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Scanning electron microscope image shows organogel fibers in ethyl acetate. Researchers have created organic gel nanomaterials that could be used to encapsulate pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic products and to build 3-D biological scaffolds for tissue engineering. Using olive oil and six other liquid solvents, the scientists added a simple enzyme to chemically activate a sugar that changed the liquids to organic gels.
"We are using the building blocks provided by nature to create new nanomaterials that are completely reversible and environmentally benign," said Jonathan Dordick, the Howard P. Isermann '42 Professor of Chemical and Biological Engineering at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. "The importance of this finding is the ability to use the same naturally occurring enzyme both to create chemically functional organogels and to reverse the process and break down these gels into their biologically compatible building blocks."
Scanning electron microscope image shows self-supporting organogel scaffold after UV polymerization in ethyl acetate.
In the experiments, researchers activated a sugar using a simple enzyme, which generated a compound that self-assembles into 3-D fibers measuring approximately 50 nanometers in diameter. As the fibers entangle, a large amount of solvent gets packed together, trapping some 10,000 molecules.
The resulting organogel materials could be used as biocompatible scaffolds for tissue engineering and designing membranes, according to Dordick. Other possible applications include delivery systems for pharmaceuticals and preservatives for food and cosmetics.
"The development of new materials that are molecularly defined and chemically functional at the nanoscale is of critical importance to biological applications such as drug delivery," said Dordick. "We are finding the natural world has provided tools to create these materials without the need to generate new compounds that may be harmful to the body or environment."
The findings are currently available online in advance of print publication July 17 by the journal Angewandte Chemie.
Dordick's research involves using enzyme technology to produce unique chemical structures with applications in drug discovery, materials science, and chemical technology.
Source : Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
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| 0.923539 | 444 | 2.984375 | 3 |
It must be apparent to anyone who reads the Gospels carefully that Jesus Christ, in the days of his flesh, looked upon that body of writings which is known as the Old Testament as constituting an organic whole. To him the Scriptures were a harmonious unit which bore a unique message and witness.
– E. J. Young
Nothing is more foundational to Christian ministry than a full-orbed knowledge and embrace of the gospel. The Old Testament department is committed to teaching the first thirty-nine books of the Bible, with all the aspects entailed, as the anticipation of the glorious climactic fulfillment of redemption in Jesus Christ.
To this end, the Old Testament curriculum enables students:
- To acquire a reading knowledge of biblical Hebrew
- To acquire a knowledge of the content of the Old Testament
- To grapple with the challenges of biblical interpretation
- To evaluate the ways in which the Old Testament has been interpreted in the past
- To perceive the unity of the Old and New Testaments and the hermeneutical significance of their unity
- To understand and value the historical context in which God gave his redemptive revelation, how it began in the Old Testament period and then culminated in the glorious and extraordinary climax to that history in Christ and his work in Christ as interpreted in the New Testament
- To identify the major biblical-theological themes of the Old Testament and to recognize their importance for understanding the gospel
- To develop skill in understanding and applying each of the books of the Old Testament
- To learn to communicate the gospel through the Old Testament
- To be encouraged to embrace the gospel in continuing and vital ways through the glory of God’s self-disclosure and to fear the Lord and love him with the whole heart
Old Testament faculty:
Assistant Professor Kelly,
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| 0.935892 | 366 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Morris Sheppard (May 28, 1875 - April 9, 1941) was a Democratic United States Congressman and United States Senator from Texas. Born in Morris County, Texas to lawyer, and later judge and United States Congressman, John Levi Sheppard.
Sheppard studied at the University of Texas at Austin, earning a law degree in 1897. After attending Yale University, he began practicing law with his father in Pittsburg, Texas and later Texarkana.
In 1902, Morris Sheppard was elected as a Democrat to replace his deceased father in the House of Representatives. He held this seat until his resignation in 1913, when he succeeded in his bid to fill a vacancy in the Senate. During his tenure, he was a vocal supporter of the temperance movement. He helped write the Webb-Kenyon Act (1913) to regulate the interstate shipment of alcoholic beverages, authored the Sheppard Bill (1916) to impose prohibition on the District of Columbia, introduced the Senate resolution for the Eighteenth Amendment establishing national prohibition, and helped write the Volstead Act which provided for its enforcement. Sheppard held his seat until his death in Washington, D.C. in 1941, serving as Democratic whip between 1929 and 1933.
Sheppard is perhaps best known for asserting that "There is as much chance of repealing the eighteenth amendment as there is for a hummingbird to fly to the planet Mars with the Washington Monument tied to its tail."
Sheppard's wife, Lucille Sanderson, married the other Texas senator, Tom Connally, the year after Sheppard's death . Sheppard and his wife were the grandparents of Connie Mack III, U.S. Senator from Florida, and great-grandparents of Connie Mack IV, U.S. Representative from Florida.
Future U.S. President and then-representative Lyndon Johnson ran unsuccessfully for Sheppard's Senate seat in the special election caused by his death in 1941.
This article incorporates facts obtained from the public domain Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
Preceded by: John Levi Sheppard U.S. Representative from the 1st District of Texas 1902 - 1913 Succeeded by: Horace Worth Vaughan Preceded by: Rienzi M. Johnston U.S. Senator (Class 2) from Texas 1913 - 1941 Succeeded by: Andrew J. Houston
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| 0.974965 | 479 | 2.5625 | 3 |
The Sun has been getting a bit more active lately, blowing out the odd solar storm or two. These waves of subatomic particles march across interplanetary space, and when they hit the Earth, they spark geomagnetic storms. Those in turn can result in displays of the northern and southern lights, or the aurora (borealis for the north, and australis for the south).
I love how it starts, with the Sun making its long, slow, shallow dive to the horizon. That’s a clear indication she was at a high latitude; at mid-latitudes like the United States and most of Europe, the angle the Sun makes toward the horizon is much steeper.
The odd motion of the water in the first few seconds of the video caught my attention as well. It wasn’t as jerky as I was expecting. Then I noticed some of the auroral streamers looked odd as well, and realized what was going on: Possberg was morphing from frame to frame, interpolating the motion between the shots. I described this in a post about a video from the Mars Curiosity rover; basically it’s just using a bit of math to smooth out the motion a bit. If an object appears in one part of a frame then is in a different place in the next frame, you can determine where it was at the moment halfway (or any fraction) between the two frames. It’s a perfectly fine thing to do, and it adds yet another unearthly level to the already surreal video.
As you watch, you’ll see most of the aurorae are green, which is normal. But there are also other colors that appear: purple, pink, even blue. All of these come from molecules and atoms of nitrogen and oxygen in the upper atmosphere, emitting light as they heal from their wounds after being slammed by subatomic particles from the Sun.
National Geographic has a story on how Possberg made this video, too, and it's pretty interesting. She had the flu when she shot some of the video! That takes real dedication; it's not like she was shooting these pictures in her back yard.
Right now I'm in Oregon for our Science Getaways trip. I’m really hoping the Sun gets some cosmic indigestion while we’re up there; those latitudes would be favored during a good aurora. I’ve never seen one myself, and given all these photos and videos I post, I think it’s about time I got my due.
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| 0.967922 | 528 | 2.578125 | 3 |
would be taken off in the ensuing session.’1
The confident promise confirmed the loyalty of
, though by way of caution they adopted and put upon their journals the resolves of Virginia
Dec. The cardinal policy of New-York
was the security and development of colonial liberty through an American Constitution, based upon a union of the Colonies in one general Congress.
This purpose, it was believed, might be accomplished, without dissolving the connection with Great Britain
. ‘They are jealous of the scheme in England
,’ said William Smith
; ‘yet they will find the spirit of Democracy so persevering, that they will be under the necessity of coming into it.’3
Under the pretext of framing common regulations of trade with the Indians, the Assembly of New-York at its present session, with the concurrence of its Lieutenant Governor
invited each Province to elect representatives to a body which should exercise legislative power for them all. It was a great step towards the American Union.
, when she heard of the proposal, made choice of Patrick Henry
and Richard Bland
, to appear as her Representatives.5
But the cherished scheme was defeated for the time by the British Ministry
, who saw in Union the certain forerunner of independence.
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| 0.967189 | 262 | 2.609375 | 3 |
By Rebecca Morelle
Science reporter, BBC News
Experts are "lost for words" to have found that a medieval prayer book has yielded yet another key ancient text buried within its parchment.
Works by mathematician Archimedes and the politician Hyperides had already been found buried within the book, known as the Archimedes Palimpsest.
But now advanced imaging technology has revealed a third text - a commentary on the philosopher Aristotle.
Project director William Noel called it a "sensational find".
The prayer book was written in the 13th Century by a scribe called John Myronas.
But instead of using fresh parchment for his work, he employed pages from five existing books.
Dr Noel, curator of manuscripts at the US-based Walters Art Museum and a co-author of a forthcoming book on the Archimedes Palimpsest, said: "It's a rather brutal process, but it means you can reuse parchment if you are short of it.
"You take books off shelves, you scrub off the text, you cut them up and you make a new book."
In 1906 it came to light that one of the books recycled to form the medieval manuscript contained a unique work by Archimedes.
Archimedes was a mathematician from what is now Sicily
And in 2002, modern imaging technology not only provided a clearer view of this famous mathematician's words, but it also revealed another text - the only known manuscript of Hyperides, an Athenian politician from the 4th Century BC.
"At this point you start thinking striking one palimpsest is gold, and striking two is utterly astonishing. But then something even more extraordinary happened," Dr Noel told the BBC News website.
One of the recycled books was proving extremely difficult to read, explained Roger Easton, a professor of imaging science at Rochester Institute of Technology, US.
"We were using a technique called multispectral imaging," he said.
This digital imaging technique uses photographs taken at different wavelengths to enhance particular characteristics of the imaged area.
Subtle adjustments of this method, explained Professor Easton, suddenly enabled these hidden words to be revealed.
"Even though I couldn't read Ancient Greek, just the fact that I could see the words gave me shivers," he said.
Foundations of logic
An international team of experts began to scrutinize the ancient words, explained Reviel Netz, professor of ancient science at Stanford University, US, and another co-author of the palimpsest book.
The paintings and words in the prayer book cover the hidden works
A series of clues, such as spotting a key name in the margin, led the team to its conclusion.
"The philosophical passage in the Archimedes Palimpsest is now definitely identified as a relatively early commentary to Aristotle's Categories," said Professor Netz.
He said that Aristotle's Categories had served as the foundation for the study of logic throughout western history.
Further study has revealed the most likely author of this unique commentary is Alexander of Aphrodisias, Professor Robert Sharples from University College London, UK, told BBC News.
If this is the case, he said, "it gives us part of a commentary previously supposed lost by the most important of those ancient commentators on Aristotle".
A provisional translation of the commentary is currently being undertaken.
It reveals a debate on some aspects of Aristotle's theory of classification, such as: if the term "footed" is used for animals, can it be used to classify anything else, such as a bed?
The passage reads:
For as "foot" is ambiguous when applied to an animal and to a bed, so are "with feet" and "without feet". So by "in species" here [Aristotle] is saying "in formula".
For if it ever happens that the same name indicates the differentiae of genera that are different and not subordinate one to the other, they are at any rate not the same in formula.
Dr Noel said: "There is no more important philosopher in the world than Aristotle. To have early views in the 2nd and 3rd Century AD of Aristotle's Categories is just fantastic.
"We have one book that contains three texts from the ancient world that are absolutely central to our understanding of mathematics, politics and now philosophy," he said.
He added: "I am at a loss for words at what this book has turned out to be. To make these discoveries in the 21st Century is frankly nutty - it is just so exciting."
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| 0.960536 | 937 | 3.03125 | 3 |
New biochip helps study living cells, may speed drug development
WEST LAFAYETTE, Ind. -- Purdue University researchers have developed a biochip that measures the electrical activities of cells and is capable of obtaining 60 times more data in just one reading than is possible with current technology.
In the near term, the biochip could speed scientific research, which could accelerate drug development for muscle and nerve disorders like epilepsy and help create more productive crop varieties.
"Instead of doing one experiment per day, as is often the case, this technology is automated and capable of performing hundreds of experiments in one day," said Marshall Porterfield, a professor of agricultural and biological engineering who leads the team developing the chip.
The device works by measuring the concentration of ions -- tiny charged particles -- as they enter and exit cells. The chip can record these concentrations in up to 16 living cells temporarily sealed within fluid-filled pores in the microchip. With four electrodes per cell, the chip delivers 64 simultaneous, continuous sources of data.
This additional data allows for a deeper understanding of cellular activity compared to current technology, which measures only one point outside one cell and cannot record simultaneously, Porterfield said. The chip also directly records ion concentrations without harming the cells, whereas present methods cannot directly detect specific ions, and cells being studied typically are destroyed in the process, he said. There are several advantages to retaining live cells, he said, such as being able to conduct additional tests or monitor them as they grow.
"The current technology being used in research labs is very slow and difficult," said Porterfield, who believes the new chip could help develop drugs for human disorders involving ion channel malfunction, such as epilepsy and chronic pain. About 15 percent of the drugs currently in development affect the activities of ion channels, he said, and their development is limited by the slower pace of current technology. The biochip would allow researchers to generate more data in a shorter time, thus speeding up the whole process of evaluating potential drugs and their different effects on ion channels.
Ion channels are particularly important in muscle and nerve cells, where they facilitate communication and the transfer of electrical signals from one cell to the next.
Within the 10-by-10 millimeter chip -- roughly the size of a dime -- cells are sealed inside 16 pyramidal pores, analyzed, and then can be removed intact. Since the technology does not kill the cells, it could be used to screen and identify different crop lines, Porterfield said.
"For example, let's say you were interested in developing corn varieties that need less fertilizer," he said. "If you had a library of genes that were associated with high nitrogen-use efficiency -- thus making the plant need less nitrogen fertilizer -- you could transform a group of maize cells with these genes and then screen each cell to determine the most efficient. Then you could raise the one that needed the least fertilizer, rather than putting a lot of different genes into hundreds of plants and waiting for them to grow, as is currently done."
In addition to the potential savings in time and money, Porterfield said the chip has allowed him to do research that would otherwise be impossible. He recently conducted a study on the "Vomit Comet," the nickname for a high-flying research plane used by NASA to briefly simulate zero gravity. The experiment analyzed gravity's effect on plant development, trying to solve the riddle of how a plant determines which way is "up."
"We conducted research with the chip while we were flying in parabolas over the Gulf of Mexico, going from two times Earth's gravity to zero gravity again and again," he said. "There is absolutely no way this experiment could have been done without this chip."
The current technology for analyzing cells' electrical activity, called "patch clamping," uses a tiny electrical probe viewed under a microscope. The technology garnered its inventors the Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology in 1991.
"It requires a lot of know-how and hand-eye coordination," Porterfield said of patch clamping.
The chip, on the other hand, is automated and could be mass-produced in the future. Such a readily available chip could record reams more data than patch-clamping, he said.
Ion channels and pumps establish a difference in electrical potential across a cell's membrane, which cells use to create energy and transfer electrical signals. By quickly allowing ions in and out, they are useful for rapid cellular changes, the kind which occur in muscles, neurons and the release of insulin from pancreatic cells.
The chip currently can detect individual levels of different ions. Porterfield believes that with some modifications, however, the chip will be able to measure multiple ions at once and perform even more advanced functions such as electrically stimulating a cell with one electrode while recording the reaction with the remaining three.
Because ion channels are a prominent feature of the nervous system and elsewhere, they are a popular target for drugs. For example, lidocaine and Novocain target sodium-channels. In nature, some of the most potent venoms and toxins work by blocking these channels, including the venom of certain snakes and strychnine.
Porterfield's chip is technically classified as a "cell electrophysiology lab-on-a-chip." The device is further described in an article in the journal Sensors and Actuators, published online this month and scheduled to appear in the print edition in November.
Porterfield has been working on the biochip for almost two years and is currently working to expand its capabilities. The just-published study was funded by NASA and the Lilly Foundation.
Writer: Douglas M Main
Source: Marshall Porterfield, 765-494-1190, [email protected]
400 Centennial Mall Drive, Rm. 324
West Lafayette, IN 47907-2016
fax: (765) 49400401
STORY CAN BE FOUND AT: http://news.uns.purdue.edu/UNS/html4ever/2006/061019.PorterfieldChip.html
Last reviewed: By John M. Grohol, Psy.D. on 30 Apr 2016
Published on PsychCentral.com. All rights reserved.
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| 0.951262 | 1,275 | 3.09375 | 3 |
Crosses: Harlem River
Connects: Third Avenue between Mott Haven, the Bronx and Harlem, NY [satellite map]
Carries: 5 Manahattan-bound vehicular lanes, 2 pedestrian sidewalks
Design: swing bridge
Date opened: 2004
Postcard view: “Harlem River, N.Y. City”
The Third Avenue Bridge is a swing bridge over the Harlem River, connecting Third Avenue in Manhattan with Third Avenue in the Bronx. It is the fourth bridge to stand at that location.
In 1774, Lewis Morris received permission to build a bridge to connect a proposed road through Harlem with a road leading to the Morris family’s estate, Morrisania, and the village of Eastchester (both are now neighborhoods located in the Bronx). Though a ferry had once operated between Manhattan and the Bronx just east of the proposed site of the crossing for a few years in the late 1600s, the only way for people to travel between the two at the time of Morris’ proposal was by either King’s Bridge or Farmer’s Bridge, both of which were located at the far northern tip of Manhattan. Morris’ bridge would cut the traveling distance between his estate and the southern end of Manhattan, the core of the city at the time, by nearly 12 miles.
Nothing was done about the bridge, however, until the end of March 1790, when a refined charter was given to Morris to build a drawbridge at least 12 feet wide to accommodate river traffic. Morris was also given permission to charge tolls on the bridge for a period of 60 years, after which ownership of the bridge would pass on to the state. Such arrangements were common at the time as an enticement for private entities and individuals to invest in public infrastructure.
Also common at the time were delays concerning large projects such as this. Nothing concerning the bridge is mentioned in the city’s legislative archives until March 1795, when Morris sought permission to transfer his charter to a business partner and family friend named John B. Coles. The new charter was approved with a modification allowing Coles to build the bridge on top of a dam in order to a establish a water-powered mill at the site. In early 1797 the Coles Bridge, as it came to be known, a simple wooden structure with a turntable draw span, was opened, though Coles apparently never got around to building a dam underneath it. The route over the bridge, consisting of a newly constructed Middle Road (now roughly Eighth Avenue and Central Park West) in Manhattan and what came to be known as Coles Road (now Third Avenue and Boston Post Road in the Bronx) quickly became more popular than the King’s Bridge or Farmer’s Bridge route, in spite of the fact that Coles had inherited and taken advantage of Morris’ right to charge tolls while the uptown crossings were both free to use.
The Harlem Bridge
On April 1, 1858, in accordance with the original charter’s stipulation and the State Legislature’s Chapter 774 of the Laws of 1857, ownership of Coles Bridge passed from the Coles family to the state government. By that time, the bridge had fallen into such a bad state of repair that nothing could be done to save it, according to the Commissioners of Harlem Bridge, a group consisting of New York and Westchester officials convened specially to oversee the takeover of the bridge by the state. In June 1860, the Commissioners made an official inspection of the bridge in anticipation of a reconstruction project. They found the superstructure in an advanced state of decay and “the piers destroyed by the ravages of the worm” (the worm in question, teredo navalis, is not actually a worm but a mollusk, commonly known as the shipworm or marine borer. It is still a serious problem in the city, with many millions of dollars budgeted for the reconstruction of waterfront piers, highways, and high rise foundations due to its highly efficient method of consuming submerged wooden pilings).
The official decision to rebuild the bridge came soon after, and work began in August 1860. Erastus W. Smith, a New York mechanical engineer with many years of experience running municipal water works and ocean liner systems was named as Chief Engineer of the project. The original plans for the bridge called for a series of simple through truss approach spans with a through truss swing span atop a turntable. Smith decided instead to build the bridge with arched tubular truss spans constructed of wrought iron, giving the bridge a gracefully curved profile in comparison to the original boxy design. The old span was kept in place as the new bridge was built just west of it. The piers for the new bridge consisted of a combination of six foot and eight foot diameter cast iron cylinders, sunk into the river bed by pneumatic force, one of the earliest instances of the use of compressed air for bridge construction in the country. The pier sinking and foundation work were completed by the New York firm of Roach & Edwards. The superstructure of the bridge was constructed by the Trenton Locomotive Machine Manufacturing Company of New Jersey. After 8 years of work, the still incomplete bridge, called the Harlem Bridge, was opened for public use on October 16, 1868. The bridge measured 526 feet long by 52 feet wide, including a 218 foot long swing span that operated under the force of water supplied by a Croton water main. Shortly after it opened, a horse car railroad was established over the bridge by the Harlem Bridge, Morrisania and Fordham Railroad Company. Horses would be used on the bridge until 1891, when they were replaced by a an electric propulsion system with power provided by overhead wires.
The Third Avenue Bridge
The Harlem Bridge did not last long, however. After several years, parts of the bridge began to fall apart. The cast iron piers began to crack and the wheels under the turntable had to be replaced multiple times after breaking into pieces. The water powered engine was found to be too sluggish to keep up with the demands of road and river traffic and had to be replaced with a steam engine. In 1882, jurisdiction over all underwater land surrounding the city passed on to the US Government, which had plans to improve the waterways of the city. in 1890, the government passed the Rivers and Harbors Act which specified, among other changes, that all bridges over the Harlem River be raised in order to provide 24 feet of clearance above high water. The Harlem Bridge only provided 5 feet of clearance over the river. Shortly after, the city’s Department of Public Works, which had jurisdiction over the bridge at the time, brought forth a bill in the state legislature asking for authorization to replace the bridge with one that would comply with the new law. The bill was approved, and authorization came in the form of Chapter 413 of the Laws of 1892.
The Harlem Bridge was closed on June 20, 1894, with traffic diverted to a temporary bridge while the new Third Avenue Bridge, as it would be called, was being built. The new span was constructed as a swing bridge, with a swing span operating under steam power. The span was made with steel provided by the Phoenix Iron Works Company of Phoenixville, Pennsylvania. The span was 300 feet long and was composed of a large through truss structure with curved upper chords terminating at a sharp apex. It was designed by Thomas C. Clarke, the consulting engineer assigned to the project by the Department of Public Works. It was opened on August 1, 1898 with the blowing of its warning whistle, which was soon joined in by the blowing of whistles from nearby boats, trains and factories. It was the largest and heaviest bridge of its type in the world at the time. The bridge had room for two walkways and a roadway containing two sets of trolley tracks laid down by the Union Railway Company, the successor to the Harlem Bridge, Fordham and Morrisania Railway Company during the construction of the bridge. The tracks would remain in place until 1953 when the Third Avenue Elevated train line was demolished. The tracks were then converted into automobile lanes.
The Third Avenue Bridge served the city well until the night of November 7, 1999, when a two alarm fire broke out on the wooden fender surrounding the swing span, closing the bridge for several days. in 2001, the city Department of Transportation, which now has jurisdiction over the bridge, began a $119 million reconstruction of the Third Avenue Bridge as part of a nearly $1 billion program to rehabilitate or replace all of the movable Harlem River Bridges. The new bridge, a swing span like all of its ancestors, was designed to visually mimic as closely as possible the span it replaced, albeit with more modern construction techniques and materials. It carries two sidewalks and five lanes of Manhattan-bound traffic. It opened in 2004.
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Common misperceptions about Thanksgiving
As a nation of immigrants, it's little wonder that so many people who transfer money abroad consider Thanksgiving one of the most important holidays of the year. The annual tradition celebrates all that people have to be thankful for, which is typically exemplified by feasting on foods that have become synonymous with Thanksgiving, such as turkey, yams, stuffing and cranberry sauce.
However, because so many people have turkey on Thanksgiving – a whopping 88 percent serve it as the main course, in fact, according to the National Turkey Federation – some may think that white and dark meat has always been served, dating back to the original dinner celebration in the 1600s.
In reality, though, there are a number of misperceptions about Thanksgiving that some people may be confused by, one of them pertaining to turkey. These misunderstandings may be frequent among immigrants, many of whom have spent most of their lives in another country.
Here are a few of them.
For example, historians largely believe that turkey was likely not served when colonists and the Wampanoag had the first Thanksgiving. That's because turkey was nowhere near as prevalent as it is today. In fact, according to the NTF, 248 million turkeys were raised in the U.S. last year alone – or the equivalent of about one for every two people who currently live in the U.S.
Historians say that the menu items at the first Thanksgiving meal likely included wild goose or duck, deer, corn, fish and shellfish. Turkey may have been served as well, but it wasn't the center piece like it is today.
Something else that some people may mistakenly believe is that Thanksgiving has been celebrated in one form or another since the 1620s. In reality, Thanksgiving wasn't made a holiday until 1863, as directed by Abraham Lincoln, who was president at the time. But even then, it wasn't made an official national holiday until 1941. It was at this time that Congress said the forth Thursday in each November would be celebrated as Thanksgiving. This may help explain why the dates for Thanksgiving change from year to year.
There's also some misunderstandings about why Lincoln made Thanksgiving a holiday. While the day does have its roots with early settlers, it wasn't until a woman named Sarah Hale made her opinion known that the holiday was made official.
Hale was a magazine editor who was highly influential. Historians say that for 40 years, she urged legislators to recognize Thanksgiving.
"Thanksgiving, like the Fourth of July, should be considered a national festival and observed by all our people," Hale once said.
Other countries celebrate Thanksgiving
Finally, it's often said that the U.S. is the only country that celebrates Thanksgiving. But immigrants may be the most highly qualified people to put this myth to rest. Several countries celebrate their own versions of Thanksgiving. For instance in Germany, Erntedankfest is also known as the Harvest Thanksgiving Festival. The day is celebrated in October and usually includes families and friends gathering for a feast.
Canadians also celebrate Thanksgiving, only theirs is in October. However, similar to Germany and the U.S., it's recognized by loved ones dining together.
Japan, Liberia, the Netherlands and the Island of Grenada are a few other countries where Thanksgiving-like holidays are celebrated.
Over the next few days, pause and give thanks for the things that helped make for a great life in the U.S., whether that's being able to live in a free society, having the capability to send money home to loved ones, good health and well being or gratitude for the original immigrants of the U.S. who helped make the country what it is today.
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A native of Anhui, Xiao Yuncong lived in Nanjing for varying periods of time. He painted this album near Nanjing in the ninth lunar month of 1645, shortly after the city’s fall to Manchu forces. Although only the first leaf is identified as a depiction of Nanjing’s famous Mount Qixia, the other pictures could also be evocations of local sites in different seasons.
These twelve landscapes juxtapose the distinct local styles of Anhui and Nanjing, sometimes a jarring blend in a single painting. Xiao’s Anhui landscapes feature massive mountains reduced to geometric formations. Here, that style’s inherent coolness and abstraction is tempered by a lush blue and green palette, naturalistic landscape elements, and signs of human habitation—all traits that reflect the Nanjing painters’ interest in local topography and genre details.
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Charlotte Brontë's first job did not suit her fiery sensibility. At nineteen, with little heart for marriage and the need to earn a living, she began teaching at Roe Head School in the north of England, about twenty miles from her home in Haworth. She found the atmosphere stultifying and the pupils idiotic. Forced to maintain an outward semblance of professional grace, she concealed her considerable emotional energy and rage. One evening in February 1836, "after a day's weary wandering," she began a diary entry on a loose sheet of paper: "Well here I am at Roe-Head," she wrote, "it is seven o'clock at night, the young ladies are all at their lessons, the school-room is quiet, the fire is low, a stormy day is at this moment passing off in a murmuring and bleak night."
During this rare moment alone, Brontë confessed her feelings of alienation. "It is strange," she wrote, "I cannot get used to the ongoings that surround me. I fulfil my duties strictly & well," but "as God was not in the wind, nor the fire, nor the earth-quake, so neither is my heart in the task, the theme or the exercises." Over the course of her teenage years, Brontë had found a creative way to get through such uncomfortable moments. She had learned to listen to what she called the "still small voice alone that comes to me at eventide"—an imaginative voice that granted her escape and release. "It is that which wakes my spirit & engrosses all my living feelings," she wrote in this diary entry, "all my energies which are not merely mechanical, &, like Haworth & home, wakes sensations which lie dormant elsewhere."
Brontë recalled how the previous night's "stormy blast . . . whirled me away like heath in the wilderness for five seconds of ecstasy." While the others were at tea, she said, she approached an exotic palace in the kingdom of Angria, peered through the windows at a lushly appointed room, and observed a drunken man shamelessly stretched out on the queen's voluptuous ottoman. But this, of course, was pure invention. Having begun writing a straightforward diary entry—a real-time description of her life at Roe Head—Brontë had stepped seamlessly into fiction. She allowed her high-flown storytelling to provide an antidote to the dreary everyday, her diary serving as a gateway from the real world into the fantastical.
Ten years before she wrote this entry, Charlotte's brother Branwell had received a set of toy soldiers as a gift from their father. He and his sisters—Charlotte, Anne, and Emily—were delighted, and they did what children do: They named the soldiers and made up stories about them. But the stunningly imaginative Brontës took typical childhood play to a new level, spinning a complex series of interconnected tales in exotic settings, documenting their creations in tiny handmade books written in a minuscule script appropriate to the scale of their soldier-characters. Charlotte's and Branwell's invented world was called Angria, and it was to this kingdom (and this script) that she returned that evening in 1836 when took a much-needed break from her schoolroom duties.
This is one of several diary entries that Charlotte Brontë made during her three years teaching at Roe Head School. She folded the single sheet of paper to form four pages, each a bit smaller than a 5 x 7 inch photograph, and filled the space with nearly two thousand words. She packed explosive imagination into this miniature canvas, depicting herself as the breathless observer of the debauch of Quashia Quamina, one of the characters she and Branwell had created: "I watched the fluttering of his white shirt ruffles starting through the more than half-unbuttoned waistcoat." She emerged from the erotic reverie of the diary-story only when Miss Wooler—one of the schoolmistresses—appeared at the door with a plate of butter in her hand. "'A very stormy night my dear!' said she. 'It is ma'am,' said I."
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Quiz: What You Don't Know About Natural Gas
Photograph by David Cupp, National Geographic
You know how much you rely on air conditioning to escape the summer heat. But what do you know about the energy that goes into keeping you cool?
Where was the world’s first commercial natural gas well drilled?
- Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
- Beaumont, Texas
- Beryozovo, Russia
- Fredonia, New York
The world’s first natural gas well was dug in Fredonia, New York, in 1825. Within four years, it supplied enough natural gas to light four stores and a grist mill.
Natural gas is mostly made up of?
- Carbon dioxide
Methane, produced by the decomposition of natural materials, is the primary component of the natural gas used for fuel and heating.
Natural gas burns cleaner than coal or oil. But it is not emissions-free. Burning coal for electricity creates how much more carbon dioxide than burning natural gas?
- 10 percent more
- 35 percent more
- 80 percent more
- 100 percent more
Compared to the average coal-fired plant, burning natural gas produces half the carbon dioxide, less than a third of the nitrogen oxides, one percent of the sulfur oxides and much lower levels of mercury.
The largest use of natural gas in the United States and Europe is for:
- Fertilizer production
- Generating electricity
- Heating homes
The largest use is generating electricity at power plants, representing about one-third of natural gas sold both in the United States and in the European nations that are members of the International Energy Organization.
Many European countries rely on Russian natural gas for heating and electricity. Most of Russia’s gas exports to Europe are sent by pipeline through which country??
Ukraine’s critical spot as a transit country for Russian gas means that disputes between Russia and Ukraine over gas prices can result in pipeline shutdowns and gas shortages all over Europe, as happened in the winter of 2009.
When no pipelines are available, natural gas can be transported as liquefied natural gas (LNG) in large ships with domed tanks. Chilling the gas to -260ºF (-162ºC) changes it into a liquid. How much more natural gas can be stored as LNG than in its gaseous state?
- Twice as much
- Sixty times as much
- Six hundred times as much
- One thousand times as much
LNG takes up only 1/600th of the space that the fuel would require in its gaseous state, making the super-chilled product more efficient to transport long distances.
World natural gas supplies look much larger than they appeared to be just a few years ago, thanks to technological innovation that has allowed producers to tap the natural gas locked in underground shale rock. Where was natural gas found and produced before this development?
- In “traps,” or pockets in underground rock layers
- Mixed with the oil in oil reservoirs
- Floating on top of oil in oil reservoirs
- All of the above
All of the above. Natural gas is often co-produced with oil, found mixed in the reservoir or on top. Conventional natural gas producers also tapped into folds of rock where gas had trapped into pockets; geologists think the gas migrated to these traps from shale source rock.
The World Bank has partnered with many nations and energy companies to reduce the practice of “flaring”—the burning off of natural gas as a byproduct at crude oil wells, typically where there is no pipeline to capture the gas. Why is the practice criticized?
- For causing light pollution
- For damaging drilling equipment
- For wasting a valuable energy source
- For driving down energy prices
In many oil-rich parts of the world, natural gas produced during oil drilling could easily be harnessed to provide light and power to nearby cities and towns. Instead, much of it is essentially thrown away.
Compressed natural gas (CNG) vehicles have a drawback. What is it?
- The tank full of natural gas is extremely dangerous in a crash
- CNG tanks tend to be large and bulky, making their use difficult in small cars
- Natural gas can’t move a vehicle faster than 35 miles per hour
- Burning natural gas creates an unpleasant smell that bothers other drivers
A gallon of CNG provides only a quarter of the energy a gallon of gasoline does, so CNG vehicles require big fuel tanks best suited to large vehicles such as buses and trucks.
Which country has the most vehicles equipped to run on natural gas?
- The United States
Pakistan boasts more than 2.3 million vehicles running on natural gas – nearly a quarter of the world’s 11.2 million total in 2009.
Where did the deadliest natural gas disaster occur in the United States?
- New London, Texas
- Cleveland, Ohio
- San Bruno, California
- Natchitoches, Louisiana
A natural gas explosion on March 18, 1937 destroyed a school in New London, killing nearly 300 students and adults. This disaster prompted distributors to begin adding an odorant, such as mercaptan, to natural gas so leaks can be more easily detected.
While the world’s oil supplies are dwindling, much of the globe’s natural gas remains untapped. Roughly how much of the estimated global supply have we used up so far, according to the International Energy Agency?
- 1 percent
- 8 percent
- 25 percent
- 50 percent
The IEA estimates the world has used only 66 trillion cubic meters of 850 trillion cubic meters of recoverable natural gas reserves.
Great work. You’re clearly connected to the natural gas knowledge pipeline.
Way to go! Your natural gas knowledge is anything but hot air. Drill down into the quiz again to improve your score.
Could be better. See if a second try helps you tap the knowledge you need.
Brush up on your natural gas facts at The Great Energy Challenge, and then retake the quiz to see how much you’ve learned.Retake Quiz
More Energy Quizzes
South America has vast energy resources, but how much do you know about the needs and reserves of its individual countries?
You know that poor insulation makes for a drafty, energy-wasting home, but how much do you really know about the true potential of energy efficiency?
You know that demand in Asia is moving energy markets around the world, but how much do you really know about the needs and resources of the world's most populous continent?
Historians say the modern era of energy began on October 17, 1973, when Arab exporters unleashed the "oil weapon" with an embargo against the United States and its allies. How much do you know about the global oil shocks of the past 40 years and how they changed the world?
Every few years, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) releases a new summary of the scientific consensus on climate change. How much do you know about the forces altering the Earth's temperature, according to the IPCC's September 2013 report?
Great Energy Challenge Blog
@NatGeoEnergy on TwitterTweets by @NatGeoGreen
The Great Energy Challenge
The shale gas industry maintains that it protects drinking water and land. But mistrust has been sown in rural communities.
The industry promises jobs to a state badly in need of an economic boost, but the work so far isn't where you might expect it to be.
The Big Energy Question
What innovation should shape transportation in the future?
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Posted Tuesday, 27 February 2007 by Gudmund in Icon of the week
Often described by information designers as “the best information graphic ever made”, Charles Minard's map of Napoleon's march to Moscow, created in 1861, set a defining standard for the representation of statistic information, and has been a favourite among usability experts ever since.
Image courtesy of Graphics Press
The map charts Napoleon's disasterous 1812 Russian campaign, marching off towards Moscow with his Grande Armée counting in excess of 500 000 troops. That number steadily diminished, mainly as a result of desease and starvation rather than military action. Arriving in Moscow with a heavily reduced army, Napoleon found the city largely evacuated, stripped of supplies and on fire, depriving his troops of much needed food and shelter. Snubbed of the victors' arrival and Russian notice of capitulation they had expected, Napoleon was eventually forced to start the long retreat. The Russian winter came early that year, and soldiers froze to death in their thousands as the temperature plummeted. Meanwhile, the retreating army was under constant threat of attack as Russian troops chipped away at the remains of the Grande Armée. About 10 000 troops made it out of Russia.Charles Joseph Minard
was a French civil engineer who later in life devoted himself to research in the area of representational maps and graphic charts, and it is this work that he is remembered for. When his map of Napoleon's campaign is still considered a bench-mark in graphic representation of information, this is mainly due to how it successfully integrates a whole range of information in one coherent and clear graphic chart. Firstly, it charts the geographical location of the army on its march to Moscow and back, while the width of the line that charts the route represents the number of surviving soldiers. The advance and retreat routes are set apart through colour coding, and the retreat route (and body-count) is referenced against a temperature-curve at the bottom displaying the dwindling temperature, dropping to below -30ºC.
Some hard-line information designers go as far as to argue that the massive loss of human life during Napoleon's campaign was well worth it, considering the masterpiece it inspired Minard to produce. Well, that might not be an entirely balanced view, but it does illustrate just how innovative and accomplished many consider this graphic to be.Cheer up your office with your very own print of Minard's map, available for purchase at Graphics Press.
For more great information graphics, try these books:Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Referenceby Robert L. HarrisInformation Graphics and Visual Clues: Communicating Information Through Graphic Designby Ronnie LiptonInformation Graphics: Innovative Solutions in Contemporary Designby Peter Wildbur and Michael Burke
Related posts:» Icon of the Week: The Routemaster Bus» Icon of the Week: Fender Stratocaster» Icon of the Week: The Leica Model I
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| 0.950938 | 592 | 3.296875 | 3 |
Today’s children face numerous stressors, growing up in a globalized world, surrounded by electronic media and confronted with pressures from school and increased competition in multiple aspects of life. The authors of a review article published in Frontiers in Psychiatry (2014; doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2014.00035) believe that yoga practice may help youth cope with these stresses and contribute to life balance, well-being and positive mental health.
“Children and young people need [tools like yoga] to listen inward to their bodies, feelings and ideas,” according to the reviewers. They suggested that yoga may contribute to healthy development and good mental health, helping to improve attention, self-esteem, empowerment and self-regulation.
While extensive research on young people and yoga practice is not available, evidence of yoga’s benefits is growing. One reviewed study found that yoga in schools helped teenagers to improve resilience, mood, and self-regulation skills related to emotions and stress. Other research showed that yoga enhanced attention in children, supported executive function development and reduced anxiety. In assessing the research, the review authors determined that a yoga practice for children can contribute to more self-confidence, more feelings of well-being, better emotional balance, improved physical fitness and greater respect for peers and others.
“Children’s yoga is not a simplified version of yoga for adults; it is a unique practice,” said Shakta Khalsa, a leading expert on yoga for children. “It is important to meet children where they are and [also important] that they experience yoga as fun.”
The review authors also concluded that more research is needed on the nature and type of psychological and developmental impact of yoga practice on children. They recommended incorporating yoga into school programs and developing policies for initiating yoga in schools and for training teachers. The article is available at www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3980104/.
For more on youth and stress management, see “Mindfulness Practice: Empowering Fragmented Teens to Become Whole,” published in the February 2012 issue of IDEA Fitness Journal.
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| 0.944991 | 448 | 3.40625 | 3 |
You hear it virtually everywhere these days: eat more green
leafy vegetables. And with good reason; leafy greens are among
the most nutritious of all vegetables, offering major benefits
to your entire body, including your brain, your bones and
your heart, while helping to prevent cancer, detoxify your
body, boost your immune system and give your more energy.
Not bad for a bowl full of greens!
However, most Americans are not eating enough of these incredibly
healthy foods. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(CDC) reported that less than one-third of American adults
eat the amount of fruits and vegetables the government recommends,
despite the fact that diets rich in these healthy foods are
known to prevent disease.
Bok choy, a type of Chinese cabbage, tastes great as
a side dish and also helps prevent cancer, protect against
cataracts and fight free radicals in your body.
Give These Uncommon Greens a Try
If your diet is lacking in healthy greens, or if you're looking
to experiment with a tasty and healthy side dish tonight,
the following greens deserve a spot on your table. They're
incredibly good for you, low in calories, easy to prepare
and, best of all, they're delicious!
Kale has a pungent, earthy flavor that is excellent on its
own or mixed with other vegetables. Once you sauté
or steam it lightly, kale makes a great side dish and is delicious
added to cole slaw, stir fries, soups -- even mashed potatoes
and homemade pizza!
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, vitamin C, manganese,
fiber, copper, calcium, vitamin B6 and potassium
Health Benefits: Kale contains compounds that
fight many forms of cancer, optimize your cells' ability
to detoxify, lower your risk of cataracts, promote lung
health, support your immune system and help keep your
brain sharp as you age.
2. Collard Greens
Though collard greens are popular in Southern cooking because
of their rich smoky flavor, they are largely ignored by other
cuisines. This is a shame, as collard greens are delicious
lightly steamed and served with lemon juice and olive oil,
garlic and onion or even black-eyed peas and rice (for a more
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, vitamin C, manganese,
folate, fiber, calcium, potassium, vitamin B2 and vitamin
B6, and a good source of vitamin E, magnesium,
protein, omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin B1, vitamin B5,
niacin, zinc, phosphorous, and iron.
Health Benefits: Collard greens are rich in phytonutrients
that help your body to detoxify, fight against cancer,
provide antioxidant protection, support your immune system,
protect your heart and lungs, ease the symptoms of menopause
and protect your mental function as you age.
3. Mustard Greens
Mustard greens have a strong, peppery flavor and their brown
seeds are used to make Dijon mustard. Simply sauté
them and add them to sweet potatoes, stir fries, casseroles
and even pasta salad for a bit of a spicy kick.
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, vitamin C, folate,
vitamin E, manganese and fiber
Health Benefits: Mustard greens are packed with
antioxidants that fight against the damaging effects of
free radicals, protect your lungs and heart, help keep
your mind sharp, reduce the symptoms of menopause and
protect against rheumatoid arthritis.
4. Turnip Greens
When it comes to turnips, most people focus on the root,
but the greens of this plant are also incredibly healthy (and
have a pleasant, slightly bitter flavor). Turnip greens are
delicious sautéed or steamed as a side dish with garlic,
onion, olive oil and lemon, or as an addition to soups, stews
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin
E, vitamin B6, folate, calcium, copper, fiber and manganese
Health Benefits: Turnip greens help provide relief
from rheumatoid arthritis, promote colon health (including
lowering the risk of colon cancer), fight against atherosclerosis,
promote lung health, and fight against declines in mental
Turnip greens can be added to soups, stews, and pasta,
and they help keep your colon, lungs, heart and brain
5. Sea Vegetables
Sea vegetables, better known as seaweed,
are the leafy greens of the sea. Though not technically a
vegetable (they're actually classified as algae), seaweed
is loaded with nutrition and has a unique, slightly salty
flavor. Sea vegetables can be eaten on their own as a snack
(in the dried form) or can be added to soups, salad, stews
and stir fries.
Notable Nutrients: Seaweed contains the broadest
range of minerals of any food -- the same minerals found
in the ocean and in human blood, such as potassium, calcium,
magnesium, iron, and iodine. It also contains vitamin
K, folate, and the B-vitamins riboflavin and pantothenic
Health Benefits: Sea vegetables may help to prevent
cancer, promote healthy thyroid function, prevent birth
defects and heart disease, provide relief for the symptoms
of menopause and help reduce
inflammation in the body.
6. Romaine Lettuce
When many Americans think of lettuce, they may think of iceberg
lettuce -- the nutrition-less, flavorless, pale lettuce that
usually comes on fast-food hamburgers. Romaine lettuce, on
the other hand, is loaded with nutrition and has a crispy
texture and fresh flavor. Romaine lettuce makes an excellent
base for salads, a great topper for sandwiches and an ideal
"wrapper" that can be filled with anything from
to chicken salad.
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, folate, vitamin
C, manganese, chromium, fiber, vitamin B1, vitamin B2,
potassium, molybdenum, iron, and phosphorous
Health Benefits: Romaine lettuce helps protect
the heart, particularly by supporting normal cholesterol
levels and blood pressure.
Brussels sprouts look like tiny cabbages, and they
have the health benefits to match. Brussels sprouts
protect against cancer, birth defects, rheumatoid arthritis
Endive, which is the second growth of the chicory plant,
can be pale yellow or purple in color and has a pungent, bitter
flavor. This crisp, lettuce-like vegetable makes a unique
addition to salads but can also be steamed or sautéed
and served as a hot side dish.
Notable Nutrients: Potassium, calcium, magnesium,
iron, zinc, B vitamins, vitamin C, folate and selenium
Health Benefits: Endive is rich in compounds that
help boost the immune system, detoxify the body, promote
regularity, lower the risk of cataracts and protect the
8. Brussels Sprouts
Brussels sprouts often get a bad rap because of their strong
flavor and smell, but when prepared correctly they are delicious!
Steam them until they're tender, then season them with some
butter, salt and pepper, or try them with olive oil, balsamic
vinegar or even feta cheese. You can either leave them intact
or cut off the base and separate the leaves (then toss them
with seasonings and serve like a salad).
Notable Nutrients: vitamin C, vitamin K, folate,
vitamin A, manganese, fiber, potassium, vitamin B6 and
thiamin (vitamin B1), omega-3 fatty acids, iron, phosphorous,
protein, magnesium, riboflavin (vitamin B2), vitamin E,
copper and calcium
- Health Benefits: Brussels sprouts help to prevent
cancer, detoxify your body, promote healthy skin, colon
and immune function, protect against rheumatoid arthritis
and protect against birth defects.
9. Bok Choy
Bok choy is a type of Chinese cabbage with a mild flavor
and a great crisp texture. It's excellent sautéed with
onions, olive oil and salt and pepper, or add it to stews,
soups and casseroles.
Notable Nutrients: vitamin A, vitamin C, beta-carotene,
calcium, fiber, potassium and vitamin B6
Health Benefits: Bok Choy can help prevent cancer,
protect against cataracts and fight free radicals in your
Remarkable Anti-Toxin, Cancer-Fighting Power of Cruciferous
Once and For All, Are America's Favorite Vegetables Good for
You or Not?
Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report March 16, 2007
To get more information about this and other highly important topics, sign up for your free subscription to our weekly SixWise.com "Be Safe, Live Long & Prosper" e-newsletter.
With every issue of the free SixWise.com newsletter, you’ll get access to the insights, products, services, and more that can truly improve your well-being, peace of mind, and therefore your life!
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| 0.879873 | 2,011 | 2.65625 | 3 |
|Etymology||Story||Photos / Slideshow||Maps: 1 2 3||Profiles: 1 2 3|
later climbed Sat, May 31, 2008|
Mt. Davis (12,303 ft.)
Named by N. F. McClure in 1894
"Lieutenant Milton Fennimore Davis (1864-1938), with the first troops assigned to guard the newly created Yosemite National Park, in 1891, at which time he made the first ascent of the mountain. The name was applied by Lt. N. F. McClure in 1894.
'I ascended the peak on Aug. 31, 1891. I took two days for the trip. Slept out
without blankets at timber-line, making a fire of the last tree. I was
accompanied most of the way by a Methodist preacher, Dr. E. W. Beers, of
Anamosa, Iowa. The trip nearly killed him.' (Letter, Davis to
Versteeg, in Farquhar files.)
'Beers gave out and did not cross the last gorge and make the last 2,000 feet.'
(SCB 12, no. 3, 1926: 305.)"
- Peter Browning, Place Names of the Sierra Nevada
"It was at this place that Major Wessels, of the Third Cavalry, was shot in
the back of the head. It was a severe wound, but after having it bound up he
again came to the front in command of his regiment. Among the men who were
foremost was Lieutenant Milton F. Davis, of the First Cavalry. He had been
joined by three men of the Seventy-first New York, who ran up, and,
saluting, said, 'Lieutenant, we want to go with you, our officers won't lead
us.' One of the brave fellows was soon afterward shot in the face.
Lieutenant Davis's first sergeant, Clarence Gould, killed a Spanish soldier
with his revolver, just as the Spaniard was aiming at one of my Rough
Riders. At about the same time I also shot one."
- Theodore Roosevelt, The Rough Riders (online)
For more information see these SummitPost pages: Mt. Davis
This page last updated: Sat Apr 7 17:02:14 2007
For corrections or comments, please send feedback to: [email protected]
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Runaway production is a term used by the American film industry to describe filmmaking and television productions that are "intended for initial release/exhibition or television broadcast in the U.S., but are actually filmed in another country."
In a 2005 production report by the Center for Entertainment Industry Data and Research (CEIDR), the trend of runaway productions are more frequently linked to American films and television being lured away from U.S. locations to out-of-country locations. A large reason for these productions leaving are foreign subsidies offered to American companies ultimately reducing the cost of making the film. According to the CEIDR report, "The analysis reveals that, while there are certainly general economic factors at play, such as relative labor and exchange rates, the data over the past several years strongly suggests that proliferation of production subsidies around the globe has been one of the most significant factors affecting the choice of production venues for a significant volume of production."
The report further states that "the connection between the advent of Canadian Production subsidies in late 1998 and the dramatic increase in production that occurred in the following year (as reflected by the 144% increase in dollar volume for the 2000 release year films) appears unassailable as there were no appreciable changes in exchange rates or labor rates to justify this dramatic shift from one year to the next, other than the subsidy programs".
- 1 Hollywood
- 2 Creative and economic runaways
- 3 Canada's subsidies and the effect on American workers
- 4 Conflicting employment data on the U.S. motion picture industry
- 5 Competing subsidies
- 6 Other U.S. attempts to end runaway production
- 7 Countervailing efforts in the United States
- 8 Industry trends
- 9 See also
- 10 References
- 11 External links
Los Angeles, California has traditionally played a large role in the history of the film industry, both in the U.S. and at an international level. The first American film production companies emerged in New Jersey and New York. However, the relatively poor quality of early recording media and lighting systems meant that films had to be shot in sunlit glass studios. In turn, the weather typical of the northeast states frequently hampered production. Eventually, a trend developed towards using the west and midwest United States as ideal locations for shooting.
Los Angeles, California during the early 1910s was an advantageous location for filmmakers. It had very clear, dry weather that "permitted outdoor filming for much of the year. In addition, southern California offered a variety of landscapes, including ocean, desert, mountain, forest, and hillside"
Creative and economic runaways
||This section is written like a personal reflection or opinion essay that states the Wikipedia editor's personal feelings about a topic, rather than the opinions of experts. (July 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)|
A report commissioned by the Directors Guild of America (DGA) defined two classes of runaway productions. "Creative runaways" are film and television projects that are produced, in part or in whole, outside the United States based on requirements of the script, setting, or due to preferences of the actors or director. Alternatively, "economic runaways" are productions made in other countries to "reduce costs." This type of production typically involves films that are set (written to be shot) in the United States but which instead have been outsourced to other countries such as Canada, Australia, Fiji, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, or the United Kingdom.
Since economic runaways can be caused by a variety of factors, more recent scholarly research has further refined the definition. In general, there are three different categories of runaway productions (1) artificial economic runaways,(2) natural economic runaways, and (3) artistic runaways:Artificial economic runaways are films shot abroad or in another domestic locale or jurisdiction because of artificial, or legislatively created, incentives designed to lure productions. Natural economic runaways are films that shoot in a location to take advantage of natural economic occurring phenomenon—like cheap labor—that lower production costs. Artistic runaways are films that shoot abroad to artistically service the story-a film about Paris that shoots in Paris.
According to CEIDR, Canada receives 90% of U.S. runaway productions, and offers the bulk of the government subsidies. A subsidy is defined as financial contributions or kickbacks where "government revenue that is otherwise due is foregone or not collected", according to GATT – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade.
Canada's subsidies and the effect on American workers
According to a 2001 U.S. Department of Commerce report by Commerce Secretary, Norman Mineta, "Runaway film production' has affected thousands of (U.S.) workers in industries ranging from computer graphic to construction workers and caterers. These losses threaten to disrupt important parts of a vital American industry."
A DGA-funded study confirmed that the Canadian government has engaged in a comprehensive and aggressive, long-term strategic campaign to lure U.S. productions to Canada. The report estimates that runaway productions cost the United States over 50,000 jobs and at least US$10 billion in production monies annually.
At least $13 billion is doled out annually in corporate welfare to the business sector in combined Canadian federal and provincial subsidies and tax breaks, according to the Canadian Taxpayers Federation (CTF), a conservative tax watchdog. The CTF released a report saying that from 1982 to 1997, the Canadian federal government handed out $11 billion in 32,969 grants and loans to the provinces earmarked as business subsidies or directly to corporations.
Conflicting employment data on the U.S. motion picture industry
In 1992, the MPAA claimed 164,000 Californians were directly employed in entertainment production, rising to 226,000 in 1996. Furthermore, in 1996, the estimated number of California jobs indirectly generated by the entertainment industry ranged from 233,000 to 253,100, which brought the "industry's total employment to well over 450,000." The MPAA claimed that entertainment production in California during 1996 generated $27.5 billion in economic activity for the state. The astonishing economic growth from 1992 to 1996, according to the MPAA, exploded for two reasons: (1) as the growth of multiplex theaters and cable television rose, it created a higher general demand for more entertainment media productions; and (2) "the possibility that this new production activity would occur outside California, or in other countries, did not materialize."
In 2004, the MPAA reported employment numbers for the entire United States. The employment numbers were broken into three categories: production and services (P&S), theaters and video tape rental, and other. In 1995, the total number of Americans employed in the motion picture industry was 283,700 (135,200 in P&S); in 1997, total employment was 323,000 (159,600 P&S); in 2000, total employment was 351,600 (182,100 P&S) and; in 2004, total employment was 367,900 (198,300 P&S). Hence, in 1997, according to the MPAA 2004 report, total U.S. motion picture employment of 323,000 represents a huge discrepancy from the MPAA's earlier claim that, in 1996, the industry employed over 450,000 workers in California alone. Adding to the confusion, The Commerce Report—which used the same BLS data cited by the MPAA—claimed 236,152 workers were employed nationwide in motion picture production and allied services in 1997.
In August 2005, the Los Angeles Economic Development Corporation (LAEDC) released a report commissioned by the California Film Commission on the economic impact of runaway productions. The report compared motion picture employment numbers gathered from the MPAA and the United States Census for the same year, 2002. The data from the MPAA and the Census was divided into two categories: (1) overall motion picture employment in the United States and; (2) the amount of motion picture employment in California—how much California captures of the total U.S. figure. In 2002, the Census reported that 153,000 people worked in the motion picture industry in the United States and, of that amount, 88,500 worked in California. The MPAA data for 2002 reported 353,076 workers in the motion picture industry in the United States, with 245,900 of those jobs in California.
The MPAA, in 1996, claimed that the film industry employed 750,000 Americans, a number that remained on the MPAA's Web Site in 2008.
"Who is representing the interests of taxpayers here?" asked CTF Saskatchewan director David MacLean. "The film industry is playing the Saskatchewan government like a worn-out movie script, drawing them into bidding war with other provinces. It's a race to the bottom where nobody wins except film producers."
When faced with the prospect of a worldwide subsidy war, Ron Haney, executive director of the Directors Guild of Canada is quoted as saying, "Everybody can compete with tax credits now... It's absolutely frightening."
According to a study by the Canadian government, productions are beginning to "run away" from Canada as well. Productions are now going to countries that have introduced competing and/or counter-incentives and/or subsidies. Many productions are starting to return to the United States due to recent legislation to counteract runaway production.
While film and television employment attributed to foreign location spending and actual spending levels by such productions increased in 2008, the state film incentives enacted in U.S. states showed clear increases in the number of productions shooting in the respective enacting U.S. jurisdiction.
Several Canadian companies are also pulling their support for Canadian Television Fund (CTF) because, "(It) was never intended as a permanent source of funding" to subsidize broadcasters and programmers. One Canadian company stated that, "Our understanding was that after the initial five-year period, the fund would be self-sustaining and self-financing from a return on investment in successful productions."
"The Vancouver Sun's Michael McCullough points out that California not only has the world's highest production costs it also has no tax credits. How do they do it? That's the question BC's film industry should be asking, rather than looking to taxpayers to buck up... The tit for tat tax credit game is one with only one loser, the taxpayer. There will always be other jurisdictions that will out-subsidize BC. Louisiana offers a straight 20% subsidy for production costs, is that the next industry demand? It is not the job of the government to keep up with incentives but the industry's role to remain competitive."
Other U.S. attempts to end runaway production
The movement of industry jobs to other jurisdictions has led to the formation of non-profit U.S. industry groups, such as the Film and Television Action Committee (FTAC) as well as other groups such as the Directors Guild of America (DGA), the Screen Actors Guild (SAG) and others, who have been lobbying state and federal governments to introduce American legislation and counter-incentive programs. Several studies have concluded that foreign government subsidies for film and television production put American film industry workers and companies at an extreme disadvantage.
FTAC believes that foreign government subsidies such as those Canada uses to support its film industry labor are in violation of the WTO rules restricting or prohibiting the use of government subsidies to prop up previously undeveloped industries (such as the Canadian film industry). On September 4, 2007, the FTAC filed a Section 301 complaint with the United States Trade Representative (USTR). In the petition, the FTAC argued subsidies offered by Canada to lure production and filming of U.S.-produced television shows and motion pictures were inconsistent with Canada's obligations under the WTO. Six weeks later, October 19, 2007, the USTR rejected FTAC's petition. In a press release, the USTR's office stated:
"As provided under USTR regulations, the petition was reviewed by an interagency committee of trade and economic experts. Based on a thorough review of the economic data, other facts, and legal arguments set out in the petition, the interagency committee unanimously recommended that the USTR not accept the petition because a dispute based on the information and arguments set out in the petition would not be effective in addressing the Canadian subsidies."
Countervailing efforts in the United States
The American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 contained provisions allows U.S. producers of films with budgets under $15 million ($20 million if shot in a low-income neighborhood) to immediately write off their costs in a single year (if 75% of their principal costs are incurred via shooting in the U.S.) It also allows producers to be taxed at a capital gains rate of 15% (rather than at the higher 35% personal income tax rate). Previously producers had to amortize those costs over several years.
Local and state governments[which?] have also implemented counter-incentive programs in an effort to encourage domestic film productions to remain in the United States, and the federal government has attempted to rein in outsourcing with legislation to prevent what legislators describe as unfair foreign competition.
The SARS scare
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) originated in southern China in November 2002. By March 2003 cases were seen in people returning to Canada from Hong Kong, particularly in Toronto – a major runaway production location. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), at the time there were 774 worldwide deaths related to SARS and Canada saw 438 probable SARS cases, with 44 deaths. According to Rhonda Silverstone, Toronto's film commissioner, Canadian production suffered a drastic downturn as American productions stayed home or located elsewhere. SARS scare aside, according to the Center for Entertainment Industry Data and Research, if it weren't for large subsidies, most U.S. producers prefer to stay home and shoot in the United States anyway.
Canadian labour disputes
In early 2007, a six-week strike by members of the Canadian actors association ACTRA initially affected productions in Ontario, later spreading to Manitoba, Quebec, and Saskatchewan. The labour dispute led to the cancellation of two major film productions scheduled to shoot in Toronto.
The labour dispute was resolved on February 21, 2007, with wage increases to bring Canadian performers on par with their American counterparts. One of the primary issues involved establishing compensation for Internet use of productions. American studios were reluctant to agree to a deal when no similar agreement exists with U.S. actors.
Walt Disney Motion Pictures Group had decided against shooting in Montreal and Toronto "for fear of a strike or lockout," allegedly threatening to shift those shoots back to the U.S. According to the Canadian Film and Television Production Association, at least three large scale U.S. productions have canceled plans to shoot in Canada due to concerns over the possibility of a long strike and the lack of predictability of Canadian labour.
The September 11, 2001 attacks and aftermath
In an attempt to reconstruct the film industry in New York after the September 11, 2001 attacks, many new "Made in NY" counter-incentives have been developed to lure film productions back to the "Big Apple". According to the film industry trade magazine Variety, after installing counter-incentives New York City hit a record high for production, re-upping its number of shooting days 10% from 2005.
The reality television boom
Although feature filmmaking in Los Angeles is still negatively affected by runaway production, the reality TV boom has meant that many U.S. television productions are more likely to be shot where they are situated, in the United States.
- Branch plant economy
- Cinema of Canada
- Cinema of the United States
- List of movie-related topics
- Movie production incentives in the United States
- Monitor Company (1999). "U.S. Runaway Film and Television Study Report" (PDF). Director's Guild of America/Screen Actors Guild. p. 29. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
- Herd, Nick (2004). Chasing the Runaways: Foreign Film Production and Film Studio Development in Australia 1988-2002. Strawberry Hills: Currency Press. ISBN 0-9581213-3-8.
- Felstead, Debra (July 6, 2003). "Toronto TV production is fading to black". Media Monitor Digest. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
- The Center for Entertainment Industry Data and Research – Year 2005 Production Report, p 1.
- The Center for Entertainment Industry Data and Research – Year 2005 Production Report
- Thompson, Bordwell
- Adrian McDonald, Down the Rabbit Hole: The Madness of State Film Incentives as a “Solution” to Runaway Production, 14 U. PA. J. BUS. L. 85, 86 (2011).https://www.law.upenn.edu/live/files/156-mcdonald14upajbusl852011pdf
- Gatt definition of subsidy
- "Impact of the Migration of U.S. Film and Television Production". United States Department of Commerce. 2001. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
- "The Decline of Foreign Location Production in Canada". Government of Canada. 2005-05-24. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
- "Total Economic Impact Of U.S. Economic Runaway Production". Directors Guild of America. 2000. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
- Eye Weekly – 11/11/99 – "The great Canadian pig-out: Some of Canada's biggest and most profitable corporations are also our biggest welfare bums" by Bruce Livesey
- Reprinted in University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law: "Through the Looking Glass: Runaway Production and Hollywood Economics" by Adrian McDonald
- Canadian Taxpayers Federation "Corporate welfare too much for Saskatchewan taxpayers" – November 03, 2005
- Verrier, Richard (October 23, 2005). "Canada rolls credits on a slump". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on May 23, 2006. Retrieved 2007-01-25.
- "Shaw could kill TV fund" by Antonia Zerbisias Jan 23, 2007
- "Film Credit Follies" January 18, 2005
- October 19, 2007
- Berman, Howard (February 12, 2003). "Bipartisan Bill Aims to Keep Movie and TV Production Jobs in the USA". U.S. House of Representatives. Archived from the original on 2007-01-07. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
- "SARS (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome)". CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
- Vlessing, Etan (January 30, 2004). "Canada indies 'all hurting' as market goes downhill by Etan Vlessing". FRIENDS of Canadian Broadcasting. Retrieved 2007-01-27.
- ACTRA, producers reach new tentative agreement in labour dispute
- Reuters – Canada "Court orders arbitration in Canadian actors' strike" Wed Jan 31, 2007
- CNW Telbec
- National Post "Strike devastating film industry: Producers say job action has cost city about $400M" by Sarah Matthews February 01, 2007
- 1/19/2007 – "Shooting hits record high in Gotham" Variety (subscription)
- 11/6/2006 – "Reality boom boosts TV prod'n" -by Dave McNary, Variety (subscription)
- The Creative Coalition – member's advocacy work against runaway production
- "The New Rules Project" By Simona Fuma Shapiro Fall 2000 "The Culture Thief"
- The Rocord.com – Insider – "Another Twist in ACTRA Strike Drama" (Feb 2, 2007)
- 2003 – Congressmen Dreier, Berman Re-Introduce Runaway Production Legislation
- Reuters – Canada "Court orders arbitration in Canadian actors' strike" Wed Jan 31, 2007
- 2004 – Governor Schwarzenegger Joins with Other Big State Governors to Push for Federal Incentives Package to fight runaway production
- Variety 7/31/2006, 2006(subscription) "Runaway drain? Study: Pic biz in big production pickle"
- Los Angeles Times January 22, 2007 "L.A. airports fly high with film shoots" By Tony Barboza, Times Staff Writer
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The topic of "The Age
of Aquarius" usually brings forth in one's mind many images and questions
of what this Age really is. Following several decades of popularization,
the term "Aquarian Age" has often been used as a cliche in popular
culture. Presently, almost any topic related to esotericism or mysticism
is coined as "New Age" (referring to the New Age of Aquarius).
In society today we have "New Age groups", "New Age book
stores", "New Age music", etc. In lieu of all the stereotypes
associated with this term, however, it is important to know the historical
facts associated with the Age of Aquarius and to understand its inner meaning.
Even though the Age of Aquarius has been highly popularized,
few actually know much about it. Some assume that it began many years
ago, while others believe that it has yet to begin. Samael
Aun Weor, the founder of the Gnostic movement, tells us that the Age
of Aquarius began on February 4, 1962. On that day there occurred a very
interesting astronomical (and astrological) event. The planets Mercury,
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, along with the sun, the earth, and the
moon, were all found in the constellation of Aquarius. In addition, a
solar and lunar eclipse occurred which was visible in some parts of the
Old World. The cosmic event that transpired on that day is extremely rare.
Such a congregation of planets occurs only once every 2160 years, moving
from one constellation to the next. Each time it happens it marks the
beginning of a new era, or New Age, for humanity. February 4, 1962 marked
the end of the Age of Pisces and the beginning of the Age of Aquarius.
Due to the great significance of the new era, the 4th of February bears
a special meaning for Gnostic students. This date is recognized as the
official Gnostic New Year, and is celebrated at Gnostic centers throughout
the world. February 4, 1998 will mark the beginning of the 37th year of
the Age of Aquarius.
To properly understand what a certain zodiacal constellation
represents, we must look at its esoteric symbolism. If we look at the
sign of Pisces, we see two fish. These two fish represent duality, the
struggle of the opposites. The Age of Pisces was the age of conflict between
opposing ideologies: dogmatic Christianity struggling against atheistic
materialism, the Church against the state, science battling religion, spirituality
vs. materiality, etc. The fish that lives in the water is instinctive,
brutal, and always gets carried by the currents; the same was true with
the men and women of the Age of Pisces.
Aquarius, however, is an eminently revolutionary sign,
and its occult significance is knowledge. The constellation of Aquarius
is governed by the planet Uranus, which is a completely revolutionary planet.
The sign of Aquarius shows a man with two pitchers of water who is wisely
combing these waters. The doctrine of the Age of Aquarius is thus termed
the "Doctrine of the Synthesis", the synthesis of all authentic
religions and systems of self-realization. In the Aquarian Age dogmatic
types of Christianity will cease to be taught, and all dogmatic forms will
disappear. In this age science will become religious, and religion will
become scientific. Disagreements between science and religion will come
to an end, and people will begin to comprehend that both spirit and matter
are derived from the same source, and are only modifications of the One
Universal Energy. In the Age of Aquarius humanity will have marvelous
breakthroughs in many scientific disciplines, including physics, chemistry,
astronomy, medicine, aviation, etc.
Throughout the world many people have personal views about
the Aquarian Age, and, although many of these beliefs are beautiful, they
are also extremely erroneous. Many have termed the Aquarian Age as the
"Golden Age" of humanity, and others have predicted that this
Golden Age will commence at the beginning of the new millennium (the year
2000). They say that, at that time, mankind will go through a radical
transformation, filled with great splendor and magnificence. Such Utopian
concepts, however, are unfounded. Every man, woman, and nation bears enormous
karmic debts that need to be paid before a Golden Age can become a reality.
And as long as the psychological ego, that multitude of negative psychological
elements, exists within us, then how can a true Golden Age be created?
Within our psyche exist all those factors that create wars, hatred, violence,
envy, disharmony, etc. In order to create an environment of love, peace,
and fraternity between every human being, we must first permanently eliminate
the elements within us that create the exact opposite environment. V. M. Samael Aun Weor states that
"in order to create, it is necessary to destroy." For a Golden
Age to occur, every person must struggle and make conscious efforts to
eliminate his or her psychological defects.
To bring about true social change we must first begin
by changing ourselves. By practicing the Three Factors for the Revolution
of Consciousness we can dissolve the negative elements found within our
psyche and also create the inner virtues that are necessary to live in
harmony with nature and the rest of humanity. We must consciously work
towards this goal, even if others choose not to do so. In this way, regardless
of whether a Golden Age exists externally, we are consciously working towards
creating a "Golden Age" within ourselves.
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The new Wide Field Camera 3 aboard NASA's Hubble Space Telescope, took this image of hot gas fleeing a dying star 3,800 light-years away in the Scorpius constellation. A so-called planetary nebula, it is also known as the Bug Nebula or the Butterfly Nebula. What resemble dainty butterfly wings are actually roiling cauldrons of gas heated to more than 36,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The star itself, once about five times as massive as the Sun, is some 400,000 degrees Fahrenheit, making it one of the hottest known in the galaxy. In what amounts to a kind of galactic recycling, the lost gas, enriched by elements like oxygen, nitrogen and carbon produced by the formerly massive star, will form the stuff for future stars.
The Hubble's new Wide Field Camera 3 peered into one of the more crowded places in the universe in this view of a small region inside the globular cluster Omega Centauri, which has nearly 10 million stars. Globular clusters are ancient swarms of stars united by gravity. The stars in Omega Centauri are 10 billion to 12 billion years old. The cluster is about 16,000 light-years from Earth. The photograph showcases the new camera's color versatility by revealing a variety of stars in key stages of their life cycles.
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A peace symbol ( ☮ ) is a representation or object that has come to symbolize peace. The dove and the olive branch, or a dove carrying an olive branch in its beak, are ancient symbols of peace; in the latter part of the twentieth century, the peace sign, developed by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, and the V hand signal came into use around the world.
The internationally recognized symbol for peace was originally designed for the British nuclear disarmament movement. It was designed and completed on 21 February 1958 by Gerald Holtom, a professional designer and artist in Britain for the 4 April march planned by the Direct Action Committee Against Nuclear War (DAC) from Trafalgar Square, London to the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment at Aldermaston in England. The symbol was later adopted by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND). It was adopted by first the 1960s anti-war movement, then the counterculture, and finally the popular culture of the time.
The peace sign flag first became known in the Soviet Union in 1958 when Albert Bigelow, a pacifist protester, sailed his small boat outfitted with the CND banner into the vicinity of a nuclear test.
The peace sign button was imported into the United States in 1960 by Philip Altbach, a freshman at the University of Chicago, who traveled to England to meet with British peace groups as a delegate from the Student Peace Union (SPU). Altbach purchased a bag of the "chickentrack" buttons while he was in England, and brought them back to Chicago, where he convinced SPU to reprint the button and adopt it as its symbol. Over the next four years, SPU reproduced and sold thousands of the buttons on college campuses. By the late 1960s, the peace sign had become an international symbol adopted by anti-war protestors of the Baby Boom Generation.
The symbol itself is a combination of the semaphoric signals for the letters "N" and "D," standing for Nuclear Disarmament. In semaphore the letter "N" is formed by a person holding two flags in an upside-down "V," and the letter "D" is formed by holding one flag pointed straight up and the other pointed straight down. Superimposing these two signs forms the shape of the centre of the peace symbol. In the first official CND version (which was preceded by a ceramic pin version that had straight lines, but was short lived) the spokes curved out to be wider at the edge of the circle, which was white on black.
Holtom later wrote to Hugh Brock, editor of Peace News, explaining the genesis of his idea in greater depth: "I was in despair. Deep despair. I drew myself: the representative of an individual in despair, with hands palm outstretched outwards and downwards in the manner of Goya's peasant before the firing squad. I formalised the drawing into a line and put a circle round it." Ken Kolsbum, a correspondent of Holtom's, says that the designer came to regret the symbolism of despair, as he felt that peace was something to be celebrated and wanted the symbol to be inverted.
The gravestone of Ed Bishop, actor and anti-war campaigner, has a peace symbol prominently engraved on it.
The "V-sign", also called the "peace sign", "peace out" and the "victory sign," is a hand gesture with the index and middle fingers open and all others closed. It was used as a sign for victory during the Second World War by Winston Churchill, originally with palm inwards; Churchill switched to palm outwards later in the war, possibly because the insulting meaning of the palm inwards version had been explained to him.
This developed into a peace sign during protests in the USA against the Vietnam War (and subsequent anti-war protests), and was adopted by the South and North Americans counterculture as a sign of peace. Because the hippies of the day often showed the sign while saying "Peace", it became known as the peace sign, the name still used today.
The peace flag is a series of nine rainbow stripes with the word for peace printed in the center. The first such flags made were emblazoned with PACE (Peace in Italian and Romanian, derived from the Latin word pax, pronounced pah-chay). Previous Italian peace flags had featured a dove drawn by Pablo Picasso; the new design first appeared in an Italian peace march as early as September 24, 1961, in an Italian peace march.
The flag is often flown from balconies in Italy by citizens opposed to the Iraq war. Its use has spread to other countries as well, with the Italian "pace" replaced with its translation in various other languages.
In recent years, especially in connection with the 2003 Invasion of Iraq, there has been a surge in popularity of the Peace flag. According to Amnesty International, producer Franco Belsito had produced only about 10,000 flags annually for 60 years, and suddenly had to cope with a demand in the range of millions.
In Judaism and Christianity an olive branch is a sign for peace. The Torah (The Old Testament)describes a story in which a dove was released by Noah after the Great Flood in order to find land. The dove came back carrying an olive branch in its beak, proof for Noah that the Great Flood had receded. (Book of Genesis 8:11).
The motif can also represent "hope for peace" and even a peace offering from one man to another, as in the phrase "extend an olive branch".
The Hebrew word "Shalom" (Hebrew: שָׁלוֹם), and the Arabic "Salaam" (Arabic: سلام) have been used as peace symbols. Shalom and Salaam literally mean "peace" and are cognates of each other, derived from the Semitic triconsonantal of Ś-L-M (realized in Hebrew as Š-L-M and in Arabic as S-L-M).
The congruence of both words has come to represent "peace in the Middle East" and an end to the Arab-Israeli conflict. Its significance is such that wall plaques and signs are sold with only those words, and the words are featured in such Israeli peace songs such as "Salaam (Od Yavo Shalom Aleinu)", sung in both Hebrew and Arabic, and "Shalom Salaam Peace" by HaMehona Shel HaGruv.
A peace sign in Arabic, English and Hebrew
"Shalom" in blue "Salaam" in green "Peace" in orange
The White Poppy campaign began in 1932 by the Women's Co-operative Guild to distribute an alternative to the Red Poppies used to commemorate British military dead, and the first poppies were distributed in 1933. The newly-formed Peace Pledge Union (PPU) joined in distributing them in 1934, and white poppy wreaths were laid "as a pledge to peace that war must not happen again". In 1980, the PPU revived the symbol as a form of remembering the victims of war without glorifying militarism.
The Broken Rifle symbol associated with War Resisters' International and its affiliates actually predates the foundation of WRI in 1921.
The first known example of the Broken Rifle was in the mast-head of the January 1909 issue of De Wapens Neder (Down With Weapons), the monthly paper of the International Antimilitarist Union in the Netherlands. In 1915 it appeared on the cover of a pamphlet, Under det brukne Gevaer (Under the Broken Rifle), published by the Norwegian Social Democratic Youth Association. The (German) League for War Victims, founded in 1917, used the broken rifle on a 1919 banner. In 1921, Belgian workers marching through La Louvrière on 16 October 1921, carried flags showing a soldier breaking his rifle.
Ernst Friedrich, a German who had refused military service, founded the Anti-Kriegs Museum in Berlin with a bas-relief broken rifle over the door, and the Museum distributed broken rifle badges, girl's and women's brooches, boy's belt buckles, and men's tie pins.
The crane is a traditional symbol in Japan for, among other things, peace. Paper cranes are often folded, especially around the time of the New Year; a thousand origami cranes is a symbol of good luck.
Some unique items have come to symbolize peace. For example, the Japanese Peace Bell was a gift from the UN Association of Japan to the United Nations, presented to them in 1954. The bell remains at UN headquarters and is struck yearly, in remembrance of peace.
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| 0.97019 | 1,814 | 3.4375 | 3 |
It was first reported in 2010 that the pillars of Kolkata's landmark Howrah bridge were being used as spittoons by pedestrians who chewed gutkha – a tobacco product popular with millions in India.
Engineers who surveyed the cantilever structure then reported that the struts supporting the girders of the bridge had already lost half of their metal casing: The corrosion was apparently caused by acids in the gutkha.
Soon the Lions Club of Howrah launched a "Save Howrah Bridge from Spit" campaign urging people not to spit on the bridge.
The campaign spread across the city of Kolkata, where reddish-brown gutkha stains are visible almost everywhere — pavements, streets, office staircases, business houses, and residential complexes. Prominent citizens of Kolkata joined the campaign in an effort to rid the city of the ugly stains.
Gutkha is a commercially produced pre-packaged mixture of crushed betel nut, tobacco, lime, paraffin, and other "secret" ingredients, many of which are carcinogenic and addictive.
Some brands of gutkha also contain lead, arsenic, chromium, nickel, and cadmium, which are as bad as nicotine. To make its shelf life longer, magnesium carbonate – which is used in fire extinguishers and is a known carcinogen – is also added to gutkha.
Activists reported about a year ago that one-third of men and one-fifth of women across India are addicted to chewing tobacco and gutkha was its most popular form.
Because of its candy-like flavor and dirt-cheap prices — 4 to 6 cents per sachet — gutkha has become increasingly popular among children, who chew and even eat it. An estimated 5 million of India's children are addicted to gutkha, and every day another 5,000 try it for the first time, according to reports last year by the American Cancer Society.
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Our Pilonidal Cyst Main Article provides a comprehensive look at the who, what, when and how of Pilonidal Cyst
Definition of Pilonidal cyst
Pilonidal cyst: An abscess that occurs in the cleft between the buttocks at the base of the tailbone (coccyx). Pilonidal cysts are common in adolescence, often after long trips that involve sitting.
Last Editorial Review: 5/13/2016
Back to MedTerms online medical dictionary A-Z List
Need help identifying pills and medications?
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Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
Besides the cardiovascular system, human beings have an additional type of circulatory system referred to as the lymphatic system. Chief responsibilities of the lymphatic system are immunity, transportation of interstitial fluid back into the bloodstream, and fat absorption. Interstitial fluid pertains to the liquid substance between cells, serving as a transport vehicle for nutrients and waste. Organs of the lymphatic system include white blood cells, lymphatic vessels, and the lymph nodes.
Important for immunity and internal defense mechanisms, the lymphatic system consists of five different types of white blood cells which are divisible into two categories: granulocytes and agranulocytes. Containing tiny granules in the cytoplasm, eosinophils, neutrophils, and basophils are granulocytes. The remaining white blood cell groups are lymphocytes and monocytes, both of which are agranulocytes and do not contain the granules. Attacking foreign agents through cell-eating action, neutrophils are typically the first responders to sites of pathogenic invasion and are the most prevalent of all white blood cells. Scarcely present are the basophils, tiny white blood cells which help to regulate the inflammatory response by discharging histamine, a chemical naturally synthesized by the body causing symptoms of itchiness, redness, and swelling.
An extensive network of tiny vein-like structures, lymphatic vessels are organs of the lymphatic system responsible for carrying the interstitial fluid, also referred to as lymph. Constituting a one-way route to the blood, lymphatic vessels collect and transfer excess interstitial fluid back into the blood. No direct linkage exists between the lymphatic system and the circulatory system.
In addition to transport functions, certain organs of the lymphatic system play a primary role in the defense against disease. The lymph nodes, also called lymphatic glands, can be found connecting to lymphatic vessels functioning primarily as filters as well as producers of certain types of white blood cells. Lymph, which is the fluid in the lymphatic capillaries, moves through lymph nodes to pathogenic viruses and bacteria, which are ingested by specialized white blood cells within the lymph nodes. Particularly when involved in infection, the nodes generally become swollen and sore, such as during a course of tonsilitis, causing pain and swelling just underneath the jaw.
Other important organs of the lymphatic system include the thymus gland and the spleen. Situated in the thoracic cavity between the right and left lungs, the thymus gland is essential for the formation of t-lymphocytes, white blood cells important for cell-mediated immunity. The spleen serves as a storage place for white blood cells and platelets, structures necessary for the blood-clotting mechanism.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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The fate of the ISS beyond the year 2020 has been rather dire for a while now. The budgeting for the ISS was set to expire in 2020 resulting in the decommissioning of the space station. The White House has now agreed to extend the funding for the ISS for a few more years.
The ISS now has funding promised that will support operations on the space station and prevent it from being decommissioned until at least 2024. That gives the ISS a four-year reprieve. NASA had said that the extension of operating for the station would allow it to continue valuable scientific research and allow it to help solidify the market for commercial space systems.
Several commercial space systems are being tested with deliveries of supplies to the ISS. NASA says that having another ten years from now to operate the space station opens research avenues on the station. The US funding of the ISS costs about $3 billion per year.
The increase in funding for the space station does require approval from Congress. Having the backing of the White House now doesn't guarantee the funding, the next President could change that since funding is evaluated each year. The ISS recently had significant issues with its cooling system that required multiple space walks to fix. The final space walk to fix the cooling system was conducted on Christmas Eve.
SOURCE: USA Today
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Operations and maintenance are just different words for decisions and prevention. The various operations and maintenance strategies used in the industry are frameworks to help with the collection and analysis of the information needed to make a cogent choice. These systems are equalizers; they are support systems to ensure no detail goes overlooked.
However, with time and experience operators learn the rhythms and feel of the system they use and can see through the framework to the heart of the matter. That’s part of the reason why experienced operators seem to be able to jump over many of those intermediary steps and land at a sound conclusion. They’re likely not really skipping anything; instead they’re just unconsciously completing those steps for themselves and reaching the conclusion a little faster and more efficiently.
The only way to develop that kind of insight and ability is through experience — learning by doing. And today’s computer technology can help new operators gain much virtual experience quickly. Operations simulation programs are useful training tools. As the article, “Virtual Knowledge,” states, “the user can test the limits of the plant without fear of consequences for exceeding permit limits or experiment with different operating strategies without worrying about the associated operating costs.”
Of course there’s more to gaining the needed experience than simply completing a series of simulations. Hands-on experience is needed, as is interaction with more experienced coworkers. Understanding the difference between a solution that should work and one that feels right isn’t something a computer can provide. However, a good mentor can help bring out those instincts. And even though it seems the mentoring model is becoming harder to find, it still exist. This month’s Succession Planning column highlights what it takes — both from the mentor and the student — to make that relationship work.
The goal of putting in all of this effort is to learn to make the right choices. For example, “Debating Dewatering” provides information on different thickening and dewatering options, from overviews of the types of equipment available to energy usage data to how much energy is needed for various systems, but unearthing what’s most important for your plant takes a discerning eye.
Too much information and too many choices can cloud a decision, but solid experience and good judgment help to clear away the irrelevant data and make the right choice clear.
— Steve Spicer
©2010 Water Environment Federation. All rights reserved.
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| 0.940647 | 499 | 2.6875 | 3 |
As an introduction and summation of this issue, it is excellent.
—Whole Earth Review
An important reference for everyone concerned about global food supplies and saving biodiversity.
is a book with a message that abounds with energy and enthusiasm. . . . full of history, color and drama, well referenced and easy to read.
—Science Books & Films
Good reading for anyone interested in conservation; should be required reading for policymakers who control political decisions in agriculture.
Given the alarming nature of the news that these authors must put before us, we are fortunate that they are possessed of both a wry sense of humor and a keen sense of history. . . . This accessible, inspiring book should be read by everyone who eats.
—Wilson Library Bulletin
Not since Silent Spring
has a book presented a warning as dire and as worldwide in its implications for the environment and the future of our food supply. . . . Written in a highly appealing narrative and factual style, underscored throughout with thoughtful political and economic analysis and not without touches of sardonic humor, this book by two long-time agricultural activists is a must read. Shattering
provides a well-documented, clear-headed analysis of the challenges the world, particularly its agriculturally wealthy nations, face in confronting the question of genetic diversity.
It is fascinating and sobering reading, even (perhaps especially) for the concerned but non-expert human resident of planet Earth.
—Third World Resources
's unmatched and seemingly exhaustive documentation of genetic erosion should convince even the most skeptical policymaker of the need for change.
—Biodiversity Conservation Strategy Update
If you are fond of having salads generous in diversity of vegetables, enjoy them while you can. If you would like your children and grandchildren to enjoy similar culinary options, then you really should be worried and do whatever you can to preserve the plant genetic diversity that makes those wonderful salads and most other food possible. . . . A highly valuable book. . . . Nobody concerned with food, agriculture, and equitable social development can afford to miss.
—Society and Natural Resources
Like most environmental problems, it is not so much the degree of change, but the rate of change which threatens the biosphere. The roots of modern agriculture go back about twelve thousand years to when humans first sowed the seeds which
from edible plants. . . . A provocative attempt to awaken people to these issues and to press policy-makers into taking the urgent measures which will be vital to preserving the earth's remaining genetic diversity.
—International Journal of Environment and Pollution
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| 0.918684 | 527 | 2.609375 | 3 |
|September 1939||Germany - food rationing introduced.|
|December 1939||Great Britain - meat rationing begins.|
|January 1940||Great Britain - bacon, sugar and butter put on ration list.|
|February 1941||Japan - rice rationing introduced.|
|June 1941||Great Britain - announcements that preparation for the rationing of clothing has begun.|
|May 1942||United States - gasoline rationing begins in seventeen states. Gasoline is limited to 3 gallons per week for "nonessential" vehicles.|
|August 1942||United States - President Franklin Delano Roosevelt (FDR) first mentions "Meatless Days" as a possibility for the American people. Three days after FDR's speech, the Secretary of Agriculture announces meat rationing may become necessary.|
|October 1942||United States - fuel oil rationed in most parts of the country. FDR granted power to control wages, salaries and agriculture prices.|
|November 1942||United States rations coffee.|
|December 1942||United States - gasoline rationing is introduced in all parts of the country.|
|February 1943||United States experiences shortage of butter.|
|May 1943||Canada - meat rationing introduced.|
|July 1943||United States ends coffee rationing.|
|May 1944||United States - removal of meat rationing in all cuts of meat with the exception of steaks and certain choice cuts of meat.|
|December 1944||United States - all cuts of meat once again rationed.|
|December 1944||United States ends butter rationing.|
|December 1945||United States ends ration on tires.|
|June 1947||United States ends sugar rationing.|
|February, 1949||Great Britain - clothes rationing ended.|
Notes on Rationing in the United States, World War II:
In the United States during World War I, the use of an allotment system for food and supplies was mostly voluntary. However, World War II was another matter. The federal government set up the system of laws used throughout much of the war. It was used to assure American soldiers and citizens both received a fair distribution of goods. Rubber, which was first conserved voluntarily, became scarce due to Japan's successful invasion of Malaya and the Dutch East Indies. President Roosevelt instituted a "scrap drive." He asked the American people to turn in "old tires, old rubber raincoats, old garden hose, rubber shoes, bathing caps, gloves," etc. at local gas stations. The stations paid the public one cent per pound for the items and then were reimbursed by the government. This campaign instilled patriotism but did not forestall rationing. It was instituted early in 1942.
Gasoline was the next rationing target. May 14, 1942, a direct result of German U-boat attacks in the Atlantic Ocean, marked the day motorists in seventeen Eastern states had their gas usage restricted. It was expanded to the rest of the nation in December, 1942. Ration stamps were issued and pasted to an automobile windshield. A person's gasoline allotment was determined by the class of stamp displayed. Class of stamp was determined by the primary use of the car. There were four classes to begin. Class A received the least amount of gas because the car usage was deemed "nonessential"; Class B cars belonged to people who needed them for work (travelling salesman); Class C cars usually belonged to doctors and law enforcement persons; Class X was discontinued after it became a popular target of criticism. This class was for "very important people," such as Senators and Members of the House of Representatives.
Food prices were monitored (and high ceilings set) by the Office of Price Administration (OPA). About one third of civilian food items were rationed during a majority of the war. The OPA issued "ration books." These books, containing the red, green, brown or blue stamps, were administered at the local level by volunteer rationing boards. Registration began in April of 1942. One member of each household registered themselves and each additional household member with the board. The person performing this task was required to list supplies on hand. They received a book for each member of the household. Coffee stamps were taken from the books of children under the age of fifteen and books required to be turned in for departing servicemen. Shoppers had to get used to reading price tags including not only a dollar and cent amount, but a figure for "points". Points were valued by the color of the stamp in addition to the points. ( Ham would have been 51 cents and 8 points per pound, canned and bottled good varied...a can of tomato juice was 16 points and a 14-ounce bottle of catsup was 8 points): red stamps for meat (except poultry , which was not rationed), butter, fats, cheese, canned milk, and canned fish; green, brown or blue stamps for canned vegetables, juices, baby food and dried fruit. A shopper could earn two extra red points for every pound of meat drippings and other fat turned in. This was part of a "save-fats campaign." In addition to these measures, people planted "Victory Gardens" to supplement fresh vegetables and to can or preserve for colder months. Those living in rural areas kept chickens both for eggs and meat. And lucky was the family in possession of a cow or goat!
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Using two nationally-representative datasets, this study compares early life experiences of kindergarteners in 1998 and 2010. We find that over this period, many forms of parental investments increased substantially including educational resources in the home and children’s involvement in enriching activities. Although these increases occurred among both low and high-income children, in many cases they were largest among the lowest-income children. Implications for early socioeconomic achievement gaps are discussed.
Implementing the Foundations of Learning Project: Considerations for Preschool Intervention Research
While studies have documented the importance of strong implementation in intervention studies (e.g., see Durlak & Dupre, 2008), more information is needed about how to ensure strong fidelity and quality of program implementation when delivering interventions under “real world conditions” and on a large scale. In this article, key lessons in implementing a demonstration and evaluation project known as the Foundations of Learning (FOL) demonstration are presented.
An Integrative View of School Functioning: Transactions Between Self-Regulation, School Engagement, and Teacher–Child Relationship Quality
This study investigates the dynamic interplay between teacher–child relationship quality and children's behaviors across kindergarten and first grade to predict academic competence in first grade. Using a sample of 338 ethnically diverse 5-year-old children, nested path analytic models were conducted to examine bidirectional pathways between children's behaviors and teacher–child relationship quality.
The Role of Physiological Reactivity in Understanding Resilience Processes in Children’s Development
Stress and adversity affect children in different ways. Some children exhibit negative outcomes when exposed to difficult environments, while others overcome challenges. For decades, researchers have studied this variability of developmental outcomes in hopes to identify processes that enable some children to demonstrate resilience or positive adaptation in the face of adversity. Most recently, researchers have turned to examining resilience processes across multiple levels of analysis, from children’s neurobiological sensitivity to the effects of neighbourhoods they are raised in.
Longitudinal data from the children of the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY) were used to assess how well measures of short-term and working memory and attention in early childhood predicted longitudinal growth trajectories in mathematics and reading comprehension. Analyses also examined whether changes in memory and attention were more strongly predictive of changes in academic skills in early childhood than in later childhood.
How well do U.S. students read? In this article, Sean Reardon, Rachel Valentino, and Kenneth Shores rely on studies using data from national and international literacy assessments to answer this question. In part, the answer depends on the specific literacy skills assessed. The authors show that almost all U.S. students can "read" by third grade, if reading is defined as proficiency in basic procedural word-reading skills.
Everyone knows that children who are not reading at grade level by 3rd grade are fated to struggle academically throughout school. Concerns about early literacy skills are justified because reading skills at kindergarten entry predict later academic achievement.
An examination of the strengths and weaknesses of current quality measures of early childhood mathematics and science curricula, and recommendations for the development and improvement of these measures
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| 0.942638 | 648 | 2.734375 | 3 |
TV20 STUDIO - Dr. Tecla Myrick was here Tuesday to talk about noise phobias in dogs and cats.
Loud noises can be frightening to pets. In response to these fears, some pets may develop severely anxious behaviors such as panting, trembling, pacing, barking, whining, seeking attention, and destroying things.
Try not to use a sympathetic tone of voice, as this will reinforce anxious behaviors. Instead be confident and never punish them.
Ask your veterinarian if there is a medication that would be appropriate for you to give your pet before loud noises start.
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Legionnaires’ Disease Caused by Legionella pneumophila Serotypes 5 and 10
Earlier this month, China reported a case of Legionnaires’ disease in a 77-year-old man with existing illness that was caused by co-infection of both Legionella pneumophila serotype 5 and serotype 10.
Legionnaires’ disease is a very serious form of pneumonia that has a high fatality rate especially in people with existing immunosuppression. If the disease can be successfully eliminated with the proper antibiotics, there are oftentimes long-term health effects such as extreme fatigue and cognitive impairment.
Legionella bacteria are found in natural and artificially hydrated environments. Legionella pneumophila is responsible for about 80% of human cases of infection. Of the infections caused by Legionella pneumophila, 90% of those infections are caused by Legionella pneumophila serotype 1. Another 20% of cases are from species other than Legionella pneumophila such as Legionella longbeachae and Legionella micdadei.
“Human infections from species and serotypes other than L. pneumophila serotype 1 are rarely reported in the United States,” says Diane Miskowski, MPH at EMSL Analytical, Inc. “In the U.S., the most common diagnostic test for determining Legionnaires’ disease is the urinary antigen test. Unfortunately, this test only looks for Legionella pneumophila serotype 1. If the disease is caused by species and/or serotypes that are different than L. pneumophila seotype 1, the urinary antigen test will not detect the disease. CDC recently reported that co-infections are more common than previously thought. Therefore, infections caused by species and serotypes other than L. pneumophila type 1 must be determined by both culture methods and molecular analysis.”
EMSL has six CDC ELITE certified Legionella labs across the U.S. for conducting culture testing and one CDC ELITE lab in Toronto, Canada. In addition, EMSL offers molecular testing using DNA sequencing to determine rare species and Multi Locus Sequence Typing to distinguish between strains of L. pneumophila serotype 1.
For further information, please visit www.LegionellaTesting.com or contact Diane Miskowski at 1-800-220-3675 extension 2528.
About EMSL Analytical, Inc.
EMSL Analytical is a nationally recognized and locally focused provider of environmental, indoor air quality and materials testing services and products to professionals and the general public. The company has an extensive list of accreditations from leading organizations as well as state and federal regulating bodies.
( Press Release Image: http://photos.webwire.com/prmedia/9645/189288/189288-1.jpg )
- Contact Information
- Joseph Frasca
- Senior Vice President of Marketing
- EMSL Analytical, Inc.
- Contact via E-mail
This news content may be integrated into any legitimate news gathering and publishing effort. Linking is permitted.
News Release Distribution and Press Release Distribution Services Provided by WebWire.
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Note-Taking Using Graphic Organizers
- Grades: 3–5, 6–8
At the start of our new unit, Reading to Learn: Synthesizing Nonfiction, my students were not overly excited. Actually, the unit was met with apprehension. After I explained the work that we would be exploring in this unit, the students began to warm up and grow curious.
I took the approach that they would walk away with strategies that they could utilize in middle school, high school, and even college. I reminded them that they use different muscles to read nonfiction, and in using those muscles, they need to have a method that helps them hold onto the text. I also let them in on a secret — they were already doing some of this work and it would help them in other curriculum areas.
For our class, note-taking is defined as any method used to jot notes in our notebooks to help us understand what we have read. Interestingly enough, the students have noticed that this strategy is not just for nonfiction, but can be applied to fiction reading as well. It is my hope that allowing students to “own” the method that speaks to them, it will cement the learning of the text and offer them success and growth in their reading.
I am including some samples of student work using the techniques and photographs of the anchor chart that is currently posted in my classroom. For the anchor chart, I borrowed the theme of football from a colleague, Ms. Andrews, and I am so glad I did. It really ignited my students' interest — lots of football fans in my class!
Boxes and Bullets — Identifies the main idea and supporting details
List — Ideas, thoughts, and noticings about the topic
Frayer Model — Effective for vocabulary and includes definition, synonym, antonym and illustration
KWHL — Formerly KWL chart includes H=How I am learning about the topic
T- Chart — Use for compare and contrast
Venn Diagram — Use for comparing and contrasting ideas/concepts/items
Diagram — Label illustration with details
Brainstorming Web — Identify all things known to the student about the topic
I am a firm believer in not reinventing the wheel. The graphic organizers I use have been around for years. I just remind the students that there are creative ways to take notes. My students are able to reproduce the organizers in their notebooks. Another option that I have used is to download organizers from either Scholastic Printables or Free Printable Graphic Organizers.
Pearls of Wisdom — Create your anchor chart using a fun topic to post in your classroom. This will insure that your students will use the techniques. Any favorite note-taking techniques that work with your students, please share!
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Health officials declare chikungunya epidemic in Puerto Rico
SAN JUAN, Puerto Rico – Health officials in Puerto Rico have declared an epidemic of the mosquito-borne virus known as chikungunya.
Health Secretary Ana Rius said Thursday that more than 200 cases have been confirmed on the island as of June 25.
The first case of chikungunya in the U.S. territory was reported in late May.
Across the Caribbean, the Pan American Health Organization has recorded more than 354,000 suspected and confirmed cases as of July 11. The Western Hemisphere’s first locally transmitted case was confirmed in December in the French Caribbean territory of St. Martin.
Chikungunya was first identified in Africa in 1953. It causes a high fever and severe pain in the joints, but is rarely fatal. There is no vaccine, and it mainly is treated with pain medication.
© 2014 The Associated Press
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The Special Education Child:
A Manual for the Attorney & Advocate
W.D. Wright, Esq. & Pamels Darr Wright, MA, MSW
this page in PDF
The Need to Know
B. Professional role
The Presenting Problem
B. Parent's response
C. Attorney response
Preparing for a Special Education Due Process Hearing
Hazards of litigation
B. Analyze issues
C. Evaluate applicable legal principles
D. Evaluate existing evidence and decide whether additional
evals are needed
E. Chart test data and educational history
F. If tuition assistance case, evaluate child's present
G. Request relief desired from school system
H. If relief denied, request a due process hearing
The Need to Know
is likely that you have or will have a child, grandchild, sibling,
nephew, or niece who has a disability. Or you may have close friends
or neighbors who have a child with a disability. These parents experience
intense emotions, from guilt, sadness, helplessness to anger, and
frustration as they struggle to raise this child while trying to increase
the odds that the child will become an independent, self-sufficient
member of society. The laws regarding services for such children are
complicated. Friends and family will look to you, the attorney, for
you are consulted about a special needs child, you will probably feel
empathy and an immediate desire to help. Your first impulse may be
to write a letter or place a telephone call to a school official.
Through these actions, you hope to resolve the problems experienced
by the parents and child. If you give in to this impulse, the parents
and child may get short-term relief, but the real problems will not
be resolved and may be exacerbated. Special education cases can generate
as much emotional intensity as a bitterly contested divorce, and are
complicated by battles between expert witnesses, as in medical malpractice
cases. As an attorney, you must be cautious about assuming that you
can resolve these complex problems with a minimum of effort.
you understand the principles in this outline, you will be able to
field preliminary special education questions. You will know where
to find more detailed answers. You will be able to point parents in
the right direction and help the child receive appropriate special
attorney must approach the special education case as he or she would
approach the bitterly contested divorce with equitable distribution
battle that also has elements of a medical malpractice case.
attorney must be aware that he or she will be involved in the case
for a short time. When the case is concluded, the matter is closed
for you. Yet the impact of the child's disability will continue. The
struggle to secure and maintain an appropriate level of special education
services will continue, often for years. The parents should learn
to deal effectively with school district representatives and should
be able to "break bread" with school staff after the present
legal issue is concluded.
special education matters, it is crucial that the parents develop
a thorough understanding of the nature of the child's disability,
the special education laws, and how to measure educational progress
(benefit) in special education.
represent these clients effectively, the attorney must understand
the nature of the child's disability, effective educational practices,
the special education laws, and how educational benefit is measured.
In many cases, the most perplexing disabilities are not those that
are easily observed (i.e., deafness, blindness, severe orthopedic
impairments, cerebral palsy, or Down Syndrome). Many children have
"hidden handicaps," including language learning disabilities
and attention deficit disorders (ADD), that are caused by neurological
impairments. These "hidden disabilities" can be difficult
to identify and remediate.
The Presenting Problem
The initial phone call.
initial telephone call to an attorney is usually precipitated by a
crisis or emergency at the school. The crisis may be that the public
school says they:
not accept private sector evaluations that identified the youngster
as needing special education services; or that they
that the child's real problem is that the child is not learning
disabled but is emotionally disturbed so the school is changing
or eliminating the child's placement and program; or they
that can be expected of a school system and it is not their fault
that the child will not acquire the necessary skills to become an
independent, self-sufficient functioning member of society, despite
the intellectual ability to do so; or they
not provide intensive one-on-one services to the young child with
autism, but keep the child in restraints all day; or they
provide the same special education services that the child has received
for several years, insisting that the child is "really making
progress," although the child can barely read and has severe
written language problems; or they
that the child's increasing misbehavior is not related to neurological
or educational issues (causal relationship) and insist that the
child's acting out or withdrawal problems must be resolved before
the child will learn. Suspensions have increased and expulsion may
be the next step; or they
a meeting tomorrow, just called the parents today, and the parents
do not know whether they should go to the meeting, or whether they
should they bring you, because the school decided to discontinue
special education services because:
youngster has obtained the maximum benefit from special education,
although can barely read, write and/or do arithmetic; or
child is not benefiting from the program and doesn't need it
school system had a financial shortfall and staff have resigned
or did not have their contracts renewed so the child is better
off not being in special education now; or
services the child needs are not available and the parent needs
to recognize the school's limitations; or
school's new evaluations disclosed that the child's real problem
is that the child is not motivated, or the real problems are
within the "dysfunctional" family which includes a
single parent or a couple with marital problems which is not
an educational issue.
Immediate action is rarely required.
the parent may perceive the situation as a crisis, it is a mistake
to act quickly. Ask the parent to gather all documents about the child,
file the documents in chronological order, and schedule an appointment
with you. Find out when the last IEP meeting was held. Resist the
urge to call school officials at this point, despite pressure from
Check the statute of limitations for requesting due process hearings
in your jurisdiction.
on your jurisdiction, the statute may be as short as 60 days or as
long as two years. In other jurisdictions, limitations are
addressed specifically in the state special education regulations.
situations described above, the normal response from parents is a
big mistake. Feeling angry, helpless and under attack, many parents
want a confrontation. They write nasty letters that come back to haunt
them. They request special education due process hearings, even though
they have no evidence that will prove their case.
of special needs children often experience anger toward their child,
each other, and toward school officials. They feel guilty, confused,
frustrated, helpless, fearful and remorseful. In many cases, the parents
believe that the child has been betrayed by the public school educators.
From their perspective, they relied on the assertions and recommendations
of the school district "experts," perhaps for years. When
they realize that their child has fallen further behind and is worse
off, they shoot from the hip, miss their intended target, and damage
themselves and their child in the process.
Structure the initial interview.
the parent to provide you with a complete copy of the child's special
education file, organized in strict chronological order, oldest document
on top, most recent on the bottom. The parent should provide you with
copies (not originals) of all reports, evaluations, IEPs, notices,
and correspondence that are included in the child's special education
If the parents do not have a copy of the child's special education
file, it is a judgment call as to whether or not they should secure
the file before meeting with you.
Review all documents and reports before face-to-face contact with
Help the parents understand the gray issues in the law, the hazards
of litigation, and that cases are rarely settled unless prepared
for trial. The attorney may want to get involved before the facts
are clear and out on the table. Query: Do you call the insurance
adjuster to demand or force a settlement immediately after the initial
consultation with the personal injury client?
The child's file and the facts of the case are usually disorganized
and hard to understand. Parents need to realize that although they
may believe that the school system committed various legal violations,
their case needs to be simplified and presented in an organized,
Defuse and depolarize emotions.
time parents contact an attorney, the matter is polarized. Emotions
are running high. Parents and school officials are blaming each other
for the child's difficulties. It is essential for parents to join
the educational advocacy organizations related to disabilities. When
they join these organizations, they will receive informational newsletters
from these organizations. They should attend conferences of these
groups when possible. Parents should enhance their understanding of
the child's disability by reading books on the subject.
emotional response is related to feelings of guilt, loneliness, isolation,
and fear of the unknown about their child's future. When they join
organizations and become educated, the parent becomes "empowered."
At this point, they can often initiate a more constructive approach
to securing improved educational services for the child. Ask the parent
to find information that may be useful in educating you.
Secure all documents from all sources.
a global release form to all public and private sector individuals
and agencies that have generated any reports and/or evaluations on
Organize the documents.
the parent use a pencil to date the first page of each document in
the lower righthand
corner, then file all documents in chronological order, oldest on
top, most recent on the bottom. Do not write or use a highlighter
on the documents. The parents can put notes on documents with "Post-it"
notes. If the parent has a computer with a word processing or spreadsheet
program, have them develop a list of documents.
sector eval. WISC-III IQ above avg. WJ-R: 3 years behind in reading,
in resource program; progress measured as 80% on teacher made tests
sector eval including WJ-R, TOWL, K-ABC: no gain in reading and
writing skills (percentile ranks dropped).
in Reading, + Writing. Promoted to next grade..
depressed. Anti-depressant meds increased. MD rec psychiatric hospital
& WIAT; child illiterate; requires direct instruction.
depression from school failure, poor academic skills; needs remediation.
activities allow the parent to DO SOMETHING that will help their child's
case, while also reducing their sense of powerlessness. These activities
(organizing the file, developing lists of documents) help the parent
gain a clearer understanding of the child's problems and needs. Taking
action keeps the parents from focusing on their emotional reactions.
As they organize, they begin to focus on issues, not emotions.
Understand legal and factual issues in special education disputes
issues in special education cases are usually related to procedural
matters, i.e. whether the child is eligible for services, the nature
of the handicapping/disabling condition, timelines violations, inadequate
notice about the school's refusal to provide services, or failure
to implement the child's IEP.
issues are usually related to Individualized Education Programs (IEPs),
the quality of services, "default" by the public school,
reimbursement for a private placement or private therapy, discipline,
or whether the child has benefited or regressed educationally in a
special education program.
Understand the facts so you can identify and target specific factual
You must have a working knowledge about the nature of the disability,
"effective practices" about how the child should be educated,
and an understanding of the objective, standardized tests and measurements
that are used to evaluate progress and regression.
In most cases, the private sector professional who is involved with
the child (often a psychologist or educational diagnostician) can
initiate your education in this area.
Prepare for a Special Education Due Process Hearing
Hazards of Litigation
needs to know that the best course is to prepare for litigation in hopes
of settlement. In some cases, parents want to extract the pound of flesh
to which they feel entitled. They believe that the facts and law are
completely on their side. I explain that the Hearing Officer may have
an unconscious identification with, or reaction against, the parent,
school system or attorney. Because of mannerisms, personality style,
dress and/or appearance, the Hearing Officer may be reminded of a mother,
father, brother, sibling, spouse, or child with whom they had a close
relationship. I explain that this association may be negative or positive.
The parent may remind the Hearing Officer of a person who successfully
sued him or her years earlier.
need to understand that some Hearing Officers view their role as a "gatekeeper"
and protector of tax dollars. Sometimes, the Hearing Officer will have
a child, grandchild, or neighbor who is similar to your client. In these
cases, the Hearing Officer may empathize with the parents and understand
the importance of an appropriate special education. These hidden factors
often affect the outcome of cases.
Spence says, perceptions of the facts and perceptions of the law are
more important than the facts and law. Our perceptions of a fact, evaluation,
or case will differ. Parents must understand that to litigate is to
roll the dice.
Clean single issue; default.
glance, a case may appear to have a single issue (i.e., tuition assistance,
failure to identify the child as handicapped, the child's need for
extended school year (ESY) services). In fact, most cases are multiple
issues cases and need to be simplified into easy to understand cases.
evidence of the public school's "default" by showing that
the child has fallen further behind the peer group while in special
education. This is the norm in public school special education programs.
You accomplish this through your expert who will analyze individualized
and/or standardized testing and chart out the child's test scores
2. Multiple issues.
cases are more complex. You may have the failure of the public school
to properly evaluate the child in prior years and breach of procedural
rules. The child may be entitled to compensatory education which can
include special education services that extend beyond the child's
twenty-second birthday. Had the public school not violated the "Child
Find Mandate" (34 C.F.R. 300.128), the child would have been
identified sooner, received special education services sooner, made
progress, and not required services now.
Develop a Simple Theme
a clear, simple theme of the case. You build on this theme. It is
crucial to structure your theme so the Hearing Officer or ALJ wants
to rule for you. Provide this person with evidence and law that makes
the person want to give you a favorable decision.
Evaluate Applicable Legal Principles
Obtain copies of the State and Federal Regulations and State and Federal
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) 20 U.S.C. 1400-1485
Code of Federal Regulations 34 C.F.R. Part 300 Appendix A
Your state special education regulations.
Other publications from your state Department of Education and the
state Protection and
Office in regard to the rights of parents and special education children.
Review special education legal publications.
the primary cases in your Court of Appeals, the U. S. District Court
cases from your state, and your state court cases. In addition to
the Wrightslaw site, use versuslaw.com and FindLaw.com to help you
find the primary cases in your circuit.
Wrightslaw: Special Education Law by Peter W. D. Wright and Pamela
Darr Wright (ISBN: 1-892320-03-7) is available from Harbor House
Law Press at (800) LAW IDEA, and from Amazon.com, Barnes and Noble,
and other bookstores. Wrightslaw: Special Education Law contains
the full text of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
of 1997, the IDEA regulations, Section 504 of the Rehabilitation
Act, the Family Educational Records and Privacy Act, and U. S. Supreme
Court decisions in special education cases.
Special Education Law and Litigation Treatise by Mark C. Weber (ISBN:
0-934753-64-4), available from the Wrightslaw Bookstore at http://www.wrightslaw.com.
This book is an excellent resource.
The leading legal reporter is the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Law Report (IDELR), available from LRP Publications. Call
LRP at 800-341-7874 and ask for information about their special
education publications and request a sample CD-ROM.
Review special education caselaw.
is a list of cases that triggered passage of Public Law 94-142 and
cases from the U. S. Supreme Court. Citations are in chronological
order. For an overview, read from the most recent case back in time.
This will help you assess the trends and evolution of the law and
predict changes in caselaw. These cases are a minimal listing. Current
cases and leading cases in specific areas are at the Wrightslaw web
the U. S. Supreme Court issued the landmark civil rights decision
in Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954). In Brown, school
children from four states argued that segregated public schools were
inherently unequal and deprived them from equal protection of the
laws. The Supreme Court found that African-American children had a
right to equal educational opportunities and that segregated schools
"have no place in the field of public education." After
the decision in Brown, parents of children with disabilities brought
lawsuits against school districts for excluding or segregating children
with disabilities. The parents argued that by excluding these children,
schools were discriminating against the children because of their
disabilities. (Wrightslaw: Special Education Law, page 8)
the early 1970s, two cases were catalysts for special education law.
Association for Retarded Children v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania
(P.A.R.C.), 334 F. Supp. 1257 (E.D. Pa. 1971) and 343 F. Supp. 279
(E.D. Pa. 1972)
v. Board of Education of District of Columbia, 348 F. Supp. 866
(D. D.C. 1972)
dealt with the exclusion of mentally retarded children from public
schools. Mills involved the practice of suspending, expelling and
excluding "exceptional" children from the District of Columbia
1972, legislation was introduced in Congress after several:
. landmark court cases established in law the right to education
for all handicapped children . . . In 1954, the Supreme Court of
the United States (in Brown v. Board of Education) established the
principle that all children be guaranteed equal educational opportunity.
The Court stated "In these days, it is doubtful any child may
reasonably expected to succeed in life if he is denied the opportunity
of an education. Such an opportunity . . . is a right which must
be made available to all on equal terms. (Wrightslaw: Special Education
Law, page 9)
S. Supreme Court Decisions
of Education v. Rowley, 458 U.S. 176 (1982)
of Burlington v. Department of Education for the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts, 471 U. S. 359 (1985).
v. Doe, 484 U.S. 305 (1988)
County School District Four v. Shannon Carter, 510 U. S. 7, (1993).
Rapids v. Garret F., __U.S.__ (1999)
NICHY Briefing Papers
Information Center for Children and Youth with Disabilities offers
dozens of free publications that you can order or download from their
website at http://www.nichcy.org/
Understand the history and purpose of the special education law.
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act was amended. (Note: New 2004 amendments are located at the www.wrightslaw.com website.) Section
1400 includes the history, findings and purpose of the Individuals
with Disabilities Education Act and is the key to understanding the
special education statute. If you are unsure about the purpose or
intent of a code section in the statute or regulation, go back and
re-read Section 1400, especially 1400(d), to understand the statute
IDEA emphasizes accountability and improved results. The law stresses
the need to use "proven methods of teaching and learning"
based on "replicable research." These terms are important.
Children with disabilities should "be involved in and progress
in the general curriculum" to the maximum extent possible and
should be tested on state and district standardized tests. The amended
Disability is a natural part of the human experience and in no
way diminishes the right of individuals to participate in or contribute
to society. Improving educational results for children with disabilities
is an essential element of our national policy of ensuring equality
of opportunity, full participation, independent living, and economic
self-sufficiency for individuals with disabilities.
However, the implementation of this Act has been impeded by low
expectations, and an insufficient focus on applying replicable
research on proven methods of teaching and learning for children
Over 20 years of research and experience has demonstrated that
the education of children with disabilities can be made more effective
having high expectations for such children and ensuring their
access in the general curriculum to the maximum extent possible;
strengthening the role of parents and ensuring that families of
such children have meaningful opportunities to participate in
the education of their children at school and at home;
coordinating this Act with other local, educational service agency,
State, and Federal school improvement efforts in order to ensure
that such children benefit from such efforts and that special
education can become a service for such children rather than a
place where they are sent;
providing appropriate special education and related services and
aids and supports in the regular classroom to such children, whenever
supporting high-quality, intensive professional development for
all personnel who work with such children in order to ensure that
they have the skills and knowledge necessary to enable them-
to meet developmental goals and, to the maximum extent possible,
those challenging expectations that have been established for
all children; and
to be prepared to lead productive, independent, adult lives,
to the maximum extent possible;
providing incentives for whole-school approaches and pre-referral
intervention to reduce the need to label children as disabled
in order to address their learning needs . . .
Purposes - The purposes of this title are-
to ensure that all children with disabilities have available to
them a free appropriate public education that emphasizes special
education and related services designed to meet their unique needs
and prepare them for employment and independent living;
to ensure that the rights of children with disabilities and parents
of such children are protected; and
to assist States, localities, educational service agencies, and
Federal agencies to provide for the education of all children
to assist States in the implementation of a statewide, comprehensive,
coordinated, multidisciplinary, interagency system of early intervention
services for infants and toddlers with disabilities and their
to ensure that educators and parents have the necessary tools
to improve educational results for children with disabilities
by supporting systemic-change activities; coordinated research
and personnel preparation; coordinated technical assistance, dissemination,
and support; and technology development and media services; and
to assess, and ensure the effectiveness of, efforts to educate
children with disabilities. (Wrightslaw: Special Education Law,
Evaluate Existing Evidence, Decide Whether Additional Evaluations Are
completed regularly and used as a roadmap to guide the child's special
education program? Did the IEPs include present levels of performance
and ways to measure the child's progress or lack of progress?
the IEP objectives capable of independent verification using standardized
data? Are the IEP objectives "evaluated" by teachers using
"teacher made" tests? Is the wolf guarding the chicken house?
the IEPs comply with Appendix A of 34 C.F.R., Part 300?
private sector evaluations
sector evaluations should use test data to analyze the child's progress
or lack of progress and should spell out exactly what the child needs
is the first psychologist or educational diagnostician who evaluated
the child? Is this person available? Is this person willing to re-evaluate
your private sector evaluation use statistics to prove that the child
has not been properly educated? Does this evaluation include charts
and diagrams of the child's progress or lack of progress? What else
is needed to prove the case? Is the current testing sufficiently comprehensive
to flush out the nature of the child's disability and the necessary
with private sector experts.
private sector expert willing to be involved? Is the expert willing
to testify? Get the experts recommendations and suggestions regarding
evidence and evaluation issues. Ask the expert to educate you about
the child's test scores using the bell curve, percentile rank and deviation
Chart Test Data and Educational History
Percentile Ranks and Standard Scores on IQ and Achievement Tests
the standard scores and percentile rank scores on the IQ and achievement
tests and subtests. Have the child's test scores improved or declined
during the time the child was in special education?
You must understand statistics, including standard deviations, standard
scores, percentile rank, and grade and age equivalent scores. When you
understand these scoring methods, you can interpret the educational
and psychological tests that are administered to your clients.
school's testing to prove your case.
article "Understanding Tests and Measurements for the Parent and
Advocate" at http://www.wrightslaw.com/advoc/articles/tests_measurements.html
or read Chapters 10 and 11 in Wrightslaw: From Emotions to Advocacy
- The Special Education Survival Guide.
In Tuition Assistance and ABA/DTT/Lovaas Cases, Evaluate Child's Progress
in Present Program
expert(s) has observed the public school and private programs. Your
expert should be familiar with all exhibits.
evaluations and reports from your expert should incorporate the child's
educational history and test results, and should discuss what progress,
if any, the child has made and whether this progress is sufficient.
Request Relief Desired From School System
letter requesting relief.
your client must prepare a detailed letter to the director of special
education in which you outline the issues, including the facts and evidence
that support your case. This letter is a quasi "opening statement"
and should relate to the theme of your case. Your request must be clear.
Give the basis for your request and the legal authority that justifies
your position. Be persuasive and polite. If a stranger read your letter,
the stranger should understand the legal issues and want to provide
the requested relief. In many cases, the author of the letter will be
the parents and the letter becomes an exhibit. (See our articles about
how to write letters at the Wrightslaw website)
recent evaluations and documents to the relief letter.
simply forwarding the recommendations of your experts. Don't let yourself
or your clients be lightning rods. Because the school probably feels
hostile toward your parents, the school may summarily reject anything
requested or suggested by the parents.
give all legal theories; leave some rabbits in the hat to use at trial.
find clear breaches of procedure, alteration of documents, you may want
to hold this information back until cross- examination.
the school district an opportunity to settle without losing face.
Make your case an exception to the general rule because. . . (that
may include your failure to do something or provide something.) Don't
corner them unless you leave a back door slightly ajar (an oversight,
attack the school district directly. Frame the issue so that your
child's handicap is unique or severe. You understand that the school's
program for many children who have similar handicaps may be appropriate.
Unfortunately, your client has so many handicapping conditions or
such severe problems that the child cannot be educated in the usual
special education program.
If Relief Denied, Request a Due Process Hearing
school district denies your request, you may request a special education
due process hearing. Carefully read your state's regulations about due
process hearings, timelines, and required notice from you or the parent
to the school district. The Hearing Officer or Administrative Law Judge
should be appointed within a specific number of days from the request
for a hearing. Unless the timelines are extended, a final decision is
required within 45 days. (34 CFR § 300.511)
witnesses informed. Your witnesses should be advised about developments
in the case and should receive copies of all correspondence, preliminary
briefs, caselaw developments, etc.
exhibit list immediately. Arrange for numbering and copying exhibits,
and delivery of the exhibits to your witnesses, opposing counsel and
the Hearing Officer.
meeting with parents and witnesses. Bring witnesses and parents together
for a meeting. Explain issues, instill fear, and motivate witnesses
to read and become knowledgeable about the exhibits and caselaw.
preparation. Schedule at least two more meetings with witnesses regarding
details of evidence, issues, preparation for direct and cross- examination.
Role play direct and cross-examination with parents and expert witnesses.
as a witness. Decide whether the child should be present for all or
a part of hearing and whether child should or should not testify.
list of questions and outline. During interviews and meetings with
witnesses, develop a master list of questions to ask your witnesses
and witnesses for the school board. Prepare a preliminary outline
for possible opening and closing arguments.
a simple theme. Use a simple theme to make your case easy to understand.
first impressions are important, I prefer to go first. Going first gives
me better control over the speed and tempo and calling of witnesses.
I request that witnesses be excluded.
with strong witness who had involvement with child several years ago.
usually have the expert witnesses (educational diagnostician, psychologist,
private school special ed teacher or administrator, neurologist, speech/language
pathologist, etc.) testify in chronological order of their involvement
with the youngster. I usually have my first expert provide background,
then jump forward in time to the most recent evaluation, then go back
and provide history and information about their earlier evaluations.
Consider using a lay witness who has observed positive changes in
the child after the youngster began receiving services in the private
expert witness. Your last expert witness should be a strong, organized
individual who can testify about the child's present status and do
with parent and maybe child. Remember to save some strong evidence
day rule. Your exhibit list, exhibits, and list of witnesses is due
five administrative working days before the hearing. (34 CFR 300.509)
As part of your witness list, include a statement to the effect that
you "reserve the right to call any of the school board witnesses
that are on their list of proposed witnesses." This language
allows you to call the party representative as an adverse witness.
states, Hearing Officers do not receive exhibits until the day of the
hearing. In other states, Hearing Officers receive exhibits in advance.
I like to provide exhibits ten days or more in advance. When the Hearing
Officer or Administrative Law Judge reads our exhibits ahead of time,
this may create a favorable first impression. The school board attorney
will often decide to supplement our exhibits with a few additional documents,
and not take time to become fully prepared.
2. Due Process Hearing
of presentation v. burden of proof.
of presentation and burden of proof are different concepts. In special
education law, the first to proceed does not necessarily have the
burden of proof. Decide whether the school district or the parents
will proceed first. When you go first, you can structure the trial
and put the district on the defensive. When you go second, you can
counter-punch by moving for summary judgment without calling witnesses.
The other side took their best shot and put on their evidence which
was insufficient so, as a matter of law, you should prevail. When
you make this motion, assume that you will be overruled. This gives
you an opportunity to present your closing argument early and point
out the flaws in their case.
to exclude witnesses.
witnesses are better prepared so they will not contradict one another
if they do not hear other testimony. Parents and a representative
of school board are allowed to remain in the hearing.
call my best expert as my first witness. If you go first, you can
consider calling the school board representative as your first (adverse)
witness to flush out why they believe their proposed program is appropriate.
This maneuver can be dangerous because the witness is being called
as yours so you need to have evidence that is contrary to the witness.
examination: Child's witnesses
Identify witnesses, their educational and professional background,
and their expertise in matters similar to the case at hand.
Have your witnesses explain their involvement with the child prior
to testing, the tests they administered and why, the results obtained,
and the basis for their recommendations.
Have your witnesses discuss the opposition's exhibits and the child's
progress or lack of progress in prior years and why. Have your witnesses
explain why the public school's last, present and/or proposed IEP
is or was not appropriate for the child, and may have caused damage.
Close with a strong point about the importance of an appropriate
program and the nature of the educational gains that can be expected
or have been achieved.
When your witness is being cross-examined, listen carefully for
any points that need to be cleared up during re-direct examination.
Client comments. Your client may want to talk to you during the
examination, interrupting your train of thought and concentration.
Do not allow this. Give your client a pad and pen so they can write
notes to you about the testimony.
Because your parents are well-prepared about the legal and factual
issues and have a good understanding of the documents, you may be able
to use them as assistants during the trial process. During the school
board's direct examination of their witnesses, have your client write
the questions they want you to ask these witnesses, and the expected
should also write the questions they want you to ask them on rebuttal,
and the expected answer.
"Green light questions." Train your witnesses to recognize
that when asked a question that begins with the "5 W's + H
+ E," they can hit a home run on cross-examination.
Body language and eye contact. On direct, your witnesses should
look at you when you ask questions and ALWAYS look at the Hearing
Officer or ALJ when they answer. When asked questions on cross,
your witnesses should NEVER look directly at the school board attorney.
They should visually concentrate on a spot on the wall midway between
the school board attorney and the Hearing Officer/ALJ. On cross-examination,
attorneys often control witnesses by voice inflection, body language,
facial expressions, and their eyes. If your witness avoids eye contact,
you may see opposing counsel get flustered.
School board witnesses
carefully to their testimony. School witnesses often bring notes that
they refer to and often parrot the same theme. Their "theme"
is to blame the parent and/or the child for the child's failure to
have a "successful" educational experience. They may assert
that the child's performance is the best that can be expected. Your
witnesses will have addressedthis
issue on direct. While the opposition's witness is testifying, develop
your list of questions to ask on cross and decide where in the sequence
you should ask these questions.
school board witnesses
Cross-examination of school witnesses is often the most important
part of the trial. With help from your experts, you can usually
use the school's evidence and testimony to build and win your case.
If a witness refers to notes or documents during testimony on direct,
obtain these notes. You will have to decide whether it is more advantageous
to secure the notes at the beginning, or to wait until you are midstream
Prepare draft questions before the hearing. Ask your expert witnesses
to provide you with a list of questions that should be asked. Your
experts should be familiar with the school testing, and should educate
you about the strengths and weaknesses of the tests. Educational
tests often do not measure what they purport to measure but measure
the impact of the child's disability. Copy portions of the test
manuals that may be helpful.
Know every evaluation, report and test in detail. Chart out the
earlier administrations of specific tests given by the opposition's
witnesses. Know dates and scores. Ask your expert to educate you
about the discrepancies between tests. Understand the concepts of
"between test" variability and "within test"
variability. Understand the bell curve, deviation IQ, norm reference
v. criterion reference tests, item analysis, and what different
Log in favorable points. If you establish a favorable point or admission,
log it into your notes. Do not return to this on cross. Save this
for your closing argument. If you have been very successful on cross,
it may be appropriate to end early which will not allow the witness
to regroup and recover. Make sure your client understands this is
an option you may exercise.
Be aware of the emotions each witness generates within the Hearing
Officer. Is the Hearing Officer a "rescuer" who comes
to the aid of a witness who is being chewed up on cross? Is the
Hearing Officer annoyed by the expert who has an answer to every
question and is never in doubt? When you read the Hearing Officer,
you will know when to move in and attack the witness and when to
show kindness for the poor witness who (you will later prove) means
well, but just doesn't have it together.
try to humiliate or embarrass a witness, even if the witness may
hurt your case. Example: "You altered the IEP, then lied about
it because you are a liar and perjurer?" or "You altered
the IEP then lied about it because, under the circumstances, you
thought this was the right thing to do?"
Save damaging questions to the end.
Close on an upbeat note. Use a trilogy that parallels your theme.
One, two, three, bang!
Attend seminars about the learned science of cross-examination by
Larry Pozner and Roger Dodd. Pozner and Dodd say, "Great trial
lawyers 'testify' at every trial through carefully crafted leading
questions." Order Cross-Examination: Science and Techniques
by Larry Pozner and Roger Dodd (ISBN: 1-55834-071-8, published by
The Michie Company and available at the Wrightslaw website) and
their video series "How to Dominate a Courtroom on Cross Exam"
(available from Roger Dodd at 912-242-4470).
On cross, never ask who, what, why, when, where, how, or explain.
Use their witnesses to make your case and tell your story.
Avoid "structure bait" and "new bait" offered
by witnesses. (see Pozner and Dodd)
Avoid "Isn't it true that . . ." or " . . . isn't
that true?" Understand the concepts of "primacy"
and "recency" and their use in cross-examination. (See
Pozner and Dodd)
Use trilogies. "The use of trilogies?which are borrowed from
literature and history?is a keystone to the cross-examiner's ability
to build drama and to make more memorable the cross-examination."
(Pozner and Dodd, page 473)
the pre-trial hearing, determine whether the Hearing Officer prefers
oral closing argument or a written brief after the transcript is completed.
have an oral closing argument, you and your client should record specific
verbatim testimony to use in closing. Compare the facts in your case
to the facts of other similar decisions. In some cases, it is appropriate
to provide the Hearing Officer with these decisions early. In other
cases, it is appropriate to provide the cases at closing. Depending
on your trial strategy, you may provide the landmark cases before the
Hearing. At closing, you can provide additional cases that are directly
Officers prefer written closing argument. In these cases, it is important
that the transcript be prepared so you can quote directly from it. You
prepare the Written Closing Argument as your later record/index in the
event of appeal. Remember your theme. Don't allow yourself to get sidetracked
or bogged down in minute detail. Remember your theme, tell your client's
story, and structure the case so the finder of fact wants to rule for
Emotions and Dependency: Ethical dilemmas and unconscious traps.
divorce cases, it is easy to identify with your client. If you lose
your objectivity, your also lose your tactical and strategic abilities
and may become a liability to the case.
Ryan K., et. al. v. Puyallup School Districts, 35 F. 3d 1396, 21 IDELR
664, (9th Cir. 1994)
This case involved the discipline of a youngster with Tourette's Syndrome
and an attention deficit disorder. The District Court and the Ninth
Circuit discussed the "counterproductive stance taken by (the parents')
attorney" by his insistence that "they leave the (IEP) meeting
with him at once."
v. Kittatinny Regional High School Board of Education, et. al., 865
F. Supp 1133, (D. NJ 1994)
attorney was assessed $100,000.00 in sanctions because of misconduct
and Rule 11 violations. The District Court found that the attorney's
misconduct cost the school district and other defendants approximately
not settled because an attorney writes a letter to the school district.
Favorable settlements require hard work and preparation.
must assume that they will have to request a due process hearing. They
must assume that before their hearing is held, a law is passed that
prevents parents from testifying. There will be a hearing and they cannot
take this mental step, they begin to prepare. How can they prove their
points independently? They learn to write things down and develop a
paper trail. They get experts involved who can testify on the child's
attorney dots all i's, cross all t's, and prepares the exhibit book
long before the five day rule, you are preparing for trial. When you
prepare for trial, you increase the odds that the case will not go to
trial and you will have a favorable settlement.
Wright was born and raised in Washington, D.C. In third grade,
he was diagnosed with strephosymbolia ("word blindness") and
hyperkinesis. For two years, he received Orton-Gillingham tutoring from
Diana Hanbury King.
Randolph-Macon College in Ashland Virginia where he majored in psychology.
He worked in juvenile training schools as a house parent and counselor
and later as a juvenile probation officer. Pete graduated from T. C.
Williams Law School at the University of Richmond in 1977.
on the boards of several organizations, including the Professional Advisory
Board of the Learning Disabilities Association of America (LDAA) and
the Council of Parent Attorneys and Advocates (COPPA). He is a member
of the American Bar Association, American Trial Lawyers Association,
and Virginia Trial Lawyers Association.
Shannon Carter before the U. S. Supreme Court in Florence County School
District Four v Shannon Carter. Pete is involved in cases around the
country and consults with parents in other countries about educational
Wright is a psychotherapist who has worked with children
and families for more than 30 years.
and experience in clinical psychology and clinical social work give
her a unique perspective on parent-child-school dynamics, problems,
and solutions. She has seen clients in mental health centers, family
guidance and psychiatric clinics, correctional institutions, hospitals,
undergraduate and graduate degrees in Psychology from East Carolina
University. She worked for ten years as a clinical psychologist in North
Carolina before returning to graduate school.
she earned a master's degree in clinical social work from Virginia Commonwealth
University, graduating summa cum laude. Her academic honors include
Who's Who in American Colleges and Universities.
the Wrightslaw web site at http://www.wrightslaw.com/
and publishes The Special Ed Advocate newsletter.
Pam speak at conferences around the country on special education advocacy
Pam co-authored Wrightslaw: Special Education Law, Wrightslaw: From
Emotions to Advocacy - The Special Education Survival Guide and Wrightslaw:
No Child Left Behind.
Copyright © 1999-2016, Peter W.
D. Wright and Pamela Darr Wright.
All rights reserved.
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It is only natural that English, with its rich vocabulary and worldwide appeal, be increasingly assimilated into the Spanish language.
New York City, NY (PRWEB) March 30, 2013
Software developers eReflect, the creators of Ultimate Spelling, announce that words from the English language are gaining acceptance in the Spanish language. Some words are being included in the official Spanish language lexicon with no changes to their English pronunciation or spelling. This development is a natural progression in the evolution of society and of English-speaking countries’ place in the global culture. English has become the base language for business, science, communications, and diplomacy. It is only natural that English, with its rich vocabulary and worldwide appeal, be increasingly assimilated into the Spanish language.
When the researchers and developers started to design Ultimate Spelling, they first started by looking at the history of English, because a knowledge of where the language started helps in understanding the spelling changes many words have gone through over time. The English language began as a Germanic language in Britain. Over centuries of conquering and migration by groups speaking Latin, Scandinavian, French, and other languages, it became what has been described as a borrowing language—one that is more open to accepting new words from other languages. These words come from older cultures, civilizations and languages and bring with them their own heritage and culture. For this reason, English is a rich and layered language with multiple words meaning the same thing, many rules, and exceptions to those rules. Even native English speakers require spelling software to navigate the sheer amount of words in their language. English has over 250,000 distinct words, without including technical, scientific, or slang terms. Many of these words come from other languages, demonstrating the rich tapestry that has been woven over time by the interaction of English-speaking countries with the world around them.
Beginning in the 16th century with the British Empire and continuing with the emergence of the United States as a global superpower, English speakers began influencing the world around them and soon English became one of the dominant world languages, replacing French as the language of diplomacy and German as the language of science. In modern times, English has become the international language of communications, science, business, aviation, information technology, and entertainment. Over a billion people speak at least a basic level of English.
The difference between speaking English and assimilating English words into the Spanish language is acceptance on a cultural and academic level. The Spanish Royal Academy has deemed certain words as “legitimate Spanish” - essentially the equivalent of being included in the latest edition of the Oxford English Dictionary or the Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Instead of being considered slang or “Spanglish,” these words, although English, are actually considered as Spanish words as well, much the same as rodeo or taco are considered English although they come from the Spanish language. Spanish spelling software programs will now accept as legitimate words such additions as “marketing,” “software,” “sex-appeal,” and “camping.” English, long a borrower of words from world languages, is increasingly becoming a lender of words as well.
For more information about how spelling software can improve spelling performance for you and your family, please visit the official website at http://www.ultimatespelling.com.
About Ultimate Spelling™
Ultimate Spelling provides a modern and easy to use spelling software that has been designed with one goal in mind – making children WANT to learn.
It is a fast and easy way to master even the most complicated spelling, without the need to write long lists or complete boring tests.
In fact, Ultimate Spelling provides more than just spelling help. It is a complete educational resource that boosts all level of a child’s literacy.
Containing a personal computer tutor, Ultimate Spelling is the most realistic step-by-step guide to flawless spelling ability.
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2 Answers | Add Yours
To consider place in “Bright Star! Would I Were Steadfast as Thou Art” time must also be considered. The two places discussed in the poem are the speaker's place on earth and the position of the north star in the sky. The speaker describes his desire to be as steadfast, in one place, and as eternal as the star. He compares the star's method of gazing on the purifying waters of the earth as if the star were a priest, a “sleepless eremite.” The speaker wishes to be eternal like the star, to be awake forever, watching the beauty of nature.
However, in the second line, the speaker does not wish to be “in lone splendor.” He does not want to be alone, as the star is, and he would not wish for the life of a priest because priests can't marry. Most critics agree that Keats wrote this poem about his love for Fanny Brawne. So, Keats purposely turns from this metaphor for these reasons and because to be in love, one needs to be human. A star can't love. He wished to be eternal, but to love, one must be human and necessarily mortal. Keats might consider love to be eternal, but in this poem he is talking about the empirical, sensual experience of love. This must occur in life.
The change from wanting to be like the eternal star to wishing to be like a paradoxically eternal mortal occurs in line 9.
No—yet still steadfast, still unchangeable,
Pillow'd upon my fair love's ripening breast,
To fell for ever its soft swell and fall,
Awake for ever in a sweet unrest,
Still, still to hear her tender-taken breath,
And so live ever—or else swoon to death.
The change is indicated by the opening word, “No.” The speaker wishes to be eternal, but in the act of something that requires time and change. The “swell and fall” occurs within time. To hear her “tender-taken breath,” he must be there with her over a period of time. A length of time includes change and with mortality, change inevitably leads to death, so the eternal state is out of the question.
Since the speaker, Keats, can't be immortal while in his lover's embrace, “so live ever” he would choose death. That is, he would choose to die while “Pillow'd upon” her breast. Notice the repetition of words referencing wakefulness and sleep: pillow'd, awake, unrest. If he can't live forever in this state of the embrace and rise and fall of her breath, he would like to die while doing so. In other words, he'd like to die at his happiest moment. Also, this would be his last experience in life, his last memory and perhaps, the last impression on his soul. Tragically, Keats died one year after writing this poem.
In this poem, place determines the experience. If he is in the position of the star, he is removed from humanity. He can watch, from afar, his love sleeping and this allows him to be eternal. Or, he could be with his love on earth with the catch that he must be mortal and this experience will end. He chooses the ephemeral experience with her on earth and, in a sense, chooses to “love her to/until (his) death.”
There is no procrastination of death as a place per say. Could we consithis this state of being "into death" is almost like meeting his wish to be where the star is.
Sky I.e bright star
Earth I.e Nature
Flesh/self I.e my fair love
Sky I.e death: unknown place, full of hope , illusions and perhaps
The poem appears to be in constant motion but this motion follows the speaker' progression into his wishfull thinking .
Can we use Keith life and death threat and impossibility to live long long enough as his own sense of place : within himself.
Ps: for being French native speaker , I may not be as clear and precise as I wish I was.
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The Salem Witch Trials were a notorious episode in New England colonial history that led to the execution of 14 women and 6 men, in 1692, for charges of witchcraft. The trials began as a result of the bizarre and inexplicable behavior of two young girls, afflicted by violent convulsions and strange fits that seemingly rendered them unable to hear, speak, or see. After a medical examination and a review by Puritan clergy, the girls were judged to be victims of witchcraft. In the ensuing hysteria during the summer of 1692, nearly 200 people were accused of witchcraft and imprisoned.
Although the Salem Witch Trials are conventionally cited as an example of religious zealotry in New England, the trials were exceptional in the American colonies, with charges of witchcraft far more commonplace in Europe—particularly Germany, Switzerland, and the Low Countries—during this period. From the fourteenth to the eighteenth centuries, some 110,000 people were tried for witchcraft in Europe, and from 40,000 to 60,000 were executed. In contrast, there were only 20 executions in colonial American courts from 1647 to 1691 and the sensational trials at Salem.
Modern analysis of the Salem Witch Trials regards the children's bizarre allegations and the townspeople's credulity as an example of mass hysteria, when mass public near-panic reactions surface around an unexplained phenomenon. Mass hysteria explains the waves of popular medical problems that "everyone gets" in response to news articles. A recent example of mass hysteria with remarkable similarities to the Salem Witch Trials was the rash of allegations of sexual and ritual abuse in day care centers in the 1980s and 1990s, which resulted in numerous convictions that were later overturned. Like the Salem hysteria, these allegations of sexual abuse were fueled by accusations from impressionable children who were coached by figures of authority, and resulted in destroying the lives and reputations of innocent people.
The Salem Witch Trials demonstrated the weakness of a judicial system that relied on hearsay testimony and encouraged accusations, while providing no adequate means of rebuttal. Yet, after a time conscientious magistrates did step in to stop the trials, and in subsequent years the reputations, if not the lives, of those falsely accused had been rehabilitated.
In the village of Salem in 1692, Betty Parris, age nine, and her cousin, Abigail Williams, age 11, the daughter and niece of Reverend Samuel Parris, fell victim to what was recorded as fits "beyond the power of Epileptic Fits or natural disease to effect," according to John Hale, minister in Beverly, in his book, A Modest Enquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft (1702). The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and contorted themselves into peculiar positions. They complained of being pricked with pins or cut with knives, and when Reverend Samuel Parris would preach, the girls would cover their ears, as if dreading to hear the sermons. When a doctor, historically believed to be William Griggs, could not explain what was happening to them, he said that the girls were bewitched. Others in the village began to exhibit the same symptoms.
Griggs may have been influenced in his diagnosis by Cotton Mather's work, Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions (1689). In the book he describes the strange behavior exhibited by the four children of a Boston mason, John Goodwin, and attributed it to witchcraft practiced upon them by an Irish washerwoman, Mary Glover. Mather, a minister of Boston's North Church (not to be confused with the Episcopalian Old North Church of Paul Revere), was a prolific publisher of pamphlets and a firm believer in witchcraft. Three of the five judges appointed to the Court of Oyer and Terminer were friends of his and members of his congregation. He wrote to one of the judges, John Richards, supporting the prosecutions, but cautioning him of the dangers of relying on spectral evidence and advising the court on how to proceed. Mather was present at the execution of Reverend George Burroughs for witchcraft and intervened after the condemned man had successfully recited the Lord's Prayer (supposedly a sign of innocence) to remind the crowd that the man had been convicted before a jury. Mather had access to the official records of the Salem trials, upon which his account of the affair, Wonders of the Invisible World, was based.
In February of 1692, frightened by events, the residents of Salem held regular fasts and prayers for the afflicted. Wanting the influence of the devil to be removed from their community they pressured the girls into providing names. The first three people arrested for allegedly afflicting a girl by the name of Ann Putnam, age 12, were Sarah Good, a beggar, Sarah Osburne, a bedridden old woman, and Rev. Parris's slave, Tituba. Tituba was an easy and obvious target as she was a slave and of a different ethnicity than that of her Puritan neighbors. Many accounts of the history of the hysteria claim that Tituba often told witch stories and spells to the girls while she was working. However, this idea does not have much historical merit. Sarah Good was often seen begging for food. She was quick to anger and often muttered under her breath. Many people believed these mutterings to be curses that she was placing upon them. Sarah Osburne had already been marked as an outcast when she married her indentured servant. These women easily fit the mold of being different in their society, and thus were vulnerable targets. The fact that none of the three attended church also made them more susceptible to the accusations of witchcraft.
On March 1, 1692, the three accused were held in prison and then brought before the magistrates. The women were accused of witchcraft, and soon many other women and children joined the ranks of the accused. In March, Martha Corey, Rebecca Nurse, Dorothy Good (incorrectly called Dorcas Good on her arrest warrant), and Rachel Clinton were condemned. The most outspoken of the group of women was Martha Corey. Outraged at the unjust accusations she argued that the girls who were accusing her were not to be believed. She scoffed at the trials and only brought unfavorable attention to herself in the process. Dorothy Good, Sarah Good's daughter, was only four years old when she was accused. Easily coerced into saying untrue things about her mother's behavior and her own status as a witch, she was placed in prison with her mother.
When faithful members of the Church like Martha Corey and Rebecca Nurse were accused, the community realized that anyone could be guilty of being a witch and, thus, no one was safe from the accusation. This proved true when the arrests continued during the month of April. Many more were arrested: Sarah Cloyce (Nurse's sister), Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor and her husband John Proctor, Giles Corey (Martha's husband, and a covenanted church member in Salem Town), Abigail Hobbs, Bridget Bishop, Mary Warren (a servant in the Proctor household and sometime accuser herself), Deliverance Hobbs (step-mother of Abigail Hobbs), Sarah Wilds, William Hobbs (husband of Deliverance and father of Abigail), Nehemiah Abbott Jr., Mary Esty (sister of Cloyce and Nurse), Edward Bishop Jr. and his wife Sarah Bishop, Mary English, Lydia Dustin, Susannah Martin, Dorcas Hoar, Sarah Morey and Philip English (Mary's husband). Even Rev. George Burroughs was arrested.
The trials rested purely on testimony of those who were afflicted, or "spectral evidence." The afflicted claimed to see various apparitions or shapes of the person who was causing their pain. A theological dispute arose about the use of this kind of evidence because it was supposed that the devil could not take the shape of a person without that person's permission. The court finally concluded that the devil needed the permission of the specific person. Thus, when the accusers claimed that they had seen the person, then that person could be charged with consorting with the devil himself. Increase Mather and other ministers sent a letter to the court, "The Return of Several Ministers Consulted," urging the magistrates not to convict on spectral evidence alone. A copy of this letter was printed in Increase Mather's "Cases of Conscience," published in 1692.
In May, the hysteria continued when warrants were issued for 36 more people: Sarah Dustin (daughter of Lydia Dustin), Ann Sears, Bethiah Carter Sr. and her daughter Bethiah Carter Jr., George Jacobs Sr. and his granddaughter Margaret Jacobs, John Willard, Alice Parker, Ann Pudeator, Abigail Soames, George Jacobs Jr. (son of George Jacobs Sr. and father of Margaret Jacobs), Daniel Andrew, Rebecca Jacobs (wife of George Jacobs Jr. and sister of Daniel Andrew), Sarah Buckley and her daughter Mary Witheridge, Elizabeth Colson, Elizabeth Hart, Thomas Farrar Sr., Roger Toothaker, Sarah Proctor (daughter of John and Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Bassett (sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Susannah Roots, Mary DeRich (another sister-in-law of Elizabeth Proctor), Sarah Pease, Elizabeth Cary, Martha Carrier, Elizabeth Fosdick, Wilmot Redd, Sarah Rice, Elizabeth How, John Alden (son of John Alden and Pricilla Mullins of Plymouth Colony), William Proctor (son of John and Elizabeth Proctor), John Flood, Mary Toothaker (wife of Roger Toothaker and sister of Martha Carrier) and her daughter Margaret Toothaker, and Arthur Abbott. When the Court of Oyer and Terminer convened at the end of May 1692, this brought the total number of accused and arrested to 62.
Eventually, Salem, Ipswich, Charlestown, Cambridge, and Boston all had jails filled to capacity. Scholars have attributed the lack of trials for the accused to the fact that there was no legitimate form of government at the time available to try the cases. However, it has been found that other capital cases were tried during this time period. The fact remains that none of the witchcraft cases were tried until late May with the arrival of Governor Sir William Phips. Upon his arrival, Phips instituted a Court of Oyer and Terminer (to "hear and determine") and simultaneously appointed William Stoughton as the Chief Justice of the court. Stoughton was a man with several years of theological training but no legal training. By then tragedies had already occurred, including Sarah Osborne's death before trial of natural causes. She died in jail on May 10. Sarah Good's infant child also died in jail.
The process of arresting and trying an individual in 1692 began with the accusation that some loss, illness, or even death had been caused by the practice of witchcraft. The accuser entered an official complaint with the town magistrates.
The magistrates would then decide if the complaint had any merit. If it did they would issue an arrest warrant. The arrested person would then be brought before the magistrates and receive a public interrogations/examination. It was at this time that many were forced to confess to witchcraft. If no confession was offered then the accused was turned over to the superior court. In 1692 this meant several months of imprisonment before the new governor arrived and establish a Court of Oyer and Terminer to handle these cases.
With the case appearing before the superior court, it was necessary to summon various witnesses to testify before the grand jury. There were basically two indictments: That of afflicting witchcraft or that of making an unlawful covenant with the devil. Once the accused was indicted the case went to trial, sometimes on the same day. An example is the case of Bridget Bishop, the first person indicted and tried, on June 2. She was executed on June 10, 1692.
The judicial environment offered those charged with witchcraft few protections against fabricated allegations. None of the accused were given the right to legal counsel, the magistrates often asked leading questions that presumed guilt, and only those who confessed were saved from execution upon conviction.
The trials resulted in four execution dates: One person was executed on June 10, 1692, five were executed on July 19, another five were executed on August 19 , and eight on September 22. Several others, including Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor and Abigail Faulkner were convicted and sentenced to death, but the sentence could not be carried out immediately because the women were pregnant. The women would still be hanged, but not until they had given birth. Five other women were convicted in 1692, but sentences were never carried out: Ann Foster (who later died in prison), her daughter Mary Lacy Sr., Abigail Hobbs, Dorcas Hoar, and Mary Bradbury.
One of the men, Giles Corey, an 80-year-old farmer from Salem Farms, endured a form of torture called peine fort et dure because he refused to enter a plea. The torture was also called "pressing" and was carried out by resting a board on the man's chest and then piling stones on the board slowly until the man was slowly crushed to death. It took Corey two days to die. It was thought that perhaps Corey did not enter a plea in order to keep his possessions from being taken by the state. Many possessions of those convicted during the trials were confiscated by the state. Many of the dead were not given proper burials, often being placed in shallow graves after the hangings.
In early October, prominent ministers in Boston, including Increase Mather and Samuel Willard, urged Governor Phips to stop the proceedings and disallow the use of spectral evidence. Public opinion was also changing, and without the admission of spectral evidence the trials soon came to an end. The final trials during the witch hysteria took place in May of 1693, after this time, all those still in jail were set free. In a letter of explanation Phips sent to England, Phips said he stopped the trials because "I saw many innocent persons might otherwise perish."
In 1697, a Day of Repentance was declared in Boston. On that day, Samuel Sewall, a magistrate on the court, publicly confessed his "blame and shame" in a statement read by Rev. Samuel Willard, and twelve jurors who served in the trials confessed to "the guilt of innocent blood." Years later, in 1706, Ann Putnam, Jr, one of the most active accusers, stood in her pew before the Salem Village church while the Rev. Joseph Green read her confession of "delusion" by the devil.
Many of the relatives and descendants of those wrongfully accused sought closure through petitions filed that demanded monetary restitution to those convicted. These petitions were filed up until 1711. Eventually, the Massachusetts House of Representatives passed a bill disallowing spectral evidence. However, only those who had initially filed petitions were given reversal of attainder. This applied to only three people, who had been convicted but not executed: Abigail Faulkner Sr., Elizabeth Proctor, and Sarah Wardwell.
In 1704 and 1709, another petition was filed in hopes of a monetary settlement. In 1711, a compensation of 578 pounds and 12 shillings was divided among the survivors and relatives of those accused. A sum of 150 pounds was given to the Proctor family for John and Elizabeth, by far the largest amount awarded.
In 1706, Ann Putnam, one of the girls responsible for accusing various people of witchcraft issued a written apology. In this apology, Ann stated that she had been deluded by Satan into the denouncing of several innocent people, in particular, Rebecca Nurse. In 1712, Nurse's excommunication was canceled by the very pastor who had cast her out.
By 1957, descendants of the accused were still demanding that the names of their ancestors be cleared. Finally an act was passed that pronounced all the accused as being exonerated. However, the statement only listed Ann Pudeator by name and all others were referred to as "certain other persons."
In 1992, The Danvers Tercentennial Committee persuaded the Massachusetts House of Representatives to issue a resolution honoring those who had died. The resolution was finally signed on October 31, 2001, by Governor Jane Swift. More than three hundred years after the trials, all the accused were proclaimed innocent.
The Salem Witch Trials, although a minor incident in the far more extensive persecution of religious and social nonconformists as "witches" in Europe from the Middle Ages, is a vivid, cautionary episode in American history. Remembered largely because of its anomalous character, the trials exemplify the threat to American founding ideals of freedom, justice, and religious tolerance and pluralism. Even in New England, which accepted the reality of the supernatural, the trials at Salem were repudiated by leading Puritans. Among other clerics who expressed concern with the trials, Increase Mather wrote in "Cases of Conscience Concerning Evil Spirits" (1692) that "It were better that Ten Suspected Witches should escape, than that the Innocent Person should be Condemned."
The term "witch hunt" has entered the American lexicon to describe the search for and harassment of people or members of groups who hold politically unpopular views. It was most notably used to describe and discredit the McCarthy Hearings in the U.S. Senate in the 1950s, which sought to identify communists or communist sympathizers in government and other public positions.
The trials have also provided the background for two of America's great works of drama, the play Giles Corey in Henry Wadsworth Longfellow's New England Tragedies and Arthur Miller's classic play, The Crucible. Longfellow's play, which follows the form of a Shakespearean tragedy, is a commentary on the attitudes prevalent in nineteenth century New England. Miller's play is a commentary on the McCarthy Hearings.
Lois the Witch by Elizabeth Gaskell is a novella based on the Salem witch hunts and shows how jealousy and sexual desire can lead to hysteria. She was inspired by the story of Rebecca Nurse whose accusation, trial, and execution are described in Lectures on Witchcraft by Charles Upham, the Unitarian minister in Salem in the 1830s. Gallows Hill by Lois Duncan is a young adult fiction book in which the main character Sarah, and many others, turn out to be reincarnations of those accused and killed during the Trials. Innumerable other popular depictions, including episodes of Star Trek and the Simpsons, have led to the ongoing recognition of the Salem Witch Trials as a notable, iconic incident in American history.
On May 9, 1992, the Salem Village Witchcraft Victims' Memorial of Danvers was dedicated before an audience of over three thousand people. It was the first such memorial to honor all of the 1692 witchcraft victims, and is located across the street from the site of the original Salem Village Meeting House where many of the witch examinations took place. The memorial serves as a reminder that each generation must confront intolerance and "witch hunts" with integrity, clear vision, and courage.
The city embraces the history of the Salem Witch Trials, both as a source of tourism and culture. Police cars are adorned with witch logos, a local public school is known as the Witchcraft Heights Elementary School, the Salem High School football team is named The Witches, and Gallows Hill, a site of numerous public hangings, is currently used as a playing field for various sports.
All links retrieved August 11, 2015.
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Isopogons are related to Grevilleas and Banksias. They are ornate and curious
plants, rigid in growth with handsome foliage and rounded flower heads terminating
the branches. The common name, 'drumsticks', refers to the rounded fruits which
can be found on the bushes at all times of the year.
About 35 species are known, the majority occuring in Western Australia . The one illustrated here, however, is native to the eastern States, its distribution extending from coast to mountains. When exposed to sea winds it forms a dwarfed and tufty ground cover and in more sheltered areas an upright shrub to 2 m high.
In Canberra it is hardy to frost and drought, remaining healthy for many vears with little attention, gradually becoming a heavy-limbed shrub about 2 m high. Adequate water, however, ensures the best condition. A group of vigorous young plants around 1 m high may show an interesting variety of forms. All tend to be bushy, covering the ground well - some branches partly prostrate and others upright.
Single specimens are attractive in a border or in public places; groups may be set in gravel or tan bark or among large rocks as this species will stand exposure. The soft yellow flowers are prominently displayed at the ends of branches.
divided leaves, growing stiffly upwards are tough and resistant to blemishes
of all kinds. From autumn to spring they are tinged purple in pleasant contrast
to the grey conelike seed heads. Depending on water supply the compact flower
heads open between October and January although November is generally the best
month. In a dry year the soft yellow flowers are smaller and not as showy.
Seed is plentiful, falling easily from the 'cones' when they are left to open in a bag in a warm place. Young plants raised from seed can be obtained from some nurseries dealing in native plants, and a good time to establish them is from late August to mid September or in the autumn. Most well-drained soils seem suitable; coarse sand should be added to very heavy soil and lime would not be favourable.
With attention to watering, new plants grow steadily and are best left to shape naturally without pruning. No significant pests or diseases have been noticed. Simple arrangements of foliage stems, with or without flowers and 'cones', are very effective and long-lasting in water.
Based on text by Irene Beeton (1971)
|Name meaning: Isopogon anemonifolius
Isopogon - from two Greek words meaning 'equal' and 'beard', alluding to the hairy fruits of some species;
anemonifolius - with leaves like those of some Anemones
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| 0.949917 | 564 | 3.03125 | 3 |
Spaying and neutering cats is best solution to overpopulation
With the bitterly cold winter we’ve been having, it’s hard to imagine that people are still trying to argue that it is “humane” to turn cats out to fend for themselves (“Solution to feral cats is control, not euthanasia,” March, 10, 2014). Feral cats are genetically identical to the cats who share our homes. They are not super-felines who can withstand sub-freezing temperatures, broken bones when they are hit by cars, or anemia when they are infested with fleas. Trap/neuter/return advocates call these cats’ deaths “natural attrition.” Here at PETA, we have seen “natural attrition” firsthand, and it isn’t pretty. We have seen stray and feral cats with eyeballs hanging out of their sockets, eyes and noses crusted shut from upper respiratory infections, tails and legs stripped of skin as a result of attacks by predators, frostbitten ears literally frozen off, and cats wasting away due to feline AIDS and leukemia.
The humane solution to the cat overpopulation crisis isn’t abandoning more cats on the streets to face horrible, lingering deaths. Preventing homelessness in the first place by spaying and neutering all cats and cracking down on illegal abandonment will reduce the numbers of stray and feral cats we see bolting from dumpster to crawl space throughout our communities.
Animal Care & Control Specialist
People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA)
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| 0.912051 | 323 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Project files are written in a syntax close to that of Ada, using familiar notions such as packages, context clauses, declarations, default values, assignments, and inheritance. Finally, project files can be built hierarchically from other project files, simplifying complex system integration and project reuse.
A project is a specific set of values for various compilation properties. The settings for a given project are described by means of a project file, which is a text file written in an Ada-like syntax. Property values in project files are either strings or lists of strings. Properties that are not explicitly set receive default values. A project file may interrogate the values of external variables (user-defined command-line switches or environment variables), and it may specify property settings conditionally, based on the value of such variables.
In simple cases, a project's source files depend only on other source files
in the same project, or on the predefined libraries. (Dependence is
the Ada technical sense; as in one Ada unit
withing another.) However,
the Project Manager also allows more sophisticated arrangements,
where the source files in one project depend on source files in other
More generally, the Project Manager lets you structure large development efforts into hierarchical subsystems, where build decisions are delegated to the subsystem level, and thus different compilation environments (switch settings) used for different subsystems.
The Project Manager is invoked through the -Pprojectfile switch to gnatmake or to the gnat front driver. There may be zero, one or more spaces between -P and projectfile. If you want to define (on the command line) an external variable that is queried by the project file, you must use the -Xvbl=value switch. The Project Manager parses and interprets the project file, and drives the invoked tool based on the project settings.
The Project Manager supports a wide range of development strategies, for systems of all sizes. Here are some typical practices that are easily handled:
The destination of an executable can be controlled inside a project file
using the -o
In the absence of such a switch either inside
the project file or on the command line, any executable files generated by
gnatmake are placed in the directory
in the project file. If no
Exec_Dir is specified, they will be placed
in the object directory of the project.
You can use project files to achieve some of the effects of a source versioning system (for example, defining separate projects for the different sets of sources that comprise different releases) but the Project Manager is independent of any source configuration management tools that might be used by the developers.
The next section introduces the main features of GNAT's project facility through a sequence of examples; subsequent sections will present the syntax and semantics in more detail. A more formal description of the project facility appears in the GNAT Reference Manual.
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| 0.857777 | 590 | 2.96875 | 3 |
ascending pharyngeal artery
The first and smallest branch of the external
carotid artery, which springs from its medial side near its lower end.
It runs upwards along the side of the pharynx hidden under cover of the carotid arteries.
|The ascending pharyngeal artery in
relation to the external carotid and its branches
Its branches are:
- Pharyngeal, to the pharynx, pharyngotympanic tube,
tonsil, and palate;
- Muscular, to the prevertebral muscles;
- Inferior tympanic, which accompanies the tympanic
branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve to the middle ear;
- Meningeal, which enters the skull through the foream
lacerum, jugular formamen, and anterior condylar canal.
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http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/A/ascending_pharyngeal_artery.html
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en
| 0.781267 | 185 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Primary Documents - William Howard Taft on America's Decision to go to War, 13 June 1917
Reproduced below is a speech given by former U.S. President William Howard Taft at Union College, Schenectady, N.Y., on 13 June 1917, some two months following America's entry into World War I.
Taft's speech served as a rallying call for Americans to support the war effort and the reasons by which the U.S. determined to go to war. He concluded by noting that significant sacrifices would likely be required before the war was won, citing recent British losses as an example; but that in bringing America into the war Germany had committed its greatest blunder.
William Howard Taft on America's Entry into the War; an Address at Union College, Schenectady, N.Y., 13 June 1917
Was there any other alternative for us than to declare war?
I would like to begin with the fundamentals. That depends upon what in fact and in law the act of Germany was.
What was the law? It is what is called international law; that is, a rule of conduct adopted by the acquiescence of all nations, of one nation toward another, both in peace and in war.
The branch of international law in which we are concerned here is perhaps the most definitely fixed of any branch of that jurisprudence, which in some respects is indefinite. It is the branch that governs the capture of commercial vessels at sea.
For a hundred years there has been very little doubt about the rules that control that field of jurisprudence. During the Napoleonic wars a great many commercial vessels were captured and in the procedure instituted they had to be brought into the domestic courts of prize where these rules were laid down.
At the same time on our own side of the ocean our Supreme Court settled many of the cases. In our civil war, in the war between trance and Germany, similar conditions were made. So that when we speak of that law we are speaking of a law that has some similitude to our domestic law.
In the first place, a belligerent - one of those engaged in war upon the high seas - may seize a commercial vessel of its enemy, may confiscate the vessel and its cargo, and, if necessity requires, may sink or burn it.
The second is that a neutral vessel may be seized by a belligerent vessel upon the high seas and examined to see whether that neutral vessel is carrying contraband to the enemy of the captor, and if so, the contraband may be confiscated.
Third, a belligerent vessel may blockade a port of its enemy. It must blockade it with visible vessels and a knowledge to the world that a blockade exists. Even if a neutral vessel enter this blockade it may be seized by the belligerent and the cargo confiscated.
These are the three rules that cover the whole field of capture of commercial vessels. But accompanying these rules is the limitation that in taking a commercial vessel which makes no response when hailed, which does not attempt to escape under the circumstances I have described, it is the bounden duty of the captor to see to it that the officers, the crew, and the passengers, all of the ship's company, shall be put in a safe place.
The captor may, as I say, sink or burn, the vessel at the time or it may take it into port and have it adjudged a prize, but in either case the captor is bound to secure the lives of those who are upon that commercial vessel.
Germany has violated that rule. It has deliberately caused the death of men, women and children on the high seas, under the American flag, and where they had a right to be. Killing against the law with deliberation is murder, and Germany has been guilty of murder of 200 of our fellow citizens, innocent of any offence, national or international.
Now, what is our duty under these circumstances? The Constitution of the United States is interpreted by the Supreme Court to say the duty of the citizens of the United States is to render allegiance, to do service, to pay taxes, and support the Government, and the corresponding duty of the United States as a Government is to protect the rights of citizens of the United States at home and abroad.
Because one citizen of the United States puts himself under the lawful jurisdiction of another country, the absolute right of protection is qualified by his voluntary submission to another jurisdiction. The necessity for protection is not entirely taken away, but it is qualified. When a man is on an American deck and under the American flag, a citizen of the United States, he is as much entitled to protection from the unlawful invasion of a foreign power as if he stood on the soil of the United States.
In view, therefore, of the murder of these 200 citizens and of the announcement of a policy to continue these murders, what alternative was there left open other than a declaration of war to the United States?
Suppose this had been Guatemala which had sunk one of our vessels and had sent ten of our sailors to the bottom? How many hours do you think it would be before the President and the Secretary of the Navy would send a battleship down to Guatemala and be thundering at the ports of that republic and demanding restitution, demanding a promise of conduct hereafter, demanding damages for what had been done, and on failure to answer promptly, to begin a bombardment? Even pacifists would have justified that.
Now, what is the difference between that situation and this? None? Yes. A very great difference.
The nation that has done this is the greatest military nation in the world. It is a nation with which, if we engage, we are likely to lose, it may be, a million men, and all that to resent the sacrifice of only 200 souls. That, it is said, is a trivial discrepancy.
Is it? It is if you look at it from a grossly material and mathematical standpoint, but it is not if you understand what it means to consent to the murder of 200 of our citizens because there is a powerful nation you have to meet and overcome in order to vindicate the rights of our citizens.
It means submission to the domination of another power; it means giving up the independence for which we fought in 1776 and which we made sacrifices to maintain in 1861.
There was great criticism of the Administration because we did not immediately act as we now have acted. I am not going into the pros and cons of that discussion. It suffices to say that the self-restraint, the deliberation, the tolerance, if you choose, which characterized that policy, has had this great and good effect. It has shown to the world, and it has shown to our people that in entering this war we have done it with the utmost reluctance, and in entering the war we are entirely void of offence.
It has shown that we have been forced in and that the situation has been such that no self-respecting nation, no nation which appreciates what a government is formed for, could avoid doing what we are doing when the rights of our citizens, the preservation of which is the chief object of government, have been defiantly violated by a power that rests for its right upon might.
That is why we are in. There are many of us who think, "for my country, right or wrong; may she always be right, but always for my country." I do not care to discuss that philosophy, but I do think it important we should realize and take it home to our souls we do not need that kind of philosophy in fighting out the fight we are to fight now.
In 1776 we were fighting for our own independence and the development of our future. In 1861 we tried to eliminate that living lie in the Declaration of Independence, which declared that "all men are born free and equal." It took us four years of a terrible struggle to demonstrate to the world what had been doubted.
We demonstrated to the world that we could make sacrifices of lives and treasure for the maintenance of a moral principle and the integrity of the nation. We showed in the words of Lincoln, that "the rule of the people should not perish from the earth."
And then we went on and increased from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000 people, and we created a material expansion which has given us greater wealth than any other country. We have had comfort and luxury. Now the question was when this issue came on whether in that change from 30,000,000 to 100,000,000, from comparative wealth to great wealth, we had lost the moral spirit we had before shown, we had become so enervated by our success that we felt it was not wise to risk the lives of those dear to us, to risk the destruction that war must bring in order to assert our rights.
Now we have stepped to the forefront of nations, and they look to us.
Before we came into this fight Russia had become a democracy, and we find ourselves fighting shoulder to shoulder with the democracies of the world. We find arrayed against us the military dynasties of the world, Germany, Austria, and Turkey.
Of course, people say England has a King; so has Italy and other countries that are fighting on our side. A democracy is a country ruled by the people. The King of England and the King of Italy haven't any more influence over the policies of their country than an ex-President.
The issue at present is drawn between the democracies of the world and the military dynasties, and people like to characterize that as the issue. It is and it isn't. What I mean by that is: The United States is not a knight-errant country going about to independent people and saying, "We do not like your form of government, we have tried our own popular government and we think it is better for you to take it, and you have got to take it."
That is a very unreasonable position, in so far as that form of government deals with only their domestic pursuits and their domestic happiness. If they like to have a Tsar, if they prefer it, why, it isn't for us to take away their freedom of will. Otherwise we shall go back to the logic of the Inquisition, when they burned people in this world so that they might not burn in the next.
But when their form of government involves a policy which does not confine its opinions to the people who make the government or support it, but becomes a visible policy against the welfare and happiness of the rest of the world family, we have a right and a duty, standing with other nations as we do, to see to it that such a foreign policy is stopped and stamped out forever.
I will not minimize or confuse. Germany is not exhausted. That machine which it has been creating for fifty years is a wonderful machine.... It did not interfere with Austria until Austria showed some signs of coming into a conference, and then it said to Austria, "This is the time to strike." It had been creating this force for fifty years, and now seemed the time to make it most effective...
This militarism is a cancer which must be cut out by a surgical operation. It shows its malignant character in the utter disregard of the rules of war. It shows itself in the violation of Belgium, in the policy of frightfulness in order to subjugate Belgium; in the violation of The Hague treaties, which forbid the dropping of explosives out of aerial craft, the planting of mines, the use of asphyxiating gases and flames, all spread out in The Hague treaties, and all violated promptly by this German military machine.
It is therefore a cancer which would absorb the wholesome life of the world unless it is cut out, and necessitates suffering and pain in ridding the world of it.
There are other evidences of divine plan. Think of the battle of the Marne, where this matchless machine began to find France and England unprepared, and they turned at the Marne when the German hosts with their guns were heard in Paris, and by mere moral force they turned these German legions back.
Think of the blindness of this absorption of gross materialism as brought into the intellect of the Germans.
They cannot understand other people. They cannot recognize a moral force that binds people together in a cause. They said England will not stand by Belgium; it has trouble with Ireland; they said France is torn with Socialism and it is a decadent nation.
In both cases they made blunders.
They said as regards Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa, England has no control over them by force; they are far removed from it and will follow the path of materialism and gain; they will follow where profit determines; they will not be held.
And yet, nothing has been grander than this light bond which unites England with these independent dependencies, and they have rallied to the support of the mother country, responded out of gratitude for the liberty that it had conferred upon them, and they have made sacrifices which call for our profound admiration.
Think of it. Canada has furnished upward of 400,000 men. Nearly every home in English Canada is mourning-their best and most beloved. If we furnish as many men as they have for this war our armies will reach 6,500,000 men.
If our contributions to the Red Cross, Y.M.C.A., and other voluntary individual contributions, in addition to taxes, reach the figures which they have in Canada, we shall contribute $14 to $15 per capita.
My friends, those are the mistakes or blunders that Germany has made, self-imposed or imposed by a definite rule that when you subject yourself to grossly material considerations you lose the higher mental and spiritual forces which enable you to conquer in the end.
Now, the last blunder of all. In its determination to depend upon the devilish ingenuity of science in the development of war, the Germans said: "We can starve England out with this submarine."
When it saw us it said, "There is a tango-loving nation, too fat to fight, too lazy to go into the trenches," and they have deliberately forced us into the ranks of their enemies.
Think of it. They have been fighting for nearly three years. The exhaustion that has come to them has had no comparison in history. The war must be determined by the weight of wealth and resources and the courageous men which can be gathered together to fight it out and be sure of a victorious battle in the end.
And yet, in the face of that fact, we should impress on them that they deliberately forced into the ranks of their enemies the nation which can furnish more wealth, more resources, more equipment, and more men than any other nation in the world.
My friends, we are going to make these sacrifices. We do not know what they are yet, and we shall not know until we see the bulletins. The English people watched the bulletins for May and saw a loss of 114,000 in the British Army; 26,000 privates killed and 16,000 officers killed in action; 76,000 privates wounded, and 3,600 officers wounded and 7,000 missing.
When we watch a report like this, then it will come home to us in our souls and we shall understand the sacrifice we have to make.
Source: Source Records of the Great War, Vol. V, ed. Charles F. Horne, National Alumni 1923
A howitzer is any short cannon that delivers its shells in a high trajectory. The word is derived from an old German word for "catapult".
- Did you know?
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Implementation vision of the comprehensive technology plan
May 20, 2010
The way technology has evolved over the last two decades has altered not only the way we disseminate information, but also the way we interact with each other and how we view the physical world. These new advances affect our academic work in all its facets, from student learning and classroom teaching, to scholarship, to all of our business practices.
Planning for technology on a university campus is challenging, in part, because this rate of change, already fast, seems to get faster every day. We can foresee some, but not all, of even the most basic and sweeping changes in store for us. Planning will enable us to think intentionally about how best to
- support our teaching and learning mission and use technology where appropriate to improve our routine services
- prioritize and respond to the complex and sometimes competing needs and expectations of all 20,000 students and employees
- accommodate and capitalize upon technological change
- define and purchase the technologies we need now
- design a governance structure that builds upon our best centralized and decentralized practices
- clarify decision-making structures
Planning, implementing, and talking about technology is also challenging because of the sheer scale of its presence and impact on campus. Not only are there about 20,000 users, but our planning must accommodate needs that range from the entire institution (and even MnSCU) to individual users.
This plan, then, is the first of a series of plans, built, as it is, upon a brief analysis of where we are right now. We know that the examples in the definition section will change as technology and our current status change. However, these examples and the definition section as a whole are intended to provide common ground for further discussions about how to plan for and work with the problems associated with technologies on a campus this size, organized the way it is, and funded the way it is. This conversation is essential since technology has implications for every sector of our campus. We need to think strategically about the nature of technology now and into the future and develop a plan that provides the best fit for our University mission, our students, and our strategic goals.
The sections of this document
- define what we mean by technology
- describe where we are today with specific reference to
- the complexity of our systems
- governance and decision-making structures
- the effects of changing technologies on instructional and business practices
- funding and spending regarding technology
- curricular and classroom technologies
- community engagement and co-curricular activities
- professional and workplace development
- security and compliance obligations
- using technology for communication and our communication surrounding technology
- provide guiding principles for IT organization
- offer objectives that will drive the actions this plan recommends
- provide next steps in implementing this plan.
The objectives and next steps in this plan are intended to frame the most pressing problems we face, to encourage campus-wide conversation about how technology as defined in this report might support us in achieving our institutional mission, and to provide a foundation for the next technology plan.
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Goals for Living: Managing Your Resources (The Goodheart-Willcox Home Economics Series)
Goals for Living: Managing Your Resources is a comprehensive text that helps your students manage the challenges of daily life. The text allows students to explore how the management process can be applied to various aspects of everyday living. Management as it applies to all areas of adult living is thoroughly covered. Throughout the text, the importance of resource management in reaching goals is stressed. This text is suitable for classes such as life management, independent living, and life skills.
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Have the students make their own box. Each student will need 2 pieces of 8 1/2 x 5 1/2 paper for the box. Click HERE for a video on how to make a box. They need to draw their self portrait on a piece of 2 1/2 x 4 inch paper and glue it on top of the box.
We had painted paper already so I thought we would use that but you could use any paper. All you have to do to get that look is paint a page protector with watercolor, press a piece of white paper on top and then clean off the page protector for the next student. The paper inside is 2 pieces of 4 x 12 paper glued together. Glue the ends of the paper to the inside of the box so that it accordion folds back together.
Have the students write a list of things that describe them for about 2 minutes. Have each student choose 6-8 of their describing words and type them on the computer. The last step is to add their name with sponge letters to the inside and then cut out and glue on the words that describe them. The box can be closed back up or open for display.
This is a great book to read about what makes you special before writing the describing words.
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Render Unto Caesar, Part I
What the history of ancient gold coinssays about Europe's kingless, faceless money today...
Two hundred years later, the "insane despot" Commodus would only believe that his friend Perennius was plotting to overthrow him when he was shown coins already bearing his former favorite's image. And ancient Persian kings went further, says the later Armenian chronicler Moses of Chorene, each seeing to it that "all the money in the royal treasury was recoined with his effigy" as soon as he took power.
The face on a coin mattered, in short, and mattered a lot. Not least because, as head of state, the king or caesar was also head of the army. And with armies needing to be paid if you wanted to keep them on side, coins were the most common currency - a sort of "state gazette", in the words of a much later English writer - for spreading political news to pre-literate peoples.
In the ancient world, "Coins followed - indeed accompanied - the sword," says late-20th century historian Glyn Davies, pre-empting a point which this year's Debt: The First 5,000 Years by David Graeber takes pains to stress, albeit via the 'Cartalist' theory that early governments chose to create and foster monetized markets the better to tax them.
"Payment for troops and for their large armies of camp-followers was generally the initial cause of minting," says Davies. "If the spread of Greek, Macedonian, Hellenistic and Roman money had had to depend solely on trade, the process would have been far slower and far more limited in extent."
Once coined money took hold - thanks to the imperial troops - it also bore "this advantage over any other kind of monument," writes the 19th century antiquarian Alexander Del Mar: "it could not be successfully mutilated, forged or suppressed." Caesar's coin carried his majesty with it. His image spread and assured his power with every transaction.
Rome fell in the mid-5th century AD. But the Roman Empire lasted another 1,000 years, and its money still reached far west and north outside the Byzantine Empire - run from Constantinople, today's Istanbul. This second Rome and its distant emperor stayed very close to the people of post-Roman Europe, however. Because their local silver and bronze coins aped Byzantine money almost exactly, repeating its Christian imagery even amongst pagan tribes. Byzantium's Arabian neighbors only broke from copying its coins when Justinian II replaced the cross with a bust of Christ Pantocrator (the all powerful) in the early 8th century.
What's more, no gold coins were minted in Rome's former western provinces without bearing the name of the reigning Byzantine ruler for nearly 75 years after the original empire's demise. "Every liberty was given by the Basileus Justinian I to subordinate princes to coin silver as much as they chose," wrote his legal advisor, secretary and historian Prokopius in the mid-6th century. "But they must not strike gold coins, no matter how much gold they possessed."
The best 19th-century antiquaries took this - and other evidence - to mean no gold coins were minted outside Constantinople's direct control until at least the 13th century. Indeed, they believed no gold mining was allowed or conducted outside the Emperor's command either. "The facts are simple and indisputable," wrote Alexander Del Mar in 1896:
"Julius Caesar erected the coinage of gold into a sacerdotal prerogative; this prerogative was attached to the sovereign and his successors...It would have been sacrilege, punishable by torture, death and anathema for any other prince than the sovereign-pontiff to strike coins of gold; it would have been sacrilege to give currency to any others..."
According to Del Mar, no king of England - separated from Constantinople by 3,000 miles of sea, forest, mountains and warring kingdoms - minted gold coins between the 8th and 13th century, happily relying on a trickle of bezants (from Byzantium, the pre-Roman city where Constantine founded his second Rome in 303) for high-value money. But gold coins were being struck in local mints across Europe, however, and almost immediately after the fall of the west Roman Empire. The confusion comes because those princes and foreign kings picking up the tools of power chose to imitate the ruling Byzantine emperor's gold coins exactly.
Such "pseudo-imperial" pieces can be near-impossible for numismatists to distinguish from the emperor's originals. Because they "generally bear the current Byzantine emperor's image and name and the mint mark of Constantinople" - the Greek letter Δ - explain modern scholars Eurydice Georganteli and Barrie Cook. In the first 100 years after the fall of Rome, only the Merovingian king Theodebert I, lord of what is now Reims in France, dared deviate from the distant emperor's model, minting gold coins in his own name in the town of Metz and giving himself imperial titles on them, too. But his coins were not influential and "remained an anomaly," say Georganteli and Cook. Even when the image of local rulers did begin to appear around 580, the imperial style still ruled as "the basic physical manifestation of authority and power."
Long after Rome's power slipped from Europe, in short, coining gold was still an imperial right, even if the emperor ruled 2,000 miles or more to the east in what is modern Turkey. Del Mar rightly saw in this "the sacred character of gold...an ancient myth put to new political use" also by Hindus and Buddhists in medieval India. Across all these societies, money proved the king's power. Money was in fact its most common and obvious manifestation, with his image carried in purses and passed hand to hand in the market.
So what to make of the kingless, faceless Euro today? More to come in Part II...
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Nintendo Entertainment System (NES) was created back in 1985 by the famous Japanese company Nintendo. It was an extremely revolutionary console at its time and was the best selling console for a number of years. I used to play NES a lot as a kid, so I have all those memories of the old games, and had an imminent urge to dig into the inner details of the console to figure out how it worked.
I got myself a Digilent Nexys 3 FPGA development board. It's a ready made FPGA board with built in Flash, RAM, USB programming interface, and power supply circuitry. This is a really quick and easy path into the world of FPGAs. The alternative could be to make the whole PCB from scratch, and that is something I want to learn some day. A guy named Kevtris has done exactly that with his FPGA Game Console.
There are two competing hardware description languages, VHDL and Verilog. I chose to learn Verilog because VHDL seemed unnecessarily verbose while Verilog offered a much more compact syntax.
The NES contains a Ricoh 2A03 CPU, virtually identical to the MOS 6502 CPU, but includes an on chip APU (Audio Processing Unit), while removing some CPU features such as Binary Coded Decimal arithmetic, supposedly to avoid paying patent royalties. Side by side to the CPU is a PPU (Picture Processing Unit), which is responsible for generating a 256x240 sized image. The console has extremely small amounts of memory with today's standards. It has a built in 2kB RAM for the CPU, and another 2kB used by the PPU. Additionally, some carts provided a few kilobytes of extra memory.
Since the CPU uses only a 16-bit address bus, it was common to include mapper chips inside of the cartridge. These are used to implement a mapping (or windowing) mechanism, so the CPU can select which part of the ROM to map into the address space. There exist a plethora of mapper configurations, around 200 different configurations or so. In some cases these were regular discrete logic chips such as 74LS161, while in other cases it was custom made ASICs. In order to support all NES games, I need to implement all those mapper chips too, as the FPGA NES uses an iNES ROM image instead of a physical cartridge.
The NES PPU runs off of a 21.4773 MHz crystal. This frequency was chosen by the original NES designers because it's the frequency used by NTSC video. These are the frequencies I make use of in my FPGA:
- 100MHz: The frequency of the devboard crystal, this gets converted down to 21.4773MHz by the FPGA's built in Digital Clock Manager (DCM) by first multiplying the frequency by 189, then dividing by 220, and finally dividing by 4.
- 21.4773MHz: The internal frequency the FPGA runs on, is used to clock the PSRAM logic, the VGA scanline doubler, ROM loader and some other top level logic.
- 5.37MHz: Generated by dividing 21.4773 by 4. This is frequency the PPU runs at, and every clock another pixel is outputted by the PPU. In my FPGA, I used clock enables to run the PPU only every 4th cycle, to avoid having multiple clock domains.
- 1.79MHz: PPU clock divided by 3. This clocks the CPU. Implemented as a clock enable that's active only every 12th cycle.
Here's a description of the various components that make up the FPGA NES:
Spartan 6 LX16 FPGA Core:
The heart of the board, the Spartan-6 is the programmable chip that runs the NES. It's a pretty advanced FPGA where the basic building block is a 6 input LUT instead of the more commonly used 4-input LUT used in the Spartan-3 series. Here's an FPGA Logic Cells comparison with more info.
The LUT is used to create an arbitrary function of 6 bits of inputs into one bit of output, i.e. 2^6=64 bits of state. These LUTs get interconnected and state is persisted between clock cycles through the use of flip flops, which each keep 1 bit of memory.
16Mbyte Micron Cellular RAM
This is PSRAM, a hybrid of a cheap DRAM and a more expensive SRAM. It still requires DRAM refresh cycles, but all that is happens behind the scenes so I don't need to worry about it. The RAM has an access time of 70ns, meaning that after I put the address out on the bus, I need to wait 70ns before the data is available for me to read. In my RAM logic, I wait 2 cycles (90ns). I timed it so I perform one single byte fetch per PPU clock.
The NES has separate address buses for the CPU (code) and the PPU (graphics). Since I use a single RAM chip, I'm time multiplexing the accesses. The PPU accesses ram only every second clock cycle, i.e. 50% of the time, while CPU accesses every third PPU cycle (33% of the time).
This is a rather mediocre video solution, as it only gives me 3 bits for Red, 3 bits for Green and 2 bits for Blue. This only allows for 4 levels of grayscale, so I can't even represent all NES colors accurately (see the picture). I need to move away from this once I figure out a better solution. I really wish the Digilent board would have used a proper video DAC instead, such as Analog Devices ADV7123.
These are Digilent's own expansion connectors. I created some simple audio circuitry using a 16 bit AD1866 Audio DAC connected to a single supply Operational Amplifier. The Audio DAC has a bit limited voltage range, 1.5V - 3.5V, so the peak to peak voltage after the opamp is only around 1 volt or so. I discovered the hard way by trial and error that I had to connect an electrolytic capacitor in series with the speaker to act as a high pass filter and remove the DC component to get the average voltage down to 0 volts instead of 2.5 volts.
The Digilent USB Interface can also be used as a bidirectional communications channel between the FPGA and a program running on the PC. The only controllers I had were USB SNES controllers, so I hooked the controller up to the PC and have a small program that reads the joystick movements and sends these over the cable to the FPGA.
6502 CPU Core
I wrote my own 6502 Verilog core, it seemed like a fun challenge and was a lot more educational and challenging than just stealing someone else's. The CPU contains an ALU, a set of registers, and a datapath structure that connects these together. Each instruction runs in a variable number of cycles, and a big microcode table controls which muxes and control signals that are active for every cycle of an instruction. There exists a lot of good documentation of how the 6502 worked down to the cycle level.
Interestingly, the 6502 had a bunch of undocumented instructions. These exist because instructions are only partially decoded by a Decode PLA, and the unused opcodes trigger random control signals in the CPU, causing unplanned things to happen. I implemented most of these, except for some very esoteric ones.
APU (Audio Processing Unit)
The NES APU contains 5 tone generators: Two square wave generators, one triangle generator, one noise generator and a DMC (Delta Modulation Channel). These are periodically controlled by the CPU by writing to a few IO registers in the APU. The outputs of these 5 channels are then combined in a way to mimic the audio hardware of the NES, by using a few look up tables implemented on the FPGA's block ram.
Because the sample frequency of the APU is 1.79MHz, and the output frequency of my DAC is much much lower, I need to implement a digital low pass filter to remove the very high frequency components, to avoid aliasing artifacts. I implemented a 767 order FIR filter using one of the FPGA's DSP Multiply and Accumulate units and some block ram. The DSP unit can compute expressions on the form P = P + A * (B + C) in a single clock cycle. The FIR filter runs at 21.4773 MHz, and generates an output sample rate of 1/384th of that (55.9 kHz). Thanks to FIR filters being symmetrical, I only need to perform 768/2 = 384 multiplications per output sample, i.e. exactly one multiplication per clock cycle.
PPU (Picture Processing Unit)
Generates output pixels and VGA control signals so the picture can be output on a standard PC monitor. I use the output resolution 512x480, so I implemented a scanline doubler in the FPGA, so that one PPU pixel becomes a 2x2 pixel on the VGA screen. The PPU implements the NES tile engine, where the screen is made up of a 32x30 8x8 pixel tiles, and there can be 64 sprites each either 8x8 or 8x16 pixels. The PPU aims to be completely cycle accurate, or else there will be glitches in certain games that depend on the exact NES clock timing.
So far I've only implemented a subset of all mappers that exist.
MMC1: Nintendo ASIC, used in Megaman 2, Zelda, Metroid.
MMC2: Nintendo ASIC. The only game that uses this seems to be Punch Out. It contains some dynamic bank switching to allow for more tiles than normal to be displayed on the screen simultaneously.
MMC3: Nintendo ASIC, used in Megaman 3,4,5, Super Mario Bros 2,3. This mapper features a pretty interesting scanline counter that counts the number of transitions on the address lines. By making some assumptions on the pattern at which the PPU accesses things, an IRQ can be generated to the CPU when a certain scanline is about to be rendered. This is mostly used for split screen effects.
Tepples Multi Discrete Mapper: A single mapper that can be reconfigured to support several different discrete logic mappers. I reuse this code path to implement support for the UxROM, CNROM, AxROM mappers.
Here is a photo of the result:
Spartan 6 LX16 Utilization:
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Some places in Hidalgo County grew and then disappeared. What once were centers of business or community gathering places have only a building or the remnants of daily life to remember them.
In the extreme southern part of the county, Bramlett was a short-lived community about which little is known. Its only postmaster was Nathan N. Bramlett, who oversaw the post office for a year beginning in 1911, after which it was closed.
In the 1880's, the Cloverdale Ranch was established near the Mexican border south of Animas. 1n 1889, the Victorio Land and Cattle Company bought the ranch and other ranchers tricked into the area. The community took the name of Cloverdale and became the center of the ranching community. It held a yearly cowboy camp meeting and attracted cattlemen and their families from miles around for social activities and business. The post office operated from 1912 to 1943. Today, one building remains, the former store. Cloverdale Creek still occasionally runs and Cloverdale Peak is the highest peak in the Guadalupe Mountains at 6,469'.
When the Chiricahua Apache Reservation was dissolved, settlers came to the area, despite continued Indian raids, bandits, and cattle rustling. Mining claims were recorded in Granite Gap in 1879. Water had to be hauled in from San Simon Cienega, three miles south. About two hundred people lived here at the height of mining productivity of silver, lead, zinc, and copper. Eventually, there was a school and a deputy sheriff was hired. Ore continued to be shipped until about 1926.
Today, the walls of a tent town, some rock and adobe foundations, and a few cave dwellings remian. The landscape is unique, with rock formations like those of Texas Canyon in Arizona.
After Phelps Dodge Corporation built Playas and put in the copper smelter in the early 1970's, it added a settlement on its land about six miles north of Playas for residents who wanted more space for livestock or gardening. Mini Farms was a small section that had a park and large spaces rented for PD employees' trailer homes. Many raised livestock there, accessed surrounding land for horse riding and four wheeling, and put in large gardens. When the smelter closed in 1999, it was abandoned. All that remains is some playground equipment and water tanks.
Nine miles south of Lordsburg, a mining camp named for the Pyramid Mountains became active in the 1880's. Originally, it was a water station on the southern overland route to California. Eugene Leitendorf dug wells in 1852 as he drove cattle from Illinois to California, that supplied steady water. The settlement around the wells was called Leitendorf. A post office was active from 1882 to 1884 and again from 1891 to 1897. The mining settlement lasted until the late 1890's and was abandoned.
Pratt was a siding located on the Southern Pacific Railroad west of Animas, 28 miles south of Lordsburg. The post office there was active from 1905-1913. The siding offered a place to load livestock.
In 1908, a placer gold discovery caused a boom. A tent camp with 500 miners sprung up and grew to almost a thousand. The boom was short-lived and most left empty-handed. By 1909, about 70 remained, but the lode was never found. Today, a few rock foundations are all that remain.
Located three miles southwest of Lordsburg, the community grew around a few mining claims in 1885. About 1913, the Southern Pacific Railroad added a spur to the mining community, and the population grew. By 1926, the town had 2,000 residents. In 1931, Phelps Dodge Corporation bought the entire property, but a year later, closed the mines and ordered residents to leave. It razed and moved buildings and left little standing. The post office functioned from 1917 to 1932.
Many communities are still around today, though not as busy as in yesteryear.
On I-10 17 miles west of Lordsburg, Road Forks was named by Mr. and Mrs. G. H. Porter. It was settled about 1925 and became a travel stop for highway travelers and those leaving I-10 on Hwy 80 toward Rodeo. The post office operated fully from 1925 to 1955. It now gets mail from Lordsburg. The truck stop has closed and reopened a number of times. There is a hotel there, a fireworks sales building, a truck service shop, fuel storage, and a few homes and trailer homes. Students there are bussed to Lordsburg or are driven 10 miles to an Animas bus stop.
When Phelps Dodge Corporation bought and leased land in the Playas Valley in preparation for installing a copper smelter and an accompanying town site, it "missed" a small pocket of land located half a mile from Hwy 9 and 11 miles east of Animas. The small section was privately developed and sold to residents in half acre or larger parcels. It became a small center of population of trailer homes and a handful of constructed homes, two churches, and a volunteer fire department. Today, it is still occupied. Nobody knows why the subdivision was named Windmill, as there has never been one on the land.
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Puppies bite. This is normal behavior and it is important for puppies to experiment with biting so that they can learn not to bite too hard and then not to bite at all. They need to learn how to control their jaws and develop bite inhibition so that if they are in a stressful situation and they bite before thinking about it, they will be able to control the bite and hopefully not bite hard by mistake later in life.
Puppies learn about not biting too hard from their mother and litter mates. If one puppy bites too hard and another one squeals, all the fun stops. If a puppy bites Mom too hard, the lesson may be a bit harsher.
Watch this video that shows how roughly puppies play. You do not want your puppy to play this way with you or with your children. Notice that when the Newfoundland puppy squeals the other puppy lets go immediately. Also note that when the Newfie loses his patience and shows his teeth, the other puppy runs off and bites the child off camera. This is a redirected bite: she doesn't dare bite the Newf again because he is getting angry, but she wants to bite so she runs over and bites the closest child. This is a young puppy and cannot do much damage to an older child, but a baby or toddler could be injured quite severely by sharp puppy teeth. It is a good idea to keep babies and young children out of the way of a wound up puppy and to keep lots of puppy appropriate chew toys handy so that the puppy always has something appropriate to bite.
It is best that a puppy stays with its mother and litter mates until it is 10 weeks old. This way the puppy will learn from its mother and you will have an easier job. Also this puppy will have learned to communicate with other dogs and is less likely to fight or be attacked when it fails to communicate properly with other dogs as an adult. Read an article by well-known animal behavior expert Dr. Ed Bailey that explains the science behind this. According to this research, puppies benefit from staying with their mother and litter mates until 10 weeks of age. During the period of 7-9 weeks, fears begin to develop. The worst time to take a puppy away from the security of its mother and the human family it has known is during this period. At 10 weeks the puppy is better able to adapt to new situations and not to develop fears of new sounds and situations. Of course puppies require socialization with people and other dogs and exposure to noises, cats, car rides and anything else the breeder can dream up. If the puppies in a litter are isolated and are not living in the house where they get lots of attention and different experiences, then these puppies may develop fears and behavior problems. Dr Bailey recommends that puppies stay at the breeder until 10 weeks of age.
Read another article by Dr. Bailey about how to raise behaviorally sound puppies. Ask your breeder if they are doing all these things. Give them this article!
Puppies must also learn to enjoy the company of humans while they are young. According to one of the leading dog trainers and behavior specialists Dr. Ian Dunbar...
"Your Most Urgent Priority is to socialize your puppy to a wide variety of people, especially children, men, and strangers, before he is twelve weeks old. Well-socialized puppies grow up to be wonderful companions, whereas antisocial dogs are difficult, time-consuming, and potentially dangerous. As a rule of thumb, your puppy needs to meet at least one hundred people before he is three months old. Since your puppy is still too young to venture out to dog parks and sidewalks, you'll need to start inviting people to your home right away."
When looking for a puppy, try to find out as much as you can about the puppy's early experiences. The better socialized the puppy is with people and other dogs, the less likely it is to have problems with fear or aggression towards people or dogs later in life.
Visit our blog for an ongoing series (including video) on how to teach your puppy not to bite. There is some basic information below, but the blog articles will go into more detail and additional parts of the series will be added there from time to time. Be sure to read the rest of this page and visit the blog!
Here is a link to all the parts of the series so far.
Teach your puppy to bite less and less forcefully and then not to bite at all - unless you are initiating a game (adults only - children should not play rough games with the puppy). There are various approaches that can be used to teach your puppy to control its bite and to give you control over the puppy's biting. We recommend that you use all these methods so that the puppy learns in different ways.
You can substitute a suitable toy that the puppy is allowed to bite so that the puppy learns that he can't bite human skin, but toys are OK.
Make sure to also use lots of yummy rewards and praise when the puppy chews on his own, appropriate toys.
You can also withdraw attention from a biting puppy. Be a tree and ignore the puppy until it gives up on biting. Restore attention when the puppy behaves properly.
Read an article by Dr. Dunbar about puppy biting.
Read an article by Pat Miller about how to teach bite inhibition.
Read an article by Casey Lomonaco about why puppies bite and how to survive it
Another approach is to set out specifically to teach the puppy not to bite. No-one says it better than Karen Pryor - so we leave it to her to explain how to train a puppy not to bite...click here to see how Karen does it.
Read an article by Melissa Alexander about puppy bite inhibition.
A way to speed up the process with a puppy that is determined to bite is to put Cheez Whiz, or peanut butter (be sure puppy has no chance of licking an allergic child after the training session) on your fingers. Puppy will lick because this is the most efficient way to get the treat. You can then pair in the cue "kisses".
Hand feeding your puppy at least some of his food is a great way to get him used to hands near his mouth and his food. If he bites too hard, simply close your hand, or stand up for a few seconds until he calms down and then resume feeding.
A great way to teach puppies (or dogs at any age) to take their mouth of when told to, is the "Off You Win" game. Read an article by Carolyn Clark that explains this.
Here is a video that shows how to teach this and then how to use this to teach the dog to leave food or anything else:
Source: Doggone Safe!TM A non-profit organization dedicated to dog bite prevention. Contact us at [email protected]
Copyright 2002 Teresa Lewin and Joan Orr
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ETV before EMR
With the launch of electronic medical records (EMR/WakeOne) on September 22, it might be interesting to see how patient records were stored and transported in the past at the Medical Center.
The Electric Track Vehicle (ETV), dubbed "record runner" and described as an "oversized Lionel train," was the tunnel in which records were transported through the Medical Center. When installed in 1992, it saved about 10 to 15 minutes off each round trip.
Records were loaded into a "car", as shown by Dean Bates, a Medical Records file librarian, then transported. Initially, 12 cars rode the rails each day with 425 records.
Prior to the ETV, vans ferried clerks and their carts to Medical Records storage which looked like this in 1948.
Mr. Bates was featured in Around the Medical Center in 1992. Come visit Dorothy Carpenter Medical Archives to explore the history of the Medical Center in publications and artifacts.
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Hunger Report 2008
Working Harder for Working Families
No hard working family should have to raise their children in poverty--and yet the sad truth is that many are.
Two-thirds of all children growing up in poverty in the United States have one or more working parents, and one-third have a parent working full-time, year round.
Three decades ago, a low-wage job was enough to lift a family of three out of poverty; today, it scarcely comes close to getting them to the poverty line, and without food assistance and other government support a family struggling to get by in the low-wage economy would be on the absolute edge of desperation.
Working Harder for Working Families focuses on families struggling to get by on these kinds of jobs, living in or on the edge of poverty. It recommends policies to support low-wage workers and help them and their families build assets.
You might also consider:
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400 years ago tomorrow, on 15 April 1610, Robert Parsons SJ died in Rome. Joe Egerton suggests that faced with today’s theological, political and social challenges we should reappraise the superior of St Edmund Campion, advocate of a free Parliament and founder of Stonyhurst.
Evelyn Waugh, in his great biography of Edmund Campion, described Robert Parsons as the exemplar of the sinister Jesuit of popular imagination. Stonyhurst ignores its founder; it celebrates Campion day instead. For a century after his death, Parsons remained ‘the great enemy’, the most reviled man in England. The 1913 edition of the Catholic Encyclopaedia summed him up thus: ‘Though his services in the mission field, and in the education of the clergy were priceless, his participation in politics and in clerical feuds cannot be justified except in certain aspects.’ Seldom has an individual’s reputation been so comprehensively trashed. The time has come for a re-appraisal.
The historical background to Parsons
Government by consent dates from the seventh century in England. By 1300, the shires and towns sent representatives to Parliament. By 1386, Richard II was reduced to a constitutional monarch, with Lords Commissioners (a cabinet) running England with the support of the Commons. In 1399, Richard, having reasserted himself, was deposed by the Lords and Commons who conferred the crown on the Duke of Lancaster. During the early years of Henry VI, Parliament effectively governed England. In 1459, Parliament determined the succession to Henry VI and in 1461 Edward IV ‘toke upon him the crowne of Inglond by the avysses of the lordys spiritual and temporalle, and by the elexyon of the commons’.
Although Edward IV diminished the power of Parliament, it was emasculated under the Tudors. Henry VII’s is known as ‘the obedient Parliament’. In 1529, Henry VIII summoned a Parliament that was to last until 1536 while he made himself Supreme Head of the Church of England, requiring all to swear an oath accepting this title and dissolving the monasteries. When a new Parliament assembled in 1536, its very organisation was altered to emphasise the royal supremacy. The King – previously sitting with the Lords Spiritual and Temporal around him – sat in isolation on his raised throne. The Lords Spiritual sat below a layman, the King’s vice gerent; the Lords Temporal regardless of precedence below the chief ministers. Meanwhile the King’s commissioners were destroying the monasteries that had provided welfare for the people of England, leaving ‘the whole face of the country for a century [as] that of a land recently invaded by a ruthless enemy.’
Henry VIII had sought to be his own Pope but left the liturgy intact. Under Edward VI radical change was made, only to be reversed under Mary. On 17 November 1558, Mary and Cardinal Pole died, Elizabeth ascended the throne and, despite strong resistance from the bishops, the lower clergy and the universities, secured a new Act of Supremacy, making her supreme governor of the Church in England. ‘Increasingly however historians of English Christianity speak of ...a settlement that settled very little.’
By the 1580s, the regime is reliant on its spy masters, pursuing a religious policy at odds with the old established culture and with poverty increasingly evident. The prosperity of one half of the nation is at the expense of the other. There is demand for better education and a collective memory of an effective Parliament. England is ready for a coherent, political programme based on the beliefs of the majority of the nation. Enter Robert Parsons.
The formation of Parsons
Robert Parsons was the son of a farming family in West Somerset. His enemies were later to claim that he was the illegitimate son of the parish priest, a former monk who secured the young Robert a place at Taunton school. We may infer that he was flogged savagely, because he later proposes to ban severe corporal punishment in schools. From Taunton, Robert goes to Balliol College, Oxford in 1562 and becomes a Fellow in 1568. In 1558 at the death of Mary Tudor and Cardinal Pole, Oxford was Catholic through and through. The Elizabethan regime found this slow to reverse, although Parsons seems to have been more associated with the Protestantism than his near contemporary Edmund Campion. In 1574, Parsons was forced to resign his fellowship – his enemies allege that this was due to disreputable reasons. Journeying on the continent he met an English Jesuit, Fr William Good, and in 1575 he became a Jesuit himself. He completed his novitiate (including the Spiritual Exercises) and held positions of increasing trust in Rome until 1580, when he was selected to lead the Jesuit mission to England.
Elizabeth’s government reacted strongly to the mission, executing Edmund Campion. After the martyrdom of Edmund Campion, Parsons became engaged in political projects, although never to the exclusion of the spiritual. While in England he had conceived the project of a book that would provide a guide in English to those seeking to exercise Ignatian Spirituality, in light of persecution of mounting ferocity that denied the possibility of guided or preached Exercises. This led to the The Christian Directory, described by Evelyn Waugh as a book of sturdy piety, and shamelessly plagiarised by protestants.
The political agenda
Parsons was closely involved – he always maintained with others – in writing The Conference on the Next Succession. The title was enough to cause the Queen to command the services of her rackmaster. The contents were even more scandalous: monarchs did not receive their office from God but by the consent of their subjects. These subjects could depose a monarch. When in 1601 the Earl of Essex signalled a revolt by staging Shakespeare’s Richard II, Elizabeth shouted at her trembling counsellors: ‘Know you not I am Richard?’ The Conference was cited at the trial: Essex, running the line ‘they’re all at it’, accused the chief minister Robert Cecil of having read this banned book.
Parsons was the sole author of The Memorial on the Perfect Reformation of England. This was the first election manifesto – the Catholic agenda for a sweeping reform of England.
Parsons believed in free elections. Serious Anglican historians today believe, like the Victorian A F Pollard, that a 16th century free election ‘would have returned the Pope’. So one dimension of The Memorial was institutional reform to place the government of England in the hands of the Estates that make up the English nation – the Lords Spiritual and Temporal and the Commons. The Privy Counsel that met sometimes twice a day to run Elizabeth’s government, was to be transformed into a Counsel of the Reformation, a modern cabinet with an agenda set out in that manifesto which is The Memorial. The Commons was to be reformed. Only the shires and populous towns were to elect MPs, and elections were to be free. The business of the Commons was to be controlled not by the Counsel but by a Committee of the House itself. For every major measure the arguments for and against were to be set out – our modern idea of a Loyal Opposition. MPs should vote by casting coloured ballots – this would destroy the power of the Whips and their sixteenth century equivalents.
Parsons called for a massive programme of social reform of the English nation: a good secondary school in every town; a fifty percent increase in university places; laws to protect married women’s property; overhauling the criminal justice system to give defendants effective rights; the establishment of credit unions to free poor families from dependence on loan sharks. This programme was not to be achieved by a secular state. The bishops were to have a major role in promoting a decent society; so also were confraternities, our voluntary groups, although informed with a strong spirituality.
To finance his reforms he proposed to tax those who had taken possession of the abbey lands after the dissolution of the monasteries: the Cavendishes (now Dukes of Devonshire), the Russells (Dukes of Bedford) and the Thynnes (Marquesses of Bath). Parsons’ fiscal assault had two objectives: it would finance the programme of educational and social reform; and it would reduce the power of the oligarchy. This was an act of supreme real politique. As Disraeli was to observe, in an analysis endorsed by his successor Macmillan, the entire course of English history for three centuries was determined by the determination of the oligarchs who had seized the abbey lands to cling to their ill gotten gains. The monstrous rapine of Henry VIII – decried equally by Parsons and Disraeli – was to lead to the triple curse of oligarchic government, debt based public finance and near perpetual war with France.
Parsons thus set out a truly radical agenda of social, economic and political reform. He proposed to fill the poor with good things and to lift up the humble and meek. Little wonder the rich and powerful and their placemen fought to retain their seats.
The major critique of Parsons
Parsons declared himself opposed in principle to religious toleration. He appears to favour an English Inquisition and restoring the Heresy Acts. A superficial reading causes us to recoil in horror. A closer reading suggests that Parsons, working in Spain and Italy, was kicking proposals for religious persecution into the long grass while avoiding offending the zealots of the local Inquisitions.
Parsons was very critical of the Marian counter-reformation. He rejected the immediate introduction of any form of persecution, proposing evangelisation and ‘sweetness’.
The Memorial suggests that the freely elected Parliament might at some time consider Heresy Acts. MPs would have to listen to the arguments against and then have a secret vote. Parsons praised the Inquisition, and promptly says it would be necessary to decide which model of inquisition to follow – the Spanish, the Italian, or the Roman. Raising the question ‘which model of inquisition?’ is like asking: ‘which model of PR?’ – a sure way of ensuring that nothing is actually done!
If Parsons had advocated religious toleration in principle he would certainly have been arrested by the Inquisition and probably burned at the stake. But he defines toleration as a belief that religions are equally valid. As Pope John Paul II rejected the equal validity of religions in Domine Jesu, Parsons can properly do the same, while neatly ensuring that ‘temporary’ toleration continues indefinitely.
The prosperity of half of England at the expense of the other half; a weak Parliament dominated by ministers in thrall to the wealthy and powerful; public policies designed to subvert our historic religious values; the hint even of persecution: might not Robert Parsons have something to say to us today about the need to listen to God and to respect the dignity and potential of every human being?
Joe Egerton is a management consultant specialising in financial services and co-founder of Ignacity.
There will be a celebration of the life of Robert Parsons SJ at Corpus Christi, Brixton, at 6.45pm on Thursday 29th April 2010. For further information, email [email protected].
1st December – the anniversary of the martyrdom.
In 1690, eighty years after Parsons’ death, an Anglican clergyman called Gee obtained one of very few copies of a manuscript he had left at his death and published it under the title ‘The Jesuit’s Memorial for the Intended Reformation of England under their first Popish Prince’. Gee declared that in publishing it ‘I am doing a greater service to the Protestant interest against Popery than anything I was able to do [in the reign of James II]’. Imagine if Lord Mandelson were to try to use a speech of Neville Chamberlain to convince the voters of the wickedness of David Cameron! That the protestant government of 1690 should have seen publishing Parsons as effective propaganda demonstrates the extent to which he was the embodiment of the Catholic challenge.
The Dooms of King Wihtred of Kent, drawn up around 695, have a preamble ‘the notables, with the consent of all, drew up these Dooms add them to the legal customs of the people of Kent’ (Powell and Wallis, The House of Lords in the Middle Age (Powell), page 2. St Isidore (d. 636) states that law is created by the assent of the people – the natu maiores (notables) and the plebs. 200 hundred years later Alfred legislates on the advice of his Witan and approval of all. Ethelred II has gone to posterity as ‘the Unready’; he was ‘Unraed’ which actually means ‘uncounselled’. The Conqueror made a notable addition to the historic coronation service - the Archbishop of York asked in English if all present would have William for their lord; ‘writes the Norman chronicler, “they joyfully gave their assent without the least hesitation, as if, by the inspiration of heave, they had been given one mind and one voice’.
Apart from a mysterious reference in 1213, four knights from each shire were summoned to the Counsel (not yet called Parliament) from each shire in 1227(Powell, p 180) In 1265 a Parliament is summoned with two knights from each shire and two ‘lawful and good’ citizens of the cities and boroughs. At around this time, St Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologiae, affirms the definition of St Isidore. By 1290, we have the first clerk of the Parliaments in function if not in name, Gilbert of Rothbury. (Powell, p. 212 ) In 1301, there is a Parliament that makes a number of demands – including the appointment of ‘ministers by common consent’. A bill is presented to Edward I who later orders the arrest of the man who brought it – Henry of Keighley – who perhaps should be considered the first known Speaker of the Commons (Powell, p243).
Powell p 505
Powell p 563 et seq
Disraeli’s description in Sybil of what Parsons described as ‘the monstrous rapine’. The full passage reads: ‘It is war that created these ruins, civil war, of all our civil wars the most inhuman, for it was waged with the unresisting. The monasteries were taken by storm, they were sacked, gutted, battered with warlike instruments, blown up with gunpowder; you may see the marks of the blast against the new tower here. Never was such a plunder. The whole face of the country for a century was that of a land recently invaded by a ruthless enemy; it was worse than the Norman conquest; nor has England ever lost this character of ravage.’
Not Angels, but Anglicans, A History of Christianity in the British Isles page 153: the author of the essay is Canon Judith Maltby of Corpus Christi College, Oxford
The two died on the same day – 17 November 1558. Cardinal Pole was the last Catholic Chancellor until the election of Lord (Chris) Patten and had vigorously promoted the teaching of Catholic theology: see Eamon Duffy, Fires of Faith
See chapters 16 and 17 of Not Angels, but Anglicans
For Disraeli, see in particular the trilogy, Coningsby, Sybil and Tancred. There are repeated echoes of The Memorial ad in an autobiographical aside in Coningsby, a work that is warm in its praise of the Jesuits, Disraeli claims to have bee educated by a Jesuit, Rebello. His father Isaac D’Israeli possessed one of the greatest private libraries in the world, containing a large collection of writings on the Stuarts on whose reigns – and religious policy – Isaac wrote. Isaac’s little book on James I contains a clear reference to The Conference. The identification of Rebello with Parsons (whose works were also known to individuals closely associated to Young England in the 1840s) is pretty safe. For Macmillan, see The Macmillan Diaries: The Cabinet Years 1950 -1956, edited by Peter Catterall, and in particular note 23 on page 229, quoting an entry for 5 August 1953.
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Simple Definition of dustpan
: a flat pan that is open on one side and into which dirt from the floor is swept
Full Definition of dustpan
: a shovel-shaped pan for sweepings
Examples of dustpan in a sentence
Here's a broom and dustpan. Go sweep the kitchen.
First Known Use of dustpan
Rhymes with dustpan
adman, Afghan, aidman, ape-man, Bataan, bedpan, best man, Bhutan, birdman, boardman, boss man, brainpan, brogan, caftan, caiman, cancan, capstan, captan, caveman, chessman, claypan, clubman, Cohan, cooncan, corban, cowman, Cruzan, C-Span, cyan, deadman, deadpan, deskman, dishpan, divan, doorman, fan-tan, Fezzan, fibranne, flight plan, flyman, FORTRAN, freedman, freeman, frogman, gagman, game plan, glucan, G-man, Greenspan, hardpan, headman, he-man, iceman, inspan, Iran, japan, Japan, jazzman, Kazan, kneepan, Koran, Kurgan, leadman, liege man, life span, liftman, loran, madman, main man, Malan, Mandan, man's man, mailman, merman, Milan, milkman, newsman, oilcan, oilman, oil pan, old man, one-man, pavane, pecan, plowman, point man, postman, Poznan, preman, pressman, propman, Queen Anne, ragman, rattan, reedman, reman, rodman, routeman, Saipan, salt pan, sampan, sandman, saucepan, schoolman, sea fan, sedan, sideman, snowman, soundman, soutane, spaceman, Spokane, spray can, stewpan, stickman, stockman, straight man, straw man, strongman, stuntman, Sudan, suntan, T-man, TACAN, taipan, test ban, tin can, tisane, toucan, trainman, trashman, trepan, triptan, Tristan, tube pan, unman, vegan, Walkman, weight man, wingspan, wise man, yardman, yes-man
DUSTPAN Defined for Kids
Definition of dustpan for Students
: a flat pan shaped like a shovel into which dirt from the floor is swept
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up dustpan? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
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More info about the name "Diesel"
Diesel originates in Germanic languages and means "people, race". It is a diminutive of the name Matthias but in German language it is currently used strictly as a surname rather than a given name. Famous bearers of this name include Rudolf Diesel, a German mechanical engineer and inventor of the Diesel engine, and Vin Diesel, an American actor, whose last name originated as a nickname. Diesel is also the name of a popular Italian design company.
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Story last updated at 3/12/2014 - 2:26 pm
Tongass National Forest officials are reminding Juneau residents to use extreme caution when walking in the vicinity of Mendenhall Lake and Glacier.
The Forest Service discourages visitors from crossing Mendenhall Lake due to thin or unstable ice and other hazards. Fluctuations in air temperature, as seen in recent weeks, and numerous icebergs can cause the ice to crack and melt in places without detection.
Particularly dangerous conditions exist at the waterfalls and the glacier's front edge, or terminus, where visitors risk exposure to unstable ice and even the sudden and forceful calving of the glacier.
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(In art or photography) bright light, usually beamed obliquely, used to reveal such things as texture and detail.
- The resulting his paintings is a harsh, raking light that strikes across the composition, illuminating parts of it while plunging the rest into deep shadow.
- The raking light emphasizes the uneven terrain of their bodies, covered with a seemingly infinite number of very fine wrinkles.
- The figure is seen in raking light against an impenetrable blackness.
For editors and proofreaders
Syllabification: rak·ing light
Definition of raking light in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
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| 0.902988 | 157 | 3.078125 | 3 |
If ordering more than 10 copies, please call us on +44 (0)1284 725725 to check availability.
All of Bach’s six authenticated motets were written between 1723 and 1727 for St Thomas’ Church, Leipzig, where Bach was appointed as director of music in 1723. During this period, Bach composed most of his cantatas, and it seems likely that for ordinary Sunday services he used existing motets from the seventeenth century tradition, reserving his own motet compositions for special occasions. Four of his six motets were written for the funeral services of prominent members of the St Thomas’ congregation. Jesu, Meine Freude (BWV 227), the longest, most musically complex and earliest of the six, was written in 1723 for the funeral of Johanna Maria Käsin, the wife of Leipzig’s postmaster.
Jesu, Meine Freude BWV 227 is a beautifully constructed motet for five-part mixed choir, by J.S. Bach. This Urtext edition provides you with a clear and accurate realisation of the composer’s original intentions and includes thoroughly detailed editorial markings and suggestions, as edited by Konrad Ameln.
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What is resolution?
We'll keep it simple. For our purposes, resolution is the number of samples the scanner takes of a defined space of your photograph. So, for a 300 ppi scan, the scanner will divide your photo into 300 boxes (pixels) for every inch in one dimension (so a 1 inch square photo would have 90,000 pixels or 300 X 300). For each of these pixels, the scanner determines the average red, green, and blue level for that 1/300" by 1/300" box, and displays your photo as a series of pixels. Unless your eyesight is a heck of a lot sharper than mine (not saying that it isn't of course), at 300 ppi, the series of boxes of different colors looks like a continuous tone photograph. To make the concept obvious, I simulated a scan of the cabinet card at 5 ppi below:
For each inch of the card in length or height, the scan makes 5 boxes of average color and brightness over the area of the box.
A brief word here about display resolution. The images you see on this site are set to display at 72 ppi. That is because most browsers will display images on your monitor at this resolution, so if I want something to display at a particular size, I assume your monitor is going to display it at 72 ppi. I wanted the image on the prior page to be 6.5 inches wide (the width of the card), so I resized it in my photo editor to 468 pixels wide (=6.5 inches X 72 ppi). If I had left it as scanned at 300 ppi, the card would have been 1950 pixels wide. Most browsers would try to display it as a 27" wide photo (= 1950 pixels / 72ppi), which would be really annoying.
This leads us to a couple of impromptu formulas, although typically I avoid math on this site:
Number of pixels per dimension = length of photograph (in.) X Scan resolution (ppi)
- and -
Resolution of enlargement (ppi) = Number of pixels / length of enlargement dimension (in.)
Why do we care about all this? Well, it matters when you are trying to enlarge an image, and when you are trying to print. In general, I try to print out an image at about 240-300 ppi - this will give you a decent print. With interpolation, even 150 ppi will give you pretty good results. Much below this, and the image starts looking either "grainy" and pixellated, or "soft" with detail smoothed over, depending on how your program manages your print. So if you want to take that 2" by 3" photo of Aunt Martha, scan it, and blow it up 20" by 30" for the living room wall, what's going to happen? Let's say you scan at 300 ppi. This will give you a scan that is 600 pixels (=2 in X 300ppi) by 900 pixels. When you enlarge the photograph to 20" by 30" (i.e. each dimension increases by a factor of 10), you do not increase the information in the photo (regardless of interpolation, more later), which is still 600 by 900 pixels of separate color dots. Your 20" by 30" photo will print out at 30 ppi (=600 pixels / 20in, or = 900 pixels / 30 in, your choice), which will produce a crummy print.
Wait a minute - My new flatbed scanner will scan at 2400 ppi. How about if I scan the photo at 2400 ppi. This will give me a 4800 by 7200 pixel scanned image, and that 20 by 30 inch portrait will print out at 240ppi. That will give give me a great print, right?
Why? Because, as I hope to demonstrate, the photograph itself only contains about 300 dpi (or perhaps a touch more) of information, so, no matter how fine you set the resolution, you aren't going to get any more information out of the photo. My new flatbed does 2400 ppi (optical resolution), my old one did 1200 ppi. I have never even used the 1200 ppi setting until working on this section because it wouldn't be useful for photos. So even if you had a scanner that had 50,000 ppi resolution, you wouldn't get a better scan because the photo itself is limited. Note: we are talking specifically about photographic prints; slides and negatives are a different story and do contain more information (I drool over the 4000 ppi nikon negative scanner, but I'm still happy with my 2700 ppi model).
How will I demonstrate that you don't get much more than 300 ppi from your photo? Well, I did a little experiment, so that I could prove it to myself; hopefully it will convince you, too.
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Milk Kefir Instructions
Milk kefir grains are a symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast held in a polymer created by the bacteria. Milk kefir grains feed off the lactose in milk to produce lactic acid, acetic acid, various other acids, and carbon dioxide. Although cow's milk is most commonly used, you may also use goat's milk, although the grains make take some time to adjust since cows milk and goats milk differ a bit in composition.
Kefir is a lacto-fermented drink. Lacto-fermentation is the process where lactobacilli (lactic acid producing bacteria) convert sugars or starches into lactic acid. Lactic acid is a natural preservative that prevents the growth of harmful bacteria. Used in traditional cultures to preserve foods, lacto-fermentation creates a food teeming with probiotics, good yeasts, and increased nutrient values. The synthesis of lactic acid and other acids often increases vitamin values, including vitamin C and various B vitamins. Kefir is widely consumed in many cultures, especially in the Caucus mountains of Russia, where people are reported to live over 100.
To make your own milk kefir, you may get milk kefir grains from online stores or through local sources. A good place to check is with your local Weston A Price Foundation chapter. If you've received live milk kefir grains, they are usually packed with a bit of milk or kefir to keep them fed. Before making your first batch of kefir, strain off the milk or kefir and place your grains in a fresh jar of milk, following the directions below for brewing milk kefir. If the liquid the grains are packed in looks clumpy, give it a good stir with a wooden or plastic utensil before straining. The milk kefir grains look like white cauliflowerets or clumped grains, rather squishy and rubbery in texture. Do not rinse the kefir grains in water; just strain off any excess milk or kefir.
Straining Kefir Grains
Use a non-metal strainer that’s not too finely meshed. In general, you do not want metal to come in contact with your kefir grains since metal is reactive and may taint your grains. Good choices are plastic, nylon, or bamboo strainers. I use the inner strainer insert from a mini salad spinner.
Sometimes when the kefir is very well done, it will be curdy. If this happens, give the kefir a good stir or shake the jar really well before straining. If the kefir is especially thick, you may need to thump or thwack the strainer a few times over the bowl you are straining the liquid into, or run a silicon spatula back and forth over the grains. The kefir curds should fall into the bowl, and the grains, which are rubbery, should remain in the strainer.
Brewing Milk Kefir
Place the milk kefir grains and 1 cup of milk in a clean, wide mouthed glass jar or container. It is not recommended to brew the kefir in a metal or plastic container. You are starting with a small amount of milk to make sure your grains have adjusted and are growing and brewing the kefir well.
Place a lid on the jar or container and place the jar out of direct sunlight at room temperature. This is not necessary, but it’s helpful to give the jar a slight swish/swirl occasionally to help feed the kefir grains and mix the milk with parts that are turning into kefir.
Depending on the milk to grain ratio and ambient temperature in your kitchen, your kefir will be done in 12 to 36+ hours. When it is done, you will see fine curds clinging to the side of the jar when you swish it, and the bulk of the milk will have become curdy and start to separate into curds and clear yellowish liquid, which is the whey.
At this point, you can stir the contents with a wooden or plastic utensil and the kefir should become smooth and thick like runny yogurt or thickened milk. It should smell fresh and sour, similar to yogurt and taste a bit tart and tangy. You will need to adjust the brew time based on your taste preference. The longer you brew the kefir, the more sour it will get, and the less lactose it will contain. My husband and I love it super sour and we tend to leave the kefir brewing for 3 to 4 days. When done to your liking, strain the grains, and place the grains in a fresh jar of milk to start another brew.
We use raw whole organic cow’s milk. Sometimes the grains take a bit longer to make the first batch and to adjust if using a new type of milk or switching to goat’s milk. Milk kefir grains are very resilient, so don’t worry and just be patient as your grains adjust. After the first few batches, you should be able to start increasing the milk and brew more than a cup at a time with the same grains. A tablespoon of grains can brew close to a quart of kefir once they have adjusted to their environment.
Growing the Kefir Grains
After a few batches, your kefir grains will start increasing in mass. You will notice that your kefir will brew in less time when this starts to happen. Sometimes with too many grains, the kefir may be extra separated into solid curds and whey and won’t get thick even after you give it a good stir. At this time, you can use more milk for brewing each batch, remove some of the grains to give away, or split your grains to make a second or back up batch of grains.
Storing the Grains
When you are not making kefir, you can store your grains in a fresh jar of milk in the fridge. The kefir will brew very slowly in the fridge, anywhere from a week to several weeks. When you are ready to have kefir, just place at room temperature to continue the brew as usual. If storing in the fridge for a long period of time, you will wish to strain out the grains and give it fresh milk every few weeks. You may drink the kefir unless it becomes too sour for your liking. After cold storage, the first brew that you make from the grains at room temperature may take a bit longer as the grains revive out of dormancy. Don’t be alarmed if your cold brewed kefir or the first couple of batches taste off or yeasty. At extreme temperatures, the bacteria and yeast ratio sometimes get out of balance. Once you brew a few batches at room temperature, your kefir should taste normal again.
Drinking/Consuming Milk Kefir
Most people find milk kefir too strong to drink plain. The most popular way to consume it is to mix it into a smoothie. Here are a couple of my favorite smoothie recipes:
Blend all ingredients well in a blender or food processor. You can store the fruit smoothie in a jar in the fridge up to a couple of days. Mango kefir smoothies, after storing in the fridge for a few hours become very thick and custard-like and are yummy eaten with a spoon.
Kefir can be used in various ways in recipes. Stir kefir into soups and drizzle on wraps. Use it as a base for a salad dressing or substitute kefir for buttermilk in recipes. You can also make kefir cheese, which is a delicious soft cheese good over salads or on crackers and crusty bread.
After your kefir is strained from the grains, set it out at room temperature for about 12 hours. The kefir will separate into curds and whey. Secure a sterilized clean white cotton or muslin cloth with a fine weave over a jar (with rubberbands or string), leaving about a fistful of indentation in the cloth, and strain the kefir through the cloth. If using cheese cloth or a cloth that’s not finely woven, use several layers. Once all the kefir is poured into the cloth, let the cheese drip overnight covered either at room temperature or in the fridge. The next day, untie or unsecure the cloth and turn the cheese out of the cloth into a bowl or plate. The remaining liquid is whey, which you may use for making lacto-fermented vegetables or in soups, stews, or baking for added protein. The cheese is delicious on crackers, or you may mix it with herbs to make a sour cream like dip. You may also use the cheese to make a raw cheesecake (recipe widely available on the internet).
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A kind of long-necked mandolin played in Croatia and neighbouring countries.
- There he learned the basics of tamburitza music and Croatian dance, and practiced the Croatian language.
- The lead instrument, the prima, the smallest of the group of tamburitzas carries the melody.
- For Croatians living outside of Croatia, the tamburitza was a cultural symbol binding them to their homeland.
For editors and proofreaders
Line breaks: tam¦bur|itza
Definition of tamburitza in:
What do you find interesting about this word or phrase?
Comments that don't adhere to our Community Guidelines may be moderated or removed.
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Space Center Houston (Feb. 2, 2012) — The United States Rocket Academy made a special announcement at the Space Exploration Educators Conference, which began here today.
“Teachers in Space is now Citizens In Space,” said Edward Wright, chairman of the United States Rocket Academy and project manager of Teachers in Space. “The focus of our program is growing beyond the public school system. We are creating a more inclusive program that will enable teachers, students, museum educators, and others to become citizen scientists and space explorers.”
“Teachers in Space was created to enable large numbers of teachers to fly in space and return to the classroom. Working with the companies that are now developing reusable suborbital vehicles, we have made significant progress toward that goal. We began training our first Pathfinder astronaut candidates and acquired a contract for 10 space flights with one of the new suborbital companies — XCOR Aerospace. This is, to the best of our knowledge, the largest single bulk purchase of suborbital flights to date. We expect that it will be only the first of many such contracts.
“As we developed our astronaut training course, we had many requests to open the program to a wider audience. Requests from university students, aerospace museum directors, science-center educators, as well as private, religious, and home-school teachers.
“At the same time, we noticed the growing awareness of and interest in citizen science and participatory exploration. New technological developments are making it possible for private citizens to become involved in the scientific process. More and more, the professional scientific community is recognizing the importance of contributions made by these amateur scientists. Citizen scientists are discovering exoplanets and dinosaurs, monitoring climate and endangered species, and helping to map the human genome.
“The development of low-cost reusable suborbital spacecraft will be the next great enabler, allowing citizens to participate in space exploration and space science.
“Citizens have told us that education is not just a process that occurs within the public schools. Science fairs, hackerspaces, museums; private, religious, and home schools — all have a role to play. Today, we are listening to those citizens.
“We want to put a thousand astronaut teachers into American schools. We want to engage America’s students and reach out to the public through museums, science centers, and other venues. We want to make space research and space exploration part of the mainstream, not treasures locked away in the ivory tower.
“When Apollo 12 commander Pete Conrad was asked what it was like to fly in space, he said, ‘Everyone should go!’ We agree.
“In the next few months, we will announce our first citizen-science projects and a new Pathfinder program. We have three Pathfinder astronaut candidates in training right now and are looking to add many more.
“Space is not just the final frontier. It’s the citizen-science frontier.”
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Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE" by Mykhaylo Hrushevs'kyi
During the Miocene Period in Tertiary Age of Cenozoic Era, some 12 million years ago, most of Ukraine was covered by sea. At the end of this period the seas receded to the approximately present day coasts of Black, Azov and Caspian seas to form one big sea. The climate was very hot and humid, lush vegetation covered the ground and there were all kinds of large animals and birds.
Then, during the Pliocene
period, some 6 million years ago, the climate began to cool. Many plants
and animals disappeared and only those, which could adapt to lower temperatures,
such as fury mammoths and rhinoceroses, remained. Later the ground froze
up and soon ice sheets covered most of the northern part of Ukraine.
That was the Pleistocene Period in Quaternary Age of Cenozoic Era, about
1 million years ago,
When the ice retreated,
life started to reappear. Traces of human habitation in Ukraine, dating
back at least 30 thousand years, became evident during geological excavations.
Primitive stone tools, carvings from mammoth tusks, arrow heads made
from flint stone, earthenware, bronze tools and weapons and gold jewelry
found in different layers of earth enabled geologists to
At first, during Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Age), humans did not have domestic animals, could not make utensils and relied exclusively on hunting and fishing. Then, gradually, during Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic Age) they began to make stone tools and weapons.
Later, during Late Stone Age (Neolithic Age), they began to make utensils from earth, kept domestic animals for milk and meat, constructed dwellings and cultivated the soil.
During the Bronze Age, about 3000 BC, and Iron Age, about 1000 BC, metal agricultural implements and weapons came into use; crafts and commerce began to develop.
From 7th century BC Greeks started to colonize the coast of the Black Sea. They traded wine, oil, and textiles, silver and gold wares and utensils with local tribes for grain and hides but they also engaged in slave trade. They introduced Greek Culture and many tribes adopted Greek customs and religion. The Greek historian Herodotus documented information about Ukraine of this period.
There were numerous tribes in Ukraine, some nomadic, some agricultural; most of the time at war with each other. The oldest known main inhabitants of Ukraine were Cimmerians. They were replaced in 5th century BC by Scythians, who ruled till 2nd century BC; Sarmatian tribes then replaced them. Later in 1st century AD the tribesmen of the dominant horde were called Alanis.
Sword and Scabbard with Boar's Head, 4th century BCE
These tribes, mainly of Iranian origin, were conquered in 2nd century AD by German tribe called Goths from Baltic region. About 370 AD, the first Asian horde of Huns, on their way to western Europe, defeated and expelled Goths from Ukraine. They were followed in 5th-6th centuries by the Bulgars and Avars.
The exact origin of Slav people is unknown, but it can be assumed that they existed for a long time before they were mentioned in historical records by Romans in 1st century AD. A very strong Slav tribe called Wends developed in 4th century; their settlements extended from central Ukraine up to Baltic Sea. When in the 6th century they moved to Southwest Germany, Antes became the dominant tribe in Ukraine.
At different times they were fighting with and against Goths, Huns, Avars, Greeks and Slovyans. Although ruled by princes, they also had people's councils and tribal elders.
According to legends, Kyiv was founded in the 5th century by three brothers Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv and their sister Lebid; later Kyiv was reigned by princes (or chieftains) Askold and Dyr.
At end of 7th century
AD, Khazars established themselves on Caspian steppes, which somewhat
shielded Ukraine from other Asian hordes. Also in the 7th century Greeks
left Black Sea shores, thus causing a considerable gap in the documented
history of Ukraine. Khazar control of the steppe was breached in the
late 9th century by the Magyars, who later were replaced by Pechenegs
and then by Polovetsians as dominant tribes.
Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE"
II. PERIOD OF STATEHOOD (879-1360).
Prince Olekh established the Kyivan State proper in 879. He conducted military expeditions to the shores of Caspian Sea and raided Byzantine cities. Prince Ehor followed him, in 912, who not only continued external raids but also had to fight insubordinate tribes of Ulitchs and Derevlans. He died during a battle with Derevlans in 945. His wife Olha revenged his death by brutal suppression of Derevlans. In 964 she became a Christian and established her son Svyatoslav on the throne.
Svyatoslav was an able and courageous prince; he fought Asian hordes in the East and conducted raids on Bulgaria. He divided his state between his sons, then continued with his expeditions and battles. When he died in 972 during battle with Pechenegs, his sons fought between themselves, often with help from their enemies.
In 980, Prince Volodymyr defeated all his brothers and unified the country into one powerful state with Kyiv as the capital. He adopted Christianity in 988 and started to convert the population, which had up to then, worshiped Pagan gods. Force was often used against those who resisted. He produced silver and gold coins with his portrait on one side and the trident on the reverse side (The trident is Coat of Arms of present day Ukraine).
In History he is known as Volodymyr the Great or Saint Volodymyr. During his reign, pillaging Pecheneg hordes defeated the Khazars, pushed out the Hungarian hordes from the southern steppes and became a menace to the state. Volodymyr started to fortify Kyiv against them. After his death in 1015, fighting and assassinations between his sons ensued, resulting in victory for prince Yaroslav in 1019.
Yaroslav the Great consolidated nearly whole of his father's territory, defeated the Pechenegs and became one of the most powerful rulers in Europe. A church hierarchy was established, headed (at least since 1037) by the metropolitan of Kyiv, who was usually appointed by the patriarch of Constantinople. Yaroslav promoted family ties with other kingdoms, built many churches, improved Kyiv's fortifications, introduced laws and established courts.
However, in the same
way as his forefathers, he divided the country between his sons, who
after his death in 1054, started to fight among themselves and divide
their land between their sons. This resulted in a number of small principalities
which not only fought each other, but also had to defend
In 1097 all princes
agreed to stop fighting between themselves. In 1103 they united their
forces under leadership of prince Monomakh (one of the grandsons of Yaroslav
the Great) and defeated the Polovetsian hordes.
After death of Monomakh
in 1125 Ukraine remained fragmented into the numerous principalities,
each having their own customs and rules, with only
In 1169 prince Andrey Bogolyubski conquered and destroyed Kyiv and established his capital in Vladimir near present site of Moscow, thus originating present Russian state.
The Ukrainian princes
continued to struggle on against the Polovtsi.
Western parts of Ukraine - Halych (Galicia) and Volynj (Volhynia)—free from Polovetsian raids, gradually emerged as leading principalities. Prince Roman ruled there in 1199. His sons succeeded in uniting both principalities into one rich and powerful state.
About year 1220, when
a new horde of Mongols and Tatars invaded
Meanwhile, Prince Danylo (son of Prince Roman) established himself in Halych and his brother Vasylko in Volynj. Together they managed to keep the Tatars away from their principalities. Danylo founded city Lviv in 1250 as a defense site against Tatars. In 1253 he accepted the royal crown from the pope and effected a short-lived church union with Rome.
After Danylo died in 1264, his sons continued to rule in peaceful coexistence with the Tatars. In 1303 they created a separate archbishopric office in Halych, responsible to Byzantine. Earlier, in 1299 Kyivan archbishopric seat was moved to Moscow.
The dominant prince was Danylo's son Lev. He died about year 1300. His son Yuriy would again unite the Halych and Volynj principalities with Lviv as the capital. He was seen as a mighty and just ruler and the country was rich and peaceful under his rule.
After Yuriy, his two sons ruled until 1320. They both died without leaving male successors. This created an unstable situation and an internal power struggle ensued, which was exploited by neighboring countries—Poland, Hungary and Lithuania—in their efforts to occupy this part of Ukraine. Local boyars and People's Councils tried to resist by accepting princes from other dynasties and countries and by forming alliances with the Lithuanians and even the Tatars, but to no avail. In 1349, Polish king Kazimyezh managed to occupy Halych and part of Volynj. About same time, Lithuanian princes intensified their takeover of eastern principalities of Ukraine. Finally about year 1360, the Prince of Kyiv was overthrown.
Ukraine was partitioned
between Poland and Lithuania with Tatar Golden Horde remaining in some
parts of southern steppes and the Crimea.
Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE"
by Mykhaylo Hrushevs'kyi
Grand Duke Vytautas the Great
During the period of 1393-1430 the Grand Dutch of Lithuania was ruled by the Grand Duke Vytautas, who also is named Vytautas the Great for all the political and military achievements he brought to Lithuania. During his reign, the push eastward by the German Order was broken. In 1410 Vytautas, along with his cousin Yahaylo the King of Poland, won the Battle of Grunwald (Germany), against the might of the Order that way finishing almost 200 years of war. He also brought the Christianity to the pagan Lithuania. At the end of his era, Lithuania became one of the strongest states in Europe, stretching from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea.
In 1400 Lithuania, together with its Ukrainian principalities, separated under king Vytautas- Yahaylo's cousin. Yahaylo’s younger brother, Svytryhaylo, opposed this arrangement. Ukrainian principalities under Vytautas were loosing their national character and independence to Polish influences.
In 1413 a decision was made to allow only Catholics to occupy important government positions ("Horodlo Privilege"). Wide-spread discrimination against the Orthodox population followed. Nearly all Ukrainians in those days were Orthodox, therefore Ukrainian princes and boyars ended up helping Svytryhaylo in his fight with Vytautas. After Vytautas died in 1430, Svytryhaylo defended himself from Poles, but by the year 1440 his sphere of influence was reduced to the Volynj principality.
There was a period of hostilities between Lithuania and Moscow, when about 1480 Moscow annexed several principalities in eastern Ukraine. Also several popular uprisings took place. In 1490, a rebellion under Mukha, occurred in western Ukraine. Mukha sought help from neighboring Moldova. In 1500 in eastern Ukraine, there was an uprising under Prince Mykhaylo Hlynskiy, who expected help from Moscow and the Tatars. However Poland and Lithuania, at that time, were very strong and all uprisings were squashed.
Meanwhile, in the South, marauding Tatar hordes converted a large area of the country into wilderness, without any law or order. It was a very rich part of Ukraine with productive soil, wild animals and rivers full of fish. It attracted many adventurous people, who although they had to fight the Tatars there, would be free from suppression by the Polish and Lithuanian overlords. They began to organize under Hetmans, thus originating Cossack society.
To defend themselves from the Tatars, they constructed forts called "Sitch" and amalgamated them into a sort of union, with Zaporizhia as a centre. It was downstream of the Dnipro river cascades.
In 1552, one of Ukrainian princes, Dmytro Wyshnevetskyi, being among the Cossacks, built a castle on the island Khortytsya. From there, the Cossacks conducted raids on Crimean towns sometimes with help from Moscow. Dmytro wanted to develop Zaporizhia, with help from Lithuania and Moscow, into a powerful fortress against Tatars and Turks. Being unable to achieve this goal, he left Zaporizhia in 1561, became involved in a war in Moldova and was captured and executed by the Turks in 1563.
In 1569, with the Union of Lublin, the dynastic link between Poland and Lithuania was transformed into a constitutional union of the two States as the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Most of Ukraine became part of Poland. The settlement of Polish nationals followed and Polish laws and customs became dominant.
Polish nobles replaced most of Ukrainian princes and boyars, except for a few—notably Ostrozkyis and Wyshnevetskyis. Peasants lost their land ownership and civil rights and gradually became serfs, exploited as manpower in agriculture and forestry, by the new landowners. Suppression of the Orthodox Church retarded the development of Ukrainian literature, arts and education. Preferential treatment of Catholics inhibited the economic and political advancement of Ukrainians.
In spite of that there was a modest revival of Ukrainian culture later in 16th century. Church schools and seminaries were set up, based at first on the properties of Ukrainian magnate Hryhoriy Khodkovych and later on the holdings of Ostrozkyi princes. A printing industry began, culminating in the publication of the Bible in a print shop ran by Ivan Fedorovych. Trade and church brotherhoods sprang up. Schools were established and hospitals became centers of defense of the Orthodox Church and the fight for justice and equality.
Such a situation was the main cause, which multiplied the influx of people to Cossack territory, increasing the Cossack’s strength. The Tatars were pushed out into Crimea and the Cossacks became more daring in their raids on Turkish cities.
While Ukrainian Cossacks defended not only Ukraine, but also the whole of eastern Europe from the Turks and Tatar hordes, they were causing diplomatic problems for Poland because Turkey used Cossack situation as an excuse for wars against Poland. When Cossack leader, Ivan Pidkova, conquered Moldova in 1577, the Poles captured and executed him in order to appease the Turks. They tried to control the Cossacks by recruiting some of them into the Polish military system as, so called, Registered Cossacks, but they could never really tame them.
With decreasing danger
from the Tatars, Polish nobles and Ukrainian princes loyal to the king,
were granted possessions in territory controlled by the Cossacks and
began to introduce their freedom limiting, unpopular laws. Dissatisfied
with such treatment Cossacks, under Kryshtof Kosynskyi, rebelled about
1590, and by year 1593 controlled most of eastern Ukraine. After Kosynskyi,
Hryhoriy Loboda became Cossack Hetman in 1593.
Also in year 1596 Polish king, Sigismund III Vasa, ordered Field Marshal Stanislav Zholkewski to subjugate the Cossack forces. After several months of fighting, Zholkewski surrounded Cossacks, led by Nalyvayko, Loboda and Shaula, at river Solonytsya near Lubny. There were about 6000 Cossack fighters and just as many women and children facing a much more superior force. The prolonged siege, lack of food and fodder, internal squabbles (Loboda was killed in one the fights between sections of Cossacks) and intensive cannon fire destroyed defenders' capacity to resist. In order to save their families, Cossacks agreed to Zholkewski's terms to let them go free in exchange for handing over their leaders. However, after surrender, the Poles did not keep their word; they attacked and started to massacre defenseless and disoriented Cossacks. Only a section under leadership of Krempskyi broke through and joined with troops of Pidvysotskyi, who were coming to the rescue of the besieged Cossacks.
by prolonged fighting, decided to abandon the idea to conquer the Cossacks.
He returned to Poland, where he tortured and
Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE" by Mykhaylo Hrushevs'kyi
Although Zholkewski failed to destroy the Cossacks, he left them considerably weakened and divided, often fighting among themselves. Hetman Samiylo Kishka united all the Cossack forces and, after leading them in a successful naval expeditions against the Turks and land raids on Moldova. This helped to restore the former Cossack spirit and power.
In 1599, the Polish king, having difficulty with a war with the Walachians in Moldova, had to rehabilitate Cossacks in order to secure their help. Later he would use them in a war with Sweden. Kishka died in one of the battles with the Swedes but the Cossacks continued to fight under the other hetmans. When this war ended in 1603, Cossacks demanded and obtained equal status with the Polish military units and secured authority over large area of Ukraine adjacent to the Dnipro river.
Cossack power continued to grow with raids on lands controlled by Moscow—by helping the numerous pretenders for Moscow throne (1604-1613)—and the Black Sea expeditions, in their boats called Chaykas. These took place on coast of Turkey, Crimea and the mouth of Danube in Moldova (1613-1618). Each 'Chayka' was manned by about 60 Cossacks and was armed with 4 to 6 cannons. With fleets of between 30 and 80 Chaykas, the Cossacks destroyed or captured many Turkish galleons and plundered Turkish cities during times when the whole of Europe was trembling against the might of the Turkish Empire.
It is estimated that the number of Cossacks fluctuated between 10,000 and 40,000 depending on circumstances. Their centre was the Sitch—an armed camp in Zaporizhia, located "beyond the cascades" of the river Dnipro. The Cossack Army was divided into regiments, consisting of between 500 and 4000 men, led by colonels. Each regiment had its own banner, trumpeter and drummer. Regiments were divided into companies of 100 men led by captains which were further subdivided into 'kurins' of 10 men led by 'atamans'. There was also a small artillery force and orchestra. The Commander in Chief was a hetman, elected by and responsible to Cossack Council called the Rada.
In the spring of 1618 hetman Petro Sahaydachnyi with force of about 20,000 Cossacks marched on Moscow, conquering many towns and fortresses on the way. Near Moscow he joined up with Polish forces under prince Wladyslaw, who pretended for Moscow throne. They failed to capture Moscow, but managed to secure peace terms favorable to Poland.
The Poles, no longer
endangered by its enemies, again turned their attention to pacification
of the Cossacks. Sahaydachnyi wanted to avoid hostilities and in 1619
agreed to reduction of Cossack force to 3,000. This did not please Zaporozhtsi
(Cossacks in Zaporizhia), who then replaced Sahaydachnyi by hetman Borodawka.
Sahaydachnyi, who retained control of Cossacks on the mainland, dedicated
himself to promotion and defense of Ukrainian culture and
When, in 1620, Poland
got into difficulties in war with Turks (in Moldova the Polish army was
defeated and Zholkewski killed), Poles again called on Cossack help.
Borodawka was keen to oblige but Sahaydachnyi, pointing out the unfair
treatment of Ukrainians, tried to restrain the Cossacks until they received
a better deal from the Polish king. However, the Cossacks became impatient
and under Borodawka marched on Moldova to fight the Turks. They lost
many men and blamed it on Borodawka's inefficient leadership and strategy.
When Sahaydachnyi returned from his negotiations with the king, the Cossacks
dismissed, tried and executed Borodawka and elected Sahaydachnyi as
In 1621 a big battle against the Turks took place on the South side of the Dnister River near Khotyn with participation of 40,000 Cossacks and 35,000 Polish soldiers. It ended with the retreat of the Turkish army. Cossacks got full credit for this victory but very little in way of compensation and again the Poles insisted on the reduction of their numbers.
in Khotyn battle, died on 10th April 1622. Under his successors Cossacks
continued to defend Orthodox faith, resisted exploitation of Ukrainian
land and peasants by the Polish landowners and terrorized the Turks with
their raids across Black Sea. Polish king, although unable to suppress
the Cossacks, continued with a policy of conversion of the Ukrainian
population to Catholicism by persecution of people of the Orthodox faith.
In 1924 Orthodox Church authorities asked Moscow for help but Moscow
was not strong enough to get involved in hostilities with Poland.
Unfortunately, in 1625, when many Cossacks were away on one of their maritime expeditions against the Turks; Polish hetman Konietspolski attacked and forced Cossack hetman Zhmaylo to accept terms, whereby the Cossack register was to be reduced to 4,000 men. The Cossacks did not like this compromise and replaced Zhmaylo by hetman Doroshenko. Doroshenko was a capable leader and administrator and maintained a reasonably peaceful relationships with Polish authorities. He even managed to restrain 'unregistered' Cossacks from raids on Turkey. However when Turks attacked Crimea, the Cossacks went to help the Tatars and Doroshenko fell in one of the battles there.
Succeeding Cossack hetmans continued to uphold peaceful conditions until 1629 when Konietspolski returned from war with Sweden and settled his soldiers on Ukrainian land, who started to make trouble. He also tried to eliminate the 'unregistered' Cossacks.
In the spring of 1630,
Cossacks from Zaporizhia led by hetman Taras Fedorowych went on the march
and caught up with the Polish forces and the
The reaction of the Polish administration was brutal and widespread. Konietspolski enlisted a notorious hood, Lashch, to attack and massacre people in churches, towns and villages. However, this made the Cossacks, and Ukrainian population at large, more determined to get rid of the Polish yoke.
A decisive battle took
place in mid 1630 near Peryaslav where the Polish forces suffered a major
defeat and Konietspolski had to make peace with the Cossacks.
The new king appreciated
the Cossack's potential and used them in wars with Turkey, Moscow and
Sweden. The Cossacks proved themselves to be just as efficient fighters
on the Baltic Sea as on the Black Sea; but the polish senate did not
want war with Turkey and constructed a fortress called Kodak near Zaporizhia
in order to block the Cossack access to the Black Sea. This fortress
was destroyed by Cossacks led by hetman Sulyma in 1635, but 'registered'
The betrayal of Sulyma did not gain Cossacks much reward from Poles. This led to an uprising under hetman Pavliuk in 1637, but Polish field marshal Pototski suppressed it. Another unsuccessful attempt to overthrow Polish occupation was made by the Cossacks, in 1638, under hetmans Ostryanin and Hunya. After that the Cossack movement fell under Polish control, Kodak fortress was rebuilt and it appeared that the Poles might have finally gained unchallenged domination of Ukraine.
A lengthy period of peace, which followed, made it easier for the Poles to maintain control over Ukraine. Cossacks were no longer needed as a defense force. The Polish senate and nobles managed to curtail king Ladislas' ambitions for aggressive wars. Polish soldiers were on hand to keep a lid on the simmering discontent of the Ukrainian population.
Deprived of protection from the Cossacks, peasants were exploited on land as serfs, city dwellers were reduced to a state grudging conformity. Political, cultural and religious matters were under Polish control and commerce was predominantly in hands of Jewish merchants, storekeepers and innkeepers.
An incident in 1646 started a chain of significant events with great consequences. The farm of Cossack captain, Bohdan Khmelnytskyi, was destroyed and his family harmed by local government officials in Subotiv. Angry and distraught, Bohdan decided to organize an uprising. Conditions for it were very ripe, and in 1647 Kmelnytskyi went to the Sitch where he was elected as Cossack hetman. Fueled by rumors of imminent war, volunteers streamed to Zaporizhia to join the free Cossack forces. This alarmed Polish authorities and an army, which included 'registered' Cossacks was sent to restore Polish control. However these Cossacks went over to Khmelnytskyi and the Polish force was annihilated on the steppes near Zaporizhia in May 1648. Cossack victories, with popular support continued. Even the Tatars, who were dissatisfied with their treatment by the Poles, joined in. Marching westward, the main Cossack force reached and besieged the city of Lviv and the fortress town Zamostc. Practically the whole of Ukraine fell under Cossack control.
In the meantime king Ladislas IV died and his brother king Casimir V made peace with Cossacks, agreeing to all their demands. Victorious Khmelnytskyi with his army retreated and in January 1649 entered the Ukrainian capital of Kyiv to a triumphal acclaim as liberator. When the king's emissaries arrived in Kyiv they insisted that Ukraine must remain part of Polish Kingdom and offered only to increase number of 'registered' Cossacks and concessions to the Orthodox Church. This angered Khmelnytskyi because he now wanted full independence and freedom for all Ukrainian people. He told the emissaries that he would liberate the whole of Ukraine and said, "standing on the river Vistula I will say 'sit there and be quiet Poles' and I will expel all dukes and princess beyond the Vistula and if they start to bolt I will even find them there for sure". He then set out to create an independent Ukrainian Cossack State.
In response the Polish army marched on Ukraine. After encountering a large force of Cossacks and Tatars they retreated to a strong fortress Zbarazh and were besieged there. Cossacks near Zboriv blocked their reinforcements. The Poles where nearly defeated there but were saved by the Tatars, who defected from the Cossacks after generous promises from the Poles. Faced with the combined force of Poles and Tatars, Khmelnytskyi had to settle for the increase of the Cossack register to 40,000 and concessions to the Orthodox Church only (Treaty of Zboriv in Aug 1649).
This did not satisfy the Ukrainian population and soon Khmelnytskyi had to fight again for their freedom. After coaxing the Tatars again over to his side he defeated the Polish army at Korsun in 1650. However later he was again betrayed by the Tatars and in August 1651 had to make another agreement with Poland, this time decreasing Cossack register to 20,000 and without concessions to the Orthodox Church.
This agreement was treated by Khmelnytskyi only as a period of respite and in spring 1652, with Tatar participation, he went on the march again. After a period of bloody and exhaustive battles and another betrayal by the Tatars, Khmelnytskyi decided to seek help from Moscow. In January 1654 he met with emissaries from Moscow in Peryaslav who promised help in defense of Ukraine from Poland if the Cossacks swore allegiance to their tsar. An agreement was reached based on set of conditions, which in effect guarantied Ukraine independence, connected to Moscow only by virtue of common monarch. It worked well in a military sense as the Poles were expelled from Ukraine and Belarus, however there was no consensus in the political sphere. Ukrainians wanted relationships with Moscow as equal, independent partners, whereas Moscow considered Ukraine as an acquisition of another country by its growing empire.
Khmelnytskyi was very
disappointed by such attitude and behavior from his allies and began
to look around for other friends. In 1655 Swedish king Karl X requested
and obtained Cossack help in his war with Poland. When the Swedes occupied
northern Poland, the Polish king made peace with Moscow and tried also
to attract the Cossacks over to his side. But Khmelnytskyi, because of
previous experience with Poland and Moscow, decided to stick with Sweden
and at the beginning of year 1657 resumed hostilities with Poland. Unfortunately
Khmelnytskyi got very sick and the Cossacks led by colonel Zhdanovytch,
unable to achieve any significant victories, returned home. Khmelnytskyi
died on 27th June 1657. See also:
He wanted his son to succeed him but, as Yurasj was yet to young and inexperienced. The Cossacks elected Ivan Vyhowskyi as their hetman. At first Vyhowskyi conducted a neutral policy toward Poland, Moscow and Sweden but eventually, aggressive behavior of Muscovites on Ukrainian territory pushed him toward Poland. In September 1658, in Haydach, he signed an accord by which Ukraine fell under jurisdiction of the Polish king, albeit as an autonomous country.
With help from Poland and the Tatars, Vyhowskyi defeated Moscow’s forces in Ukraine, but in September 1659 a large section of Cossacks rebelled, accused Vyhowskyi of trying to sell Ukraine to Poland and elected Yurasj Khmelnytskyi as their hetman. Soon all Cossacks united under Yurasj and forced Vyhowskyi to resign. After entering into another treaty with Moscow, the Cossacks and the Russians, in the summer of 1660, marched on Poland. However this campaign did not go very well and when the Russian forces were defeated, the Cossacks had to submit to another union with Poland.
Although Ukrainians resented Moscow domination, Polish authorities failed to capitalize on it and did nothing to gain popular support. The Cossacks on Leevoberezhie (Left Bank), that is on the east side of river Dnipro, went over to the Moscow side; Yurasj Khmelnychenko resigned in 1663 and his place was taken by Pawlo Tererya. Tererya was a Polish supporter therefore he could not extend his authority to the Left Bank where the Cossacks elected hetman Ivan Brukhowetskyi.
At the beginning of 1665 the Cossacks overthrew Teterya, thus freeing territory on Pravoberezhie (Right Bank), that is on the West Side of the river Dnipro, from Poland. Unwilling to come under Moscow domination the Cossacks turned for support from the Tatars by electing Petro Doroshenko as their hetman In 1667, by the treaty of Andrysovo, Ukraine was partitioned along the Dnipro River: the western side (Right Bank) went under Polish control, while the eastern side (Left Bank), including Kyiv, became the autonomous hetman state or Hetmanate under Russian protectorate. Zaporizhia still remained under independent Cossack rule, who elected their own chieftains and followed their own impetuous policies.
On the Right Bank, Doroshenko accepted Turkish sultan Mohammed IV as his superior in exchange for help to liberate Ukraine from domination by Poland and Moscow. Later, in the spring of 1668, the Cossacks on the Left Bank rebelled against Moscow resulting in the whole of Ukraine coming under the control of Petro Doroshenko. Unfortunately later in 1668, when Doroshenko was occupied with a family matter, the Russians attacked and once again the Left Bank fell under their domination, with Demyan Mnohohrishnyi as hetman of Cossacks of that part of Ukraine. Polish forces also invaded Ukraine from West but, in the spring of1671, the Turkish sultan sent in a large army and helped Doroshenko to expel the Poles from western Ukraine.
Doroshenko then started negotiations with Mnohohrishnyi about unification of Ukraine. This did not please Moscow; Mnohohrishnyi was tried (on trumped up charges) and sentenced to exile. The new Left Bank hetman Ivan Samoylowytch was hostile to Doroshenko and, with help from Moscow, marched on Right Bank Ukraine. He received a considerable support there because the Turks and the Tatars antagonized the population by trying to promote their Muslim religion.Doroshenko was this time unable to obtain help from Turks as they were busy in war with Poland and retreated to his holding of Chyhyryn. On 15th March 1674. Samoylowytch was proclaimed hetman of the whole Ukraine under a Moscow protectorate.
This is one of the best known and loved paintings in Russia and Ukraine. It shows the Cossacks of Zaporozh'e composing as insulting a reply as possible to a Turkish demand for surrender (1675).
Doroshenko was ready to surrender but after receiving support from Zaporozhtsi, encouragement from Poland and help from Turks decided to keep on fighting against Samoylowych and his Russian backers. This war, with raids and plunders by Turks, Tatars and Poles caused a mass exodus of people from the west to the Left Bank. Abandoned by his people Doroshenko surrendered in September 1676.
The Turks then recalled
Yurasj Khmelnychenko, who continued to struggle for the Right Bank until
1681, when the Turks replaced him by the Walachian
Over there Samoylowych tried to avoid anything which may displease Moscow, but at the price of continuing loss of independence. The Uniate church disappeared and the Orthodox Kyivan metropolitanate itself was transferred in 1986 from patriarchal authority of Constantinople to that of Moscow. Arts and education progressively lost its traditional Ukrainian character. Also granting them land possessions ensured loyalty to Moscow by some of the Starshyna (senior Cossack officers), which led to renewed exploitation of peasants.
Samoylowych himself started to adopt autocratic style of rule and even wanted to introduce his dynasty, which antagonized most of the Cossack Starshyna. Therefore, when in 1686 Moscow joined with Poland in war with Turkey, they blamed Samoylowych for the failed expedition against the Tatars in Crimea. Samoylowych was exiled to Siberia, where he died two years later.
On 25th July 1687 Ivan Mazepa was elected as new Cossack hetman. For the first few years Mazepa continued with policies of his predecessor; also built and renovated churches and monasteries. Literature, art and architecture, in the distinctive Cossack Baroque style, flourished under his patronage and the Kyivan Mohyla Academy, the first Ukrainian institution of higher learning, experienced its golden age.
However he neglected needs of peasants and ordinary people, who bore the brunt of Moscow’s domination. Attempted uprisings by Petryk took place between years 1693 and1696. He gained support from the Tatars but failed to gain the support of the Cossacks. Eventually a Cossack, for monetary reward from Mazepa, assassinated him. However discontent continued and population started to shift to Zaporizhia and to the Right Bank, where colonel Paliy was looked upon as a peoples hero due to his successes in uprising against Poles.
In 1695 Moscow restarted war with Turkey and Crimea and the Cossacks had to fight wherever Tsar Peter sent them to. The Tatars exposed Ukraine to devastating raids. In 1700 Tsar Peter joined Poland in a war with Sweden in order to gain access to the Baltic Sea and the Cossacks had to march to the distant north, were many of them died in battles and from brutal treatment by the officers from Moscow. They were also used as manual labor in the construction of fortifications. To make things worse, arrogant Russian regiments were pillaging Ukrainian towns and villages and abusing not only general population but also Cossack leaders.
All this disturbed Mazepa and he began to have few second thoughts about his alliance with Moscow. By the end of 1705 the war with Sweden went bad and in 1706 Swedish king Karl XII concluded peace with Poland thus leaving Moscow alone in this war. Consequently Tsar Peter ordered Mazepa to defend Ukraine without help from Moscow and to destroy the Polish nobles on the Right Bank, who supported the Swedes.
Mazepa used this opportunity to take over this part of Ukraine. But there was a popular Cossack colonel Paliy. Mazepa solved this problem by inviting Paliy to his place, where he was imprisoned and handed over to Tsar Peter, who sent him to Siberia for collaboration with the Swedes.
At the end of 1707 Tsar Peter ordered Mazepa to hand over the western lands to Poland. Mazepa did not obey, using all possible excuses to retain control of that part of Ukraine. While still pretending to be faithful to Tsar Peter, he conducted secret negotiations with Swedish and Polish kings. When in autumn of 1708 king Karl approached Ukraine and promised help in liberation from Moscow, Mazepa decided to switch sides. Unfortunately Moscow became aware of this plot before Mazepa could organize and inform the Cossacks and the population in general about the reasons and the advantages of his plan. Tsar Peter moved swiftly on Ukraine, destroying most of Mazepa's supplies and armaments and ruthlessly eliminated the people suspected of collaboration with Mazepa and the Swedes. He started extensive rumors that Mazepa intended to return Ukraine to Polish domination.
This resulted in most Cossacks siding with Moscow and they subsequently elected a hetman submissive to Moscow—Ivan Skoropadskyi. The church stayed also on Moscow's side. Only Cossacks in Zaporizhia came out in support of Mazepa and his remaining four thousand troops.
The superior Muscovite forces routed Zaporizhia in May 1709 and next month, supported by Cossacks, loyal to Moscow, defeated Mazepa and theSwedes in a battle near Poltava. Heartbroken Mazepa fled to Moldova where he died on 22nd August 1709.
Mazepa supporters did
not give up hope of liberation from Moscow. In April 1710 they elected
Orlyk as their hetman and continued the struggle, with the help from
Sweden, Poland and Turkey for many years to come. They also drafted many
interesting resolutions concerning a proposed Ukrainian government, based
on democratic principles. See also:
Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE" by Mykhaylo Hrushevs'kyi
After the defeat of Mazepa, Tsar Peter intensified his efforts to subjugate Ukraine. Hetman Skoropadskyi had his powers restricted by Russian supervisors. His residence was transferred from Baturyn to Hlukhow near the Russian border, where two Russian garrisons were stationed to ensure his loyalty to Moscow.
The Ukrainian population
became burdened by the plundering of the Russian military units, dispersed
throughout the country. Cossacks were sent to work on the construction
of canals near St Petersburg, connecting the river Volga with the
In 1722, the Tsar appointed a council called the "Little Russian Collegiate", which was controlled by senior Russian officers and headed by brigadier Velmyaninow, to monitor and audit the hetman's activities and decisions. This, for practical purposes, transferred all powers to the Russians, leaving the Cossack hetman and his officers only with empty titles. Hetman Skoropadskyi was very upset by such situation; he became ill and died in 1722. Tsar Peter used this opportunity to abolish the office of hetman altogether. He directed the Cossack colonel Polubotok to perform the hetman's duties under the supervision of Velmyaninow and refused to agree to Cossack requests to the election of a new hetman.
The Russian occupiers continued to persecute and impoverish the Ukrainian population. They kept sending more Cossacks to work on construction of the canals, connecting the Caspian Sea with the Baltic Sea. From 1721 to 1725, some 20,000 Cossacks perished.
Polubotok was an honest and energetic man. He managed to improve law and order within the Cossack establishment and to improve the living conditions of the population. However this did not please the Russian authorities, who relied on disorder and corruption to maintain their grip on Ukraine. They feared Polubotok's growing popularity and his efforts to re-establish the Hetmanate.
Velmyaninow complained to the Tsar that Polubotok was not complying with his directives. Consequently Polubotok was arrested and interrogated under torture in Petropavlowsk fort, near St Petersburg. He died there, as a martyr for the Ukrainian cause in the autumn of 1724, in spite of the Tsar's belated efforts to save him and to reconcile with the Cossacks.
Tsar Peter died soon after, at the beginning of year 1725. Ukraine was thus left at the mercy of Velmyaninow and his henchmen. As for the Cossack colonels, some were imprisoned near St Petersburg and the others, who were not already replaced by Russians, kept quiet.
His wife Catherine succeeded
Tsar Peter. Faced with a possible war with Turkey, she needed the Cossacks
and wanted to return to them some of their former freedoms. However she
faced a stiff opposition from the "old guard" in the Russian
government, consequently the Cossacks received only few minor concessions.
Catherine died in the spring of 1727 and the grandson of
The new Russian government sacked Velmyaninow and his "Little Russian Collegiate", released the Cossack colonels from jail and appointed 70-year-old Danylo Apostol as Cossack hetman. On 1st October 1727 the Cossacks formally accepted Apostol in a ceremonious election in Hlukhow. Although reporting to Russian "resident" Naumow, the new hetman managed to carry out considerable improvements in Ukrainian situation. His loyalty to Moscow was ensured by the presence of one of his sons who was a virtual hostage in St Petersburg.
Tsar Peter II died in 1730 and his aunt Tsarina Anna became the new ruler of Russia. When hetman Apostol fell ill and became paralyzed, she refused to hand over his powers to the Cossacks and ordered a Russian "resident", Prince Shakhowski to form a council, consisting mainly of Russians, to take over. Hetman Apostol died in January 1734 and later in that year the Zaporozhtsi in the Sitch decided to come over from the Turkish to the Russian side.
With Ukraine becoming almost a province of Russia, the russification of political, religious and cultural life intensified. Intermarriages with Russians were encouraged and any efforts to regain independence were brutally suppressed. Cossack colonels were kept under constant observation and subjected to house searches at the slightest sign of disloyalty. Even any attempts to obtain justice were punished; when, in 1737, Kyiv's city counselors tried to defend their rights against Russian excesses, they were all jailed. Things were so bad, that when in 1740 an English general Keith was temporarily appointed in place of a Russian administrator, people were amazed by his human behavior and tolerance.
Times were hard for the top layer of Ukrainian society, but even harder for middle and lower classes and peasants, who suffered most from Russian exploitation. Cossacks were being forced to fight for Russia against the Turks, Tatars and Poles for small rewards, and often for nothing. Under such circumstances, the yearning for the return of the Hetmanate autonomy persisted. The possibility of this would happen occurred after the end of war with Turkey in 1740 and death of Tsarina Anna in 1741.
The short regency of Anna II was terminated by a palace revolution, whereupon the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth was installed on Russian throne. Elizabeth was sympathetic to Ukrainian cause because, prior to becoming Tsarina, she befriended and fell in love with a handsome son of a Cossack court choir singer, Oleksiy Rozumowskyi. She married him after her coronation. While visiting Kyiv in 1744, she agreed to promote the Cossacks' request to re-install the hetman's office and proposed Oleksiy's younger brother Kyrylo Rozumowskyi for this position. Twenty year old Kyrylo, who studied abroad, returned in 1746, married into the royal family and was bestowed with many orders and titles.
In 1747 the Russian senate was requested to take steps toward the re- establishment of the Hetmanate. In February 1750, the ceremonious formality of election of new Cossack hetman took place in Hlukhow, followed by celebrations and festivities.
In the spring of 1751 hetman Kyrylo Rozumowskyi, again with great ceremony and parade was installed as hetman. Unfortunately, being brought up in St Petersburg, Rozumowskyi was a stranger to Ukraine and the ways of life there. His Russian advisor Teplow was unsympathetic to Ukraine's newly won autonomy and did all he could to hinder its development. Rozumowskyi himself was bored with life in Ukraine and preferred to spend most of his time in St Petersburg.
During this period,
Ukraine was divided into several parts such as Left Bank consisting of
the Hetmanate, Slobidshchyna and the Zaporozhian Sich, The Right Bank,
consisted of Halychyna (Galicia), Wolhynia, Bukovyna and Transcarpatia.
The Hetmanate included areas around Poltava, Lubny, Peryaslav,
Originally adventurous people, who tried to establish themselves free from Polish and Russian domination, settled these lands. They formed Cossack regiments for protection from the Tatars and for some time was able to lead an independent life, because they served as a buffer from the Turks and the Tatars. However later they fell under direct Russian rule; the autonomy of Loboda Ukraine was abolished under Catherine II in 1765.
To ensure lasting domination over these two parts of Ukraine, Russians tried to suppress the Ukrainian culture. They disallowed Ukrainian language in books, schools and theaters. Moscow controlled the church and government and the only way for a person to advance was to speak Russian and to be loyal to Moscow.
While Ukraine on the east side of Dnipro (Left Bank) was being russianized, the western Ukraine consisting of Galicia Wolhynia and Bukovyna (areas around Lviv, Ternopil Lutsk and Chernivtsi) was under the Polish influence. Polish authorities were preventing not only national, but also economic development of the Ukrainians. The Orthodox Church was being gradually taken over by Polish dominated Catholic Church.
Between western Ukraine
and, the Russian dominated parts on the east side of the Dnipro, was
a large territory on the Right Bank, partly de-populated by the recent
wars involving the Cossacks, Poles, Russians, Turks and Tatars.
The biggest uprising was in 1768. The Haydamaks, led by Maxym Zaliznyak and Ivan Honta, captured Umanj and killed many Polish oppressors and their Jewish collaborators. They expected help from their Orthodox "brothers" from Russia. However Russians made peace with Poland, captured Zaliznyak, Honta and many other Haydamaks and handed them over to the Poles. Those, who were not immediately tortured and executed, were tried in Kodno and sentenced, in most cases, to death.
The Transcarpathian Ukraine (areas around Uzhhorod and Mukachiv) was under Hungarian rule. Overwhelmingly rural in character, Transcarpathia had a Ukrainian—Ruthenian peasantry, a powerful Hungarian nobility and a substantial number of urban and rural Jews. The Ukrainian population there did not display much enthusiasm for independence but managed to retain their language, customs and religion.
Katharine II, who ruled Russia from 1762, after short reign of her husband
Peter III, decided the cancellation of the Hetmanate. Hetman Rozumovskyi
resigned and, in his place, on November 1764, Tsarina
In 1767 the Tsarina ordered the election of deputies from all parts of the Russian Empire in order to be informed what kind of government the people wanted. The deputies from Ukraine declared their desire for Hetmanate autonomy. This angered Rumyantsev and he sent out his officers to persuade the electors to elect deputies supporting his government. People who resisted were jailed. However in spite of all efforts of Russian authorities, the popular sentiment for return of the Hetmanate system continued.
In 1772 Galicia and,
two years later, Bukovina were annexed to the Austro Hungarian Monarchy,
which had somewhat improved the conditions of the
The Cossack stronghold, the Zaporozhian Sitch, was subservient to Moscow and was utilized for raids on Crimea and Turkey. During the Turkish war, which started in 1768, several thousand Cossacks supported the Russians in battles on land and Sea. Their efforts were rewarded by eulogies from the Tsarina but little else and restrictions of the Cossack freedoms continued. Their lands were being colonized by Russians, Serbians and other foreigners with aim of creation of so called Novorossiya or the New Russia state in the south of Ukraine.
After end of the Turkish war in 1775, the Cossacks were being gradually disarmed and in the Summer of that year, Russian general Tekeli surrounded the Cossacks in the Sitch itself with a superior force and demanded abandonment of their fortress. Faced with such overwhelming odds, the Cossack chief Kalnyshevskyj surrendered. The Sitch was destroyed and abolished by Tzarist edict of 3rd August 1775.
Kalnyshevskyj and other
Cossack leaders were exiled to Siberia. The Cossack lands were granted
to Russian nobles; Cossacks were told to disperse and settle in towns
and villages or to join Russian forces. Many Cossacks escaped and settled
in Turkey near the Danube delta. In 1778 they were formally accepted
under Turkish rule. By end of 1780 all districts, which were formerly
under the Hetmanate, were incorporated into Russian regime. In 1783 all
Cossack regiments were transferred to Russian forces; peasants were prohibited
to leave their landlords, which made them serfs on their former land.
Ukrainian church autonomy was abolished and church property was transferred
Loosely translated and abridged by George Skoryk from "HISTORY OF UKRAINE" by Mykhaylo Hrushevs'kyi
Taras Shevchenko - Self portrait.
As a result
of the partitions of Poland (1772, 1793, 1795), Ukraine became occupied
by two empires—Russian and Austrian. Galicia, Bukovyna and Carpathian
Ukraine were incorporated into the Austro-Hungarian (Habsburg) Empire
and the rest of Ukraine became part of Russia. These two totalitarian
powers had strong central governments, mighty armies and powerful police
ready to suppress any attempts by Ukrainian population to regain freedom
and self determination. Nevertheless conditions under Austria began to
improve, whereas life under Russian occupation deteriorated. Because
of this, the renaissance of Ukrainian culture and political activities
began in western Ukraine.
progressive nationals abandoned their support for government and in 1900
joined with the radicals to form National Democratic Party. This party
included a distinguished historian M. Hrushevskyi a famous writer Ivan
Franko and a well known activist, ethnographer and lawyer, Wolodymyr
Okhrymowych, who was elected to the Austrian Senate in 1907.
of Turkish war in 1775, the Cossacks were being gradually disarmed and
in the Summer of that year, Russian general Tekeli surrounded the Cossacks
in the Sitch itself, with superior forces, and demanded the abandonment
of their fortress. Faced with such overwhelming odds, Cossack chief Kalnyshevskyj
surrendered. The Sitch was destroyed and abolished by Tzarist edict on
the 3rd of August 1775. Kalnyshevskyj and the other Cossack leaders were
exiled to Siberia.
lands were granted to Russian nobles. The Cossacks were told to disperse
and settle in towns and villages or to join the Russian forces. Many
Cossacks escaped and settled in Turkey near the Danube delta. In 1778
they were formally accepted under Turkish rule. By end of 1780 all districts,
which were formerly under the Hetmanate, were incorporated into the Russian
regime. In 1783 all Cossack regiments were transferred to the Russian
forces, peasants were prohibited to leave their landlords, which made
them serfs on their former land. Ukrainian church autonomy was abolished
and the church property was transferred to Russian treasury.
Cossacks in Turkey, under pressure from Russian field marshal
The country was reconquered and experienced a Soviet rule that engineered two genocidal famines (1921-1922 and 1932-1933) - known as the Holodomor - in which over 8 million died. In World War II, Nazi German and Soviet armies were responsible for some 7 million more deaths. However, after the WWII, Ukraine borders where extended to the West by shifting Poland, see Curzon line, and to the East by acquiring Crimea. Renewed independence was achieved in 1991 with the collapse of the Soviet Union and Ukraine was a founding member of the Commonwealth of Independent States.
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I never order my own French fries. Instead, I sneak the crispy critters off the family’s dinner plates. In my mind, this choice method deletes the food off my calorie-rap sheet. My family puts up with my habit because they have no choice. In anticipation of maternal fry-loss, my son requests an additional side order at In-N-Out Burger. To me, food tastes better off someone else’s plate and has far fewer calories. But who’s counting?
Scientists challenged the calorie-counting weight loss methods by contesting that “a calorie is not a calorie.” In October 2014, these authors placed greater emphasis on higher quality whole foods instead of high sugars and starchy processed “lower quality” foods. Even when the calorie content is similar, the physiologic effects on body weight and body fat can be very different.
An example compared a calorie’s worth of high-protein salmon and healthy olive oil versus a calorie’s worth of a simple carbohydrate such as white rice. These foods affect hormones in different ways and may positively or negatively impact our hunger, weight control, food consumption and body composition.
The New England Journal of Medicine in 2011 found foods such as vegetables, nuts, fruits and whole grains were associated with less weight gain. In addition, high-fiber foods augmented satiety. Yogurt consumption was associated with less weight gain. On the other hand, overall changes in consumption of all liquids except milk were associated with more weight gain. Researchers found high associations of weight gain with consumption of starches, refined grains and processed foods. Scientists hypothesized that these starchy foods are less satiating and increase hunger (hormone) signals compared to higher fiber foods that contain equivalent calories but contain healthy fats and proteins (such as olive oil and salmon).
My mother and sister used to count calories incessantly. Our kitchen was adorned with small paper scraps, covered with calorie counts. To me, it was too much trouble. I never counted calories. Perhaps I was better off. Perhaps not all calories are the same and we should focus on what kind of food we eat and not solely rely on caloric content. If we control total calorie intake and account for exercise calories burned, there are qualitative differences in calories consumed.
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The history of kites in Korea can be traced back to the reign of Queen Chindok of Silla in 637 A.D. when the military launched a burning kite at night to trick the superstitious population into believing a falling star would bring good fortune to the city of Kyongju. Traditional Korean kites, called yeon, are classified by design, shape and color, with around 100 variations.
Bangpae yeon are among the most common kites found in Korea. Traditionally made with handmade mulberry paper, contemporary bangpae yeons are made of lightweight fabrics or rip stop nylon. These rectangular kites have a prominent circular hole in the center of the fabric panel, five bamboo sticks that add strength and give structure to the kite, and an optional tail. The panel is traditionally decorated using Korean calligraphy and brightly colored images painted in black, blue, red, yellow and white. Bangpae yeons are tethered with one string controlled by a spoke wheel. Rhee Kitai, a renowned Korean kite master, teaches kite building to tourists in Seoul.
Pangp'aeyon, or shield kites, are another Korean design. These rectangular kites are similar to bangpae yeon but resemble a shield and do not have a tail. Strong enough for kite fighting, they often join bangpae yeons in sky duels where opposing flyers attempt to force an opponent’s kite to the ground by “cutting” the tether line using friction from their own kite. The hole in the center allows for air flow, while five bamboo spars give the kite structure and stability. Maneuvering is the key to winning a kite fight; watch for them flying at least 50 feet or more in the air from recreation areas along the banks of the Han River in Seoul.
Winter is the most common time to fly a kite in South Korea, with the two week period preceding the full moon being the most popular. On the day of the lunar year’s first full moon, Korean kite flyers sever the strings that tether their kites, allowing them to soar away. On the surface of the kite’s panel, the name and birthdate of the flyer is inscribed; as the kite blows away in the wind, it is believed to take any bad luck that might befall the flyer with it. The National Museum of Korea (museum.go.kr) in Seoul celebrates the Lunar New Year with kite flying during Lunar New Year celebrations, while visitors to the Bukchon Traditional Cultural Center (bukchon.seoul) make their own kites.
The idea behind the shape of the Seoul World Cup Stadium, built for the 2002 soccer World Cup games, is the bangpae yeon. The semi-rectangular building -- its corners are clipped when viewed from above -- features a large, centered roof hole. Made of fiberglass materials, the roof mimics mulberry paper; at night, the arena appears softly lit. The Uiseong International Kite Festival, held in the province of North Gyeongsang, attracted over 100 enthusiasts from 27 countries for its first annual event in April, 2011. The Drachen Foundation (drachen.org), headquartered in Seattle, Washington, received 15 Korean kites over 100 years old during the Art Kite Festival in Detmold, Germany in 2000. Ten contemporary yeons are in the foundation’s kite collection.
- CyberFighter Website: Korean Fighters
- Korean Inspiration: Traditional Korean Kite
- Designboom: Historic Korean Folk Craft
- Gomberg Kites: Korean Kites - From Practical to Magical
- Activity TV: Summer Fun: Korean Kite
- The Korea Foundation: RAS-KB Bukchon Museums and Kite Making Tour
- View Good Images: Fighter Kite Views
- Gomberg Kites: Flying Basics for Fighter Kites
- Friendly Korea: Kite Flying, A Korean Traditional Play
- Korea Tourism Organization: Travel Highlights Share |
- Gomberg Kites: Uiseong International Kite Festival
- Drachen Foundation: Korean Kites-Antique to Antic at The Drachen Foundation
- Kitelife: Drachen Archives
- Oracle Education Foundation: Thinkquest: Kinds of Korean Kite
- London Korean Links: Korean Fighting Kites – Part 1
- Daum Communications Corp.: Korean Kite Fighters Club
- Bukchon Traditional Culture Center
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This is the VOA Special English Health Report.
Hospitals not only treat infections -- they can also cause them.
In the United States alone, the number of infections in hospitals is estimated at close to two million each year. About one hundred thousand patients die.
A new government report notes that very little progress has been made in reducing what are called health care-associated infections. The most common are infections of the urinary tract, surgical site and bloodstream.
Many infections have been increasing even as hospitals have made efforts to improve. The report shows, for example, an eight percent increase in cases of sepsis, or bloodstream infection, following operations.
About forty percent of all health care-associated infections are linked to the use of catheters. A tube is placed inside the body to collect urine, so the patient does not have to get out of bed.
But the latest report says urinary tract infections after surgery increased more than three and a half percent. It says catheters should be used only if necessary.
Another way to prevent infections is to give patients antibiotics before surgery. Doctors are advised to give them within the hour before the operation. Patients who get antibiotics earlier than one hour are more likely to get an infected surgical wound.
Also, doctors are advised to discontinue the antibiotics within twenty-four hours after the surgery. The report says longer than that is usually not necessary. It can increase the risk of antibiotic resistance and serious kinds of diarrhea.
Not all the news was bad. The report said the rate of pneumonia in adults after surgery decreased more than eleven and a half percent.
A separate report looked at the differences last year in health care for different groups in society.
Kathleen Sebelius is secretary of health and human services. Her department produced the two thousand nine National Healthcare Disparities Report and National Healthcare Quality Report. She noted that racial and ethnic minorities were less likely to have insurance and less likely to get the treatments they needed. She called the numbers "troubling."
But she also said the health care reforms passed by Congress will improve the quality of care for all Americans. She said the new law will reward quality over quantity of care, creating a system that prevents diseases before more costly treatment is required.
And that's the VOA Special English Health Report, written by Caty Weaver. Transcripts, MP3s and more are at voaspecialenglish.com. I'm Steve Ember.
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1420 – Albrecht Dürer House, Nuremberg, Bavaria
A native Nuremberger, Albrecht Dürer lived here from 1509 until his death in 1528. The house was bought by the city in 1828. Typical of the half-timbered burghers’ houses of the 15th century, the structure is the only completely preserved Gothic house in Nürnberg. The first floors are sandstone, surmounted by two half-timbered stories and a gabled roof with a view of the town below. Exhibits inside the house are devoted to Dürer ‘s life and works. Many of the rooms are furnished with important historical pieces and contain original etchings and woodcuts, plus copies of Dürer ‘s paintings.
During the Second World War, a high explosive bomb landed just outside the house, causing serious damage but relative to other buildings in the city comparitively unscathed.
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Objective: Breathing Lessons is the story of Maggie and Ira Moran and the struggle for extraordinary moments in their quite commonplace marriage. The story, which takes place in one day, begins early on a Saturday morning as Maggie and Ira are preparing to travel from their home in Baltimore to a small town in Pennsylvania to attend the funeral of the husband of Serena, Maggie's best friend from high school.
1. Think of another book that examines such issues, here ordinary people are important and deal with normal problems. Discuss with the class.
2. Why is their marriage commonplace? Explain with a partner.
3. Compare Maggie and Ira's relationship to your parents or someone else in your family's.
Homework: Create another chapter in the book. What extraordinary circumstances could you add to the book?
Objective: Hearing Fiona's voice so unexpectedly causes Maggie to press the gas pedal instead of...
This section contains 3,913 words
(approx. 14 pages at 300 words per page)
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Comet Hartley 2 travels with an ice storm of its own making, according to NASA scientists who've been studying stunning new photos of a recent flyby of the comet.
Closeups of the comet — which is peanut-shaped and just 1.2 kilometres long — show a storm of small, light-coloured dots near the comet's nucleus.
The pictures were taken two weeks ago when NASA's EPOXI spacecraft encountered Hartley 2 at a distance of 700 killometres.
“The EPOXI spacecraft revealed a cometary snowstorm created by carbon dioxide jets spewing out tons of golf-ball to basketball-sized fluffy ice particles from the … comet's rocky ends,” said NASA in a release.
The findings astounded scientists.
“Our mouths just dropped,” said EPOXI mission co-investigator Pete Schultz at a news conference Thursday. “This looks like a snow globe that you've just shaken.”
The new pictures reveal that Hartley 2 is unlike the other four comets that have been examined up close by spacecraft.
“This is the first time we've ever seen individual chunks of ice in the cloud around a comet or jet definitively powered by carbon dioxide gas,” said Michael A'Hearn, principal investigator for the spacecraft at the University of Maryland.
NASA engineers think that nine very small ice particles hit the spacecraft, which was travelling at about 40,000 km/h. But they don't think any damage was done.
The spacecraft “sailed through the Hartley 2's ice flurries in fine working order and continues to take images,” said Tim Larson, EPOXI project manager at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
The spacecraft has been taking 3,000 images daily for a few weeks and will continue to snap photos until after U.S. Thanksgiving on Nov. 25.
The pictures have also revealed that different parts of Hartley 2 behave differently. The smooth areas in the middle show water evaporating below the surface and turning into water vapour that flows out through the comet's porous surface.
The rough areas on each end, on the other hand, were where the distinctive carbon dioxide jets spewed out their cloud of ice particles.
Further analysis is needed to figure out how long Hartley 2's snowstorm has been raging.
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Tactical wearables and the self-organizing network
August 19, 2014
It is clear that perfect cyber security does not exist and that centralized communications hubs can be vulnerable to attacks. But scientists have been moving closer to a potential solution while trying to answer one of nature’s riddles: "How does a school of fish defend itself from a shark attack?"
Each individual in the group only responds to their nearest neighbour.
Like many seemingly complex natural phenomena, the answer to the riddle is found in a few simple rules, most importantly that each individual in the group only responds to their nearest neighbour. Inspired by the self-organizing behaviour of animal groups such as schools of fish or flocks of birds, professor Richard Yu from Carleton University, Dr. Helen Tang from Defence Research and Development Canada (DRDC) and their graduate students have used recent advances in consensus algorithms to design a mobile network that is resilient to attacks. Consensus algorithms use distributed decision-making where all the devices in a network contribute to agree on the outcomes of calculations in a fashion similar to majority rule, rather than the traditional method of decision-making where a central authority determines which results are valid.
“Canadian soldiers operating in the dismounted role cannot be reliant on existing civilian communications infrastructure to support their scheme of manoeuvre,” said Major Cihlar of the Canadian Army’s Directorate of Land Requirements (DLR). Soldiers on the ground, called dismounted soldiers, require solutions that are adaptable to new and dynamic environments. Traditional centralized networks like cell phone towers are vulnerable to single point failures if their central server is compromised by physical damage or a cyber-attack.
“The majority of the places we are sent do not have a communications infrastructure,” said Major Cihlar.
Enter Resilient Tactical Networks (RTNs), a buzzword for advanced mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs) that are resilient against cyber-attacks and connection failures. MANETs are an emerging type of wireless networking in which mobile devices are connected on an ad hoc basis. They are self-forming and self-healing, enabling peer-to-peer communication between mobile devices without relying on centralized resources or fixed infrastructure, like cellular towers.
As soldiers move to new locations, their devices would adapt so that data could hop from one device to the next, around buildings and other obstacles.
For example, in a tactical environment without infrastructure, each dismounted soldier wearing a mobile device connected to the ad hoc network would act as a connection point, or “node”, in the network. As soldiers move to new locations, their devices would adapt so that data could hop from one device to the next, around buildings and other obstacles that would typically degrade or obstruct traditional line of sight communications. Even if one or several connected devices fail or lose reception, the remaining devices in the network can adapt, and continue to communicate to keep the network alive.
“Wireless is the future. And everything will be connected,” professor Richard Yu proclaimed at a recent workshop at Carleton University that also included academics from the University of Ontario Institute of Technology and the University of Western Ontario, military members from the Canadian Army and Defence Scientists from DRDC. Organized by DRDC, the workshop aimed to help researchers understand the Canadian Armed Forces’ needs, get input on DRDC’s research, exchange ideas and facilitate further collaborations.
But the professor also cautioned, “Security is a challenge and we need to be aware of the Army’s requirements.”
Because MANETs have no central security authority, the research teams are developing new security methods so that each device in the network knows which of the other devices can be trusted, by calculating trust values for each device and verifying their identity, amongst other techniques. To calculate trust values for each device you can monitor their activities for unusual behavior and apply consensus algorithms. And to verify a device’s identity you can analyze each device’s unique radio signature. Due to slight differences between every microchip, buried deep within the signal of each radio transmission is a unique pattern which means that each device has its own “fingerprint”.
Major Janus Cihlar discussed the Canadian Army’s requirements at the workshop in great detail. “The modern battlespace is an irregular one, against a tech-enabled enemy, within urban environments and/or complex terrain,” said Major Cihlar during his presentation.
Using numbers to overpower your adversaries and slugging it out is an outdated strategy. “The battle of the future is dispersed in time, space and purpose,” said the Major.
“Fighting smart, out-deciding the enemy is what wins battles now. Small groups will disperse and then commanders can aggregate tactical information and instruct their troops to make a unified and decisive action to deliver effect and force an outcome.”
Every fight is different, and requires adaptable capabilities. But each new capability, like the new tactical radios being developed through the Canadian Army’s Integrated Soldier System Project (ISSP), brings with it new challenges, both technical and human related.
“Fighting smart, out-deciding the enemy is what wins battles now. Small groups will disperse and then commanders can aggregate tactical information...”
— Major Janus Cihlar
“There are only so many men and women in the Army,” said Major Cihlar. “And there are limits on what each soldier can do within a given period of time, so any new system cannot be a burden to a soldier’s cognitive load.”
Major Ryan Grant, a signals officer for the Directorate of Soldier Systems Project Management, emphasized the Canadian Army’s requirement for ease of use.
“The intent is not to have the soldier interact with the network. It’s not the soldier who enables the network, but the network that enables the soldier,” Major Grant said during his presentation. “The soldier just turns it on and starts using it.”
DRDC’s cyber operations team continues to work on the security techniques that need to be built into ad hoc networks so that enemy devices cannot pretend to be friendly devices and intercept information or bring down a network. They intend to produce a prototype device to evaluate the validity and robustness of the new techniques.
Read More News from DRDC
Do you have trouble with the daylight saving time change? Just imagine yourself being in months of darkness, or trying to adjust to a 12-hour time change after an overseas flight. Well, research scientists from Defence Research Department Canada (DRDC) have spent several years trying to combat the effects of both.
June 21, 2016
The 2013 train derailment disaster in Lac-Mégantic, Québec, showed the unique challenges first responders face when flammable liquids spill and cause fires. Exercise Vulcan aimed to address some of these challenges through government, first responder and industry expertise and collaboration.
June 15, 2016
Wildfire disaster scenario: New report highlights how new communication technologies improve emergency response
When natural disasters or other emergencies strike near the Canada/U.S. border, it is essential that first responders on both sides can communicate with each other to coordinate an effective response and mitigate as much damage as possible. The CAUSE III experiment explores technologies that support these efforts.
June 1, 2016
Defence Research and Development Canada’s Anthony Damini wins Outstanding Engineer Award from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers for 2016
May 30, 2016
DRDC Scientists validate $8.9M DND acquisition of Small Remotely Operated Vehicles.
March 24, 2016
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West Virginia’s first major mine explosion of the 20th century occurred March 6, 1900, at Red Ash Mine on New River in Fayette County. On the night of March 5, a machine operator had left open a ventilating trap door, allowing methane to gather. The next morning, some workers, violating both custom and state law, traveled toward their working faces before the late-arriving fireboss had completed his gas checks. Probably, their open lights set off a methane ignition which instantly brought explosive coal dust into the air, adding to the intensity of the blast. Several kegs of blasting powder ignited as the explosion coursed through the mine, twisting rails, destroying mine cars, and hurling men, mules, and timbers against the ribs.
As usual in coal mine explosions, most of the 46 victims suffocated in the carbon monoxide atmosphere (afterdamp) following the blast, including the fireboss, who had held his vest to his face in a futile effort to filter the afterdamp. Recovery workers reached the last of the victims on March 10, and the mine resumed operation on March 26.
Five years later a second tragedy occurred at the Red Ash Mine, by then connected to the neighboring Rush Run Mine. Rush Run and Red Ash mines maintained, by the standards of the day, excellent ventilation. Yet, fine coal dust created by mining machinery abounded. On the evening of March 18, 1905, only 13 men remained underground in the two mines. In a freak occurrence, a mine car ran over some loose explosives. The resulting concussion and flame suspended and ignited coal dust, causing a massive explosion which coursed through both mines.
Carelessly, a rescue party, some carrying open-flame lights, entered the Red Ash portal. Either burning timbers or the rescuers’ open lights set off another explosion. Although not as powerful as the first, this second explosion on March 19 killed all 11 members of the rescue party underground, shot flame out the drift mouth, and tossed people standing outside several feet down the hillside toward New River. It required ten days to restore ventilation and recover all 24 bodies.
This Article was written by Paul H. Rakes
Last Revised on October 22, 2010
Dillon, Lacy A. They Died in the Darkness. Parsons: McClain, 1976.
Donnelly, Clarence Shirley. Notable Mine Disasters of Fayette County, West Virginia. Oak Hill: Fayette County Historical Society, 1951.
West Virginia Department of Mines. Annual Reports. 1900 & 1905.
Cite This Article
Rakes, Paul H. "Red Ash, Rush Run Explosions." e-WV: The West Virginia Encyclopedia. 22 October 2010. Web. 27 June 2016.
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Since facial expressions are part of our biological heritage, shouldn't reading them be second nature? In fact, most of us are dismal at reading faces, particularly those of strangers. Since September 11, it has dawned on much of the world that looking at other people's faces, in airports, in crowded subway cars and elsewhere, is something we need to do. And psychologist Paul Ekman, 69, is the man to teach us how.
Until Ekman came along, no one had systematically analyzed or measured the emotions that pass across our faces. But in the 1970s, Ekman and a colleague at the University of California at San Francisco developed the Facial Action Coding System, or FACS, which has since become the essential tool in the science of recognizing and interpreting facial expressions. The FACS atlas, now on CD ROM, describes all 43 movements, or "action units," facial muscles can perform, plus all the combinations of action units which can create more than 10,000 possible facial expressions in all.
Ekman's work has created a weirdly diverse following. The Dalai Lama has helped finance Ekman's classes on developing "emotional balance." Federal counterintelligence agencies routinely hire him to teach the nuances of facial expression for use in interrogating suspected Al Qaeda terrorists. Ekman's FACS atlas has also enabled Toy Story's Buzz Lightyear, and a generation of cartoon characters since then, to arch their eyebrows and otherwise make faces like real people.
Perhaps most importantly, because FACS breaks facial expressions down into all of their component parts, researchers are finding that computers can also learn to read faces. So the thinking goes, if we could just link airport security cameras to computers programmed with FACS, maybe we could spot would be hijackers by a telltale glower or a microexpression of contempt.
Probably what's most useful about Ekman's work is that he reminds us that reading faces is an ability latent within us all—never lost, merely forgotten. No government security program, nor any computer network ever likely to be conceived, could possibly match the effectiveness of millions of ordinary people simply making conversation and looking one another in the face.
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Some commentators have had fun pointing out the President’s inaccurate claim about Abraham Lincoln founding the Republican Party in his address to the Joint Session of Congress. Specifically, the President said:
We all remember Abraham Lincoln as the leader who saved our Union. Founder of the Republican Party. But in the middle of a civil war, he was also a leader who looked to the future.
Abraham Lincoln may have been the first Republican President, but he was not even the first Republican candidate for President (that was John Fremont in 1856), let alone a “founder” of the party. The Republican Party was founded in 1854, and Lincoln had little to do with it. Indeed, in 1854 he ran for the U.S. Senate as a candidate of the Whig Party. By most accounts, he did not join the party until two years later.
Some have assumed that this must have been the result of the President’s decision to offer some impromptu remarks and go “off-teleprompter.” After all, a speech of this import would be thoroughly vetted within the White House to prevent such basic mistake. This could also explain why some transcripts of the speech (such as this one) omit the error. The only problem is that the official version on the White House website includes the erroneous claim. This must come as a great relief to those who think only Republican politicians are capable of flubbing their history, as the mistake can be blamed on some low-level staffer or speechwriter, rather than the President.
UPDATE: On the other hand, the Lincoln-as-GOP-founder claim was apparently missing from the prepared text distributed to journalists.
SECOND UPDATE: Time was quick to correct this error, when made by someone else.
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An intussuception as seen on CT
|Classification and external resources|
|Specialty||Pediatrics, general surgery|
An intussusception is a medical condition in which a part of the intestine invaginates (folds into) into another section of intestine, similar to the way the parts of a collapsible telescope retract into one another. This can often result in an obstruction. The part that prolapses into the other is called the intussusceptum, and the part that receives it is called the intussuscepiens. Intussusception is a medical emergency and a patient should be seen immediately to reduce risk.
Early symptoms can include periodic abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting (sometimes green in color from bile), pulling legs to the chest area, and intermittent moderate to severe cramping abdominal pain. Pain is intermittent—not because the intussusception temporarily resolves, but because the intussuscepted bowel segment transiently stops contracting. Later signs include rectal bleeding, often with "red currant jelly" stool (stool mixed with blood and mucus), and lethargy. Physical examination may reveal a "sausage-shaped" mass, felt upon palpating the abdomen. Children, or those unable to communicate symptoms verbally, may cry, draw their knees up to their chest. or experience dyspnea (difficult or painful breathing) with paroxysms of pain.
Fever is not a symptom of intussusception. However, intussusception can cause a loop of bowel to become necrotic, secondary to ischemia due to compression to arterial blood supply. This leads to perforation and sepsis, which causes fever.
In rare cases, intussusception may be a complication of Henoch-Schönlein purpura (HSP), an immune-mediated vasculitis disease in children. Such patients who develop intussusception often present with severe abdominal pain in addition to the classic signs and symptoms of HSP.
Intussusception causes are not clearly established or understood. They can include infections, anatomical factors, rotavirus vaccine and altered motility. Some researchers suspect infectious agents, including rotavirus, are causative factors, but studies and analysis have not conclusively established this. A review of sparse data on the possible association between natural[clarification needed] rotavirus and intussusception has not demonstrated such association until very recently. In addition, ecological studies revealed that no seasonality exists for intussusception in the United States, whereas rotavirus has distinct wintertime peaks. In developing countries, patterns of intussusception may be quite variable, and different from developed countries. This may likely be due to incomplete reporting of cases in developing countries. Rates of intussusception may also vary according to socioeconomic status in developing countries.
In the most frequent type of intussusception, the ileum enters the cecum. However, other types occur, such as when a part of the ileum or jejunum prolapses into itself. Almost all intussusceptions occur with the intussusceptum having been located proximally to the intussuscipiens. This is because peristaltic action of the intestine pulls the proximal segment into the distal segment. There are, however, rare reports of the opposite being true.
An anatomic lead point (that is, a piece of intestinal tissue that protrudes into the bowel lumen) is present in approximately 10% of intussusceptions.
The trapped section of bowel may have its blood supply cut off, which causes ischemia (lack of oxygen in the tissues). The mucosa (gut lining) is very sensitive to ischemia, and responds by sloughing off into the gut. This creates the classically described "red currant jelly" stool, which is a mixture of sloughed mucosa, blood, and mucus. A study reported that in actuality, only a minority of children with intussusception had stools that could be described as "red currant jelly," and hence intussusception should be considered in the differential diagnosis of children passing any type of bloody stool.
An intussusception is often suspected based on history and physical exam, including observation of Dance's sign. A digital rectal examination is particularly helpful in children, as part of the intussusceptum may be felt by the finger. A definite diagnosis often requires confirmation by diagnostic imaging modalities. Ultrasound is the imaging modality of choice for diagnosis and exclusion of intussusception, due to its high accuracy and lack of radiation. A target-like mass, usually around 3 cm in diameter, confirms the diagnosis. The image seen on transverse sonography or computed tomography is that of a doughnut shape, created by the hyperechoic central core of bowel and mesentery surrounded by the hypoechoic outer edematous bowel. In longitudinal imaging, intussusception resembles a sandwich.
An x-ray of the abdomen may be indicated to check for intestinal obstruction or free intraperitoneal gas. The latter finding implies that bowel perforation has already occurred. Some institutions use air enema for diagnosis, as the same procedure can be used for treatment.
An intussusception has two main differential diagnoses: acute gastroenteritis and rectal prolapse. Abdominal pain, vomiting, and stool with mucus and blood are present in acute gastroenteritis, but diarrhea is the leading symptom. Rectal prolapse can be differentiated by projecting mucosa that can be felt in continuity with the perianal skin, whereas in intussusception the finger may pass indefinitely into the depth of the sulcus.
The condition is not usually immediately life-threatening. The intussusception can be treated with either a barium or water-soluble contrast enema or an air-contrast enema, which both confirms the diagnosis of intussusception, and in most cases successfully reduces it. The success rate is over 80%. However, approximately 5–10% of these recur within 24 hours.
Cases where it cannot be reduced by an enema or the intestine is damaged require surgical reduction. In a surgical reduction, the surgeon opens the abdomen and manually squeezes (rather than pulls) the part that has telescoped. If the surgeon cannot successfully reduce it, or the bowel is damaged, they resect the affected section. More often, the intussusception can be reduced by laparoscopy, pulling the segments of intestine apart with forceps.
Intussusception may become a medical emergency if not treated early, as it eventually causes death if not reduced. In developing countries where medical hospitals are not easily accessible, especially when other problems complicate the intussusception, death becomes almost inevitable. When intussusception or any other severe medical problem is suspected, the person must be taken to a hospital immediately.
The outlook for intussusception is excellent when treated quickly, but when untreated it can lead to death within two to five days. It requires fast treatment, because the longer the intestine segment is prolapsed the longer it goes without bloodflow, and the less effective a non-surgical reduction is. Prolonged intussusception also increases the likelihood of bowel ischemia and necrosis, requiring surgical resection.
The condition is diagnosed most often in infancy and early childhood. It strikes about 2,000 infants (one in every 1,900) in the United States in the first year of life. Its incidence begins to rise at about one to five months of life, peaks at four to nine months of age, and then gradually declines at around 18 months.
Intussusception occurs more frequently in boys than in girls, with a ratio of approximately 3:1.
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2 Answers | Add Yours
Nuclear plants are built on the shores of lakes, rivers, and oceans because these bodies provide the large quantities of cooling water needed to handle the heat discharge. As energy is created in power plants, a significant amount of heat is produced. Water is utilized throughout the day to absorb this heat. Water is also utilized to cool down the equipment used in creating electricity. In the event of an accident, nuclear power plants need water to help remove the decay heat produced by the reactor core.
Coal burning power plants are located near water because the water is used to create energy. In these plants coal is burned in a boiler which heats water and produces steam. The steam flows into a turbine which spins, and produces electricity.
Both coal burning and nuclear power plants produce energy using steam turbines. large amount of water is required for producing steam for the steam turbine, and for condensing the steam released from the steam turbine outlets to increase the efficiency of turbine. Generally the power plants recirculate the water required for these purposes. Still a small percentage of water gets evaporated and need to be replaced. This small percentage of water also constitutes a large quantity.
Also the power plans may release the hot water from the condenser in the river and take fresh water from the river. In such power plants the water requirements is much greater. However, these days most of the power plants cool and reuse the water.
We’ve answered 327,520 questions. We can answer yours, too.Ask a question
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Hand crank radio
From DDL Wiki
The hand crank, solar radio shown above was analyzed to determine its components, functionality, assembly techniques and design strengths and weaknesses. To accomplish that, we dissected the product to gain a better understanding of the components and their mechanical (or non-mechanical) functions within the system. Some of the main parts of the emergency-radio include a generator, a gear box, a hand crank, a solar panel and a series of electronic circuits. These parts are mainly used to transfer the energy into sound and into different functions that come available with the radio. Some of these functions are the On/Off/Volume dial, the tuner dial and the antenna.
After the product dissection, we performed three different analyses on the device: Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA), Design for Manufacture and Assembly (DFMA) and Design for Environment (DFE). The purpose of FMEA was to gain a better understanding of the possible failure modes that may occur when the user interacts with the radio, and what effects these failures could have on the user and its surroundings. From our analysis, it was clear that most of the possible failure modes will not have a harmful effect on the user but may render the system inoperable.
The DFMA gave us a better insight of how each part was manufactured and assembled, what materials were used, and whether the manufacturing techniques were effective when assembling each part. There are some features that the manufacturer made to ease the process of assembly but there is still room for improvements.
The DFE analysis provided insight into the product’s impact on the environment. Results from a similar approach EIO-LCA (Economic Input Output-Life Cycle Analysis) delineated how the existence of the hand crank radio impacts the greenhouse gas emissions of various sectors of the economy. Since this device is self-contained (i.e. generates its own power), power generation and supply during manufacturing contributes the most to GHG emissions. To reduce the amount of pollution caused by the production, use, and disposal, several options are presented in the corresponding section below.
Stakeholders and Product Needs
There are four main stakeholders concerned with this product: consumers, distributors / retailers, manufacturers and transporters (shipment). Each of the stakeholders have different needs as listed below.
The Kikkerland Solar Radio Crank is directed toward household consumers who are concerned about their carbon footprint or natural disasters (which may cause extended power outages). Based on our user studies, these are some areas that consumers feel the radio can be improved on.
- Cheaper product price
- Clarity & loudness of radio
- Durability & reliability
- Efficiency of solar cell & crank (i.e. number of rotations to minutes of radio time)
- Ease of use
- Ease of tuning
- Better signal reception
- Fast shipping and efficient transport
Distributors / Retailers
For retailers and distributors, the following characteristics of the radio may come in handy.
- Efficient packaging for cheap & easy transport
- Safe packaging to protect the product functions
- Appealing packaging to display at the store
- Minimal waste packaging
- Product must be in demand
- Ease of storage (e.g. stackability)
- High demand
The Kikkerland Solar Radio Crank should meet the demands of the customer while being produced at minimum expense, and hence earning the company a better profit margin. Below are some aspects that the manufactures want in their production of the radio.
- Less parts
- Common materials
- Easy assembly to reduce labor costs
- Automated assembly
- Standardized parts
- Reduce shipping costs
- Cheaper production costs
- High demand
Shipping / Transport
For ease of transports, these characteristics are important.
- Ease of storage (e.g. stackability)
- High demand (e.g. large shipment quantities)
How It is Used
This radio requires neither a battery nor a power cord to function. For power, this radio possesses a small solar panel on its upper face as well as a hand crank on its side as shown in the figures below.
The solar panel allows the user to leave the radio exposed to direct sunlight and listen to their favorite station while the radio gathers solar energy. The hand crank is especially useful indoors, during nighttime, or in emergency situations where light is not directly accessible. The radio contains a dynamo generator that can store the energy created by manual-cranking and gathered from the solar panel in the 300 mAh/2.3 Ni-MH battery. Here are the steps to operate the dynamo solar radio:
- Rotate arm or expose radio to sun to generate energy
- 1 min cranking = 30 min radio play time
- 5 hours sunlight = 30 min radio play time
- Turn the On/Off/Volume dial
- Change frequencies by switching the AM/FM/WB switch
- Turn tuning dial to change stations
- Plug in headphones for headphone option
Radio Frequency Available:
- Fm Frequency Range: 87-108 MHz
- Am Frequency Range: 530-1600 kHz
- Radio Frequency Range: 149-186 MHz
The portable hand-cranked radio seemed very easy to use. However, there were a few areas of design that must be changed. For instance, the resistance of the crank motion seems to be proportional to the speed of the cranking. The faster the cranking is, the more power is generated but the bigger the resistance becomes. There is a need to be able to find a balance point between resistance in the wheels and power generated from the crank and the solar panel.
While researching this product, there were a few common themes in the review of the product. They are as follow:
- Direct sunlight is needed for the panels to absorb sunlight efficiently
- Antenna for the radio goes straight up, it does not bend
- If you are using the product outside in a sunny day, you never have to crank for power as the solar panel itself will provide the radio with enough power
- On average, 1 minute of cranking gives approximately 15-25 minutes of playing time. Or, 100 turns of the crank is equal to approximate 10 minutes of audio
- The radio is small and light, it fits in the palm of your hand
From these comments, it can be concluded that the energy conversion either from mechanical to electrical, or from solar to electrical, is quite efficient. With a few tweaks, it may be possible to integrate this system with other daily life appliances to convert the rolling mechanical energy into electrical energy. A cheap and portable system to recapture the energy lost from a mechanical process in our daily life may present an interesting research and business opportunity. To achieve these goals for the design process, additional understanding and research on the product must be done.
Bill of Materials
This hand crank radio has 41 components in total. Other than the electronics, most of the components are made out of plastics through injection molding or stamping. A ruler is included in all of the pictures to provide a sense of scale. Please refer to figure 6 under the assembly table to see all of the components.
|Part Number||Name||QTY||Weight (g)||Function||Material||Manufacturing Process||Image|
|1||Back Case||1||31.2||Holding the assembly together. Where the crank is attached||Plastic||Injection molding|
|2||Speaker Screen Mesh||1||8.5||Protecting the speaker from physical disturbance||Steel||Stamping|
|3||Front Case||1||25.5||Holding the speaker||Plastic||Injection molding|
|4||Speaker Plate||1||8.5||Housing the magnet to create the vibration||Steel||Stamping|
|5||Speaker Cone||1||Less than a gram||Vibrating to produce the sound||Plastic / Polymer||Stamping, Vacuum forming|
|6||Solar Panel Assembly||1||5.7||Converting solar energy to electrical energy||Monocrystalline Silicon Wafer, Plastic, Lead, Rubber, Copper||Soldering, Lithography, Masking, Depositing, Etching|
|7||Radio Station Tuner Indicator||1||Less than a gram||Indicating the frequency of the radio||Plastic||Injection molding, Printing for labels|
|8||Generator Magnet||1||2.8||Producing magnetic field to generate electricity||Metal Alloys||Pressing, Heating, Annealing, Finishing, Magnetizing|
|9||Generator Plate||1||14.2||Holding gears and generator in place||Steel||Stamping|
|10||Gear 4||1||Less than a gram||Connecting the generator to other gears||Steel||Hobbing|
|11||Gear Shaft||1||Less than a gram||Connecting the generator to gear 4, Mounting gear 4||Steel||Cold rolling|
|12||Gear 1||1||Less than a gram||Translating crank motion||Nylon (self-lubricating)||Injection molding|
|13||Generator||1||11.3||Generating electricity from rotation||Copper, Steel||Stamping, Layering, Coiling|
|14||Gear 2||1||Less than a gram||Translating crank motion||Nylon (self-lubricating)||Injection molding|
|15||Generator Shell||1||5.7||Holding the magnet in place||Steel||Stamping|
|16||Gear 3||1||Less than a gram||Translating crank motion||Nylon (self-lubricating)||Injection molding|
|17||Battery Pack||1||14.2||Storing energy for radio operation||Plastic, Copper, Rubber, Nickel Metal Hydride||Advanced manufacturing technique|
|18||Volume and Power Circuit Assembly||1||8.5||Control the volume and turn on the radio||Plastic, Lead, Copper, Rubber, Semi Conducting Materials, Polymer / Wax||Soldering, Lithography, Masking, Depositing, Etching|
|19||Outside Screw||4||Less than a gram||Hold the two cases together||Stainless Steel||Cold heading, Thread rolling|
|20||Speaker Screw||3||Less than a gram||Attaching the speaker to the front case||Stainless Steel||Cold heading, Thread rolling|
|21||Antenna's Solenoid||1||Less than a gram||Generating the magnetic field required for radio signal||Copper||Coiling, Hardening|
|22||Solar Panel Pad||2||Less than a gram||Stabilize the solar panel||Foam / Paper / Polymer||Polymerization forming|
|23||Crank Dowel||1||Less than a gram||Connecting crank shaft and collar||Steel||Cold rolling|
|24||On / Off / Volume Indicator||1||Less than a gram||Adjust speaker volume||Plastic||Injection molding, Printing for labels|
|25||Antenna||1||8.5||Enhancing signal reception||Stainless steel, Aluminum, Brass||Cold drawing, Die drawing|
|26||Headphone Jack Assembly||1||Less than a gram||Connecting headphone to the speaker||Copper, Plastic, Rubber, Steel, Lead||Soldering, Lithography, Masking, Depositing, Etching|
|27||Crank Knob||1||2.8||Making it easier to turn the crank||Plastic||Injection molding|
|28||Crank Shaft||1||2.8||Increasing the lever arm||Plastic||Injection Molding|
|29||Crank's Attachment Disk||1||2.8||Connecting crank shaft to the gear||Plastic||Injection Molding|
|30||Hand crank collar||1||Less than a gram||Stabilizing the rotational movement of the crank||Steel||Stamping|
|31||Tuning Microprocessor Assembly||1||22.7||Tuning the radio frequency (FM / AM / WB)||Plastic, Lead, Copper, Rubber, Semi Conducting Materials, Polymer / Wax||Soldering, Lithography, Masking, Depositing, Etching|
|32||Generator screws||4 (3 different kinds)||Less than a gram||Holding generator to the case and the gear system||Stainless Steel||Cold heading, Thread rolling|
|33||Headphone Screws||2||Less than a gram||Holding headphone adapter||Stainless Steel||Cold heading, Thread rolling|
|34||Antenna Screw||1||Less than a gram||Holding the antenna to the case||Stainless Steel||Cold heading, Thread rolling|
|35||Crank-Gear Collar||1||Less than a gram||Connecting the crank's collar and the gear||Plastic||Injection molding|
|36||Gear Collar Clamps||2||Less than a gram||Holding the gears together||Steel||Stamping|
|37||Frequency Range Switch Knob||1||Less than a gram||Indicating if the frequency range of the radio (FM / AM / WB)||Plastic||Injection molding|
|38||Cable||1||Less than a gram||Connecting electrical components||Copper, Rubber||Drawing through rubber die|
|39||O Ring||2||Less than a gram||Mounting the magnet on top of the generator||Plastic||Stamping|
|40||Speaker Magnet||1||2.8||Controlling the vibration of the speaker to generate the sound||Metal alloys||Pressing, Heating, Annealing, Finishing, Magnetizing|
|41||Speaker Coil||1||8.5||Allowing the speaker screen to vibrate||Copper||Rolling|
The parts cannot be assembled back after taking them apart due to the wire connections that need to be severed to separate the integrated circuits. The assembly procedure can, however, be described as follows:
- Assemble the gear box with the generator by attaching it to part 9. (Gear box consists of part 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 36 and Generator consists of part 8, 11, 13, 15, 39).
- Assemble the speaker by putting the magnet (part 40) on the speaker plate (part 4) and then attach the speaker coil (part 41) to the speaker cone (part 5). Attach the two assemblies together.
- Connect the integrated circuits together using the cables with their corresponding indicator (part 6, 7, 17, 18, 24, 26, 31, 37, 38).
- Connect the antenna and the solenoid with the integrated circuit (part 21, 25, 31, 34, 38).
- Assemble the hand crank (part 23, 27, 28, 29, 30, 35).
- Insert hand crank assembly to the back case (part 1).
- Connect the generator and gear assembly to the back case (using part 32).
- Connect the speaker assembly to the front case (part 3 using part 20).
- Attach the integrated circuits to the front case and fasten the headphone jack using part 33, attach the solar panel using pads (part 22).
- Attach the front case to the back case using part 19.
- Lastly insert the speaker screen mesh (part 2) to the front case.
The mechanical aspect is comprised of the generator-crank system. The basic structure is as follows (please refer to figure 6 for reference):
The hand crank contains a handle that’s rigidly attached to a shaft, which is then mounted to gear 1. The purpose of the handle is to make it easier for the user to “crank” and thereby input torque into the gear system to be amplified. The gear system composes of 4 gears, with gear 1 being the input torque gear, gear 4 being the output torque gear, and gears 2 and 4 being the angular velocity magnification gears. Moreover, gear 4 is connected to a shaft that rotates the generator shell. The idea behind the gear system is that with one full “crank” of the handle, the gears will magnify this one rotation into 10 or 20 full rotations of gear 4. This drastically increases efficiency in rotating the generator shell to generate electricity. According to Faraday’s Law of Induction, the rotation of the generator shell generates a magnetic field, which then generates a current that can be stored and used by the hand crank radio.
The faster the rotation, the more current that is generated; therefore, the gear system is designed to have a higher power and lower speed input from the user that is to be converted into a lower power, but higher speed into the generator. Therefore, when the user wishes to play the ratio, he must manually turn the crank in order to generate the magnetic field that would in turn generate electric current which powers the hand crank radio.
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA)
The main objective of Design for Manufacturing and Assembly (DFMA) analysis is to come up with various improvements geared towards simplifying the manufacturing and assembly process. Some important considerations may include part count, material selection, production volume, tolerances, etc.
This hand crank radio consists of 41 parts and assemblies as shown in the section above. The majority of the non-metal parts are made out of plastic or rubber through injection molding or stamping. These are pretty efficient methods of manufacturing non-metal components for mass production. The metal components, on the other hand, are made out of various materials including steel, aluminum, metal alloys, and many others. Depending on the use and the shape of the metal components, the manufacturing processes range from cold rolling, stamping, lithography, etc.
Some efforts have been made to simplify the design for the ease of manufacturing and assembly. These methods include:
- Bent tabs on the speaker screen makes it easy to assemble and enables it to be attached without additional parts.
- Most gears are made out of self-lubricating nylon, with standardized size and materials designed to minimize friction.
- Most of the non-metal components are made with injection molding. By changing the mold, a standard injection molding can potentially produce all of the non-metal components.
- The outer case are made with the same dimension allowing them to share similar features and enabling them to be fastened with each other easily.
- A lot of the control knobs are integrated. For instance, the on/off and volume controls are integrated in a single indicator, reducing the part count and simplifying the design.
- Parts with little need of tight tolerances are made out of plastic through injection molding, avoiding the need to scrutinize dimensions during the manufacturing process.
- Most of the non-metal parts are made through injection molding without the need of any secondary manufacturing process.
- Gears are injection molded in the same color for ease of coordination and the outer case is injection molded in green for aesthetic and environmental appeal (i.e. the radio is environmentally friendly, suggested by it's "greeness").
- Threaded holes eliminate the need of nuts and washers, minimizing the part count and ensuring fast assembly.
- Most of the electronics come in sub-assemblies which can be mass produced by other factories, allowing the manufacturer of the radio to specialize in assembling the radio together.
- Although the front case and back case look very similar, they are very easy to differentiate from one another.
- Plastic sockets with different sizes and champfers indicate where to attach which electrical assemblies on the cases.
Some improvements can be made in the following areas:
- There are a lot of screws with various sizes. Standardized screws will make the assembly process simpler and faster.
- The various circuit boards can be combined into one circuit board, minimizing part count and simplifying the assembly.
- The gear assembly seems complicated and difficult to disassemble due to space and volume constraint.
- The metal gear was pressed fit in. This procedure requires high accuracy and low tolerance.
- The wires connect circuit assemblies on both sides of the cases making it difficult to disassemble if there is anything wrong.
- Snap fits can be used instead of screws in some cases.
Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) of the Kikkerland Dynamo Solar and Crank Emergency Radio provides great insight into the current application of the dynamo generator and solar panel in a marketable product. This product has shown to be a very compact piece that successfully houses numerous components, allowing for diverse functions. However this radio is not without its faults with various identifiable modes of failure, tabulated below.
Overall the occurrence rating (O) of failure in its various modes is rather low, peaking at 5 for one mode. This indicates that one should expect this product to retain functionality over an extended period of time. Unfortunately, the severity of failures (S) has a maximum rating of 7 for four modes, and a rating of 6 for four modes. Also the detection of failure rating (D) is relatively low with most ratings below 4, but it has one mode with a rating of 9 and another with 8. However, the design rates well overall, indicated by the highest RPN rating of 105.
Therefore, the Kikkerland product has shown to have been designed quite well with a high longevity of use. Many of the modes of failure are due to wear and tear or extreme conditions such as great wetness or heat. Our product that we design should emulate the design of the radio but we will seek improvement. Some areas we intend to improve on are: waterproofing the electronics and microprocessor assemblies; increasing ventilation or heat dissipation from the gears or motor; changing the gear material to prevent wearing; protecting the gears and generator from shocks; change the batteries to prevent acid leaking.
The Kikkerland radio is a very robust product and can operate in diverse areas and conditions and can continue to operate for a long period of time. We believe that by performing Failure Methods and Effects Analysis we can increase the lifetime and reliability of our product to exceed that of the Kikkerland radio.
A summary of the most common failure modes can be found below:
|Part Number||Item||Function||Failure Mode||Effects of Failure||S||Causes of Failure||O||Design Controls||D||RPN||Recommended Actions|
|25||Antenna||Antenna / Signal Reception||Snapping, Breaking, Bending||Low quality signal, possible malfunction||5||Dropping the radio, improper use||3||Antenna is collapsable||1||15||Internatlize antenna into radio or make the antenna flexible|
|27||Crank Arm||Translating manual energy to the gears||Breaking, Bending, Detachment||No more power generated from cranking. Can only power radio with sunlight||6||Bending, dropping, spinning crank too fast||2||Crank is made to be short and thick, hence difficult to break||1||12||Write a warning on the product, use a stronger material|
|18, 22, 26, 31||Electronics / Microprocessors Assemblies||Taking electrical input and determining the appropriate output for each signal||Water damage||Inoperable system||7||Rain, accidental water damage||4||All of the electronics are protected inside the case||4||112||Seal electronics to make them waterproof, write “water warning” on the product|
|17, 18, 22, 26, 31||Electronics / Microprocessors Assemblies, Battery||Taking electrical input and determining the appropriate output for each signal, storing energy||Overheating||Performance is significantly reduced||6||Extended usage, extended sun and high temperature exposure||1||All electronics are protected inside the case||5||30||Add a fan, add a warning sign, add a temperature sensor, add a heat sink|
|10, 12, 14, 16||Gears||Translating crank mechanical energy input to generator||Wear and tear||No more power generation through cranking, significant frictional losses, slipping of gears||6||Extensive use, manufacturing defects||1||Gears are made out of nylon, which is a relatively strong self-lubricating polymer||4||24||Changing gears’ materials. For instance, metals are less susceptible to wear and tear|
|38||Cables||Transferring electrical signal to / from various components||Dropping radio, wear and tear, extended use||Inoperable system||7||Poor manufacturing, overheating, shock damage||3||There are multiple wires with low resistance within each cable||4||84||Use one integrated circuit for all electronic assembly|
|24||On / Off / Volume Indicator||Allowing user to manipulate the volume of the speaker and turn the radio on / off||Breaking||Unable to manipulate the volume of the speaker||5||Overturning knob, forcing knob in the wrong direction||2||The knob is labeled to inform users which direction it can or cannot turn||2||20||Add rubber stopper to constrain the knob motion|
|7||Radio Station Tuner Indicator||Allowing user to manipulate the frequency of the radio||Breaking||Unable to switch radio channels||5||Overturning knob, forcing knob in the wrong direction||2||The knob is labeled to inform users which direction it can or cannot turn||2||20||Add rubber stopper to constrain the knob motion|
|1, 3||Front and Back Case||Holding assembly and speaker together, protecting components||Breaking, coming apart||Aesthetics, exposure of vulnerable components||4||Dropping the radio||5||There are more than one screws holding the front and back case together, decreasing the likeliness to break||2||40||Add shock absorbers to minimize impact|
|4, 5, 40, 41||Speaker plate, cone, magnet, coil||Translating electrical signal into sound||Vibrational stress||Speaker malfunction and inoperable system||7||Playing radio on maximum volume, wear and tear||5||Speaker is made to span the whole hearing range of human||3||105||Add warning to keep volume to 90% of the maximum. Limit volume internally to 90%|
|8, 13, 15||Generator, magnet, shell||Translating rotational energy into electrical energy through magnetic induction||Demagnetization||No more power generated from generator / crank arm||6||High temperature, short circuit||2||Copper coils and magnet come in multiple parts, allowing it to continue to function even when one is not working||8||96||Add insulation around generator, add solar shield / heat sink to generator assembly|
|17||Battery pack||Storing electrical energy||Leaking battery acid||Inoperable system due to water damage and lack of energy storing device||7||Battery discharging, overheating||1||There are two batteries to store energy in and they are stored with additional plastic wrapping around them||9||63||Change to solid state battery|
|26||Headphone jack assembly||Plug for headphones||Breaking, malfunctioning||Headphone option unavailable||3||Hitting headphone jack with small tools (e.g. screwdrivers)||1||The location of the headphone jack makes it unlikely to be damaged with smaller parts||3||9||Add a removable rubber cover to headphone jack|
|19, 20, 32, 33, 34||Assorted screws||Holding components together||Threads are worn out, losing some screws||Repetitive loosening and tightening of screws||3||Softness, malleability of plastic, the size of the screw||3||Screws come in standard sizes making it easier to replace||2||18||Use helicoils, strengthen the case materials around screw points|
Design for Environment (DFE) - EIO-LCA
The production of the solar hand crank radio is the greatest factor in the product’s greenhouse gas emissions. The economic sectors which contribute most heavily to this figure are power generation and supply, iron and steel mills, and semiconductor and related device manufacturing. Most of these emissions are indirect influences on GHG emissions. Potential areas of redesign are discussed in the following sections. A $30 increase in GHG-related taxes would increase the lifetime cost of the product by $0.60, which is about 2% of the product’s cost. The result can be summarized in the table below:
|Category||Item Purchased||Best Match Economic Sector # and Name||Confidence that sector represents item||Reference Unit||Unit consumed per product life||Cost per unit||Lifetime cost||Economy-wide mt Carbondioxide released per $1M of output for the sector||Implied mt Carbondioxide per product life||Carbondioxide tax ($30 / mt)|
|Production||Hand Crank Radio||334310: Audio and video equipment manufacturing||High||Hand Crank Radio||1||$30||$30||549||0.01647||$0.4941|
|Production||Solar Panel||334413: Semiconductor and related device manufacturing||High||Solar Panel||1||$5||$5||603||0.003015||$0.09045|
The solar hand crank radio is composed primarily of injection-molded plastic components, standardized metal screws, and pre-fabricated electronic circuits. Although it operates off the grid, the device fails to be completely “green”. Several modifications could be made to the manufacturing process to decrease the environmental impact of this product. First, the plastic components (of which the material is not specified explicitly by the manufacturer) could be replaced by post-consumer plastic, recyclable plastic, or cellulose-based plastic. Second, the plastic packaging could be replaced with a more environmentally-friendly material such as cardboard. Finally, the amount of soldering could be reduced by utilizing integrated circuits, and the soldering process could involve lead-free solder. As is the case for any product, material reduction is preferred for reducing cost and environmental impact.
The solar hand crank radio has a very confined function: to capture radio signals. While it completes this task with negligible environmental impact, its function could be expanded to reduce the detrimental impact of other devices to the environment. For instance, an alarm clock could be added to enhance functionality. An mp3 input capability could also broaden its user base. To completely replace a bedside clock, the device may additionally need a power cord (which can be removed for off-grid use). Waterproofing would be a final recommendation for increasing functionality. This would also increase the expected life of the product.
End of Life
The solar hand crank radio does not have any purpose when it ceases to function. It is most likely to be disposed of when broken. This is unfortunate due to the harmful effects electronics and batteries can exhibit on the environment. Aside from constructing the assembly from biodegradable or bio-friendly materials, little options remain for extending the life of this device when its original function expires.
In conclusion, the simplest two methods for reducing the solar hand crank radio’s effect on the environment are the use of “greener” materials and the expansion of the product’s functionality.
Team Member Roles
Oscar Chahin: FMEA, Mechanical Analysis, User Study
Evan Gates: DFE, Stakeholders, DFE-IOC
Kartik Goyal: Bill Of Materials and Diagram, Usage, User Study, Mechanical Function
Huan (Steve) Qin: DFMA, DFE-IOC, User Study
Andre Sutanto: Wikipage editor, Bill of Materials, Stakeholders
Carnegie Mellon University Green Design Institute. (2008) Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA), US 1997 Industry Benchmark model. <http://www.eiolca.net> Dieter, George E., and Linda C. Schmidt. Engineering Design. 4th Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2009. 707-715. Print.
Images taken from: Figure 1: www.amazon.com/Kikkerland-Dynamo-Solar-Crank-Emergency/dp/B0017S4C26/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&qid=1346370017&sr=8-2&keywords=
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| 0.868716 | 6,875 | 3.328125 | 3 |
Flu is spread primarily through close contact.
The intense flu season this year is enough to make anyone want to keep a distance from the coughs and sneezes of others. But an arm's length may not be enough.
The conventional wisdom is that flu is spread largely through close contact with others and by touching contaminated surfaces. A recent study by scientists at the Wake Forest School of Medicine, however, shows that people infected with the flu can send virus particles shooting into the air six feet away, farther than previously thought.
The researchers looked at 94 people admitted to the hospital with flu-like illness. As part of the examination process, researchers put each patient in a room and then collected air samples, looking for infectious particles.
They first made sure no procedures that could spread germs through the air, like CPR and intubation, were performed. Then the scientists assessed the patients' symptoms, including coughing and sneezing.
Of the 61 patients who tested positive for flu, 26 released virus particles into the air. One out of five was considered highly infectious, releasing up to 32 times more virus particles on average than the others. These were also the patients with the highest viral loads and the worst symptoms.
A person within a range of six feet, the team found, "could be exposed to infectious doses of influenza virus, primarily in small-particle aerosols."
As an accompanying editorial in The Journal of Infectious Diseases pointed out, this was the case even when the patients "were quiet and not undergoing aerosol- producing procedures."
The bottom line
A person with the flu can infect others from as far as six feet away.
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| 0.966028 | 338 | 3.9375 | 4 |
asthma prevalence differ substantially depending on which data source is used: Weighted to
national levels, the prevalence estimates for asthma in the sample were 7.7% based on
medical records or 10.0% based on maternal reports. Restricting the definition of a case
to those for whom both mother and medical provider mention asthma yields a
prevalence of 4.1%; broadening the definition to include any child for whom either
the mother or medical provider reported the condition yields a prevalence of 13.6%.
findings are important because they help disentangle issues of study design and population
from those of reporting patterns by source of information. Most published studies can
report prevalence based on either mother’s reports (regardless of medical
records, which are unavailable in most health surveys, which corresponds to our
“mother’s reports” estimate of 10.0%), or on medical records (without knowing
mother’s reports, which corresponds to our “medical records” estimate of 7.7%).
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| 0.925519 | 217 | 3.171875 | 3 |
by Staff Writers
Seattle (UPI) Jan 25, 2013
The origins of HIV, which causes AIDS, go back millions of years rather than the tens of thousands that had previously been believed, U.S. researchers say.
Writing in the journal PLoS Pathogens, scientists from the University of Washington and the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center in Seattle report a virus with characteristics similar to the human immunodeficiency virus arose in African monkeys and apes 5 million to 12 million years ago.
While HIV emerged in humans in the 20th Century when an HIV-like virus jumped from chimps to humans, scientists had long understood similar viruses existed in monkeys and apes much earlier.
Earlier genetic studies had suggested these related viruses arose tens of thousands of years ago, but there had been suspicions that time frame was underestimated.
The new study of the genetic signatures of HIV-like viruses in a number of primates, including chimps, gorillas, orangutans and macaques, found changes in genes that have evolved in their immune systems suggest the viruses arose 5 million to 16 million years ago.
The findings could lead to a better understanding of HIV and AIDS, researchers in the field said.
"This kind of research helps us understand how the virus works," Sam Wilson of the University of Glasgow Center for Virus Research told the BBC.
"The hope is that one day this will translate into therapy."
Epidemics on Earth - Bird Flu, HIV/AIDS, Ebola
|The content herein, unless otherwise known to be public domain, are Copyright 1995-2014 - Space Media Network. AFP, UPI and IANS news wire stories are copyright Agence France-Presse, United Press International and Indo-Asia News Service. ESA Portal Reports are copyright European Space Agency. All NASA sourced material is public domain. Additional copyrights may apply in whole or part to other bona fide parties. Advertising does not imply endorsement,agreement or approval of any opinions, statements or information provided by Space Media Network on any Web page published or hosted by Space Media Network. Privacy Statement|
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http://www.terradaily.com/reports/Origin_of_HIV_put_at_millions_of_years_ago_999.html
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| 0.906327 | 422 | 3.0625 | 3 |
Research clearly shows a dose-response relationship between alcohol and health issues such as cirrhosis of the liver. More recent research has shown linkages between greater drinking and greater problems such as interpersonal violence. A study of the impact that the larger, cultural context of drinking in several European countries may have on the relationship between drinking and harm has found that this relationship is stronger in the Baltic countries and Sweden than Italy.
Results will be published in the January 2012 issue of Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research and are currently available at Early View.
"Previous research on Western European countries has shown that the strength of the relationship between alcohol and harm seems to be contingent on the cultural context of drinking," explained Jonas Landberg, a researcher at the Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs and sole author of the study. "For example, northern European countries, where drinking into intoxication is more common, tend to have more alcohol-related problems and mortality per litre of alcohol consumed than southern European countries, where drinking is more mundane and integrated into everyday life. For this study, I compared findings from the three Baltic countries - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania - with two countries representing two distinct ideal-types of European drinking cultures: Sweden, assumed to be similar to the Baltic countries with respect to drinking culture; and Italy, assumed to be markedly different."
"There are much larger differences in the alcohol culture and drinking patterns across European countries than across U.S. states," observed Thor Norström, a professor at Stockholm University. "This may prompt and allow European researchers to look at variations in alcohol cultures and how these impinge on harm."
Landberg used data collected from two general-population surveys of approximately 1,000 respondents from each country: Sweden, Italy, and the three Baltic countries. The data were analyzed for the risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems in relation to self-reported volumes of alcohol consumption in each country. This method has only once before been used for cross-national comparisons.
"My findings showed that most people who increased their consumption were at risk of experiencing some form of alcohol-related problems, but also that people who live in countries where drinking occasions often lead to intoxication - for example, Sweden and the Baltic countries - more often experience alcohol-related problems when they increase their alcohol consumption when compared to people who live in Italy, were the drinking primarily takes place with meals and less often leads to intoxication."
These differences might depend on several factors, added Landberg. "The most important one is probably related to cultural differences in drinking patterns, that is, people in the northern part of Europe usually drink in a way that more often results in alcohol-related problems compared to people in southern Europe," he said. "However, the results may also reflect cultural differences in how people regard alcohol and harm. For example, in a country like Sweden, where drinking is seen as problematic, alcohol often gets blamed for problems when someone has been drinking, while on the other hand, people may be less likely to blame problems on alcohol in a country like Italy, where alcohol is not regarded as problematic, but rather as a part of day-to-day life."
Norström suggested that the alcohol-harm relationships tend to be stronger in the northern part of Europe due to the higher prevalence of heavy episodic drinking or "binge drinking" in northern Europe compared to southern Europe.
"To my knowledge, this is the first individual-level study to assess the risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems in relation to volume of consumption in the Baltic countries and to directly compare the results with findings from Western European countries," said Landberg. "What my findings add to the field is, primarily, that the Baltic countries may be placed alongside the countries of northern Europe in terms of how alcohol consumption may be expected to result in negative consequences. This can be viewed in the context of a 'European north to south' gradient in the strength of the risk relationship, that is, strongest in the northern part of Europe such as Sweden and Finland, and gradually decreasing while moving south, such as France and Italy."
Alcoholism: Clinical & Experimental Research (ACER) is the official journal of the Research Society on Alcoholism and the International Society for Biomedical Research on Alcoholism. The ACER paper is entitled "Self-Reported Alcohol Consumption and the Risk of Alcohol-Related Problems: A Comparative Risk-Curve Analysis of the Three Baltic Countries, Sweden and Italy." The study was funded by the Swedish Council for Working Life and Social Research. This release is supported by the Addiction Technology Transfer Center Network at http://www.
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| 0.959806 | 938 | 2.578125 | 3 |
Definitions for qomkʊm
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word qom
A city in Iran.
Qom is a city in Iran.It is In between South Asia and West Asia It lies 156 kilometres by road southwest of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province. At the 2006 census, its population was 957,496, in 241,827 families. It is situated on the banks of the Qom River. Qom is considered holy by Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida. The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.
The numerical value of qom in Chaldean Numerology is: 3
The numerical value of qom in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
In the negotiations, we will not accept imposition, humiliation and the continuation of sanctions, like all of the days of the history of this revolution, the government desires the support of the people and especially the support of the people of Qom, the seminary and the senior clerics.
Images & Illustrations of qom
Translations for qom
From our Multilingual Translation Dictionary
Get even more translations for qom »
Find a translation for the qom definition in other languages:
Select another language:
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| 0.878399 | 304 | 2.671875 | 3 |
In the late 1800s, the United States government opened several off-reservation
boarding schools, intending to assimilate Native American children into
"It was a very dark period," says Philip Klasky, a lecturer
in the American Indian studies department. "Indian children were
taken from their homes and sent to schools where they were forbidden
to speak their own language."
Among the children were members of the Southern Paiute Indian tribe
sent to the Sherman Indian High School in Riverside. "Sherman was
infamous for poor health conditions, and many children died there of
tuberculosis," Klasky says.
Although the Southern Paiute children were buried in the school's cemetery,
in their descendants' eyes they were never truly laid to rest. The family
members the children had left behind weren't present to administer the
tribal ceremony believed to set their spirits on their sacred journey
-- singing a cycle of 142 songs.
Last summer Klasky and American Indian studies Assistant Professor Melissa
Nelson gathered with tribe members at the Riverside cemetery to record
the long overdue ceremony. The resulting film, "The Salt Song Trail:
Bringing Creation Back Together," will stand as a record for future
generations of the Southern Paiute people.
The project is one of many that Klasky and Nelson are working on through
the The Cultural Conservancy, a San Francisco-based nonprofit with educational
programs focused on native land conservation, cultural and ecological
restoration, and traditional indigenous arts and spiritual values. This
summer Klasky and Nelson will lead workshops in audio recording techniques
at reservations in the South West so that American Indian culture won't
slip through the cracks of history.
"Some tribal elders have whole dictionaries stored in their head,
epic poetry, important traditions that might otherwise be lost forever,"
"The Salt Song Trail: Bringing Creation Back Together" will
premiere at The Cultural Conservancy's 20th anniversary celebration
-- Adrianne Bee
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http://www.sfsu.edu/~sfsumag/archive/summer_05/campus8.html
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en
| 0.952364 | 417 | 3.234375 | 3 |
A German Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany, Kissinger rose to prominence as a Harvard University professor of government in the 1950s and 1960s. He then became the most celebrated and controversial U.S. diplomat since the Second World War in the administrations of Richard M. Nixon and Gerald Ford. As Nixon’s national security adviser he concentrated power in the White House and rendered Secretary of State William Rogers and the professional foreign service almost irrelevant by conducting personal, secret negotiations with North Vietnam, the Soviet Union, and China. He negotiated the Paris agreements of 1973 ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War, engineered a short-lived era of détente with the Soviet Union, and opened frozen relations with the People’s Republic of China. As secretary of state he shuttled among the capitals of Israel, Egypt, and Syria after the 1973 Middle East war.
A gregarious but manipulative man, Kissinger, seeking power and favorable publicity, cultivated prominent officials and influential reporters. For a while he achieved more popularity than any modern American diplomat. The Gallup poll listed him as the most admired man in America in 1972 and 1973. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1973 for his negotiations leading to the Paris peace accords that ended U.S. military action in Vietnam. Journalists lauded him as a “genius” and the “smartest guy around” after his secret trip to Beijing in July 1971 prepared the way for Nixon’s visit to China in February 1972. Egyptian politicians called him “the magician” for his disengagement agreements separating Israeli and Arab armies.
Kissinger’s reputation faded after 1973. During the Watergate scandal, congressional investigators discovered that he had ordered the fbi to tap the telephones of subordinates on the staff of the National Security Council, a charge he had denied earlier. Congress also learned that he had tried to block the accession to power of Chile’s President Salvador Allende Gossens in 1970 and had helped destabilize Allende’s Socialist party government thereafter.
Some of Kissinger’s foreign policy achievements crumbled in 1975 and 1976. The Communists’ victory in Vietnam and Cambodia destroyed the Paris peace accords, and détente with the Soviet Union never fulfilled the hopes Kissinger had aroused. By 1976 the United States and the Soviet Union had not moved beyond the 1972 Interim Agreement limiting strategic arms to conclude a full-fledged Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
Kissinger became a liability for President Ford during the 1976 presidential election. Ronald Reagan, challenging Ford for the Republican nomination, and Democrat Jimmy Carter both assailed Kissinger’s policy of détente with the Soviet Union for ignoring Soviet abuses of human rights and Moscow’s greater assertiveness in international relations. Reagan complained that Kissinger’s program offered “the peace of the grave.” Carter accused him of conducting “lone ranger diplomacy” by excluding Congress and foreign affairs professionals from foreign policy matters.
Kissinger’s flair for dramatic diplomatic gestures brought him fame, and it encouraged diplomats in the Carter, Reagan, and George Bush administrations to try to emulate his accomplishments. He failed, however, to create the “structure of peace” he had promised. By 1977 he had lost control over American foreign policy, and no one after him ever dominated the process as he had from 1969 to 1974.
The Reader’s Companion to American History. Eric Foner and John A. Garraty, Editors. Copyright © 1991 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.
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en
| 0.95081 | 737 | 2.828125 | 3 |
EPA Rule Impoverishes Minorities
CO2 Regulation Disproportionately Burdens Blacks and Hispanics
Today, the National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC) released a study on the threat of EPA regulations to low-income groups and minorities. The study finds that EPA’s so-called “Clean Power Plan” will inflict severe and disproportionate economic burdens on poor families, especially minorities. In particular, the rule will impose the most harm on residents of seven states with the highest concentrations of Blacks and Hispanics.
“The EPA’s carbon dioxide regulation is a slap in the face to poor and minority families,” said NBCC President and CEO Harry Alford. “These communities already suffer from higher unemployment and poverty rates compared to the rest of the country, yet EPA’s regressive energy tax threatens to push minorities and low-income Americans even further into poverty.”
Below are key findings from the study:
- EPA’s rule increases Black poverty by 23% and Hispanic poverty by 26%.
- In 2035, job losses total 7 million for Blacks and nearly 12 million for Hispanics.
- In 2035, Black and Hispanic median household income will be $455 and $515 less, respectively.
- Compared to Whites, Blacks and Hispanics spend 20% and 90% more of their income on food, 10% and 5% more on housing, 40% more on clothing, and 50% and 10% more on utilities, respectively.
- The rule will especially harm residents of seven states with the highest concentrations of Blacks and Hispanics: Arizona, California, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, New York, and Texas.
- EPA’s rule harms minorities’ health by forcing tradeoffs between housing, food, and energy. Inability to pay energy bills is second only to inability to pay rent as the leading cause of homelessness.
“EPA’s apparent indifference to the plight of low-income and minority households is inexcusable,” concluded Alford. “We should pursue policies that expand opportunity for the less fortunate, not ones that further disadvantage them. The only solution is for EPA to withdraw its rule.”
Dr. Roger Bezdek, president of Management Information Services, Inc., authored the study.
To read the full study, click here.
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en
| 0.924868 | 483 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Nextbigfuture covered Hod Lipson's talk in 2010 at the foresight conference.
Hod Lipson's website is here
Factory @ Home: The Emerging Economy of Personal Fabrication (103 pages)
Robots can observe and reconstruct their own behaviors and use this information to adapt to new circumstances.
Such advances are important because self-reflection plays a key role in accelerating adaptation by reducing costs of physical experimentation, he said. Similarly, the ability of a machine to reconstruct the morphology and behavior of other machines is important to cooperation and competition. Lipson demonstrated a number of experiments on self-reflecting robotic systems, arguing that reflective processes are essential in achieving meta-cognitive capacities, including consciousness and, ultimately, a form of self-awareness.
In a second talk (Feb. 21), Lipson discussed the emergence of solid free-form fabrication technology, which allows 3-D printing of various structures, layer by layer, from electronic blueprints. While this technology has been in existence for more than two decades, this process has recently been explored for tissue engineering. In particular, new developments in multimaterial printing may allow these compact "fabbers" to move from printing custom implants and scaffolds to "printing" live tissue.
His talk also touched on his experience with the open-source Fab@Home project and its use in printing a variety of biological and non-biological integrated systems. He concluded with some of the opportunities that this technology offers for moving from traditional biomaterials to digital tissue constructs.
Conclusion of Factory @ Home: The Emerging Economy of Personal Fabrication (103 pages)
Personal-scale manufacturing machines use the same fabrication methods as their
larger, industrial ancestors, but are smaller, cheaper, and easier to use. Home-scale machines, such as 3D printers, laser cutters, and programmable sewing machines, combined with the right electronic design blueprint, enable people to manufacture functioning products at home, on demand, at the press of a button. These
technologies make manufacturing accessible to everyone; for the first time, designing and making custom objects is cheap, easy, and fun. Recent rapid technological advances in design software and personal manufacturing machines, combined with shrinking costs of machines and materials, increasingly active and helpful online user communities, plus most peoples’ tendency to conduct more and more daily activities online, will tip personal fabrication from the realm of hobbyists and pioneers to the mainstream.
Personal manufacturing technologies will profoundly impact how we design, make,
transport, and consume physical products. As manufacturing technologies follow the
path from factory to home use, like personal computers, “personalized”
manufacturing tools will enable consumers, schools and businesses to work and play
in new ways. Emerging manufacturing technologies will usher in an industrial
“evolution” that combines the best of mass and artisan production models, and has
the potential to partially reverse the trend to outsourcing. Personal manufacturing
technologies will unleash “long tail” global markets for custom goods, whose sales
volumes of will be profitable enough to enable specialists, niche manufacturing, and
design companies to make a good living. Underserved communities will be able to
design and manufacture their own medical devices, toys, machine parts and other
tools locally, using local materials. At school, personal-scale manufacturing tools will empower a new generation of innovators, and spark student interest in science,
technology, engineering and math (STEM) education.
Like computing, transportation and communication, shrinking manufacturing tools
represent a strategic infrastructure technology that has the potential to catalyze
innovation in many other fields and industries. These technologies remove the
barriers of investment in heavy machinery and specialized operator skill, so
consumers, for the first time since the era of artisan craft production, will lead the design and manufacturing process. We have the opportunity to create a new retail
ecosystem and manufacturing economy in the U.S. so we can continue to lead the rest
of the world in product innovation and manufacturing. New business models will
become possible, such as small-scale, regional manufacturing hubs, mom and pop shops that create niche products for a global market, custom and on-demand
manufacturing, and toolkit-based industrial product design and development.
Despite their great promise, successful adoption of personal manufacturing
technologies is not assured. A number of barriers stand in the way that discourage
widespread home, school and business use such as safety concerns, part
standardization and version control challenges, intellectual property issues and
creating appropriate regulatory controls. Thoughtful and visionary government
investment is needed to ensure we establish the U.S. as the world leader in personal
fabrication technologies. Appropriate government policies will nourish the potential
of these technologies to promote STEM education, create new industries and
innovation-based domestic jobs, provide a new design space to foster invention, and
spark the formation of new businesses.
If you liked this article, please give it a quick review on ycombinator or StumbleUpon. Thanks
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The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC on 26 December
with the .... The slip did not happen instantaneously but took place in two phases
over a period of several minutes: Seismogr...
Dec 22, 2014 ... The Boxing Day Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami in 2004 was the ... and
the public could react – but this did not happen in 2004.
Dec 24, 2014 ... On December 26, 2004 morning walkers and fishermen residing along the
eastern coast of India ... This earthquake occurred along a thrust fault in the
subduction zone where the Indian tectonic .... Why does it cost so much?
Dec 26, 2004 ... Most tsunamis occur in the Pacific because the ocean basin is rimmed by the
Ring ... The Pacific Ocean does have a Tsunami warning system.
The December 26, 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was caused by an earthquake
that is thought to have had the energy of 23,000 Hiroshima-type atomic bombs.
Sumatra tsunami, Sumatra Andaman 2004 Sumatra Tsunami, Banda Aceh. ...
tsunami of 2004 was an undersea megathrust earthquake that occurred at 7:59 ...
On such coasts, a tsunami won't be able to run inland as far as it did in Aceh, the
The giant 2004 Sumatra earthquake ruptured the greatest fault length of any ...
Animation of the 2004 tsunami propagation across the Indian Ocean, from ...
www.ask.com/youtube?q=How Did The 2004 Tsunami Happen&v=g15sZ_d2WUY
Oct 24, 2008 ... The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea earthquake that occurred
at 00:58:53 UTC on December 26, 2004, with an epicentre off ...
Dec 26, 2014 ... 26, 2004, started with an earthquake, off the coast of Sumatra, and only got ...
Tiina Seppanen survived, but more than 100,000 others did not. ... issue, here in
the TIME Vault, to learn more about what happened: Tsunami.
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami: how it happened, why we didn't
... detect the earthquake because it was not strong even though one did occur.
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| 0.914421 | 472 | 3.25 | 3 |
In the early 1980s, the age of the personal computer had arrived and "computerphobia" was suddenly everywhere. Sufferers experienced "a range of resistances, fears, anxieties, and hostilities," according to the 1996 book Women and Computers. "These can take such forms as fear of physically touching the computer or of damaging it and what's inside it, a reluctance to read or talk about computers, feeling threatened by those who do know something about them, feeling that you can be replaced by a machine, become a slave to it, or feeling aggressive towards computers."
Humans often converge around massive technological shifts—around any change, really—with a flurry of anxieties. In the early days of the telephone, people wondered if the machines might be used to communicate with the dead. Today, it is the smartphone that has people jittery. (Are iPhones making us stupid? Lazy? Narcissistic? Anti-social?)
Three decades ago, "Computerphobia" came up in magazines, newspapers, computer training manuals, psychology studies, and advertising copy. "Who knows, maybe even the most dedicated computerphobes in your company will warm up to the PC after this," copywriters offered in a 1986 ad for IBM's Gem software—an interface designed for those who might be intimidated by the more complicated command-driven DOS operating system. Here's how Google tracks mentions of "computerphobia" in books over a 65-year period:
What some people didn't yet understand in the 1980s was that learning to use a computer was "much more like taking up a musical instrument than following instructions how to use an electrical appliance, such as a toaster," wrote Paul Strassmann in his 1985 book, Information Payoff. (Toasters come up surprisingly often in early coverage of personal computers: "Computers won't make toast or vacuum a carpet," wrote the author of a 1983 Personal Computing cover story about computerphobia.) The same article identified subsets of anxieties that contribute to the phobia: fear of breaking the computer, fear of losing power, fear of looking stupid, and fear of lacking control. "Perhaps we're led to believe that anyone who doesn't have a keen interest in and desire to use a personal computer must be sick," Personal Computing's Charles Rubin wrote.
Several publications devoted coverage to computerphobia, and offered tips for how to treat it. "The most important thing to remember about computerphobia is that it's a natural reaction to something unfamiliar," Rubin wrote. "If you're trying to use a personal computer or are considering using one, remember: Allow yourself to be a little ignorant for a while. Plan to spend some time learning; give the computer a chance to prove itself before you decide you can't use it; take things a step at a time; make sure you read the documentation carefully; and finally, don't forget that you're in charge, not the computer."
In 1985, The New York Times suggested watching computer tutorial videos on television—a less threatening screen than a computer monitor for those who were used to TV but new to computing. ("And unlike the more common floppy-only interactive computer programs, these, with their familiar video images accompanying the lessons, help to make personal computing comfortably commonplace," the Times wrote.)
For others, computerphobia wasn't as much about fear as it was about apathy. Word processors weren't really scary but boring, New York magazine wrote in 1986. "If the new word processors are being offered as an antidote to computerphobia... the companies introducing them forgot one major ingredient—fun... They are like children's klutzy training bikes in a world full of sexy Japanese racing cycles."
"Computerphobia" didn't fall out of fashion until the 1990s, when a new realm of technological anxiety became the target: cyberspace. Another word that today sounds impossibly old-fashioned, but in its earliest utterances was futuristic enough for some people to seem frightening.
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| 0.972247 | 818 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Recent astronomy news. There are 3 trillion stars in the Milky Way. The Milky way is about 8 times bigger than was thought. We still have a shaky understanding of our own galaxy as refined measurements of star speed in the arms indicates that the volume is about 8 times more than was previously believed.
This is something that also relates to SETI and various speculation about aliens. We are still finding larger than Pluto size objects in our own solar system and are trying to pin down the size of the galaxy to an order of magnitude.
This energy scale is slightly off in that the Milky Way energy production comes at a little over 3 X 10**47 joules. Note: the point at 10**41 joules. A Type III civilization with 10**47 joules for one year could accelerate one million earth size planets to half the speed of light using one years worth of energy.
I was interested in calculating what a Kardashev Type III civilization [using the equivalent of all the solar power in a galaxy] that is mind uploaded and using reversible computing yet is still using up all of its power would be doing in terms of ballpark capabilities. How many human brain equivalents ? The estimate provides some scale to what a true galactic civilization should be minimally capable.
The performance per unit power of ordinary irreversible computing (which does an irreversible storage operation with every logic-gate operation) will start to level off, at a maximum level of at most 3.5 X 10**22 irreversible bit-operations per second in a 100 W computer that disposes displaced entropy into a room-temperature (300 K) thermal reservoir. This rate is about a million times higher than the maximum rate of bit operations in a ~30-million-gate, 1 GHz processor or 100,000 times more than an average computer now.
Reversible computing on wikipedia
Probably the largest motivation for the study of hardware and software technologies aimed at actually implementing reversible computing is that they offer what is predicted to be the only potential way to improve the energy efficiency of computers beyond the fundamental von Neumann-Landauer limit of kT ln 2 energy dissipated per irreversible bit operation, where k is Boltzmann's constant of 1.38 × 10−23 J/K, and T is the temperature of the environment into which unwanted entropy will be expelled.
As of 2005, irreversible device technology has at most ~3-4 orders of magnitude of power-performance improvements remaining.
* And then, the firm kT ln 2 (VNL) limit is encountered.
But, a wide variety of proposed reversible device technologies have been analyzed by physicists.
* With theoretical power-performance up to 10-12 orders of magnitude better than today’s CMOS! [Note: The best that we are capable of theorizing as possible would expect to be the minimum capability for the galactic Kardashev 3 civilization.]
o Ultimate limits are unclear.
So instead of 3.5 X 10*20 per watt for irreversible.
A likely minimum reversible computing capability for an advanced civilization is 10**29 operations per watt. Plus that civilization definitely could have figured out more tricks to go a lot higher.
If 10**19 operations per second is a likely upper bound to simulate a human mind, then one watt could be used to simulate 10 billion human mind equivalents. This would be simulating all the minds on earth for one watt using reasonably advanced reversible computing.
A watt is one joule of energy per second.
3*10**47 joules per year for the galaxy
31, 556 ,926 seconds per year.
10*40 joules per second for the galaxy. (Note: Wikipedia has this at 10**37 watts which is also joule per second. The Wikipedia estimates are before the adjustments to the size of the Milky Way.)
10**69 reversible operations per second.
10**19 ops/second likely level of one uploaded human mind.
The Type III civilization has a lower end of 10**50 simulated human mind equivalents.
With about 10 billion people as the population equivalent of our current world of human minds. We could consider that number a human world-mind equivalent.
The Type III civilization has a lower end of 10**40 simulated human world-mind equivalents.
The human brain has about 100 billion neurons and 10**14 to 10**15 synapses.
The range between a single cell and the human brain is about 15 orders of magnitude. The Type III civilization would exceed a world-mind by going over that range almost three times.
10**15 world-minds would exceed the world-mind as much as a human mind exceeds a single cell.
10**30 world-minds would exceed the 10**15 world-minds as much as a human mind exceeds a single cell.
10**40 world-minds would exceed the 10**30 world-mind by 10 billion times.
Because all the simulated minds would be on a reversible computing basis, then in time and everything would be reversible in the advanced simulated existence. Anything could be undone and redone/altered in the high fidelity simulated environment.
Reversible computing abstracts
Carl Sagan suggested adding another dimension: the information available to the civilization. He assigned the letter A to represent 10**6 unique bits of information (less than any recorded human culture) and each successive letter to represent an order of magnitude increase, so that a level Z civilization would have 10**31 bits. In this classification, 1973 Earth is a 0.7 H civilization, with access to 10**13 bits of information. Sagan believed that no civilization has yet reached level Z, conjecturing that so much unique information would exceed that of all the intelligent species in a galactic supercluster and observing that the universe is not old enough to effectively exchange information over larger distances. The information and energy axes are independent, so that even a level Z civilization would not need to be Kardeshev Type III.
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You might see this universal warning sign for radiation in a hospital. A hospital is a place for healing. Why would it have a sign warning people of dangerous radiation?
Why It Matters
- Radionuclide therapy might be one reason. Radionuclide therapy is a method of curing cancer that uses radioactive isotopes.
- Watch this excellent animated video showing how radionuclide therapy works:
Can You Apply It?
At the link below, learn more about beta decay and its uses. Then answer the questions that follow.
- Who discovered beta decay? What is another name for beta particles?
- Beta particles have a lot of energy. What does it take to stop them?
- What is radionuclide therapy?
- Explain how radionuclide therapy works.
- What is another real-world application of beta decay?
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What if your students could create a molecular machine that might one day help save someone’s life—just by playing a game? Well, with the help of NOVA’s new RNA Lab, they actually can. The RNA Lab is an extension of a game called Eterna, which enables players to help scientists understand an important family of biomolecules called RNAs. Here’s how it works.
Scientists have known about RNA for decades, but until recently thought it was little more than a messenger between DNA and proteins. Today, the science community is beginning to understand how central RNA is to the origin of life, evolution, and the cellular machinery that keeps us alive. Furthermore, RNA medicine may be our best hope for treating currently incurable diseases.
NOVA’s RNA Lab gives teachers and students an engaging way to explore important concepts in life sciences and engineering. By playing the NOVA version of Eterna, and by watching a series of animated videos, students discover that molecular RNA “machines” carry out a wide variety of essential functions in the human body, from producing proteins to fighting viruses. Learners will go on a journey through billions of years of evolutionary history to see how RNA may have played a pivotal role in helping life to form on Earth. And they’ll develop their problem-solving skills as they’re coached through a series of RNA folding puzzles to become master molecular engineers.
Okay, RNA is important. So what’s the problem? And how in the world can online gamers help solve it?
It’s true that some RNAs are well understood, such as messenger RNAs that carry the genetic code to make proteins. But others are long strands that fold up into elaborate shapes, and little is known about how these shapes form. That’s a big problem, because the precise shape into which an RNA molecule folds determines its function. One day, scientists hope to create RNA machines that could become the basis of lifesaving therapies. But to do this, they need to understand exactly how a given strand of RNA will fold in three dimensions.
Although it might seem counterintuitive, it turns out that humans––if you gather enough of them––are better than computers at predicting the patterns that guide RNA folding. No computer algorithm has yet been written that can do the job more effectively than the human mind. To take advantage of these distinctly human skills, computer scientists Adrien Treuille and Jeehyung Lee from Carnegie Mellon University teamed up with biophysicist Rhiju Das at Stanford to create the Eterna game that allows anyone––not just experts––to find these RNA folding patterns.
As a postdoc, Treuille founded the team that built the protein folding game Foldit that lets untrained amateurs speed up biochemical research by solving fun visual puzzles. Today, the Foldit player community has logged more than a million hours helping scientists understand how proteins fold into the intricate shapes that allow them to perform so many functions essential to life.
Eterna goes a step further than Foldit. Eterna players are challenged to design molecules online, but also, they compete with each other to have their RNA designs created in the laboratory. Each week, players vote for their favorite player-originated designs. By synthesizing the winning RNAs, scientists can see if they fold as predicted to form biologically active molecules. The very best molecules will become the basis of a molecular toolkit to explore possible RNA-based therapies.
So, how can your students compete to have their RNA designs made and tested by scientists?
1) Learn about RNAs and how to design them by playing Eterna in the NOVA RNA Lab.
2) After they “graduate,” keep playing on the Eterna website––the points they earn in the NOVA RNA Lab (a total of 5000) will be transferred with them.
3) Once on Eterna, earn 5000 more points and gain entry into the Eterna Lab, where the worldwide Eterna community votes for the best RNA designs.
4) Winning RNA designs will be made and tested by scientists to see if they fold as predicted.
Solving the problem of RNA folding really can change the world. Armed with new insights from Eterna players, biomedical researchers hope to design new therapies that have the potential to benefit millions. Could one of your student’s RNA designs be at the heart of one of these ground-breaking therapies? There’s only one way to find out…
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| 0.955624 | 936 | 4.21875 | 4 |
KENNEL COUGH (Bordetella) Vaccine
PERMISSION GRANTED TO CROSS-POST THIS MESSAGE
In an article from the October-December 2007, Vol. 26, #3 Journal of American Holistic Veterinary Medical Association
, entitled Summary of a Presentation by Dr. Ron Schultz
written by Patricia Monahan Jordan, DVM, it states that "Kennel cough is not a vaccinatable disease, realize this and stop the boarding kennels from making the dogs sick."
Dr. Ronald Schultz declares in his An Update on What Everyone Needs to KNow about Canine and Feline Vaccination Programs"
published in the 2008 Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the AHVMA, Pages 325-336: "kennel cough is not preventable with vaccines."
Regarding the Bordetella
(Kennel Cough) vaccine, on Page 2 of the American Animal Hospital Association's 2003 Canine Vaccine Guidelines,
it states that "Optional or 'noncore' vaccines are those that the committee believe should be considered only in special circumstances because their use is more dependent on the exposure risk of the individual animal. Issues of geographic distribution and lifestyle should be considered before administering these vaccines. In addition, the diseases involved are generally self-limiting or respond readily to treatment. The committee believes this group of vaccines comprises distemper-meases virus (D-MV), canine parainfluenza virus (CPIV), Leptospira spp., Bordetella bronchispetica, and Borrelia burdorferi."
Further, on Page 14 of the AAHA Guidelines
, it states: "Bordetella bronchiseptica (B. bronchiseptica): Bordetella bronchiseptica is another cause of the “kennel cough” syn-drome. Infection in some susceptible dogs generally causes a self-limiting, upper respiratory disease and rarely causes life-threatening disease in otherwise healthy animals. Clini-cal disease resolves quickly when treated with appropriate antibiotics. Vaccination does not block infection but appears to lessen clinical disease, and vaccines provide a short DOI (<1 year) [table 2]. It is also unknown whether current vaccine strains protect against all field strains."
Combination Vaccines, Multiple Shots
--on Page 16 of the 2003 AAHA Guidelines
under Immunological Factors Determining Vaccine Safety
, it states that: "Although increasing the number of components in a vaccine may be more convenient for the practitioner or owner, the likelihood for adverse effects may increase. Also, interference can occur among the components. Care must be taken not to administer a product containing too many vaccines simultaneously if adverse events are to be avoided and optimal immune responses are sought. "
Below are links to excellent information on veterinary vaccines from authoritative sources:
Duration of Immunity to Canine Vaccines: What We Know and Don't Know
, Dr. Ronald Schultz Duration of Immunity
What Everyone Needs to Know about Canine Vaccines,
Dr. Ronald Schultz
What Everyone Needs to Know About Canine Vaccines
Age and Long-term Protective Immunity in Dogs and Cats
, Dr. Ronald Schultz et als., Journal of Comparative Pathology
January 2010 ScienceDirect - Journal of Comparative Pathology : Age and Long-term Protective Immunity in Dogs and Cats
Genetically Engineered and Modified Live Virus Vaccines;Public Health and Animal Welfare Concerns
by Michael W. Fox BVetMed,PhD,DSc.MRCVS
Genetically Engineered & Modified Live Virus Vaccines: Public Health And Animal Welfare Concerns
Vaccination: An Overview
Dr. Melissa Kennedy, DVM360 Vaccination: An overview (Proceedings) - Veterinary Healthcare
World Small Animal Veterinay Association's 2010 Guidelines for the Vaccination of Dogs and Cats World Small Animal Veterinary Association - WSAVA - Vaccine Guideline 1
(scroll down to Vaccine Guidelines 2010 http://www.wsava.org/PDF/Misc/Vaccin...elines2010.pdf
World Small Animal Veterinary Association 2007 Vaccine Guidelines - WSAVA - Scientific Advisory Committee
Scroll down to Vaccine Guidelines 2007 (PDF)
The 2003 American Animal Hospital Association's Canine Vaccine Guidelines
are accessible online at Special Report
The 2006 American Animal Hospital Association's Canine Vaccine Guidelines
are downloadable in PDF format at
Veterinarian, Dr. Robert Rogers,has an excellent presentation on veterinary vaccines at Home
October 1, 2002 DVM Newsletter
article entitled, AVMA, AAHA to Release Vaccine Positions
, AVMA, AAHA to release vaccine positions - DVM
July 1, 2003 DVM Newsletter
article entitled, What Do We Tell Our Clients?
, Developing thorough plan to educate staff on changing vaccine protocols essential for maintaining solid relationships with clients and ensuring quality care 'What do we tell our clients?' - DVM
July 1, 2003, DVM Newsletter
article, Developing Common Sense Strategies for Fiscal Responsibility: Using an interactive template to plan service protocol changes Developing common sense strategies for fiscal responsibility - DVM
Animal Wellness Magazine
Article Vol. 8 Issue 6, How Often Does he REALLY Need A Rabies Shot Animal Wellness Magazine - devoted to natural health in animals
The Rabies Challenge
Animal Wise Radio Interview
Listen to Animal Wise
(scroll down to The Rabies Challenge 12/9/07)
The Vaccine Challenge Animal Talk Naturally Online Radio Show » The Vaccine Challenge - Show #91
Rabies Prevention -- United States, 1991 Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP), Center for Disease Control's Morbidity and Mortality Weekly
March 22, 1991 / 40(RR03);1-19 Rabies Prevention -- United States, 1991 Recommendations of the Immunization Practices Advisory Committee (ACIP) "A fully vaccinated dog or cat is unlikely to become infected with rabies, although rare cases have been reported (48). In a nationwide study of rabies among dogs and cats in 1988, only one dog and two cats that were vaccinated contracted rabies (49). All three of these animals had received only single doses of vaccine; no documented vaccine failures occurred among dogs or cats that had received two vaccinations. "
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| 0.837216 | 1,304 | 2.609375 | 3 |
Kaitlyn Muller, a 15 year old female from the Internet asks on March 16, 2000,Could you tell me who discovered arsenic and when?
viewed 15757 times
If you are coming here for a school assignment the answer might be Albertus Magnus. But Arsenic has been known since ancient times. It is so old, nobody knows who truly first discovered it or when. According to Web Elements (click on element #33, As, Arsenic) "Arsenic compounds were mined by the early Chinese, Greek and Egyptian civilizations. No doubt they discovered its toxic properties early on. It is believed that Albertus Magnus isolated the element in 1250 A.D. by heating soap together with orpiment (arsenic trisulphide, As2S3)."
Note: All submissions are moderated prior to posting.
If you found this answer useful, please consider making a small donation to science.ca.
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“On yer bike “ was the famous imprecation uttered 30 years ago to those seeking work. Now the same message is being re-framed for those hoping to preserve their health.
Cycling and walking are in decline, according to the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence (Nice) and the trend must be reversed. These modes of transport should become the norm for short journeys and other ways should be found to increase physical activity, it says.
Issuing new guidance for schools, local authorities and employers it says more than six out of ten men and seven out of ten women are not physically active enough and risk suffering the consequences – heart disease, stroke and diabetes are up to 50 per cent more common among the inactive.
Levels of physical activity have been falling for decades and recent efforts to reverse the trend have failed. The average time spent travelling by foot or on a bicycle has decreased from 12.9 minutes a day in 1995/97 to 11 minutes a day in 2007.
Almost nine out of ten adults claim they can ride a bike but cycling accounts for just 2 per cent of journeys in Britain, less than half as many as in France (5 per cent) and a fraction of those in Denmark (19 per cent) and the Netherlands (26 per cent).
The problem starts in childhood, when habits are laid down that become life-long. Only just over half of boys aged 2-10 and a third of girls achieve the recommended levels of physical activity.
Official advice is for adults to do at least 150 minutes of moderate intensity exercise, such as brisk walking or cycling, each week in bouts of 10 minutes or more. Children up to age 18 are recommended to spend at least 60 minutes a day, and up to several hours, in vigorous or moderate exercise .
To boost cycling, the guidance urges local authorities to launch town-wide programmes including cycle hire schemes, car-free days and routes, signs and maps that emphasise its benefits.
Commuters using public transport can choose to get off the bus or train a stop or two short of their destination and complete their journey on foot. Walking routes should link with buses and trains to allow people to do this, the guidance says.
Schools should encourage pupils to cycle or walk to school by use of measures such as the “walking bus”, a group led by a teacher that collects children along a pre-arranged route.
Physical inactivity causes more deaths than obesity – only smoking, high blood pressure and high blood glucose are responsible for greater mortality. Yet 20 per cent of all car trips cover less than one mile and more than half cover less than five miles – journeys that could be made on foot or by bike.
Professor Mike Kelly, director for the Centre for Public Health Excellence at Nice, said; “We want to encourage and enable people to walk and cycle more and weave these forms of travel into everyday life. This guidance is aimed at making it easier for people to do this.”
Norman Baker, transport minister, said: “From April the responsibility for public health will return to local authorities and we want transport, planning and health professionals to work together to help people change the way they travel.”
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The Obama administration has announced $350 million in stimulus funds to help expand geothermal resources and break down technological barriers that stand in the way of its development. This is a huge jump in funding, dwarfing all previous government commitments and is more than all the funding for geothermal energy put together over the last 20 years. It also represents a dramatic reversal of previous trends of diminishing funding for this often overlooked renewable energy sector.
“We have a choice. We can remain the world’s leading importer of oil, or we can become the world’s leading exporter of clean energy,” said President Obama announcing the new funding. “We can hand over the jobs of the future to our competitors, or we can confront what they have already recognized as the great opportunity of our time: the nation that leads the world in creating new sources of clean energy will be the nation that leads the 21st century global economy. That’s the nation I want America to be.”
“We have an ambitious agenda to put millions of people to work by investing in clean energy technology like solar and geothermal energy,” Energy Secretary Steven Chu said. “These technologies represent two pieces of a broad energy portfolio that will help us aggressively fight climate change and renew our position as a global leader in clean energy jobs.”
What is Geothermal Energy and What Makes it so Important?
Geothermal energy is a source of renewable energy that harnesses heat from the Earth to provide heating for buildings and for electricity generation. A recent MIT study has estimated that the US has somewhere around 100 gigawatts or more of geothermal energy capacity that could be developed with a reasonable investment in this sector.
This is important not only because it would represents a significant contribution to the overall electric energy generating capacity mix, but also because geothermal energy is a highly predictable energy source. In fact, geothermal plants can operate around the clock and provide uninterrupted “base load” electricity. Base load capacity is the minimum amount of power a utility must provide to its customers. Unlike wind or solar energy, which are subject to variable output depending on weather conditions geothermal energy plants will be able to provide reliable power onto the grid regardless of current weather conditions or time of day. The ability to provide “base load” capacity is a critically important quality and one that distinguishes geothermal energy from other renewable sources such as wind or solar. In this regard geothermal energy is like the large coal or nuclear fired thermal electric plants; it provides a steady flow of energy onto the grid.
To explore a different form of geothermal technology called geothermal heat pumps that uses the ground below us to heat and cool our buildings and provide hot water while using much less energy to do so, see our post: Geothermal Heat Pumps: Good for the Bottom Line, Good for the Nation and Good for the Earth
Recovery Act Funding Will Support Projects in Four Crucial Areas
These are: geothermal demonstration projects; Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) research and development; innovative exploration techniques; and a National Geothermal Data System, Resource Assessment and Classification System.
Geothermal Demonstration Projects will receive $140 Million to support demonstration projects that profile new technologies that enable geothermal energy development in new geographic areas, as well as geothermal energy production from oil and natural gas fields, geopressured fields, and low to moderate temperature geothermal resources.
Enhanced Geothermal Systems Technology Research and Development will receive $80 Million in funding to support research of EGS technology to allow geothermal power generation across much of the country. Conventional geothermal energy systems must be located near easily-accessible geothermal water resources that only exist in a few regions (mostly in the Western States) of the country. EGS makes use of available heat resources that can be found everywhere if one drills far enough down. It proposes to create engineered reservoirs – in suitable rock formations that have a suitable cap rock over the engineered reservoir. These engineered geothermal reservoirs can then be tapped to produce electricity. This is a long term project that many believe holds promise to eventually generate cost competitive clean electricity. The funding is designed to promote enabling research and development that will be required in order to demonstrate the EGS technology.
Innovative Exploration Techniques is slated to get $100 Million in funding to support projects that include exploration, siting, drilling, and characterization of a series of exploration wells utilizing innovative exploration techniques. The upfront exploration costs inherent in geothermal energy projects are one of the principle blocking factors to increased investment and development in this sector. The DOE hopes to help develop and validate new innovative exploration technologies and methods that can help reduce this level of upfront risk and investment in green field projects and in this manner promoting the discovery and development of geothermal resources.
National Geothermal Data System, Resource Assessment, and Classification System will receive $30 Million of funding, which will fund a nationwide assessment of geothermal resources, working through the USGS and other partners; establish a national geothermal data system to make resource data available to academia, researchers, and the private sector and develop a geothermal resource classification system for use in determining site potential. Building a detailed database and characterization of geothermal energy resources nationwide is important for the long term success of geothermal energy.
Geothermal energy certainly has a lot of potential and could become a very important part of our future energy mix. This will be especially true if enhanced geothermal systems technology proves feasible and engineered geothermal reservoirs can be created very close to the large urban power markets. In this case EGS geothermal energy could become the single most important energy supplier of both electricity and co-generated heat resources for much of the nation. It would have the advantage of being able to be sited close to where power was needed, to be able to deliver heat as well as electricity and as with all geothermal resources it would contribute to the base load generating capacity that is so critical to the grid’s functionality.
It is no over statement to say that geothermal energy will be around as long as Earth has a molten core – and that is a very long time. It is essentially renewable and inexhaustible, although fields can become temporarily discharged if over-exploited.
So what’s not to like? One thing that is missing from the funding is any funding for technology or processes that make geothermal energy cleaner. In fact many hot steam geothermal resources and the plants that exploit them are a source of a fair bit of air pollution including hydrogen sulfide emissions. Geothermal energy will need to solve its own emission problems if it truly wants to wear the green mantle that it otherwise truly does deserve.
© 2009, Chris de Morsella. All rights reserved. Do not republish.
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A stroll through Anna Schmidt's backyard touches all the senses. Colorful tomatoes and peppers commingle with pungent herbs, whose fragrances dance in the afternoon breeze. Insects buzz in and out, pollinating fruit and filling the air with their cacophonous hum.
To obtain this sensational garden, Anna uses only natural components. She creates a balanced garden ecosystem that allows plants to flourish and provide the highest possible yield. Anna reaps the benefit of her bountiful yard with nutrition-packed fresh vegetables. Follow these ideas for a healthy garden that actually becomes more productive over time.
Start With Soil
Plants need well-drained soil with plenty of nutrients. Follow these steps to make sure your soil drains well.
- Limit use of the rototiller because it destroys soil structure. Instead, use a garden fork to break up the ground.
- Mushroom compost from a garden center provides an affordable way to put organic matter back into the soil.
- Rotate the plants you grow in your garden every season so that the same nutrients aren't depleted year after year. Follow a shallow-rooted plant, such as lettuce, with a deep-rooted plant, such as tomato, to help break up the soil.
- Don't walk on the garden because it causes compaction, which breaks down soil structure and reduces its ability to drain.
A World of Bugs
When healthy plants grow in healthy soil, a diversity of insects follows. The key is to establish enough beneficial bugs to control the bad ones. It's actually very simple. To provide a habitat for beneficial insects, such as ladybugs, wasps, and spiders, keep flowering plants in the garden as long as possible. Don't spray insecticides that kill all bugs indiscriminately. Instead, monitor an outbreak of bad bugs, and use a spray made specifically for those.
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January 17, 2011
Complex Neuronal Communication Behind Jump Execution
When danger looms, locusts on the ground leap and fly away. The timing and precision of that leap starts with the complex coding of visual information within a single neuron.
In the current edition of the journal Neuron, researchers at Baylor College of Medicine and the University of Utah uncovered three distinct features in the communication process of a sensory neuron that control distinct motor aspects of escape behavior "“ firing rate threshold, peak firing time and spike count."This process has been studied for years but it is only now that we have been able to record firing rates of neurons in freely moving animals," said Dr. Fabrizio Gabbiani, associate professor of neuroscience at BCM. "When movement happens naturally, its relation to neuronal firing is interpreted more easily and accurately."
Jump muscles in the leg
Researchers at the University of Utah created a microchip used along with a digital telemetry system that allowed Haleh Fotowat, a graduate student in the department of neuroscience at BCM, to record the activity of the descending contralateral movement detector (DCMD) neuron and of thoracic motoneurons that control the jump muscles in the leg. The DCMD transmits visual information about the threat to these motoneurons in thoracic motor centers.
"We were able to measure the firing rate of the detector neuron and predict when the insect will jump," said Gabbiani.
In their study, researchers used an image that grew bigger and appeared to be getting closer to trigger the locust's jump.
The response of the DCMD can be summarized by three essential features: firing rate threshold, peak firing time and spike count.
"As the object gets bigger, the firing rate increases. When the firing rate crosses a certain threshold, about 220 spikes per second, we start to see what we call an initial energy storage phase. Muscles begin to contract to store energy, like loading a spring," said Gabbiani.
The firing rate reaches a peak and then begins to decrease. Researchers say the time of the peak predicts when locusts will jump. Whether locusts will jump at all depends on the number of spikes generated from the time the energy storage phase begins.
"If I know the time of the peak, then I know when they are going to jump," said Gabbiani. "Also, if they start storing energy late, then they can't generate enough spikes and you can predict with high accuracy that they won't jump."
The next step is to look at escape behaviors while the insect is in flight.
"Right now, we want to understand this process fully because this is the first time we see this type of encoding of information at different levels in a single neuron firing rate," said Gabbiani. "There is essentially no reason to believe that the encoding of escape behaviors would not be similar in other animals."
Others who took part in this study include Reid R. Harrison, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT. Gabbiani is also with the department of computational and applied mathematics at Rice University.
The study was funded by the Air Force Research Laboratory, the Human Frountier Science Program, the National Institute of Mental Health and the National Science Foundation.
On the Net:
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German archaeologists have unearthed what may be the remains of the world’s oldest handbag. Although the purse itself, which was likely made of leather or linen, has long succumbed to decay, an outer flap comprising more than 100 dog teeth remains perfectly preserved. The teeth—sharp canines all—were probably a form of embellishment, according to Susanne Friederich of the Sachsen-Anhalt State Archaeology and Preservation Office. “Over the years the leather or fabric disappeared, and all that’s left is the teeth,” she told National Geographic on Wednesday. “They’re all pointing in the same direction, so it looks a lot like a modern handbag flap.”
Photo by Shutterstock
THE ORIGINAL IT BAG
The teeth were discovered in a surface coal mine not far from Leipzig, next to the body of a woman buried at the end of the Stone Age between 2,500 and 2,200 B.C. The excavation has also uncovered evidence of Stone and Bronze Age settlements, including more than 300 graves, hundreds of stone tools, spear points, ceramic vessels, bone buttons, and an amber necklace. But even among these rare finds, the purse is revelation. “It’s the first time we can show direct evidence of a bag like this,” Friederich said.
Dog teeth were fairly common in burials of that period, mostly in the form of necklaces or hair ornaments.
As surprising as it is for us today, dog teeth were actually fairly common in burials of that period, mostly in the form of necklaces or hair ornaments. “It seems to have been very fashionable at the time,” said Harald Staueble, senior archaeologist at Germany’s Saxon State Archaeology Office. “Not everyone was buried with such nice things—just the really special graves.”
Cavepeople, they were just like us.
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Ask Dr. SETI ®
Tune In The Universe!
by SETI League executive director Dr. H. Paul Shuch
You are a star voyager. You share your starship Earth with six thousand million other human passengers, as you hurtle across space and time. Your ship is adrift in a vast ocean of four hundred thousand million stars, which we call the Milky Way. How can you look out at those other suns and not wonder about the creatures inhabiting their starship planets? The question "Are We Alone?" is as old as our species, yet it is only within an eyeblink of human history that we have begun to develop technology to seek a meaningful answer.
Welcome to Tune In The Universe, a hypertext book about the amateur quest for our cosmic companions. I am H. Paul Shuch, executive director of the international SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence) League, and it is my privilege to lead you on this journey. In the chapters ahead, we will explore the scientific and technological breakthroughs which lead us to now envision a universe teeming with life. We will review the early efforts of the SETI discipline, discuss the various searches now underway, grapple with the challenge of recognizing what we see, and speculate on the impact which extra-terrestrial contact may have on our own starship, and its future course. But first, it is necessary to establish a few ground rules.
My personal background is radio astronomy. As a radio amateur, I use radio telescopes (sensitive microwave receivers, powerful computers and elaborate antennas) to sift through the cosmic static, in search of patterns which nature cannot produce by any mechanism known to us. This is probably not the only way to search for evidence of other civilizations in the cosmos, but these are the tools available to me. In recent years a number of phenomena (reported sightings, abductions, the Roswell incident, crop circles, Area 51, etc.) have defied explanation. These matters are certainly interesting, and may be worthy of further study by qualified experts. But we in the SETI community are primarily radio astronomers, arguably qualified to recover and analyze microwave signals. Beyond that we claim no particular expertise. We will continue to concentrate on what we know best, and encourage others to do the same.
Every year, dozens of small radio telescopes such as this one are springing up in front yards, back gardens and schoolyards, on campuses and clubhouses worldwide. Built by radio amateurs and electronics hobbyists, they are part of Project Argus, a global effort to scan the skies for signals of intelligent extra-terrestrial origin.
Tune In The Universe tells you how you can be a part of this effort. The search for life in space promises to be perhaps the last scientific frontier in which individual amateurs can make a significant contribution. When The Call comes in, it will be a great moment, not just for amateur radio, but for all of humankind.
This book's six chapters will guide you through the process of joining humanity's greatest adventure. Chapter One provides a crash course in cosmology. Structured around the famous Drake Equation, it leads us to the inevitable conclusion that we inhabit a universe teeming with life, and that some of that life awaits radio contact. In Chapter Two, I share with you my answers to questions received from amateur radio astronomers during the first six years of The SETI League's existence. Chapter Three introduces SETI, the scientific Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence. In Chapter Four, you will learn how to assemble your own amateur SETI station, and join in the Search. And to provide a context for amateur SETI involvement, Chapter Five contains a sprinkling of my personal memoirs. It endeavors to show how an ordinary radio ham found himself caught up in the greatest scientific adventure of all time (and one in which you, too, can become involved). Chapter Six is provided as a bonus. It contains excerpts from Sing a Song of SETI and Sing More Songs of SETI, the official songbooks of The SETI League, Inc.
I thank you for joining me on this cosmic quest. We Know We're Not Alone!
entire website copyright © The SETI League, Inc.
this page last updated 23 November 2002
Top of Page
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§ 70.4 Definitions.
Act means the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 (68 Stat 919), including any amendments thereto;
Acute, as used in this part, means a single radiation dose or chemical exposure event or multiple radiation dose or chemical exposure events occurring within a short time (24 hours or less).
Agreement State as designated in part 150 of this chapter means any State with which the Commission has entered into an effective agreement under subsection 274b. of the Act. Non-agreement State means any other State.
Alert means events may occur, are in progress, or have occurred that could lead to a release of radioactive material[s] but that the release is not expected to require a response by an offsite response organization to protect persons offsite.
Atomic energy means all forms of energy released in the course of nuclear fission or nuclear transformation;
Atomic weapon means any device utilizing atomic energy, exclusive of the means for transporting or propelling the device (where such means is a separable and divisible part of the device), the principal purpose of which is for use as, or for development of, a weapon, a weapon prototype, or a weapon test device;
Available and reliable to perform their function when needed, as used in subpart H of this part, means that, based on the analyzed, credible conditions in the integrated safety analysis, items relied on for safety will perform their intended safety function when needed, and management measures will be implemented that ensure compliance with the performance requirements of § 70.61 of this part, considering factors such as necessary maintenance, operating limits, common-cause failures, and the likelihood and consequences of failure or degradation of the items and measures.
Commencement of construction means taking any action defined as "construction" or any other activity at the site of a facility subject to the regulations in this part that has a reasonable nexus to:
(1) Radiological health and safety; or
(2) Common defense and security.
Commission means the Nuclear Regulatory Commission or its duly authorized representatives;
Common defense and security means the common defense and security of the United States;
Configuration management (CM) means a management measure that provides oversight and control of design information, safety information, and records of modifications (both temporary and permanent) that might impact the ability of items relied on for safety to perform their functions when needed.
Construction means the installation of foundations, or in-place assembly, erection, fabrication, or testing for any structure, system, or component of a facility or activity subject to the regulations in this part that are related to radiological safety or security. The term "construction" does not include:
(1) Changes for temporary use of the land for public recreational purposes;
(2) Site exploration, including necessary borings to determine foundation conditions or other preconstruction monitoring to establish background information related to the suitability of the site, the environmental impacts of construction or operation, or the protection of environmental values;
(3) Preparation of the site for construction of the facility, including clearing of the site, grading, installation of drainage, erosion and other environmental mitigation measures, and construction of temporary roads and borrow areas;
(4) Erection of fences and other access control measures that are not related to the safe use of, or security of, radiological materials subject to this part;
(6) Erection of support buildings (e.g., construction equipment storage sheds, warehouse and shop facilities, utilities, concrete mixing plants, docking and unloading facilities, and office buildings) for use in connection with the construction of the facility;
(7) Building of service facilities (e.g., paved roads, parking lots, railroad spurs, exterior utility and lighting systems, potable water systems, sanitary sewerage treatment facilities, and transmission lines);
(8) Procurement or fabrication of components or portions of the proposed facility occurring at other than the final, in-place location at the facility; or
(9) Taking any other action that has no reasonable nexus to:
(i) Radiological health and safety, or
(ii) Common defense and security.
Contiguous sites means licensee controlled locations, deemed by the Commission to be in close enough proximity to each other, that the special nuclear material must be considered in the aggregate for the purpose of physical protection.
Corporation means the United States Enrichment Corporation (USEC), or its successor, a Corporation that is authorized by statute to lease the gaseous diffusion enrichment plants in Paducah, Kentucky, and Piketon, Ohio, from the Department of Energy, or any person authorized to operate one or both of the gaseous diffusion plants, or other facilities, pursuant to a plan for the privatization of USEC that is approved by the President.
Critical mass of special nuclear material (SNM), as used in Subpart H, means special nuclear material in a quantity exceeding 700 grams of contained uranium-235; 520 grams of uranium-233; 450 grams of plutonium; 1500 grams of contained uranium-235, if no uranium enriched to more than 4 percent by weight of uranium-235 is present; 450 grams of any combination thereof; or one-half such quantities if massive moderators or reflectors made of graphite, heavy water, or beryllium may be present.
Decommission means to remove a facility or site safely from service and reduce residual radioactivity to a level that permits—
(1) Release of the property for unrestricted use and termination of the license; or
(2) Release of the property under restricted conditions and termination of the license.
Department and Department of Energy means the Department of Energy Organization Act (Pub. L. 95-91, 91 Stat. 565, 42 U.S.C. 7101 et seq.), to the extent that the Department, or its duly authorized representatives, exercises functions formerly vested in the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, its Chairman, members, officers and components and transferred to the U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration and to the Administrator thereof pursuant to sections 104(b), (c) and (d) of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 (Pub. L. 93-438, 88 Stat. 1233 at 1237, 42 U.S.C. 5814) and retransferred to the Secretary of Energy pursuant to section 301(a) of the Department of Energy Organization Act (Pub. L. 95–91, 91 Stat. 565 at 577–578, 42 U.S.C. 7151).
Double contingency principle means that process designs should incorporate sufficient factors of safety to require at least two unlikely, independent, and concurrent changes in process conditions before a criticality accident is possible.
Effective dose equivalent means the sum of the products of the dose equivalent to the body organ or tissue and the weighting factors applicable to each of the body organs or tissues that are irradiated. Weighting factors are: 0.25 for gonads, 0.15 for breast, 0.12 for red bone marrow, 0.12 for lungs, 0.03 for thyroid, 0.03 for bone surface, and 0.06 for each of the other five organs receiving the highest dose equivalent.
Effective kilograms of special nuclear material means: (1) For plutonium and uranium-233 their weight in kilograms; (2) For uranium with an enrichment in the isotope U–235 of 0.01 (1%) and above, its element weight in kilograms multiplied by the square of its enrichment expressed as a decimal weight fraction; and (3) For uranium with an enrichment in the isotope U-235 below 0.01 (1%), by its element weight in kilograms multiplied by 0.0001.
Formula quantity means strategic special nuclear material in any combination in a quantity of 5000 grams or more computed by the formula, grams=(grams contained U–235)+2.5 (grams U-233+grams plutonium). This class of material is sometimes referred to as a Category I quantity of material.
Government agency means any executive department, commission, independent establishment, corporation, wholly or partly owned by the United States of America which is an instrumentality of the United States, or any board, bureau, division, service, office, officer, authority, administration, or other establishment in the executive branch of the Government;
Hazardous chemicals produced from licensed materials means substances having licensed material as precursor compound(s) or substances that physically or chemically interact with licensed materials; and that are toxic, explosive, flammable, corrosive, or reactive to the extent that they can endanger life or health if not adequately controlled. These include substances commingled with licensed material, and include substances such as hydrogen fluoride that is produced by the reaction of uranium hexafluoride and water, but do not include substances prior to process addition to licensed material or after process separation from licensed material.
Integrated safety analysis (ISA) means a systematic analysis to identify facility and external hazards and their potential for initiating accident sequences, the potential accident sequences, their likelihood and consequences, and the items relied on for safety. As used here, integrated means joint consideration of, and protection from, all relevant hazards, including radiological, nuclear criticality, fire, and chemical. However, with respect to compliance with the regulations of this part, the NRC requirement is limited to consideration of the effects of all relevant hazards on radiological safety, prevention of nuclear criticality accidents, or chemical hazards directly associated with NRC licensed radioactive material. An ISA can be performed process by process, but all processes must be integrated, and process interactions considered.
Integrated safety analysis summary means a document or documents submitted with the license application, license amendment application, license renewal application, or pursuant to § 70.62(c)(3)(ii) that provides a synopsis of the results of the integrated safety analysis and contains the information specified in § 70.65(b). The ISA Summary can be submitted as one document for the entire facility, or as multiple documents that cover all portions and processes of the facility.
Items relied on for safety mean structures, systems, equipment, components, and activities of personnel that are relied on to prevent potential accidents at a facility that could exceed the performance requirements in § 70.61 or to mitigate their potential consequences. This does not limit the licensee from identifying additional structures, systems, equipment, components, or activities of personnel (i.e., beyond those in the minimum set necessary for compliance with the performance requirements) as items relied on for safety.
License, except where otherwise specified, means a license issued pursuant to the regulations in this part;
Management measures mean the functions performed by the licensee, generally on a continuing basis, that are applied to items relied on for safety, to ensure the items are available and reliable to perform their functions when needed. Management measures include configuration management, maintenance, training and qualifications, procedures, audits and assessments, incident investigations, records management, and other quality assurance elements.
Person means (1) any individual, corporation, partnership, firm, association, trust, estate, public or private institution, group, Government agency other than the Commission or the Department, except that the Department shall be considered a person within the meaning of the regulations in this part to the extent that its facilities and activities are subject to the licensing and related regulatory authority of the Commission pursuant to section 202 of the Energy Reorganization Act of 1974 (88 Stat. 1244), any State or any political subdivision of or any political entity within a State, any foreign government or nation or any political subdivision of any such government or nation, or other entity; and (2) any legal successor, representative, agent, or agency of the foregoing;
Plutonium processing and fuel fabrication plant means a plant in which the following operations or activities are conducted: (1) Operations for manufacture of reactor fuel containing plutonium including any of the following: (i) Preparation of fuel material; (ii) formation of fuel material into desired shapes; (iii) application of protective cladding; (iv) recovery of scrap material; and (v) storage associated with such operations; or (2) Research and development activities involving any of the operations described in paragraph (1) of this definition except for research and development activities utilizing unsubstantial amounts of plutonium.
Principal activities, as used in this part, means activities authorized by the license which are essential to achieving the purpose(s) for which the license was issued or amended. Storage during which no licensed material is accessed for use or disposal and activities incidental to decontamination or decommissioning are not principal activities.
Produce, when used in relation to special nuclear material, means (1) to manufacture, make, produce, or refine special nuclear material; (2) to separate special nuclear material from other substances in which such material may be contained; or (3) to make or to produce new special nuclear material;
Research and development means (1) theoretical analysis, exploration, or experimentation; or (2) the extension of investigative findings and theories of a scientific or technical nature into practical application for experimental and demonstration purposes, including the experimental production and testing of models, devices, equipment, materials, and processes;
Restricted Data means all data concerning (1) design, manufacture or utilization of atomic weapons; (2) the production of special nuclear material; or (3) the use of special nuclear material in the production of energy, but shall not include data declassified or removed from the Restricted Data category pursuant to section 142 of the Act;
Sealed source means any special nuclear material that is encased in a capsule designed to prevent leakage or escape of the special nuclear material.
Site Area emergency means events may occur, are in progress, or have occurred that could lead to a significant release of radioactive material and that could require a response by offsite response organizations to protect persons offsite.
Source material means source material as defined in section 11z. of the Act and in the regulations contained in part 40 of this chapter;
Special nuclear material means (1) plutonium, uranium 233, uranium enriched in the isotope 233 or in the isotope 235, and any other material which the Commission, pursuant to the provisions of section 51 of the act, determines to be special nuclear material, but does not include source material; or (2) any material artificially enriched by any of the foregoing but does not include source material;
Special nuclear material of low strategic significance means:
(1) Less than an amount of special nuclear material of moderate strategic significance as defined in paragraph (1) of the definition of strategic nuclear material of moderate strategic significance in this section, but more than 15 grams of uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched to 20 percent or more in U–235 isotope) or 15 grams of uranium-233 or 15 grams of plutonium or the combination of 15 grams when computed by the equation, grams = (grams contained U–235) + (grams plutonium) + (grams U–233); or
(2) Less than 10,000 grams but more than 1,000 grams of uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched to 10 percent or more but less than 20 percent in the U–235 isotope); or
(3) 10,000 grams or more of uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched above natural but less than 10 percent in the U–235 isotope).
This class of material is sometimes referred to as a Category III quantity of material.
Special nuclear material of moderate strategic significance means:
(1) Less than a formula quantity of strategic special nuclear material but more than 1,000 grams of uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched to 20 percent or more in the U–235 isotope) or more than 500 grams of uranium-233 or plutonium, or in a combined quantity of more than 1,000 grams when computed by the equation, grams = (grams contained U–235) + 2 (grams U–233 + grams plutonium); or
(2) 10,000 grams or more of uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched to 10 percent or more but less than 20 percent in the U–235 isotope).
This class of material is sometimes referred to as a Category II quantity of material.
Special nuclear material scrap means the various forms of special nuclear material generated during chemical and mechanical processing, other than recycle material and normal process intermediates, which are unsuitable for use in their present form, but all or part of which will be used after further processing.
Strategic special nuclear material means uranium-235 (contained in uranium enriched to 20 percent or more in the U–235 isotope), uranium-233, or plutonium.
Transient shipment means a shipment of nuclear material, originating and terminating in foreign countries, on a vessel or aircraft which stops at a United States port.
Unacceptable performance deficiencies mean deficiencies in the items relied on for safety or the management measures that need to be corrected to ensure an adequate level of protection as defined in 10 CFR 70.61(b), (c), or (d).
United States, when used in a geographical sense, includes Puerto Rico and all territories and possessions of the United States.
Uranium enrichment facility means:
(1) Any facility used for separating the isotopes of uranium or enriching uranium in the isotope 235, except laboratory scale facilities designed or used for experimental or analytical purposes only; or
(2) Any equipment or device, or important component part especially designed for such equipment or device, capable of separating the isotopes of uranium or enriching uranium in the isotope 235.
Worker, when used in Subpart H of this Part, means an individual who receives an occupational dose as defined in 10 CFR 20.1003.
[21 FR 764, Feb. 3, 1956; 76 FR 56965, Sep. 15, 2011]
Editorial Note: For Federal Register citations affecting § 70.4, see the List of CFR Sections Affected.
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The Anishinaabeg (which can mean ‘Original People’ or ‘Spontaneous Beings’) have lived in the Great Lakes area for millenia. Some of the oldest legends recall the ice packs breaking on Lake Nipissing and archeologists have found Anishinaabeg sites from 3000 B.C. Legends speak of immigrations to and from the Great Lakes over the centuries.
Sault Tribe’s ancestors were Anishinaabeg fishing tribes whose settlements dotted the upper Great Lakes around Lake Superior, Lake Michigan and Lake Huron, throughout the St. Marys River system and the Straits of Mackinac. Anishinaabeg gathered for the summers in places like Bahweting (Sault Ste. Marie) and broke up into family units for the winter.
They hunted, fished and gathered and preserved food for the winter. They were respectful to their elders and treasured their children. They conducted ceremonies for good health, thanksgiving, war, funerals and other things and strove to conduct their lives in a good way.
Anishinaabeg lived this way for hundreds of years until the arrival of European settlers in the 1600s. The Anishinaabeg had dealings with first the French, then the English, then the United States. The Anishinaabeg lifeway began to deteriorate as the people were placed on reservations, sent to boarding schools, along with other attempts to matriculate them into American mainstream society.
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Religiosity has been put on the back burner in India. The adherents of Hinduism are treated as pariahs the moment they talk of ancient India, Indian heritage, culture, the Vedas and India's contribution to global civilization during the last two millennia, if not even earlier. India is in an unusual situation; the majority of the population fear being labeled "communal," that is, against one religion or another. They may be so labeled by those who follow a post-independence interpretation of secularism in which religion is to be avoided. But those leaders of India's original freedom struggle who lived to see this interpretation of secularism have urged us to consider religion, especially in education.
One of the sharpest minds in contemporary history, C. Rajagopalachari, warned in the late 60s: "Mass education, in the sense herein explained, which is to result not only in knowledge and mental preference of the good but in the capacity and readiness to work and suffer for it, cannot, so far as I see, be organized except on a religious base; religious in the broadest sense. To misunderstand the 'secularity' to which people think we are pledged and to treat religion as untouchable is one of the many unfortunate follies our government has fallen into. It is not impossible, or even very difficult, to deal with and include religion in a nationwide effort to make men truly religious, each in the way shown by his or her own religion and add to it a spirit of understanding and respect for other people's religion and way of life."
Raja Ji's contemporary Maulana Abul Kalam Azad expressed similar views in 1948: "Our present difficulties, unlike those of Europe, are not creation of materialistic zealots but of religious fanatics. If we want to overcome them, the solution lies not in rejecting religious instruction in elementary stages but in imparting sound and healthy religious education under our direct supervision so that misguided credulism may not affect the children in their plastic stage."
Maulana had examined the consequences of divorcing religions from education in the following terms: "What will be the consequence if the government undertakes to impart purely secular education? Naturally, people will try to provide religious education to their children through private sources. How these private sources are working today or are likely to work in future is already known to you. I know something about it and can say that, not only in villages but even in cities, the imparting of religious education is entrusted to teachers who are literate but not educated."
Hinduism accepts Divinity in every creation, every human being included. It cannot be unfair to any person of a different faith. Consequently, secularism is an inbuilt part of Hinduism in the sense that it implores everyone to remain true to his own faith and at the same time support others in being true to theirs. There could hardly be an approach more conducive to creating a cohesive world order that survives on mutual respect and creates conditions for living and working together, the prime requirement of our times.
The judiciary has also realized the role of religions in inculcating moral and ethical values in children and citizens. In a 2002 judgment, the Supreme Court stated, "Children must be made aware of [the] basics of all the religions of the people of India. They should know the commonalities and learn to respect differences wherever these exist." This in no way violates the spirit of secularism as enshrined in India's constitution. The extent of mutuality amongst religions is a measure of the maturity of people and communities. Hinduism continuously reaffirms that learning is a process that continues until life proceeds on the other journey.
Professor J.S. Rajput is the former chairperson of the National Council for Teacher Education and former director of NCERT.
Email: rajput_js _@_ yahoo.co.in
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How do self-driving cars work?
Tesla CEO, Elon Musk, recently announced that the car manufacturer will produce self-driving cars within three years. Nissan has announced that it will have a self-driving car available by 2020, Google has said it will do so by 2018. Over the past decade, the conversation around self-driving cars has evolved from futuristic police chase sequences in Minority Report to figuring out which auto manufacturer will be first to launch a commercially viable self-driving vehicle. Daimler AG, maker of Mercedes Benz, recently announced that an S-class sedan had completed a 62-mile journey in the streets of Germany without a driver. Audi’s self-driving car successfully navigated 156 turns of the 12-mile Hill Climb course in Colorado’s Pikes Peak. Car manufacturers see self-driving cars as a way to eliminate road deaths caused by human error, reduce traffic, and free up time spent commuting – but how do these vehicles work?
Self-driving cars in a nutshell
A self-driving car is capable of sensing its environment and navigating without human input. To accomplish this task, each vehicle is usually outfitted with a GPS unit, an inertial navigation system, and a range of sensors including laser rangefinders, radar, and video. The vehicle uses positional information from the GPS and inertial navigation system to localize itself and sensor data to refine its position estimate as well as to build a three-dimensional image of its environment.
Data from each sensor is filtered to remove noise and often fused with other data sources to augment the original image. How the vehicle subsequently uses this data to make navigation decisions is determined by its control system.
The majority of self-driving vehicle control systems implement a deliberative architecture, meaning that they are capable of making intelligent decisions by 1) maintaining an internal map of their world and 2) using that map to find an optimal path to their destination that avoids obstacles (e.g. road structures, pedestrians and other vehicles) from a set of possible paths. Once the vehicle determines the best path to take, the decision is dissected into commands, which are fed to the vehicle’s actuators. These actuators control the vehicle’s steering, braking and throttle.
This process of localization, mapping, obstacle avoidance and path planning is repeated multiple times each second on powerful on-board processors until the vehicle reaches its destination.
The next section focuses on the technical components of each process: mapping and localization, obstacle avoidance and path planning. Although car manufacturers use different sensor suites and algorithms depending on their unique cost and operational constraints, the processes across vehicles are similar. The descriptions below most closely mirror their implementation in state-of-the-art self-driving military vehicles.
Breaking Down the Technicals
Mapping and Localization
Prior to making any navigation decisions, the vehicle must first build a map of its environment and precisely localize itself within that map. The most frequently used sensors for map building are laser rangefinders and cameras. A laser rangefinder scans the environment using swaths of laser beams and calculates the distance to nearby objects by measuring the time it takes for each laser beam to travel to the object and back. Where video from camera is ideal for extracting scene color, an advantage of laser rangefinders is that depth information is readily available to the vehicle for building a three-dimensional map. Because laser beams diverge as they travel through space, it is difficult to obtain accurate distance readings greater than 100m away using most state-of-the-art laser rangefinders, which limits the amount of reliable data that can be captured in the map. The vehicle filters and discretizes data collected from each sensor and often aggregates the information to create a comprehensive map, which can then be used for path planning.
For the vehicle to know where it is in relation to other objects in the map, it must use its GPS, inertial navigation unit, and sensors to precisely localize itself. GPS estimates can be off by many meters due to signal delays caused by changes in the atmosphere and reflections off of buildings and surrounding terrain, and inertial navigation units accumulate position errors overtime. Therefore localization algorithms will often incorporate map or sensor data previously collected from the same location to reduce uncertainty. As the vehicle moves, new positional information and sensor data are used to update the vehicle’s internal map.
A vehicle’s internal map includes the current and predicted location of all static (e.g. buildings, traffic lights, stop signs) and moving (e.g. other vehicles and pedestrians) obstacles in its vicinity. Obstacles are categorized depending on how well they match up with a library of pre-determined shape and motion descriptors. The vehicle uses a probabilistic model to track the predicted future path of moving objects based on its shape and prior trajectory. For example, if a two-wheeled object is traveling at 40 mph versus 10 mph, it is most likely a motorcycle and not a bicycle and will get categorized as such by the vehicle. This process allows the vehicle to make more intelligent decisions when approaching crosswalks or busy intersections. The previous, current and predicted future locations of all obstacles in the vehicle’s vicinity are incorporated into its internal map, which the vehicle then uses to plan its path.
The goal of path planning is to use the information captured in the vehicle’s map to safely direct the vehicle to its destination while avoiding obstacles and following the rules of the road. Although manufacturers’ planning algorithms will be different based on their navigation objectives and sensors used, the following describes a general path planning algorithm which has been used on military ground vehicles.
This algorithm determines a rough long-range plan for the vehicle to follow while continuously refining a short-range plan (e.g. change lanes, drive forward 10m, turn right). It starts from a set of short-range paths that the vehicle would be dynamically capable of completing given its speed, direction and angular position, and removes all those that would either cross an obstacle or come too close to the predicted path of a moving one. For example, a vehicle traveling at 50 mph would not be able to safely complete a right turn 5 meters ahead, therefore that path would be eliminated from the feasible set. Remaining paths are evaluated based on safety, speed, and any time requirements. Once the best path has been identified, a set of throttle, brake and steering commands, are passed on to the vehicle’s on-board processors and actuators. Altogether, this process takes on average 50ms, although it can be longer or shorter depending on the amount of collected data, available processing power, and complexity of the path planning algorithm.
The process of localization, mapping, obstacle detection, and path planning is repeated until the vehicle reaches its destination.
The Road Ahead
Car manufacturers have made significant advances in the past decade towards making self-driving cars a reality; however, there still remain a number of technological barriers that manufacturers must overcome before self-driving vehicles are safe enough for road use. GPS can be unreliable, computer vision systems have limitations to understanding road scenes, and variable weather conditions can adversely affect the ability of on-board processors to adequately identify or track moving objects. Self-driving vehicles have also yet to demonstrate the same capability as human drivers in understanding and navigating unstructured environments such as construction zones and accident areas.
These barriers though are not insurmountable. The amount of road and traffic data available to these vehicles is increasing, newer range sensors are capturing more data, and the algorithms for interpreting road scenes are evolving. The transition from human-operated vehicles to fully self-driving cars will be gradual, with vehicles at first performing only a subset of driving tasks such as parking and driving in stop-and-go traffic autonomously. As the technology improves, more driving tasks can be reliably outsourced to the vehicle.
The technology for self-driving cars is not quite ready, but I am looking forward to the self-driving cars of Minority Report becoming a reality.
If you liked this article, you may also be interested in:
- Pure autonomy: Google’s new purpose-built self driving car
- Morgan Stanley reports on the economic benefits of driverless cars
- SAE defines six levels of driving automation
- Focus Series on Big Deals: What It Means to Have the Giants Investing in Robotics
- Focus Series: The state-of-the-art and the future of agricultural robotics
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| 0.945155 | 1,735 | 3.734375 | 4 |
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