son-in-law, Nikolay Petrovich Rezanov, had acquired a monopoly on the American fur trade from Emperor Paul I. Rezanov formed the Russian-American Company. As part of the deal, the Emperor expected the company to establish new settlements in Alaska and to carry out an expanded colonization program.[citation needed]","title":"Russian colonization"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Battle_of_Sitka_by_Louis_S_Glanzman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Aleutian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleut"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Tlingit tribe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit"},{"link_name":"Battle of Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sitka"},{"link_name":"Battle of Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Sitka"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tikhanov_-_Alexandr_Andreyevich_Baranov_(1818).png"},{"link_name":"Alexander Andreyevich Baranov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Baranov"},{"link_name":"Hector Chevigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hector_Chevigny&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California"},{"link_name":"Russian Fort Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth"},{"link_name":"Kingdom of Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Hudson's Bay Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson%27s_Bay_Company"},{"link_name":"RAC-HBC Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RAC%E2%80%93HBC_Agreement"},{"link_name":"Fort Stikine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Stikine"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-18"},{"link_name":"American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-18"},{"link_name":"Guangzhou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangzhou"},{"link_name":"trappers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trapping"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Phoenix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenix_(1794)"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Wheeler-18"},{"link_name":"Russo-American Treaty of 1824","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-American_Treaty_of_1824"},{"link_name":"fur trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_trade"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint_Petersburg_(1825)"},{"link_name":"British North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_North_America"},{"link_name":"Alexandr Baranov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Baranov"},{"link_name":"charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charter"},{"link_name":"officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)"},{"link_name":"foreigners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alien_(law)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"1800 to 1867","text":"Aleutian & Russian allied forces defeat the Tlingit tribe at the Battle of Sitka, 1804.By 1804, Baranov, now manager of the Russian–American Company, had consolidated the company's hold on fur trade activities in the Americas following his suppression of the Tlingit clan at the Battle of Sitka. The Russians never fully colonized Alaska. For the most part, they clung to the coast and shunned the interior.[citation needed]Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, called \"Lord of Alaska\" by Hector Chevigny, played an active role in the Russian–American Company and was the first governor of Russian America.From 1812 to 1841, the Russians operated Fort Ross, California. From 1814 to 1817, Russian Fort Elizabeth was operating in the Kingdom of Hawaii. By the 1830s, the Russian monopoly on trade was weakening. The British Hudson's Bay Company was leased the southern edge of Russian America in 1839 under the RAC-HBC Agreement, establishing Fort Stikine which began siphoning off trade.[citation needed]A company ship visited the Russian American outposts only every two or three years to give provisions.[18] Because of the limited stock of supplies, trading was incidental compared to trapping operations under the Aleutian laborers.[18] This left the Russian outposts dependent upon British and American merchants for sorely needed food and materials; in such a situation Baranov knew that the RAC establishments \"could not exist without trading with foreigners.\"[18] Ties with Americans were particularly advantageous since they could sell furs at Guangzhou, closed to the Russians at the time. The downside was that American hunters and trappers encroached on territory Russians considered theirs.[citation needed]Starting with the destruction of the Phoenix in 1799, several RAC ships sank or were damaged in storms, leaving the RAC outposts with scant resources. On 24 June 1800, an American vessel sailed to Kodiak Island. Baranov negotiated the sale of over 12,000 rubles worth of goods carried on the ship, averting \"imminent starvation.\"[19] During his tenure Baranov traded over 2 million rubles worth of furs for American supplies, to the consternation of the board of directors.[18] From 1806 to 1818 Baranov shipped 15 million rubles worth of furs to Russia, only receiving under 3 million rubles in provisions, barely half of the expenses spent solely on the Saint Petersburg company office.[18]The Russo-American Treaty of 1824 recognized exclusive Russian rights to the fur trade north of latitude 54°40'N, with the American rights and claims restricted to below that line. This division was repeated in the Treaty of Saint Petersburg, a parallel agreement with the British in 1825 (which also settled most of the border with British North America). However, the agreements soon went by the wayside, and with the retirement of Alexandr Baranov in 1818, the Russian hold on Alaska was further weakened.When the Russian-American Company's charter was renewed in 1821, it stipulated that the chief managers from then on be naval officers. Most naval officers did not have any experience in the fur trade, so the company suffered. The second charter also tried to cut off all contact with foreigners, especially the competitive Americans. This strategy backfired since the Russian colony had become used to relying on American supply ships, and the United States had become a valued customer for furs. Eventually the Russian–American Company entered into an agreement with the Hudson's Bay Company, which gave the British rights to sail through Russian territory.[citation needed]","title":"Russian colonization"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colony"},{"link_name":"Grigory Shelikhov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Shelikhov"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleutian_Islands"},{"link_name":"Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaii"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Northern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_California"}],"text":"The first Russian colony in Alaska was founded in 1784 by Grigory Shelikhov.[5]: 102 Subsequently, Russian explorers and settlers continued to establish trading posts in mainland Alaska, on the Aleutian Islands, Hawaii,[citation needed] and Northern California.","title":"Colonies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alaska boundary dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute"},{"link_name":"Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian-American_Company"},{"link_name":"Nikolay Rezanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolay_Rezanov"},{"link_name":"sea otters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_otter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"Aleuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleut_people"},{"link_name":"Tlingits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_people"},{"link_name":"Native Alaskans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Alaskan"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"}],"sub_title":"Alaska","text":"See also: Alaska boundary disputeThe Russian-American Company was formed in 1799 with the influence of Nikolay Rezanov for the purpose of hunting sea otters for their fur.[5]: 40 The peak population of the Russian colonies was about 4,000 although almost all of these were Aleuts, Tlingits and other Native Alaskans. The number of Russians rarely exceeded 500 at any one time.[5]: xiii","title":"Colonies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fortress Ross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Bodega Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bodega_Bay"},{"link_name":"Northern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_California"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"San Francisco Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco_Bay"},{"link_name":"Farallon Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Farallon_Islands"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Black2004-5"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Russian_colonization_of_North_America&action=edit"},{"link_name":"National Historical Landmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historical_Landmark"},{"link_name":"National Register of Historic Places","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Register_of_Historic_Places"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross State Historic Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross_State_Historic_Park"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"New Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Spain"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"Las Californias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Californias"},{"link_name":"presidios","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidio"},{"link_name":"pueblos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pueblo"},{"link_name":"California missions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California"},{"link_name":"Mission San Francisco de Solano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_San_Francisco_de_Solano"},{"link_name":"El Presidio Real de Sonoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidio_of_Sonoma"},{"link_name":"Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariano_Guadalupe_Vallejo"},{"link_name":"Alta California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alta_California"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Sonoma, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoma,_California"},{"link_name":"pound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pound_(weight)"},{"link_name":"Mission San Fernando Rey de España","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mission_San_Fernando_Rey_de_Espa%C3%B1a"},{"link_name":"San Fernando Valley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_San_Fernando_Valley_to_1915"},{"link_name":"Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California"},{"link_name":"Russian language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Juvenaly of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juvenaly_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Alexander Andreyevich Baranov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Andreyevich_Baranov"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Russian Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox"},{"link_name":"Kodiak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kodiak Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak_Island"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Mission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California"},{"link_name":"Southern California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_California"}],"sub_title":"California","text":"The Russians established an outpost called Fortress Ross (Russian: Крѣпость Россъ, or Krepostʹ Ross) in 1812 near Bodega Bay in Northern California,[5]: 181 north of San Francisco Bay.\nThe Fort Ross colony included a sealing station on the Farallon Islands off San Francisco.[20]\nBy 1818 Fort Ross had a population of 128, consisting of 26 Russians and of 102 Native Americans.[5]: 181 The Russians maintained it until 1841, when they left the region.[21] As of 2015[update] Fort Ross is a Federal National Historical Landmark on the National Register of Historic Places. It is preserved—restored in California's Fort Ross State Historic Park, about 80 miles (130 km) northwest of San Francisco.[22]Spanish concern about Russian colonial intrusion prompted the authorities in New Spain to initiate[when?] the upper Las Californias Province settlement, with presidios (forts), pueblos (towns), and the California missions. After declaring their independence in 1821 the Mexicans also asserted themselves in opposition to the Russians: the Mission San Francisco de Solano (Sonoma Mission-1823) specifically responded to the presence of the Russians at Fort Ross; and Mexico established the El Presidio Real de Sonoma or Sonoma Barracks in 1836, with General Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo as the 'Commandant of the Northern Frontier' of the Alta California Province. The fort was the northernmost Mexican outpost to halt any further Russian settlement southward.[citation needed] The restored Presidio and mission are in the present day city of Sonoma, California.In 1920 a one-hundred-pound bronze church bell was unearthed in an orange grove near Mission San Fernando Rey de España in the San Fernando Valley of Southern California. It has an inscription in the Russian language (translated here): \"In the Year 1796, in the month of January, this bell was cast on the Island of Kodiak by the blessing of Juvenaly of Alaska, during the sojourn of Alexander Andreyevich Baranov.\"[citation needed] How this Russian Orthodox Kodiak church artifact from Kodiak Island in Alaska arrived at a Roman Catholic Mission Church in Southern California remains unknown.","title":"Colonies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Russian Orthodox Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Alaskan Creole people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Creole_people"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Russian_Orthodox_Church.jpg"},{"link_name":"Russian Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Cathedral_(Sitka,_Alaska)"},{"link_name":"Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Peter_the_Aleut.jpg"},{"link_name":"St.Peter the Aleut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Aleut"},{"link_name":"Aleutian Creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Creole_people"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AleutianManWoman.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sitka,_Alaska_-_St_Michael%27s_Orthodox_Cathedral_-_Interior_(2).jpg"},{"link_name":"St.Michael's Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael%27s_Cathedral_(Sitka,_Alaska)"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"},{"link_name":"Russian Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Alexander I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_I_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"Etholén","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvid_Adolf_Ethol%C3%A9n"},{"link_name":"residency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Bishop%27s_House"},{"link_name":"New Archangel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Veniaminov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innocent_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"Lutheran church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka_Lutheran_Church"},{"link_name":"Finnish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finns"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kan-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kan-24"},{"link_name":"Bartolomé de las Casas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bartolom%C3%A9_de_las_Casas"},{"link_name":"St. Francis Xavier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Xavier"},{"link_name":"Antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"Saint Petersburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Petersburg"},{"link_name":"Irkutsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irkutsk"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"Amlia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amlia"},{"link_name":"Chiniak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiniak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kenai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenai,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Nushagak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nushagak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Nordlander-23"},{"link_name":"Innocent of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innocent_of_Alaska"},{"link_name":"dictionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary"},{"link_name":"Russian alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_alphabet"},{"link_name":"Athabascan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athabaskan_languages"},{"link_name":"Yup'ik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yup%27ik"},{"link_name":"Juneau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juneau,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"adopted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Nicholas_Russian_Orthodox_Church_(Juneau,_Alaska)"},{"link_name":"syncretism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncretism"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church"},{"link_name":"Laws of Burgos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laws_of_Burgos"},{"link_name":"Indian Reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reductions"},{"link_name":"missions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_missions_in_California"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kan-24"},{"link_name":"Sitka","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kan-24"}],"text":"Further information: Russian Orthodox Church and Alaskan Creole peopleRussian Orthodox cathedral in present-day SitkaSt.Peter the Aleut, a martyred Aleutian Creole.An Aleutian man and woman.The Sanctuary of St.Michael's Cathedral.At Three Saints Bay, Shelekov built a school to teach the natives to read and write Russian, and introduced the first resident missionaries and clergymen who spread the Russian Orthodox faith. This faith (with its liturgies and texts, translated into Aleut at a very early stage) had been informally introduced, in the 1740s–1780s. Some fur traders founded local families or symbolically adopted Aleut trade partners as godchildren to gain their loyalty through this special personal bond. The missionaries soon opposed the exploitation of the indigenous populations, and their reports provide evidence of the violence exercised to establish colonial rule in this period.The RAC's monopoly was continued by Emperor Alexander I in 1821, on the condition that the company would financially support missionary efforts.[23] Company board ordered chief manager Etholén to build a residency in New Archangel for bishop Veniaminov[23] When a Lutheran church was planned for the Finnish population of New Archangel, Veniamiov prohibited any Lutheran priests from proselytizing to neighboring Tlingits.[23] Veniamiov faced difficulties in exercising influence over the Tlingit people outside New Archangel, due to their political independence from the RAC leaving them less receptive to Russian cultural influences than Aleuts.[23][24] A smallpox epidemic spread throughout Alaska in 1835-1837 and the medical aid given by Veniamiov created converts to Orthodoxy.[24]Inspired by the same pastoral theology as Bartolomé de las Casas or St. Francis Xavier, the origins of which come from early Christianity's need to adapt to the cultures of Antiquity, missionaries in Russian America applied a strategy that placed value on local cultures and encouraged indigenous leadership in parish life and missionary activity. When compared to later Protestant missionaries, the Orthodox policies \"in retrospect proved to be relatively sensitive to indigenous Alaskan cultures.\"[23] This cultural policy was originally intended to gain the loyalty of the indigenous populations by establishing the authority of Church and State as protectors of over 10,000 inhabitants of Russian America. (The number of ethnic Russian settlers had always been less than the record 812, almost all concentrated in Sitka and Kodiak).Difficulties arose in training Russian priests to attain fluency in any of the various Alaskan Indigenous languages. To redress this, Veniaminov opened a seminary for mixed race and native candidates for the Church in 1845.[23] Promising students were sent to additional schools in either Saint Petersburg or Irkutsk, the later city becoming the original seminary's new location in 1858.[23] The Holy Synod instructed for the opening of four missionary schools in 1841, to be located in Amlia, Chiniak, Kenai, Nushagak.[23] Veniamiov established the curriculum, which included Russian history, literacy, mathematics and religious studies.[23]A side effect of the missionary strategy was the development of a new and autonomous form of indigenous identity. Many native traditions survived within local \"Russian\" Orthodox tradition and in the religious life of the villages. Part of this modern indigenous identity is an alphabet and the basis for written literature in nearly all of the ethnic-linguistic groups in the Southern half of Alaska. Father Ivan Veniaminov (later St. Innocent of Alaska), famous throughout Russian America, developed an Aleut dictionary for hundreds of language and dialect words based on the Russian alphabet.The most visible trace of the Russian colonial period in contemporary Alaska is the nearly 90 Russian Orthodox parishes with a membership of over 20,000 men, women, and children, almost exclusively indigenous people. These include several Athabascan groups of the interior, very large Yup'ik communities, and quite nearly all of the Aleut and Alutiiq populations. Among the few Tlingit Orthodox parishes, the large group in Juneau adopted Orthodox Christianity only after the Russian colonial period, in an area where there had been no Russian settlers nor missionaries. The widespread and continuing local Russian Orthodox practices are likely the result of the syncretism of local beliefs with Christianity.In contrast, the Spanish Roman Catholic colonial intentions, methods, and consequences in California and the Southwest were the product of the Laws of Burgos and the Indian Reductions of conversions and relocations to missions; while more force and coercion was used, the indigenous peoples likewise created a kind of Christianity that reflected many of their traditions.Observers noted that while their religious ties were tenuous, before the sale of Alaska there were 400 native converts to Orthodoxy in New Archangel.[24] Tlingit practitioners declined in number after the lapse of Russian rule, until there were only 117 practitioners in 1882 residing in the place, by then renamed as Sitka.[24]","title":"Missionary activity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_New_Archangel,_1837.tif"},{"link_name":"Sitka, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Unalaska, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unalaska,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Three Saints Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Saints_Bay"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kasilof, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasilof,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"St. Paul, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Paul,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kenai, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenai,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Pavlovskaya, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Hinchinbrook Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinchinbrook_Island_(Alaska)"},{"link_name":"New Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Russia_(trading_post)"},{"link_name":"Yakutat, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakutat,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Sitka_Site"},{"link_name":"Novo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Bristol Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Bay"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Michael, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Nulato, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nulato,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Dionysius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Stikine"},{"link_name":"Wrangell, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrangell,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Pokrovskaya Mission, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Mission,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California"},{"link_name":"Fort Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth"},{"link_name":"Kaua'i, Hawai'i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauai"},{"link_name":"Fort Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Alexander_(Hawaii)"}],"text":"New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837Alaska\nUnalaska, Alaska – 1774\nThree Saints Bay, Alaska – 1784\nFort St. George in Kasilof, Alaska – 1786\nSt. Paul, Alaska – 1788\nFort St. Nicholas in Kenai, Alaska – 1791\nPavlovskaya, Alaska (now Kodiak) – 1791\nFort Saints Constantine and Helen on Nuchek Island, Alaska – 1793\nFort on Hinchinbrook Island, Alaska – 1793\nNew Russia near present-day Yakutat, Alaska – 1796\nRedoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska near Sitka – 1799\nNovo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska (now Sitka) – 1804\nFort (New) Alexandrovsk at Bristol Bay, Alaska – 1819\nRedoubt St. Michael, Alaska – 1833\nNulato, Alaska – 1834\nRedoubt St. Dionysius in present-day Wrangell, Alaska (now Fort Stikine) – 1834\nPokrovskaya Mission, Alaska – 1837\nKolmakov Redoubt, Alaska – 1844\nCalifornia\nFort Ross, California – 1812\nHawaii\nFort Elizabeth near Waimea, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817\nFort Alexander near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817\nFort Barclay-de-Tolly near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817","title":"Russian settlements in North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alaska_Purchase_(hi-res).jpg"},{"link_name":"Check","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheque"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:AlaskaMap1867.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alaska Purchase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Purchase"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Tsar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tsar"},{"link_name":"Alexander II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia"},{"link_name":"Eduard de Stoeckl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_de_Stoeckl"},{"link_name":"United States Secretary of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_State"},{"link_name":"William H. Seward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_H._Seward"},{"link_name":"United States Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Alaska Purchase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Purchase"},{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"United States National Archives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_National_Archives"},{"link_name":"Tlingit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlingit_people"},{"link_name":"Castle Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castle_Hill_(Sitka,_Alaska)"},{"link_name":"Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act"},{"link_name":"Creoles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_peoples"},{"link_name":"Jefferson C. Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jefferson_C._Davis"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"text":"Check used for the purchase of AlaskaA map depicting the territory of Alaska in 1867, immediately after the Alaska PurchaseBy the 1860s, the Russian government was ready to abandon its Russian America colony. Over-hunting had severely reduced the fur-bearing animal population, and competition from the British and Americans exacerbated the situation. This, combined with the difficulties of supplying and protecting such a distant colony, reduced interest in the territory. In addition, Russia was in a difficult financial position and feared losing Russian Alaska without compensation in some future conflict, especially to the British. The Russians believed that in a dispute with Britain, their hard-to-defend region might become a prime target for British aggression from British Columbia, and would be easily captured. So following the Union victory in the American Civil War, Tsar Alexander II instructed the Russian minister to the United States, Eduard de Stoeckl, to enter into negotiations with the United States Secretary of State William H. Seward in the beginning of March 1867. At the instigation of Seward the United States Senate approved the purchase, known as the Alaska Purchase, from the Russian Empire. The cost was set at 2 cents an acre, which came to a total of $7,200,000 on 9 April 1867. The canceled check is in the present day United States National Archives.After Russian America was sold to the U.S. in 1867, for $7.2 million (2 cents per acre, equivalent to $156,960,000 in 2023), all the holdings of the Russian–American Company were liquidated.Following the transfer, many elders of the local Tlingit tribe maintained that \"Castle Hill\" comprised the only land that Russia was entitled to sell. Other indigenous groups also argued that they had never given up their land; the Americans encroached on it and took it over. Native land claims were not fully addressed until the latter half of the 20th century, with the signing by Congress and leaders of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.At the height of Russian America, the Russian population had reached 700, compared to 40,000 Aleuts. They and the Creoles, who had been guaranteed the privileges of citizens in the United States, were given the opportunity of becoming citizens within a three-year period, but few decided to exercise that option. General Jefferson C. Davis ordered the Russians out of their homes in Sitka, maintaining that the dwellings were needed for the Americans. The Russians complained of rowdiness of the American troops and assaults. Many Russians returned to Russia, while others migrated to the Pacific Northwest and California.","title":"Purchase of Alaska"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"series of commemorative coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commemorative_coins_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Russian America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_America"},{"link_name":"silver coin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_coin"},{"link_name":"platinum coin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platinum_coin"},{"link_name":"palladium coins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palladium_coin"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"mass media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_media"},{"link_name":"Russian Federation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Alaska Purchase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Purchase"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"war in Ukraine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Ukraine"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-v720-29"},{"link_name":"cession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cession"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-w918-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Alaskan Native American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Natives"},{"link_name":"indigenous rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_rights"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-n332-32"}],"text":"The Soviet Union (USSR) released a series of commemorative coins in 1990 and 1991 to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the first sighting of and claiming domain over Alaska–Russian America. The commemoration consisted of a silver coin, a platinum coin and two palladium coins in both years.At the beginning of the 21st century, a resurgence of Russian ultra nationalism has spurred regret and recrimination over the sale of Alaska to the United States.[25][26][27] There are periodic mass media stories in the Russian Federation that Alaska was not sold to the United States in the 1867 Alaska Purchase, but only leased for 99 years (= to 1966), or 150 years (= to 2017)—and would be returned to Russia.[28] During the war in Ukraine claims gained again in Russian media. Those claims of illegitimacy derive from wrong or misleading interpretations of a policy of the Russian Federation to re-acquire formerly held properties.[29] The Alaska Purchase Treaty is absolutely clear that the agreement was for a complete Russian cession of the territory.[30][31] Not the purchase from the Russian Empire, but the legitimacy of colonial rule altogether has been an issue of the Alaskan Native American peoples in their struggle to democracy and indigenous rights.[32]","title":"Legacy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:View_of_New_Archangel,_1837.tif"},{"link_name":"Sitka, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Unalaska, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unalaska,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Three Saints Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Saints_Bay"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kasilof, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kasilof,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"St. Paul, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Paul,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Kenai, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenai,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pavlovskaya, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Hinchinbrook Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinchinbrook_Island_(Alaska)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"New Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Russia_(trading_post)"},{"link_name":"Yakutat, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakutat,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Sitka_Site"},{"link_name":"Novo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitka,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Fort Ross, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Ross,_California"},{"link_name":"Fort Elizabeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Fort_Elizabeth"},{"link_name":"Kaua'i, Hawai'i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kauai"},{"link_name":"Fort Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Alexander_(Hawaii)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Bristol Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bristol_Bay"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Kolmakov Redoubt, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmakov_Redoubt_Site"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Michael, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Michael,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Nulato, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nulato,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Redoubt St. Dionysius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Stikine"},{"link_name":"Wrangell, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wrangell,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Pokrovskaya Mission, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Mission,_Alaska"},{"link_name":"Ninilchik, Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninilchik,_Alaska"}],"text":"New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837Unalaska, Alaska – 1774\nThree Saints Bay, Alaska – 1784\nFort St. George in Kasilof, Alaska – 1786[citation needed]\nSt. Paul, Alaska – 1788\nFort St. Nicholas in Kenai, Alaska – 1791[citation needed]\nPavlovskaya, Alaska (now Kodiak) – 1791\nFort Saints Constantine and Helen on Nuchek Island, Alaska – 1793[citation needed]\nFort on Hinchinbrook Island, Alaska – 1793[citation needed]\nNew Russia near present-day Yakutat, Alaska – 1796\nRedoubt St. Archangel Michael, Alaska near Sitka – 1799\nNovo-Arkhangelsk, Alaska (now Sitka) – 1804\nFort Ross, California – 1812\nFort Elizabeth near Waimea, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817\nFort Alexander near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817\nFort Barclay-de-Tolly near Hanalei, Kaua'i, Hawai'i – 1817[citation needed]\nFort (New) Alexandrovsk at Bristol Bay, Alaska – 1819[citation needed]\nKolmakov Redoubt, Alaska – 1832\nRedoubt St. Michael, Alaska – 1833\nNulato, Alaska – 1834\nRedoubt St. Dionysius in present-day Wrangell, Alaska (now Fort Stikine) – 1834\nPokrovskaya Mission, Alaska – 1837\nNinilchik, Alaska – 1847","title":"Russian settlements in North America"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibliography of California history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_California_history"},{"link_name":"Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Russian_history_(1613%E2%80%931917)"},{"link_name":"Black, Lydia T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia_T._Black"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-889963-05-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-889963-05-1"},{"link_name":"Black, Lydia T.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia_T._Black"},{"link_name":"Dauenhauer, Nora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora_Marks_Dauenhauer"},{"link_name":"Dauenhauer, Richard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dauenhauer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-295-98601-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98601-2"},{"link_name":"Bering: The Russian Discovery of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/beringrussiandis0000fros"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-300-10059-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10059-4"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.fortross.org/lib/48/russian-america-in-1821.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8032-2071-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2071-3"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4962-0762-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4962-0762-3"},{"link_name":"online review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?id=54207"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8014-4642-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4642-9"},{"link_name":"Oleksa, Michael J.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Oleksa"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-88141-092-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-092-1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-88141-340-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-340-3"},{"link_name":"Starr, S. Frederick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Frederick_Starr"},{"link_name":"Russia's American Colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/russiasamericanc00star"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8223-0688-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-0688-7"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//journals.ku.edu/jras/article/download/7554/6889"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-19-539128-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539128-2"}],"text":"See also: Bibliography of California history and Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)Black, Lydia T. (2004). Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 978-1-889963-05-1.\nBlack, Lydia T.; Dauenhauer, Nora; Dauenhauer, Richard (2008). Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká/Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98601-2.\nEssig, Edward Oliver. Fort Ross: California Outpost of Russian Alaska, 1812–1841 (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1991.)\nFrost, Orcutt (2003). Bering: The Russian Discovery of America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10059-4.\nGibson, James R. \"Old Russia in the New World: adversaries and adversities in Russian America.\" in European Settlement and Development in North America (University of Toronto Press, 2019) pp. 46–65.\nGibson, James R. Imperial Russia in frontier America: the changing geography of supply of Russian America, 1784–1867 (Oxford University Press, 1976)\nGibson, James R. \"Russian America in 1821.\" Oregon Historical Quarterly (1976): 174–188. online\nGrinev, Andrei Valterovich (2008). The Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2071-3.\nGrinëv, Andrei Val’terovich. \"The External Threat to Russian America: Myth and Reality.\" Journal of Slavic Military Studies 30.2 (2017): 266–289.\nGrinëv, Andrei Val’terovich. Russian Colonization of Alaska: Preconditions, Discovery, and Initial Development, 1741–1799 Translated by Richard L. Bland. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2018. ISBN 978-1-4962-0762-3. online review\nKobtzeff, Oleg (1985). La Colonization russe en Amérique du Nord: 18 - 19 ème siècles (Russian Colonization in North- America, 18th-19th Centuries). Paris: thesis, University of Paris 1 - Panthéon Sorbonne (available in limited editions in specialized libraries).\nMiller, Gwenn A. (2010). Kodiak Kreol: Communities of Empire in Early Russian America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4642-9.\nOleksa, Michael J. (1992). Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission. Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-092-1.\nOleksa, Michael J., ed. (2010). Alaskan Missionary Spirituality (2nd ed.). Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-340-3.\nPierce, Richard A. Russian America, 1741–1867: A Biographical Dictionary (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1990)\nStarr, S. Frederick, ed. (1987). Russia's American Colony. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0688-7.\nSaul, Norman E. \"Empire Maker: Aleksandr Baranov and Russian Colonial Expansion into Alaska and Northern California.\" Journal of American Ethnic History 36.3 (2017): 91–93.\nSaul, Norman. \"California-Alaska trade, 1851–1867: The American Russian commercial company and the Russian America company and the sale/purchase of Alaska.\" Journal of Russian American Studies 2.1 (2018): 1–14. online\nVinkovetsky, Ilya (2011). Russian America: An Overseas Colony of a Continental Empire, 1804–1867. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539128-2.","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.academia.edu/download/65351031/Natives_and_Creoles_in_the_maritime_service_in_RA_fragment_.pdf"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"The Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867, Andreĭ Valʹterovich Grinev (GoogleBooks)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4PZdGWM0EBQC"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1215/00141801-2140758","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2140758"},{"link_name":"online","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.atlantis-press.com/article/125921160.pdf"}],"sub_title":"Natives","text":"Grinëv, Andrei V. \"Natives and Creoles of Alaska in the maritime service in Russian America.\" The Historian 82.3 (2020): 328–345. online[dead link]\nThe Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867, Andreĭ Valʹterovich Grinev (GoogleBooks)\nLuehrmann, Sonja. Alutiiq villages under Russian and US rule (University of Alaska Press, 2008.)\nSmith-Peter, Susan (2013). \"\"A Class of People Admitted to the Better Ranks\": The First Generation of Creoles in Russian America, 1810s–1820s\". Ethnohistory. 60 (3): 363–384. doi:10.1215/00141801-2140758.\nSavelev, Ivan. \"Patterns in the Adoption of Russian Linguistic and National Traditions by Alaskan Natives.\" International Conference on European Multilingualism: Shaping Sustainable Educational and Social Environment EMSSESE, 2019. (Atlantis Press, 2019). online","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"40488966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/40488966"}],"sub_title":"Primary sources","text":"Gibson, James R. (1972). \"Russian America in 1833: The Survey of Kirill Khlebnikov\". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 63 (1): 1–13. JSTOR 40488966.\nGolovin, Pavel Nikolaevich, Basil Dmytryshyn, and E. A. P. Crownhart-Vaughan. The end of Russian America: Captain PN Golovin's last report, 1862(Oregon Historical Society Press, 1979.)\nKhlebnikov, Kyrill T. Colonial Russian America: Kyrill T. Khlebnikov's Reports, 1817–1832 (Oregon Historical Society, 1976)\nbaron Wrangel, Ferdinand Petrovich. Russian America: Statistical and ethnographic information (Kingston, Ont.: Limestone Press, 1980)","title":"Further reading"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//phr.ucpress.edu/content/79/2/265.full.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1525%2Fphr.2010.79.2.265"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265"},{"link_name":"permanent dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"}],"sub_title":"Historiography","text":"Grinëv, Andrei. V.; Bland, Richard L. (2010). \"A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years\" (PDF). Pacific Historical Review. 79 (2): 265–278. doi:10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265. JSTOR 10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265.[permanent dead link]","title":"Further reading"}]	[{"image_text":"A 1773 map of northwestern America based on reports from Russian explorers.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Map_of_the_Russian_discoveries_in_northwestern_America_%2818th_century%29.jpg/220px-Map_of_the_Russian_discoveries_in_northwestern_America_%2818th_century%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Bering Strait, where Russia's east coast lies closest to Alaska's west coast. Early Russian colonization occurred well south of the strait, in the Aleutian Islands.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Bering_Strait.jpeg/220px-Bering_Strait.jpeg"},{"image_text":"Sibero-Russian promyshlenniki, frontiersmen.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Advancement_of_the_Promyshlenniki_to_the_East.jpg/220px-Advancement_of_the_Promyshlenniki_to_the_East.jpg"},{"image_text":"Flag of the Russian-American Company (1806–1881).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company%2C_1806_Replica.jpg/110px-Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company%2C_1806_Replica.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tlingit Chieftain of Sitka","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Sitka_Island_Chief_Katlian_With_His_Wife.jpg/220px-Sitka_Island_Chief_Katlian_With_His_Wife.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aleutian & Russian allied forces defeat the Tlingit tribe at the Battle of Sitka, 1804.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Battle_of_Sitka_by_Louis_S_Glanzman.jpg/290px-Battle_of_Sitka_by_Louis_S_Glanzman.jpg"},{"image_text":"Alexander Andreyevich Baranov, called \"Lord of Alaska\" by Hector Chevigny, played an active role in the Russian–American Company and was the first governor of Russian America.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Tikhanov_-_Alexandr_Andreyevich_Baranov_%281818%29.png/170px-Tikhanov_-_Alexandr_Andreyevich_Baranov_%281818%29.png"},{"image_text":"Russian Orthodox cathedral in present-day Sitka","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Russian_Orthodox_Church.jpg/220px-Russian_Orthodox_Church.jpg"},{"image_text":"St.Peter the Aleut, a martyred Aleutian Creole.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Saint_Peter_the_Aleut.jpg/220px-Saint_Peter_the_Aleut.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Aleutian man and woman.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/AleutianManWoman.jpg/220px-AleutianManWoman.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sanctuary of St.Michael's Cathedral.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sitka%2C_Alaska_-_St_Michael%27s_Orthodox_Cathedral_-_Interior_%282%29.jpg/220px-Sitka%2C_Alaska_-_St_Michael%27s_Orthodox_Cathedral_-_Interior_%282%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-220px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"Check used for the purchase of Alaska","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Alaska_Purchase_%28hi-res%29.jpg/220px-Alaska_Purchase_%28hi-res%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"A map depicting the territory of Alaska in 1867, immediately after the Alaska Purchase","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/AlaskaMap1867.jpg/280px-AlaskaMap1867.jpg"},{"image_text":"New Archangel (present-day Sitka, Alaska), the capital of Russian America, in 1837","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif/lossy-page1-220px-View_of_New_Archangel%2C_1837.tif.jpg"}]	[{"title":"History portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:History"},{"title":"Alaska portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Alaska"},{"title":"Russia portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Russia"},{"title":"Juana Maria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juana_Maria"},{"title":"Peter the Aleut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_the_Aleut"},{"title":"Jacob Netsvetov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Netsvetov"},{"title":"List of Russian explorers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_explorers"},{"title":"Herman of Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herman_of_Alaska"},{"title":"Mikhail Tebenkov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Tebenkov"},{"title":"Johan Hampus Furuhjelm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johan_Hampus_Furuhjelm"},{"title":"Nikolai Rezanov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolai_Rezanov"},{"title":"Vitus Bering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitus_Bering"},{"title":"Russian Colonialism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Colonialism"},{"title":"Territorial evolution of Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_Russia"},{"title":"Great Northern Expedition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Northern_Expedition"},{"title":"California Fur Rush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Fur_Rush"},{"title":"Awa'uq Massacre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Awa%27uq_Massacre"},{"title":"Russo-American Treaty of 1824","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russo-American_Treaty_of_1824"},{"title":"History of the west coast of North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_west_coast_of_North_America"},{"title":"Alaska boundary dispute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_boundary_dispute"},{"title":"Flag of the Russian-American Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_of_the_Russian-American_Company"},{"title":"Alaskan Creole people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaskan_Creole_people"},{"title":"Russian Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Americans"},{"title":"Russian–American Telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%E2%80%93American_Telegraph"},{"title":"Slavic Voice of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_Voice_of_America"},{"title":"Ukase of 1821","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ukase_of_1821"}]	[{"reference":"Charles P. Wohlforth (2011). Alaska For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. p. 18.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sergei., Kan (July 2014). Memory eternal : Tlingit culture and Russian Orthodox Christianity through two centuries (First paperback ed.). Seattle, Wash. ISBN 9780295805344. OCLC 901270092.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295805344","url_text":"9780295805344"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/901270092","url_text":"901270092"}]},{"reference":"Campbell, Robert (2007). In Darkest Alaska: Travel and Empire Along the Inside Passage. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-8122-4021-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GuNHnZfE3DcC&pg=PA1","url_text":"In Darkest Alaska: Travel and Empire Along the Inside Passage"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-4021-4","url_text":"978-0-8122-4021-4"}]},{"reference":"Black, Lydia T. (2004). Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"\"The People You May Visit\"\". Russia's Great Voyages. California Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on 13 April 2003. Retrieved 23 September 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20030413182257/http://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/science_under_sail/people.html","url_text":"\"\"The People You May Visit\"\""},{"url":"http://www.calacademy.org/exhibits/science_under_sail/people.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pethick, Derek (1976). First Approaches to the Northwest Coast. Vancouver: J.J. Douglas. pp. 26–33. ISBN 0-88894-056-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88894-056-4","url_text":"0-88894-056-4"}]},{"reference":"\"Russian Fort\". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Archived from the original on 18 October 2007. Retrieved 4 July 2008.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071018122811/http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=190&ResourceType=Structure","url_text":"\"Russian Fort\""},{"url":"http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=190&ResourceType=Structure","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Isto, Sarah Crawford (2012). \"Chapter One: The Russian Period 1749-1866\". The Fur Farms of Alaska: Two Centuries of History and a Forgotten Stampede. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-60223-171-9. Russian merchants along the route from Kamchatka to Kiakhta must have been elated when Vitus Bering's expedition returned in 1742 to report that the northern coast of America was nearby and that its waters teemed with fur seals and sea otters. By the following year, the first commercial vessel had already been constructed in Kamchatka and had set off for a two-year voyage to the Aleutians. [...] A rush of fur-seeking expeditions followed","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rYfvCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8","url_text":"\"Chapter One: The Russian Period 1749-1866\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60223-171-9","url_text":"978-1-60223-171-9"}]},{"reference":"Carpenter, Roger M. (2015). \"Times Are Altered with Us\": American Indians from First Contact to the New Republic. Wiley Blackwell. pp. 231–232. ISBN 978-1-118-73315-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=5ihUBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA231","url_text":"\"Times Are Altered with Us\": American Indians from First Contact to the New Republic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-73315-8","url_text":"978-1-118-73315-8"}]},{"reference":"Etkind, Alexander (2011). Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience. Cambridge: John Wiley & Sons (published 2013). p. 68. ISBN 9780745673547. Agreeing with Soloviev that the history of Russia was the history of colonization, Shchapov described the process [...]. Two methods of colonization were primary: 'fur colonization,' with hunters harvesting and depleting the habitats of fur animals and moving further and further across Siberia all the way to Alaska; and 'fishing colonization,' which supplied Russian centers with fresh- or salt-water fish and caviar.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=lpz5q44VVk0C","url_text":"Internal Colonization: Russia's Imperial Experience"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780745673547","url_text":"9780745673547"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergey_Solovyov_(historian)","url_text":"Soloviev"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afanasy_Shchapov","url_text":"Shchapov"}]},{"reference":"Stephen W. Haycox, Mary Childers Mangusso (2011). An Alaska Anthology: Interpreting the Past. University of Washington Press. p. 27.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Grinëv, Andrei Val'terovic (2016). \"Russian Promyshlenniki in Alaska at the end of the Eighteenth Century\". Russian Colonization of Alaska: Preconditions, Discovery, and Initial Development, 1741-1799 [Predposylki rossiisoi kolonizatsii Alyaski, ee otkrytie i pervonachal'noye osnovanie]. Translated by Bland, Richard L. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press (published 2018). p. 198. ISBN 9781496210852. The Aleuts and other dependent Natives of the Russian colonies could never be considered slaves, or feudal serfs, or civilian workers in the usual sense of the terms. [...] Up to the 1790s the Natives were obligated to pay tribute to the royal treasury, demonstrating personal dependence on the Russian emperor. Some of the Natives, evidently making up from a twelfth to an eighth of the adult population, belonged to the so-called kayury, whose position was in fact that of slaves, since they received nothing for their labor besides scanty clothing and food. However, this was not slavery as once existed in ancient Rome or in the American South [...].","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=8WV0DwAAQBAJ","url_text":"Russian Colonization of Alaska: Preconditions, Discovery, and Initial Development, 1741-1799"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781496210852","url_text":"9781496210852"}]},{"reference":"Gwenn, Miller (15 December 2015). \"Introduction\". Kodiak Kreol: Communities of Empire in Early Russian America. Ithaca: Cornell University (published 2010). p. 2. ISBN 978-1-5017-0069-9. The people of Kodiak kept some slaves, kalgi, outsiders whom they acquired through trading and warfare with people from other areas.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5017-0069-9","url_text":"978-1-5017-0069-9"}]},{"reference":"\"Aleut History\". The Aleut Corporation. Archived from the original on 2 November 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071102172428/http://www.alaska.net/~aleut/Culture_History.html","url_text":"\"Aleut History\""},{"url":"http://www.alaska.net/~aleut/Culture_History.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Mathews-Benham, Sandra K. (10 March 2008). \"5: From the Aleutian Chain to Northern California\". American Indians in the Early West. Cultures in the American West. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO (published 2008). p. 246. ISBN 9781851098248. [...] before he died, Shelikhov had appointed Alexandr Baranov as governor of the Russian Alaska Company, the first functional and approved Russian monopoly in Alaska.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mLZzCgAAQBAJ","url_text":"American Indians in the Early West"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851098248","url_text":"9781851098248"}]},{"reference":"\"Alaska History Timeline\". Kodiakisland.net. Archived from the original on 27 October 2005. Retrieved 31 August 2005.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20051027110359/http://kodiakisland.net/timeline.html","url_text":"\"Alaska History Timeline\""},{"url":"http://kodiakisland.net/timeline.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Wheeler, Mary E. (1971). \"Empires in Conflict and Cooperation: The \"Bostonians\" and the Russian-American Company\". Pacific Historical Review. 40 (4): 419–441. doi:10.2307/3637703. JSTOR 3637703.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3637703","url_text":"10.2307/3637703"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3637703","url_text":"3637703"}]},{"reference":"Tikhmenev, P. A. (1978). Pierce, Richard A.; Donnelly, Alton S. (eds.). A History of the Russia-American Company. Seattle: University of Washington Press. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9780295955643.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofrussian0000tikh","url_text":"A History of the Russia-American Company"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/historyofrussian0000tikh/page/63","url_text":"63–64"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780295955643","url_text":"9780295955643"}]},{"reference":"Schoenherr, Allan A.; Feldmeth, C. Robert (1999). Natural History of the Islands of California. California natural history guides. Vol. 61. University of California Press. p. 375. ISBN 9780520211971. Retrieved 27 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allan_A._Schoenherr","url_text":"Schoenherr, Allan A."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=j9ATAQAAIAAJ","url_text":"Natural History of the Islands of California"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520211971","url_text":"9780520211971"}]},{"reference":"\"Fort Ross Cultural History Fort Ross Interpretive Association\". www.fortrossinterpretive.org. Archived from the original on 28 May 2010. Retrieved 15 January 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100528110415/http://www.fortrossinterpretive.org/FortRossCulturalHistory.php","url_text":"\"Fort Ross Cultural History Fort Ross Interpretive Association\""},{"url":"http://www.fortrossinterpretive.org/FortRossCulturalHistory.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Fort Ross SHP\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=449","url_text":"\"Fort Ross SHP\""}]},{"reference":"Nordlander, David (1995). \"Innokentii Veniaminov and the Expansion of Orthodoxy in Russian America\". Pacific Historical Review. 64 (1): 19–35. doi:10.2307/3640333. JSTOR 3640333.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3640333","url_text":"10.2307/3640333"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640333","url_text":"3640333"}]},{"reference":"Kan, Sergei (1985). \"Russian Orthodox Brotherhoods among the Tlingit: Missionary Goals and Native Response\". Ethnohistory. 32 (3): 196–222. doi:10.2307/481921. JSTOR 481921.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F481921","url_text":"10.2307/481921"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/481921","url_text":"481921"}]},{"reference":"Nelson, Soraya Sarhaddi (1 April 2014). \"Not An April Fools' Joke: Russians Petition To Get Alaska Back\". NPR. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2014/04/01/297835873/not-an-april-fools-joke-russians-petition-to-get-alaska-back","url_text":"\"Not An April Fools' Joke: Russians Petition To Get Alaska Back\""}]},{"reference":"Tetrault-Farber, Gabrielle (31 March 2014). \"After Crimea, Russians Say They Want Alaska Back\". The Moscow Times. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2014/03/31/after-crimea-russians-say-they-want-alaska-back-a33489","url_text":"\"After Crimea, Russians Say They Want Alaska Back\""}]},{"reference":"Gershkovich, Evan (30 March 2017). \"150 Years After Sale of Alaska, Some Russians Have Second Thoughts\". The New York Times. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/30/world/europe/alaska-russia-sale-150.html","url_text":"\"150 Years After Sale of Alaska, Some Russians Have Second Thoughts\""}]},{"reference":"Haycox, Steve (18 May 2017). \"Russian extremists want Alaska back\". Anchorage Daily News. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.adn.com/opinions/2017/05/18/russian-extremists-want-alaska-back/","url_text":"\"Russian extremists want Alaska back\""}]},{"reference":"Stepanova, Alexandra (31 January 2024). \"Analysis: Russian decree on its assets overseas (no, Alaska was not mentioned)\". annie lab. Retrieved 22 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://annielab.org/2024/01/31/analysis-russian-decree-on-its-assets-overseas-no-alaska-was-not-mentioned/","url_text":"\"Analysis: Russian decree on its assets overseas (no, Alaska was not mentioned)\""}]},{"reference":"Metcalfe, Peter (24 August 2017). \"The Purchase of Alaska: 1867 or 1971\". Alaska Historical Society - Dedicated to the promotion of Alaska history by the exchange of ideas and information. Retrieved 22 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://alaskahistoricalsociety.org/about-ahs/special-projects/150treaty/150th-resource-library/new-articles/the-purchase-of-alaska-1867-or-1971/","url_text":"\"The Purchase of Alaska: 1867 or 1971\""}]},{"reference":"\"Transcription of the English text of the Alaska Treaty of Cession\". Our Documents. The United States National Archives. Retrieved 26 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ourdocuments.gov/doc.php?flash=false&doc=41&page=transcript","url_text":"\"Transcription of the English text of the Alaska Treaty of Cession\""}]},{"reference":"Magazine, Smithsonian (29 March 2017). \"There Are Two Versions of the Story of How the U.S. Purchased Alaska From Russia\". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 22 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/why-russia-gave-alaska-americas-gateway-arctic-180962714/","url_text":"\"There Are Two Versions of the Story of How the U.S. Purchased Alaska From Russia\""}]},{"reference":"Black, Lydia T. (2004). Russians in Alaska, 1732–1867. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. ISBN 978-1-889963-05-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia_T._Black","url_text":"Black, Lydia T."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-889963-05-1","url_text":"978-1-889963-05-1"}]},{"reference":"Black, Lydia T.; Dauenhauer, Nora; Dauenhauer, Richard (2008). Anóoshi Lingít Aaní Ká/Russians in Tlingit America: The Battles of Sitka, 1802 and 1804. University of Washington Press. ISBN 978-0-295-98601-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lydia_T._Black","url_text":"Black, Lydia T."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nora_Marks_Dauenhauer","url_text":"Dauenhauer, Nora"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dauenhauer","url_text":"Dauenhauer, Richard"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-295-98601-2","url_text":"978-0-295-98601-2"}]},{"reference":"Frost, Orcutt (2003). Bering: The Russian Discovery of America. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-10059-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/beringrussiandis0000fros","url_text":"Bering: The Russian Discovery of America"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10059-4","url_text":"978-0-300-10059-4"}]},{"reference":"Grinev, Andrei Valterovich (2008). The Tlingit Indians in Russian America, 1741–1867. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-2071-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-2071-3","url_text":"978-0-8032-2071-3"}]},{"reference":"Kobtzeff, Oleg (1985). La Colonization russe en Amérique du Nord: 18 - 19 ème siècles (Russian Colonization in North- America, 18th-19th Centuries). Paris: thesis, University of Paris 1 - Panthéon Sorbonne (available in limited editions in specialized libraries).","urls":[]},{"reference":"Miller, Gwenn A. (2010). Kodiak Kreol: Communities of Empire in Early Russian America. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-4642-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-4642-9","url_text":"978-0-8014-4642-9"}]},{"reference":"Oleksa, Michael J. (1992). Orthodox Alaska: A Theology of Mission. Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-092-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Oleksa","url_text":"Oleksa, Michael J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-092-1","url_text":"978-0-88141-092-1"}]},{"reference":"Oleksa, Michael J., ed. (2010). Alaskan Missionary Spirituality (2nd ed.). Yonkers, NY: St Vladimir's Seminary Press. ISBN 978-0-88141-340-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-340-3","url_text":"978-0-88141-340-3"}]},{"reference":"Starr, S. Frederick, ed. (1987). Russia's American Colony. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-0688-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Frederick_Starr","url_text":"Starr, S. Frederick"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/russiasamericanc00star","url_text":"Russia's American Colony"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-0688-7","url_text":"978-0-8223-0688-7"}]},{"reference":"Vinkovetsky, Ilya (2011). Russian America: An Overseas Colony of a Continental Empire, 1804–1867. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-539128-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539128-2","url_text":"978-0-19-539128-2"}]},{"reference":"Smith-Peter, Susan (2013). \"\"A Class of People Admitted to the Better Ranks\": The First Generation of Creoles in Russian America, 1810s–1820s\". Ethnohistory. 60 (3): 363–384. doi:10.1215/00141801-2140758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1215%2F00141801-2140758","url_text":"10.1215/00141801-2140758"}]},{"reference":"Gibson, James R. (1972). \"Russian America in 1833: The Survey of Kirill Khlebnikov\". The Pacific Northwest Quarterly. 63 (1): 1–13. JSTOR 40488966.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/40488966","url_text":"40488966"}]},{"reference":"Grinëv, Andrei. V.; Bland, Richard L. (2010). \"A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years\" (PDF). Pacific Historical Review. 79 (2): 265–278. doi:10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265. JSTOR 10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265.","urls":[{"url":"http://phr.ucpress.edu/content/79/2/265.full.pdf","url_text":"\"A Brief Survey of the Russian Historiography of Russian America of Recent Years\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fphr.2010.79.2.265","url_text":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265","url_text":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Russian_colonization_of_North_America&params=57_03_N_135_19_W_type:country_source:kolossus-eswiki","external_links_name":"57°03′N 135°19′W / 57.050°N 135.317°W / 57.050; -135.317"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Russian_colonization_of_North_America&params=57_03_N_135_19_W_type:country_source:kolossus-eswiki","external_links_name":"57°03′N 135°19′W / 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Years\""},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1525%2Fphr.2010.79.2.265","external_links_name":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265","external_links_name":"10.1525/phr.2010.79.2.265"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110118081337/http://www.akip.org/rusus.html","external_links_name":"The Russian-American Treaty of 1867"},{"Link":"http://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=449","external_links_name":"Official Website of Fort Ross State Historic Park"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100528110415/http://www.fortrossinterpretive.org/FortRossCulturalHistory.php","external_links_name":"Fort Ross Cultural History Fort Ross Interpretive Association"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westwind_School_Division_No._74	Westwind School Division No. 74	["1 Schools","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]	Coordinates: 49°11′47″N 113°18′9″W / 49.19639°N 113.30250°W / 49.19639; -113.30250Westwind School Division No. 74Location445 Main StreetCardston, Alberta, CanadaCardstonGlenwoodHill SpringMagrathMountain ViewRaymondStirling CanadaCoordinates49°11′47″N 113°18′9″W / 49.19639°N 113.30250°W / 49.19639; -113.30250District informationSuperintendentDarren MazutinecChair of the boardJim RalphSchools12 (Regular) 1 (Alternate) 18 (Hutterite Colony)BudgetCA$36.7 million (2007/2008)Students and staffStudents4,006 (September 2006)Other informationElected trusteesAnna Joyce-Frank, Blood ReserveTami Tolley, Cardston & districtColin Paterson, Cardston & districtRoss Blackmer, Magrath & districtDoug Smith, Mountain View, Hillspring, & GlenwoodJim Ralph, Raymond & districtRoss Blackmer, Raymond & districtJosh Smith, StirlingJessica Payne, Welling, Magrath & DistrictWebsitewww.westwind.ab.ca Westwind School Division is a public school authority serving the County of Warner No. 5 and Cardston County. Schools Cardston Cardston Elementary School (K-5) Cardston Jr. High School (6-8) Cardston High School (9-12) Glenwood Spring Glen Elementary School (K-5) Hill Spring Spring Glen Junior High School (6-9) Magrath Magrath Elementary School (K-6) Magrath Jr./Sr. High School (7-12) Mountain View Mountain View School (K-9) Raymond Raymond Elementary School (K-6) Raymond Jr. High School (7-9) Raymond High School (10-12) Stirling Stirling School (K-12) Westwind Alternate School Westwind Colony Schools See also List of Alberta school boards References ^ Education Plan - 2007 -2010 External links Westwind School Division No. 74 This Alberta school-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"County of Warner No. 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Warner_No._5"},{"link_name":"Cardston County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardston_County"}],"text":"Westwind School Division is a public school authority serving the County of Warner No. 5 and Cardston County.","title":"Westwind School Division No. 74"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cardston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardston,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Glenwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenwood,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Hill Spring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hill_Spring"},{"link_name":"Magrath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magrath,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Mountain View","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_View,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raymond,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Stirling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling,_Alberta"},{"link_name":"Stirling School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stirling_School"},{"link_name":"Westwind Alternate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=54&Itemid=89"},{"link_name":"Westwind Colony Schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=55&Itemid=90"}],"text":"CardstonCardston Elementary School (K-5)\nCardston Jr. High School (6-8)\nCardston High School (9-12)GlenwoodSpring Glen Elementary School (K-5)Hill SpringSpring Glen Junior High School (6-9)MagrathMagrath Elementary School (K-6)\nMagrath Jr./Sr. High School (7-12)Mountain ViewMountain View School (K-9)RaymondRaymond Elementary School (K-6)\nRaymond Jr. High School (7-9)\nRaymond High School (10-12)StirlingStirling School (K-12)Westwind Alternate SchoolWestwind Colony Schools","title":"Schools"}]	[]	[{"title":"List of Alberta school boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Alberta_school_boards"}]	[]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westwind_School_Division_No._74&params=49_11_47_N_113_18_9_W_type:edu_region:CA-AB","external_links_name":"49°11′47″N 113°18′9″W / 49.19639°N 113.30250°W / 49.19639; -113.30250"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Westwind_School_Division_No._74&params=49_11_47_N_113_18_9_W_type:edu_region:CA-AB","external_links_name":"49°11′47″N 113°18′9″W / 49.19639°N 113.30250°W / 49.19639; -113.30250"},{"Link":"http://www.westwind.ab.ca/","external_links_name":"www.westwind.ab.ca"},{"Link":"http://www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=54&Itemid=89","external_links_name":"Westwind Alternate School"},{"Link":"http://www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=55&Itemid=90","external_links_name":"Westwind Colony Schools"},{"Link":"http://www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=282&Itemid=135","external_links_name":"Education Plan - 2007 -2010"},{"Link":"http://www.westwind.ab.ca/index.php?option=com_frontpage&Itemid=1","external_links_name":"Westwind School Division No. 74"},{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Westwind_School_Division_No._74&action=edit","external_links_name":"expanding it"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Hard_Rain%27s_Gonna_Fall	A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall	["1 Plot","2 Production","2.1 Development","3 Reception","3.1 Viewers","3.2 Critical reviews","4 References","5 External links"]	11th episode of the 3rd season of Friday Night Lights "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"Friday Night Lights episodeEpisode no.Season 3Episode 11Directed byMichael WaxmanWritten by Bridget Carpenter Patrick Massett John Zinman Produced byNan Bernstein FreedCinematography byTodd McMullenEditing byStephen MichaelOriginal release datesDecember 17, 2008 (2008-12-17) (DirecTV)March 27, 2009 (2009-03-27) (NBC)Running time43 minutesGuest appearances Kim Dickens as Shelby Saracen Jeremy Sumpter as J.D. McCoy Brad Leland as Buddy Garrity Janine Turner as Katie McCoy D. W. Moffett as Joe McCoy Dana Wheeler-Nicholson as Angela Collette Episode chronology ← Previous"The Giving Tree" Next →"Underdogs" Friday Night Lights (season 3)List of episodes "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" is the eleventh episode of the third season of the American sports drama television series Friday Night Lights, inspired by the 1990 nonfiction book by H. G. Bissinger. It is the 48th overall episode of the series and was written by supervising producer Bridget Carpenter and co-executive producers Patrick Massett and John Zinman, and directed by co-producer Michael Waxman. It originally aired on DirecTV's 101 Network on December 17, 2008, before airing on NBC on March 27, 2009. The series is set in the fictional town of Dillon, a small, close-knit community in rural West Texas. It follows a high school football team, the Dillon Panthers. It features a set of characters, primarily connected to Coach Eric Taylor, his wife Tami, and their daughter Julie. In the episode, a change threatens to dismantle the Panthers as they prepare for the semifinals. Meanwhile, Matt faces bigger problems with Lorraine, Tyra prepares a bridal shower for Mindy, and J.D. continues being pressured by his father in abandoning his relationship. According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was seen by an estimated 3.95 million household viewers and gained a 1.2/4 ratings share among adults aged 18–49. The episode received extremely positive reviews from critics, who praised the performances, character development and emotional tone. Plot Tyra (Adrianne Palicki) helps Mindy in preparing for her bridal shower, still nervous about her SAT results. J.D. (Jeremy Sumpter) continues seeing Madison (Whitney Hoy), although his delays during training start bothering Eric (Kyle Chandler). As Shelby (Kim Dickens) prepares to take Lorraine (Louanne Stephens) to the market, she exits the car while moving, falling into the ground. Matt (Zach Gilford) and Shelby take her to the hospital, where the doctor tells them that while Lorraine is not injured, her mental health is deteriorating. Matt refuses to listen to the doctor's warnings and also ignores Shelby's pleas to consider Lorraine's health, telling her to leave him. However, Matt experiences trouble later on when Lorraine's mental health affects his personal life. Tami (Connie Britton) gets involved in a town debate as Superintendent Dunley announces a redistricting strategy, which would open a new school. Some townspeople, Eric included, are not delighted by the news, as the Panthers team would have to let go some of its talent. Lyla (Minka Kelly) continues avoiding Buddy (Brad Leland), so the latter asks Tim (Taylor Kitsch) to help him. Tim only suggests that he needs to give time to Lyla to think about everything. Later, Lyla discovers that she has been named as a potential candidate for Vanderbilt University, her preferred college. Buddy is overjoyed, but Lyla is upset as she won't have the money needed to enroll. Joe (D. W. Moffett) is upset by J.D.'s relationship, feeling that it will negatively impact his performance. He angrily calls Madison's parents to dissuade them from allowing her to see J.D., but it backfires. Tyra is stressed by the tasks needed for the bridal shower and asks Landry (Jesse Plemons) to help her. While organizing the event, Landry finds that she passed the SAT, but she is still not content as she feels it is not enough. The bridal shower is forced to reallocate inside the Colletes' house as a storm arrives in Dillon. During the semifinals, J.D. struggles with completing his passes after Eric tells him to maintain the same tactics. Nevertheless, J.D. recovers to mark a win for Dillon, ensuring them a spot in the finals. After the game, Matt apologizes to Shelby, admitting that he believes the situation with Lorraine is not working. Outside a celebration at Applebee's, J.D. and Joe get into a heated argument and Joe starts hitting him. Eric and Tami intervene, as Joe walks away. Eric allows Joe and Katie (Janine Turner) to stay with them, letting J.D. know that he is not alone. Tim skips celebrating the game to stay with Lyla, saying that he will support any decision she makes. Billy (Derek Phillips) picks up Mindy from the bridal shower, as Tyra and Angela (Dana Wheeler-Nicholson) stay. Tyra starts crying, lamenting that nothing is working in her life. Angela consoles her, saying that she loves Tyra's unpredictability and that she will get everything she wants, and they embrace. Production Development In December 2008, DirecTV announced that the eleventh episode of the season would be titled "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall". The episode was written by supervising producer Bridget Carpenter, and co-executive producers Patrick Massett and John Zinman, and directed by co-producer Michael Waxman. This was Carpenter's sixth writing credit, Massett's seventh writing credit, Zinman's seventh writing credit, and Waxman's fourth directing credit. Reception Viewers In its original American broadcast on NBC, "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" was seen by an estimated 3.95 million household viewers with a 1.2/4 in the 18–49 demographics. This means that 1.2 percent of all households with televisions watched the episode, while 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast watched it. This was a slight increase in viewership from the previous episode, which was watched by an estimated 3.84 million household viewers with a 1.2/4 in the 18–49 demographics. Critical reviews "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" received extremely positive reviews from critics. Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an "amazing" 9.2 out of 10 and wrote, "This was one big heartbreaking episode, which is saying something, given how effortlessly this show seems to be able to somehow be incredibly emotional without coming off as overly sentimental." Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a "B" grade and wrote, "It would probably take more time to confirm the notion than it's really worth, but I would venture that tonight's episode of Friday Night Lights had more earnest, heart-to-heart talks than any episode before it." Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times wrote, "While it wasn’t necessarily out of character, as Joe has been inflicting abuse on his son all season long, it was a bit much, especially for this emotionally-charged episode. It was stronger when the abuse was just a series of mind games." Alan Sepinwall wrote, "The episode did a great job of laying the groundwork for Joe McCoy's explosion, as he let various perceived mistakes and violations by J.D. just build and build in his mind until he couldn't think straight anymore." Erin Fox of TV Guide wrote, "Hoo-boy! They weren't messing around when they titled this episode, 'A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall'." Jonathan Pacheco of Slant Magazine wrote, "“It’s gonna blow, don’t ya know.” It's a phrase that a Dallas sports radio host was fond of saying back when the polarizing Terrell Owens joined the Cowboys. Since very early on in Season 3 of Friday Night Lights, the phrase has been looping in my head. For nearly the duration of the season, Joe McCoy's fuse has been burning, and it was only a matter of time until the man did something drastic." Television Without Pity gave the episode an "A+" grade. Bridget Carpenter, Patrick Massett, and John Zinman submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards. References ^ "(#311) "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"". The Futon Critic. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ "Friday Night Lights – WGA Directory". Writers Guild of America West. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Seidman, Robert (March 28, 2009). "Friday Ratings: NCAA cruises to victory, Dollhouse drops". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on April 16, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Seidman, Robert (March 21, 2009). "Updated Friday Ratings: Dollhouse foundation holds up against NCAAs". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on March 24, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Goldman, Eric (March 29, 2009). "Friday Night Lights: "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" Review". IGN. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Phipps, Keith (March 27, 2009). "Friday Night Lights: "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"". The A.V. Club. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Martens, Todd (December 17, 2008). "'Friday Night Lights': Welcome the East Dillon Giraffes?". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Sepinwall, Alan (March 27, 2009). "Friday Night Lights, "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall": Honor thy father". What's Alan Watching?. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Fox, Erin (March 27, 2009). "Friday Night Lights Episode Recap: "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"". TV Guide. Archived from the original on April 1, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ Pacheco, Jonathan (March 28, 2009). "Friday Night Lights Recap: Season 3, Episode 11, "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"". Slant Magazine. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ "Friday Night Lights: "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" – When it Rains It Pours". Television Without Pity. March 28, 2009. Archived from the original on June 5, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023. ^ "Official 2009 EMMYS Episode Submissions". The Envelope Forum, Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. Retrieved November 25, 2023. External links "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" at IMDb vteFriday Night LightsEpisodesSeason 1 "Pilot" "Eyes Wide Open" "Wind Sprints" "Who's Your Daddy" "Git'er Done" "El Accidente" "Homecoming" "Crossing the Line" "Full Hearts" "It's Different for Girls" "Nevermind" "What to Do While You're Waiting" "Little Girl I Wanna Marry You" "Upping the Ante" "Blinders" "Black Eyes and Broken Hearts" "I Think We Should Have Sex" "Extended Families" "Ch-Ch-Ch-Ch-Changes" "Mud Bowl" "Best Laid Plans" "State" Season 2 "Last Days of Summer" "Bad Ideas" "Are You Ready for Friday Night?" "Backfire" "Let's Get It On" "How Did I Get Here" "Pantherama!" "Seeing Other People" "The Confession" "There Goes the Neighborhood" "Jumping the Gun" "Who Do You Think You Are?" "Humble Pie" "Leave No One Behind" "May the Best Man Win" Season 3 "I Knew You When" "Tami Knows Best" "How the Other Half Lives" "Hello, Goodbye" "Every Rose Has Its Thorn" "It Ain't Easy Being J.D. McCoy" "Keeping Up Appearances" "New York, New York" "Game of the Week" "The Giving Tree" "A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall" "Underdogs" "Tomorrow Blues" Season 4 "East of Dillon" "After the Fall" "In the Skin of a Lion" "A Sort of Homecoming" "The Son" "Stay" "In the Bag" "Toilet Bowl" "The Lights in Carroll Park" "I Can't" "Injury List" "Laboring" "Thanksgiving" Season 5 "Expectations" "On the Outside Looking In" "The Right Hand of the Father" "Keep Looking" "Kingdom" "Swerve" "Perfect Record" "Fracture" "Gut Check" "Don't Go" "The March" "Texas Whatever" "Always" Characters Eric Taylor Matt Saracen Jason Street Smash Williams Tim Riggins Tami Taylor Lyla Garrity Tyra Collette Soundtracks Film soundtrack Television soundtrack (Vol. 1) Television soundtrack (Vol. 2) Related Film Friday Night Lights: A Town, a Team, and a Dream Boobie Miles Gary Gaines	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"third season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(season_3)"},{"link_name":"sports drama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports_film#Sports_drama"},{"link_name":"Friday Night Lights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"1990 nonfiction book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friday_Night_Lights:_A_Town,_a_Team,_and_a_Dream"},{"link_name":"H. 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G. Bissinger. It is the 48th overall episode of the series and was written by supervising producer Bridget Carpenter and co-executive producers Patrick Massett and John Zinman, and directed by co-producer Michael Waxman. It originally aired on DirecTV's 101 Network on December 17, 2008, before airing on NBC on March 27, 2009.The series is set in the fictional town of Dillon, a small, close-knit community in rural West Texas. It follows a high school football team, the Dillon Panthers. It features a set of characters, primarily connected to Coach Eric Taylor, his wife Tami, and their daughter Julie. In the episode, a change threatens to dismantle the Panthers as they prepare for the semifinals. Meanwhile, Matt faces bigger problems with Lorraine, Tyra prepares a bridal shower for Mindy, and J.D. continues being pressured by his father in abandoning his relationship.According to Nielsen Media Research, the episode was seen by an estimated 3.95 million household viewers and gained a 1.2/4 ratings share among adults aged 18–49. The episode received extremely positive reviews from critics, who praised the performances, character development and emotional tone.","title":"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tyra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyra_Collette"},{"link_name":"Adrianne Palicki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adrianne_Palicki"},{"link_name":"SAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAT"},{"link_name":"Jeremy Sumpter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeremy_Sumpter"},{"link_name":"Eric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Taylor_(Friday_Night_Lights)"},{"link_name":"Kyle Chandler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyle_Chandler"},{"link_name":"Kim Dickens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kim_Dickens"},{"link_name":"Matt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matt_Saracen"},{"link_name":"Zach Gilford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zach_Gilford"},{"link_name":"Tami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tami_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Connie Britton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connie_Britton"},{"link_name":"redistricting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redistricting"},{"link_name":"Lyla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyla_Garrity"},{"link_name":"Minka Kelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minka_Kelly"},{"link_name":"Brad Leland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Leland"},{"link_name":"Tim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Riggins"},{"link_name":"Taylor Kitsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_Kitsch"},{"link_name":"Vanderbilt University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanderbilt_University"},{"link_name":"D. W. Moffett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D._W._Moffett"},{"link_name":"Jesse Plemons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesse_Plemons"},{"link_name":"Applebee's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applebee%27s"},{"link_name":"Janine Turner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janine_Turner"},{"link_name":"Derek Phillips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derek_Phillips_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Dana Wheeler-Nicholson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dana_Wheeler-Nicholson"}],"text":"Tyra (Adrianne Palicki) helps Mindy in preparing for her bridal shower, still nervous about her SAT results. J.D. (Jeremy Sumpter) continues seeing Madison (Whitney Hoy), although his delays during training start bothering Eric (Kyle Chandler).As Shelby (Kim Dickens) prepares to take Lorraine (Louanne Stephens) to the market, she exits the car while moving, falling into the ground. Matt (Zach Gilford) and Shelby take her to the hospital, where the doctor tells them that while Lorraine is not injured, her mental health is deteriorating. Matt refuses to listen to the doctor's warnings and also ignores Shelby's pleas to consider Lorraine's health, telling her to leave him. However, Matt experiences trouble later on when Lorraine's mental health affects his personal life.Tami (Connie Britton) gets involved in a town debate as Superintendent Dunley announces a redistricting strategy, which would open a new school. Some townspeople, Eric included, are not delighted by the news, as the Panthers team would have to let go some of its talent. Lyla (Minka Kelly) continues avoiding Buddy (Brad Leland), so the latter asks Tim (Taylor Kitsch) to help him. Tim only suggests that he needs to give time to Lyla to think about everything. Later, Lyla discovers that she has been named as a potential candidate for Vanderbilt University, her preferred college. Buddy is overjoyed, but Lyla is upset as she won't have the money needed to enroll.Joe (D. W. Moffett) is upset by J.D.'s relationship, feeling that it will negatively impact his performance. He angrily calls Madison's parents to dissuade them from allowing her to see J.D., but it backfires. Tyra is stressed by the tasks needed for the bridal shower and asks Landry (Jesse Plemons) to help her. While organizing the event, Landry finds that she passed the SAT, but she is still not content as she feels it is not enough. The bridal shower is forced to reallocate inside the Colletes' house as a storm arrives in Dillon. During the semifinals, J.D. struggles with completing his passes after Eric tells him to maintain the same tactics. Nevertheless, J.D. recovers to mark a win for Dillon, ensuring them a spot in the finals.After the game, Matt apologizes to Shelby, admitting that he believes the situation with Lorraine is not working. Outside a celebration at Applebee's, J.D. and Joe get into a heated argument and Joe starts hitting him. Eric and Tami intervene, as Joe walks away. Eric allows Joe and Katie (Janine Turner) to stay with them, letting J.D. know that he is not alone. Tim skips celebrating the game to stay with Lyla, saying that he will support any decision she makes. Billy (Derek Phillips) picks up Mindy from the bridal shower, as Tyra and Angela (Dana Wheeler-Nicholson) stay. Tyra starts crying, lamenting that nothing is working in her life. Angela consoles her, saying that she loves Tyra's unpredictability and that she will get everything she wants, and they embrace.","title":"Plot"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Bridget Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridget_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"Patrick Massett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Massett"},{"link_name":"John Zinman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Zinman"},{"link_name":"Michael Waxman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Waxman"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"In December 2008, DirecTV announced that the eleventh episode of the season would be titled \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\".[1] The episode was written by supervising producer Bridget Carpenter, and co-executive producers Patrick Massett and John Zinman, and directed by co-producer Michael Waxman. This was Carpenter's sixth writing credit, Massett's seventh writing credit, Zinman's seventh writing credit, and Waxman's fourth directing credit.[2]","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Viewers","text":"In its original American broadcast on NBC, \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" was seen by an estimated 3.95 million household viewers with a 1.2/4 in the 18–49 demographics. This means that 1.2 percent of all households with televisions watched the episode, while 4 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast watched it.[3] This was a slight increase in viewership from the previous episode, which was watched by an estimated 3.84 million household viewers with a 1.2/4 in the 18–49 demographics.[4]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The A.V. Club","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_A.V._Club"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Alan Sepinwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Sepinwall"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"TV Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Guide"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Slant Magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Television Without Pity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_Without_Pity"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Bridget Carpenter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridget_Carpenter"},{"link_name":"Patrick Massett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Massett"},{"link_name":"John Zinman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Zinman"},{"link_name":"Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Writing_for_a_Drama_Series"},{"link_name":"61st Primetime Emmy Awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61st_Primetime_Emmy_Awards"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Critical reviews","text":"\"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" received extremely positive reviews from critics. Eric Goldman of IGN gave the episode an \"amazing\" 9.2 out of 10 and wrote, \"This was one big heartbreaking episode, which is saying something, given how effortlessly this show seems to be able to somehow be incredibly emotional without coming off as overly sentimental.\"[5]Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a \"B\" grade and wrote, \"It would probably take more time to confirm the notion than it's really worth, but I would venture that tonight's episode of Friday Night Lights had more earnest, heart-to-heart talks than any episode before it.\"[6] Todd Martens of Los Angeles Times wrote, \"While it wasn’t necessarily out of character, as Joe has been inflicting abuse on his son all season long, it was a bit much, especially for this emotionally-charged episode. It was stronger when the abuse was just a series of mind games.\"[7]Alan Sepinwall wrote, \"The episode did a great job of laying the groundwork for Joe McCoy's explosion, as he let various perceived mistakes and violations by J.D. just build and build in his mind until he couldn't think straight anymore.\"[8] Erin Fox of TV Guide wrote, \"Hoo-boy! They weren't messing around when they titled this episode, 'A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall'.\"[9]Jonathan Pacheco of Slant Magazine wrote, \"“It’s gonna blow, don’t ya know.” It's a phrase that a Dallas sports radio host was fond of saying back when the polarizing Terrell Owens joined the Cowboys. Since very early on in Season 3 of Friday Night Lights, the phrase has been looping in my head. For nearly the duration of the season, Joe McCoy's fuse has been burning, and it was only a matter of time until the man did something drastic.\"[10] Television Without Pity gave the episode an \"A+\" grade.[11]Bridget Carpenter, Patrick Massett, and John Zinman submitted this episode for consideration for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards.[12]","title":"Reception"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"(#311) \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\". The Futon Critic. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thefutoncritic.com/listings/20081211directv01/","url_text":"\"(#311) \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Friday Night Lights – WGA Directory\". Writers Guild of America West. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://directories.wga.org/project/918813/friday-night-lights/","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights – WGA Directory\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writers_Guild_of_America_West","url_text":"Writers Guild of America West"}]},{"reference":"Seidman, Robert (March 28, 2009). \"Friday Ratings: NCAA cruises to victory, Dollhouse drops\". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on April 16, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090416201417/http://tvbythenumbers.com/2009/03/28/friday-ratings-ncaa-cruises-to-victory-dollhouse-drops/15375","url_text":"\"Friday Ratings: NCAA cruises to victory, Dollhouse drops\""},{"url":"http://tvbythenumbers.com/2009/03/28/friday-ratings-ncaa-cruises-to-victory-dollhouse-drops/15375","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Seidman, Robert (March 21, 2009). \"Updated Friday Ratings: Dollhouse foundation holds up against NCAAs\". TV by the Numbers. Archived from the original on March 24, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090324044831/http://tvbythenumbers.com/2009/03/21/friday-ratings-dollhouse-foundation-holds-up-against-ncaas/14966","url_text":"\"Updated Friday Ratings: Dollhouse foundation holds up against NCAAs\""},{"url":"http://tvbythenumbers.com/2009/03/21/friday-ratings-dollhouse-foundation-holds-up-against-ncaas/14966","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Goldman, Eric (March 29, 2009). \"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" Review\". IGN. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ign.com/articles/2009/03/30/friday-night-lights-a-hard-rains-gonna-fall-review","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" Review\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IGN","url_text":"IGN"}]},{"reference":"Phipps, Keith (March 27, 2009). \"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\". The A.V. Club. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.avclub.com/friday-night-lights-a-hard-rains-gonna-fall-1798205925","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_A.V._Club","url_text":"The A.V. Club"}]},{"reference":"Martens, Todd (December 17, 2008). \"'Friday Night Lights': Welcome the East Dillon Giraffes?\". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/archives/blogs/show-tracker/story/2008-12-17/friday-night-lights-welcome-the-east-dillon-giraffes","url_text":"\"'Friday Night Lights': Welcome the East Dillon Giraffes?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_Times","url_text":"Los Angeles Times"}]},{"reference":"Sepinwall, Alan (March 27, 2009). \"Friday Night Lights, \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\": Honor thy father\". What's Alan Watching?. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://sepinwall.blogspot.com/2008/12/friday-night-lights-hard-rains-gonna.html","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights, \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\": Honor thy father\""}]},{"reference":"Fox, Erin (March 27, 2009). \"Friday Night Lights Episode Recap: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\". TV Guide. Archived from the original on April 1, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090401174554/http://www.tvguide.com/Episode-Recaps/friday-night-lights/Friday-Night-Lights-Hard-Rain-1004490.aspx","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights Episode Recap: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TV_Guide","url_text":"TV Guide"},{"url":"https://www.tvguide.com/Episode-Recaps/friday-night-lights/Friday-Night-Lights-Hard-Rain-1004490.aspx","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Pacheco, Jonathan (March 28, 2009). \"Friday Night Lights Recap: Season 3, Episode 11, \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\". Slant Magazine. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.slantmagazine.com/tv/friday-night-lights-on-saturday-ep-311-a-hard-rains-gonna-fall/","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights Recap: Season 3, Episode 11, \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slant_Magazine","url_text":"Slant Magazine"}]},{"reference":"\"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" – When it Rains It Pours\". Television Without Pity. March 28, 2009. Archived from the original on June 5, 2009. Retrieved November 25, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20090605004638/http://www.televisionwithoutpity.com/show/friday_night_lights/a_hard_rains_gonna_falla.php","url_text":"\"Friday Night Lights: \"A Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" – When it Rains It Pours\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_Without_Pity","url_text":"Television Without Pity"},{"url":"http://www.televisionwithoutpity.com/show/friday_night_lights/a_hard_rains_gonna_falla.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Official 2009 EMMYS Episode Submissions\". The Envelope Forum, Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on July 13, 2011. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstone_Inc	Blackstone Inc.	["1 History","1.1 Founding and early history","1.2 1990s","1.3 Early 2000s","1.4 Buyouts (2005–2007)","1.5 Initial public offering in 2007","1.6 2008 to 2010","1.7 Investments 2011 to 2015","1.8 Investments since 2016","2 Recent exits","2.1 IBS Software","2.2 Hotel Investment Partners","2.3 Embassy Office Parks","3 Operations","3.1 Corporate private equity","3.2 Real estate","3.3 Marketable alternative asset management","4 Criticism","4.1 Illegal child labor","4.2 Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest","4.3 United Nations condemnation of the Invitation Homes project and lobbying efforts","5 Leadership","5.1 Executives","5.2 Board of directors","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]	American alternative investment company Not to be confused with BlackRock, an investment management firm; or Blackstone Audio, an American audiobook and book publisher. Blackstone Inc.Headquarters at 345 Park AvenueCompany typePublicTraded asNYSE: BXS&P 500 componentIndustryFinancial servicesFounded1985; 39 years ago (1985)FoundersPeter PetersonStephen SchwarzmanHeadquarters345 Park Avenue (New York City, U.S.)Key peopleStephen Schwarzman (chairman and CEO)Jonathan Gray (president and COO)Joseph Baratta (Head of Private Equity)David Blitzer (Global Head of Tactical Opportunities)ProductsAlternative investmentPrivate equityRevenue US$8.02 billion (2023)Net income US$2.44 billion (2023)AUM US$1.04 trillion (2023)Total assets US$40.3 billion (2023)Total equity US$6.82 billion (2023)Number of employees4,735 (2023)SubsidiariesBlackstone CreditWebsiteblackstone.comFootnotes / references Blackstone Inc. (informally referred to as just "Blackstone") is an American alternative investment management company based in New York City. Blackstone's private equity business has been one of the largest investors in leveraged buyouts in the last three decades, while its real estate business has actively acquired commercial real estate. Blackstone is also active in credit, infrastructure, hedge funds, insurance, secondaries, and growth equity. As of May 2024, Blackstone has more than US$1 trillion in total assets under management making it the largest alternative investment firm globally. Blackstone was founded in 1985 as a mergers and acquisitions firm by Peter G. Peterson and Stephen A. Schwarzman, who had previously worked together at Lehman Brothers. History History of private equityand venture capital Early history (origins of modern private equity) The 1980s (leveraged buyout boom) The 1990s (leveraged buyout and the venture capital bubble) The 2000s (dot-com bubble to the credit crunch) The 2010s (expansion) The 2020s (COVID-19 recession) vte Founding and early history Blackstone was founded in 1985 by Peter G. Peterson and Stephen A. Schwarzman with US$400,000 (equivalent to $1.1 million in 2023) in seed capital.: 45–56 The founders named their firm "Blackstone" using a cryptogram derived from their names: "Schwarz" is German for "black"; "Peter", "Petros" or "Petra" (Πέτρος and πετρα, the masculine and feminine rendering of the word, respectively), means "stone" or "rock" in Greek. The two founders had previously worked together at Lehman Brothers. There, Schwarzman served as head of global mergers and acquisitions business. Prominent investment banker Roger C. Altman, another Lehman veteran, left his position as a managing director of Lehman Brothers to join Peterson and Schwarzman at Blackstone in 1987, but left in 1992 to join the Clinton Administration as Deputy Treasury Secretary and later founded advisory investment bank Evercore Partners in 1995. Blackstone was originally formed as a mergers and acquisitions advisory boutique. It advised on the 1987 merger of investment banks E. F. Hutton & Co. and Shearson Lehman Brothers, collecting a $3.5 million fee. Blackstone co-founder Peter Peterson was the former chairman and CEO of Lehman Brothers From the outset in 1985, Schwarzman and Peterson planned to enter the private equity business but had difficulty in raising their first fund because neither had ever led a leveraged buyout.: 45–56 Blackstone finalized fundraising for its first private equity fund in the aftermath of Black Monday, the October 1987 global stock market crash. After two years of providing strictly advisory services, Blackstone decided to pursue a merchant banking model after its founders determined that many situations required an investment partner rather than just an advisor. The largest investors in the first fund included Prudential Insurance Company, Nikko Securities and the General Motors pension fund. Blackstone also ventured into other businesses, most notably investment management. In 1987 Blackstone entered into a 50–50 partnership with the founders of BlackRock, Larry Fink (current CEO of BlackRock), and Ralph Schlosstein (CEO of Evercore). The two founders, who had previously run the mortgage-backed securities divisions at First Boston and Lehman Brothers, respectively, initially joined Blackstone to manage an investment fund and provide advice to financial institutions. They also planned to use a Blackstone fund to invest in financial institutions and help build an asset management business specializing in fixed income investments. As the business grew, Japanese bank Nikko Securities acquired a 20% interest in Blackstone for a $100 million investment in 1988 (valuing the firm at $500 million). Nikko's investment allowed for a major expansion of the firm and its investment activities. The growth firm also recruited politician and investment banker David Stockman from Salomon Brothers in 1988. Stockman led many key deals in his time at the firm but had a mixed record with his investments.: 144–147 He left Blackstone in 1999 to start his own private equity firm, Heartland Industrial Partners, based in Greenwich, Connecticut. The firm advised CBS Corporation on its 1988 sale of CBS Records to Sony to form what would become Sony Music Entertainment. In June 1989, Blackstone acquired freight railroad operator CNW Corporation. That same year, Blackstone partnered with Salomon Brothers to raise $600 million to acquire distressed thrifts in the midst of the savings and loan crisis. 1990s The Blackstone Group logo in use prior to the firm's rebranding as simply Blackstone In 1990, Blackstone launched its hedge funds business, initially intended to manage investments for Blackstone senior management. That same year, Blackstone formed a partnership with J. O. Hambro Magan in the UK and Indosuez in France. Additionally, Blackstone and Silverman acquired a 65% interest in Prime Motor Inn's Ramada and Howard Johnson franchises for $140 million, creating Hospitality Franchise Systems as a holding company. In 1991, Blackstone created its Europe unit and launched its real estate investment business with the acquisition of a series of hotel businesses under the leadership of Henry Silverman. In October 1991, Blackstone and Silverman added Days Inns of America for $250 million. In 1993, Hospitality Franchise Systems acquired Super 8 Motels for $125 million. Silverman would ultimately leave Blackstone to serve as CEO of HFS, which later became Cendant Corporation. Blackstone made a number of notable investments in the early and mid-1990s, including Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Company (1991), Six Flags (1991), US Radio (1994), Centerplate (1995), MEGA Brands (1996). Also, in 1996, Blackstone partnered with the Loewen Group, the second-largest funeral home and cemetery operator in North America, to acquire funeral home and cemetery businesses. The partnership's first acquisition was a $295 million buyout of Prime Succession from GTCR. In 1995, Blackstone sold its stake in BlackRock to PNC Financial Services for $250 million. Between 1995 and 2014, PNC reported $12 billion in pretax revenues and capital gains from BlackRock. Schwarzman later described the selling of BlackRock as his worst business decision ever. In 1997, Blackstone completed fundraising for its third private equity fund, with approximately $4 billion of investor commitments and a $1.1 billion real estate investment fund. Also in 1997, Blackstone made its first investment in Allied Waste. In 1998, Blackstone sold a 7% interest in its management company to AIG, valuing Blackstone at $2.1 billion. In 1999, Blackstone partnered with Apollo Management to provide capital for Allied Waste's acquisition of Browning-Ferris Industries. Blackstone's investment in Allied was one of its largest at that point in the firm's history. In 1999, Blackstone launched its mezzanine capital business. It brought in five professionals, led by Howard Gellis from Nomura Holding America's Leveraged Capital Group, to manage the business. Blackstone's investments in the late 1990s included AMF Group (1996), Haynes International (1997), American Axle (1997), Premcor (1997), CommNet Cellular (1998), Graham Packaging (1998), Centennial Communications (1999), Bresnan Communications (1999), and PAETEC Holding Corp. (1999). Haynes and Republic Technologies International both had problems and ultimately filed bankruptcy.: 145–146 Blackstone's investments in telecommunications businesses—four cable TV systems in rural areas (TW Fanch 1 and 2, Bresnan Communications and Intermedia Partners IV) and a cell phone operator in the Rocky Mountain states (CommNet Cellular) were among the most successful of the era, generating $1.5 billion of profits for Blackstone's funds.: 148–155 Blackstone Real Estate Advisers, its real estate affiliate, bought the Watergate complex in Washington D.C. in July 1998 for $39 million and sold it to Monument Realty in August 2004. Early 2000s In October 2000, Blackstone acquired the mortgage for 7 World Trade Center from the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association. Schwarzman's Blackstone Group completed the first major IPO of a private equity firm in June 2007. In July 2002, Blackstone completed fundraising for a $6.45 billion private equity fund, Blackstone Capital Partners IV, the largest private equity fund at that time. With a significant amount of capital in its new fund, Blackstone was one of a handful of private equity investors capable of completing large transactions in the adverse conditions of the early 2000s recession. At the end of 2002, Blackstone, together with Thomas H. Lee Partners and Bain Capital, acquired Houghton Mifflin Company for $1.28 billion. The transaction represented one of the first large club deals completed since the collapse of the Dot-com bubble. In 2002, Hamilton E. James joined Blackstone, where he serves as president and chief operating officer. He also serves on the firm's executive and management committees, and its board of directors. In late 2002, Blackstone acquired TRW Automotive in a $4.7 billion buyout, the largest private equity deal announced that year (the deal was completed in early 2003). TRW's parent was acquired by Northrop Grumman, while Blackstone purchased its automotive parts business, a major supplier of automotive systems.: 176, 197, 206–207 Blackstone also purchased a majority interest in Columbia House, a music-buying club, in mid-2002. Blackstone made a significant investment in Financial Guaranty Insurance Company (FGIC), a monoline bond insurer alongside PMI Group, The Cypress Group and CIVC Partners. FGIC incurred heavy losses, along with other bond insurers in the 2008 credit crisis. Two years later, in 2005, Blackstone was one of seven private equity firms involved in the buyout of SunGard in a transaction valued at $11.3 billion. Blackstone's partners in the acquisition were Silver Lake Partners, Bain Capital, Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Providence Equity Partners, and TPG Capital. This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco at the end of the 1980s leveraged buyout boom. Also, at the time of its announcement, SunGard was the largest buyout of a technology company in history, a distinction it ceded to the buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The SunGard transaction is also notable for the number of firms involved, the largest club deal completed to that point.: 225 The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered crossholdings among firms to be generally unattractive. In 2006, Blackstone launched its long/short equity hedge fund business, Kailix Advisors. According to Blackstone, as of September 30, 2008, Kailix Advisors had $1.9 billion of assets under management. In December 2008, Blackstone announced that Kailix would be spun off to its management team to form a new fund as an independent entity backed by Blackstone. While Blackstone was active on the corporate investment side, it was also busy pursuing real estate investments. Blackstone acquired Prime Hospitality and Extended Stay America in 2004. Blackstone followed these investments with the acquisition of La Quinta Inns & Suites in 2005. Blackstone's largest transaction, the $26 billion buyout of Hilton Hotels Corporation, occurred in 2007 under the tenure of Hilton CFO Stephen Bollenbach. Extended Stay Hotels was sold to The Lightstone Group in July 2007 and Prime Hospitality's Wellesley Inns were folded into La Quinta. La Quinta Inns & Suites was spun out for IPO in 2014 and later acquired by Wyndham Hotels & Resorts. Buyouts (2005–2007) During the buyout boom of 2006 and 2007, Blackstone completed some of the largest leveraged buyouts. Its most notable transactions during this period included: Investment Year Acquired Description of Transaction Ref. TDC 2005 In December 2005, Blackstone together with a group of firms, including Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Permira, Apax Partners and Providence Equity Partners, acquired Tele-Denmark Communications. The company was the former telecom monopoly in Denmark, under the banner Nordic Telephone Company (NTC). The acquisition was made for $11 billion. EQ Office 2006 Blackstone completed the $37.7 billion acquisition of one of the largest owners of commercial office properties in the US. At the time of its announcement, the EQ Office buyout became the largest in history, surpassing the buyout of Hospital Corporation of America. It would later be surpassed by Kohlberg Kravis Roberts's buyout of TXU. Vornado Realty Trust bid against Blackstone, pushing up the final price. : 239–254 Freescale Semiconductor A consortium led by Blackstone and including the Carlyle Group, Permira and the TPG Capital completed the $17.6 billion takeover of the semiconductor company. At the time of its announcement, Freescale would be the largest leveraged buyout of a technology company ever, surpassing the 2005 buyout of SunGard. The buyers were forced to pay an extra $800 million because KKR made a last minute bid as the original deal was about to be signed. Shortly after the deal closed in late 2006, cell phone sales at Motorola Corp., Freescale's former corporate parent and a major customer, began dropping sharply. In addition, in the recession of 2008–2009, Freescale's chip sales to automakers fell off, and the company came under great financial strain. : 231–235 Michaels Blackstone, together with Bain Capital, acquired Michaels, the largest arts and crafts retailer in North America in a $6.0 billion leveraged buyout in October 2006. Bain and Blackstone narrowly beat out Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and TPG Capital in an auction for the company. Nielsen Holdings Blackstone together with AlpInvest Partners, Carlyle Group, Hellman & Friedman, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts and Thomas H. Lee Partners acquired the global information and media company formerly known as VNU. Orangina Blackstone, together with Lion Capital acquired Orangina, the bottler, distributor and franchisor of a number of carbonated and other soft drinks in Europe from Cadbury Schweppes for €1.85 billion Travelport Travelport, the parent of the travel website Orbitz.com, was acquired from Cendant by Blackstone and Technology Crossover Ventures in a deal valued at $4.3 billion. The sale of Travelport followed the spin-offs of Cendant's real estate and hospitality businesses, Realogy Corporation and Wyndham Worldwide Corporation, respectively, in July 2006. (Later in the year, TPG and Silver Lake would acquire Travelport's chief competitor Sabre Holdings.) Soon after the Travelport buyout, Travelport spun off part of its subsidiary Orbitz Worldwide in an IPO and bought a Travelport competitor, Worldspan. United Biscuits In October 2006 Blackstone, together with PAI Partners announced the acquisition of the British biscuit producer. The deal was completed in December 2006. RGIS Inventory Specialists 2007 In March 2007, RGIS announced that Blackstone Group purchased a controlling interest in the company, the terms of the transaction were not disclosed. Biomet Blackstone, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, TPG Capital and Goldman Sachs Capital Partners acquired Biomet, a medical device manufacturer for $10.9 billion. Hilton Worldwide Blackstone acquired the premium hotel operator for approximately $26 billion, representing a 25% premium to Hilton's all-time high stock price. The Hilton deal, announced on July 3, 2007, is often referred to as the deal that marked the "high water mark" and the beginning of the end of the multi-year boom in leveraged buyouts. The company restructured its debt in 2010. : 299–300 Initial public offering in 2007 In 2004, Blackstone had explored the possibility of creating a business development company (BDC), Blackridge Investments, similar to vehicles pursued by Apollo Management. Blackstone failed to raise capital through an initial public offering that summer and the project were shelved. It also planned to raise a fund on the Amsterdam stock exchange in 2006, but its rival, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co., launched a $5 billion fund there that soaked up all demand for such funds, and Blackstone abandoned its project.: 221–223 In 2007, Blackstone acquired Alliant Insurance Services, an insurance brokerage firm. The company was sold to Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in 2012. On June 21, 2007, Blackstone became a public company via an initial public offering, selling a 12.3% stake in the company for $4.13 billion, in the largest U.S. IPO since 2002. 2008 to 2010 During the 2007–2008 financial crisis, Blackstone closed only a few transactions. In January 2008, Blackstone made a small co-investment alongside TPG Capital and Apollo Management in their buyout of Harrah's Entertainment, although that transaction had been announced during the buyout boom period. Other notable investments that Blackstone completed in 2008 and 2009 included AlliedBarton, Performance Food Group, Apria Healthcare, and CMS Computers. In July 2008, Blackstone, NBC Universal, and Bain Capital acquired The Weather Channel from Landmark Communications for $3.5 billion. In 2015, the digital assets were sold to IBM for $2 billion. In 2018, the remainder of the company was sold to Byron Allen for $300 million. In December 2009, Blackstone acquired Busch Entertainment Corporation from Anheuser-Busch InBev for $2.9 billion. In November 2013, Merlin Entertainments, owned in part by Blackstone Group, became a public company via an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange. In August 2010, Blackstone announced it would buy Dynegy, an energy firm, for nearly $5 billion, but the acquisition was terminated in November 2010. Investments 2011 to 2015 In February 2011, the company acquired Centro Properties Group US from Centro Retail Trust (now Vicinity Centres) for $9.4 billion. The company became Brixmor Property Group and Blackstone sold its remaining interest in the company in August 2016. In November 2011, a fund managed by the company acquired medical biller Emdeon for $3 billion. In late 2011, Blackstone Group LP acquired Jack Wolfskin, a German camping equipment company. In 2017, the company was handed over to its lenders. In August 2012, Blackstone was part of a consortium that financed Knight Capital after a software glitch threatened Knight's ability to continue operations. In October 2012, the company acquired G6 Hospitality, operator of Motel 6 & Studio 6 motels from AccorHotels, for $1.9 billion. In November 2012, the company acquired a controlling interest in Vivint, Vivint Solar, and 2GIG Technologies. In February 2013, 2GIG was flipped to Nortek Security & Control, LLC for $135M. In April 2013, the company discussed buying Dell, but it did not pursue the acquisition. In June 2013, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VII acquired an industrial portfolio from First Potomac Realty Trust for $241.5 million. Part of this portfolio was developed by StonebridgeCarras as Oakville Triangle (Now "National Landing") In September 2013, Blackstone announced a strategic investment in ThoughtFocus Technologies LLC, an information technology service provider. In August 2013, Blackstone acquired Strategic Partners, manager of secondaryfunds, from Credit Suisse. In February 2014, Blackstone purchased a 20% stake in the Italian luxury brand Versace for €150 million. In April 2014, Blackstone's charitable arm, the Blackstone Charitable Foundation, donated $4 million to create the Blackstone Entrepreneurs Network in Colorado. The program encourages increased collaboration among local business leaders with the goal of retaining high-growth companies in the state. In May 2014, Blackstone Group acquired the Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas resort from Deutsche Bank for $1.73 billion. In August 2014, Blackstone Energy Partners acquired Shell Oil's 50% stake in a shale-gas field in the Haynesville Shale for $1.2 billion. In January 2015, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VI announced it would sell a Gold Fields House in Sydney to Dalian Wanda Group for A$415 million. In June 2015, Blackstone acquired the Willis Tower in Chicago for $1.3 billion. In July 2015, Blackstone acquired Excel Trust, a real estate investment trust, for around $2 billion. In November 2015, the company agreed to sell facility management firm GCA Services Group to Goldman Sachs and Thomas H. Lee Partners. Investments since 2016 In January 2016, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VIII L.P. acquired BioMed Realty Trust for $8 billion. In February 2016, Blackstone sold four office buildings to Douglas Emmett for $1.34 billion. In April 2016, Blackstone acquired 84 percent of Hewlett Packard Enterprise's stake in the Indian IT services firm Mphasis. On January 4, 2017, Blackstone acquired SESAC, a music-rights organization. On February 10, 2017, Aon PLC agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for $4.3 billion to Blackstone Group L.P., creating a new company called Alight Solutions. On June 19, 2017, Blackstone acquired a majority interest in The Office Group, valuing the company at $640 million. In July 2017, the company announced an investment in Leonard Green & Partners. In January 2018, the company acquired Pure Industrial, a Canadian real estate investment trust for C$2.5 billion. In January 2018, the company announced acquisition agreement for 55% of Thomson Reuters Financial & Risk unit for $20 billion. In March 2018, Blackstone Real Estate Income Trust, Inc. acquired a 22 million square foot portfolio of industrial properties from Cabot Properties for $1.8 billion. In March 2018, Blackstone's Strategic Capital Holdings Fund invested in Rockpoint Group. In March 2018, the company's Strategic Capital Holdings Fund announced an investment in Kohlberg & Company, a private equity firm. In August 2018, PSAV was able to merge with Encore Global due to the help from an investment firm Blackstone. In September 2018, the company acquires control of Luminor Bank in the Baltic countries. In October 2018, Blackstone launched Refinitiv, the company resulting from its January deal for a 55 per-cent stake in Thomson Reuters Financial and Risk business. In October 2018, Blackstone announced to buy Clarus. The deal includes assets worth $2.6 billion. In March 2019, Blackstone purchased, with Yankee Global Enterprises, a minority stake in YES Network. In April 2019, Blackstone acquired a majority stake in the tube packaging company, Essel Propack for $310 million. In June 2019, Blackstone announced it had teamed with the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board and KIRKBI to buy Merlin Entertainment, the owners of Legoland in a deal worth £5.9 billion (about $7.5 billion). This would be the 2nd time Blackstone would own the company as they previously purchased it in 2005. On July 15, 2019, Blackstone announced its plans to acquire Vungle Inc., a leading mobile performance marketing platform. In September 2019, Blackstone announced it agreed to purchase 65% controlling interest in Great Wolf Resorts from Centerbridge Partners. They plan to form a joint venture worth $2.9 billion or more to own the company. On November 8, 2019, Blackstone Group acquired a majority stake in MagicLab, the owner of dating app Bumble. Blackstone Group on November 15, 2019, invested $167 million in the holding company of Future Lifestyle Fashions Ltd., Ryka Commercial Ventures Pvt. Ltd. On November 18, 2019, Blackstone Real Estate Income Trust, Inc. acquired the Bellagio resort in Las Vegas, Nevada from MGM Resorts in a sale-leaseback transaction. On November 25, 2019, Reuters reported that Blackstone planned to invest $400 million in a joint venture with Swiss drug company Ferring. The joint venture will work on gene therapy for bladder cancer. The investment represents Blackstone Group's largest investment in drug development to date. In March 2020, Blackstone announced that it is buying a majority stake in HealthEdge, a health-care software company. The deal, worth $700 million, was completed on April 13, 2020. In July 2020, Blackstone invested $200 million in the Swedish oat milk brand Oatly, for a 7% stake in the company, triggering outrage among some segments of its customer base. In August 2020, Blackstone announced that it would buy a majority stake in Ancestry.com for $4.7 billion (including debt). In August 2020, Blackstone acquired Takeda Consumer Healthcare for $2.3 billion. In December 2020, Blackstone invested nearly $400 million in Liftoff, a mobile advertising company. In January 2021, Blackstone acquired a majority shareholding in Bourne Leisure, a UK holiday and leisure company that owns Butlin's, Haven Holidays, and Warner Leisure, for £3 billion. In March 2021, Blackstone made a $6.2 billion takeover bid for Australian casino operator Crown Resorts, offering a 20% premium to its closing share price at the time of the offer. Blackstone held at the time a near 10% stake in the company. In April 2021, Blackstone acquired eOne Music from Hasbro for $385 million. In June 2021, Blackstone agreed to acquire datacenter operator Quality Technology Services for approximately $10 billion. In July 2021, MGM Resorts International announced it sold Aria Resort and Casino and Vdara to Blackstone for $3.89 billion in a sale-leaseback transaction. In July 2021, Blackstone Group and AIG announced that the company would acquire 9.9% of AIG's life and retirement insurance investment portfolio for $2.2 billion cash, during AIG's spin-off of the unit by IPO in 2022. The two firms also entered a long-term asset management agreement for about 25% of AIG's life and retirement portfolio, scheduled to increase in subsequent years. In August 2021, the merger of two Blackstone portfolio companies, Vungle and Liftoff, was announced. Both companies are in the mobile advertising space. In October 2021, the Blackstone Group acquired a majority stake of Spanx, Inc. The company was valued at $1.2 billion. The deal was prepared by an all-female investment team from Blackstone, and it was announced that the board of directors would be all female. In October 2021, Blackstone acquired the Nucleus Network, Australia's premier clinical researcher, which is providing staple "healthy" volunteers large financial rewards for drug trials. On February 14, 2022, Crown Resorts accepted Blackstone's takeover offer. Blackstone will pay $6.6 billion for 90% of shares outstanding. In April 2022, Blackstone agreed to acquire the Austin-based American Campus Communities, Inc. for nearly $13 billion. In April 2022, Blackstone announced that it would acquire PS Business Parks for $7.6 billion. In October 2022, Emerson Electric agreed to sell a 55 percent majority stake in its climate technologies business to Blackstone in a $14 billion deal including debt. In June 2023, Blackstone acquired cloud-based event-software provider Cvent for $4.6 billion. In October 2023, Blackstone announced that, as part of a club deal alongside private equity firm Vista Equity Partners, it would acquire leading energy market analytics and simulation software firm Energy Exemplar for approximately $1.6 billion. In November 2023, Blackstone acquired the UK-based software company Civica for approximately $2.5 billion. In December 2023, Blackstone announced an agreement to acquire a majority Stake in Sony Payment Services Inc. from Sony Bank. In January 2024, Blackstone agreed to acquire Canadian real-estate company Tricon Residential for $3.5 billion. In February 2024, Blackstone acquired online pet marketplace Rover.com for $2.3 billion in an all-cash deal that it first announced in November 2023. In April 2024, Blackstone announced a deal for a 50.7% majority share in Irish turnkey Data Centre developer Winthrop Technologies. Recent exits IBS Software In May 2023, Blackstone entered into an agreement to divest its stake in IBS Software, a Kerala-based software-as-a-service (SaaS) provider. The transaction, valued at $450 million, involved the sale of Blackstone's stake to the global private equity firm Apax. Hotel Investment Partners In October 2023, Blackstone divested its stake in the Spanish hotel conglomerate Hotel Investment Partners (HIP) to the Singaporean sovereign wealth fund GIC. As part of the agreement, GIC secured a 35% stake in HIP, with the deal establishing a valuation exceeding €4 billion for the company. Embassy Office Parks In December 2023, Blackstone announced its intention to divest its entire 23.59% stake, valued at $833 million, in Embassy Office Parks, India's largest real estate investment trust. The decision came four years after the initial listing of the REIT, as revealed in a term sheet disclosed by Reuters. Operations Blackstone operates through four primary departments: private equity; real estate; hedge funds; and credit. Corporate private equity Employees: 250 (approximate) As of 2019, Blackstone was the world's largest private equity firm by capital commitments as ranked by Private Equity International's PEI 300 ranking. After dropping to second behind KKR in the 2022 ranking, it regained the top spot in 2023, and retained it in 2024. The firm invests through minority investments, corporate partnerships, and industry consolidations, and occasionally start-up investments. The firm focuses on friendly investments in large capitalization companies. Blackstone has primarily relied on private equity funds, pools of committed capital from pension funds, insurance companies, endowments, fund of funds, high-net-worth individuals, sovereign wealth funds, and other institutional investors. From 1987 to its IPO in 2007, Blackstone invested approximately $20 billion in 109 private equity transactions. Blackstone's most notable investments include Allied Waste, AlliedBarton Security Services, Graham Packaging, Celanese, Nalco, HealthMarkets, Houghton Mifflin, American Axle, TRW Automotive, Catalent Pharma Solutions, Prime Hospitality, Legoland, Madame Tussauds, Luxury Resorts (LXR), Pinnacle Foods, Hilton Hotels Corporation, Motel 6, Apria Healthcare, Travelport, The Weather Channel (United States) and The PortAventura Resort. In 2009, Blackstone purchased Busch Entertainment (comprising the Sea World Parks, Busch Garden Parks and the two water parks). In 2020 it acquired Ancestry.com. In 2012, Blackstone acquired a controlling interest in Utah-based Vivint, Inc., a home automation, security, and energy company. Real estate Employees: 500 (approximate) Blackstone's most notable real estate investments have included QTS, EQ Office, Hilton Worldwide, Trizec Properties, Center Parcs UK, La Quinta Inns & Suites, Motel 6, Wyndham Worldwide, Southern Cross Healthcare and Vicinity Centres. The purchase and subsequent IPO of Southern Cross led to controversy in the UK. Part of the purchase involved splitting the business into a property company, NHP, and a nursing home business, which Blackstone claimed would become "the leading company in the elderly care market". In May 2011, Southern Cross, now independent, was almost bankrupt, jeopardizing 31,000 elderly residents in 750 care homes. It denied blame, although Blackstone was widely accused in the media for selling on the company with an unsustainable business model and crippled with an impossible sale and leaseback strategy. After the 2007–2010 subprime mortgage crisis in the United States, Blackstone Group LP bought more than $5.5 billion worth of single-family homes to rent, and then be sold when the prices rise. In 2014, Blackstone sold Northern California office buildings for $3.5 billion. The buildings sold in San Francisco and Silicon Valley included 26 office buildings and two development parcels. In 2018, a critique was raised regarding a purchase agreement on several hundred apartments in Frederiksberg, Denmark, between Blackstone's Danish partner North 360 and Frederiksberg Boligfond, a nonprofit housing organization Frederiksberg Municipality established in 1930. After resistance by residents and questions about the purchase agreement's legality, Blackstone withdrew from it in October 2019. On December 1, 2022, Blackstone restricted withdrawals from its $125 billion real estate investment fund BREIT due to a surge in redemption requests from investors. The move caused investor consternation and limited the ability to attract new capital for BREIT. Marketable alternative asset management In 1990, Blackstone created a fund of hedge funds business to manage internal assets for Blackstone and its senior managers. This business evolved into Blackstone's marketable alternative asset management segment, which was opened to institutional investors. Among the investments included in this segment are funds of hedge funds, mezzanine funds, senior debt vehicles, proprietary hedge funds and closed-end mutual funds. Gulfstream G650ER jet owned by Blackstone. In March 2008, Blackstone acquired GSO Capital Partners, a credit-oriented alternative asset manager, for $620 million in cash and stock and up to $310 million through an earnout over the next five years based on earnings targets. The combined entity created one of the largest credit platforms in the alternative asset management business, with over $21 billion under management. GSO was founded in 2005 by Bennett Goodman, Tripp Smith, and Doug Ostrover. The GSO team had previously managed the leveraged finance businesses at Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette and later Credit Suisse First Boston, after it acquired DLJ. Blackstone was an original investor in GSO's funds. After the acquisition, Blackstone merged GSO's operations with its existing debt investment operations. Criticism In separate cases in 2018 and 2019, the hotel chain Motel 6, owned by Blackstone, agreed to settle for a total of $19.6 million for giving guest lists to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) without a warrant. Illegal child labor An investigation by the U.S. Department of Labor showed that more than 100 children had been working illegally for Packers Sanitation Services Inc (PSSI), a slaughterhouse cleaning firm owned by Blackstone, across the United States. Under the Fair Labor Standards Act, PSSI was fined $15,138 by the Department of Labor for each minor-aged employee who was employed in breach of the law, totaling $1.5 million in civil money penalties. Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest The company has invested in companies with links to the commercialization and deforestation of the Amazon rainforest. United Nations condemnation of the Invitation Homes project and lobbying efforts In 2019, a United Nations report found that Blackstone's massive purchasing of single-family homes after the 2007–2008 financial crisis had "devastating consequences". The report alleged that Blackstone had abused tenants with exorbitant fees, rent hikes, and aggressive eviction practices, and that Blackstone's real estate practices had a disproportionate impact on communities of color, in part because the company targeted foreclosures resulting from subprime loans. The report also condemned Blackstone for "using its significant resources and political leverage to undermine domestic laws and policies that would in fact improve access to adequate housing". Blackstone spent at least $6.2 million to defeat California's Proposition 10, which would have allowed cities to enact rent control. Blackstone is a member of the Real Estate Roundtable, a special interest group that spends millions on lobbying and political donations every year. United Nations housing rapporteur Leilani Farha and UN Working Group on Business and Human Rights chair Surya Deva criticized Blackstone's business practices, including frequent rent increases and "aggressive" evictions, for contributing to the global housing crisis. Blackstone disputed these claims. Leadership Executives Source: Stephen A. Schwarzman: chairman, CEO & co-founder Jonathan D. Gray: president & COO Hamilton E. James: executive vice chairman Joseph Baratta: Global Head of private equity David Blitzer: Global Head of tactical opportunities Board of directors Stephen A. Schwarzman: chairman of the board of directors and the executive committee Hamilton E. James: a member of the executive committee Jonathan D. Gray: a member of the executive committee Joseph Baratta: a member of the executive committee James W. Breyer: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee Rochelle B. Lazarus: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee Jay O. Light: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee William G. Parrett: independent director & chairman of the audit committee and the conflicts committee Ruth Porat: independent director Reginald ("Reg") J. Brown: independent director See also Companies portal List of outdoor industry parent companies List of venture capital firms References ^ "Blackstone Inc. 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 23, 2024. ^ "XBRL Viewer". www.sec.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2024. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Carey, David; Morris, John E (2010). King of Capital: The Remarkable Rise, Fall, and Rise Again of Steve Schwarzman and Blackstone. Crown. ISBN 9780307453013. Archived from the original on January 16, 2021. 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Studzinski Laurence Tosi SubsidiariesCurrent Blackstone Credit Former Blackrock PJT Partners Investment holdingsBusiness services CMS Computers RGIS SunGard (minority shareholder) Consumer/retail The Michaels Companies (Joint control) Pinnacle Foods United Biscuits IT services Mphasis (56.12%) Financial services BankUnited (minority stake) Corebridge Financial (minority stake) HealthMarkets (minority stake) FGIC (minority stake) Refinitiv (minority stake) Healthcare Biomet Emcure Pharmaceuticals (investment) Vanguard Health Systems Industrial Freescale (Joint Control) Klöckner Pentaplast TRW Automotive (Control) Essel Propack Media/telecom MNRK Music Group Dualtone Records Last Gang Records Light Records SESAC eAccess (investment) Nielsen Holdings (minority stake) Axtel (minority stake) Deutsche Telekom (minority stake) TDC A/S (minority stake) The Weather Channel (minority stake) International Data Group Travel & leisure Hilton Worldwide (former) Casual Dining Group Center Parcs Europe (freehold) Center Parcs UK and Ireland Caesars Entertainment Corporation (former) Crown Resorts Great Wolf Resorts Merlin Entertainments (minority stake) SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment (former) Travelport Real estate Extended Stay America (minority stake) EQ Office La Quinta Inns & Suites Links to related articles vtePrivate equity and venture capitalInvestment types Buyout Leveraged Venture Mezzanine Growth Secondaries Equity co-investment History Early history 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s Terms and conceptsBuyout Financial sponsor Management buyout Divisional buyout Buy–sell agreement Leveraged recapitalization Dividend recapitalization Venture Angel investor Business incubator Post-money valuation Pre-money valuation SAFE Seed money Startup company Venture capital financing Venture debt Venture round Structure Private equity firms and funds Limited partnership Limited liability company Carried interest Management fee Pledge fund Publicly traded private equity Business Development Company Venture capital trust Private investment in public equity (PIPE) SPAC Investors Corporations Institutional investors Pension funds Insurance companies Fund of funds Endowments Foundations Investment banks Merchant banks Commercial banks High-net-worth individuals Family offices Sovereign wealth funds Crowdfunding Related financial terms AUM Cap table Capital call Capital commitment Capital structure Distribution waterfall EBITDA Envy ratio High-yield debt IPO IRR Leverage Liquidation preference M&A PME Taxation of private equity and hedge funds Undercapitalization Vintage year Private equity and venture capital investors Private equity firms List of private equity firms Venture capital firms List of venture capital firms Angel investors Portfolio companies vteLargest private equity investment firms Advent International Apollo Global Management Ardian Bain Capital Blackstone Carlyle Group Clearlake Capital Clayton, Dubilier & Rice CVC Capital Partners EQT AB General Atlantic HarbourVest Partners Hellman & Friedman Hg Insight Partners KKR Leonard Green & Partners Lone Star Funds Neuberger Berman Partners Group Silver Lake Thoma Bravo TPG Warburg Pincus Vista Equity Partners Methodology: AUM over US$70 billion Private equity Private equity firms Venture capital firms Portfolio companies vteBlackRockFounders Larry Fink Robert S. Kapito Susan Wagner NotableexecutivesCurrent Philip Vasan Former Brian Deese Charles Hallac Mark Wiseman Others Aladdin Blackstone iShares vteThe Weather ChannelNetwork information History List of meteorologists Local on the 8s Programs (list)Live programs AMHQ Weather Center Live Long-formprograms 100 Biggest Weather Moments (2007 miniseries) Highway Thru Hell Prospectors Storm Stories Top 100 Weather Moments Weird Earth Deadline to Disaster When Weather Changed History Full Force Nature Forecast Earth Weather Gone Viral Weather Caught on Camera It Could Happen Tomorrow Weather Stars III 4000 XL IntelliStar Related operations Local Now Weatherscan Albums The Best of Smooth Jazz Smooth Jazz II Defunct regional versions Latin America Former owners Landmark Communications NBCUniversal Bain Capital Blackstone Category Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Other MusicBrainz label	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BlackRock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackRock"},{"link_name":"Blackstone Audio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blackstone_Audio"},{"link_name":"alternative investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_investment"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"private equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity"},{"link_name":"leveraged buyouts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leveraged_buyout"},{"link_name":"assets under management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assets_under_management"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"mergers and acquisitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mergers_and_acquisitions"},{"link_name":"Peter G. Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_G._Peterson"},{"link_name":"Stephen A. Schwarzman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Schwarzman"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehman_Brothers,_Kuhn,_Loeb_Inc."}],"text":"Not to be confused with BlackRock, an investment management firm; or Blackstone Audio, an American audiobook and book publisher.Blackstone Inc. (informally referred to as just \"Blackstone\") is an American alternative investment management company based in New York City. Blackstone's private equity business has been one of the largest investors in leveraged buyouts in the last three decades, while its real estate business has actively acquired commercial real estate. Blackstone is also active in credit, infrastructure, hedge funds, insurance, secondaries, and growth equity. As of May 2024, Blackstone has more than US$1 trillion in total assets under management making it the largest alternative investment firm globally.[2]Blackstone was founded in 1985 as a mergers and acquisitions firm by Peter G. Peterson and Stephen A. Schwarzman, who had previously worked together at Lehman Brothers.","title":"Blackstone Inc."},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Peter G. Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_G._Peterson"},{"link_name":"Stephen A. Schwarzman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Schwarzman"},{"link_name":"US$","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_dollar"},{"link_name":"seed capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seed_money"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"cryptogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptogram"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehman_Brothers,_Kuhn,_Loeb_Inc."},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Roger C. Altman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_C._Altman"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shearson_Lehman_Brothers"},{"link_name":"Clinton Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clinton_Administration"},{"link_name":"Deputy Treasury Secretary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deputy_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Evercore Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evercore"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"E. F. Hutton & Co.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E._F._Hutton_%26_Co."},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PeterGeorgePeterson.jpg"},{"link_name":"Peter Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_George_Peterson"},{"link_name":"Lehman Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehman_Brothers,_Kuhn,_Loeb_Inc."},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"Black Monday","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Monday_(1987)"},{"link_name":"Prudential Insurance Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prudential_Insurance_Company"},{"link_name":"Nikko Securities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikko_Securities"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"BlackRock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackRock"},{"link_name":"Larry Fink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence_D._Fink"},{"link_name":"Evercore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evercore"},{"link_name":"First Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Boston"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BXS1-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"David Stockman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Stockman"},{"link_name":"Salomon Brothers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salomon_Brothers"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"Heartland Industrial Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heartland_Industrial_Partners"},{"link_name":"Greenwich, Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich,_Connecticut"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"CBS Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBS_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Sony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony"},{"link_name":"Sony Music Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Music_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"CNW Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNW_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"thrifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savings_and_loan_association"},{"link_name":"savings and loan crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Savings_and_loan_crisis"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Founding and early history","text":"Blackstone was founded in 1985 by Peter G. Peterson and Stephen A. Schwarzman with US$400,000 (equivalent to $1.1 million in 2023) in seed capital.[3]: 45–56 [4] The founders named their firm \"Blackstone\" using a cryptogram derived from their names: \"Schwarz\" is German for \"black\"; \"Peter\", \"Petros\" or \"Petra\" (Πέτρος and πετρα, the masculine and feminine rendering of the word, respectively), means \"stone\" or \"rock\" in Greek.[5][6][7] The two founders had previously worked together at Lehman Brothers. There, Schwarzman served as head of global mergers and acquisitions business.[8] Prominent investment banker Roger C. Altman, another Lehman veteran, left his position as a managing director of Lehman Brothers to join Peterson and Schwarzman at Blackstone in 1987, but left in 1992 to join the Clinton Administration as Deputy Treasury Secretary and later founded advisory investment bank Evercore Partners in 1995.[9]Blackstone was originally formed as a mergers and acquisitions advisory boutique. It advised on the 1987 merger of investment banks E. F. Hutton & Co. and Shearson Lehman Brothers, collecting a $3.5 million fee.[10][11]Blackstone co-founder Peter Peterson was the former chairman and CEO of Lehman BrothersFrom the outset in 1985, Schwarzman and Peterson planned to enter the private equity business but had difficulty in raising their first fund because neither had ever led a leveraged buyout.[3]: 45–56 Blackstone finalized fundraising for its first private equity fund in the aftermath of Black Monday, the October 1987 global stock market crash. After two years of providing strictly advisory services, Blackstone decided to pursue a merchant banking model after its founders determined that many situations required an investment partner rather than just an advisor. The largest investors in the first fund included Prudential Insurance Company, Nikko Securities and the General Motors pension fund.[12]Blackstone also ventured into other businesses, most notably investment management. In 1987 Blackstone entered into a 50–50 partnership with the founders of BlackRock, Larry Fink (current CEO of BlackRock), and Ralph Schlosstein (CEO of Evercore). The two founders, who had previously run the mortgage-backed securities divisions at First Boston and Lehman Brothers, respectively, initially joined Blackstone to manage an investment fund and provide advice to financial institutions. They also planned to use a Blackstone fund to invest in financial institutions and help build an asset management business specializing in fixed income investments.[13][14]As the business grew, Japanese bank Nikko Securities acquired a 20% interest in Blackstone for a $100 million investment in 1988 (valuing the firm at $500 million). Nikko's investment allowed for a major expansion of the firm and its investment activities.[15] The growth firm also recruited politician and investment banker David Stockman from Salomon Brothers in 1988. Stockman led many key deals in his time at the firm but had a mixed record with his investments.[3]: 144–147 He left Blackstone in 1999 to start his own private equity firm, Heartland Industrial Partners, based in Greenwich, Connecticut.[16][17]The firm advised CBS Corporation on its 1988 sale of CBS Records to Sony to form what would become Sony Music Entertainment.[18] In June 1989, Blackstone acquired freight railroad operator CNW Corporation.[19] That same year, Blackstone partnered with Salomon Brothers to raise $600 million to acquire distressed thrifts in the midst of the savings and loan crisis.[20]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Blackstone_Group_logo.png"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Indosuez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_Agricole_Indosuez"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Ramada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramada"},{"link_name":"Howard Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Johnson%27s"},{"link_name":"holding company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holding_company"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Henry Silverman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Silverman"},{"link_name":"Days Inns of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Days_Inns_of_America"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Super 8 Motels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super_8_Worldwide"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Cendant Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cendant_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes_Dredge_and_Dock_Company"},{"link_name":"Six Flags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Flags"},{"link_name":"Centerplate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centerplate"},{"link_name":"MEGA Brands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEGA_Brands"},{"link_name":"Loewen Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loewen_Group"},{"link_name":"GTCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GTCR"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"PNC Financial Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PNC_Financial_Services"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Allied Waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Waste_Industries"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"AIG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIG"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Apollo Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollo_Management"},{"link_name":"Browning-Ferris Industries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Browning-Ferris_Industries"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AlliedWaste-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-financing_unit-39"},{"link_name":"AMF Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Machine_and_Foundry"},{"link_name":"Haynes International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haynes_International"},{"link_name":"American Axle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Axle"},{"link_name":"Premcor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premcor"},{"link_name":"Centennial Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centennial_Communications"},{"link_name":"Bresnan Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bresnan_Communications"},{"link_name":"PAETEC Holding Corp.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PAETEC_Holding_Corp."},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"Watergate complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watergate_complex"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"1990s","text":"The Blackstone Group logo in use prior to the firm's rebranding as simply BlackstoneIn 1990, Blackstone launched its hedge funds business, initially intended to manage investments for Blackstone senior management.[21] That same year, Blackstone formed a partnership with J. O. Hambro Magan in the UK and Indosuez in France.[22][23] Additionally, Blackstone and Silverman acquired a 65% interest in Prime Motor Inn's Ramada and Howard Johnson franchises for $140 million, creating Hospitality Franchise Systems as a holding company.[24]In 1991, Blackstone created its Europe unit[25][26] and launched its real estate investment business with the acquisition of a series of hotel businesses under the leadership of Henry Silverman. In October 1991, Blackstone and Silverman added Days Inns of America for $250 million.[27] In 1993, Hospitality Franchise Systems acquired Super 8 Motels for $125 million.[28] Silverman would ultimately leave Blackstone to serve as CEO of HFS, which later became Cendant Corporation.[29]Blackstone made a number of notable investments in the early and mid-1990s, including Great Lakes Dredge and Dock Company (1991), Six Flags (1991), US Radio (1994), Centerplate (1995), MEGA Brands (1996). Also, in 1996, Blackstone partnered with the Loewen Group, the second-largest funeral home and cemetery operator in North America, to acquire funeral home and cemetery businesses. The partnership's first acquisition was a $295 million buyout of Prime Succession from GTCR.[30][31][32]In 1995, Blackstone sold its stake in BlackRock to PNC Financial Services for $250 million. Between 1995 and 2014, PNC reported $12 billion in pretax revenues and capital gains from BlackRock. Schwarzman later described the selling of BlackRock as his worst business decision ever.[33]In 1997, Blackstone completed fundraising for its third private equity fund, with approximately $4 billion of investor commitments[34] and a $1.1 billion real estate investment fund.[35] Also in 1997, Blackstone made its first investment in Allied Waste.[36] In 1998, Blackstone sold a 7% interest in its management company to AIG, valuing Blackstone at $2.1 billion.[37] In 1999, Blackstone partnered with Apollo Management to provide capital for Allied Waste's acquisition of Browning-Ferris Industries. Blackstone's investment in Allied was one of its largest at that point in the firm's history.[38]In 1999, Blackstone launched its mezzanine capital business. It brought in five professionals, led by Howard Gellis from Nomura Holding America's Leveraged Capital Group, to manage the business.[39]Blackstone's investments in the late 1990s included AMF Group (1996), Haynes International (1997), American Axle (1997), Premcor (1997), CommNet Cellular (1998), Graham Packaging (1998), Centennial Communications (1999), Bresnan Communications (1999), and PAETEC Holding Corp. (1999). Haynes and Republic Technologies International both had problems and ultimately filed bankruptcy.[3]: 145–146Blackstone's investments in telecommunications businesses—four cable TV systems in rural areas (TW Fanch 1 and 2, Bresnan Communications and Intermedia Partners IV) and a cell phone operator in the Rocky Mountain states (CommNet Cellular) were among the most successful of the era, generating $1.5 billion of profits for Blackstone's funds.[3]: 148–155Blackstone Real Estate Advisers, its real estate affiliate, bought the Watergate complex in Washington D.C. in July 1998 for $39 million[40] and sold it to Monument Realty in August 2004.[41]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"7 World Trade Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7_World_Trade_Center#New_building"},{"link_name":"Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teachers_Insurance_and_Annuity_Association"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:StephenSchwarzman.jpg"},{"link_name":"Schwarzman's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Schwarzman"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WEF-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"early 2000s recession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early_2000s_recession"},{"link_name":"Thomas H. Lee Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Lee_Partners"},{"link_name":"Bain Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bain_Capital"},{"link_name":"Houghton Mifflin Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin_Company"},{"link_name":"club deals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_deal"},{"link_name":"Dot-com bubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-com_bubble"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Hamilton E. James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_E._James"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"TRW Automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW_Automotive"},{"link_name":"TRW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW_Inc."},{"link_name":"Northrop Grumman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northrop_Grumman"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"Columbia House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_House"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"Financial Guaranty Insurance Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Guaranty_Insurance_Company"},{"link_name":"monoline bond insurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoline_insurance"},{"link_name":"PMI Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMI_Group"},{"link_name":"The Cypress Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Cypress_Group"},{"link_name":"CIVC Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIVC_Partners"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"SunGard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SunGard"},{"link_name":"Silver Lake Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver_Lake_Partners"},{"link_name":"Goldman Sachs Capital Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs_Capital_Partners"},{"link_name":"Kohlberg Kravis Roberts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts"},{"link_name":"Providence Equity Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Providence_Equity_Partners"},{"link_name":"TPG Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TPG_Capital"},{"link_name":"RJR Nabisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RJR_Nabisco"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"long/short equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long/short_equity"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hedgerationalize-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Extended Stay America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_Stay_America"},{"link_name":"La Quinta Inns & Suites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Quinta_Inns_%26_Suites"},{"link_name":"Hilton Hotels Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilton_Worldwide"},{"link_name":"Stephen Bollenbach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Bollenbach"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"The Lightstone Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Lightstone_Group"},{"link_name":"Wellesley Inns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellesley_Inns"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"spun out","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_spin-off"},{"link_name":"Wyndham Hotels & Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Hotels_%26_Resorts"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Early 2000s","text":"In October 2000, Blackstone acquired the mortgage for 7 World Trade Center from the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association.[42][43]Schwarzman's Blackstone Group completed the first major IPO of a private equity firm in June 2007.[44]In July 2002, Blackstone completed fundraising for a $6.45 billion private equity fund, Blackstone Capital Partners IV, the largest private equity fund at that time.[45]With a significant amount of capital in its new fund, Blackstone was one of a handful of private equity investors capable of completing large transactions in the adverse conditions of the early 2000s recession. At the end of 2002, Blackstone, together with Thomas H. Lee Partners and Bain Capital, acquired Houghton Mifflin Company for $1.28 billion. The transaction represented one of the first large club deals completed since the collapse of the Dot-com bubble.[46]In 2002, Hamilton E. James joined Blackstone, where he serves as president and chief operating officer. He also serves on the firm's executive and management committees, and its board of directors.[47] In late 2002, Blackstone acquired TRW Automotive in a $4.7 billion buyout, the largest private equity deal announced that year (the deal was completed in early 2003). TRW's parent was acquired by Northrop Grumman, while Blackstone purchased its automotive parts business, a major supplier of automotive systems.[3]: 176, 197, 206–207 [48] Blackstone also purchased a majority interest in Columbia House, a music-buying club, in mid-2002.[49]Blackstone made a significant investment in Financial Guaranty Insurance Company (FGIC), a monoline bond insurer alongside PMI Group, The Cypress Group and CIVC Partners. FGIC incurred heavy losses, along with other bond insurers in the 2008 credit crisis.[50]Two years later, in 2005, Blackstone was one of seven private equity firms involved in the buyout of SunGard in a transaction valued at $11.3 billion. Blackstone's partners in the acquisition were Silver Lake Partners, Bain Capital, Goldman Sachs Capital Partners, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts, Providence Equity Partners, and TPG Capital. This represented the largest leveraged buyout completed since the takeover of RJR Nabisco at the end of the 1980s leveraged buyout boom. Also, at the time of its announcement, SunGard was the largest buyout of a technology company in history, a distinction it ceded to the buyout of Freescale Semiconductor. The SunGard transaction is also notable for the number of firms involved, the largest club deal completed to that point.[3]: 225 The involvement of seven firms in the consortium was criticized by investors in private equity who considered crossholdings among firms to be generally unattractive.[51][52]In 2006, Blackstone launched its long/short equity hedge fund business, Kailix Advisors. According to Blackstone, as of September 30, 2008, Kailix Advisors had $1.9 billion of assets under management. In December 2008, Blackstone announced that Kailix would be spun off to its management team to form a new fund as an independent entity backed by Blackstone.[53]While Blackstone was active on the corporate investment side, it was also busy pursuing real estate investments. Blackstone acquired Prime Hospitality[54] and Extended Stay America in 2004. Blackstone followed these investments with the acquisition of La Quinta Inns & Suites in 2005. Blackstone's largest transaction, the $26 billion buyout of Hilton Hotels Corporation, occurred in 2007 under the tenure of Hilton CFO Stephen Bollenbach.[55] Extended Stay Hotels was sold to The Lightstone Group in July 2007 and Prime Hospitality's Wellesley Inns were folded into La Quinta.[56] La Quinta Inns & Suites was spun out for IPO in 2014 and later acquired by Wyndham Hotels & Resorts.[57]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Buyouts (2005–2007)","text":"During the buyout boom of 2006 and 2007, Blackstone completed some of the largest leveraged buyouts. Its most notable transactions during this period included:","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"business development company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_development_company"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carey-2010-3"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-counting_billions-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Initial public offering in 2007","text":"In 2004, Blackstone had explored the possibility of creating a business development company (BDC), Blackridge Investments, similar to vehicles pursued by Apollo Management.[73] Blackstone failed to raise capital through an initial public offering that summer and the project were shelved.[74] It also planned to raise a fund on the Amsterdam stock exchange in 2006, but its rival, Kohlberg Kravis Roberts & Co., launched a $5 billion fund there that soaked up all demand for such funds, and Blackstone abandoned its project.[3]: 221–223In 2007, Blackstone acquired Alliant Insurance Services, an insurance brokerage firm. The company was sold to Kohlberg Kravis Roberts in 2012.[75]On June 21, 2007, Blackstone became a public company via an initial public offering, selling a 12.3% stake in the company for $4.13 billion, in the largest U.S. IPO since 2002.[76][77]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2007–2008 financial crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis"},{"link_name":"Harrah's Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrah%27s_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"AlliedBarton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AlliedBarton"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"CMS Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMS_Computers"},{"link_name":"Landmark Communications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landmark_Communications"},{"link_name":"IBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM"},{"link_name":"Byron Allen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byron_Allen"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Busch Entertainment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busch_Entertainment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Anheuser-Busch InBev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anheuser-Busch_InBev"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"London Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Dynegy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynegy"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"}],"sub_title":"2008 to 2010","text":"During the 2007–2008 financial crisis, Blackstone closed only a few transactions. In January 2008, Blackstone made a small co-investment alongside TPG Capital and Apollo Management in their buyout of Harrah's Entertainment, although that transaction had been announced during the buyout boom period. Other notable investments that Blackstone completed in 2008 and 2009 included AlliedBarton, Performance Food Group,[78][79] Apria Healthcare, and CMS Computers.In July 2008, Blackstone, NBC Universal, and Bain Capital acquired The Weather Channel from Landmark Communications for $3.5 billion. In 2015, the digital assets were sold to IBM for $2 billion. In 2018, the remainder of the company was sold to Byron Allen for $300 million.[80]In December 2009, Blackstone acquired Busch Entertainment Corporation from Anheuser-Busch InBev for $2.9 billion.[81]In November 2013, Merlin Entertainments, owned in part by Blackstone Group, became a public company via an initial public offering on the London Stock Exchange.[82][83]In August 2010, Blackstone announced it would buy Dynegy, an energy firm, for nearly $5 billion, but the acquisition was terminated in November 2010.[84]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Centro Retail Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicinity_Centres"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Brixmor Property Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brixmor_Property_Group"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Emdeon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emdeon"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Jack Wolfskin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Wolfskin"},{"link_name":"camping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camping"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"Knight Capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knight_Capital"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Motel 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motel_6"},{"link_name":"AccorHotels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AccorHotels"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Vivint Solar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivint_Solar"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"Dell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dell"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"First Potomac Realty Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Potomac_Realty_Trust"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"Oakville Triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville_Triangle"},{"link_name":"National Landing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Landing"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"secondaryfunds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity_secondary_market"},{"link_name":"Credit Suisse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_Suisse"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"Versace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Versace"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Versace_Sells_Minority_Stake_to_Blackstone-99"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmopolitan_of_Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Bank"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"Shell Oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_Oil"},{"link_name":"Haynesville Shale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haynesville_Shale"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Gold Fields House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Fields_House"},{"link_name":"Sydney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney"},{"link_name":"Dalian Wanda Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalian_Wanda_Group"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Willis Tower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willis_Tower"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"Goldman Sachs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldman_Sachs"},{"link_name":"Thomas H. Lee Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Lee_Partners"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"}],"sub_title":"Investments 2011 to 2015","text":"In February 2011, the company acquired Centro Properties Group US from Centro Retail Trust (now Vicinity Centres) for $9.4 billion.[85] The company became Brixmor Property Group and Blackstone sold its remaining interest in the company in August 2016.[86]\nIn November 2011, a fund managed by the company acquired medical biller Emdeon for $3 billion.[87]\nIn late 2011, Blackstone Group LP acquired Jack Wolfskin, a German camping equipment company. In 2017, the company was handed over to its lenders.[88]\nIn August 2012, Blackstone was part of a consortium that financed Knight Capital after a software glitch threatened Knight's ability to continue operations.[89]\nIn October 2012, the company acquired G6 Hospitality, operator of Motel 6 & Studio 6 motels from AccorHotels, for $1.9 billion.[90]\nIn November 2012, the company acquired a controlling interest in Vivint, Vivint Solar, and 2GIG Technologies.[91] In February 2013, 2GIG was flipped to Nortek Security & Control, LLC for $135M.[92]\nIn April 2013, the company discussed buying Dell, but it did not pursue the acquisition.[93]\nIn June 2013, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VII acquired an industrial portfolio from First Potomac Realty Trust for $241.5 million.[94] Part of this portfolio was developed by StonebridgeCarras as Oakville Triangle (Now \"National Landing\")[95]\nIn September 2013, Blackstone announced a strategic investment in ThoughtFocus Technologies LLC, an information technology service provider.[96]\nIn August 2013, Blackstone acquired Strategic Partners, manager of secondaryfunds, from Credit Suisse.[97]\nIn February 2014, Blackstone purchased a 20% stake in the Italian luxury brand Versace for €150 million.[98][99]\nIn April 2014, Blackstone's charitable arm, the Blackstone Charitable Foundation, donated $4 million to create the Blackstone Entrepreneurs Network in Colorado. The program encourages increased collaboration among local business leaders with the goal of retaining high-growth companies in the state.[100]\nIn May 2014, Blackstone Group acquired the Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas resort from Deutsche Bank for $1.73 billion.[101]\nIn August 2014, Blackstone Energy Partners acquired Shell Oil's 50% stake in a shale-gas field in the Haynesville Shale for $1.2 billion.[102]\nIn January 2015, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VI announced it would sell a Gold Fields House in Sydney to Dalian Wanda Group for A$415 million.[103]\nIn June 2015, Blackstone acquired the Willis Tower in Chicago for $1.3 billion.[104]\nIn July 2015, Blackstone acquired Excel Trust, a real estate investment trust, for around $2 billion.[105]\nIn November 2015, the company agreed to sell facility management firm GCA Services Group to Goldman Sachs and Thomas H. Lee Partners.[106]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"Hewlett Packard Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett_Packard_Enterprise"},{"link_name":"Mphasis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mphasis"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"},{"link_name":"SESAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SESAC"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"Aon PLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aon_PLC"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"Alight Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alight_Solutions"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Alight-112"},{"link_name":"The Office Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Office_Group"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"Leonard Green & Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonard_Green_%26_Partners"},{"link_name":"real estate investment trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate_investment_trust"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"Thomson Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Reuters"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-117"},{"link_name":"Rockpoint Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockpoint_Group"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"Kohlberg & Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlberg_%26_Company"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Luminor Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminor_Bank"},{"link_name":"Baltic countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_countries"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"Refinitiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refinitiv"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Yankee Global Enterprises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yankee_Global_Enterprises"},{"link_name":"YES Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YES_Network"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"tube packaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tube_(packaging)"},{"link_name":"Essel Propack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Essel_Propack"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Legoland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legoland"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"Great Wolf Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Wolf_Resorts"},{"link_name":"Centerbridge Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centerbridge_Partners"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"Bumble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bumble_(app)"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"Bellagio resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bellagio_(resort)"},{"link_name":"Las Vegas, Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"MGM Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Resorts_International"},{"link_name":"sale-leaseback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaseback"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"joint venture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_venture"},{"link_name":"Swiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Ferring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferring_Pharmaceuticals"},{"link_name":"bladder cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bladder_cancer"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"Oatly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oatly"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TG-20200902-137"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Ancestry.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry.com"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Bourne Leisure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourne_Leisure"},{"link_name":"Butlin's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butlin%27s"},{"link_name":"Haven Holidays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haven_Holidays"},{"link_name":"Warner Leisure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warner_Leisure_Hotels"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"Crown Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Resorts"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"eOne Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EOne_Music"},{"link_name":"Hasbro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasbro"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"Quality Technology Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Technology_Services"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"MGM Resorts International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM_Resorts_International"},{"link_name":"Aria Resort and Casino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aria_Resort_and_Casino"},{"link_name":"Vdara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vdara"},{"link_name":"sale-leaseback","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leaseback"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"AIG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AIG"},{"link_name":"spin-off","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_spin-off"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"board of directors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_directors"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"American Campus Communities, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Campus_Communities"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"PS Business Parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PS_Business_Parks"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Emerson Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emerson_Electric"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"Cvent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cvent"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"club deal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Club_deal"},{"link_name":"Vista Equity Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vista_Equity_Partners"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"Civica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civica"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"Sony Bank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Bank"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"Tricon Residential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tricon_Residential"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"Rover.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rover.com"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"}],"sub_title":"Investments since 2016","text":"In January 2016, Blackstone Real Estate Partners VIII L.P. acquired BioMed Realty Trust for $8 billion.[107]\nIn February 2016, Blackstone sold four office buildings to Douglas Emmett for $1.34 billion.[108]\nIn April 2016, Blackstone acquired 84 percent of Hewlett Packard Enterprise's stake in the Indian IT services firm Mphasis.[109]\nOn January 4, 2017, Blackstone acquired SESAC, a music-rights organization.[110]\nOn February 10, 2017, Aon PLC agreed to sell its human resources outsourcing platform for $4.3 billion to Blackstone Group L.P.,[111] creating a new company called Alight Solutions.[112]\nOn June 19, 2017, Blackstone acquired a majority interest in The Office Group, valuing the company at $640 million.[113]\nIn July 2017, the company announced an investment in Leonard Green & Partners.\nIn January 2018, the company acquired Pure Industrial, a Canadian real estate investment trust for C$2.5 billion.[114]\nIn January 2018, the company announced acquisition agreement for 55% of Thomson Reuters Financial & Risk unit for $20 billion.[115]\nIn March 2018, Blackstone Real Estate Income Trust, Inc. acquired a 22 million square foot portfolio of industrial properties from Cabot Properties for $1.8 billion.[116][117]\nIn March 2018, Blackstone's Strategic Capital Holdings Fund invested in Rockpoint Group.[118]\nIn March 2018, the company's Strategic Capital Holdings Fund announced an investment in Kohlberg & Company, a private equity firm.[119]\nIn August 2018, PSAV was able to merge with Encore Global due to the help from an investment firm Blackstone.[120]\nIn September 2018, the company acquires control of Luminor Bank in the Baltic countries.[121]\nIn October 2018, Blackstone launched Refinitiv, the company resulting from its January deal for a 55 per-cent stake in Thomson Reuters Financial and Risk business.[122]\nIn October 2018, Blackstone announced to buy Clarus. The deal includes assets worth $2.6 billion.[123]\nIn March 2019, Blackstone purchased, with Yankee Global Enterprises, a minority stake in YES Network.[124][125]\nIn April 2019, Blackstone acquired a majority stake in the tube packaging company, Essel Propack for $310 million.[126][127]\nIn June 2019, Blackstone announced it had teamed with the Canada Pension Plan Investment Board and KIRKBI to buy Merlin Entertainment, the owners of Legoland in a deal worth £5.9 billion (about $7.5 billion). This would be the 2nd time Blackstone would own the company as they previously purchased it in 2005.[128]\nOn July 15, 2019, Blackstone announced its plans to acquire Vungle Inc., a leading mobile performance marketing platform.[129]\nIn September 2019, Blackstone announced it agreed to purchase 65% controlling interest in Great Wolf Resorts from Centerbridge Partners. They plan to form a joint venture worth $2.9 billion or more to own the company.[130]\nOn November 8, 2019, Blackstone Group acquired a majority stake in MagicLab, the owner of dating app Bumble.[131]\nBlackstone Group on November 15, 2019, invested $167 million in the holding company of Future Lifestyle Fashions Ltd., Ryka Commercial Ventures Pvt. Ltd.[132]\nOn November 18, 2019, Blackstone Real Estate Income Trust, Inc. acquired the Bellagio resort in Las Vegas, Nevada from MGM Resorts in a sale-leaseback transaction.[133]\nOn November 25, 2019, Reuters reported that Blackstone planned to invest $400 million in a joint venture with Swiss drug company Ferring. The joint venture will work on gene therapy for bladder cancer. The investment represents Blackstone Group's largest investment in drug development to date.[134]\nIn March 2020, Blackstone announced that it is buying a majority stake in HealthEdge, a health-care software company.[135] The deal, worth $700 million, was completed on April 13, 2020.[136]\nIn July 2020, Blackstone invested $200 million in the Swedish oat milk brand Oatly, for a 7% stake in the company, triggering outrage among some segments of its customer base.[137][138]\nIn August 2020, Blackstone announced that it would buy a majority stake in Ancestry.com for $4.7 billion (including debt).[139]\nIn August 2020, Blackstone acquired Takeda Consumer Healthcare for $2.3 billion.[140]\nIn December 2020, Blackstone invested nearly $400 million in Liftoff, a mobile advertising company.[141]\nIn January 2021, Blackstone acquired a majority shareholding in Bourne Leisure, a UK holiday and leisure company that owns Butlin's, Haven Holidays, and Warner Leisure, for £3 billion.[142]\nIn March 2021, Blackstone made a $6.2 billion takeover bid for Australian casino operator Crown Resorts, offering a 20% premium to its closing share price at the time of the offer. Blackstone held at the time a near 10% stake in the company.[143][144]\nIn April 2021, Blackstone acquired eOne Music from Hasbro for $385 million.[145]\nIn June 2021, Blackstone agreed to acquire datacenter operator Quality Technology Services for approximately $10 billion.[146]\nIn July 2021, MGM Resorts International announced it sold Aria Resort and Casino and Vdara to Blackstone for $3.89 billion in a sale-leaseback transaction.[147]\nIn July 2021, Blackstone Group and AIG announced that the company would acquire 9.9% of AIG's life and retirement insurance investment portfolio for $2.2 billion cash, during AIG's spin-off of the unit by IPO in 2022. The two firms also entered a long-term asset management agreement for about 25% of AIG's life and retirement portfolio, scheduled to increase in subsequent years.[148]\nIn August 2021, the merger of two Blackstone portfolio companies, Vungle and Liftoff, was announced. Both companies are in the mobile advertising space.[149]\nIn October 2021, the Blackstone Group acquired a majority stake of Spanx, Inc. The company was valued at $1.2 billion.[150] The deal was prepared by an all-female investment team from Blackstone, and it was announced that the board of directors would be all female.\nIn October 2021, Blackstone acquired the Nucleus Network, Australia's premier clinical researcher, which is providing staple \"healthy\" volunteers large financial rewards for drug trials.[151]\nOn February 14, 2022, Crown Resorts accepted Blackstone's takeover offer. Blackstone will pay $6.6 billion for 90% of shares outstanding.[152][153]\nIn April 2022, Blackstone agreed to acquire the Austin-based American Campus Communities, Inc. for nearly $13 billion.[154]\nIn April 2022, Blackstone announced that it would acquire PS Business Parks for $7.6 billion.[155]\nIn October 2022, Emerson Electric agreed to sell a 55 percent majority stake in its climate technologies business to Blackstone in a $14 billion deal including debt.[156][157]\nIn June 2023, Blackstone acquired cloud-based event-software provider Cvent for $4.6 billion.[158][159]\nIn October 2023, Blackstone announced that, as part of a club deal alongside private equity firm Vista Equity Partners, it would acquire leading energy market analytics and simulation software firm Energy Exemplar for approximately $1.6 billion.[160]\nIn November 2023, Blackstone acquired the UK-based software company Civica for approximately $2.5 billion.[161]\nIn December 2023, Blackstone announced an agreement to acquire a majority Stake in Sony Payment Services Inc. from Sony Bank.[162]\nIn January 2024, Blackstone agreed to acquire Canadian real-estate company Tricon Residential for $3.5 billion.[163]\nIn February 2024, Blackstone acquired online pet marketplace Rover.com for $2.3 billion in an all-cash deal that it first announced in November 2023.[164][165]\nIn April 2024, Blackstone announced a deal for a 50.7% majority share in Irish turnkey Data Centre developer Winthrop Technologies.[166]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recent exits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apax_Partners"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"}],"sub_title":"IBS Software","text":"In May 2023, Blackstone entered into an agreement to divest its stake in IBS Software, a Kerala-based software-as-a-service (SaaS) provider. The transaction, valued at $450 million, involved the sale of Blackstone's stake to the global private equity firm Apax.[167][168]","title":"Recent exits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GIC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GIC_(sovereign_wealth_fund)"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"}],"sub_title":"Hotel Investment Partners","text":"In October 2023, Blackstone divested its stake in the Spanish hotel conglomerate Hotel Investment Partners (HIP) to the Singaporean sovereign wealth fund GIC. As part of the agreement, GIC secured a 35% stake in HIP, with the deal establishing a valuation exceeding €4 billion for the company.[169]","title":"Recent exits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Embassy Office Parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embassy_Group"},{"link_name":"Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"}],"sub_title":"Embassy Office Parks","text":"In December 2023, Blackstone announced its intention to divest its entire 23.59% stake, valued at $833 million, in Embassy Office Parks, India's largest real estate investment trust. The decision came four years after the initial listing of the REIT, as revealed in a term sheet disclosed by Reuters.[170]","title":"Recent exits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"private equity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity"},{"link_name":"real estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate"},{"link_name":"hedge funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedge_fund"},{"link_name":"credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BXS1-13"}],"text":"Blackstone operates through four primary departments: private equity; real estate; hedge funds; and credit.[13]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Blackstone_Inc.&action=edit"},{"link_name":"capital commitments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_commitment"},{"link_name":"Private Equity International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_Equity_International"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"KKR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohlberg_Kravis_Roberts"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"industry consolidations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rollup"},{"link_name":"start-up investments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Startup_company"},{"link_name":"friendly investments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takeover#Friendly_takeovers"},{"link_name":"large capitalization companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_capitalization"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BXS1-13"},{"link_name":"private equity funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_equity_fund"},{"link_name":"pension funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pension_fund"},{"link_name":"insurance companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insurance_company"},{"link_name":"fund of funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fund_of_funds"},{"link_name":"high-net-worth individuals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-net-worth_individual"},{"link_name":"sovereign wealth funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sovereign_wealth_fund"},{"link_name":"institutional investors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institutional_investors"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BXS1-13"},{"link_name":"Allied Waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allied_Waste"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AlliedWaste-38"},{"link_name":"Celanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celanese"},{"link_name":"Nalco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalco_Holding_Company"},{"link_name":"HealthMarkets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HealthMarkets"},{"link_name":"Houghton Mifflin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houghton_Mifflin"},{"link_name":"American Axle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Axle"},{"link_name":"TRW Automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TRW_Automotive"},{"link_name":"Catalent Pharma Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalent"},{"link_name":"Legoland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legoland"},{"link_name":"Madame Tussauds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madame_Tussauds"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"Pinnacle Foods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinnacle_Foods"},{"link_name":"Hilton Hotels Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilton_Hotels_Corporation"},{"link_name":"The Weather Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Weather_Channel"},{"link_name":"PortAventura Resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PortAventura_World"},{"link_name":"Busch Entertainment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Busch_Entertainment"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Ancestry.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancestry.com"},{"link_name":"Vivint, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivint"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"}],"sub_title":"Corporate private equity","text":"Employees: 250 (approximate)As of 2019[update], Blackstone was the world's largest private equity firm by capital commitments as ranked by Private Equity International's PEI 300 ranking.[171] After dropping to second behind KKR in the 2022 ranking,[172] it regained the top spot in 2023,[173] and retained it in 2024.[174] The firm invests through minority investments, corporate partnerships, and industry consolidations, and occasionally start-up investments. The firm focuses on friendly investments in large capitalization companies.[13]Blackstone has primarily relied on private equity funds, pools of committed capital from pension funds, insurance companies, endowments, fund of funds, high-net-worth individuals, sovereign wealth funds, and other institutional investors.[175] From 1987 to its IPO in 2007, Blackstone invested approximately $20 billion in 109 private equity transactions.[13]Blackstone's most notable investments include Allied Waste,[38] AlliedBarton Security Services, Graham Packaging, Celanese, Nalco, HealthMarkets, Houghton Mifflin, American Axle, TRW Automotive, Catalent Pharma Solutions, Prime Hospitality, Legoland, Madame Tussauds,[176] Luxury Resorts (LXR), Pinnacle Foods, Hilton Hotels Corporation, Motel 6, Apria Healthcare, Travelport, The Weather Channel (United States) and The PortAventura Resort. In 2009, Blackstone purchased Busch Entertainment (comprising the Sea World Parks, Busch Garden Parks and the two water parks).[177] In 2020 it acquired Ancestry.com.In 2012, Blackstone acquired a controlling interest in Utah-based Vivint, Inc., a home automation, security, and energy company.[178]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"QTS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quality_Technology_Services"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"EQ Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EQ_Office"},{"link_name":"Hilton Worldwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilton_Worldwide"},{"link_name":"Trizec Properties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trizec_Properties"},{"link_name":"Center Parcs UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_Parcs_UK"},{"link_name":"La Quinta Inns & Suites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Quinta_Inns_%26_Suites"},{"link_name":"Motel 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motel_6"},{"link_name":"Wyndham Worldwide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyndham_Worldwide"},{"link_name":"Southern Cross Healthcare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Cross_Healthcare_(United_Kingdom)"},{"link_name":"Vicinity Centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vicinity_Centres"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"subprime mortgage crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subprime_mortgage_crisis"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"Frederiksberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederiksberg"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"}],"sub_title":"Real estate","text":"Employees: 500 (approximate)Blackstone's most notable real estate investments have included QTS,[179] EQ Office, Hilton Worldwide, Trizec Properties, Center Parcs UK, La Quinta Inns & Suites, Motel 6, Wyndham Worldwide, Southern Cross Healthcare and Vicinity Centres.[180]The purchase and subsequent IPO of Southern Cross led to controversy in the UK. Part of the purchase involved splitting the business into a property company, NHP, and a nursing home business, which Blackstone claimed would become \"the leading company in the elderly care market\". In May 2011, Southern Cross, now independent, was almost bankrupt, jeopardizing 31,000 elderly residents in 750 care homes. It denied blame, although Blackstone was widely accused in the media for selling on the company with an unsustainable business model and crippled with an impossible sale and leaseback strategy.[181][182]After the 2007–2010 subprime mortgage crisis in the United States, Blackstone Group LP bought more than $5.5 billion worth of single-family homes to rent, and then be sold when the prices rise.[183]In 2014, Blackstone sold Northern California office buildings for $3.5 billion.[184] The buildings sold in San Francisco and Silicon Valley included 26 office buildings and two development parcels.[185]In 2018, a critique was raised regarding a purchase agreement on several hundred apartments in Frederiksberg, Denmark, between Blackstone's Danish partner North 360 and Frederiksberg Boligfond, a nonprofit housing organization Frederiksberg Municipality established in 1930. After resistance by residents and questions about the purchase agreement's legality, Blackstone withdrew from it in October 2019.[186]On December 1, 2022, Blackstone restricted withdrawals from its $125 billion real estate investment fund BREIT due to a surge in redemption requests from investors.[187] The move caused investor consternation and limited the ability to attract new capital for BREIT.[188]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fund of hedge funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fund_of_hedge_funds"},{"link_name":"mezzanine funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezzanine_capital"},{"link_name":"senior debt vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collateralized_loan_obligation"},{"link_name":"closed-end mutual funds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Closed-end_fund"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BXS1-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:N113CS.jpg"},{"link_name":"G650ER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulfstream_G650"},{"link_name":"GSO Capital Partners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GSO_Capital_Partners"},{"link_name":"earnout","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earnout"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donaldson,_Lufkin_%26_Jenrette"},{"link_name":"Credit Suisse First Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_Suisse_First_Boston"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hedgerationalize-53"}],"sub_title":"Marketable alternative asset management","text":"In 1990, Blackstone created a fund of hedge funds business to manage internal assets for Blackstone and its senior managers. This business evolved into Blackstone's marketable alternative asset management segment, which was opened to institutional investors. Among the investments included in this segment are funds of hedge funds, mezzanine funds, senior debt vehicles, proprietary hedge funds and closed-end mutual funds.[13]Gulfstream G650ER jet owned by Blackstone.In March 2008, Blackstone acquired GSO Capital Partners, a credit-oriented alternative asset manager, for $620 million in cash and stock and up to $310 million through an earnout over the next five years based on earnings targets. The combined entity created one of the largest credit platforms in the alternative asset management business, with over $21 billion under management.[189] GSO was founded in 2005 by Bennett Goodman, Tripp Smith, and Doug Ostrover. The GSO team had previously managed the leveraged finance businesses at Donaldson, Lufkin & Jenrette and later Credit Suisse First Boston, after it acquired DLJ. Blackstone was an original investor in GSO's funds. After the acquisition, Blackstone merged GSO's operations with its existing debt investment operations.[190][53]","title":"Operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Motel 6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motel_6"},{"link_name":"U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"}],"text":"In separate cases in 2018 and 2019, the hotel chain Motel 6, owned by Blackstone, agreed to settle for a total of $19.6 million for giving guest lists to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) without a warrant.[191][192]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"more than 100 children had been working illegally for Packers Sanitation Services Inc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Packers_Sanitation_Services_illegal_employment_of_children"}],"sub_title":"Illegal child labor","text":"An investigation by the U.S. Department of Labor showed that more than 100 children had been working illegally for Packers Sanitation Services Inc (PSSI), a slaughterhouse cleaning firm owned by Blackstone, across the United States. Under the Fair Labor Standards Act, PSSI was fined $15,138 by the Department of Labor for each minor-aged employee who was employed in breach of the law, totaling $1.5 million in civil money penalties.","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"deforestation of the Amazon rainforest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deforestation_of_the_Amazon_rainforest"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intercept-20190827-193"},{"link_name":"[194]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Politico-20191216-194"},{"link_name":"[195]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"[196]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"}],"sub_title":"Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest","text":"The company has invested in companies with links to the commercialization and deforestation of the Amazon rainforest.[193][194][195][196]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2007–2008 financial crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis"},{"link_name":"[197]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"},{"link_name":"Real Estate Roundtable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Estate_Roundtable"},{"link_name":"[198]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"rapporteur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_special_rapporteur"},{"link_name":"Leilani Farha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leilani_Farha"},{"link_name":"[199]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"}],"sub_title":"United Nations condemnation of the Invitation Homes project and lobbying efforts","text":"In 2019, a United Nations report found that Blackstone's massive purchasing of single-family homes after the 2007–2008 financial crisis had \"devastating consequences\".[197] The report alleged that Blackstone had abused tenants with exorbitant fees, rent hikes, and aggressive eviction practices, and that Blackstone's real estate practices had a disproportionate impact on communities of color, in part because the company targeted foreclosures resulting from subprime loans.The report also condemned Blackstone for \"using its significant resources and political leverage to undermine domestic laws and policies that would in fact improve access to adequate housing\". Blackstone spent at least $6.2 million to defeat California's Proposition 10, which would have allowed cities to enact rent control. Blackstone is a member of the Real Estate Roundtable, a special interest group that spends millions on lobbying and political donations every year.[198]United Nations housing rapporteur Leilani Farha and UN Working Group on Business and Human Rights chair Surya Deva criticized Blackstone's business practices, including frequent rent increases and \"aggressive\" evictions, for contributing to the global housing crisis. Blackstone disputed these claims.[199]","title":"Criticism"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[200]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"},{"link_name":"Stephen A. Schwarzman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Schwarzman"},{"link_name":"Jonathan D. Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_D._Gray"},{"link_name":"Hamilton E. James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_E._James"},{"link_name":"Joseph Baratta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Baratta"},{"link_name":"David Blitzer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Blitzer"}],"sub_title":"Executives","text":"Source:[200]Stephen A. Schwarzman: chairman, CEO & co-founder\nJonathan D. Gray: president & COO\nHamilton E. James: executive vice chairman\nJoseph Baratta: Global Head of private equity\nDavid Blitzer: Global Head of tactical opportunities","title":"Leadership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stephen A. Schwarzman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_A._Schwarzman"},{"link_name":"Hamilton E. James","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton_E._James"},{"link_name":"Jonathan D. Gray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_D._Gray"},{"link_name":"Joseph Baratta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Baratta"},{"link_name":"James W. Breyer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Breyer"},{"link_name":"Rochelle B. Lazarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rochelle_Lazarus"},{"link_name":"Jay O. Light","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Owen_Light"},{"link_name":"William G. Parrett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_G._Parrett"},{"link_name":"Ruth Porat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruth_Porat"}],"sub_title":"Board of directors","text":"Stephen A. Schwarzman: chairman of the board of directors and the executive committee\nHamilton E. James: a member of the executive committee\nJonathan D. Gray: a member of the executive committee\nJoseph Baratta: a member of the executive committee\nJames W. Breyer: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee\nRochelle B. Lazarus: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee\nJay O. Light: independent director & member of the audit committee and the conflicts committee\nWilliam G. Parrett: independent director & chairman of the audit committee and the conflicts committee\nRuth Porat: independent director\nReginald (\"Reg\") J. Brown: independent director","title":"Leadership"}]	[{"image_text":"Blackstone co-founder Peter Peterson was the former chairman and CEO of Lehman Brothers","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/PeterGeorgePeterson.jpg/170px-PeterGeorgePeterson.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Blackstone Group logo in use prior to the firm's rebranding as simply Blackstone","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Blackstone_Group_logo.png/200px-Blackstone_Group_logo.png"},{"image_text":"Schwarzman's Blackstone Group completed the first major IPO of a private equity firm in June 2007.[44]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/StephenSchwarzman.jpg/220px-StephenSchwarzman.jpg"},{"image_text":"Gulfstream G650ER jet owned by Blackstone.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/N113CS.jpg/220px-N113CS.jpg"}]	[{"title":"Companies portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Companies"},{"title":"List of outdoor industry parent companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_outdoor_industry_parent_companies"},{"title":"List of venture capital firms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_venture_capital_firms"}]	[{"reference":"\"Blackstone Inc. 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)\". U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. February 23, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1393818/000119312524044485/d734131d10k.htm","url_text":"\"Blackstone Inc. 2023 Annual Report (Form 10-K)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Securities_and_Exchange_Commission","url_text":"U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission"}]},{"reference":"\"XBRL Viewer\". www.sec.gov. Retrieved May 10, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sec.gov/ix?doc=/Archives/edgar/data/1393818/000119312524044485/d734131d10k.htm","url_text":"\"XBRL Viewer\""}]},{"reference":"Carey, David; Morris, John E (2010). King of Capital: The Remarkable Rise, Fall, and Rise Again of Steve Schwarzman and Blackstone. Crown. ISBN 9780307453013. Archived from the original on January 16, 2021. Retrieved September 7, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=NRXqjZLCK9QC","url_text":"King of Capital: The Remarkable Rise, Fall, and Rise Again of Steve Schwarzman and Blackstone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780307453013","url_text":"9780307453013"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210116225844/https://books.google.com/books?id=NRXqjZLCK9QC","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"English Translation of \"schwarz\" \| Collins German-English Dictionary\". www.collinsdictionary.com. Archived from the original on November 18, 2016. Retrieved July 2, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/schwarz","url_text":"\"English Translation of \"schwarz\" \| Collins German-English Dictionary\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161118062818/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/german-english/schwarz","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"petro-, petr-, petri-, peter- - Word Information\". wordinfo.info. Archived from the original on July 9, 2021. Retrieved July 2, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://wordinfo.info/unit/1620","url_text":"\"petro-, petr-, petri-, peter- - Word Information\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182252/https://wordinfo.info/unit/1620","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Strong's Greek: 4074. Πέτρος (Petros) -- \"a stone\" or \"a boulder,\" Peter, one of the twelve apostles\". biblehub.com. Archived from the original on July 30, 2021. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_curse	Crucible curse	["1 The curse","2 Pre-Crucible","3 Notes","4 References"]	Phrase used in professional snooker The "Crucible curse" (also known as "The curse of the Crucible") is a quip in professional snooker, referring to the fact that no first-time winner of the World Snooker Championship has retained the title since the tournament moved to Sheffield's Crucible Theatre in 1977. Beginning with the 1979 champion Terry Griffiths, who lost in the second round of the 1980 event, 19 first-time world champions have failed to defend their titles, although Joe Johnson and Ken Doherty made it to the final the year after their maiden victories. Most recently, the 2023 champion Luca Brecel lost in the first round of the 2024 World Snooker Championship. Kyren Wilson, winner of the 2024 event, is yet to attempt to break the Crucible curse. Several world champions successfully defended their first title in the pre-Crucible era; the last to do so was John Pulman in 1964. The curse The first-time world champions listed below all experienced the "Crucible curse", as they did not successfully defend their title at the following year's World Championship. Year Defending champion Progress Result Opponent Ref 1980 Terry Griffiths (WAL) Second round 10–13 Steve Davis (ENG) 1981 Cliff Thorburn (CAN) Semi-finals 10–16 Steve Davis (ENG) 1982 Steve Davis (ENG) First round 1–10 Tony Knowles (ENG) 1986 Dennis Taylor (NIR) First round 6–10 Mike Hallett (ENG) 1987 Joe Johnson (ENG) Final 14–18 Steve Davis (ENG) 1991 Stephen Hendry (SCO) Quarter-finals 11–13 Steve James (ENG) 1992 John Parrott (ENG) Quarter-finals 12–13 Alan McManus (SCO) 1998 Ken Doherty (IRL) Final 12–18 John Higgins (SCO) 1999 John Higgins (SCO) Semi-finals 10–17 Mark Williams (WAL) 2001 Mark Williams (WAL) Second round 12–13 Joe Swail (NIR) 2002 Ronnie O'Sullivan (ENG) Semi-finals 13–17 Stephen Hendry (SCO) 2003 Peter Ebdon (ENG) Quarter-finals 12–13 Paul Hunter (ENG) 2006 Shaun Murphy (ENG) Quarter-finals 7–13 Peter Ebdon (ENG) 2007 Graeme Dott (SCO) First round 7–10 Ian McCulloch (ENG) 2011 Neil Robertson (AUS) First round 8–10 Judd Trump (ENG) 2015 Mark Selby (ENG) Second round 9–13 Anthony McGill (SCO) 2016 Stuart Bingham (ENG) First round 9–10 Ali Carter (ENG) 2020 Judd Trump (ENG) Quarter-finals 9–13 Kyren Wilson (ENG) 2024 Luca Brecel (BEL) First round 9–10 David Gilbert (ENG) Of the 19 players to have won their first world title at the Crucible Theatre, seven lost in their first match as defending champion: Terry Griffiths in 1980, Steve Davis in 1982, Dennis Taylor in 1986, Graeme Dott in 2007, Neil Robertson in 2011, Stuart Bingham in 2016 and Luca Brecel in 2024. Only two of the 19 were able to reach the final as defending champions: Joe Johnson in 1987 and Ken Doherty in 1998. Johnson came closest to breaking the curse, getting within four frames of retaining his crown, while Doherty came within six. Four players have won consecutive world titles at the Crucible (having already won the championship previously): Steve Davis (1983–1984 and 1987–1989), Stephen Hendry (1992–1996), Ronnie O'Sullivan (2012–2013), and Mark Selby (2016–2017). Pre-Crucible Out of all the first-time world snooker champions, only three retained their title at the next World Championship: Joe Davis in 1928, his brother Fred Davis in 1949, and John Pulman at his first challenge match in 1964. No player in the modern era (post-1969) has successfully defended a first world title, even before the tournament was staged at the Crucible Theatre. John Spencer, Ray Reardon and Alex Higgins won the World Championship for the first time before the event was moved to the Crucible in 1977, and failed to retain the title the following year (although this could not be attributed to the "Crucible curse"). All three players subsequently won the championship at the Crucible for the first time, but then fell to the "curse" when they failed to successfully defend the title the following year. Year Defending champion Progress Result Opponent Ref Defending first world title: 1970 John Spencer (ENG) Semi-finals 33–37 Ray Reardon (WAL) 1971 Ray Reardon (WAL) Semi-finals 15–34 John Spencer (ENG) 1973 Alex Higgins (NIR) Semi-finals 9–23 Eddie Charlton (AUS) Defending first world title at Crucible Theatre: 1978 John Spencer (ENG) Last 16 8–13 Perrie Mans (RSA) 1979 Ray Reardon (WAL) Quarter-finals 8–13 Dennis Taylor (NIR) 1983 Alex Higgins (NIR) Semi-finals 5–16 Steve Davis (ENG) Notes ^ Griffiths, along with the other top 8 seeds, received a bye in the first round, thus the second round was his first match. References ^ Dee, John (28 April 2006). "Cruise for Ebdon as Crucible curse strikes champ". The Nation. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2007. ^ "Crucible Curse Strikes Ebdon". Sporting Life. 30 April 2003. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2007. ^ Jackson, Jamie (15 April 2011). "Australia's Neil Robertson aiming to break the curse of the Crucible". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2011. ^ a b c d e f Turner, Chris. "World Professional Championship". cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk. Chris Turner's Snooker Archive. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2011. ^ a b c d "Hall of Fame". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2014. ^ "1980 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1981 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1982 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1986 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1987 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1991 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1992 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1998 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1999 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "2001 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "2002 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "2003 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "2006 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "2007 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "Betfred.com World Championship (2011) – Round 1". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011. ^ "Betfred World Championship (2015) – Round 2". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015. ^ "Betfred World Championship (2016) – Round 1"". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2020. ^ "Betfred World Championship (2020) – Quarter Final"". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020. ^ "World Snooker Championship 2024 results: David Gilbert beats reigning champion Luca Brecel". BBC Sport. 20 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024. ^ Dirs, Ben (6 May 2013). "Ronnie O'Sullivan beats Barry Hawkins to win fifth World title". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013. ^ "1970 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1971 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1973 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010. ^ "1978 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ "1979 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. ^ "1983 World Championships Results". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014. vteWorld Snooker ChampionshipEarly events 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 Match-play 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 Challenges Apr 1964 Oct 1964 Mar 1965 Nov 1965 Dec 1965 Apr 1966 Mar 1968 Knock-outs 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 Crucible era 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 Related articles List of winners List of players Triple Crown Crucible Theatre Crucible curse World Professional Match-play Championship Black ball final (1985) Cue sports portal vteSnooker listsPlayersChampions World champions Ranking title winners Triple Crown winners Rankings World number ones Breaks Maximum breaks Century breaks Miscellaneous Players Match-fixing Crucible curse Other lists Glossary of cue sports terms Referees Class of '92 wins Tournaments ranking minor-ranking Triple Crown finals Cue sports portal vteSports-related cursesBaseball Curse of the Bambino Curse of the Billy Goat Curse of the Black Sox Curse of the Colonel Curse of Coogan's Bluff Curse of Rocky Colavito Ex-Cubs Factor American football Curse of Bobby Layne Heisman curse Lombardi curse Madden curse Super Bowl curse Ice hockey Curse of 1940 Curse of Muldoon Other sports Andretti curse Crucible curse Kennett curse Curse of LaBonte Colliwobbles City-wide curses Cleveland sports curse Curse of Billy Penn Gold Coast sports curse Miscellaneous Sports Illustrated cover jinx	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sports-related_curses"},{"link_name":"snooker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snooker"},{"link_name":"World Snooker Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Crucible Theatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crucible_Theatre"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"1979","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1979_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Terry Griffiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Griffiths"},{"link_name":"1980 event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1980_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Joe Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Johnson_(snooker_player)"},{"link_name":"Ken Doherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Doherty"},{"link_name":"2023","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2023_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Luca Brecel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Brecel"},{"link_name":"2024 World Snooker Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2024_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Kyren Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyren_Wilson"},{"link_name":"John Pulman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pulman"},{"link_name":"1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%E2%80%9368_World_Snooker_Championships"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk-4"}],"text":"The \"Crucible curse\" (also known as \"The curse of the Crucible\") is a quip in professional snooker, referring to the fact that no first-time winner of the World Snooker Championship has retained the title since the tournament moved to Sheffield's Crucible Theatre in 1977.[1][2][3] Beginning with the 1979 champion Terry Griffiths, who lost in the second round of the 1980 event, 19 first-time world champions have failed to defend their titles, although Joe Johnson and Ken Doherty made it to the final the year after their maiden victories. Most recently, the 2023 champion Luca Brecel lost in the first round of the 2024 World Snooker Championship. Kyren Wilson, winner of the 2024 event, is yet to attempt to break the Crucible curse.Several world champions successfully defended their first title in the pre-Crucible era; the last to do so was John Pulman in 1964.[4]","title":"Crucible curse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Terry Griffiths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Griffiths"},{"link_name":"Steve Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Davis"},{"link_name":"Dennis Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Graeme Dott","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graeme_Dott"},{"link_name":"Neil Robertson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil_Robertson"},{"link_name":"Stuart Bingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stuart_Bingham"},{"link_name":"Luca Brecel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luca_Brecel"},{"link_name":"Joe Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Johnson_(snooker_player)"},{"link_name":"Ken Doherty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Doherty"},{"link_name":"Steve Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steve_Davis"},{"link_name":"Stephen Hendry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hendry"},{"link_name":"Ronnie O'Sullivan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronnie_O%27Sullivan"},{"link_name":"Mark Selby","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Selby"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk-4"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The first-time world champions listed below all experienced the \"Crucible curse\", as they did not successfully defend their title at the following year's World Championship.Of the 19 players to have won their first world title at the Crucible Theatre, seven lost in their first match as defending champion: Terry Griffiths in 1980, Steve Davis in 1982, Dennis Taylor in 1986, Graeme Dott in 2007, Neil Robertson in 2011, Stuart Bingham in 2016 and Luca Brecel in 2024. Only two of the 19 were able to reach the final as defending champions: Joe Johnson in 1987 and Ken Doherty in 1998. Johnson came closest to breaking the curse, getting within four frames of retaining his crown, while Doherty came within six.Four players have won consecutive world titles at the Crucible (having already won the championship previously): Steve Davis (1983–1984 and 1987–1989), Stephen Hendry (1992–1996), Ronnie O'Sullivan (2012–2013), and Mark Selby (2016–2017).[4][25]","title":"The curse"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Joe Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe_Davis"},{"link_name":"1928","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1928_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"Fred Davis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Davis_(snooker_player)"},{"link_name":"1949","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949_World_Snooker_Championship"},{"link_name":"John Pulman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Pulman"},{"link_name":"first challenge match in 1964","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1964%E2%80%9368_World_Snooker_Championships"},{"link_name":"John Spencer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Spencer_(snooker_player)"},{"link_name":"Ray Reardon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ray_Reardon"},{"link_name":"Alex Higgins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Higgins"}],"text":"Out of all the first-time world snooker champions, only three retained their title at the next World Championship: Joe Davis in 1928, his brother Fred Davis in 1949, and John Pulman at his first challenge match in 1964. No player in the modern era (post-1969) has successfully defended a first world title, even before the tournament was staged at the Crucible Theatre.John Spencer, Ray Reardon and Alex Higgins won the World Championship for the first time before the event was moved to the Crucible in 1977, and failed to retain the title the following year (although this could not be attributed to the \"Crucible curse\"). All three players subsequently won the championship at the Crucible for the first time, but then fell to the \"curse\" when they failed to successfully defend the title the following year.","title":"Pre-Crucible"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"}],"text":"^ Griffiths, along with the other top 8 seeds, received a bye in the first round, thus the second round was his first match.","title":"Notes"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Dee, John (28 April 2006). \"Cruise for Ebdon as Crucible curse strikes champ\". The Nation. Archived from the original on 14 July 2007. Retrieved 21 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070714093907/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2006/04/28/sport/sport_30002733.php","url_text":"\"Cruise for Ebdon as Crucible curse strikes champ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Nation_(Thailand)","url_text":"The Nation"},{"url":"http://nationmultimedia.com/2006/04/28/sport/sport_30002733.php","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Crucible Curse Strikes Ebdon\". Sporting Life. 30 April 2003. Archived from the original on 16 July 2011. Retrieved 21 April 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716052004/http://www.sportinglife.com/snooker/worldchampionships2003/news/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=snooker%2F03%2F04%2F30%2FSNOOKER_World_2nd_Nightlead.html","url_text":"\"Crucible Curse Strikes Ebdon\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporting_Life_(British_newspaper)","url_text":"Sporting Life"},{"url":"http://www.sportinglife.com/snooker/worldchampionships2003/news/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=snooker/03/04/30/SNOOKER_World_2nd_Nightlead.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Jackson, Jamie (15 April 2011). \"Australia's Neil Robertson aiming to break the curse of the Crucible\". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 20 April 2014. Retrieved 23 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/apr/15/neil-robertson-crucible-trump-judd","url_text":"\"Australia's Neil Robertson aiming to break the curse of the Crucible\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Guardian","url_text":"The Guardian"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140420043656/http://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/apr/15/neil-robertson-crucible-trump-judd","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Turner, Chris. \"World Professional Championship\". cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk. Chris Turner's Snooker Archive. Archived from the original on 16 April 2013. Retrieved 21 April 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130416080933/http://www.cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/world.html","url_text":"\"World Professional Championship\""},{"url":"http://www.cajt.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/world.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hall of Fame\". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 28 July 2019. Retrieved 19 April 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snooker.org/Trn/hof.asp?pEvent=World","url_text":"\"Hall of Fame\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190728220548/http://www.snooker.org/trn/hof.asp?pEvent=World","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1980 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=32","url_text":"\"1980 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140505231708/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=32","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1981 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=31","url_text":"\"1981 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314050012/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=31","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1982 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=30","url_text":"\"1982 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314050039/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=30","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1986 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=26","url_text":"\"1986 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314050048/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=26","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1987 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=25","url_text":"\"1987 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140506005748/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=25","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1991 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=21","url_text":"\"1991 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140506014430/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=21","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1992 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=20","url_text":"\"1992 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314050135/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=20","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1998 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 March 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=14","url_text":"\"1998 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20120314050141/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=14","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1999 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=13","url_text":"\"1999 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204031413/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=13","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2001 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=11","url_text":"\"2001 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204032604/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=11","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2002 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=10","url_text":"\"2002 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204050151/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=10","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2003 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=9","url_text":"\"2003 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204022740/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=9","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2006 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=4","url_text":"\"2006 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204041115/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=4","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"2007 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 4 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=3","url_text":"\"2007 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131204023626/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=3","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Betfred.com World Championship (2011) – Round 1\". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=28","url_text":"\"Betfred.com World Championship (2011) – Round 1\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110420135616/http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=28","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Betfred World Championship (2015) – Round 2\". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 25 March 2015. Retrieved 24 April 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=367#r8","url_text":"\"Betfred World Championship (2015) – Round 2\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150325155156/http://snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=367#r8","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Betfred World Championship (2016) – Round 1\"\". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 4 May 2016. Retrieved 18 January 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=416","url_text":"\"Betfred World Championship (2016) – Round 1\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160504222430/http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=416","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Betfred World Championship (2020) – Quarter Final\"\". Snooker.org. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 11 August 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=842","url_text":"\"Betfred World Championship (2020) – Quarter Final\"\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200815081743/http://www.snooker.org/res/index.asp?event=842","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"World Snooker Championship 2024 results: David Gilbert beats reigning champion Luca Brecel\". BBC Sport. 20 April 2024. Retrieved 21 April 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/sport/snooker/68860600","url_text":"\"World Snooker Championship 2024 results: David Gilbert beats reigning champion Luca Brecel\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Sport","url_text":"BBC Sport"}]},{"reference":"Dirs, Ben (6 May 2013). \"Ronnie O'Sullivan beats Barry Hawkins to win fifth World title\". BBC Sport. Archived from the original on 6 May 2013. Retrieved 6 May 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/snooker/22421611","url_text":"\"Ronnie O'Sullivan beats Barry Hawkins to win fifth World title\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Sport","url_text":"BBC Sport"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130506023217/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/snooker/22421611","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1970 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=42","url_text":"\"1970 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140505231021/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=42","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1971 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 5 May 2014. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=41","url_text":"\"1971 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140505233237/http://www.snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=41","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1973 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 14 December 2013. Retrieved 28 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=39","url_text":"\"1973 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131214163417/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=39","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1978 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=34","url_text":"\"1978 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141208224713/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=34","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1979 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=33","url_text":"\"1979 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141208223514/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=33","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"1983 World Championships Results\". Snooker Database. Archived from the original on 8 December 2014. Retrieved 6 December 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=29","url_text":"\"1983 World Championships Results\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141208224306/http://snookerdatabase.co.uk/EventResults.aspx?EventKey=29","url_text":"Archived"}]}]	[{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20070714093907/http://www.nationmultimedia.com/2006/04/28/sport/sport_30002733.php","external_links_name":"\"Cruise for Ebdon as Crucible curse strikes champ\""},{"Link":"http://nationmultimedia.com/2006/04/28/sport/sport_30002733.php","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110716052004/http://www.sportinglife.com/snooker/worldchampionships2003/news/story_get.cgi?STORY_NAME=snooker%2F03%2F04%2F30%2FSNOOKER_World_2nd_Nightlead.html","external_links_name":"\"Crucible Curse Strikes 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Caledonia%27s_1st_constituency	New Caledonia's 1st constituency	["1 Deputies","2 Election results","2.1 2022","2.2 2017","2.3 2012","2.4 2007","3 References","4 Sources"]	Constituency of the French Fifth Republic 1st constituency of New CaledoniainlineConstituency of the National Assembly of FranceThe constituency in New CaledoniaDeputyPhilippe DunoyerCEDepartmentNew CaledoniaCantonsLoyalty Islands, communes of Nouméa and Île des PinsRegistered voters116,984 Politics of France Political parties Elections Previous Next The 1st constituency of New Caledonia is a French legislative constituency in New Caledonia. Between 1958 and 1962, the constituency represented all of the New Hebrides condominium and New Caledonia until a redistricting in 1978 created the 2nd constituency. Between 1978 and a new redistricting in 1986, the first constituency represented the Kanak-populated eastern shore of the main island in addition to the Loyalty Islands. Since 1986, the constituency is composed of the Caldoche-populated loyalist stronghold of Nouméa and the strongly nationalist Kanak-populated Loyalty Islands. Due to this makeup in which loyalist-voting Nouméa far outnumbers the sparsely populated islands, the constituency is strongly loyalist. Deputies Election Member Party 1988 Jacques Lafleur RPCR 1993 1997 2002 2007 Gaël Yanno 2012 Sonia Lagarde UDI/CE 2017 Philippe Dunoyer CE 2022 Election results 2022 Legislative Election 2022: New Caledonia's 1st constituency Party Candidate Votes % ±% Ensemble (Ensemble) Philippe Dunoyer 11,982 40.83 +12.95 FLNKS Walisaune Wahetra 6,360 21.67 +10.57 LR (UDC) Virginie Ruffenach 4,102 13.98 -0.07 DVD Pascal Lafleur 2,171 7.40 N/A RN Guy-Olivier Cuénot 1,941 6.61 -0.14 DVC Joël Kasarherou 1,461 4.98 N/A LP (UPF) Jérémy Simon 686 2.34 N/A DVD Antoine Gil 645 2.20 N/A Turnout 29,348 31.02 -2.92 2nd round result Ensemble (Ensemble) Philippe Dunoyer 25,652 66.40 +7.25 FLNKS Walisaune Wahetra 12,979 40.98 N/A Turnout 38,631 40.98 +2.97 Ensemble hold 2017 Candidate Label First round Second round Votes % Votes % Philippe Dunoyer CT (DVD) 7,780 27.88 17,744 59.15 Sonia Backès DVD 4,821 17.27 12,256 40.85 Gaël Yanno DVD 4,425 15.86 Bernard Deladrière LR 3,921 14.05 Charles Washetine REG 2,820 10.10 Lina Balmelli FN 1,884 6.75 Louis Manta FI 659 2.36 Germaine Nemia-Bishop REG 389 1.39 Alain Descombels DVD 367 1.32 Philippe Gras DVD 342 1.23 Macate Wenehoua REG 297 1.06 Michel Hanocque DIV 203 0.73 Votes 27,908 100.00 30,000 100.00 Valid votes 27,908 96.58 30,000 92.70 Blank votes 753 2.61 1,703 5.26 Null votes 234 0.81 660 2.04 Turnout 28,895 33.94 32,363 38.01 Abstentions 56,253 66.06 52,783 61.99 Registered voters 85,148 85,146 Source: Ministry of the Interior 2012 2012 legislative election in New Caledonia's 1st constituency Candidate Party First round Second round Votes % Votes % Gaël Yanno UMP 10,880 30.96% 14,811 46.07% Sonia Lagarde DVD 9,405 26.76% 17,340 53.93% Robert-Wienie Xowie 5,905 16.80% Isabelle Lafleur DVD 3,697 10.52% Pierre Aube FN 1,743 4.96% Stéphane Henocque ?? 1,616 4.60% Michel Jorda PS 1,272 3.62% Richard Sio FG 627 1.78% Valid votes 35,145 98.27% 32,151 91.67% Spoilt and null votes 620 1.73% 2,922 8.33% Votes cast / turnout 35,765 46.78% 35,073 45.90% Abstentions 40,688 53.22% 41,333 54.10% Registered voters 76,453 100.00% 76,406 100.00% 2007 Legislative Election 2007: New Caledonia 1st - 2nd round Party Candidate Votes % ±% UMP Gaël Yanno 26,732 69.21 FLNKS Charles Washetine 11,891 30.79 Turnout 38,623 57.73 UMP hold Swing References ^ l'Intérieur, Ministère de. "Résultats des élections législatives 2022" (in French). Retrieved 2022-12-04. Sources Official results of French elections from 1998: "Résultats électoraux officiels en France" (in French). vteConstituencies of the French National Assembly (2012–present)Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes Ain 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Allier 1st 2nd 3rd Ardèche 1st 2nd 3rd Cantal 1st 2nd Drôme 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Haute-Loire 1st 2nd Haute-Savoie 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Isère 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Loire 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Puy-de-Dôme 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Rhône 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th Savoie 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Bourgogne-Franche-Comté Côte-d'Or 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Doubs 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Haute-Saône 1st 2nd Jura 1st 2nd 3rd Nièvre 1st 2nd Saône-et-Loire 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Territoire de Belfort 1st 2nd Yonne 1st 2nd 3rd Brittany Cotes-d'Armor 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Finistère 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Ille-et-Vilaine 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Morbihan 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Centre-Val de Loire Cher 1st 2nd 3rd Eure-et-Loir 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Indre 1st 2nd Indre-et-Loire 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Loir-et-Cher 1st 2nd 3rd Loiret 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Corsica Corse-du-Sud 1st 2nd Haute-Corse 1st 2nd Grand Est Ardennes 1st 2nd 3rd Aube 1st 2nd 3rd Bas-Rhin 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Haute-Marne 1st 2nd Haut-Rhin 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Marne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Meurthe-et-Moselle 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Meuse 1st 2nd Moselle 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Vosges 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Hauts-de-France Aisne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Nord 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th 19th 20th 21st Oise 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Pas-de-Calais 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Somme 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Île-de-France Essonne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Hauts-de-Seine 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th Paris 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th 17th 18th Seine-et-Marne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th Seine-Saint-Denis 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Val-d'Oise 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Val-de-Marne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th Yvelines 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Normandy Eure 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Calvados 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Manche 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Orne 1st 2nd 3rd Seine-Maritime 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Nouvelle-Aquitaine Charente 1st 2nd 3rd Charente-Maritime 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Corrèze 1st 2nd Creuse Deux-Sèvres 1st 2nd 3rd Dordogne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Gironde 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th Haute-Vienne 1st 2nd 3rd Landes 1st 2nd 3rd Lot-et-Garonne 1st 2nd 3rd Pyrénées-Atlantiques 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Vienne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Occitanie‎ Ariège 1st 2nd Aude 1st 2nd 3rd Aveyron 1st 2nd 3rd Gard 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th Gers 1st 2nd Haute-Garonne 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Hautes-Pyrénées 1st 2nd Hérault 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Lot 1st 2nd Lozère Pyrénées-Orientales 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Tarn 1st 2nd 3rd Tarn-et-Garonne 1st 2nd Pays de la Loire Loire-Atlantique 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th Maine-et-Loire 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Mayenne 1st 2nd 3rd Sarthe 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Vendée 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Alpes-de-Haute-Provence 1st 2nd Alpes-Maritimes 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Bouches-du-Rhône 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th 12th 13th 14th 15th 16th Hautes-Alpes 1st 2nd Var 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th Vaucluse 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Overseas French Guiana 1st 2nd French Polynesia 1st 2nd 3rd Guadeloupe 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Martinique 1st 2nd 3rd 4th Mayotte 1st 2nd New Caledonia 1st 2nd Réunion 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th Saint Barthélemy and Saint-Martin 1st Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon 1st Wallis and Futuna 1st Overseas citizens 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th 10th 11th Abolished constituencies (2010 redistricting) Allier 4th Charente 4th Creuse 1st 2nd Deux-Sèvres 4th 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redistricting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_redistricting_of_French_legislative_constituencies"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allier%27s_4th_constituency"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charente%27s_4th_constituency"},{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creuse%27s_1st_constituency"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creuse%27s_2nd_constituency"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deux-S%C3%A8vres%27s_4th_constituency"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haute-Sa%C3%B4ne%27s_3rd_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hautes-Pyr%C3%A9n%C3%A9es%27s_3rd_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haute-Vienne%27s_4th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haut-Rhin%27s_7th_constituency"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Indre%27s_3rd_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loire%27s_7th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"1st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loz%C3%A8re%27s_1st_constituency"},{"link_name":"2nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loz%C3%A8re%27s_2nd_constituency"},{"link_name":"5th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manche%27s_5th_constituency"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marne%27s_6th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"7th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meurthe-et-Moselle%27s_7th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"10th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moselle%27s_10th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"3rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ni%C3%A8vre%27s_3rd_constituency"},{"link_name":"22nd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord%27s_22nd_constituency"},{"link_name":"23rd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord%27s_23rd_constituency"},{"link_name":"24th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nord%27s_24th_constituency"},{"link_name":"19th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%27s_19th_constituency"},{"link_name":"20th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%27s_20th_constituency"},{"link_name":"21st","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris%27s_21st_constituency"},{"link_name":"13th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas-de-Calais%27_13th_constituency"},{"link_name":"14th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pas-de-Calais%27_14th_constituency"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puy-de-D%C3%B4me%27s_6th_constituency"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%C3%B4ne-et-Loire%27s_6th_constituency"},{"link_name":"11th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seine-Maritime%27s_11th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"12th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seine-Maritime%27s_12th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"13th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seine-Saint-Denis%27s_13th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"6th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Somme%27s_6th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"4th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tarn%27s_4th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"12th","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Val-de-Marne%27s_12th_constituency&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"Official results of French elections from 1998: \"Résultats électoraux officiels en France\" (in French).vteConstituencies of the French National Assembly (2012–present)Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes\nAin\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nAllier\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nArdèche\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nCantal\n1st\n2nd\nDrôme\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nHaute-Loire\n1st\n2nd\nHaute-Savoie\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nIsère\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nLoire\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nPuy-de-Dôme\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nRhône\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\nSavoie\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nBourgogne-Franche-Comté\nCôte-d'Or\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nDoubs\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nHaute-Saône\n1st\n2nd\nJura\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nNièvre\n1st\n2nd\nSaône-et-Loire\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nTerritoire de Belfort\n1st\n2nd\nYonne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nBrittany\nCotes-d'Armor\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nFinistère\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\nIlle-et-Vilaine\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\nMorbihan\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nCentre-Val de Loire\nCher\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nEure-et-Loir\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nIndre\n1st\n2nd\nIndre-et-Loire\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nLoir-et-Cher\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nLoiret\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nCorsica\nCorse-du-Sud\n1st\n2nd\nHaute-Corse\n1st\n2nd\nGrand Est\nArdennes\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nAube\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nBas-Rhin\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\nHaute-Marne\n1st\n2nd\nHaut-Rhin\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nMarne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nMeurthe-et-Moselle\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nMeuse\n1st\n2nd\nMoselle\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\nVosges\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nHauts-de-France\nAisne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nNord\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\n17th\n18th\n19th\n20th\n21st\nOise\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\nPas-de-Calais\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\nSomme\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nÎle-de-France\nEssonne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nHauts-de-Seine\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\nParis\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\n17th\n18th\nSeine-et-Marne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\nSeine-Saint-Denis\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\nVal-d'Oise\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nVal-de-Marne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\nYvelines\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\nNormandy\nEure\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nCalvados\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nManche\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nOrne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nSeine-Maritime\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nNouvelle-Aquitaine\nCharente\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nCharente-Maritime\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nCorrèze\n1st\n2nd\nCreuse\nDeux-Sèvres\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nDordogne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nGironde\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\nHaute-Vienne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nLandes\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nLot-et-Garonne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nPyrénées-Atlantiques\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nVienne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nOccitanie‎\nAriège\n1st\n2nd\nAude\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nAveyron\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nGard\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\nGers\n1st\n2nd\nHaute-Garonne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nHautes-Pyrénées\n1st\n2nd\nHérault\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\nLot\n1st\n2nd\nLozère\nPyrénées-Orientales\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nTarn\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nTarn-et-Garonne\n1st\n2nd\nPays de la Loire\nLoire-Atlantique\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\nMaine-et-Loire\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\nMayenne\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nSarthe\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nVendée\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nProvence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur\nAlpes-de-Haute-Provence\n1st\n2nd\nAlpes-Maritimes\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\nBouches-du-Rhône\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\n12th\n13th\n14th\n15th\n16th\nHautes-Alpes\n1st\n2nd\nVar\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\nVaucluse\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\nOverseas\nFrench Guiana\n1st\n2nd\nFrench Polynesia\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\nGuadeloupe\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nMartinique\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\nMayotte\n1st\n2nd\nNew Caledonia\n1st\n2nd\nRéunion\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\nSaint Barthélemy and Saint-Martin\n1st\nSaint-Pierre-et-Miquelon\n1st\nWallis and Futuna\n1st\nOverseas citizens\n1st\n2nd\n3rd\n4th\n5th\n6th\n7th\n8th\n9th\n10th\n11th\nAbolished constituencies (2010 redistricting)\nAllier\n4th\nCharente\n4th\nCreuse\n1st\n2nd\nDeux-Sèvres\n4th\nHaute-Saône\n3rd\nHautes-Pyrénées\n3rd\nHaute-Vienne\n4th\nHaut-Rhin\n7th\nIndre\n3rd\nLoire\n7th\nLozère\n1st\n2nd\nManche\n5th\nMarne\n6th\nMeurthe-et-Moselle\n7th\nMoselle\n10th\nNièvre\n3rd\nNord\n22nd\n23rd\n24th\nParis\n19th\n20th\n21st\nPas-de-Calais\n13th\n14th\nPuy-de-Dôme\n6th\nSaône-et-Loire\n6th\nSeine-Maritime\n11th\n12th\nSeine-Saint-Denis\n13th\nSomme\n6th\nTarn\n4th\nVal-de-Marne\n12th","title":"Sources"}]	[{"image_text":"inline","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/c/c3/Flag_of_France.svg/50px-Flag_of_France.svg.png"}]	null	[{"reference":"l'Intérieur, Ministère de. \"Résultats des élections législatives 2022\" (in French). Retrieved 2022-12-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/Elections/Les-resultats/Legislatives/elecresult__legislatives-2022","url_text":"\"Résultats des élections législatives 2022\""}]},{"reference":"\"Résultats électoraux officiels en France\" (in French).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/elections/resultats","url_text":"\"Résultats électoraux officiels en France\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://www.interieur.gouv.fr/Elections/Les-resultats/Legislatives/elecresult__legislatives-2017/(path)/legislatives-2017/988/98801.html","external_links_name":"Ministry of the Interior"},{"Link":"http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/Elections/Les-resultats/Legislatives/elecresult__legislatives-2022","external_links_name":"\"Résultats des élections législatives 2022\""},{"Link":"http://www.interieur.gouv.fr/sections/a_votre_service/elections/resultats","external_links_name":"\"Résultats électoraux officiels en France\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Go_On_(Uverworld_song)	Go On (Uverworld song)	["1 Track listing","1.1 CD","1.2 DVD","2 Personnel"]	This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Go On" Uverworld song – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 2009 single by Uverworld"Go-On"Single by Uverworldfrom the album Last Released5 August 2009GenreRockLabelgr8! recordsSongwriter(s)Akira, TAKUYA∞Uverworld singles chronology "Hakanaku mo Towa no Kanashi" (2008) "Go-On" (2009) "Kanashimi wa Kitto" (2009) "Go-On" is a Japanese-language song by Uverworld. It is the band's 13th single and was released on 5 August 2009. GO-ON is the 2nd ending theme of the drama, Dr. House. Go-On's Oricon Weekly Ranking is #2 and sold a total of 53k copies which is a little more than 恋いしくて which is a non tie-up. Despite this, the single was well received by fans and pretty much a solid single itself. The limited edition and regular comes with one of the 4 different stickers. Track listing CD "Go-On" "The Truth" "Madara Chou" (マダラ蝶) DVD Uverworld Classics Vol.1 Prime: The Jump Clips Uverworld 2009 Trailer Personnel TAKUYA∞ - vocals, rap, programming Katsuya - guitar, programming Akira - guitar, programming Nobuto - bass guitar Shintarou - drums	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"恋いしくて","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%81%8B%E3%81%84%E3%81%97%E3%81%8F%E3%81%A6"}],"text":"2009 single by Uverworld\"Go-On\" is a Japanese-language song by Uverworld. It is the band's 13th single and was released on 5 August 2009. GO-ON is the 2nd ending theme of the drama, Dr. House. Go-On's Oricon Weekly Ranking is #2 and sold a total of 53k copies which is a little more than 恋いしくて which is a non tie-up. Despite this, the single was well received by fans and pretty much a solid single itself. The limited edition and regular comes with one of the 4 different stickers.","title":"Go On (Uverworld song)"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"CD","text":"\"Go-On\"\n\"The Truth\"\n\"Madara Chou\" (マダラ蝶)","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"DVD","text":"Uverworld Classics Vol.1 Prime: The Jump Clips\nUverworld 2009 Trailer","title":"Track listing"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"TAKUYA∞ - vocals, rap, programming\nKatsuya - guitar, programming\nAkira - guitar, programming\nNobuto - bass guitar\nShintarou - drums","title":"Personnel"}]	[]	null	[]	[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song","external_links_name":"\"Go On\" Uverworld song"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Go+On%22+Uverworld+song&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Lake_(film)	Spanish Lake (film)	["1 Background and development","2 Summary","3 Controversy","4 Critical reception","5 Soundtrack","6 Legacy","7 References"]	2014 American filmSpanish LakeTheatrical film posterDirected byPhillip Andrew MortonProduced byPhillip Andrew MortonMatt Jordan SmithCinematographyAlden SargentMusic byPhillip Andrew MortonJustin BellChris ThomProductioncompaniesAmberdale Productions Spanish Lake Film ProductionRelease date June 13, 2014 (2014-06-13) (United States) Running time78 minutesCountryUnited StatesLanguageEnglish Spanish Lake is a 2014 American documentary film directed by Phillip Andrew Morton and co-produced by Phillip Andrew Morton and Matt Jordan Smith. The film premiered theatrically in St. Louis, Missouri on June 13, 2014. The documentary chronicles the area of Spanish Lake, Missouri and its transformation from a 1950s white suburb to a mostly black population through a process known as white flight. The themes of the film parallel America's growing political divide, underlying racism, and rise of anti-government sentiment. After strong ticket sales in St. Louis, the film received a limited release in Los Angeles and Dallas. Further theatrical expansion was halted in St. Louis in August 2014 after the shooting of Mike Brown in Ferguson, Missouri. Due to racial tensions in the city, Wehrenberg Theatres pulled the film from its planned release on September 5, 2014. The suppression of the film led to national media coverage, including an article by Deadline Hollywood. Spanish Lake was released to Video on demand on October 21, 2014, to critical acclaim. The DVD release came a month later on November 15, 2014. Background and development The idea for the project germinated from a visit director Phillip Andrew Morton took to his childhood home in Spanish Lake in September 2007. Finding the house abandoned as well as his school and church, he began to research the history of white flight in the St. Louis metropolitan area. Using his own money to launch the project, Spanish Lake began filming in April 2011 after Morton saw a Facebook event announcing the reunion of a group of former residents of Spanish Lake. Further funding for the film was found via a Kickstarter campaign in June 2011. Filming wrapped up in May 2013. Summary Spanish Lake was named after the Spanish troops who stayed there while building a fortified post for Spain in 1768. The first American military installation in the Louisiana Territory, Fort Bellefontaine, was built there after famed explorers Lewis & Clark camped on the land at the start and end of their trip (1804–1806). Spanish Lake was a rural farming community for many years, until the 1950s when neighborhoods of tract housing were built. The area became a rural refuge from St. Louis city and received an exclusively white population. The 1970s saw the proliferation of dense apartment housing to Spanish Lake. African-Americans fleeing the failed Pruitt-Igoe public housing high rises in the city moved into the apartments via the Section 8 voucher system which immediately struck racial tensions in the area, particularly in local schools. The 1990s saw a mass exodus of the white population, spurred on by blockbusting, a practice some U.S. real estate agents use to encourage white property owners to sell their houses quickly at a loss, implying the African-Americans moving into their neighborhood will depress their property values. The film begins in 2011, when a group of former residents known as the “Lakers”, revisit Spanish Lake for a reunion. Controversy Spanish Lake was quick to receive attention from the St. Louis media, as early as 2012 when many news stations announced its filming. The strong buzz surrounded the controversial subject matter of white flight, a topic that received little coverage due to its taboo nature. The trailer for the film was noticeably controversial as one interviewee states that some people would say: “I don’t have a problem with black people, it’s just niggers.” Two months after its release, Mike Brown was shot by police in Ferguson, a neighboring suburb only eight miles away from Spanish Lake. The controversy of the film, the proximity of the two areas, and the ensuing Ferguson riots led to Wehrenberg Theatres banning the film from their theaters in August 2014. The films’ producer said to the Riverfront Times that the theater chain was “afraid of showing a film that shines a spotlight on the issues underlying the issues that are happening in Ferguson”. Critical reception Spanish Lake received positive response from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 80% of 5 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 8.1 out of 10. A June 2014 Huffington Post review called Spanish Lake “an honest film....and it isn’t always pretty.” Michael O’Sullivan of the Washington Post said “it feels like a portrait of America” and “it is likely that the racial tension in Spanish Lake shares a root system with what’s happening eight miles away in Ferguson.” A Village Voice review called the film “revelatory and urgently relevant” and “captures something rarely seen on screen: The way many white people act just before they say something about race that they think maybe they shouldn’t.” Writer Peter Keough of The Boston Globe reviewed Spanish Lake as “a thoughtful, even-handed account of the rise and fall of the title Missouri community.” Scott Mendelson of Forbes listed the film on his “Great Films You Missed in 2014”. Soundtrack - The Hookman - “This Is My Life” (music and lyrics by John Lechner) Legacy In May 2014, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development hosted a screening of the film at their national headquarters in Washington, D.C. After the Ferguson riots, the film was screened by many prestigious schools such as Washington University in St. Louis. UCLA has used the film in their Urban Planning courses. References ^ "New documentary explores white flight". Retrieved April 27, 2015. ^ "Home". SPANISH LAKE. ^ "Spanish LakeWeHoNews". ^ Williams, Patrick (27 August 2014). "Spanish Lake Tells a Story about Race That's Familiar in Dallas, Ferguson and Everywhere". ^ "The Ferguson Effect: Wehrenberg Theaters Pulls Documentary About Race in St. Louis County - News Blog - St. Louis News and Events - Riverfront Times". ^ Busch, Anita (17 October 2014). "Ferguson-Related Docu Banned By St. Louis Theater Heads To VOD Amid Racial Tension". ^ "Spanish Lake on iTunes". iTunes. ^ "Spanish Lake: Special Edition DVD". admin.shoptab.net. Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ a b c ^ a b SPANISH LAKE - Race, Class and White Flight in Missouri Documentary. 2014-09-05. Retrieved 2015-04-27 – via YouTube. ^ "Spanish Lake". Kickstarter. Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ Luttig, John C. (1920). Stella Madeleine Drumm (ed.). Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812-1813. Kansas City, MO: The Missouri Historical Society. ^ "LA filmmaker tackles "white flight" in Spanish Lake". Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ Spanish Lake - TRAILER (2014) , 2014-06-09, retrieved 2015-04-27 ^ "'Spanish Lake' film pulled from local theaters". Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ Spanish Lake, 2014-06-13, retrieved 2015-04-27 ^ "St. Louis' Spanish Lake, White Flight, and the Shrinking of the American Middle Class". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ "The". Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ Scherstuhl, Alan. "How Ferguson became Ferguson: Urgent Doc Spanish Lake Tracks a St. Louis Suburb's Shift from White to Black". Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ Peter Keough (November 1, 2014). "Silent witness at the Harvard Film Archive". Boston Globe. Retrieved 26 May 2016. ^ Mendelson, Scott. "'Belle,' 'Step Up,' And 12 Great Films You Missed In 2014". Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ "Producer/Director Phillip Andrew Morton Talks White Flight in New Film Spanish Lake". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ "Film screening: "Spanish Lake" \| WashU Voices: Ferguson and Beyond \|". Retrieved 2015-04-27. ^ "Housing Class2014 REVISED syllabus" (PDF). 164.67.121.27. Retrieved 2015-04-27.	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"documentary film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentary_film"},{"link_name":"St. Louis, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Spanish Lake, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_Lake,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"suburb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suburb"},{"link_name":"white flight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_flight"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Mike Brown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shooting_of_Michael_Brown"},{"link_name":"Ferguson, Missouri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferguson,_Missouri"},{"link_name":"Wehrenberg Theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrenberg_Theatres"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Deadline Hollywood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deadline_Hollywood"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Video on demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_on_demand"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Spanish Lake is a 2014 American documentary film directed by Phillip Andrew Morton and co-produced by Phillip Andrew Morton and Matt Jordan Smith. The film premiered theatrically in St. Louis, Missouri on June 13, 2014.[1] The documentary chronicles the area of Spanish Lake, Missouri and its transformation from a 1950s white suburb to a mostly black population through a process known as white flight. The themes of the film parallel America's growing political divide, underlying racism, and rise of anti-government sentiment.[2]After strong ticket sales in St. Louis, the film received a limited release in Los Angeles and Dallas.[3][4] Further theatrical expansion was halted in St. Louis in August 2014 after the shooting of Mike Brown in Ferguson, Missouri. Due to racial tensions in the city, Wehrenberg Theatres pulled the film from its planned release on September 5, 2014.[5] The suppression of the film led to national media coverage, including an article by Deadline Hollywood.[6] Spanish Lake was released to Video on demand on October 21, 2014, to critical acclaim.[7] The DVD release came a month later on November 15, 2014.[8]","title":"Spanish Lake (film)"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"St. Louis metropolitan area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Louis_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"},{"link_name":"Kickstarter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kickstarter"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-10"}],"text":"The idea for the project germinated from a visit director Phillip Andrew Morton took to his childhood home in Spanish Lake in September 2007.[9] Finding the house abandoned as well as his school and church, he began to research the history of white flight in the St. Louis metropolitan area.[9] Using his own money to launch the project, Spanish Lake began filming in April 2011 after Morton saw a Facebook event announcing the reunion of a group of former residents of Spanish Lake.[10] Further funding for the film was found via a Kickstarter campaign in June 2011.[11] Filming wrapped up in May 2013.[10]","title":"Background and development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Louisiana Territory, Fort Bellefontaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Bellefontaine"},{"link_name":"Lewis & Clark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lewis_and_Clark_Expedition"},{"link_name":"Pruitt-Igoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pruitt-Igoe"},{"link_name":"Section 8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Section_8_(housing)"},{"link_name":"blockbusting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blockbusting"},{"link_name":"real estate agents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate_agents"}],"text":"Spanish Lake was named after the Spanish troops who stayed there while building a fortified post for Spain in 1768.[12] The first American military installation in the Louisiana Territory, Fort Bellefontaine, was built there after famed explorers Lewis & Clark camped on the land at the start and end of their trip (1804–1806). Spanish Lake was a rural farming community for many years, until the 1950s when neighborhoods of tract housing were built. The area became a rural refuge from St. Louis city and received an exclusively white population. The 1970s saw the proliferation of dense apartment housing to Spanish Lake. African-Americans fleeing the failed Pruitt-Igoe public housing high rises in the city moved into the apartments via the Section 8 voucher system which immediately struck racial tensions in the area, particularly in local schools. The 1990s saw a mass exodus of the white population, spurred on by blockbusting, a practice some U.S. real estate agents use to encourage white property owners to sell their houses quickly at a loss, implying the African-Americans moving into their neighborhood will depress their property values. The film begins in 2011, when a group of former residents known as the “Lakers”, revisit Spanish Lake for a reunion.","title":"Summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-9"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Wehrenberg Theatres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wehrenberg_Theatres"},{"link_name":"Riverfront Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverfront_Times"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"Spanish Lake was quick to receive attention from the St. Louis media, as early as 2012 when many news stations announced its filming.[9] The strong buzz surrounded the controversial subject matter of white flight, a topic that received little coverage due to its taboo nature.[13]The trailer for the film was noticeably controversial as one interviewee states that some people would say: “I don’t have a problem with black people, it’s just niggers.”[14]Two months after its release, Mike Brown was shot by police in Ferguson, a neighboring suburb only eight miles away from Spanish Lake. The controversy of the film, the proximity of the two areas, and the ensuing Ferguson riots led to Wehrenberg Theatres banning the film from their theaters in August 2014. The films’ producer said to the Riverfront Times that the theater chain was “afraid of showing a film that shines a spotlight on the issues underlying the issues that are happening in Ferguson”.[15]","title":"Controversy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Huffington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huffington_Post"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Washington Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_Post"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Village Voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Village_Voice"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"The Boston Globe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Boston_Globe"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"Spanish Lake received positive response from critics. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 80% of 5 film critics have given the film a positive review, with a rating average of 8.1 out of 10.[16]A June 2014 Huffington Post review called Spanish Lake “an honest film....and it isn’t always pretty.”[17] Michael O’Sullivan of the Washington Post said “it feels like a portrait of America” and “it is likely that the racial tension in Spanish Lake shares a root system with what’s happening eight miles away in Ferguson.”[18] A Village Voice review called the film “revelatory and urgently relevant” and “captures something rarely seen on screen: The way many white people act just before they say something about race that they think maybe they shouldn’t.”[19] Writer Peter Keough of The Boston Globe reviewed Spanish Lake as “a thoughtful, even-handed account of the rise and fall of the title Missouri community.”[20]Scott Mendelson of Forbes listed the film on his “Great Films You Missed in 2014”.[21]","title":"Critical reception"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"- The Hookman - “This Is My Life” (music and lyrics by John Lechner)","title":"Soundtrack"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Department of Housing and Urban Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Housing_and_Urban_Development"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Washington University in St. Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_University_in_St._Louis"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"UCLA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCLA"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"In May 2014, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development hosted a screening of the film at their national headquarters in Washington, D.C.[22] After the Ferguson riots, the film was screened by many prestigious schools such as Washington University in St. Louis.[23] UCLA has used the film in their Urban Planning courses.[24]","title":"Legacy"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"New documentary explores white flight\". Retrieved April 27, 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/new-documentary-explores-white-flight-spanishlake","url_text":"\"New documentary explores white flight\""}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". SPANISH LAKE.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.spanishlakefilm.com/","url_text":"\"Home\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spanish LakeWeHoNews\".","urls":[{"url":"http://wehonews.com/tag/spanish-lake/","url_text":"\"Spanish LakeWeHoNews\""}]},{"reference":"Williams, Patrick (27 August 2014). \"Spanish Lake Tells a Story about Race That's Familiar in Dallas, Ferguson and Everywhere\".","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.dallasobserver.com/mixmaster/2014/08/spanish_lake_race_ferguson_dallas.php","url_text":"\"Spanish Lake Tells a Story about Race That's Familiar in Dallas, Ferguson and Everywhere\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Ferguson Effect: Wehrenberg Theaters Pulls Documentary About Race in St. Louis County - News Blog - St. Louis News and Events - Riverfront Times\".","urls":[{"url":"http://blogs.riverfronttimes.com/dailyrft/2014/08/the_ferguson_effect_wehrenberg_theaters_pulls_documentary_about_race_in_st_louis_county.php","url_text":"\"The Ferguson Effect: Wehrenberg Theaters Pulls Documentary About Race in St. Louis County - News Blog - St. Louis News and Events - Riverfront Times\""}]},{"reference":"Busch, Anita (17 October 2014). \"Ferguson-Related Docu Banned By St. Louis Theater Heads To VOD Amid Racial Tension\".","urls":[{"url":"https://deadline.com/2014/10/ferguson-film-banned-documentary-spanish-lake-stlouis-853426/","url_text":"\"Ferguson-Related Docu Banned By St. Louis Theater Heads To VOD Amid Racial Tension\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spanish Lake on iTunes\". iTunes.","urls":[{"url":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/movie/spanish-lake/id928264002","url_text":"\"Spanish Lake on iTunes\""}]},{"reference":"\"Spanish Lake: Special Edition DVD\". admin.shoptab.net. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://admin.shoptab.net/linkbacks/198157567","url_text":"\"Spanish Lake: Special Edition DVD\""}]},{"reference":"SPANISH LAKE - Race, Class and White Flight in Missouri Documentary. 2014-09-05. Retrieved 2015-04-27 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjcCwQfXTx4","url_text":"SPANISH LAKE - Race, Class and White Flight in Missouri Documentary"}]},{"reference":"\"Spanish Lake\". Kickstarter. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/phillipandrewmorton/spanish-lake","url_text":"\"Spanish Lake\""}]},{"reference":"Luttig, John C. (1920). Stella Madeleine Drumm (ed.). Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812-1813. Kansas City, MO: The Missouri Historical Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/journalafurtrad00luttgoog","url_text":"Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812-1813"}]},{"reference":"\"LA filmmaker tackles \"white flight\" in Spanish Lake\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ksdk.com/story/local/2012/01/18/3032611/","url_text":"\"LA filmmaker tackles \"white flight\" in Spanish Lake\""}]},{"reference":"Spanish Lake - TRAILER (2014) [HD], 2014-06-09, retrieved 2015-04-27","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LF8bTkx0opU","url_text":"Spanish Lake - TRAILER (2014) [HD]"}]},{"reference":"\"'Spanish Lake' film pulled from local theaters\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ksdk.com/story/news/local/2014/08/19/spanish-lake-film-wehrenbergtheaters/14279131/","url_text":"\"'Spanish Lake' film pulled from local theaters\""}]},{"reference":"Spanish Lake, 2014-06-13, retrieved 2015-04-27","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/spanish_lake/","url_text":"Spanish Lake"}]},{"reference":"\"St. Louis' Spanish Lake, White Flight, and the Shrinking of the American Middle Class\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/umar-lee/spanish-lake_b_5507408.html","url_text":"\"St. Louis' Spanish Lake, White Flight, and the Shrinking of the American Middle Class\""}]},{"reference":"\"The\". Washington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/pb/blogs/going-out-guide/wp/2014/11/28/watch-onlinewhite-bird-in-a-blizzard-and-spanish-lake/","url_text":"\"The\""}]},{"reference":"Scherstuhl, Alan. \"How Ferguson became Ferguson: Urgent Doc Spanish Lake Tracks a St. Louis Suburb's Shift from White to Black\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.villagevoice.com/film/how-ferguson-became-ferguson-urgent-doc-spanish-lake-tracks-a-st-louis-suburbs-shift-from-white-to-black-6442604/","url_text":"\"How Ferguson became Ferguson: Urgent Doc Spanish Lake Tracks a St. Louis Suburb's Shift from White to Black\""}]},{"reference":"Peter Keough (November 1, 2014). \"Silent witness at the Harvard Film Archive\". Boston Globe. Retrieved 26 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/movies/2014/11/01/silent-witness-harvard-film-archive/P4F39fHujQgU2UqvQp4w1O/story.html","url_text":"\"Silent witness at the Harvard Film Archive\""}]},{"reference":"Mendelson, Scott. \"'Belle,' 'Step Up,' And 12 Great Films You Missed In 2014\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/12/24/belle-step-up-and-12-great-films-you-missed-in-2014/2/","url_text":"\"'Belle,' 'Step Up,' And 12 Great Films You Missed In 2014\""}]},{"reference":"\"Producer/Director Phillip Andrew Morton Talks White Flight in New Film Spanish Lake\". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ilana-rapp/producerdirector-phillip-_b_5402942.html","url_text":"\"Producer/Director Phillip Andrew Morton Talks White Flight in New Film Spanish Lake\""}]},{"reference":"\"Film screening: \"Spanish Lake\" \| WashU Voices: Ferguson and Beyond \|\". Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://voices.wustl.edu/event/film-screening-spanish-lake/","url_text":"\"Film screening: \"Spanish Lake\" \| WashU Voices: Ferguson and Beyond \|\""}]},{"reference":"\"Housing Class2014 REVISED syllabus\" (PDF). 164.67.121.27. Retrieved 2015-04-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://164.67.121.27/files/UP/Syllabi/W14/HousingClass2014%20REVISED%20syllabus.pdf","url_text":"\"Housing Class2014 REVISED syllabus\""}]}]	[{"Link":"http://news.stlpublicradio.org/post/new-documentary-explores-white-flight-spanishlake","external_links_name":"\"New documentary explores white flight\""},{"Link":"http://www.spanishlakefilm.com/","external_links_name":"\"Home\""},{"Link":"http://wehonews.com/tag/spanish-lake/","external_links_name":"\"Spanish LakeWeHoNews\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.dallasobserver.com/mixmaster/2014/08/spanish_lake_race_ferguson_dallas.php","external_links_name":"\"Spanish Lake Tells a Story about Race That's Familiar in Dallas, Ferguson and Everywhere\""},{"Link":"http://blogs.riverfronttimes.com/dailyrft/2014/08/the_ferguson_effect_wehrenberg_theaters_pulls_documentary_about_race_in_st_louis_county.php","external_links_name":"\"The Ferguson Effect: Wehrenberg Theaters Pulls Documentary About Race in St. Louis County - News Blog - St. Louis News and Events - Riverfront Times\""},{"Link":"https://deadline.com/2014/10/ferguson-film-banned-documentary-spanish-lake-stlouis-853426/","external_links_name":"\"Ferguson-Related Docu Banned By St. Louis Theater Heads To VOD Amid Racial Tension\""},{"Link":"https://itunes.apple.com/us/movie/spanish-lake/id928264002","external_links_name":"\"Spanish Lake on iTunes\""},{"Link":"https://admin.shoptab.net/linkbacks/198157567","external_links_name":"\"Spanish Lake: Special Edition DVD\""},{"Link":"http://fox2now.com/2012/02/13/spanish-lake-documentary-getting-wide-spreadattention/","external_links_name":"[1]"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bjcCwQfXTx4","external_links_name":"SPANISH LAKE - Race, Class and White Flight in Missouri Documentary"},{"Link":"https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/phillipandrewmorton/spanish-lake","external_links_name":"\"Spanish Lake\""},{"Link":"https://archive.org/details/journalafurtrad00luttgoog","external_links_name":"Journal of a Fur-trading Expedition on the Upper Missouri: 1812-1813"},{"Link":"http://www.ksdk.com/story/local/2012/01/18/3032611/","external_links_name":"\"LA filmmaker tackles \"white flight\" in Spanish Lake\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LF8bTkx0opU","external_links_name":"Spanish Lake - TRAILER (2014) [HD]"},{"Link":"http://www.ksdk.com/story/news/local/2014/08/19/spanish-lake-film-wehrenbergtheaters/14279131/","external_links_name":"\"'Spanish Lake' film pulled from local theaters\""},{"Link":"https://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/spanish_lake/","external_links_name":"Spanish Lake"},{"Link":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/umar-lee/spanish-lake_b_5507408.html","external_links_name":"\"St. Louis' Spanish Lake, White Flight, and the Shrinking of the American Middle Class\""},{"Link":"https://www.washingtonpost.com/pb/blogs/going-out-guide/wp/2014/11/28/watch-onlinewhite-bird-in-a-blizzard-and-spanish-lake/","external_links_name":"\"The\""},{"Link":"http://www.villagevoice.com/film/how-ferguson-became-ferguson-urgent-doc-spanish-lake-tracks-a-st-louis-suburbs-shift-from-white-to-black-6442604/","external_links_name":"\"How Ferguson became Ferguson: Urgent Doc Spanish Lake Tracks a St. Louis Suburb's Shift from White to Black\""},{"Link":"https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/movies/2014/11/01/silent-witness-harvard-film-archive/P4F39fHujQgU2UqvQp4w1O/story.html","external_links_name":"\"Silent witness at the Harvard Film Archive\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/scottmendelson/2014/12/24/belle-step-up-and-12-great-films-you-missed-in-2014/2/","external_links_name":"\"'Belle,' 'Step Up,' And 12 Great Films You Missed In 2014\""},{"Link":"https://www.huffingtonpost.com/ilana-rapp/producerdirector-phillip-_b_5402942.html","external_links_name":"\"Producer/Director Phillip Andrew Morton Talks White Flight in New Film Spanish Lake\""},{"Link":"https://voices.wustl.edu/event/film-screening-spanish-lake/","external_links_name":"\"Film screening: \"Spanish Lake\" \| WashU Voices: Ferguson and Beyond \|\""},{"Link":"http://164.67.121.27/files/UP/Syllabi/W14/HousingClass2014%20REVISED%20syllabus.pdf","external_links_name":"\"Housing Class2014 REVISED syllabus\""}]
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navalc%C3%A1n	Navalcán	["1 References"]	Coordinates: 40°04′05″N 5°05′35″W / 40.068°N 5.093°W / 40.068; -5.093Place in Castile-La Mancha, SpainNavalcán, SpainNavalcán Town Hall SealCountrySpainAutonomous communityCastile-La ManchaProvinceToledoMunicipalityNavalcánArea • Total60 km2 (20 sq mi)Elevation394 m (1,293 ft)Population (2018) • Total2,042 • Density34/km2 (88/sq mi)Time zoneUTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST)UTC+2 (CEST) Navalcán is a municipality located in the province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2006 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 2238 inhabitants. References ^ Municipal Register of Spain 2018. National Statistics Institute. vteMunicipalities in the province of Toledo Ajofrín Alameda de la Sagra Albarreal de Tajo Alcabón Alcaudete de la Jara Alcañizo Alcolea de Tajo Aldea en Cabo Aldeanueva de Barbarroya Aldeanueva de San Bartolomé Almendral de la Cañada Almonacid de Toledo Almorox Arcicóllar Argés Azután Añover de Tajo Barcience Bargas Belvís de la Jara Borox Buenaventura Burguillos de Toledo Burujón Cabañas de Yepes Cabañas de la Sagra Cabezamesada Calera y Chozas Caleruela Calzada de Oropesa Camarena Camarenilla Camuñas Cardiel de los Montes Carmena Carranque Carriches Casarrubios del Monte Casasbuenas Castillo de Bayuela Cazalegas Cebolla Cedillo del Condado Cervera de los Montes Chozas de Canales Chueca Ciruelos Cobeja Cobisa Consuegra Corral de Almaguer Cuerva Domingo Pérez Dosbarrios El Campillo de la Jara El Carpio de Tajo El Casar de Escalona El Puente del Arzobispo El Real de San Vicente El Romeral El Toboso El Viso de San Juan Erustes Escalona Escalonilla Espinoso del Rey Esquivias Fuensalida Garciotum Gerindote Guadamur Gálvez Herreruela de Oropesa Hinojosa de San Vicente Hontanar Hormigos Huecas Huerta de Valdecarábanos Illescas Illán de Vacas La Estrella La Guardia La Iglesuela La Mata La Nava de Ricomalillo La Puebla de Almoradiel La Puebla de Montalbán La Pueblanueva La Torre de Esteban Hambrán La Villa de Don Fadrique Lagartera Las Herencias Las Ventas con Peña Aguilera Las Ventas de Retamosa Las Ventas de San Julián Layos Lillo Lominchar Los Cerralbos Los Navalmorales Los Navalucillos Los Yébenes Lucillos Madridejos Magán Malpica de Tajo Manzaneque Maqueda Marjaliza Marrupe Mascaraque Mazarambroz Mejorada Menasalbas Mesegar de Tajo Miguel Esteban Mocejón Mohedas de la Jara Montearagón Montesclaros Mora Méntrida Nambroca Navahermosa Navalcán Navalmoralejo Navamorcuende Noblejas Noez Nombela Novés Numancia de la Sagra Nuño Gómez Ocaña Olías del Rey Ontígola Orgaz Oropesa Otero Palomeque Pantoja Paredes de Escalona Parrillas Pelahustán Pepino Polán Portillo de Toledo Puerto de San Vicente Pulgar Quero Quintanar de la Orden Quismondo Recas Retamoso de la Jara Rielves Robledo del Mazo San Bartolomé de las Abiertas San Martín de Montalbán San Martín de Pusa San Pablo de los Montes San Román de los Montes Santa Ana de Pusa Santa Cruz de la Zarza Santa Cruz del Retamar Santa Olalla Santo Domingo-Caudilla Sartajada Segurilla Seseña Sevilleja de la Jara Sonseca Sotillo de las Palomas Talavera de la Reina Tembleque Toledo Torralba de Oropesa Torrecilla de la Jara Torrico Torrijos Totanés Turleque Ugena Urda Valdeverdeja Valmojado Velada Villacañas Villafranca de los Caballeros Villaluenga de la Sagra Villamiel de Toledo Villaminaya Villamuelas Villanueva de Alcardete Villanueva de Bogas Villarejo de Montalbán Villarrubia de Santiago Villaseca de la Sagra Villasequilla Villatobas Yeles Yepes Yuncler Yunclillos Yuncos 40°04′05″N 5°05′35″W / 40.068°N 5.093°W / 40.068; -5.093 Authority control databases International VIAF National Israel United States This article about a location in the autonomous community of Castilla–La Mancha, Spain is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte	[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"province of Toledo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toledo_(province)"},{"link_name":"Castile-La Mancha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile-La_Mancha"},{"link_name":"census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census"},{"link_name":"INE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instituto_Nacional_de_Estad%C3%ADstica_(Spain)"}],"text":"Place in Castile-La Mancha, SpainNavalcán is a municipality located in the province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2006 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 2238 inhabitants.","title":"Navalcán"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"Municipal Register of Spain 2018. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodford_Aerodrome	Woodford Aerodrome	["1 History","1.1 Pre-war","1.2 Post war","1.3 Final years","2 Aircraft types","3 References"]	Coordinates: 53°20′17″N 002°08′56″W / 53.33806°N 2.14889°W / 53.33806; -2.14889Former airport and aircraft factory in the United Kingdom "EGCD" redirects here. For the extended Euclidean algorithm, see Extended Euclidean algorithm. Woodford AerodromeManchester Woodford AerodromeAvro Lancaster assembly line, 1943IATA: noneICAO: EGCDSummaryAirport typePrivateOperatorBAE SystemsLocationWoodford, Greater Manchester, EnglandElevation AMSL295 ft / 90 mCoordinates53°20′17″N 002°08′56″W / 53.33806°N 2.14889°W / 53.33806; -2.14889MapEGCDLocation in Greater ManchesterRunways Direction Length Surface m ft 07/25 2,292 7,520 Asphalt Woodford Aerodrome (ICAO: EGCD) is a former airfield and aircraft factory at Woodford, Greater Manchester, England, 6 NM (11 km; 6.9 mi) north of Macclesfield. It was opened by the Avro company after the First World War and became an important production centre for military aircraft in the Second World War. Notable planes made at the factory include the Avro Anson, Avro Lancaster, Avro Shackleton and Avro Vulcan. After almost 80 years of aircraft manufacture at the site, Woodford was closed and sold off by BAE Systems in 2011. History Pre-war The aerodrome opened in 1924 when successful aviation pioneer Alliott Verdon-Roe bought the original farmland to enable his Avro company to move its aeroplane assembly and test flying facilities from Alexandra Park Aerodrome in south Manchester. Originally it had a small grass landing area with several temporary Bessonneau hangars. The Lancashire Aero Club also used the aerodrome briefly in the 1920s until moving to the new Barton Aerodrome and used a converted farm building as a clubhouse and a 'Dutch barn' style steel-framed hangar built for A V Roe around 1927. By the late 1930s, the aerodrome was upgraded with the construction of concrete runways; the main runway was also extended to the east. Increased factory space, particularly at the northern edge of the aerodrome next to Woodford village, was constructed to allow vast expansion of aircraft production. During the Second World War, the Avro Lancaster was constructed at the site. Post war In 1945, Hawker-Siddeley bought into Avro Canada. Avro continued to be operating name at Woodford but it was actually a subsidiary of the Hawker Siddeley Group and used only for trading purposes. When the company was absorbed into Hawker Siddeley Aviation in July 1963, the Avro name ceased to be used. On 29 April 1977, Woodford was taken over by British Aerospace. It was formed as a result of the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act when Hawker Siddeley Aviation and Dynamics were nationalised and merged with British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) and Scottish Aviation. Final years Woodford became part of BAE Systems as a result of the £7.7 billion merger of British Aerospace (BAe) and Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) in November 1999. The aerodrome and factory became known as BAE Systems Woodford until it was sold in late 2011. The site was due to close anyway in 2012 when its Nimrod project was to be completed but in late 2010 the Woodford-built BAE Nimrod MRA4 project was cancelled. It was previously believed that some jobs would be transferred to BAE Systems' Military Air Solutions headquarters in Preston, Lancashire. However, following the cancellation of aircraft orders in the British Government's Strategic Defence and Security Review, the site closed as an active airfield on 25 August 2011. On 20 December 2011, the site was purchased for £100 million by Jo Bamford, the heir to the JCB fortune. A new housing estate called Woodford Garden Village was constructed on the site. The Avro Heritage Museum now occupies the former aerodrome fire station. Aircraft types Many aircraft types have been built at Woodford, apart from the BAe 146, also first flown at Woodford including: Avro Anson Avro Lancaster Avro Lincoln Avro Tudor Avro Shackleton Avro 707 Avro Vulcan Avro Ashton Hawker Siddeley HS 748 Hawker Siddeley Nimrod BAe ATP BAe 146 References ^ "Crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk". ^ Ruddick, Graham (15 September 2009). "BAe Systems to cut 1,116 jobs and close Cheshire site". The Telegraph. London. ^ "BAE Systems plans 1,116 job cuts". BBC News. 15 September 2009. ^ "Resignation to BAE factory news". BBC News. 16 September 2009. ^ "BAE to axe 1,100 jobs and close site". The Guardian. London. Press Association. 15 September 2009. ^ "Jobs blow as BAE plant to close". Manchester Evening News. M.E.N. Media. 15 September 2009. ^ "BAE Woodford site closing a year early". Manchester Evening News. M.E.N. Media. 15 December 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2010. ^ "JCB heir acquires BAE Woodford for £100m". Manchester Evening News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011. ^ "Plans for 950 houses at Woodford Aerodrome revealed". Focus Digital Limited. 29 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.	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For the extended Euclidean algorithm, see Extended Euclidean algorithm.Woodford Aerodrome (ICAO: EGCD) is a former airfield and aircraft factory at Woodford, Greater Manchester, England, 6 NM (11 km; 6.9 mi) north of Macclesfield. It was opened by the Avro company after the First World War and became an important production centre for military aircraft in the Second World War. Notable planes made at the factory include the Avro Anson, Avro Lancaster, Avro Shackleton and Avro Vulcan.After almost 80 years of aircraft manufacture at the site, Woodford was closed and sold off by BAE Systems in 2011.","title":"Woodford Aerodrome"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alliott Verdon-Roe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliott_Verdon-Roe"},{"link_name":"Avro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro"},{"link_name":"Alexandra Park Aerodrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexandra_Park_Aerodrome_(Manchester)"},{"link_name":"Bessonneau hangars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bessonneau_hangar"},{"link_name":"Barton Aerodrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barton_Aerodrome"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"}],"sub_title":"Pre-war","text":"The aerodrome opened in 1924 when successful aviation pioneer Alliott Verdon-Roe bought the original farmland to enable his Avro company to move its aeroplane assembly and test flying facilities from Alexandra Park Aerodrome in south Manchester. Originally it had a small grass landing area with several temporary Bessonneau hangars. The Lancashire Aero Club also used the aerodrome briefly in the 1920s until moving to the new Barton Aerodrome and used a converted farm building as a clubhouse and a 'Dutch barn' style steel-framed hangar built for A V Roe around 1927.By the late 1930s, the aerodrome was upgraded with the construction of concrete runways; the main runway was also extended to the east. Increased factory space, particularly at the northern edge of the aerodrome next to Woodford village, was constructed to allow vast expansion of aircraft production. During the Second World War, the Avro Lancaster was constructed at the site.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hawker-Siddeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker-Siddeley"},{"link_name":"Avro Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Canada"},{"link_name":"British Aerospace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Aerospace"},{"link_name":"Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_and_Shipbuilding_Industries_Act"},{"link_name":"British Aircraft Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Aircraft_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Scottish Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Aviation"}],"sub_title":"Post war","text":"In 1945, Hawker-Siddeley bought into Avro Canada. Avro continued to be operating name at Woodford but it was actually a subsidiary of the Hawker Siddeley Group and used only for trading purposes. When the company was absorbed into Hawker Siddeley Aviation in July 1963, the Avro name ceased to be used.On 29 April 1977, Woodford was taken over by British Aerospace. It was formed as a result of the Aircraft and Shipbuilding Industries Act when Hawker Siddeley Aviation and Dynamics were nationalised and merged with British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) and Scottish Aviation.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BAE Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems"},{"link_name":"Marconi Electronic Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marconi_Electronic_Systems"},{"link_name":"BAE Nimrod MRA4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems_Nimrod_MRA4"},{"link_name":"Military Air Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAE_Systems_Military_Air_Solutions"},{"link_name":"Preston, Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preston,_Lancashire"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Strategic Defence and Security Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_Defence_and_Security_Review_2010"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"JCB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._C._Bamford"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Avro Heritage Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Heritage_Museum"}],"sub_title":"Final years","text":"Woodford became part of BAE Systems as a result of the £7.7 billion merger of British Aerospace (BAe) and Marconi Electronic Systems (MES) in November 1999. The aerodrome and factory became known as BAE Systems Woodford until it was sold in late 2011. The site was due to close anyway in 2012 when its Nimrod project was to be completed but in late 2010 the Woodford-built BAE Nimrod MRA4 project was cancelled. It was previously believed that some jobs would be transferred to BAE Systems' Military Air Solutions headquarters in Preston, Lancashire.[1][2][3][4][5][6] However, following the cancellation of aircraft orders in the British Government's Strategic Defence and Security Review, the site closed as an active airfield on 25 August 2011.[7]On 20 December 2011, the site was purchased for £100 million by Jo Bamford, the heir to the JCB fortune.[8]\nA new housing estate called Woodford Garden Village was constructed on the site.[9]The Avro Heritage Museum now occupies the former aerodrome fire station.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Avro Anson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Anson"},{"link_name":"Avro Lancaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lancaster"},{"link_name":"Avro Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Lincoln"},{"link_name":"Avro Tudor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Tudor"},{"link_name":"Avro Shackleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Shackleton"},{"link_name":"Avro 707","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_707"},{"link_name":"Avro Vulcan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Vulcan"},{"link_name":"Avro Ashton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avro_Ashton"},{"link_name":"Hawker Siddeley HS 748","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley_HS_748"},{"link_name":"Hawker Siddeley Nimrod","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawker_Siddeley_Nimrod"},{"link_name":"BAe ATP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAe_ATP"},{"link_name":"BAe 146","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BAe_146"}],"text":"Many aircraft types have been built at Woodford, apart from the BAe 146, also first flown at Woodford including:[clarification needed][citation needed]Avro Anson\nAvro Lancaster\nAvro Lincoln\nAvro Tudor\nAvro Shackleton\nAvro 707\nAvro Vulcan\nAvro Ashton\nHawker Siddeley HS 748\nHawker Siddeley Nimrod\nBAe ATP\nBAe 146","title":"Aircraft types"}]	[]	null	[{"reference":"\"Crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080714/FREE/360407340/1166/-/-/bae-systems-chief-exec-turner-skills-at-woodford-must-be-saved","url_text":"\"Crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk\""}]},{"reference":"Ruddick, Graham (15 September 2009). \"BAe Systems to cut 1,116 jobs and close Cheshire site\". The Telegraph. London.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/6192540/BAe-Systems-to-cut-1116-jobs-and-Cheshire-close-site.html","url_text":"\"BAe Systems to cut 1,116 jobs and close Cheshire site\""}]},{"reference":"\"BAE Systems plans 1,116 job cuts\". BBC News. 15 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8256404.stm","url_text":"\"BAE Systems plans 1,116 job cuts\""}]},{"reference":"\"Resignation to BAE factory news\". BBC News. 16 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/8257274.stm","url_text":"\"Resignation to BAE factory news\""}]},{"reference":"\"BAE to axe 1,100 jobs and close site\". The Guardian. London. Press Association. 15 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/sep/15/bae-job-cuts-woodford-closure","url_text":"\"BAE to axe 1,100 jobs and close site\""}]},{"reference":"\"Jobs blow as BAE plant to close\". Manchester Evening News. M.E.N. Media. 15 September 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1136849_jobs_blow_as_bae_plant_to_close","url_text":"\"Jobs blow as BAE plant to close\""}]},{"reference":"\"BAE Woodford site closing a year early\". Manchester Evening News. M.E.N. Media. 15 December 2010. Retrieved 16 December 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1393066_bae_woodford_site_closing_a_year_early","url_text":"\"BAE Woodford site closing a year early\""}]},{"reference":"\"JCB heir acquires BAE Woodford for £100m\". Manchester Evening News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 20 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://menmedia.co.uk/macclesfieldexpress/news/business/s/1468479_jcb-heir-acquires-bae-woodford-for-100m","url_text":"\"JCB heir acquires BAE Woodford for £100m\""}]},{"reference":"\"Plans for 950 houses at Woodford Aerodrome revealed\". Focus Digital Limited. 29 May 2012. Retrieved 29 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wilmslow.co.uk/news/article/6423/plans-for-950-houses-at-woodford-aerodrome-revealed","url_text":"\"Plans for 950 houses at Woodford Aerodrome revealed\""}]}]	[{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Woodford_Aerodrome&params=53_20_17_N_002_08_56_W_type:airport_region:GB-SKP","external_links_name":"53°20′17″N 002°08′56″W / 53.33806°N 2.14889°W / 53.33806; -2.14889"},{"Link":"https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Woodford_Aerodrome&params=53_20_17_N_002_08_56_W_type:airport_region:GB-SKP","external_links_name":"53°20′17″N 002°08′56″W / 53.33806°N 2.14889°W / 53.33806; -2.14889"},{"Link":"http://www.crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20080714/FREE/360407340/1166/-/-/bae-systems-chief-exec-turner-skills-at-woodford-must-be-saved","external_links_name":"\"Crainsmanchesterbusiness.co.uk\""},{"Link":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/industry/6192540/BAe-Systems-to-cut-1116-jobs-and-Cheshire-close-site.html","external_links_name":"\"BAe Systems to cut 1,116 jobs and close Cheshire site\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/8256404.stm","external_links_name":"\"BAE Systems plans 1,116 job cuts\""},{"Link":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/manchester/8257274.stm","external_links_name":"\"Resignation to BAE factory news\""},{"Link":"https://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/sep/15/bae-job-cuts-woodford-closure","external_links_name":"\"BAE to axe 1,100 jobs and close site\""},{"Link":"http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1136849_jobs_blow_as_bae_plant_to_close","external_links_name":"\"Jobs blow as BAE plant to close\""},{"Link":"http://menmedia.co.uk/manchestereveningnews/news/s/1393066_bae_woodford_site_closing_a_year_early","external_links_name":"\"BAE Woodford site closing a year early\""},{"Link":"http://menmedia.co.uk/macclesfieldexpress/news/business/s/1468479_jcb-heir-acquires-bae-woodford-for-100m","external_links_name":"\"JCB heir acquires BAE Woodford for £100m\""},{"Link":"http://www.wilmslow.co.uk/news/article/6423/plans-for-950-houses-at-woodford-aerodrome-revealed","external_links_name":"\"Plans for 950 houses at Woodford Aerodrome revealed\""}]

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