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Learn about natural remedies for treating and preventing cancer
How can we avoid cancer in 2014? Currently, everyone has a friend, co-worker or family member stricken with Cancer. Unfortunately, there are no current alternatives or medicines to cure cancer. The advancements of chemotherapy, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and genetics still have not figured out how to prevent and stop the growth of cancer. We do know inflammation, stress, poor eating habits and lack of sleep can fuel cancer growth. Research is finding detoxifying the body on a regular basis protects the body against free radicals. Eating fresh leafy green vegetables with plenty of fresh garlic, herbs, flaxseed and green tea help eliminate toxins from the body. In addition, eat foods with high antioxidants and detoxing agents. By working on eliminating dangerous toxins from the body is the best way to stay ahead of the fight. Remember water, ginger root, plenty of rest and exercise; help to keep your body strong; decrease cancer cell growth and inhibit tumor cell growth.
Once your body is being attacked by cancer, it is harder to control its growth through healthy eating and resting the body. Therefore, load up on rest, vitamins and exercise now while you are still healthy. Stop taking your diet for granted. A few nutritional changes can save your life. It is hard to believe that pomegranates, all citrus fruits, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, and cranberries contain acids that assist the increase of polyphenols that help prevent tumor growth and kills free radical cells in the body. So eat plenty of berries for snacks, in cereal and protein shakes. Start your day with breakfast that contains fresh fruit, water and multigrain with oat bran, flaxseed, rye, barley and raw nuts high in protein. All these foods fuel your body and burn away fast.
Remember to include a regular regiment of vitamins and minerals each day. Vitamins and exercise cause a constant blood flow to the heart and fresh air to the lungs which go and hand with cancer prevention. Additionally, negative thoughts, stressful behavior and anger all feed cancer cells. Stress and worry really do kill. Stops right now remind yourself that you and only you control your thoughts. Stay focused on good happy positive events and avoid thinking about negative fearful things. Louise Hay is a motivational and prosperity speaker who cured herself from cancer with positive thoughts and affirmations. Feel free to google her and look for her on YouTube. Honestly, her simple techniques with positive words, thoughts and high energymethods are changing my life. My goal each day is feeling happy, healthy, energetic and showing gratitude.
Do not forget to drink plenty of water each day. Began to study and understand how cancer prevention works and what steps to take to stop it from attacking the body. I hope cancer never afflicts you but the knowledge you learn will always be available for others. Please do not wait until you are plagued and confined to the bed to start studying and learning about fighting cancer. Remember five fresh cloves of garlic a day help keep the cancer man away!
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Kuthalingam, M D K (1961) Observations on the feeding habits of some sardines together with the key to the identification of the young ones of the genus Sardinella. Records of the Indian Museum, 59 (4). pp. 455-469.
The nutrition of fishes provide valuable data not only for determining the food charts, but also the seasonal scarcity, shoaling and migration of fishes and such information will be useful to commercial fisheries in forecasting the movements of the fish into or out of their feeding grounds. It is hoped that the present account on the food of larvae, juveniles and adults of Sardinella sirm, S. gibbasa, S. melanura, S. clupeaides,. S. albella S. fimbriala, S. sindensis and S. longiceps, together with a key to the identification of some young stages of sardines, will add to our knowledge of Indian Sardines.
|Uncontrolled Keywords:||Feeding habits; sardine; key for identification; Sardinella|
|Subjects:||Pelagic Fisheries > Oil sardine
Food and Feeding
|Divisions:||CMFRI-Kochi > Marine Capture > Pelagic Fisheries
Subject Area > CMFRI Brochures > CMFRI-Kochi > Marine Capture > Pelagic Fisheries
CMFRI-Kochi > Marine Capture > Pelagic Fisheries
|Depositing User:||Arun Surendran|
|Date Deposited:||01 Feb 2011 11:37|
|Last Modified:||09 Sep 2015 15:43|
Actions (login required)
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Last Up-Date 15JUL12
History: The T-33 was the most widely used jet trainer in the world. A two-seat version of the USAF's first jet fighter, the F-80 Shooting Star, the T-33 continues to serve in various armed forces today.
The T-33 is a F-80 with a lengthened fuselage to make room for the second tandem seat. It entered service during the 1950s, and the US Navy also acquired the type and had it modified for blue-water operation as the TV-2. It was the USAFs first jet trainer. It soon was dubbed the 'T-Bird' and was being produced under license in both Japan and Canada. In Japan, Kawasaki built 210 of these trainers. In Canada, the T-33 was designated the CL-30 Silver Star and the Allison turbojets of the original were replaced with Canadian built Rolls-Royce Nene 10 engines. The type still serves as a trainer for both countries. Limited numbers were also produced for export, some being modified to carry light armament. While only 1,718 P-80 Shooting Stars were built, nearly 7,000 T-33s saw active service around the world.
Until recently, the T-33 continued to serve in Canada as a target tug and general utility aircraft, having been re-designated the CT-133. Additional examples are still in active military service in Japan and several other nations. About 50 are in the hands of warbird operators, mostly in the United States.
Nicknames: T-Bird; Wakataka ("Young Hawk") (Kawasaki-built T-33s in the Japanese Air Self-Defense Force)
Engine: One 5,200-pound thrust Allison J33-A-35 turbojet engine
Weight: Empty 8,084 lbs., Max Takeoff 14,442 lbs.
Wing Span: 38ft. 10.5in.
Length: 37ft. 9in.
Height: 11ft. 8in.
Maximum Speed: 600 mph
Ceiling: 46,800 ft.
Range: 1,345 miles
Number Built: ~7,000
Number Still Airworthy: Unknown number in active military service; At least 50 operated as privately-owned warbirds.
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PowerPoint 2007 is a presentation software application from Microsoft. With PowerPoint 2007, you can easily create slide shows, presentations, and multimedia applications. Teachers, Trainers and other presenters can use slide shows to illustrate their presentations.
This lesson introduces you to the PowerPoint 2007 window. You use the window to interact with the software, place text, graphics, and other features on a slide. When you launch PowerPoint 2007, the PowerPoint 2007 Window appears and your screen looks like the one shown below.
Your PowerPoint 2007 Window screen will probably not look exactly like the screen shown above. In PowerPoint 2007, how a window displays depends on the size of the window, the size of your monitor, and the resolution to which your monitor is set.
Screen Resolution determines how much information your computer monitor can display. If you use a low resolution, less information fits on your screen, but the size of your text and images are larger. If you use a high resolution, more information fits on your screen, but the size of the text and images are smaller.
The Microsoft Office Button
In the upper-left corner of the PowerPoint 2007 window is the Microsoft Office button. It's similar to the old File Menu. When you click the button, a menu appears. You can use the menu to create a new file, open an existing file, save a file, print, and perform many other tasks.
The Quick Access Toolbar
Next to the Microsoft Office button in the upper left corner is the Quick Access toolbar outlined in red in the image above.
The Quick Access toolbar provides you with access to commands that are frequently used. By default, Save, Undo, and Redo appear on the Quick Access toolbar. You use Save to save your file, Undo to rollback an action you have taken, and Redo to reapply an action you have rolled back. You can customize this toolbar by right clicking on it or click the small black down arrow to the right.
The Title Bar
The Title bar is located at the top in the center of the PowerPoint 2007 window. The Title bar displays the name of the presentation on which you are currently working. By default, PowerPoint names presentations sequentially, starting with Presentation1. When you save your file, you can change the name of your presentation.
The Ribbon holds all of the commands and features of each of the tabs in the Ribbon. The Tabs are located across the top of the ribbon under the Title Bar. These contextual tabs will appear when you have something highlighted that calls for it. For example, if you have a picture highlighted on your slide, a Picture Tools tab will appear.
Similar tools are located in Command Groups across the ribbon.
Each Command Group includes Command Buttons to perform various actions on that group of tools.
Getting PowerPoint to Do What You Want
You use commands to tell PowerPoint what to do. In PowerPoint 2007, the commands you use are located on the the Ribbon. The Ribbon is located near the top of the PowerPoint 2007 window, below the Quick Access toolbar.
At the top of the Ribbon are several tabs and clicking a tab displays several related command groups. Within each group are related command buttons. You click buttons to issue commands or to access menus and dialog boxes. You may also find a dialog box launcher in the bottom-right corner of a group. When you click the dialog box launcher, a dialog box makes additional commands available.
Clipboard - Contains the cut, copy, paste commands. The Format Painter tool is located here as are the Paste Special, Paste as Hyperlink, and Duplicate commands.
Slides - All the commonly used commands for creating new slides
Font - Includes the most commonly used commands for formatting font
Paragraph - Includes all of the paragraph formatting commands, vertical and horizontal alignments, text direction, bullets, numbering, indenting, spacing before and after, columns, etc. It also includes the dialog box for tabs.
Drawing - Allow you to add shapes and draw on your slides. This is Format Shape Dialog Box.
Rulers are vertical and horizontal guides. You use them to determine where you want to place an object. If the rulers do not display in your PowerPoint 2007 window:
Click the View tab.
Click Ruler in the Show/Hide group. The rulers appear.
Slides, Placeholders, and Notes
The Slide Window is broken up into several areas including the Slide Pane and the Notes Section. The Slide Pane appears in the center of the window while the Notes Section is at the bottom.
There are also Placeholders on each slide depending on the slide layout that has been selected. These layouts may include placeholders for a slide title, subtitle, text, images, video, charts, graphs, etc. The placeholders hold the objects on your slides.
Slides appear in the center of the window. You create your presentation by adding content to the slides.
You can use the notes area to creates notes to yourself. You can refer to these notes as you give your presentation. For narrated presentations, this area is frequently used to write the script for the audio.
Main Window Components, Status Bar, Tabs, View Buttons, and More
The Status bar generally appears at the bottom of the window. The Status bar displays the number of the slide that is currently displayed, the total number of slides, and the name of the design template in use or the name of the background.
The Outline tab displays the text contained in your presentation in an outline format. The Slides tab displays a thumbnail view of all your slides. You click the thumbnail to view the slide in the Slide pane.
The View buttons appear near the bottom of the screen. You use the View buttons to change between Normal view, Slider Sorter view, and the Slide Show view.
Normal view splits your screen into three major sections: the Outline and Slides tabs, the Slide pane, and the Notes area.
The Outline and Slides tabs are on the left side of your window. They enable you to shift between two different ways of viewing your slides. The Slides tab shows thumbnails of your slides. The Outline tab shows the text on your slides. The Slide pane is located in the center of your window. The Slide pane shows a large view of the slide on which you are currently working. The Notes area appears below the Slide pane. You can type notes to yourself on the Notes area.
Slide Sorter View
Slide Sorter view shows thumbnails of all your slides. In Slide Sorter view, you can easily add, delete, or change their order of your slides.
Slide Show View
Use the Slide Show view when you want to view your slides, as they will look in your final presentation. When in Slide Show view:
Returns you to the view you were using previously.
Moves you to the next slide or animation effect. When you reach the last slide, you automatically return to your previous view.
Opens a pop-up menu. You can use this menu to navigate the slides, add speaker notes, select a pointer, and mark your presentation.
Zoom In & Zoom Out
Zoom controls allows you to zoom in and zoom out on the window. Zooming in makes the window larger so you focus in on an object. Zooming out makes the window smaller so you can see the entire window.
You can click and drag the vertical and horizontal splitter bars to change the size of your panes.
You use the Minimize button to remove a window from view. While a window is minimized, its title appears on the task bar.
You click the Maximize button to cause a window to fill the screen. After you maximize a window, clicking the Restore button returns the window to its former smaller size.
You click the Close button to exit the window and close the program.
This Audacity tutorial will show you how to use the basic tools and procedures in the open source audio editing program, Audacity. Not just screen shots, but free narrated multimedia tutorials - You'll learn to use Audacity for recording and editing audio files that can be used for podcasting, mixing music and vocals, creating sound tracks, and other audio projects.
This Excel 2003 Tutorial will introduce you to the basics of using the Excel 2003 spreadsheet program. You'll learn to create a spreadsheet, basic Excel workbook skills, work with cells, enter and manipulate data, apply formulas, format data, create and work with charts, and manage Excel workbooks.
This Podcasting tutorial includes a step by step guide that will show you how to record, publish and promote your podcast. Using inexpensive equipment and free software, you'll be publishing podcasts in no time.
This LCD Projector Guide will assist you in the use and purchase of a digital LCD projector or DLP projector. It will discuss the differences between LCD and DLP projectors, size and portability considerations, lamp types and brightness, resolution, image quality and other considerations in the use and purchase of a digital projector.
This Microsoft Word 2007 Workspace tutorial will acquaint you with the new tools and features in the Word 2007 Window. It's changed significantly from previus versions and even experienced users will find this helpful.
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On August 27th, 1998, space probes positioned in different parts of the solar system registered a strange barrage of high-energy photons traveling through interplanetary space. Astrophysicists quickly identified the source of this fusillade as SGR1900+14, an object located some 20,000 light-years away that is thought to be a "magnetar"?a neutron star with an extraordinarily strong magnetic field. But even before its highly magnetic nature was discovered, observational astronomers had known that this star and several other "soft-gamma repeaters" located in or near our galaxy give off high-energy bursts from time to time. So the detection of gamma rays coming from this direction was not a complete surprise. What was astonishing was the intensity of the outpouring: The event sent detectors off scale in some of the spacecraft equipped to measure these emanations. Indeed, the radiation from this faraway star was strong enough to ionize parts of the earth's nighttime atmosphere almost as thoroughly as the sun does during the day.
In the week that followed, newspapers across the country ran stories describing the enormity of this celestial event. To convey some sense of magnitude, many of these accounts cited one astronomer's calculation that the energy released in five minutes by the magnetar would be sufficient to power all of civilization for billions of years to come. Yet investigators have recently determined that this initial estimate may have been off the mark: It now seems that the invisible flash of high-energy radiation (x rays and gamma rays) must have been an order of magnitude more intense than was first thought. This reassessment appears in an article by Umran S. Inan of Stanford University and five co-authors, published recently in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.
Inan is not an astrophysicist, but he and his colleagues at Stanford's Space, Telecommunications and Radioscience Laboratory had been collecting measurements from a network of very-low-frequency radio receivers. Their equipment is tuned into broadcasts from a small set of powerful transmitters that the U.S. Navy uses to communicate with its submarines at sea. Although the content of the military messages is undecipherable to them, investigators such as Inan and physicist Richard Dowden (of the company Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Research in Dunedin, New Zealand) monitor such transmissions routinely, in part because they convey quite a lot of information about the state of the earth's ionosphere.
This region of the atmosphere above about 50 kilometers' altitude is too high to be studied by balloons and too low to be monitored by satellites. But because the sun's rays split molecules in this zone into positively charged ions and negatively charged electrons, the ionosphere is more or less conductive and acts both as a screen and as a reflective ceiling for the radio waves that bounce back and forth between it and the ground as they travel around the globe.
When Inan and his colleagues looked carefully at their records of radio reception during the event, they saw immediately that transmissions passing through the hemisphere that had been briefly bathed in radiation from the magnetar were profoundly affected. The strength of radio signals propagating through the night sky dropped to levels as low as those normally seen during the day, when enhanced ionization from the sun's rays normally attenuates such transmissions.
What is more, in their record of signals traveling from Hawaii to Antarctica (where the background radio noise is quite low), Inan and his coworkers were able to discern a series of subtle oscillations in amplitude just after the initial blast of high-energy photons hit the earth. These variations match the very clear 5.16-second modulation registered by detectors on the Ulysses spacecraft, an oscillation that astronomers believe reveals the rotation rate of the distant source.
In preparing their scholarly publication, Inan and his associates tried to determine the exact nature of the ionospheric disturbance that the magnetar had briefly created. But when they used measurements from the Ulysses probe to specify the energy spectrum of the incoming rays, their computer model had difficulty reproducing the changes in radio reception. Indeed, the only way to match their observations was to assume that Ulysses had missed 90 percent of the action. So they hypothesized that for every high-energy photon registered by the spacecraft, there must have been nine undetected photons of somewhat lower energy.
Interestingly, the "Gamma Ray Burst" instrument Ulysses carries does, in fact, contain two solid-state detectors designed to measure just such low-energy photons, which are, technically, categorized as soft x rays. Kevin Hurley of the University of California, Berkeley?the investigator responsible for this instrument and one of Inan's co-authors?says that although the high-energy detectors continue to work well, the low-energy ones have aged badly since they were built, nearly two decades ago. They are now so noisy, Hurley explains, that they did not produce any useful measurements.
Although other space probes carry devices that are sensitive to photons in the hypothesized energy range, all are directional devices, and none was pointed at the right part of the sky when the burst took place. So these spaceborne instruments, too, were of little help in uncovering the soft x-ray component. In a sense, the earth's ionosphere provided the best detector available. "We measure it as well as anyone can measure it," quips Inan.
Indeed, the earth's ionosphere is so sensitive to incoming radiation, and radio propagation is so sensitive to changes in the ionosphere, that some casual radio listeners might well have observed effects of this distant neutron star even before scientists took note of it. Paul Harden, an engineer and amateur radio enthusiast who works at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory in Socorro, New Mexico, has been gathering anecdotal reports about changes in radio reception that day. In Harden's view, most of the accounts he received could be better ascribed to the effects of a geomagnetic storm raging at the time, but a few may reflect the gamma-ray burst. He describes, for example, the experience of a nurse in Seattle who was listening to her car radio on the way home from a late-night shift. (The burst took place at 3:22 a.m. Pacific time.) To her great surprise, the local FM station cut out and was replaced by one from Nebraska. According to Harden, it is not unusual for the increased ionization created by enhanced solar activity to cause such radio anomalies, but this woman's experience was truly peculiar because the weird events took place at night.
Inan and Dowden are both skeptical that the magnetar could have been responsible for changes in reception at the very high frequencies of the FM broadcast band. So perhaps this nurse's recollection was, in fact, more influenced by fatigue than by gamma radiation. But as Dowden confirms, there is no reason to think that some short-wave and AM broadcasts received that night would not have been affected. Reception of these signals over much of the Pacific hemisphere would presumably have faded out for a few minutes, all because the magnetic field of a distant neutron star released a vast amount of energy in a sudden burst some 20,000 years ago. Awesome, isn't it, what one can hear on the radio??David Schneider
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Looks like you are using an old version of Internet Explorer - Please update your browser
The largest-known open-ocean crocodile was more than 20 feet (6 m) long and had a head the size of T. rex. Larger than modern saltwater crocodiles and even great white sharks, Plesiosuchus had flippers and a fish-like tail for swimming in the open ocean. We can only guess about the appearance of the teeth and jaws of the original created crocodile kinds.
Varieties of fossilized mastodons, mammoths, and other elephants are widely distributed across North America and around the world. Fossilization in globe-encircling sediments laid down by water point to the catastrophe of Noah’s Flood. But—praise God—life’s deliverance from judgment encourages faith in the redeeming work of Jesus Christ!
The fossil record contains super-size versions of a number of creatures, including insects such as the giant dragonfly. Since no seagull-sized dragonflies fly the skies today, many wonder why they grew so large. The idea that gigantic varieties of creatures were stressed out of existence by climate changes in the wake of the global Flood is a biblically consistent explanation.
The “great mystery” of the dinosaurs and their extinction is not a mystery! Dinosaurs lived only a few thousand years ago and walked with humans.
The Ice Age was home to some giant and intimidating creatures, from mammoths to saber-tooth cats to giant sloths to massive cave bears.
What is the first animal at the bottom of the fossil record? Most people think it’s in the Cambrian, among the trilobites. Not so.
To think of the biblical unicorn as a fantasy animal is to demean God’s Word, which is true in every detail.
Up, up, and away—this large, long-feathered microraptorine was equipped for fast flight, steep descent, and a controlled landing.
While there is nothing “transitional” about the feathers on Archaeopteryx, researchers claim new insight concerning the evolution of quill-like feathers.
It’s an evolutionary icon, a supposed transitional form between two different kinds of animals. But the certainty about Archaeopteryx is now clouded by debate.
Moby Dick’s ancient cousin was well-equipped with sonar for hunting and mapping the bottom of the sea.
Previously shrouded in mystery, Tiktaalik’s pelvis supposedly sheds new light on the evolution of ambulatory hindquarters.
Archaeopteryx gets its walking papers at Los Angeles conference.
Feathers are ruffled in the evolutionary community because the newest candidate for the world’s first bird upsets the currently popular claim that Archaeopteryx was not a bird at all.
New “fresh flesh and blood” mammoth discovery animates clonal hopes.
The largest-known open-ocean crocodile was more than 20 feet (6 m) long and had a head the size of T. rex.
A toothy robin-sized bird has been identified in the Early Cretaceous Chinese Jehol Group in northeastern China.
Cambrian critter with neural complexity comparable to modern insects surprises evolutionary scientists.
What do physicists and paleontologists have in common? When it came to discovering God’s complex design for trilobite eyes, expertise from both fields was required.
The whale evolutionary tale takes a new twist.
A whale of a tale.
The world’s biggest marsupial found in Queensland.
Cats and crocodiles may appear about as different as two vertebrates can possibly be. But a fossil found in Tanzania has traits of both.
Leviathan has at last been found—according to a broad definition of “Leviathan,” anyway.
Why do we find lots of trilobite tracks in lower rock layers, but we don’t find any trilobite fossils until higher up?
Forget fieldwork. The trendy new way to discover fossils is as close as your Internet browser.
T. rex, stay out of the water: the ancient giant shark megalodon had a bite far more powerful than yours!
The strange monster is back: a snake with legs!
A team of American and British scientists has discovered a fossil frog so large it’s been dubbed “Beelzebufo,” or the “frog from hell.”
Large raptor discovered in China.
Indonesian fisherman Yustinus Lahama’s capture of a rare coelacanth fish is a reminder of the perpetual fallibility of paleontologists (and much of what they say!).
Now that the euphoria in the media has settled down on the “walking fish,” it is time to reflect upon what must surely be the biggest fish story of the decade.
Once again, the media is abuzz with feathered dinosaurs busily “experimenting” with flight. This time the presumed dinosaur, Microraptor gui.
One way or another, in the creation model, Castorocauda is another example of God’s fascinating design in a pre-Flood organism; in the evolution model, Castorocauda is a surprise and challenge.
Trilobites, described by Stephen Jay Gould as ‘everyone’s favourite invertebrate fossil,’ are a class of marine arthropods which are often well preserved and of striking appearance.
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HISTORY OF THE GRAHAM FAMILY.
The Grahams, like many of the early settlers of the Valley of Virginia, were of Scotch-Irish descent and came from counties Donegal and Londonderry, in the northern part of Ireland. The term, Scotch-Irish, does not necessarily mean a blending of blood between the Scotch and Irish nations, but implies the Scotch who emigrated from Scotland and settled in Ireland. During the years beginning shortly after the middle of seventeenth century, there was a large emigration from Scotland to Ireland, having been brought about on account of religious persecutions the Scotch received at home.
The treatment and torture dealt out to these pious religious people, who held tenaciously to the principles of the Presbyterian faith, by the church of England, under the false cloak of religion, would of itself fill a volume much larger than that contemplated in these pages, and reference is merely made to show the stern and unwavering character of a people who were driven from post to pillar, and suffered almost unendurable hardships and degradations, rather than depart from a principle which they believed to be the teachings of the Bible, as well as having the approval of their conscience. Thus, more than two centuries ago our ancestral parents left their beautiful homes in their native land, and looking for the last time on the green sloping swords of the Grampian Hills and bid farewell forever to the graves of their fathers and mothers, and left behind all that was near and dear to them, even as their own lovely Scotland, and took up their march for the Emerald Isle, in the vain hope that the persecutions and trials which had hitherto made life hideous, would cease and they would be free to exercise their faith[,] which had so long been the desire of their conscience. But alas! for human expectations. Their sojourn is but for a while, until the broad and inviting land across the Atlantic bade them once more take up their line of march and plant their homes in the New World, where they would be free to worship God according to the dictates of their own conscience, unhindered by church or state. Among the many families who thus emigrated from Scotland to Ireland and later from Ireland to America, we might mention the following names: Forbesses, Stuarts, Hamiltons, Montgomerys, Alexanders, Grahams, Shaws, Moores, Lewises, Pattons, Mathews, Prestons, Baxtons, Lyles, Grigsbys, Crawfords, Comminses, Browns, Wallaces, Wilsons, Caruthers, Campbells, McClungs, McCues, McKees, McCowns, Lockridges, Boyds, Barclays, McDonals and Baileys, described as, “knights and gentlemen of Scotland, whose prosperity holds good to this day.” They were Irish Presbyterians, who, being of Scotch extraction, were called Scotch-Irish.
These names are to-day familiar house-hold words of the names of our own land and are but a repetition, and of the same lineal descent of their noble ancestors, who, more than two centuries ago stood ever firm to the Magna Charta of Scottish rights, and rallied under their brave banners, emblazoned with the faith of their own creed, in the famous golden letters, “For Christ’s Crown and Covenant,” they waited undaunted, the tyranny of their foes.
As we have said, their sojourn in Ireland was but temporary, as to a large proportion of those who emigrated there. Of course, many hindered by poverty and other causes no doubt, made that their permanent home.
The relief which they sought, they found but temporary in their new found homes in Ireland. Under the rule of tyrant kings, their suffering and punishment was endurable only for its contrasts with their former suffering. Tithes and taxes demanded from their wrecked estates to support a church, not of their own choice; restrained from speaking their own opinions; living in a strange land; dwelling among enemies of their faith, all combined to make them an unhappy and restless people. Longing for new homes, the silent whispers came across the ocean that the Mayflower, years before had landed others, persecuted like themselves, safely on the other side of the blue waters. This gave them hope. “For thou, O, God, hast proved us, and thou hast tried us as silver is tried; thou broughtest us into the net; thou layest afflictions upon our loins; thou hast caused men to ride over our heads; we went through fire and through water; but though broughtest us out into a wealth place.” Gathering together what little worldly goods they possessed, which was very meagre, and often nothing, save their Bible. They embarked for the New World, landing upon the banks of the Deleware, [sic] and many rested for a season in the land of Pennsylvania.
William Penn, having been formerly a subject of the King of England, and witnessed the perse- cution of his own church (though he himself was a favorite of King James) it was but natural that these people should seek out in the New World, those that had been persecuted for conscience sake in the old world.
Among those who sought fresh relief and new homes amid the untrodden forests of America, few stood higher or occupied positions more exalted than the Grahams. During that bloody, treacherous, and ever memorable struggle in England, Ireland and Scotland, in which King James was dethroned, and William, Price of Orange, a presbyterian, became his successor — a time when no man could remain neutral, but, all must declare, either for the time honored established church of England; the papistry of King James; or for that faith which they believed to be taught in Holy Writ. According to the dictates of their own conscience, the Grahams occupied prominent positions on either side.
One Richard Graham, known as Viscount Preston, held the position of Secretary of State of Scotland, under King James, about the year 1685; and history tells us that he was one [of] the privy council, and most trusty advisers of the king; that his plans and recommendations were often adhered to, rather than those of the king himself. As a leader of the House of Commons, he counseled King James to reassemble the Houses of Parliament, in order to secure a peaceful settlement of differences between church and state. He was also made Lord Lieutenant for both the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland, a position very rare and remarkable for one man to occupy.
During the absence of King James from the throne, who, on account of his fear of opposers, had fled to Salisbury, Richard Graham and four associates were appointed a committee, known as the Council of Five, to transact the business of the Throne until such time as might be deemed expedient for the king to return.
The positions of high honor and trust, held and occupied by this one man were many, and to rehearse them all in detail, would require more space than it is our purpose here to consume in this brief sketch; suffice it to say that he seems to have been a leader of his party in both civic and military affairs; a minister at the courts of foreign countries; honored, trusted and adhered to, and we might add, obeyed by kings; feared and esteemed by the House of Commons, and held in the highest respect by the common people. While he was true and devoted to King James, in the sense of patriotism, it does not appear that he was a persecutor of those who differed from the king’s religious views.
James Graham, of Claverhouse, viscount of Dundee, was also a noted character in that eventful struggle, and while his persecution of those who differed from the religious persuasions of King James, must ever be deplored, we take consolation in the fact that he but carried out the dictates and decrees of his Master. That his fidelity to the king was ever true through life, and even in the hour of death, is fully substantiated in his last utterance, after having spent an eventful life in the king’s cause.
After King James had vacated the throne, and William and Mary had been triumphantly crowned, and the armies of James abandoned and scattered, General Graham, with his indomitable will and ever-to-be admired energy, hoping against hope, collected together such as he could of the remaining fragmentary army of his escaped master and repaired to the Highlands of Scotland, where he succeeded in interesting the Scottish Chiefs of those Highland Clans, in behalf of the cause of the late king. The remoteness of these semi-barbarians from the active scene of war, coupled with their disinclination to inform themselves of the nature of the conflict, soon led them through the fluency of Graham’s speech to espouse his cause. Having sought and obtained the sympathy of all the principal chiefs of the various clans, he assembled them together and a council was held to decide the mode of warfare. The detached fragmentary of the army whom Graham hitherto commanded, chagrined with former defeats, protested against a battle with those who espoused the cause of King William. While the leaders of the Highland Clans urged immediate assault, saying their men were ready and eager for the fray.
General Graham was influenced by the counsel of the Highlanders, assuring them that he would lead them to victory; that he himself would march in front of his army; to this, his subordinate officers objected, saying, he was too valuable a leader to expose his person in front of the battle, and urged him to remain in the rear and dictate the movements of his army in the on-coming conflict. To this Graham replied, “your people are accustomed to seeing their leader in the van of battle, and there I shall be seen this day, but after the decision of this day, I shall be more careful of my person and not expose myself in action as heretofore has been my custom.” After that statement, his army was commanded to move forward, himself being in the lead.
Soon the foe was met and the battle of Killikrankie was fought. Early in the engagement Graham was shot, having raised his hand above his head and standing erect in his stirrups, giving command, his shield or armour raised above his waistband, exposing his person, when the ball took effect, he fell from his horse and one of his subordinate officers coming up to him, inquired if his injuries were fatal, Graham answered by saying, “How goes the cause of the king?” The attendant answered, “the cause of the king is well; how is your lordship?” Graham replied, “it matters not for me, so the cause of the king is safe.” These were his last words. Though dying on the field, his army won a great victory and the battle of Killikrankie has passed into history, as one of the most memorable events of that time. History hands down to us other names of the Grahams, who were more or less noted in their day and time, of which we might mention, Malcolm Graham, who is last, but by no means least, stood high in society and was bound with a golden chain by King James the II to Ellen Douglass, the girl he loved so well; dishonoring thus thy loyal name.
- Fetters and warden for the Greame (Graham)
His chain of gold the king unstrung;
The links o’er Malcolm’s neck he flung,
Then gently drew the glittering band,
And laid the clasp on Ellen’s hand.
From the above selection it will be noticed that the name is spelled Greame. Whether the author drew upon his poetical license for this misnomer or whether the name was sometimes so spelled by the Scotts, we are unable to determine.
In the early settlement of this country, when people paid but little attention to the orthography of names — the name was often spelled Grimes. There seems, however, to have been no authority whatever for this contortion of the name.
The only excuse that might be offered for this misapplication of the name is that the names of the early settlers were scarcely, if ever, seen in print and but seldom in writing, but were handed orally from one to another, thus giving plenty of opportunity for misunderstandings. We can recall many names, which in our youth were pronounced differently from what they now are. To illustrate, the name Stevenson was called “Stinson”; the name Withrow was called “Watherow”; Stodghill was called “Stargeon” and so on. We even find in this day a few of the old-styled fathers and mothers who do not like to discontinue the old-fashioned way of expressing these names.
The Graham name in all English history and in the history of our country, as well as in all the legal writings pertaining to the family, from the earliest settlement in America down to the present time, is spelled as we now have it — Graham.
The people of Scotland of the same family tree were known as clans; and these clans seem to have been bound together by very strong and endearing ties.
Such were the adhesion of these family clans that they kept themselves almost entirely aloof from other clans; marriage and intermarriage by members of one clan to another was scarcely admissible. If a member of one clan provoked or insulted a member of another clan, the insult was resented by the clan whose member had been insulted; thus we find arose many of the clan feuds, with which Scottish history so much abounds.
Each clan had its official head chief or leader, whose duty it was to dictate to his people such a course as seemed to him most wise and discreet or that happened to please the whims of his own fancies. In military affairs this leader or chief was expected to occupy the most dangerous positions and to perform the most daring of the exploits in the heat of battle. He must either win a victory, in which he performed some noble part, or die in defeat.
The Graham clan was a very large and influential one, and, perhaps, at the time of its greatest power, had for its official head James Graham, the Earl of Montrose, who laid down his life for love to his king.
It is claimed in Scottish history that the Graham family dates back for a thousand years, and has been conspicuous in the annal of their country, “from hovel to the palace, in arts, in eloquence and in song”. “It was a daring man by the name of Graham that first broke through the walls of Agricola which the Roman general had built between the firths of the Clyde and Forth to keep off the incursions of the Northern Britons, and the ruins of which, still visible, are called to this day the ruins of Graham’s Dyke”. [end of section, but not of page]
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Major Discoveries by Venus Express: 2006-2014
3. Spinning Venus is slowing down
Venus Express discovered that surface features were not quite where they should be, evidence that Earth's cloud-covered neighbour spins a little slower than previously measured. Using the VIRTIS instrument at infrared wavelengths to penetrate the thick cloud cover and study the surface, scientists discovered that some features were displaced by up to 20 km from where they should be.
Over its four-year mission, NASA's Magellan orbiter was able to watch surface features rotate beneath it, allowing scientists to determine that the length of a day on Venus was 243.0185 Earth days. However, the landforms seen by Venus Express some 16 years later could only be lined up with those observed by Magellan if the length of the Venus day is on average 6.5 minutes longer.
Scientists have looked at the possibility of this change arising from short-term, random variations in the length of a Venus day, but have concluded that these should average themselves out over time. On the other hand, atmospheric models have shown that the planet may have weather cycles stretching over decades, which could lead to equally long-term changes in the rotation period.
These detailed measurements from orbit are helping scientists determine whether Venus has a solid or liquid core, which will help our understanding of the planet's formation and how it evolved.
If Venus has a solid core, its mass must be more concentrated towards the centre. In this case, the planet's rotation would react less to external forces. The most important of those external forces is associated with the dense atmosphere and high velocity winds.
This is one of the major discoveries made by Venus Express during the last eight years. Read more on the following pages:
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| 0.96391 | 355 | 3.828125 | 4 |
- Make sure the stone
is clean and completely dry. Tape will not adhere
to a wet stone, and the dampness will make the paper
fragile and liable to tear. Besides ruining any
chance of a rubbing, this may cause you to
accidentally damage the stone with your rubbing
- Cut a piece of your
paper or other rubbing material to a size slightly
larger than the stone. If possible, write any
information on or about the stone, inscription,
date, location, etc. on the back of the paper before
doing the rubbing so you don’t smear your rubbing.
Or, carry a small notebook, write the information on
a page, tear out and roll up with your rubbing.
- Tape the paper to
the stone. Make sure that it is secure so that it
won’t slide as you are rubbing and cause a blurred
image, and that it covers the face of the stone
completely, so that you won’t get marks on it.
- If only doing
lunettes, please be sure that a large enough area is
covered to protect the stone.
- With your fingers,
press the paper lightly against the stone. This
will cause the paper to indent into the carvings,
resulting in a clearer image, with less rubbing
medium accidentally transferring into "blank" areas.
- Using rubbing wax, a
large crayon, charcoal, or chalk, gently start to
rub along the outside edges – creating a "frame" for
your rubbing. Using long, even strokes following
the same direction, fill in the "frame".
- Rub lightly to start
with, and then apply more pressure to darken in the
design if it suits you. Be very careful and gentle.
- If you used chalk
for your rubbing, then carefully spray the paper
with a chalk spray such as Krylon. Be very careful
not to get any on the tombstone. It is
best to remove the paper from the stone and lay it
flat on the ground in an area away from any stones
- When the rubbing is
done, carefully remove it from the tombstone and
trim the edges to suit your liking. Remove the tape
from the paper, being careful not to tear the edges
of the paper.
Image: waynesville K12
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Guantanamo Bay has become an international symbol for human rights abuse. Now psychologists are trying to decide if it is ethical for them to attend interrogations at the US military base.
Last year the American Psychological Association (APA) reaffirmed its position against cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment (New Scientist, 29 September 2007, p 18). It currently prohibits its members from being involved with torture or abuse. However, members are allowed to participate in military interrogations, provided they don't involve practices such as waterboarding. Psychologists can help interrogators understand detainees and the best way to question them, explains Stephen Behnke, the APA's director of ethics.
Now some APA members are attacking this stance on account of interrogation techniques used at Guantanamo, sometimes overseen by psychologists. Detainees are alleged to have been subjected to sleep deprivation and isolation techniques, practices that the UN Commission on Human Rights classifies as torture. While some APA members argue that psychologists can help make such interrogations more accountable, about 400 others are withholding their membership dues in protest. Protestors dressed in orange overalls also showed up at last week's APA meeting in Boston.
To try to resolve the issue, the APA will soon vote on a resolution that would prohibit members from working in settings where people are held in violation of international law.
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http://psychologyofmedicine.blogspot.com/2008/09/guantanamo-prompts-psychologists-soul.html
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| 0.959916 | 271 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Tampons and menstrual pads have a huge ecological impact. They are made from petrolium derived products, they are chemically treated and they end up in landfills, incinerators or wastewater by the ton. The bleaching and manufacturing process uses big amounts water and energy. Some figures:
In 1999, about 2.5 million tampons, 1.4 million pads, and 700,000 pantyliners were flushed down the toilet daily.(1) In the US and Canada alone, more than 12 billion pads and tampons are tossed annually. The average woman throws away between 10,000 and 15,000 tampons, pads, and applicators over her lifetime. (2)Aside from it's environmental impact, there's also the toxicity of menstrual supplies. everyone's heard about Toxic Shock Syndrome, which is a rare bacterial infection. They can also trigger allergies. But most of us don't realize that tampons are bleached using chemicals, mainly chlorine dioxide. The FDA's cautious stance on this is that chlorine dioxide, though elementally chlorine free, can still "theoretically generate dioxins at extremely low levels,"(2). When you use a tampon made of rayon, the process to transform wood into rayon uses hundreds of different chemicals, some residue is bound to linger on. Furthermore, even though they are individually wrapped, they are not sterile (and you are inserting them inside your body). If you research the topic, you will find that there is great dispute to how many illnesses may be caused or influenced by tampons, but the fact that there is dispute should already make you wary. Better safe than sorry.
Commercial menstrual pads aren't harmless either, they can be the cause of chronic vulvar itching and irritation, caused by the chemicals in the pad and the chafing of the skin from contact with the pad.
Menstrual blood in itself is not irritating to the vulva, even if in contact for 48 hours.
Knowing all this, I set out to green my period too. And as a very welcome side-effect, reduce the amount of stock I had to have, since getting your shopping done here in Congo is rather tricky and very irregular to say the least.
I bought a trial pack of cloth pads of different shapes and sizes at a mom-owned handmade store I also bought some cloth diapers from, and I also got the DivaCup. I have yet to use the pads, as I didn't have washing facilities at my disposal during my last period, but I did use the Divacup.
|Image: Mama's & Kindjes|
There isn't a lot too it and certainly nothing to be afraid of. The DivaCup comes with a multi-language manual where everything is neatly explained, and if that isn't enough, you can find a lot of support online.
Basically all you do is insert it with one of the described techniques and rinse it with a neutral soap every time you need to change it.
It said that you only have to change it a couple times a day, but as I tend to pee rather often, I found myself rinsing every time I went too the bathroom (at least I got to practice my skills).
A neat thing about it is that you discover how much you bleed, which for me was a huge amount, much more then the leaflet said (my daily flow was what they predicted for an entire period).
When inserted correctly, you don't feel the DivaCup at all, and you can wear it at night, in the bath... You don't need additional pads or liners (but I would suggest using them in your learning phase, as things can get a little messy when you're still trying).
Overall, it was a big success and I would recommend it to everyone. it isn't any more 'dirty' or 'icky' or whatever then using a tampon, it reduces the amount of stuff you have to carry along when you're flowing and it's a one time investment (which you will have won back after three or four periods).
An alternative to the DivaCup is the Lunette, made in Finland,which I haven't tried myself.
(1)Recycling and Waste Reduction Statistics
(2)The Environmental Magazine, The Hidden Price of Feminine Hygiene Products
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| 0.970895 | 890 | 2.59375 | 3 |
Identifying Unique Cobia Populations through Genetics
Cobia are a large popular sport fish capable of making long distance seasonal migrations and with a range that includes most of the world’s tropical and subtropical waters. In the spring and early summer months, cobia along the southeastern United States are thought to migrate with warming waters from Florida to the Chesapeake Bay. During the spring and summer, large numbers of cobia enter high salinity bays and estuaries, including Port Royal Sound (PRS, fig. 1)) and St. Helena Sound (SHS) in South Carolina (SC), Pamlico Sound in North Carolina (NC), and the Chesapeake Bay. The nature of these inshore migrations was thought to be for either feeding or reproduction and only recently have SCDNR biologists determined that spawning was occurring in SC estuaries. Evidence that these estuaries are used as spawning grounds raised important questions about the genetic structure and management of cobia in SC.
It is expected that migratory fish, like cobia, with a worldwide distribution and long distance migratory patterns would be unlikely to be separated into small unique populations, but rather be one large population (for example, the US Atlantic Coast). However, if these fish are returning to the same estuary every year to spawn, the potential to have small unique populations increases within such estuaries. Small unique populations are often more vulnerable to overfishing, habitat reduction, and effects of pollution because once the populations are severely impacted, there are no new fish coming back to sustain the population. Because cobia are using PRS and SHS for spawning purposes, evaluating the levels of genetic structure between these known inshore spawning aggregations and fish captured outside of known spawning habitat is very important.
In order to determine if the cobia captured in the different estuaries along the US southeast coast are part of smaller unique populations or part of one large coastal population, SC researchers at SCDNR’s Marine Resources Research Institute developed genetic techniques that are used to determine differences between groups of fish and even identify individual fish in the wild by their DNA. These genetic tools were first developed to identify hatchery-produced fish that have been released by SCDNR’s cobia stock enhancement research program.
Small pieces of tissue taken from the fishes’ fins (fin clips) were collected from cobia at fishing tournaments, as well as from fish carcasses provided by cooperating anglers and SCDNR personnel during the late spring and summer months of 2008-2011 (April-July). Samples were also collected in Virginia (VA), NC, SC, and Georgia (GA). Anglers were asked to provide information about the donated samples, including location of capture (inshore versus offshore).
Our genetic analysis showed that all fish captured offshore, throughout the southeast US Atlantic coast, were similar to one another, suggesting one big spawning population with lots of mixing. However, fish sampled within PRS were genetically different from fish sampled in offshore waters. We saw similar results from fish sampled within Chesapeake Bay; they were genetically different than both fish captured within PRS and in offshore waters (Fig. 2). These results suggest that during cobia’s annual migrations, the same individuals are returning to the same inshore aggregations to spawn
These results are complemented by recapture data collected by SCDNR’s cobia stock enhancement research program. Experimental stocking of cobia produced at the Waddell Mariculture Center has occurred between 2004-2012. There are numerous examples of fish released in PRS being recaptured back in PRS in later years. The recapture of these stocked fish within their release estuary 1-3 years post-release suggests some degree of natal homing occurs within these inshore cobia aggregations, supporting the identification of their unique genetic population structure. Additionally, results from South Carolina’s marine game fish tagging program indicate that over 90% of tag recaptures from fish initially tagged within PRS occurred back in the sound or the immediate vicinity.
Based on the genetic information brought to light by this research in the southeastern Atlantic coast of the US, cobia populations are quite genetically diverse both overall and within localized areas. However, the detection of unique populations of cobia within this portion of their range has implications on the appropriate management unit(s) for this important recreational fishery. As with many aspects of cobia’s life history, the answer does not appear to be straightforward. For example, a recommendation based solely on information gathered from the offshore collections, which shows high levels of movement along the southeast US Atlantic coast, might include continuing the single population management strategy as overfishing in one offshore area would impact other areas as well. In contrast, a recommendation based solely on the inshore collections, which indicate the presence of distinct population segments and estuarine fidelity in cobia, might favor separate management of the population segments, as localized fishing pressure would primarily impact the local population. Considering the genetic uniqueness of the inshore aggregations, it is concerning that the majority of the fishing pressure on these aggregations targets the reproductive pool on their spawning grounds. However, perhaps given the complicated life history of cobia, a more appropriate recommendation would include a two-tiered strategy in which cobia are managed as a single umbrella population for offshore activities in conjunction with inshore aggregation-specific management options at the local level. Such a strategy would provide flexibility to fisheries managers challenged with promoting sustainability within a localized spawning aggregation.
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| 0.960026 | 1,135 | 4 | 4 |
10% of Australian Wave Power Potential Could Provide One-Third of Nation's Energy Needs
photo: Jurek Durczack
It may not be nearly the ridiculously large potential claimed by geothermal power in Australia, but a new report commissioned by the Carnegie Corporation indicates that one-third of Australia's power needs could be met through wave power installation. Oh, did I mention that Carnegie Corp manufactures wave power-cum-desalination technology? I only say that in the spirit of full disclosure, not to necessarily cast doubt on the report findings. Carnegie says that even using "conservative" estimates yields an enormous underutilized power resource. Just how much power could be be pulled from the waves? Read on:Specifically, the report says that Australia has a total near-shore wave power potential of about 171,000 megawatts, or four times the nation's current installed power generating capacity. Assuming 10% of the calculated near-shore wave power resource can be extracted economically, that would still mean that about 35% of Australia's current power usage could be met by this resource.
image: Carnegie Corp.
How Does CETO Work?
Matter Network has as good a description as any of how CETO works:
Long columns -- multiple individual submerged units -- are anchored to the sea floor, and sway in unison with the motion of passing waves. The columns drive pumps, which in turn pressurize seawater that is delivered on-shore through a pipeline on the ocean floor. Each 125-unit Ceto farm can make enough power for 15,000 households.
image: Carnegie Corp.
Capable of Desalination or Power Production
Carnegie Corp. describes the advantages of CETO:
The CETO wave power converter is the first unit to be fully-submerged and to produce high pressure seawater from the power of waves.
By delivering high pressure seawater ashore, the technology allows either zero-emission electricity to be produced (similar to hydroelectricity) or zero-emission freshwater (utilising standard reverse osmosis desalination technology). It also means that there is no need for undersea grids or high voltage transmission nor costly marine qualified plants.
CETO units are fully submerged and permanently anchored to the sea floor meaning that there is no visual impact as the units are out of sight. This also assists in making them safe from the extreme forces that can be present during storms. They are self-tuning to tide, sea state and wave pattern, making them able to perform in a wide variety of wave heights and in any direction. CETO units are manufactured from steel, rubber and hypalon materials, all proven for over 20 years in a marine-environment.
More at :: CETO Wave Energy
via :: Sydney Morning Herald and :: Matter Network
SeaPower Promises Emission-Free Power and Water
The Tide's Rising for Wave Power: Power Buoys Installed Off the Spanish Coast
Giant Rubber Snake 'Anaconda' Could Bring Cost of Wave Power Down
Giant Mechanical Snakes Create Electricity from Waves in Portugal
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<urn:uuid:79f1579c-bc55-483d-ab87-da556e675def>
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http://www.treehugger.com/renewable-energy/10-of-australian-wave-power-potential-could-provide-one-third-of-nationatms-energy-needs.html
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| 0.920012 | 630 | 2.84375 | 3 |
A Voiced Mathematics Tool for Students and Teachers
MathTalk™/Scientific Notebook™ allows users to operate Scientific Notebook with voice commands. There are two versions: one that works with Dragon Naturally Speaking Professional and one that utilizes Dragon Dictate. Scientific Notebook comes with MuPAD™ 2.5, a built-in computer algebra system.
With the Scientific Notebook program, students can compute symbolically or numerically, integrate, differentiate, and solve algebraic and differential equations. The program’s graphing capabilities allow for the creation of 2-D and 3-D plots in many styles and coordinate systems. Users can import data from graphing calculators and compute with over 150 units of physical measure.
Using the Exam Builder feature, teachers can create exams algorithmically and generate, grade, and record quizzes on a web server. The program also comes with voice commands to translate math into Braille using the Duxbury Braille Translator 10.3/10.4.
Speech Recognition Capabilities
MathTalk™/Scientific Notebook™ has learning modules for all levels of mathematics: pre-algebra, algebra, trigonometry, calculus, and statistics. With voice commands, MathTalk™/Scientific Notebook™ makes creating documents that contain text, mathematics, and graphics seamless and easy.
MathTalk™/Scientific Notebook™. is $375 for either a teacher or student version. Both versions include Scientific Notebook. Users must purchase either Dragon Dictate or Dragon Naturally Speaking Professional in order to use MathTalk™/Scientific Notebook™. For more information, please check the website at www.mathtalk.com.
Back to Index ..
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<urn:uuid:613e753b-4f03-4323-8c9c-660f61930eaf>
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A disordered thermostat pg. 3
Constellation of symptoms
How do the beta cells know when to secrete insulin? Here’s part of the answer: They contain an enzyme called glucokinase, which puts a phosphate group on the glucose molecule. In the process, the enzyme stimulates the beta cell to secrete insulin.
Mark A. Magnuson, M.D., the Earl W. Sutherland Jr. Professor of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics who helped identify the role of glucokinase in insulin secretion, compares it to a “thermostat.” Depending upon whether it is blocked or activated, blood glucose rises or falls.
Maturity-onset Diabetes of the Young or MODY, a rare form of diabetes, can result from mutations in any one of at least six different genes that play a role in the ability of the beta cell to sense the presence of high levels of glucose, including the gene for glucokinase.
“Type 2 diabetes … may actually be a disease of a disordered thermostat,” says Magnuson, who chairs the steering committee of the Beta Cell Biology Consortium, an effort supported by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases to improve understanding of the beta cell.
The challenge is to develop drugs or other treatments that can adjust the thermostat without causing serious side effects.
“That’s why (diabetes), despite all the investment of money, intellect and resources, is still getting worse,” says Cherrington, former chairman of the Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics at Vanderbilt and past president of the American Diabetes Association. “As yet we don’t understand the complexity of the disease.”
As an example of that complexity, an estimated 17 million Americans have diabetes, but nearly four times that number may have metabolic syndrome, also called insulin resistance, a constellation of symptoms that places them at high risk for developing type 2 diabetes and heart disease.
Symptoms include abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, high blood glucose, high levels of trigylcerides and low levels of high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Trigylcerides are a form of fat that contribute to atherosclerosis, the build-up of fatty deposits in blood vessels, whereas HDL is a type of cholesterol that seems to protect against it.
Fat cells, also called adipocytes, also can build up in the liver and pancreas, affecting their ability to function properly. In addition, recently discovered hormones released by adipose tissue, including leptin, resistin and adiponectin, can influence glucose metabolism in one way or another, some by opposing or complementing the effects of insulin, others by signaling the brain to suppress appetite. So can hormones released the digestive tract, such as ghrelin, PYY and GLP-1.
“You cannot study the beta cell in isolation,” explains Christopher B. Newgard, Ph.D., director of the Sarah W. Stedman Nutrition and Metabolism Center at Duke University. “There is a remarkable interplay and dovetailing of these regulatory circuits.”
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Copyright © 2006 by the author(s). Published here under license by The Resilience Alliance.
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Hill, G. E., D. J. Mennill, B. W. Rolek, T. L. Hicks, and K. A. Swiston. 2006. Evidence suggesting that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Campephilus principalis) exist in Florida. Avian Conservation and Ecology - Écologie et conservation des oiseaux 1(3): 2. [online] URL: http://www.ace-eco.org/vol1/iss3/art2/
Research Papers Evidence Suggesting that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Campephilus principalis) Exist in Florida
Données suggérant la présence du Pic à bec ivoire (Campephilus principalis) en Floride (États-Unis)
1Auburn University, 2University of Windsor
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) disappeared from the forests of southeastern North America in the early 20th Century and for more than 50 years has been widely considered extinct. On 21 May 2005, we detected a bird that we identified as an Ivory-billed Woodpecker in the mature swamp forest along the Choctawhatchee River in the panhandle of Florida. During a subsequent year of research, members of our small search team observed birds that we identified as Ivory-billed Woodpeckers on 14 occasions. We heard sounds that matched descriptions of Ivory-billed Woodpecker acoustic signals on 41 occasions. We recorded 99 putative double knocks and 210 putative kent calls. We located cavities in the size range reported for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers and larger than those of Pileated Woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus) that have been reported in the literature or that we measured in Alabama. We documented unique foraging signs consistent with the feeding behavior of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers. Our evidence suggests that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers may be present in the forests along the Choctawhatchee River and warrants an expanded search of this bottomland forest habitat.
Key words: avian conservation; bottomland hardwood forest; Campephilus principalis; Choctawhatchee River; Ivory-billed Woodpecker
The Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) was once resident in the mature bottomland forests of southeastern North America from east Texas to Florida and the Carolinas along the Gulf and Atlantic Coasts and north in the Mississippi River Valley to southern Missouri (Jackson 2002; 2006a). Populations were greatly diminished and isolated by the cutting of swamp forests in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and collectors shot many of the remaining birds (Tanner 1942, Jackson 2002, 2006a). The last well-documented Ivory-billed Woodpecker lived in the Singer Tract in northeast Louisiana before the last of that virgin forest was logged in 1944 (Jackson 2002, 2006a). A second, disjunct population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers may have persisted in the mountains of Cuba until 1988, but that population was pronounced extinct by the end of the 20th century (Lammertink 1995). Over the last 60 years, a few sight records in the continental United States have suggested the presence of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, particularly in Louisiana (Gallagher 2005), but most bird authorities concurred that the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was likely extinct by the latter part of the 20th century (American Ornithologists' Union 1983). In 2005, a video purporting to show an Ivory-billed Woodpecker along the Cache River in Arkansas was published (Fitzpatrick et al. 2005), but whether or not the indistinct image captured on this video is an Ivory-billed Woodpecker remains contentious (Jackson 2006b, Sibley et al. 2006, Fitzpatrick et al. 2006a, 2006b). The failure of a massive search of the forests of eastern Arkansas from 2004 to 2006 to reliably relocate Ivory-billed Woodpeckers suggests that no population of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers persists in that area (Fitzpatrick et al. 2006b).
On 21 May 2005, GEH, TLH, and BWR detected a bird that appeared to be an Ivory-billed Woodpecker in a mature swamp forest along the Choctawhatchee River north of the town of Bruce in the Florida panhandle. The Choctawhatchee River and its major tributaries flow through more than 20 000 ha of mature, seasonally flooded forest. Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) was selectively cut from this watershed in the early 20th century, but extensive stands of oak (Quercus spp.), other hardwoods, and scattered huge baldcypress remained uncut. From December 2005 to May 2006 we searched for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in an approximately 500-ha plot of forest surrounding the location of our initial detection. Two of us (BWR and KAS) camped in the area throughout this period, and the other researchers visited periodically. We moved through the area daily in kayaks and by foot, looking and listening for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers. We carried small video cameras to record images and sounds. In addition, we used seven automated listening stations to make 24-h digital sound recordings throughout our study area.
We erected seven automated listening stations consisting of Sennheiser ME-62 omni-directional microphones with K6 power modules and Marantz PMD-670 solid-state digital recorders powered by sealed lead-acid batteries. Microphones were housed in rain guards made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubing and attached to the top of 3-m wooden stakes using 30-cm shelf brackets. Stakes were attached to small trees so that sound was recorded from all directions. All components were camouflaged with spray paint. To facilitate 24-h recordings, sounds were recorded as MP3 files at 44.1 kHz, 16 bit, 160 kbps onto Hitachi 3GB microdrive cards. Memory cards and batteries were changed daily.
Field recordings were split into consecutive 60-min recordings and converted to AIF or WAV format using “Audition” (Adobe, San Jose, California). Files were then scanned using “Syrinx-PC” sound analysis software (J. Burt, Seattle, Washington), which allowed us to visualize all recordings minute by minute, to compare field recordings with spectrograms of historical Ivory-billed Woodpecker “kent” calls from 1935, and to directly annotate sounds of interest. For all double knocks, we measured the delay between the two knocks (start time of the first knock to the start time of the second knock) using the time cursors of Syrinx-PC (resolution 0.001 s). We measured relative amplitude of knocks using the Maximum RMS Power feature of Audition (background noise below 400 Hz was filtered as necessary using the FFT filter function of Audition).
To measure the numerous large cavities in the 500-ha study plot, we used a retractable 12-m pole to raise a ruler next to cavity entrances and then took a digital photograph of each entrance and ruler. We photographed 131 cavities clearly enough and with a scale in the photo so that we could quantify cavity entrance size. We used “ImageJ” software (U.S. National Institutes of Health) to calculate the vertical and horizontal dimensions of each photographed cavity entrance. Photographing cavities at an angle from below is likely to distort their size, but the distortion should result in an underestimate of the vertical dimension, thus making our measurements of cavity size conservative.
In July and August 2006, we searched for large cavities in forests in Lee and Macon counties, Alabama, approximately 200 km north of our Ivory-billed Woodpecker study area. Lee and Macon counties have abundant Pileated Woodpeckers (Dryocopus pileatus), but no Ivory-billed Woodpeckers or signs of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers have been reported in these counties in more than 60 years of intensive ornithological work by faculty and graduate students at nearby Auburn University.
We quantified bark adhesion with a Cabela’s Advanced Angler’s 50 lb Digital Scale graduated at 0.01 kg increments with a maximum capacity of 30 kg (Cabela’s Inc., Sidney, Nebraska). We attached an L-shaped bracket made of steel (a picture-hanging bracket) to the hook on the scale. We pushed the lower part of the bracket under the bark immediately next to a woodpecker feeding mark and recorded the force required to lift the bark by 1 cm. We took three bark adhesion measurements per tree, and used the mean adhesion per tree in comparisons. We did not restrict our measurements of bark adhesion to the best putative Ivory-billed Woodpecker feeding trees nor to what we thought was “fresh” feeding sign. Rather, we chose patches of forest with signs of woodpecker foraging and measured the adhesion of bark to all trees >5 cm in diameter that showed obvious signs of woodpecker foraging, without regard to whether it appeared fresh or old. Our goal was to quantify the full range of adhesion strengths of bark next to woodpecker foraging sign in different forested regions.
We measured bark adhesion within our 500-ha Ivory-billed Woodpecker study area in Florida, and in three seasonally flooded bottomland hardwood forests along Saugahatchee, Choctafaula, and Uphapee Creeks in Lee and Macon counties, Alabama, approximately 200 km north of the Florida site. All four of these sites support high densities of Pileated Woodpeckers, but we have detected no Ivory-billed Woodpeckers during intensive bird surveys of the three sites north of the Choctawhatchee over the past 4 years. The three northern sites supported mature bottomland hardwood forests with a history of disturbance and tree-species composition that was largely similar to that of the forests along the Choctawhatchee River. The northern creek bottomlands were narrower and less extensive than the vast swamps along the Choctawhatchee River. At all sites, common trees were water hickory (Carya aquatica), spruce pine (Pinus glabra), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red maple (Acer rubrum), overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), and swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii). There was much more water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica) and baldcypress in the Florida site compared with the Alabama sites, but these trees were uncommon feeding substrates for woodpeckers. We did not attempt to quantify forest composition at any of these sites.
On 14 occasions, we sighted birds well enough to observe the diagnostic shape, plumage pattern, or flight behavior characteristics of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Appendix 1: table S1). On two of these occasions, we observed two birds together. In each of these encounters, observers who had abundant experience with Pileated Woodpeckers and other southern swamp birds identified field marks that were characteristic of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, such as white trailing edges on black wings, non-undulating loon-like flight with stiff wingbeats, and white lines running from the neck down the back (see Appendix 1: table S1).
Members of our research team heard sounds matching the distinctive double knock and kent call of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, including several bouts of repeated double knocks or kent calls, 41 times between May 2005 and April 2006 (Appendix 1: table S2). Seven of 12 visitors to the study site between May 2005 and April 2006 heard sounds consistent with Ivory-billed Woodpecker kent calls or double knocks. We recorded nine putative double knocks and five putative kent calls with hand-held video cameras, including consecutive double knocks that appeared to be given by two different birds.
Seven automated listening stations spaced approximately 500 m apart collected 11 419 h of audio recordings between 5 January and 23 April 2006. From these recordings and the audio recordings from hand-held video cameras, we isolated 99 putative double knocks and 210 putative kent calls (Fig. 1; Appendix 1: table S3). Many of these recordings are faint because we used omni-directional microphones to record birds that were seldom near the listening stations. However, our recordings of both putative kent calls and putative double knocks match historical descriptions of Ivory-billed Woodpecker acoustic signals. Members of our search team never played kent calls or attempted to mimic double knocks, and we never encountered another birdwatcher in the area. We are confident that the sounds that we recorded were not made by a human attempting to mimic an Ivory-billed Woodpecker.
Allen and Kellogg recorded kent calls from Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in Louisiana in 1935 (Tanner 1942). These calls were recorded from a breeding pair at their nest and the vocalizing birds appeared to have been agitated by the humans making the recordings. Thus, any comparisons between our recordings and the Allen and Kellogg recordings must be treated cautiously because of likely differences in the context in which the calls were produced. Nevertheless, the putative kent calls that we recorded share similarities in fine structure to the Allen and Kellogg recordings, being composed of short, harmonically rich syllables. The fundamental frequency and first two harmonics of the kent calls recorded by Allen and Kellogg have frequencies of 632±24 Hz, 1264±50 Hz, and 1891±68 Hz (mean±SD for n = 31 calls; historical kent recordings were measured from the Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology website; http://www.birds.cornell.edu/ivory/). Although our faint recordings made detailed frequency measurements difficult for many recorded calls, we found similar frequencies for the fundamental frequency and first two harmonics of putative kent calls recorded near the Choctawhatchee River: 748±102 Hz (n = 161), 1443±220 Hz (n = 184), and 2144±334 Hz (n = 172; lower frequency harmonics were more difficult to measure in more distant recordings). Putative kent calls that we recorded in Florida in 2006 (0.21±0.08 sec, n = 210) were slightly longer than calls recorded at the nest by Allen and Kellogg in Louisiana in 1935 (0.11±0.01 sec, n = 31). Our recordings of putative kent calls match Tanner’s (1942) description of Ivory-billed Woodpecker kent calls, “with the vowel sound dominant and sounding between the note of a clarinet or saxophone mouthpiece and a tinny trumpet.”
Of the 210 putative kent calls we recorded, 132 were recorded as single, isolated calls. The remaining 78 calls were recorded in 31 bouts, where calls were repeated two to five times (average number of calls per bout = 2.50±0.77) with an average inter-kent interval of 4.6 seconds. Putative kent calls were recorded at all times of day from 0704 (early morning) to 1747 h (late afternoon, just before sunset).
Sounds that resemble Ivory-billed Woodpecker kent calls are produced by Red-breasted Nuthatches (Sitta canadensis), White-breasted Nuthatches (Sitta carolinensis), gray squirrels (Sciurus carolinensis), and Blue Jays (Cyanocitta cristata) (Jackson 2002, Tanner 1942), and may also be produced by Great Blue Herons (Ardea herodias) (R. Charif, pers. comm.). Neither species of nuthatch was detected at our site, either by experienced human observers or on our remote sound recordings. Great Blue Herons are common along the Choctawhatchee River, but their occasionally kent-like calls could be distinguished because they were followed in sequence by repeats of their more common squawk-like calls. Gray squirrels, which are plentiful throughout our study site and produce a “chuck” call with harmonic structure similar to the Ivory-billed Woodpecker’s kent call, could be distinguished on the basis of a drawn-out squeal that follows the “chuck.” Blue Jays have immense vocabularies of vocalizations (Tarvin and Woolfenden 1999) and may be able to produce notes that closely resemble Ivory-billed Woodpecker kent calls (Charif et al. 2005). Such vocalizations are atypical sounds for Blue Jays and should not be their exclusive vocalizations. If Blue Jays were the source of our putative kent calls, then kent calls should be commonly associated with more familiar Blue Jay vocalizations. However, none of the 210 putative kent calls recorded by our listening stations were associated with any known Blue Jay vocalizations. Between December and March, Blue Jays were absent from the core study area and were detected only at the edges of the swamp next to pine (Pinus spp.) stands. Blue Jays were not detected within the core study area either by experienced human observers or by our listening stations until the end of March, at which time both humans and listening stations recorded the appearance of Blue Jays, especially at the periphery of the study area. Numerous putative kent calls were heard by human observers and recorded by listening stations in February and early March, when no Blue Jays were present.
No recording of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker’s double knock exists for comparison with our recordings from the Choctawhatchee River. Tanner (1942) describes the double knock as a “hard, double rap, BAM-bam, the second note sounding like an immediate echo of the first.” The timing of the putative double knocks that we recorded is consistent with this description of two raps in direct succession: the average delay from the start of the first knock to the start of the second knock was 0.115 ± 0.003 seconds (n = 99). In 45% of our putative double knocks, the first knock was louder than the second, matching Tanner’s description (Jackson 2002). A louder first knock may be a common double-knock pattern among Campephilus woodpeckers (Jackson 2002), but amplitude of Campephilus double knocks has not been investigated systematically. Our recordings of Pale-billed Woodpeckers (Campephilus guatemalensis) from Costa Rica reveal double knocks with both loud/soft patterns and soft/loud patterns (D.J.M., unpublished data).
The putative double knocks that we recorded show tremendous variation in tone, which likely reflects variation in the substrate upon which they were produced. A recording of nine successive double knocks produced by a single Pale-billed Woodpecker in Costa Rica demonstrates the variation in the quality of double knock sounds that can be produced by one individual: all nine of these double knocks were produced by the same bird on different parts of one tree (supporting information sound file: Appendix 11; recorded by D.J.M. with a Sennheiser MKH70 directional shotgun microphone and a Marantz PMD660 solid state digital recorder on 12 May 2006 in Santa Rosa National Park, Costa Rica).
Of the 99 putative double knocks that we recorded, 69 were recorded as isolated sounds. The remaining 30 were recorded in ten bouts, wherein double knocks were repeated two to nine times (average number of double knocks per bout = 3.0±0.7). Double knocks were recorded at all times of day from 0542 (twilight, shortly before sunrise) to 1720 (just before sunset).
Twice we recorded series of putative double knocks that appear to have been produced by two different individuals. The first recording has nine double knocks (recorded 25 December 2005 at 0730 with a hand-held video camera); the first two double knocks are distant, the intermediate five double knocks are markedly louder, and the final two double knocks are distant. TLH, who recorded these double knocks, and BWR, who stood next to him, thought the sounds were coming from two birds in front of them in the forest, but out of view. The second recording has three double knocks (recorded 20 January 2006 at 0927 at an automated listening station); the last two double knocks in the file are given in direct succession and at different intensities.
On 11 days, we recorded both putative kent calls and putative double knocks at a single listening station or at adjacent listening stations separated by approximately 500 m. January 12: 1 kent call and 5 double knocks; January 22: 3 kent calls and 5 double knocks; February 6: 10 kent calls and 2 double knocks; February 9: 4 kent calls and 1 double knock; February 10: 3 kent calls and 1 double knock; March 2: 1 kent call and 1 double knock; March 13: 1 kent call and 1 double knock; March 20: 1 kent call and 7 double knocks; March 25: 5 kent calls and 1 double knock; March 26: 7 kent calls and 3 double knocks; April 10: 23 kent calls and 1 double knock (Appendix 1, Fig. S1).
Ivory-billed Woodpeckers were reported to excavate cavities with larger entrances than any other woodpecker that lived north of Mexico (Jackson 2002, Tanner 1942). We found many large cavities in the forests along the Choctawhatchee River (Fig. 2). The vertical diameter of the entrance holes for 20 of the cavities we measured fell in the size range of active Ivory-billed Woodpecker nest cavities measured in the Singer Tract in Louisiana in the 1930s (12.7 cm and greater) (Tanner 1942), and the vertical diameter for 33 of the cavities we measured exceeded the maximum published height for the cavity entrance holes of Pileated Woodpeckers (12.0 cm) (Bull and Jackson 1995). The horizontal diameter of the entrance holes for 67 cavities fell in the range of Ivory-billed Woodpecker cavities (10.2 cm and wider) (Tanner 1942) and the horizontal diameter for 98 cavities exceeded the maximum reported width for the cavity entrance holes of Pileated Woodpeckers (9 cm) (Bull and Jackson 1995) (Fig. 3).
We compared size of cavity entrances along the Choctawhatchee River to the largest cavities we could find in Lee and Macon counties, Alabama, where Pileated Woodpeckers are common but where we have detected no Ivory-billed Woodpeckers. We measured the entrances of 21 cavities in Lee and Macon counties. Two of these cavities were active Pileated Woodpecker nests, and the remaining 19 shared a similar appearance. The average vertical diameter of cavities along the Choctawhatchee River (10.8 ± 0.2 cm, n = 131) was significantly larger than the average vertical diameter of the 21 cavities in Lee and Macon counties (8.5 ± 0.4 cm, n = 21; ANOVA: F1,151 = 30.2, p<0.0001). Similarly, the average horizontal diameter of cavities along the Choctawhatchee River (10.1 ± 0.1 cm) was significantly larger than the horizontal diameter of cavities in Lee and Macon counties (7.9 ± 0.3 cm; ANOVA: F1,151 = 28.5, p < 0.0001).
Many trees along the Choctawhatchee River had single cavities on their trunks, whereas others had two or more cavities stacked one above the other. Cavities occurred in both living and dead trees. Some cavity entrances appeared very fresh when we discovered them, with bright white wood around the perimeter of the cavity entrance and clearly visible bill marks. Bill marks, as distinct from the tooth marks of a gnawing mammal, could be seen through binoculars on several cavities, and we climbed to two large cavities and noted bill as opposed to tooth marks. We are confident that these cavities were cut into trees by birds and not enlarged by gnawing mammals. Most cavities in live trees appeared to have been excavated in previous years, with rims of scar tissue that diminished their original dimensions.
From December to April, we watched and video taped one or a few cavity entrances each evening and morning, but we never detected a woodpecker coming or going from a cavity.
According to Tanner, who watched Ivory-billed Woodpeckers feed in Louisiana in the 1930s, Ivory-billed Woodpeckers use their relatively flat, chisel-like bills to scale tightly adhering bark from recently dead trees (Tanner 1942). Although Pileated Woodpeckers obtain food by scaling bark, they apparently do so primarily on trees with loosely adhering bark, and Tanner (1942) indicated that they do so less cleanly than Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Tanner 1942). We found woodpecker feeding sign on numerous trees within our study area that fit Tanner’s description for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers (Fig. 4).
Approximately 20% of scaled trees in our study area along the Choctawhatchee River had tightly adhering bark with adhesion values above those observed in swamp forests where Ivory-billed Woodpeckers have not been detected (Fig. 5). The mean adhesion of bark around foraging marks was significantly different among the four sites (ANOVA: F3,542 = 28.3, p < 0.0001) with significantly greater adhesion along the Choctawhatchee River than at the three other sites (Tukey-Kramer: p < 0.05). There were no significant differences among sites in the mean diameter of trees measured (ANOVA: F3,542 = 0.3, p = 0.66; Table 1), and all four sites had grossly similar tree species composition. To evaluate whether the differences in bark adhesion might be due to differences in tree species composition, we compared bark adhesion among the four sites for sweetgum only. Again, we found that bark adhesion around woodpecker foraging marks was significantly different among the four sites (ANOVA: F3,30 = 3.26, p = 0.03) with greater adhesion along the Choctawhatchee River (6.9 ± 1.0 kg of force to lift bark, n = 23 trees) than at the three other sites (Choctafaula Creek: 2.1 ± 2.7 kg, n = 3 trees; Sougahatchee Creek: 1.1 ± 1.9 kg, n = 6 trees; Uphapee Creek: 2.2 ± 2.7 kg; n = 2 trees).
Our observations, acoustic encounters, audio recordings, measurements of cavities, and analysis of feeding sign provide evidence that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers may live along the Choctawhatchee River in the Florida panhandle. In a 1-year period from 21 May 2005 to 19 May 2006, members of our search team saw birds that we identified as Ivory-billed Woodpeckers 14 times. We heard sounds matching Ivory-billed Woodpecker kent calls and double knocks, and our listening stations recorded numerous putative kent calls and double knocks, including both sounds at the same recorder on the same day. At the location of our sightings and sound detections, we documented trees with very large cavities with dimensions exceeding the published range for Pileated Woodpecker cavities and exceeding sizes of cavities measured in a nearby area where Ivory-billed Woodpeckers are known not to occur. Also at this same location, and sometimes on the very trees with large cavities, we observed bark scaling unlike that seen in other southern bottomland forests. Any one of our lines of evidence could be dismissed as coincidental or a mistake, but together, these observations, collected by experienced ornithologists, suggest that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers may be present in the Florida panhandle. The persistence of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers will be established definitively only by a clear photograph or video image, a fresh feather, or perhaps genetic analysis of material from a nest or roost cavity, but the evidence presented here warrants an expanded search and protection of this bottomland forest habitat.
The swamp forests along the Choctawhatchee River constitute one of the largest tracts of mature forest in the southeastern U.S. This corridor of bottomland hardwood forest extends for about 60 km, with an average width of about 2.5 km. This forest was only selectively logged in the early 20th century, and large areas suitable for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers likely persisted even through the decades of active logging. Although this river system lies near the center of the historic range of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker, no specimens are known from this region. A sight record from the Yellow River adjacent to Eglin Air Force Base in 1966, approximately 100 km east of our study area, and specimens and sight records from the Apalachicola River basin, approximately 100 km to the west of our study area, are the closest reports of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers to the Choctawhatchee River (Jackson 2004) [ERRATUM]. A lack of museum specimens taken from the Choctawhatchee River suggests that Ivory-billed Woodpeckers escaped shooting by collectors in this river system. Much of this vast swamp forest is owned by the Northwest Florida Water Management District, a Florida state agency, so the prospects for preventing future logging and protecting birds in this area are good.
Walters and Crist (2006) recognized two problems inherent in any attempt to recover a population of Ivory-billed Woodpecker. First, Ivory-billed Woodpeckers will necessarily persist in small numbers, subjecting the species to the risk of extinction faced by all species reduced to small populations. Second, the Ivory-billed Woodpecker was driven to the brink of extinction primarily by loss of habitat. Unless large blocks of mature swamp forest can be restored, there is little hope for the recovery of this species. At this point, we do not know the number of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers that exist in the Choctawhatchee River basin or the specific habitat needs of Ivory-billed Woodpeckers in the Florida panhandle. Preliminary and cursory searches north and south of our study site have revealed foraging sign and large cavities that suggest Ivory-billed Woodpeckers might be widespread in this river system and might exist as more than a few isolated individuals. Large sections of this river basin appear to support old-growth swamp forest that may be suitable for Ivory-billed Woodpeckers.
Future research related to the Ivory-billed Woodpecker in the Choctawhatchee River basin will focus on gathering definitive evidence for the existence of at least one bird, and searching for evidence of nesting Ivory-billed Woodpeckers. If definitive evidence is obtained, research will focus on estimating the size of the population and delimiting the portions of the Choctawhatchee River basin used by Ivory-billed Woodpeckers, and on searching similar river systems on the Florida panhandle, including the Escambia, Yellow, and Apalachicola rivers for evidence of other Ivory-billed Woodpeckers.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe thank S. Blake, D. Carr, C. Gresham, L. Hicks, W. Hood, M. Liu, and P. Mennill for assistance in the field, and S. Lippold, J. Mouland, S. Tremblay, and K. Winger for assistance with sound analyses. We thank J. Jackson, S. Doucet, T. Nudds, M.-A. Villard, J. Walters, and anonymous reviewers for excellent and very helpful comments on an earlier draft of the manuscript. Funding was provided by a Special Research Opportunity Grant and a Discovery Grant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) to DJM and by a discretionary grant from the College of Science and Mathematics at Auburn University to GEH.
Current affiliation for Tyler L. Hicks: Western State College
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Bull, E. L., and J. A. Jackson. 1995. Pileated Woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus). No. 148 in A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. Birds of North America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Charif, R. A., K. A. Cortopassi,H. K. Figueroa, J. W. Fitzpatrick, K. M. Fristrup, M. Lammertink, M. D. Luneau, Jr., M. E. Powers, and K. V. Rosenberg. 2005. Notes and double knocks from Arkansas. Science 309:1489.
Fitzpatrick J. W., M. Lammertink, M. D. Luneau, Jr., T. W. Gallagher, B. R. Harrison, G. M. Sparling, K. V. Rosenberg, R. W. Rohrbaugh, E. C. H. Swarthout, P. H. Wrege, S. B. Swarthout, M. S. Dantzker, R. A. Charif, T. R. Barksdale, J. V. Remsen, Jr., S. D. Simon, and D. Zollner. 2005. Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America. Science 308:1460–1462.
Fitzpatrick, J. W., M. Lammertink, M. D. Luneau, Jr., T. W. Gallagher, and K. V. Rosenberg. 2006a. Response to comment on “Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America.” Science 311:1555b.
Fitzpatrick J. W., M. Lammertink, M. D. Luneau, Jr., T. W. Gallagher, B. R. Harrison, G. M. Sparling, K. V. Rosenberg, R. W. Rohrbaugh, E. C. H. Swarthout, P. H. Wrege, S. B. Swarthout, M. S. Dantzker, R. A. Charif, T. R. Barksdale, J. V. Remsen, Jr., S. D. Simon, and D. Zollner. 2006b. Clarifications about current research on the status of Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) in Arkansas. Auk 123:587–593.
Gallagher, T. 2005. The grail bird: hot on the trail of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Houghton Mifflin, Boston, Massachussetts, USA.
Jackson, J. A. 2002. Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis). No. 711 in A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. Birds of North America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Jackson, J. A. 2004. In search of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Smithsonian Books, Washington, D.C., USA.
Jackson, J. A. 2006a. In search of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Reprint Edition. Smithsonian Books, Washington, D.C., USA.
Jackson, J. A. 2006b. Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis): hope, and the interfaces of science, conservation, and politics. Auk 123:1–15.
Lammertink, M. 1995. Status of the Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) in Cuba: almost certainly extinct. Cotinga 3:45–47.
Sibley, D. A., L. R. Bevier, M. A. Patten, and C. S. Elphick. 2006. Comment on “Ivory-billed Woodpecker (Campephilus principalis) persists in continental North America.” Science 311:1555a.
Tanner, J. T. 1942. The Ivory-billed Woodpecker. Research Report Number 1. National Audubon Society, New York, New York, USA.
Tarvin, K. A., and G. E. Woolfenden. 1999, Blue Jay (Cyanocitta cristata). No. 469. in A. Poole and F. Gill, editors. The birds of North America. Birds of North America, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA.
Walters, J. R., and E. L. Crist. 2006. Rediscovering the king of Woodpeckers: exploring the implications. Avian Conservation and Ecology—Écologie et Conservation des Oiseaux 1:1–6.
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Not all U-Boat commanders were as resolved as Reinhard Hardegen of U-123.
U Boat U-581 was attacked and sunk by HMS Westcott, Cdr Ian Hamilton Bockett-Pugh, southwest of the Azores on 2nd February. Once again the German perspective of the attack was pieced together by Naval Intelligence when they interviewed the survivors:
“U 581” was in the Straits between the islands of Pico and Fayal in the early hours of 2nd February, 1942, steering a north-westerly course, when she became aware of the presence of one or more British destroyers and immediately dived.
She fired one torpedo from her stern tube at the nearer of the two destroyers, but is was admitted that it went wide of its mark. It was not yet daylight, but the moon was full. While “U 581” was submerged at a depth of about 80 metres (262.47 ft.) a rivet on the flange of her port after exhaust pipe gave way and water entered the engine room compartment. Strenuous efforts were made to control the entry of water, but these were of no avail, owing to the pressure at this depth. The entry of water aft not only made it very difficult to keep trim while submerged, but it also threatened to put the electric motors out of action.
An atmosphere of panic prevailed and “U 581” submerged to a depth of some 160 metres (524.94 ft.) involuntarily. The Commanding Officer ordered the tanks to be blown and “U 581” rose to within some 20 metres (65.61 ft.) of the surface, when the sound of the destroyers’ propellers overhead could be distinctly heard. The Engineer Officer accordingly appealed to the Captain to submerge again as he was afraid they were going to collide with the attacking craft. The Captain acceded to this request and the boat once more dived, somewhat out of control, to about 150 metres (492.13 ft.). But this was too much for the Commanding Officer’s nerves and he finally gave the order to surface.
After U-581 surfaced the attacking destroyer, H.M.S. Westcott, managed to ram her.
The crew of the U-Boat had abandoned ship a matter of some five seconds before the impact. No attempt was made to engage “Westcott” with gunfire. H.M.S. “Westcott” now prepared to carry out a second ramming, but before this could be put into effect, “U 581’s” bows rose clear of the water and she sank by the stern in over 400 fathoms.
As well as piecing together the details of attacks on U-Boats, from which they could glean very useful tactical information, Naval Intelligence sought to build up a broad picture of the operations of the U-Boat arm generally. The crew of U-581 were not a happy bunch and apparently were very ready to provide lots of information about many other U-Boats operating from their base, how successful they were and where they had been. The general morale of U-boat crews was of equal interest – and in this case the crew of U-581 proved to be very forthcoming about their pay and conditions – but not least some comments about their own officers:
Kapitänleutnant Werner Pfeifer
He had been on the friendliest terms with his Engineer Officer before the war and there is little doubt that either willingly or perhaps subconsciously he allowed himself to come under the evil influence of this man. Pfeifer gave the impression of being a casual type who had failed to take his U-Boat career very seriously. Though probably glad to have his own command, he does not seem to have been particularly energetic or enthusiastic in the pursuit of enemy shipping.
It was said of him that on one occasion, when a British destroyer had been sighted, he had excused himself with the remark: “I’ve got to go to the lavatory for a moment,” despite the entreaties of his junior officers to take offensive action. When he returned the destroyer was not in a favourable position for attack.
Such lack of enthusiasm had a depressing effect on his crew, who were not slow to show their dislike of returning to port with no pennants flying, whereas other U-Boats would usually fly several, one for each ship claimed sunk. He was stated not even to have wished his crew a merry Christmas or a happy New Year. In sharp contradistinction to some of the more popular commanding officers, he allowed no alcohol on board his boat.
Pfeifer wrote a protest about his capture, claiming that it was all a mistake – he had been in neutral waters at the time of his sinking, had not tried to torpedo anyone, and should not be a prisoner of war but be allowed to go to a neutral country.
The Engineer Officer Helmut Krummel was described as the evil genius of the boat:
If his manner under interrogation is any indication of his behaviour on board his unpopularity is not surprising. Tales were recounted of how he had forbidden the crew to listen to any music, unless he personally issued orders to this effect. Also, there was said not to be a single petty officer or man in “U 581” who had not received punishment at his hands. On one occasion a chief petty officer had threatened Krummel with personal violence in the presence of other officers. Officers from “U 93” described him as always trying to pick out the bad points in other people’s characters and to ignore the good.
Read the whole report at U Boat Archive.
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In Western civilisations time is defined by constants - seconds, minutes, hours etc. Our contemporary society is ruled by time, and today's binary culture is defined by inflexible analogue to digital sampling rates that are measured in frequencies (kHz) per second. By contrast, in the ancient perennial wisdom tradition of Buddhism - which has at its heart the concept of impermanence - time is measured by change*. Jonathan Harvey described how, by convention, classical music was grounded in linear time, and how the Darmstadt School led by Stockhausen and Boulez challenged that convention by introducing the revolutionary concept of global time depicting eternity - the 'tranquil abiding' of Buddhism that Jonathan depicted in his eponymous orchestral work. The paleontologist Bob Brain has described how:
We're tied to a sequential time sequence, it's the only way evolution can work - otherwise everything happens at once. But every now and then the process falters and we look through a chink at, I suppose, the eternity religions speak of. When this happens, it's such a startling experience that you hanker after it, when you're back in the world of sequence.Classical music's raison d'être is not to provide an amenable sequential soundtrack for suburban breakfasts; rather it is to, however briefly, open the chink through which we can see eternity. There is a growing awareness of the mental and physical benefits of stepping outside sequential time sequences and glimpsing the ineffable. Classical music is ideally positioned to exploit that awareness. But first it must overcome its obsession with short term - as measured in linear time - audience gains.
* An overview of the Tibetan Buddhist Kalachakra empowerment states that 'Time, in Buddhism, is defined as a measurement of change'. I am very fortunate to be travelling to the remote region of Ladakh on the border of India and Tibet in a few weeks to witness the Kalachakra empowerment by the Dalai Lama. The title of this post is taken from Helena Norberg Hodge's classic book Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh, which depicts how an ancient Eastern culture can be a source of inspiration for our contemporary Western society. Header image is recording of Stockhausen's Mantra by Yvar Mikashoff and Rosalind Bevan on piano, with Ole Ørsted controlling electronics. Any copyrighted material is included as "fair use", for the purpose of critical analysis only, and will be removed at the request of copyright owner(s).Also on Facebook and Twitter.
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Internet existed for long time, but nothing drastically happened. However in recent years various web sties have changed how we exchange and handle information. We list here 10 great web sites, some of the most-visited web sites in the world, that changed the life of the students and others.
1. wikipedia.org – online encyclopedia
Wikipedia is a free online encyclopedia. Anyone can read articles, and also can edit them. However the articles on Sri Lanka are very few, so can can become the first one to add articles on some subjects.
Wikipedia is not a source so reliable you can cite it in real academic papers. However, it houses a wealth of information – more than a million user-written articles, and that depth makes Wikipedia a good starting point for research on new topics.
Google is the most accurate, and widely accepted search engine today. After popularity of this search engine, the company is branching out into email (with Gmail), news (Google News), price comparison (Froogle), cartography (Google Maps), literature (Google Book Search), free telephony (Google Talk), and, most strikingly, Google Earth, an incredibly detailed virtual globe. It also contains other useful free software such as Picasa (photo browsing and editing), google desktop search (good search engine to search your personal computer)
3. webcast.berkeley.edu – Webcasts and Podcasts- free audio and video lessons
There are tons of internet resources that can give you a quality education every day, free knowledge is available all around us.
University of California, Berkeley in USA is ranked as one of the best colleges in USA and in the world. It records its lectures in mp3 format and some courses even with real media video. You can download these Podcasts in as mp3 files and listen to them using ipod player or even with a normal mp3 player such as winamp in windows. You can pause the videos or mp3s, take notes, research, and press play again at your convenience. The Berkeley webcast lets you be in the classroom with the students watching or hearing some amazing teachers and accomplished professionals.
UC Berkeley’s courses can be browsed from the Courses homepage (http://webcast.berkeley.edu/courses), and refreshes each semester with new stuff. Be sure to check the “Archives” dropdown in the upper-right corner for all past courses, too.
Podcasting has become a popular technology in education, because it provides a way of distributing educational content to learners.
4. MIT Open Courseware – free online courses
MIT web site gives away course materials, including syllabi, lectures, assignments and reading materials free. According to their home page “MIT is a free and open educational resource (OER) for educators, students, and self-learners around the world. MIT OpenCourseWare (MIT OCW) supports MIT’s mission to advance knowledge and education, and serve the world in the 21st century.
Apart from above two web sites there are lots of free elearning sites which you can find using opencourseware finder site.
5. flickr.com – photo sharing
The photo-sharing site Flickr is also finding use within education – as it provides a valuable resource for students and educators looking for images for use in presentations, learning materials or coursework.
Students can also use Flickr to publish their digital photography to a wider audience. And like blogging, the commenting function on Flickr allows for critical feedback.
6. blogger.com – web log publishing site
“Blog” is an abbreviated version of “weblog”, which is a personal website featuring diary-type comments, presenting the author’s daily life and thoughts. Normally blog site has a main content area with articles listed chronologically, newest on top. Blogger lets you open and maintain a free blogging site. You can become online publisher with matter of minutes.
Blogging is increasingly used in education (both in school and university), because the software removes the technical barriers to publishing online and also the ‘journal’ format encourages students to keep a record of their thinking over time. Blogs also facilitate critical feedback, by letting readers add comments – which could be from teachers, peers or a wider audience.
Apart from blogger there are other free sites to obtain a blog, such as wordpress.
7. youtube.com – video sharing
You can watch or share your educational videos on this site. Rather than traditional presentations, students can now produce short videos on a chosen subject and publish on YouTube, where they can be viewed and commented on by classmates and the wider YouTube community.
8. amazon.com – online retailer of mainly books, CDs, VCDs
Considered as the earth’s biggest bookstore, you can order books if you have a credit card. You can browse through the world’s most popular books in any subject and become reader of the very recent books published.
9. Sourceforge.net – Freeware Applications
Free and Open Source Software (FOSS) is becoming very popular, most often as Microsoft alternatives. Many free software such as Mozilla Firefox browser is accepted as better product than MS Internet explorer. If you are really into computing and programming sourceforrge.net contains lots of free softwared. Also, there are lots of freeware that will help you study and become more efficient.
This contains full-text sources online, including reference books (encyclopedia, dictionary, thesaurus, quotations, grammar, and style), as well as poetry, fiction, and nonfiction works that are no longer under copyright. I just started reading Darwin’s Origin of species on this site.
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December 30, 2013
Testosterone Study In Male Birds Offers Insight In Human Behaviors
Lee Rannals for redOrbit.com - Your Universe Online
Adding a little testosterone to a male canary’s brain influences the bird’s ability to successfully attract a mate through birdsong. Male canaries use their song to win over a female canary as a mate. The quality and frequency of the songs change along with the seasons.Researchers at The Johns Hopkins University wrote in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) that adding testosterone into select areas of a male’s brain enhances song activity. The study’s findings could help provide more insight into how testosterone acts in the human brain to regulate speech or help explain how anabolic steroids affect human behaviors.
The team divided 20 canaries into two groups to receive a hormone implant, with one group receiving a testosterone injection in the medial pre-optic nucleus (POM) and the other receiving an injection that acted throughout the brain. The scientists artificially replicated a springtime environment to study the birdsong and mating habits that occur during mating season. The birds responded to the conditions with birdsong and mating behaviors as they normally would during this season.
Researchers discovered that when a male canary received testosterone in a specific area of the brain, the frequency of the song increased. However, they also discovered that the song quality did not change in comparison to birds that received testosterone treatment throughout the entire brain.
The team said that some of the birds that received treatment sang songs poorly. Birds that received injections in the POM region sang their songs at high rates, but were unable to produce the high quality song that is most attractive to females.
“Our data suggests that testosterone needs to act in different areas of the brain to regulate the specific components of this complex social phenomenon,” Beau Alward, lead author of the study and a graduate student, said in a statement. “It appears that, like in so many other species, testosterone in the POM can regulate an animal’s motivation, in this case, the motivation to sing. However, singing and courting a female is more than just motivation. There is the quality of the song that is required to successfully attract a mate and then the process of attending to the female, or singing to her, when she is there which requires the coordination of multiple brain regions.”
Male canaries that received testosterone throughout the brain showed high-quality song behavior, showing that hormones act on several different brain areas to regulate how much as well as how well the birds can sing.
Scientists consider the canary brain a good model for brain study because of its ability to change its neural pathways and synapses in response to changes in behavior, the seasonal environment and injury. The team believes their study could have implications for research concerning how steroid use in humans affect sexual behaviors and how hormones regulate the difference components of human speech.
“The hormones in these birds are identical to those in humans and they can regulate brain changes in a similar manner,” senior author Gregory F Ball, vice dean for science and research infrastructure and professor in the Department of Psychological and Brain Sciences in the Zanvyl Krieger School of Arts and Sciences, said in a statement.
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INTRODUCTION TO AUSTRALIAN SOCIAL TRENDS
Australian Social Trends (AST) is an Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) flagship publication presenting a picture of Australian society through a selection of articles. The articles aim to address current and ongoing social concerns, and focus on population groups of interest and changes over time. Each tells a story and provides a sense of the social and historical context of its topic.
The articles draw on a wide range of data, sourced both from the ABS and other agencies. AST aims to inform decision-making, research and discussion on social conditions in Australia.
Australian Social Trends uses the ABS Wellbeing Framework to identify areas of social concern, population groups and transactions among people and entities (see ABS Measuring Wellbeing: Frameworks for Australian Social Statistics, 2001), with each AST release covering a range of the areas of social concern. The broad areas of social concern are:
- family and community
- education and training
- economic resources
- crime and justice
- culture and leisure
- other areas - including environment, religion, and transport and communication.
Articles aim to balance 'what' analysis (relating the relevant statistics surrounding the issue, e.g. number, characteristics, change over time, sex, age and other differences), with 'why' analysis (providing context and explanation by highlighting relevant social changes and events and the timelines of these). Some topics are revised as new data becomes available. The aim of this approach is to remain responsive to contemporary concerns, while accumulating a more comprehensive picture of Australian social conditions over time.
All AST articles are available via the 'Article archive
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How to Use Chillies as a Natural Pesticide
From Howtopedia - english
Chillipepper, Capiscum Frutescens
After: "Natural Pesticides No. TNP1", Tropical Advisory Service, June 2000, HDRA - the organic organisation
Chillipepper, Capiscum frutescens
The chillipepper, or chilli, originated in South America and is now widespread throughout the tropics and subtropics. The insecticidal properties are highest in the ripe fruit especially in the skin and seed. Chillis act as a stomach poison, antifeedant and repellent to a number of pests.
Note: Care should be taken when handling chillis because they irritate eyes and skin.
Chilli spray 1
Crush and grind 4 cups of ripe chilli pods or 5 cups of chilli seeds. Place in a pan with 3 litres of water and boil for 15 to 20 minutes. Take off the heat and add 3 more litres of water. Leave to cool. Then filter through a cloth and keep the liquid. Add soap so that the mixture sticks to the pests and the leaves. Use potash based soft soap that is used for washing dishes and not the modern washing powders that contain caustic soda which will harm plants.
How to use: Use as a spray or sprinkle using twigs or grass tied together to form a whisk, against most insects including caterpillars, aphids, flies, ants and mealy bugs. Apply once a week if there is no rain or two or three times a week if it rains. It is important to use this solution as a preventative measure.
If the concentration of the chilli solution is too strong, it can burn the leaves. So it is important that the right strength is found by testing.
Chilli spray 2
Slice 500 grams of ripe chilli pods and place in a bucket filled with water. Leave to decompose for 4 to 5 days. Sieve the mixture and keep the liquid. Dissolve 30g of soap into this liquid and use as a spray or sprinkle using twigs or grass tied together to form a whisk. Use potash based soft soap that is used for washing dishes and not the modern washing powders that contain caustic soda which will harm plants.
How to use: as for chilli spray 1.
Chillis and garlic spray
Grind 1 garlic bulb and 1 onion. Add 1 tablespoon of powdered chilli peppers. Stir into 2 litres of hot water. Leave the mixture to cool. Strain through a fine cloth and keep the liquid. Add 1 tablespoon of soft soap and stir well.
How to use: Use as a spray for caterpillars in fruit trees.
Chilli, Mexican marigold and onion spray
Chop 4 chilli pods, 4 onions and a handful of Mexican marigold leaves. Soak for 1 day in soapy water. Use potash based soft soap that is used for washing dishes and not the modern washing powders that contain caustic soda which will harm plants. Strain using a sieve and keep the liquid. Add 2 litres of water.
How to use: Spray onto red spider mite infestations.
Grind as many dried ripe chilli pods as required.
How to use: Sprinkle the powder around the base of plants to repel ants, cutworms, slugs and snails as well as many soil pests.
Other uses of chilli
Chilli can be interplanted with crops to act as a repellent against many insects, fungi and viruses.
Against pests in the house
In Mexico, when a new house is constructed, the basement or the foundation of the house is "painted" with a fuild chilli paste made from the hotest chillies available, to stop pests from entering or nesting in the house.
Other names of Capiscum frutescens
HDRA - the organic organisation, Ryton Organic Gardens Coventry, CV8 3LG, UK Tel: +44 (0)24 7630 3517 Fax: +44 (0)24 7663 9229 Email: Website: http://www.hdra.org.uk
Link to Fourthway's poster "How to make a natural pesticide": http://www.fourthway.co.uk/posters/pages/pesticide.html
- How to Use Neem as a Natural Pesticide
- How to Control Termite without Chemicals
- How to Process Oilseed on a Small Scale
- How to Use Garlic as a Natural Pesticide
- How to Use Chillies as a Natural Pesticide
Two ways to support the work of howtopedia for more practical articles on simple technologies:
Support us financially or,
Testimonials on how you use howtopedia are just as precious: So write us !
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Labat and the Development of the French School Part
Labat, in the preface to his book, L’art en fait d’armes, observes that many masters divide the blade into three equal parts: the strong, the weak, and the middle; and that others divide it into four equal parts: the strong, the semi-strong, the semi-weak, and the weak. He, however, prefers to speak only of two parts: the strong and the weak. Similar divisions of the blade can be found in 16th- and early 17th-century Italian fencing literature. Giacomo Grassi, for instance, in his Ragione di addoprar sicuramente l’arme, published at Venice in 1570, cites four parts. Fabris, in his treatise published thirty-six years later, also mentions four parts, and adds that half of the blade is used for offense, and the other half for defense. In other words, the portion of the blade from the point to the middle is employed offensively, while the portion from the middle to the guard is used defensively. Capo Ferro divides the blade in three parts, but notes that there are some who divide it into four parts, a practice which, in his estimation, has little utility.
All actions involving blade contact, from beats to parries, are, of course, dependent upon the relationship of the strong to the weak. In the Italian school engagements are made from lunging distance with the strong against the weak, and from out of distance with the medium against the weak. The glide, flanconade in fourth, transport, envelopment, and expulsion -respectively, coule, croise, liement, enveloppement, and froissement-cannot be properly executed unless the opposing steel is dominated. Each of these movements begins from engagement; and if the engagement is not correct, that is to say, strong or medium against weak, then the action on the blade is apt to fail.
Labat is clearly sensitive to the divisions of the blade and lists actions on the blade –batteinens, croisemens, liemens, and fouetemens– yet he shows fencers in plate 1 engaged middle to middle, and on page 90 calls the engagement of the garde mediocre "the most beautiful, the most useful, and the best." Also of great interest is the fact that the fencers in the illustrations are armed with practice weapons that do not have a crossbar and ricasso; they are shown holding a straight-handled foil, with a curious, crown-shaped guard, that appears to be the ancestor of the modern French weapon. Labat, in his text, uses interchangeably the terms "sword" or epee, and "foil" or fleuret.
While engagement of middle to middle becomes a distinguishing feature of the French school, there seem to have been some exceptions in the early years, for example, La Boessiere; on page 44 of his treatise he has the pupil engage strong against weak. But the method he describes dates to the 18th century; it is the system his father employed. By the end of the l9th century, however, French masters appear to be unanimous in recommending engagements of middle against middle. Prevost, on page 55 of his book, defines the engagement as a meeting of the swords. Prevost’s contemporary, Georges Robert, in his work, La science des armes, published at Paris in 1900, includes illustrations on pages 39 to 45 showing engagements in all lines made with the middle against the middle; and in his description of the engagements he states that the point should be pressed lightly against the opposing steel.
Two factors, in all probability, led to the change in the position of engagement from the traditional strong against weak to the middle against middle: 1) the sword arm eventually was more withdrawn in the French school; and 2) the straight-handled practice weapon was not well suited for actions on the blade. By drawing the armed hand back, the swordsman assumed a defensive, rather than an offensive, posture; and with both fencers adopting this guard position, engagement of strong against weak would result in uncomfortably close fencing distance.
Between the 17th and l9th centuries, however, the sword arm in the guard position was well extended in both the French and Italian schools. For example, Labat, on page 10, observes: "the arm must be neither fully extended, nor completely bent; rather it should be equally between the two "He echoes Fabris, who earlier in the 17th century, wrote: "the arm must not be fully extended, but rather more extended than withdrawn, and with the sword in line" The well extended sword arm with point in line reflects the duellist’s concern with threatening the adversary and keeping him at a safe distance. French masters still advocated such a guard position at the beginning of the l9th century, as can be seen in the first plate of La Boessiere’s treatise on fencing. But by the end of that century the more flexed arm position, now associated with the French school, prevailed, as can be seen in Prevost’s work. In his description of the guard on page 39 he states that the sword arm must be bent, with the elbow close to the body.
Apart from differences in hand positions, engagement, and weapon grip, Labat’s method cannot easily be distinguished from that of the Italian school. Terms that have changed or disappeared from modern French fencing language, can still be found in Italian fencing terminology, and in Labat’s work. His flanconade is the Italian fianconata esterna; his reprise or coup redouble is the Italian ripresa di attacco or secondo colpo; and his volter le corps or quarter is the Italian inquartata. He also speaks of the double-feinte and the feintes en desordre, using the terms as they are employed by the Italians today: doppia finta and disordinata. And he lists in the same order, as the Italians, the three basic elements of fencing: time, velocity, and measure.
The words doppia finta and disordinata require further comment. In the doppia finta the first blade motion of a three movement attack gives the action its name: thus, a double feint direct means a feint direct followed by a feint by disengagement and a disengagement; and a double feint by disengagement signifies two feints by disengagement succeeded by a disengagement, an action also known as a one-two-three. The term disordinata refers to three or more feints designed to throw the adversary into a state of confusion.
What is obvious from this comparison of French and Italian fencing material is the fact that the French, very logically, built upon the existing, successful method of swordplay devised by the Italian masters. By the time Labat published his treatise the Italian system of instruction had been transformed into a French national school. French masters, during the course of the 17th century, had succeeded in distinguishing their school from the Italian school by changing the practice weapon grip, and by shifting emphasis from offense to defense, and from actions on the blade to actions performed with absence of blade.
The Italian school stresses offense. Fabris, for instance, says that the adversary is placed at a disadvantage when he is forced to parry. Poggio Vannucchi, in his book, I fondamenti della scherma italiana, published in Bologna at the end of the l9th century, quotes his teacher, Giuseppe Radaelli, as saying, "the parry does not exist." What Radaelli meant, of course, was that if the attack was properly timed, with the necessary speed, and in correct fencing distance, that it could not be parried.
The change in practice weapon type from the rapier-style grip, employed by both the Italian school and the older generation of French masters, to the straight-handled grip was a principal factor in the evolution of the French school. Labat’s crown-shaped guard was replaced, in the 18th century, by a figure-eight shaped guard, such as the one shown in the illustrations for Guillaume Danet’s, L’art des armes, published at Paris in 1766. This offered little protection to the hand, so that a large, padded glove was necessary. Cordelois is shown wearing such a glove in the frontispiece to his book, Lecons d’armes, published at Paris in 1862. With the straight-handled grip covering the entire blade, and the thick, stuffed glove protecting the fingers, there could have been little sensitivity to blade contact. This would, naturally, inhibit the use of actions on the blade, such as the feint by coule or the froissement, and promote movements that freed the blade, like the feints by disengagement and cut-over. Removal of the crossbar, and free movement of the grip, would facilitate actions such as the cut-over and ceding parry Labat calls "tierce obeyssant." With free movement of the pommel, the point of the weapon could be lifted easily for the cut-over, or dropped for the ceding parry of prime.
In contrast, the Italian school continued to employ as a practice weapon a modified rapier-style foil with a bell guard, crossbar and ricasso The armed hand seems to have been covered with an ordinary glove, and the weapon tied to the wrist, with movement of the pommel restricted, as indicated by Rosaroll Scorza and Pietro Grisetti in their book, La scienza della scherma, published at Milan in 1803. The Neapolitan system of fencing that Scroza and Grisetti practiced was, in fact, based on 16th- and 17th-century Italian rapier play; it stressed use of simple movements, actions on the blade, and counterattacks. The use of ceding parries which carried the opposing steel to the low line, such as Labat’s parry of tierce obeyssant, was discouraged, since these would bring the hostile point dangerously close to the legs. Tierce obeyssant, known to the Italian school as ceduta di prima, was confined to sabre fencing.
For the Italian school blade contact was of the utmost importance. As long as the weapons touched, the adversary’s movements-no matter how subtle-were transmitted along the blade to the ricasso, and from the ricasso, to the fingers. The moment the opponent lost control of fencing measure and permitted his blade to be dominated, he was exposed to an action on the blade.
Feints, of course, made the fencer vulnerable to a counterattack. Under the heading, "Of the vanity of feints," Capo Ferro writes: "while he feints, I thrust." In other words, Capo Ferro opposes the compound attack with a counterattack, or what modern French fencers would call an attack on the preparation. Here, there is a significant difference in terminology between the French and Italian schools. From the Italian point of view the offensive action executed in opposition to a compound attack is a counterattack; in other words, the first fencer to move is the attacker, and the second, the counterattacker.
The abandonment of the older numerical system of hand positions by the French, and renumbering of parries also became distinguishing features between the two schools. In a work as recent as Giorgio Pessina’s and Ugo Pignotti’s, ll fioretto, published at Rome in 1970, the classic hand positions and old numbering of parries can still be found. The four parries are designated prima, or mezzocerchio, seconda, terza, and quarta, with hand positions, respectively, in third in fourth, second or fourth, second in third or fourth, and third in fourth. The hand may be held in supination in all fouriarries, or in pronation in the two outside parries. Like the French, the Italians today favor parrying all lines with the hand in supination.
In conclusion, except for the change in weapon grip and mode of engagement, Labat’s text could easily be confused with an Italian work of the same time period. His pedagogical method, range of actions, and fencing terminology resemble more closely the modern Italian than the modern French school. The shift to a straight-handled practice weapon, and the effect this had on the choice of actions and the tactical approach, represents, in my estimation, the most significant factor in the separation of the two schools. In abandoning the rapier grip, Labat and his successors established a school of fencing that relied more upon absence of blade than upon blade contact, and encouraged use of the cut-over. But while differing in details such as weapon grip, mode of engagement, and names of parries, the French school, nevertheless, duplicates the essential features of its Italian parent. Thus it may be inferred from the French example that the establishment of a new school of fencing can only be effected through modification of an existing system, and that the end product will still closely resemble its antecedent. Finally, it should be observed that language plays a primary role in the creation of a national identity: it is no small coincidence, in my opinion, that the appearance of French fencing terminology and the birth of the French school coincide.
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August 1, 2011
Caregivers And Their Relatives Disagree About Care Given, Received
Caregivers and their relatives who suffer from mild to moderate dementia often have different perceptions regarding the amount and quality of care given and received. A study by researchers at Penn State and the Benjamin Rose Institute on Aging examined a major source of those differences -- caregivers do not understand the things that are important to their relatives with dementia.
"Family caregivers often become the surrogate decision makers of relatives who have dementia, so the two groups need to communicate well and to understand each other," said Steven Zarit, a professor and head of the Department of Human Development and Family Studies at Penn State and the study's leader. "Unfortunately, in our study we found that family caregivers and their relatives often do not understand each other well when it comes to the values they hold about giving and receiving care."The team interviewed 266 pairs of people, each composed of an individual with mild to moderate dementia and his or her family caregiver. To participate in the study, caregivers had to be the primary family caregiver of the dementia patient and the dementia patient had to be living in his or her own home. The researchers interviewed members of the pairs separately, asking questions related to how much value they place on five core values: autonomy, burden, control, family and safety. For example, one question focused on the level of importance a dementia patient gave to the ability to spend his or her own money in the way he or she wants.
"Our results demonstrate that adult children underestimate the importance that their relatives with dementia placed on all five core values," said Zarit. "For example, the person with dementia might think it is very important to continue to be part of family celebrations, but his or her caregiver might not." The team's results will appear in the August issue of The Gerontologist.
According to Zarit, a major reason for differences in these perceptions is that caregivers come to view people with dementia as unable to make their own decisions about daily life. "That is something that does happen as the disease progresses, but the people in our study remained capable of making decisions for themselves and could express their values in a clear and direct way," said Zarit. "Caregivers who still saw the person with dementia as able to direct his or her daily life were also more in tune with that person's values and beliefs."
This lack of agreement about how care is provided has ominous implications for when the dementia worsens. "As people's cognitive abilities decline," Zarit said, "they can no longer express clearly what they want. Family members have to act as surrogate decision makers, but if they don't understand the dementia patients' preferences about care, they may not be able to make the best choices."
Zarit plans to continue this research by developing and evaluating protocols for improving communication between caregivers and their relatives to ensure that medical and social decisions are made in such a way that reflect dementia patients' actual values.
On the Net:
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| 0.972269 | 612 | 2.53125 | 3 |
3.4 The Break gesture
The keyboard Break gesture is Command+Ctrl+,.
This chooses a process that is useful to break, and breaks it.
The process to break is chosen as follows:
It checks for a busy processes that is essential for LispWorks to work correctly, or that interacts with the user (normally that means that some CAPI interface uses it), or that is flagged as wanting interrupts (currently that means a REPL). If it finds such a busy process, it breaks it.
Otherwise it activates or starts the Process Browser.
Note: This break gesture is supported only on Mac OS X 10.4 and later.
LispWorks IDE User Guide (Macintosh version) - 22 Dec 2009
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SENCER E-Newsletter, May 2006, Volume 5, Issue 8
Senate Subcommittee Hearing Focuses on Making Science Relevant and Rigorous
Every child learns about the inner workings of volcanoes, but very few understand how a car works. Dr. Ioannis Miaoulis, President and Director, Museum of Science in Boston asked, "How often do we find ourselves inside a volcano? We are in our cars every day." Dr. Miaoulis's statement exemplified one of the themes that emerged from the Senate subcommittee on Technology, Innovation, and Competitiveness's hearing on Fostering Innovation in Math and Science Education - making science relevant and rigorous.
Participants in the SENCER Capitol Hill Seminar helped fill the room at the hearing focused on the importance of K-16 science and mathematics education in stimulating future developments in the 21st Century's high-tech innovation economy. Senators John Ensign (R-NV), George Allen (R-VA), and John Sununu (R-NH) heard testimony from and questioned witnesses Mary Ann Rankin, Dean of the College of Natural Sciences, University of Texas at Austin; Paul Dugan, Superintendent, Washoe County School District; Thomas N. McCausland, President and CEO, Siemans Medical Solutions USA, Inc.; and Ioannis Miaoulis, President and Director, Museum of Science in Boston.
Each witness discussed their respective contribution to fostering innovation in science education:
Dr. Rankin testified on the effectiveness of the UTeach teacher preparation program at the University of Texas at Austin and stressed the importance of "faithful replication of proven and successful programs."
Dr. Miaoulis said that as a result of the Museum of Science in Boston's promotion of engineering in K-12 curriculum through informal education, "not only are the kids having fun while learning, and the teachers are raving about the units, we have the data to show that we are busting some unfortunate myths children (and teachers) have about engineers and technology."
Mr. Dugan explained that the Washoe County School District has enacted a policy called the "Gateway Curriculum" that will require that all students will be automatically enrolled in 4 years of math and 3 years of science beginning in the fall of 2006. This represents an increase from the previously required 3 years of math and 2 years of science.
Mr. McCausland explained how Siemans is helping develop highly skilled and qualified scientists, mathematicians, and engineers through outreach, mentoring, awards, and scholarships.
The questions asked by the presiding senators emphasized their interest in making science and math education rigorous and relevant, supporting excellence and innovation in teaching, making better use of technology in the classroom, and increasing the numbers and success of women and minorities in the STEM disciplines and professions.
Following the hearing SENCER student and faculty participants said they were encouraged to learn that the issues that are important to the senators were the very same issues that their SENCER courses address. Later in the day, at the poster session, participants presented the ways that they are confronting these challenges to members of congress and their staffs.
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While computer systems are now very capable of recognizing vocal input, they offer minimal interactive feedback. A team of Cambridge University researchers have now developed a system that can not only detect a user's emotional state, but can also make expressive responses of its own. Using a robotic likeness of the godfather of the programmable computer, Charles Babbage, the team has hooked the system up to a driving simulator and created a computerized driving companion and navigator that reacts to the driver in much the same way as a human passenger.
When people talk to each other, we gauge much of how the other person feels by their facial expression and/or from how something is said. We pick up emotions from tone of voice and facial expressions that allow us to decide how best to continue our conversations – to empathize with sadness, share happiness, or react to anger or frustration. People even express themselves in this way when interacting with machines, but the devices don't seem capable of reacting to how a person feels.
Team leader Professor Peter Robinson challenged his team from the Rainbow Graphics and Interaction Research Group to build a system that could "understand not just what I'm saying, but how I'm saying it."
Helping computers to understand emotion
Over the years, computer interfaces have become quite proficient at taking raw input and transforming it into digital data. Voice recognition software is now quite a capable means of entering information into a computer system. Getting a computer to talk back as we would is another matter, so the researchers drew on the extensive knowledge of their colleagues from Cambridge University's Autism Research Center, who study the difficulties that some people have understanding emotions.
They developed a computer system that tracks feature points on a user's face via a camera and then compares the input with entries in a database of hundreds of predefined mental states to interpret the combinations of gestures as emotions. The system also compares the tempo, pitch and emphasis of the user's voice with the same database. Body movement is also important, so posture and gestures are also interpreted using the same criteria.
The three measures were combined to form an overall picture of the emotional state of the user, and is said to achieve an accuracy of around 70 per cent – about the same as most of us. Robinson, however, also wanted a system capable of expressing itself.
Making the jump off the screen
The first step in the process was to record some common facial expressions and then use software to generate an expressive digital character on a computer screen. To bring the setup off the screen and into our world, the team used the robotic head and shoulders of a chimp (called Virgil) and then made an evolutionary jump to use a robotic bust of Elvis Presley.
Finally, Charles was created and the whole shebang was hooked up to a driving simulator. The robot has cameras in each eye to track and register the expressions and gestures of the user, while two dozen motors control its facial expressions to add a frankly spooky level of realism to the proceedings. In addition to acting somewhat like a GPS navigator, but one that responds to user input on-the-fly, Charles can make decisions based on the emotional state of the driver – for instance, the system could limit distractions from the radio or navigation system during periods of stress.
Robinson sees Charles as being a hint of a possible future in human-computer interaction. Let's hope that future incarnations are a little easier on the eye...
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| 0.953396 | 695 | 3.625 | 4 |
Today, we hone our ears. The University of
Houston's College of Engineering presents this
series about the machines that make our
civilization run, and the people whose ingenuity
Years ago, I was offered a
battery of preference tests to determine what field
I should be in. The counselor ran through her list:
The Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory,
the Graduate Record Exam, and so forth. She also
had the Seashore Test, so I asked her to
add it to the set.
The test has nothing to do with sandy beaches. It's
a test of musical ability devised by psychology
professor Carl Emil Seashore. I did well on the
test, but there's a great chasm between my ability
and that of a fine musician. The Seashore test was
used through WW-II, but today it's pretty well
fallen out of fashion.
Now here's an article in a 1922 Scientific
American. It asks, "Are You a Musician?" It
describes the results of Seashore's sixteen years
of work on the test. It shows him listening through
earphones to phonograph records of sounds. He tests
five kinds of musical ability: discrimination of
pitches, dissonance, rhythmical figures, and
intensity; as well as an ability to remember
In our electronic age, we're jolted by some of his
apparatus. He has to use complex machinery to do
what electronics makes so easy today. He's created
special motor drives whose speed doesn't vary and
systems of pulleys to generate reproducible
pitches. He's made a special set of tuning forks.
The article ends with the story of a boy in an Iowa
town who wanted to be a violinist. His father
wanted him to be a businessman. The father finally
let Seashore judge the case. The boy did very well
on the test and, according to the article, has now
"been hailed by critics as the 'Iowa Kreisler'
[while he] came within an inch of being just
another Iowa hardware merchant."
But a key fact in that story gets swept under the
rug. It is that the boy desperately wanted to
be a violinist. Beyond that are also vast
dimensions of musicality that'll never show up on a
set of one-dimensional measures.
What, after all, is involved in knowing how to
shape a musical phrase? Watch any fine musician
close-up, and you'll see a cool blue aura of
relaxation coupled with a white-hot intensity of
focus. Scientific detachment will never capture,
say, Itzhak Perlman's vast intelligence,
personality, and total immersion in the sound and
in its meaning.
Science was exploding into everyday American life
in 1922. It took vast sifting for us to learn what
science could and could not do for us. We generated
every kind of hyperbole and endless false hopes.
Out of all that we've finally filtered a remarkable
Sound and communication were a great piece of it
all. Psychologist and engineer Carl Seashore was
only one of thousands who threaded through the
complexities of handling sound. I'm acutely aware
of that, here in the medium of public radio today
-- the winnowing and filtering that has yielded at
last this seemingly miraculous convergence of
musicians, voices, sounds, and technology.
I'm John Lienhard, at the University of Houston,
where we're interested in the way inventive minds
Cary, H., Are You a Musician? Professor Seashore's
Specific Psychological Tests for Specific Musical
Abilities. Scientific American, December
1923, pp. 326-327.
Seashore, as shown at work, in the 1922
The Engines of Our Ingenuity is
Copyright © 1988-2002 by John H.
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| 0.942525 | 831 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) or Program is a mandated part of the education of people who have been deemed to have special education needs. These programs exist in many countries, and technically when the term "plan" is used it may refer to special ed programs in the UK. Program is more commonly used in the US in official literature, but actually Plan is the more common everyday term for an IEP in the US. An IEP essentially defines the individual nature of the special ed issues faced by a student and determines what steps can be taken to level the playing field and give this student greatest access to learning at levels at which the student is capable of learning.
In the US, the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) define demand for creation of an Individualized Education Plan. This is a federal law, which means it applies to all states, and a state cannot fail to comply with its terms. Some funding for any additional support needed by a special ed student may be drawn from federal funds, though it has been noted, that this is not always the case. Individual school districts may sometimes bear the brunt of additional costs needed to provide accommodations.
Essentially, once a child has been identified as having minor to major learning disabilities, which usually takes parental request for testing, a school team including the parent must meet to make determinations about how to best serve that child. They create an Individualized Education Plan, which is usually immediately put into effect. This plan includes modifications/accommodations to help the child learn better, and these can be varied since each plan is tailored to each child. For instance, some children might need placement in a special class, and others could require occupational therapy, special PE classes, or speech therapy.
Whatever has been identified as needed and beneficial to the child is typically given, though funding can create an issue that stalls some help. At the same time, the Individualized Education Plan team creates benchmarks or goals, by which to judge current interventions. These are a good way of assessing if more or less accommodations could be needed in the future. Usually the IEP team meets once yearly, reworking the plan as necessary, but any member of the team, including the parents, may call for a meeting sooner if it is needed.
When the Individualized Education Plan is successful, students get the support they need to participate to their fullest capacity in the school environment, with the vast majority of them attending mainstream classes. From a legal standpoint, all people at the school have to comply with the IEP, but this can get extremely challenging as children progress through school. Once they have six or more teachers at the middle school level, compliance with the Individualized Education Plan may drop dramatically, and it is often up to parents to demand continued adherence to the plan. Even one teacher may derail a plan, and parents may have to be continual advocates for their children, in this respect.
Another thing that it’s important to note is that school districts or states may have rules about modifications to curriculum on an Individualized Education Plan for middle school and high school students. While students may be eligible for accommodations, they may not graduate if they have modifications. These suggest a child is pursuing other than the standard curriculum.
To sum, there are a few things that can be said about the IEP. These are the right of any child deemed to have a qualifying learning disability. They can be changed over time, and parents have rights to request changes. Parents also may appeal decisions, if they feel that the plan in place is not appropriate. Each plan is different, meant to serve the needs of the individual child, and each school, teacher and other staff member must comply with details of the plan. Failure to comply should be reported, as this violates federal law.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
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Yaddo: Making American Culture
This exhibition explores the role of Yaddo, the artists' retreat, in fostering 20th-century American arts and letters. Founded in 1900 by financier and philanthropist Spencer Trask and his wife, Katrina Trask, Yaddo began receiving guests in 1926 and was immediately hailed by The New York Times as a "new and unique experiment, which has no exact parallel in the world of fine arts." Since that inaugural season, Yaddo has navigated the roiled cultural and political life of 20th-century America while hosting thousands of artists and writers, including such luminaries as James Baldwin, Saul Bellow, Flannery O'Connor, Aaron Copland, Leonard Bernstein, Truman Capote, Jacob Lawrence, Henri Cartier-Bresson, Philip Guston, and Sylvia Plath.
The exhibition is drawn from the intimate letters, papers, photographs, art objects, and ephemera that constitute the Yaddo Records, now in The New York Public Library’s Manuscripts and Archives Division; from collections throughout the Library; and from Yaddo’s own holdings of rare books and artworks.
The story of Yaddo and the artists that it has fostered offers a window onto some of the most significant events of 20th-century history: the economic and social turmoil of the 1930s, the destruction and displacements of World War II, the paranoia of the McCarthy era, the "race problem" from Jim Crow segregation through the Civil Rights movement, and the rise of the women’s and gay rights movements — all helped shape Yaddo, the lives of the artists who sought shelter there, and the works they produced. The exhibition explores the multiple ways that Yaddo as an institution, and the artists it supported, were ultimately anything but sequestered from the shifting social, political, and economic crises that marked the 20th century.
The exhibition is accompanied by an illustrated collection of essays, edited by exhibition curator Micki McGee, published by Columbia University Press.
The companion volume is available for purchase at The Library Shop by clicking here.
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| 0.95887 | 439 | 2.84375 | 3 |
Gerald Freeman is reflected in panels of the small solar plant that provides… (Mark Boster, Los Angeles…)
NIPTON, Calif. — Gerald Freeman unlocks the gate to the small power plant and goes inside. Three rows of solar collectors, elevated on troughs that track the sun's arc like sunflowers, afford a glimpse of California's possible energy future.
This facility and a smaller version across the road produce some 70 kilowatts of electricity, about 80% of the power required by Nipton's 60 residents, its general store and motel.
Freeman, a Caltech-trained geologist and one-time gold mine owner, understood when he bought this former ghost town near the Nevada border that being off the grid didn't have to mean going without power.
PHOTOS: Solar power in Nipton, Calif.
He contracted with a Bay Area company to install solar arrays on two plots of land. The town has a 20-year agreement to buy its power at a below-market rate.
Projects like these make do with scant financing opportunities and little support from the federal government.
The Obama administration's solar-power initiative has fast-tracked large-scale plants, fueled by low-interest, government-guaranteed loans that cover up to 80% of construction costs. In all, the federal government has paid out more than $16 billion for renewable-energy projects.
Those large-scale projects are financially efficient for developers, but their size creates transmission inefficiencies and higher costs for ratepayers.
Smaller alternatives, from rooftop solar to small- and medium-sized plants, can do the opposite.
Collectively, modest-sized projects could provide an enormous electricity boost — and do so for less cost to consumers and less environmental damage to the desert areas where most are located, say advocates of small-scale solar power.
Recent studies project that California could derive a substantial percentage of its energy needs from rooftop solar installations, whether on suburban homes or city roofs or atop big-box stores.
Janine Blaeloch, director of the nonprofit Western Lands Project, said smaller plants were never on the table when the federal solar policy was conceived early in President Obama's first term.
Utilities and solar developers wanted big plants, so that's what's sprouting in Western deserts, she said.
"There was a pivot point when they could have gone to the less-damaging alternative," Blaeloch said, referring to both federal officials and environmental groups that have supported large-scale solar projects.
"There's no question that it was a matter of choice, and it was the wrong choice."
Built in far-flung locations where there is plenty of open land, large-scale plants require utilities to put up extensive transmission lines to connect to the grid.
Utilities charge ratepayers for every dollar spent building transmission lines, for which the state of California guarantees utilities an annual return of 11% for 40 years.
By comparison, small-scale plants can be built near population centers and provide power directly to consumers, reducing the demand for electricity from the grid.
Rooftop solar goes one step further.
It not only cuts demand from the grid, but also can allow homeowners and businesses to sell back excess power.
Falling start-up costs also have brought solar power within reach for many homeowners and small businesses.
In the last six years, the cost in Los Angeles to install a medium-sized solar system — between 50 kilowatts and 1 megawatt — has fallen by 55%, said J.R. DeShazo, an environmental economist at UCLA's Luskin School of Public Affairs.
Even though prices are coming down, Ray Brady, manager of the federal Bureau of Land Management's renewable-energy program, said he has seen little interest in smaller-scale projects.
The agency has policies that provide incentives for developers to build smaller solar plants on federal land, including exempting projects from costly and time-consuming environmental reviews.
But Brady said that he could think of none in the works.
"We can only respond where there is an industry interest to do so," he said, citing economies of scale that can make large power plants more cost-effective for developers.
The state has been more proactive in encouraging smaller projects.
Gov. Jerry Brown's California Solar Initiative has set a target of 12,000 megawatts of energy derived from rooftop panels.
The program offers support for home builders who construct super-energy-efficient homes with photovoltaic panels.
The California Energy Commission is running another program, the $400-million New Solar Homes Partnership, with a goal of installing 400 megawatts by 2016.
Evan Gillespie, who heads up the Sierra Club's renewable-energy programs in California, has worked to bring more uniformity to fees and permitting for rooftop solar, a statewide effort that he says has reduced the cost of a small residential system by $2,500.
"We want to make sure that in the next two to three years we are removing as much friction from the marketplace as possible," he said.
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Interior Design Pathway
CTE Pathways: Connecting High School to College and Career
Career and Technical Education courses help you get started on your pathway to success.
Students will explore their creativity in the field of interior design. Students will develop skills in applying the elements, tools, and principles of design to interiors including, architecture, furniture styles and constructions, surface treatments and backgrounds, design and functions of space and lighting.
- Identification of the elements and principles of design.
- Housing choices and area planning.
- Design and function of interior space.
Class availability may vary at your high school.
-Interior Design - PDF
Student Leadership Organization
FCCLA (Family, Career and Community Leaders of America) is the Student Leadership Organization for Family and Consumer Sciences. FCCLA provides students with opportunities to attain knowledge skills, and leadership characteristics necessary to succeed in life, as well as promoting personal growth and leadership.
Beyond High School
There are a number of options for education and training beyond high school, depending on your career goals.
- Associate degree
- Bachelorís degree
- Professional degree
- On-the-job training
- Military training
- Display Designer
- Family and Consumer Sciences Teacher
- Furniture Designer
- Interior Designer
- Retail Manager
- Set Designer
Interior design is a small occupation with a very small number of job openings each year, although employment of interior designers is expected to increase 19 percent for all occupations through 2016. Economic expansion, growing homeowner wealth, and an increased interest in interior design will increase demand for designers.
Source: Choices and the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2008-2009 EditionUtah Wage
For information on salary projections, labor market demand, and training options, log on to www.utahfutures.org.
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| 0.905423 | 386 | 2.765625 | 3 |
There are two prior Forum publications in the area of technology: Technology @ Your Fingertips (NCES 98-293) and Safeguarding Your Technology (NCES 98-297). Wherever terms in the current document appeared in these prior publications, the glossary definition used there is provided below and the source is noted.
Acceptable use policy (AUP) [SYT; T@YF]: A policy designed to limit the ways in which a computer or network can be used. Acceptable use policies usually include explicit statements about the required procedures, rights, and responsibilities of a technology user. Users are expected to acknowledge and agree to all AUP stipulations as a condition of system use, as should be certified on the AUP by the user's signature.
Adaptive technologies [TiS]: External support that can be used to enhance a person's ability to function within his or her environment, such as advanced voice recognition systems, Braille computer displays, and text-to-speech programs. See also assistive technologies.
Administrative software [SYT]: Computer programs that are used to expedite the storage and use of data and information. Examples of administrative software include student records systems, personnel records systems, and transportation mapping packages.
Administrative staff [TiS]: School personnel primarily engaged in administration, management, or support roles, as opposed to instruction.
Age grouping (of computers) [TiS]: Grouping computers by time elapsed between date of purchase and the present; see also up-to-date (computer).
Alignment (of software with curriculum standards) [TiS]: The process of determining the extent to which instructional software supports specific standards for teaching and learning in a curriculum area.
Assistive technologies [TiS]: Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of children with disabilities. See also Adaptive technologies.
Back up [SYT; T@YF] (Verb): To make a copy of a file or program for the purpose of restoring the data if the masters were to be lost, damaged, or otherwise unavailable for use.
Backup [SYT; T@YF] (Noun): A copy of a master file or program. To be most effective from a security standpoint, backups are frequently stored at off-site locations.
Bandwidth [TiS]: The speed (usually expressed in kilobits per second [Kbps] or megabits per second [Mbps]) of the telecommunications link between a computer and a local-area network and/or an Internet service provider (ISP), routing service, or other method of connection to the Internet. Example of bandwidth level ratings: 33.6 Kbps or under; 56 Kbps; 128 Kbps; 256 Kbps; 512 Kbps; 768 Kbps (.5 T1); T1; Ethernet; DS(1) or higher.
Bit [SYT; T@YF]: A binary digit. The smallest unit of computer memory, eight of which constitute a byte. The value of each bit, as limited by the "binary" code read by computers, is either 0 or 1. See also Byte and Megabyte.
Browser [SYT; T@YF]: See Web browser.
Byte [SYT]: Eight bits. The amount of computer memory needed to store one character (i.e., a number, letter, or symbol). See also Bit and Megabyte.
Cable modem [TiS]: Hardware that encodes and decodes computer-based communications for transmission over a cable television system.
CD [TiS]: See Compact Disc.
CD-ROM (Compact Disc-Read Only Memory) [SYT]: An optical disk capable of storing large amounts of embedded electronic programs or files that can only be read from the disk (i.e., data can not be written to the disk after it has been produced). Unlike diskettes, CD-ROMs can be read by any type of computer with a CD-ROM disk drive. See also Compact disc and Diskette.
Central processing unit (CPU) [SYT]: The main chip that controls the operation of the rest of the computer (i.e., the computer's "brain," where instructions are processed and information flow is managed). In a personal computer, a microprocessor serves as the CPU.
Classroom [TiS]: The location in a school in which instructional services are regularly provided to groups of students. See also Instructional setting.
Client [SYT]: The computer (user) in a client/server network that requests the files or services. The computer that supplies the services is the server. See also Thin client, Server, and Client/server network.
Client/server network [SYT]: A network configuration in which all users access files stored on a central computer or several central computers. Each central computer is a server, and each user (actually each user's computer) is a client. See also Client, Thin client, Server, Peer-to-peer network, and Network.
Commercial service provider [T@YF]: A company that will connect one computer to other computers for the exchange of information.
Compact Disc [SYT]: A 4.75-inch optical disk that can store computer files and data, audio signals, video images, and other digital files. Compact discs are published in a variety of formats, including a read-only format (which are then called CD-ROM for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory), but when not configured as such, can be written to as well. See also CD-ROM.
Computer [T@YF]: An electronic device that stores, retrieves, and processes data, and can be programmed with instructions. A computer is composed of hardware and software, and can exist in a variety of sizes and configurations.
Computer laboratory [TiS]: An instructional setting in which computers are clustered; usually used by a group of students or a class and reserved in advance for teaching such topics as word processing or computer programming.
CPU [SYT]: See Central processing unit.
Data [SYT]: Raw information that lacks the context to be meaningful (e.g., "34" is data because it has no meaning unless some context is provided; "34 degrees Fahrenheit" has meaning and therefore becomes information). The terms "data" and "information" are often used to differentiate between computer-read (i.e., data) and human-read (i.e., information) figures and text. See also Information.
Data element [TiS]: A single entry of recorded information in a database. For example, the date of purchase for a computer is a data element, and the current date is another one. A "data element" may also be regarded as the "answer" to a survey question. See also Indicator, Key question, and Unit record.
Database [SYT]: A large collection of data that is developed and maintained for quick searching and retrieving. See also Data and Database software.
Database software [SYT; T@YF]: Computer programs designed to store large amounts of data and that allow for quick and efficient searching, retrieving, sorting, revising, analyzing, and ordering. There are two common types of databases, flat file databases and relational databases. See also Data and Administrative software.
Decision support tool [TiS]: Software that organizes information to support planning, budgeting, or other priority-setting activities.
Diskette [SYT]: A thin plastic disk on which computer programs and data can be saved outside of a computer. The two types of diskettes, also called floppy disks, are 3.5-inch disks that come in a hard plastic case and 5.25-inch disks that come in thin, pliable, cardboard-like cases.
Distance education, distance learning [TiS]: Any of a number of technologies involving course-taking or educational participation at a distance, with synchronous or asynchronous communication, between student and teacher.
DSL (Digital Subscriber Lines) [T@YF]: This technology uses existing copper pair wiring that exists in almost every home and office. Special hardware attached to both the user and switch ends of line allows data transmission over the wires at far greater speed than the standard phone wiring.
DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-Read Only Memory) [T@YF]: A disc like a CD-ROM that has more storage (4.7 gigabytes) and can provide digital video.
Educational technology [TiS] [From ISTE National Educational Technology Standards (NETS)]: "Educational computing and technology encompasses knowledge about and use of computers and related technologies in (a) delivery, development, prescription, and assessment of instruction; (b) effective uses of computers as an aid to problem solving; (c) school and classroom administration; (d) educational research; (e) electronic information access and exchange; (f) personal and professional productivity; and (g) computer science education."
Electronic data interchange (EDI) [SYT]: The exchange of routine education (and business) information transactions in a computer-processable format.
Electronic mail (E-mail) [TiS]: Asynchronous (time-independent) messages sent from a user to one or more recipients over computer networks. Contrast with synchronous (time-dependent) messaging systems such as Internet chat.
E-mail address [T@YF]: An identifying address for a user's mailbox; characters identifying the user are followed by the @ symbol and the address of the mailbox's computer.
Electronic mail (e-mail) software [T@YF]: The computer programs that facilitate computer-to-computer communications among users in any location.
Extranet [T@YF]: The part of a company or organization's internal computer network that is available to outside users; for example, information services for customers.
File [SYT]: In technology systems, a file is a block of data stored on a magnetic medium such as a floppy disk, hard disk, or tape. A file may contain a computer program, a document, or other collections of data and information.
Firewall [SYT; T@YF]: An electronic boundary that prevents unauthorized users and/or packets of data or information (e.g., files and programs) from accessing a protected system.
Flat file database [T@YF]: A database where information is stored in a single table (e.g., a table in which there is a list of employees, where data about each employee follow the name).
Floppy disk [SYT]: See Diskette.
Frequently asked questions (FAQs) [T@YF]: A listing of questions typically asked, along with the answers to the questions. This list is prepared to help novice users as they begin to use computers or software.
Full-time equivalent (FTE) [TiS]: Translation of hours of labor into equivalent units of full-time work, usually at the rate of eight hours to one full-time day.
Functional specifications [T@YF]: A document that states in detail what a new (or upgraded) computer system should be expected to do, i.e., what services it delivers to those who will use and maintain it. This listing of a computer system's capabilities can be compared to what can be bought from a commercial vendor or built by developers.
Functions [SYT; T@YF]: The tasks or actions that software is intended to perform. See Software functions and System functions.
Graphing calculator [TiS]: An electronic calculator that has the capability to compute and display functions in graphical form.
Hacker [SYT]: An unauthorized user who attempts to access a system and its information.
Hardware [T@YF]: The computer equipment used to do the work (i.e., operate software programs). It consists of the items you can touch, such as the computer case and the peripherals (e.g., monitor, keyboard, mouse) that are attached to the computer.
Help desk [SYT]: A source from which computer, network, or software users can receive assistance. Access to a Help desk is usually offered to users via telephone, fax, or e-mail.
Home page [T@YF]: The introductory page on a web site that usually contains a table of contents for the site and hot links to other pages. See also World Wide Web (WWW).
HTML (Hypertext markup language) [T@YF]: The formatting language used to create Web pages and specify how a page will appear on screen.
Hub [T@YF]: A device that links all client computers to the server.
Hypertext [T@YF]: Text that contains links to other parts of a document or to documents held on another computer.
Indicator [TiS]: The meaning or value assigned to a variable (i.e., the measure of a condition) in terms of its ability to demonstrate/show something. In handbooks relating to the collection of educational data from the National Forum on Education Statistics, indicators are quantitative measures that answer key questions.
Information [SYT]: Data that are meaningful (i.e., they are presented in a context that allows them to be read by a human as opposed to being read by a computer). See also Data.
Instructional management software [T@YF]: The computer programs that serve as tools to be used by teachers to prepare for instruction and maintain records. Some typical instructional management applications include gradebook programs and curriculum builders such as crossword puzzle generators.
Instructional setting [TiS]: Any setting in a school in which regular instruction is provided, such as a classroom or laboratory. See also Classroom.
Instructional software [SYT]: Computer programs that allow students to learn new content, practice using content already learned, and/or be evaluated on how much content they currently know. These programs allow teachers and students to demonstrate concepts, perform simulations, and record and analyze data. Sometimes application software such as database programs and spreadsheets can also be used within the instructional context to help analyze and present data and information. See also Administrative software.
Instructional support applications [TiS]: Software or computer-based systems that support instruction or instructional management. Examples include lesson planning software and student attendance systems.
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) [SYT]: An international set of telecommunication standards that allow voice, video, and data to be digitally transmitted over wire or optical fiber lines.
Internet [T@YF]: A world-wide network of computer networks through which people can exchange data and communications.
Internet connection [TiS]: A telecommunications link between a computer or a local-area network and the global Internet. Examples of connection types: dial-up via modem; wired LAN and router; wireless LAN and router; cable modem; satellite/modem hybrid link; full satellite (two-way) link.
Internet phone, voice-over-IP (VoIP): Telephone communications, usually long-distance, using the Internet as part of the communications link.
Internet Service Provider (ISP) [SYT]: An organization that provides access to the Internet. Commercial providers, nonprofit organizations, and schools can serve as ISPs. See also Internet.
Intranet [T@YF]: A localized network of computers that is used to communicate electronically within that specific area.
ISDN [SYT]: See Integrated Services Digital Network.
ISP: See Internet Service Provider.
Key question [TiS]: Those questions that become central and organizing inquiries that reflect the concerns of policy makers and decision makers, school administrators, researchers, or the interested public. Questions whose answers are of particular interest to decision makers. See also indicator and data element.
Kilobit: 1,024 (210) bits.
Kilobyte: The amount of memory required to store 1,024 (210) characters.
LAN [SYT]: See Local area network.
Laboratory (computer) [TiS]: See Computer laboratory.
Laptop [SYT]: A portable personal computer that is small enough to fit on a person's lap (i.e., it weighs less than eight pounds). Laptops are usually capable of being powered by rechargeable batteries. See also Computer.
Library [SYT]: See Media library.
Local area network (LAN) [SYT]: An interconnected system of computers and/or peripheral equipment (e.g., printers) that is confined to a limited area, such as a room, building, or campus, and enables connected users to communicate and share information and resources. See also Wide area network (WAN).
Maintenance contract [SYT]: An agreement with an outside service or agency (e.g., the vendor who sold the equipment) to maintain or repair a computer system (and its peripheral equipment).
Media library [SYT]: An on-site location that serves as a repository for archived files and software, and allows for security measures to be concentrated and even intensified. Note that a media library is not a substitute for off-site storage of backups. See also Off-site storage.
Megabit: 1,048,576 (220) bits.
Megabyte (MB) [SYT; T@YF]: The amount of computer memory needed to store 1,048,576 (220) characters (which is roughly equivalent to a novel of average length). Megabytes are used to describe the amount of memory on a diskette, hard disk, or in random access memory (RAM). See also Bit and Byte.
Megahertz (MHz) [SYT; T@YF]: A measure of the clock speed of a central processing unit (CPU) expressed in millions of cycles per second. See also Central processing unit (CPU).
Modem [TiS]: Originally short for "modulator-demodulator," a device that converts digital signals to analog ones (and vice versa) suitable for transmission over telephone lines. A device used to connect computers to one another via telephone lines, television cable, or other forms of connection such as ADSL.
Monitor [T@YF]: A device similar to a television screen that receives video signals from the computer and displays the information for the user.
Mouse [T@YF]: A handheld pointing device (used on top of a desk) that gives directions to the computer and moves information around on a monitor screen.
Multimedia [T@YF]: A computer capable of utilizing more than one communication medium such as CD-ROM, DVD, speakers, etc.
Multimedia computer [TiS]: Computers capable of running Windows 95 or Macintosh OS 8.0 or later operating systems, with chipsets such as the Intel 486 or Motorola 68040 or better, with at least 16 MB of random-access memory (RAM), with CD-ROM or DVD player, and with a sound card, manufactured in the five years prior to data collection.
Multitasking [T@YF]: The concurrent execution of several jobs.
Needs assessment [SYT]: The process of determining the system functions and software functions that an organization or user will require of a computer or network (i.e., what the system will be "needed" to do). The product of a needs assessment is initially a list of functional specifications and, ultimately (when completed and combined with the system's technical requirements), a needs statement. See also System functions, Functional specifications, Technical requirements, and Needs statement.
Needs statement [SYT]: A description of the functional specifications, technical requirements, and security standards that dictate the selection of a technology solution. Accurate needs statements usually require input from a range of potential users and are the product of a needs assessment. See also Functional specifications, Technical requirements, and Needs assessment.
Network [SYT]: A group of computers (technically, two or more) connected to each other to share software, data, files, and peripheral equipment. Also, the hardware and software needed to connect the computers together. See also Local area network (LAN), Wide area network (WAN), Client/server network, Peer-to-peer network, Intranet, Internet, and World Wide Web (WWW).
Node [SYT]: A point of access on a network (i.e., a point of connection). See also Network.
Off-site [SYT]: A location other than an organization's primary work site or place of business. See also Off-site storage.
Off-site storage [SYT]: A location for the storage of backups that is physically independent of the primary site of file use. The purpose of off-site storage is to decrease the likelihood of a single catastrophic event damaging or destroying both the master files (originals) and any backups. For example, if a fire were to break out in a building, it is conceivable that the entire structure could be destroyed. If backups were maintained in that building, they would probably be lost with the master files; but if the backups were at a different location (i.e., in off-site storage), they would be much more likely to survive the event.
On-line [SYT]: The status of being connected to a computer or network or having access to information that is available through the use of a computer or network. See also Remote access.
Operating system software [T@YF]: The electronic instructions that control the computer and run the programs. This software is generally specific to a type of computer (e.g., Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows NT).
Peer-to-peer network [SYT]: A network configuration in which each user stores files on his or her own computer for other network users to access. See also Client/server network and Network.
Peripheral [T@YF]: A device that is attached to a computer, such as a monitor, keyboard, mouse, modem, CD-ROM, DVD, printer, scanner, or speakers.
Peripheral equipment [SYT]: Any of a variety of devices that are attached to a computer, including monitors, keyboards, modems, printers, scanners, and speakers. See also Monitor and Modem.
Project management software [T@YF]: Software programs that provide tools to help manage projects, such as integrated calendars, report generators, scheduling, charting, tracking, prioritizing, etc.
Project team [T@YF]: The group of persons responsible for carrying out the successful implementation of the technology solution.
Protocol [T@YF]: The set of standards and rules, such as Ethernet or token ring, that lets networked computers communicate or share information.
Relational database [T@YF]: A database where data are stored in more than one table, each one containing different types of data. The different tables can be linked so that information from the separate files can be used together.
Remote access [SYT; T@YF]: The act of accessing a computer or network from a location that is removed from the physical site of the computer or network. Remote access is often accomplished via the use of a modem. See also Modem.
Resources [SYT]: See Technology resources.
Resolution [T@YF]: The clarity of the images produced on a monitor screen.
Router [T@YF]: A device that regulates network traffic as its enters another network, and makes sure that messages go to the correct network site.
Scanner [T@YF]: An input device that takes in an optical image and digitizes it into an electronic image represented as binary data. This can be used to create a computerized version of a photo or illustration.
Screen saver [T@YF]: A computer program that automatically displays a moving image or pattern on a monitor screen after a pre-set period of inactivity.
Search engine [T@YF]: Software that searches for specific information or files on the Internet using search criteria that you enter.
Security [T@YF]: Protection from threats to the equipment, functioning, and contents of a technology solution.
Security audit [SYT]: A methodical examination and review of system and user activity.
Security policy [SYT]: Clear, comprehensive, and well-defined plans, rules, and practices designed to protect and regulate access to an organization's system and the information that comprises it. The security policy describes the ideal status toward which all organizational security efforts should lead.
Server [SYT]: The computer in a client/server network that supplies the files or services. The computer (user) that requests the services is the "client." See also Client,Thin client, and Client/server network.
Software functions [SYT]: The tasks, activities, or operations that a piece of software is intended to perform. See also Functional specifications,Needs assessment, and System functions.
Spreadsheet software [T@YF]: Computer programs (e.g., Excel, Lotus) that have efficient and accurate methods of working with numbers. They are used to perform a wide variety of simple to complex calculations, and offer charting and graphing capabilities.
Standards [TiS]: Guidelines for developing curriculum and guiding teacher and student behavior. Standards define a common agreement on what ought to be taught or learned.
Standards for technology competency [TiS]: Guidelines that specify what a teacher or a student ought to know and be able to accomplish with technology.
Steering committee [T@YF]: A group of persons who meet periodically to evaluate the progress and success of the implementation of the technology solution.
Storage media [SYT]: Any of a variety of agents or mechanisms for storing electronic data or files, including disks, tapes, and compact discs. See also Diskette and Compact disc.
Student [TiS]: Person enrolled in a school, whether part or full time.
Surfing [SYT]: The act of exploring locations and browsing contents of World Wide Web sites on the Internet. See also Web browser.
System [SYT; T@YF]: A group of elements, components, or devices that are assembled to serve a common purpose. In a technological system, this refers to all hardware, software, networks, cables, peripheral equipment, information, data, personnel, and procedures (i.e., all technology resources) that comprise a computer environment. See also Hardware,Network, Information,Data,Technology resources, and System functions.
System functions [SYT]: A list of the specific capabilities a computer or network should be able to perform (or staff should be able to do when using the system). Examples of possible functions include storage and retrieval capabilities, calculation and processing capabilities, reporting and output capabilities, and telecommunications capabilities. See also System,Functional specifications,Needs assessment, and Software functions.
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol over Internet Protocol) [SYT]: The de facto standard communications protocol used for networking. See also Network and Protocol.
Teacher [TiS]: Instructional leader in a school setting.
Technical requirements [SYT]: Straightforward statements that describe the necessary parameters of a technology solution. These parameters should address topics such as the number of people who will use the system at a single time; where users are located; the numbers and types of transactions that need to be processed; and the types of technology components that need to interact. See also Software functions,System functions, and Needs assessment.
Technical support staff [SYT]: Those persons who support and maintain an information system once it has been established. See also Technology resources.
Technology in Schools [TiS]: The collection of electric and electronic devices, and related institutional and individual behaviors and practices, that are used in support of administrative and instructional applications in public and private educational settings in the United States. See also Educational technology.
Technology resources [T@YF]: The hardware, software, networks and networking capability, staff, dollars and context which together can be used in the implementation of a technology solution.
Telecommuter [SYT]: An individual who works at home or at another location that is physically removed from a place of employment via the use of technology (e.g., computers, modems, and fax machines). See also Remote access.
Thin client [SYT]: A networking system in which the client (i.e., the user's computer) in a client/server network handles very little of the processing because the majority of processing is managed by the server. See also Client,Server,Client/server network, and Network.
Tool skills [TiS]: The basic abilities needed to operate computers and computer-based applications.
Unit record [TiS]: A collection of data elements for a given object. A row in a database. For example, to define a computer, various data elements are needed (e.g., speed, CPU, network card, etc.). The unit record (or elements from it) may be proposed as the answer to a question (e.g., How many multimedia computers are in the school?). See also Data element.
Up-to-date (computer) [TiS]: Computer manufactured within five years prior to data collection. See also Age grouping (of computers).
Upgrade [T@YF]: To install a higher version or release of software on a computer system, or to add memory or newer types of equipment to a computer system.
URL (Uniform resource locator) [T@YF]: A World Wide Web address composed of several parts, including the protocol, the server where the resource resides, and the path and the file name of the resource. Example: http://nces.ed.gov.
User [SYT]: In information and technology systems, a user is a person who accesses a system. Education organization users typically include (1) instructional staff who provide instruction or perform instructional management tasks using technology and (2) administrative staff who use technology to manage the routine and non-routine administrative activities of an organization as efficiently as possible. Students, parents, and community members can also be users.
Utility software [T@YF]: Computer programs that help to manage, recover, and back up files.
Variable: A basic term in the social sciences, one of a number that helps give specific definition to entities in the social sciences. A concept associated with an operation of observation or measurement; the essence of its definition is that it takes on different values for members of a group. In the present document, the term indicator corresponds most closely to the usual definition of a variable in the social sciences.
Version [SYT]: A major edition of a computer program. The version number changes when a software developer makes major alterations to the software (e.g., significant new features are added). The version number is a whole number following the name of the software, in contrast to the release number, which is the decimal number after the version number. For example, when Software 2.0 undergoes minor changes, it could be re-released as Software 2.1. When it later undergoes significant revamping, the new version would be Software 3.0. See also Upgrade.
Videoconferencing [TiS]: Interactive video-based communication. Two-way (or multi-way) videoconferencing involves video links between all participants; one-way videoconferencing involves video in one direction, with audio links in the other.
WAN [SYT]: See Wide area network.
Web [SYT]: See World Wide Web (WWW).
Web browser [T@YF]: Software that allows a user to locate, view, and access information from World Wide Web sites via the use of a graphical interface (e.g., Internet Explorer, Netscape).
Wide area network (WAN) [SYT]: An interconnected system of computers and networks (including local area networks) that surpasses local area networks in scope (e.g., WANs can span building to building, city to city, across the country, and internationally). These data communications linkages (e.g., dedicated lines and radio waves) are designed to allow large numbers of users to communicate and access information. See also Local area network (LAN).
Wireless [SYT]: A network system in which there is no physical connection between two pieces of equipment (i.e., instead of a wire or fiber optic links connecting computers, they communicate via radio waves). See also Network.
Word processing software [T@YF]: Computer programs that allow documents to be typed, revised, formatted, and printed quickly and efficiently (e.g. Word, WordPerfect).
World Wide Web (WWW) [T@YF]: A system that allows access to information sites all over the world using a standard, common interface to organize and search for information. The WWW simplifies the location and retrieval of various forms of information including text, audio and video files.
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Thomas Garrett to William Still, August 25, 1858
Few historical letters about the Underground Railroad are more revealing than this one. In a note from August 1858, Thomas Garrett describes in vivid detail the escape of two slaves passing through Delaware to Media, Pennsylvania, a harrowing tale that includes a near missed encounter with their master on the train platform in Wilmington. Garrett also refers to a kidnapping case, illustrating how often the "underground" traffic worked both directions in antebellum America -slaves escaping northward and free blacks facing kidnapping rings that sometimes dragged them into the South.
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WILMINGTON, 8th mo. 25th, 1858.
ESTEEMED FRIEND: - WILLIAM STILL: - Thine was received yesterday. Those two I wrote about to be with thee last 7th day evening, I presume thee has seen before this. A. Allen had charge of them; he had them kept out of sight at the depot here till the cars should be ready to start, in charge of a friend, while he kept a lookout and got a ticket. When the Delaware cars arrived, who should step out but the master of both man and woman, (as they had belonged to different persons); they knew him, and he knew them. He left in a different direction from where they were secreted, and got round to them and hurried them off to a place of safety, as he was afraid to take them home for fear they would search the house. On 1st day morning the boat ran to Chester to take our colored people to the camp at Media; he had them disguised, and got them in the crowd and went with them; when he got to Media, he placed them in care of a colored man, who promised to hand them over to thee on 2d day last; we expect 3 more next 7th day night, but how we shall dispose of them we have not yet determined; it will depend on circumstances. Judge Layton has been on with a friend to Richmond, Virginia, and fully identified the two Bradley boys that were kidnapped by Clem Rust. He has the assurance of the Judge there that they will be tried and their case decided by Delaware Laws, by which they must be declared free and returned here. We hope to be able to bring such proof against both Rust and the man he sold them to, who took them out of the State, to teach them a lesson they will remember. Thy friend,
Citation for this page
"Thomas Garrett to William Still, August 25, 1858," Underground Railroad Digital Classroom, Dickinson College, 2008, http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/ugrr/letter_aug1858.htm.
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Importance of Vocabulary from an Early Age
Why Vocabulary is an Important Part of Literacy? It can be said that vocabulary is comprised of three things, and these are writing, reading, and speaking. All three of these elements are used to make up a larger structure that is called literacy. While literacy has been important ever since humans first discovered writing, it has become much more important in the information age.
More than ever before, information has been allowed to flow freely. While much of this information is not very valuable, some of it can enhance your career, make you more productive, and even save your life. Your vocabulary is the element that will determine your cultural literacy.
When many people think of vocabulary, they think of it as a tedious learning process. However, it is very vital to your success in our world of today. It is no longer enough to just know what is happening in your neighborhood, city, or country. It is equally important for you to understand what is happening on a global scale.
Improving your vocabulary from an early age will allow you to become informed. It will allow you to successfully convey your ideas to others, and it can also improve your career outlook. Having said that, it is important for parents to focus on improving the education of their children from an early age.
Teach Children a Love of Reading Early On
It is in the best interests of parents to help their children develop a love for reading early. By doing this, you will be giving them one of the most precious gifts they could ever ask for. Helping them build an elaborate vocabulary is much more valuable than any toy, game, or bike you could buy them. Once they get older, they will be able to follow instructions carefully, because they will be able to read those instructions. When they write a resume for their job, they will be much more likely to impress potential employers, since they will have strong vocabulary skills.
If they need to give a speech, or present a business strategy or plan, they will be able to do it professionally, because they will have a strong vocabulary that will allow them to convey their thoughts. As you can see, building a good vocabulary is a skill that can mean the difference between success and failure once a child becomes older.
Both parents and teachers will want to show children that reading is not a chore. It is not something that "has" to be done. You must show them that it is something that is "fun" to do.
A Failure to Build a Strong Foundation can be Dangerous
There are many people today who think it is cool to be dumb. They think it is impressive to use slang words, rather than using proper English. These same people are quick to make fun of those who read a lot. I would first like to say that parents must not convey this message to their children. It is not cool to be ignorant. In fact, failing to build a strong vocabulary foundation can be dangerous.
Hundreds of years ago, few people could afford books. They were expensive to produce, and the only people who could afford them were royalty. Because they were the only ones who could afford these books, they gained knowledge, and with that knowledge came power.
The invention of the printing press dramatically reduced the cost of books, and with the rapid popularity of the Internet today, information has been allowed to flow freely more than ever before. While some of this information may not be accurate, it sets the stage where people can gain knowledge, and improve their lives. With tools such as blogging, it has become popular to spread ideas.
In addition to the above, not having a strong foundation can hurt your career outlook. If you go to a job interview, and you use improper English, the chances of you getting hired are very low. If you type up a resume, and it doesn’t use proper English, it will likely end up in the trash. If you have a term paper to write in college, but you don’t have a good vocabulary, you’re in lot of trouble.
The best way to improve your vocabulary is to develop a love for reading and learning early on. Learn to see reading as being a fun activity, much like watching television, riding a bike, or playing games. When you alter the way you look at reading, and you get a joy out of improving your vocabulary, you will be successful.
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#ReadingActionProgram: Distributing Books
The Reading Action Program began in 2012 and became a 10-year commitment to increasing literacy rates around the world. Lions everywhere participate by donating books to local schools and libraries, reading to children, starting programs that encourage parents to read with their kids, and more. Thank you to Past District Governor Beverly Nichols of District 17-O in Kansas, USA, for sharing the information for today’s post on her district’s Reading Action Program book distribution efforts and results!
When Lions Clubs International announced the partnership with Scholastic, Inc. at the USA/Canada Lions Leadership Forum in Kansas last year, the Lions of District 17-O in northeast Kansas were delighted to be the recipients of a US$5,000 seed grant from LCIF for a Reading Action Program initiative in their district. The money was to go toward high quality books purchased at a reduced price from Scholastic.
In addition to providing books for children, the district’s Reading Action Program would help determine what kind of distribution process would be most effective.
Lions identified several venues for distributing books:
- Schools (including preschool programs within the schools)
- Libraries (and children who attended story hour)
- Head Start programs
- Vision screening events
When selecting sites, the Lions looked for areas with high incidence of low income and a nearby Lions club that would support efforts, both through contributing additional funds and by providing a Lions’ presence at distribution events. Schools selected represented rural, urban and suburban locations.
The original grant of $5,000 was increased by almost 50% through contributions from local Lions Clubs, through district fund raisers, and from the Kansas Host Committee of the USA/Canada Lions Leadership Forum. With these funds, a total of 3,779 books were purchased and distributed.
Determining the most effective distribution process raised the question of just what is meant by “effective.” Is it providing the greatest impact on a single child? Or is it providing books to as many individual children as possible? Is it creating as much publicity as possible for the work of Lions in a given community?
All of these are worthwhile goals. However, nothing can match the excitement that is generated when a child is able to pick a book for his or her very own. Ultimately, it makes no difference if it is one book or several, in a school setting or after a vision screening.
The greatest impact on a single child occurred in a small school setting. The same dollar amount, when allocated to a small school and a larger one, means that children in the smaller school may receive multiple books rather than just one book per child. In smaller communities, local newspapers are likely to run stories and pictures about the event, and word of mouth is very effective in small towns.
The best venue for reaching the maximum number of children while building community recognition probably came in conjunction with vision screening. Each child gets a single book, but there may be more than one book given to a single household. Single copies of bargain books can be purchased from Scholastic at just a dollar each. This enables the purchase of many more books than books purchased in a collection. Collections provide a variety of books and are preferred by school personnel, as books can be selected to fit reading levels of students within a given class.
No matter which venue was used during book distributions in northeast Kansas, students receiving the books were excited to receive them. Lions involved in the process took great delight in seeing the reaction of students on the receiving end.
Learn more about the Reading Action Program. How does your club address literacy in your community?
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A friend of mine and I were having a conversation today, and one of us (I don’t remember who) brought up a poster that we’d seen at a conference a few years ago. Later, I wondered what had become of the work in the poster (it’s about negative numbers being represented on a mental number line). Apparently, nothing. But in the process of looking for more information, I came across another paper that might be even more interesting.
The poster was inspired by work showing that we may represent positive numbers on a “mental number line.” In one experiment testing the mental number line hypothesis, participants who were asked to indicate whether a number was positive or negative did so faster for large numbers when the response key was on the right side of the keyboard, and small numbers when the response key was on the left side of the keyboard1. Since the concept of a mental number line presumably involves representing small numbers on the left side of the mental number line, and large numbers on the right side, this result is consistent with the existence of such a line.
The paper I discovered while looking for the poster isn’t about math, though. Instead, it’s about music. The work, by Rusconi et al.2, was designed to show a connection between how we represent music with how we represent number. They note that across many languages (they list Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Polish and Spanish), the words use to denote differences in pitch are spatial (e.g., high pitches and low pitches). The idea, then, is that like number, pitch may be represented on a mental line, with (when the terms for pitch are vertical terms) high pitches represented higher on the line than low pitches.
In their first experiment, Rusconi et al. first presented Chinese participants (most of whom spoke both Cantonese and English) who had no musical experience with a reference pitch (C4, for you music geeks), followed by a target pitch that was either higher or lower than the reference pitch (E3, F3#, G3#, A3#, D4, E4, F4#, G4#, again, for the music geeks). Participants were asked to indicate whether the pitch of the target was higher or lower than that of the target pitch. In one condition, the response keys, the spacebar and the 6 key, were above and below each other, and in a second condition, the response keys, Q and P, were across from each other on the same keyboard row. In both conditions, half of the participants were told to to higher pitches with one key (e.g., 6 or P) and lower pitches with the other (spacebar and Q), and the other half were told to respond in the opposite way. The prediction, then, is that when the response keys are on a vertical axis (spacebar and 6), people will respond to higher pitches faster when the response key is the upper one (6), and lower pitches when the response key is the lower one (spacebar). There should be no difference between the two response key configurations when the response keys are on the same horizontal axis (Q and P).
First, they found that bigger differences between the target and reference pitches resulted in faster response times than smaller pitches. No surprise there. They also found that participants were faster to respond to higher pitches with the P key (on the right), and lower pitches with the P key, though this difference wasn’t quite significant. I’m not exactly sure what to make of this difference. Consistent with their predictions, though, when the response keys were on the vertical axis, their responses were faster when the upper key (6) was used to respond to higher pitches, and the lower key (spacebar) was used to respond to lower pitches.
In their second experiment, a second group of musical novices (again, Cantonese as first language and English as second language) were presented with different tones (F3#, G3#, A3#, C4, E4, F4#, G4# and A4#) played by either wind instruments (french horn or tenor trombone) or percussion instruments (marimba or vibraphone). Their task was to indicate the instrument family (wind or pecussion). Once again, the response keys were either on a vertical axis (spacebar and 6) or a horizontal one (Q and P), and as in the first experiment, the prediction was that participants would be faster to respond to high pitches with the upper key than the lower, and for low pithces, responses would be faster with the lower key than the upper. This time, they didn’t find a difference between the horizontal response keys (maybe the difference in the first experiment was a fluke?), but as in the first experiment, they did find the predicted difference for the horizontal keys: responses to high pitches was faster when the response key was the upper one (6), and they were faster for low pitches when the response key was the lower one (spacebar), despite the fact that the task didn’t involve making any distinctions between pitches.
Their third experiment was identical to the second, but this time their participants were musicians. Once again, they found that high pitches led to faster response times with the upper key than the lower one, and low pitches resulted in faster response times with the lower key. In fact, the difference between consistent keys (6 for high pitches and spacebar for low keys) and inconsistent keys (spacebar for high pitches and 6 for low pitches) was even greater for the musicians than it was for the novices in the second experiment. Furthermore, the musicians also responded to high pitches faster with the right key than the left, and lo pitches with the left key than right (OK, so maybe it wasn’t a fluke).
It seems, then, that to some extent, we do represent pitch on a mental line, with high pitches at the top and low pitches at the bottom, at least in languages where the terms for pitch are vertical terms. We may also represent pitch on a horizontal axis, too, as evidenced by the differences in response times for the horizontal keys in the first and third experiments. Rusconi et al. argue that the horizontal effect may be due to a “remapping” of the vertical dimension onto the horizontal dimension, which musical training somehow facilitates (the horizontal effect was strongest in the experiment with experts). I think that explanation can be translated as, “We haven’t the slightest idea why we got this result.” Perhaps future work will figure it out, though.
1Dehaene, S., Dupoux, E., & Mehler, J. (1990). Is numerical comparison digital: Analogical and symbolic effects in two-digit number comparison. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 16, 626-641.
2Rusconi, E., Kwan, B., Giordano, B.L., Umilta, C., & Butterworth, B. (2006). Spatial representation of pitch height: The SMARC effect. Cognition, 99(2), 113-129.
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Vanport flood left changes in wake
Portland's history, institutions owe a debt to 1948 disaster
On Memorial Day of 1948, 11-year-old Ed Washington and his mom ambled from their apartment at Vanport City to glimpse the raging Columbia River, then running higher than anyone recalled.
"All of a sudden, the sirens went off," Washington recalls.
A railroad embankment serving as a levy gave way, and within 45 minutes, the entire city of 18,500 people was under several feet of water and gone for good.
Washington revisited the scene of the disaster last week, on a public tour to highlight the 64th anniversary of the Vanport Flood. It's one of the seminal but oft-neglected events in Portland history, says Susan Barthel of the Portland Bureau of Environmental Services, who led the tour.
Vanport only existed from 1942 to 1948, but by the height of World War II it rose to become Oregon's second-largest city, with some 40,000 residents.
During much of that time, many Portland civic leaders viewed it as a muddy, noisy, crime-infested eyesore, filled with poor people, especially African-Americans, that they wished would go away.
Portland Mayor Earl Riley publicly stated that he wanted Vanport gone as soon as the war ended, says James Harrison, a Portland Community College history professor who joined the tour, and is writing a history of Vanport.
Vanport did go away rather quickly that day in 1948, but it left its imprint on the neighboring city of Portland in many ways.
Created in several months on 648 acres acquired by industrialist Henry Kaiser, Vanport housed many of the 100,000 people lured here from 46 states to work in Kaiser's three Portland and Vancouver shipyards. Living in hastily erected public housing, those workers played a vital role in equipping the United States for victory at sea in World War II.
When the wartime buildup began to wind down, Vanport hosted a new education program for returning veterans, the Vanport Extension Center, which evolved to become Oregon's largest university, Portland State.
Vanport also left an enduring mark on Portland's racial makeup and race relations. The shipyard jobs attracted thousands of African-Americans from the South, increasing the Portland area's minuscule black population of 1,900 tenfold by war's end.
Many headed home when the war ended, or when they couldn't land jobs here after the war. By 1948, blacks constituted an estimated 25 percent of the 18,500 remaining Vanport residents, who lost their belongings and housing in one swoop.
To this day, Harrison says, rumors persist that the levies were burst intentionally, or were neglected, because of Vanport's low-income and black population.
Yet in many respects, Vanport represented new opportunities for African-Americans, despite the less-than-welcoming reception they received in Portland, then considered the West Coast's least-hospitable big city for blacks.
Washington arrived at age 7 from Birmingham, Ala., with his mother and five siblings, 1 1/2 years after his dad came here to work. They had never seen such a dense pocket of humanity, he says.
There were three shifts at the shipbuilding plants, making Vanport a bustling 24-hour city. There were more than 900 buildings, several schools, a movie theater and other facilities on a site now occupied by Delta Park and Portland International Raceway in North Portland.
The buildings were supposed to be temporary quarters and lacked foundations, but they came with furniture, a hot plate for cooking, an icebox to keep food cool and neighborhood laundries, Washington recalls.
With their parents at work, Washington and his friends enjoyed romping around Vanport. In Birmingham, he could only play in his back yard. But at Vanport, "the entire place was our back yard, if we could get away with it," Washington recalls. "It was a time when kids were beginning to break away."
Vanport was never more than a quarter African-American, but it was home to the Northwest's largest concentration of blacks. The white and black kids made their peace, Washington says, addressing racial incidents in the old-fashioned way.
"You would first say, 'Are we going to wrestle or box?' " he says. "Usually after that we'd go play baseball (together)."
The Housing Authority of Portland ran what was the nation's largest public housing project at Vanport. Initially, it sought to keep the community segregated, but that eased as more and more people came, says Washington.
The housing authority also wanted to segregate the new city's schools, where some 6,000 children were being educated. But the school superintendent, a Mr. Hamilton, said "no way," Washington recalls, and insisted on equal opportunity for all Vanport children.
"I felt like I succeeded," he says. "I got a good education at Vanport."
Washington went on to work for PSU and was elected to serve on the Metro Council from 1991 to 2000.
Portland schools weren't segregated then, but they had no black teachers, Harrison says. "The first black teachers in the state of Oregon were in Vanport," he says.
Vanport also employed what is believed to be the state's first black librarian, Washington says.
In addition, Vanport opened doors by hiring three or four black policemen, Washington says, including Matt Dishman, the namesake of a Northeast Portland recreation center.
At a time when Portland-area trade unions were segregated or excluded blacks, those working at Vanport earned double their previous earnings, or more.
"The wages in the shipyards were very, very good," Harrison says.
Though it was the "Jim Crow Era," he says, Kaiser insisted on paying blacks and whites the same pay for the same job.
After the war, many people left Vanport, while some newcomers arrived, including veterans who had no other housing and Japanese-Americans released from imprisonment at wartime "relocation camps."
After the deluge
With thousands of people facing homelessness, many Portlanders, including individual whites and white churches, rose to the occasion to help those displaced by the flood, no matter their color, Harrison says.
But once they left temporary housing, blacks were squeezed into a small patch of Northeast and North Portland known as Albina, due to redlining and longstanding segregationist practices of some Portland Realtors.
What evolved into Portland's version of a ghetto was bound by Interstate Boulevard and present-day Martin Luther King Jr. Boulevard, and between Fremont Street and the Steel Bridge, Washington says.
There was a severe housing shortage, and unemployment was sky-high for blacks. Educational opportunities for black veterans under the G.I. Bill were limited, Harrison says.
The local black population, which peaked at about 24,000 in wartime, fell to 9,500 by 1950, according to Bleeding Albina, a report by PSU professor Karen Gibson. She cites one study that found Portland's black population dropped, proportionally, more than any large West Coast city.
When many blacks from Vanport moved south into the city of Portland, "things didn't pan out," says Harrison, who is African-American. "They had expected things to be better."
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New MH370 Debris Today, But Only Three Months Left to Find the Rest
Nearly two years to the day after Malaysia Flight 370 disappeared, a second piece of wreckage believed to be from the Boeing 777 is reported to have been found on the coast of Mozambique. According to CNN and the Associated Press, a U.S. official has said that the wreckage is from the horizontal stabilizer, part of the tail of the 777.
If confirmed, the location of the discovery on the east coast of Africa would be consistent with computer modeling predicting where any floating wreckage would appear. This modeling was radically revised after the only other piece of wreckage to so far appear, part of the wing called a flaperon, washed up on the island of La Réunion near Madagascar last July. Taking into account currents and winds, the model was reverse-engineered from the East African coast to indicate that the current undersea search area in the southern Indian Ocean was the probable point of impact for the airplane—and thus the right place to be searching.
Moreover, should the new wreckage prove to be from the horizontal stabilizer it could be a crucial part of the airplane’s control surfaces. That would be significant because the flaperon is also a key part of the flight controls.
Although it is relatively small, the flaperon (there is one on each wing) is very busy throughout the whole flight. It is part flap, the control surface that is lowered in a series of phases to increase lift for takeoffs and landings, and part aileron, a separate surface that moves up or down to control “roll”—to keep the wings laterally level at all speeds and altitudes or to control the degree of banking in a turn.
In December the Australian Transport Safety Bureau released a detailed reconstruction of how they believed the MH370 had ended its flight, drawing on work done by Boeing.
The report said that after the airplane had been airborne for seven hours and 38 minutes it began to run out of fuel. Its right engine flamed out first, followed by its left engine. The left engine could have continued to run for up to 15 minutes.
According to this simulation, after the second engine flamed-out the 777 glided for about 110 miles in a left-banked turn before it hit the water.
“There is no evidence to suggest that the aircraft was under a controlled flight,” The report concluded. “The evidence is inconsistent with a controlled ditching.”
The flaperon was flown to Paris and closely examined by experts from Boeing and the French accident investigation bureau. Given the final minutes of the flight as simulated by Boeing, its actions would have been essential to maintaining stability in the glide.
The flaperon was in remarkably good condition, given that it had spent nearly 17 months in the water. In photographs the only visible sign of damage is that its thinnest part, the trailing edge, was badly shredded. The forward part, where it is hinged to the wing, appeared to have made a clean break.
Estimating the forces that produced that break would be an important part of what investigators would do in order to try assess what role the flaperon was performing right up to the moment of impact. And, by looking at that, the investigators could get clues to how violent—or otherwise—the final seconds of the flight were.
The flaperon remains in Paris, where it is in the custody of French judicial authorities. It is reported that the new piece of wreckage, which could add useful information to the picture, has been flown to Malaysia for examination.
The latest report from the sea search from the ATSB, just released, says that 32,000 square miles of the search zone have been covered, out of a total of 46,000 square miles.
There is now a full complement of search vessels at the site, including a new arrival, the Dong Hai Jiu 101, financed by the Chinese government and equipped with an underwater autonomous vehicle, or AUV, operated by an American team from the Maryland-based company Phoenix International, who were deployed in the search for Air France 447 that fell into the south Atlantic in 2009.
They have the experience needed to recover debris from the Boeing 777 should it be located. They also have access to other equipment capable of working at depths of up to 20,000 feet.
The Chinese vessel filled a gap left when the Malaysian government withdrew funding for a similarly capable ship last summer. The Chinese have provided $20 million for the search this year.
At the moment the weather in the search area is favorable, but as the Southern Hemisphere winter approaches, it will deteriorate, and a completion date for the search has been set for June. If nothing has been found the search will be abandoned.
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Introduction to Phase Contrast Microscopy
Phase contrast microscopy, first described in 1934 by Dutch physicist Frits Zernike, is a contrast-enhancing optical technique that can be utilized to produce high-contrast images of transparent specimens, such as living cells (usually in culture), microorganisms, thin tissue slices, lithographic patterns, fibers, latex dispersions, glass fragments, and subcellular particles (including nuclei and other organelles).
In effect, the phase contrast technique employs an optical mechanism to translate minute variations in phase into corresponding changes in amplitude, which can be visualized as differences in image contrast. One of the major advantages of phase contrast microscopy is that living cells can be examined in their natural state without previously being killed, fixed, and stained. As a result, the dynamics of ongoing biological processes can be observed and recorded in high contrast with sharp clarity of minute specimen detail.
Presented in Figure 1 is a cut-away diagram of a modern upright phase contrast microscope, including a schematic illustration of the phase contrast optical train. Partially coherent illumination produced by the tungsten-halogen lamp is directed through a collector lens and focused on a specialized annulus (labeled condenser annulus) positioned in the substage condenser front focal plane. Wavefronts passing through the annulus illuminate the specimen and either pass through undeviated or are diffracted and retarded in phase by structures and phase gradients present in the specimen. Undeviated and diffracted light collected by the objective is segregated at the rear focal plane by a phase plate and focused at the intermediate image plane to form the final phase contrast image observed in the eyepieces.
Prior to the invention of phase contrast techniques, transmitted brightfield illumination was one of the most commonly utilized observation modes in optical microscopy, especially for fixed, stained specimens or other types of samples having high natural absorption of visible light. Collectively, specimens readily imaged with brightfield illumination are termed amplitude objects (or specimens) because the amplitude or intensity of the illuminating wavefronts is reduced when light passes through the specimen.
The addition of phase contrast optical accessories to a standard brightfield microscope can be employed as a technique to render a contrast-enhancing effect in transparent specimens that is reminiscent of optical staining (see Figure 2). Light waves that are diffracted and shifted in phase by the specimen (termed a phase object) can be transformed by phase contrast into amplitude differences that are observable in the eyepieces. Large, extended specimens are also easily visualized with phase contrast optics due to diffraction and scattering phenomena that occur at the edges of these objects. The performance of modern phase contrast microscopes is so refined that it enables specimens containing very small internal structures, or even just a few protein molecules, to be detected when the technology is coupled to electronic enhancement and post-acquisition image processing.
Presented in Figure 2 is a comparison of living cells in culture imaged in both brightfield and phase contrast illumination. The cells are human glial brain tissue grown in monolayer culture bathed with a nutrient medium containing amino acids, vitamins, mineral salts, and fetal calf serum. In brightfield illumination (Figure 2(a)), the cells appear semi-transparent with only highly refractive regions, such as the membrane, nucleus, and unattached cells (rounded or spherical), being visible. When observed using phase contrast optical accessories, the same field of view reveals significantly more structural detail (Figure 2(b)). Cellular attachments become discernable, as does much of the internal structure. In addition, the contrast range is dramatically improved.
Zernike's development of phase contrast optical theory is an excellent example of how research results from a highly specialized field (in this case, theoretical physics) can yield innovative new developments in seemingly unrelated disciplines, such as biology and medicine. During the Second World War, the Zeiss Optical Works in Jena, Germany, was the first manufacturer to incorporate practical phase contrast optics into their microscopes. The immediate impact on biological research was significant, and widespread application of the technique continues to the present day. Modern phase contrast objectives, designed and produced by Nikon and other optical manufacturers, are capable of operating in combination with auxiliary contrast-enhancing techniques, such as differential interference contrast, fluorescence, and polarized light. These objectives are available with internal phase plates that have varying levels of absorption and phase displacement of the surround (undiffracted) illumination to produce a wide spectrum of specimen contrast and background intensity choices for phase contrast microscopy.
Interaction of Light Waves with Phase Specimens
An incident wavefront present in an illuminating beam of light becomes divided into two components upon passing through a phase specimen. The primary component is an undeviated (or undiffracted; zeroth-order) planar wavefront, commonly referred to as the surround (S) wave, which passes through and around the specimen, but does not interact with it. In addition, a deviated or diffracted spherical wavefront (D-wave) is also produced, which becomes scattered over a wide arc (in many directions) that passes through the full aperture of the objective. After leaving the specimen plane, surround and diffracted light waves enter the objective front lens element and are subsequently focused at the intermediate image plane where they combine through interference to produce a resultant particle wave (often referred to as a P-wave). The mathematical relationship between the various light waves generated in phase contrast microscopy can be described simply as:
P = S + D
Detection of the specimen image depends on the relative intensity differences, and therefore on the amplitudes, of the particle and surround (P and S) waves. If the amplitudes of the particle and surround waves are significantly different in the intermediate image plane, then the specimen acquires a considerable amount of contrast and is easily visualized in the microscope eyepieces. Otherwise, the specimen remains transparent and appears as it would under ordinary brightfield conditions (in the absence of phase contrast or other contrast-enhancing techniques).
In terms of optical path variations between the specimen and its surrounding medium, the portion of the incident light wavefront that traverses the specimen (D-wave), but does not pass through the surrounding medium (S-wave), is slightly retarded. For arguments in phase contrast microscopy, the role of the specimen in altering the optical path length (in effect, the relative phase shift) of waves passing through is of paramount importance. In classical optics, the optical path length (OPL) through an object or space is the product of the refractive index (n) and the thickness (t) of the object or intervening medium as described by the relationship:
Optical Path Length (OPL) = n × t
When light passes from one medium into another, the velocity is altered proportionally to the refractive index differences between the two media. Thus, when a coherent light wave emitted by the focused microscope filament passes through a phase specimen having a specific thickness (t) and refractive index (n), the wave is either increased or decreased in velocity. If the refractive index of the specimen is greater than that of the surrounding medium, the wave is reduced in velocity while passing through the specimen and is subsequently retarded in relative phase when it emerges from the specimen. In contrast, when the refractive index of the surrounding medium exceeds that of the specimen, the wave is advanced in phase upon exiting the specimen. The difference in location of an emergent wavefront between the specimen and surrounding medium is termed the phase shift (δ) and is defined in radians as:
δ = 2πΔ/λ
In the equation above, the term D is referred to as the optical path difference, which is similar to the optical path length:
Optical Path Difference (OPD) = Δ = (n2 - n1) × t
where n(2) is the refractive index of the specimen and n(1) is the refractive index of the surrounding medium. The optical path difference results from the product of two terms: the thickness of the specimen, and its difference in refractive index with the surrounding medium. In many cases, the optical path difference can be quite large even though the thickness of the specimen is small. On the other hand, when the refractive index of the specimen equals that of the surrounding medium, the optical path difference is zero regardless of whether the specimen thickness is large or small.
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For individual cells in tissue culture, the optical path difference is relatively small. A typical cell in monolayer culture has a thickness around 5 micrometers and a refractive index of approximately 1.36. The cell is surrounded by a nutrient medium having a refractive index of 1.335, which yields an optical path difference of 0.125 micrometer, or about a quarter wavelength (of green light). Subcellular structures generate much smaller retardations. These small optical path differences produce a linear reduction in intensity with increasing phase shift (the image grows progressively darker) up to a point (depending upon phase plate configuration), after which, the specimen image becomes brighter through reversal of contrast. In phase contrast microscopy, the intensity of an image does not bear a simple linear relationship to the optical path difference produced by the specimen for the entire thickness and refractive index range. Instead, intensity is dependent on a variety of factors including absorption at the phase plate, the degree of phase advancement or retardation at the phase plate, and the relative sign of this phase shift.
Wave Interactions in Phase Contrast Microscopy
Phase relationships between the surround, diffracted, and particle (S, D, and P) waves in the region of the specimen at the image plane for brightfield microscopy (in the absence of phase contrast optical accessories) are presented in Figure 3. The surround and particle waves, whose relative amplitudes determine the amount of specimen contrast, are illustrated as red and green lines (respectively). The wave produced by diffraction from the specimen, which is never directly observed, is depicted as a blue wave of lower amplitude. The surround and diffracted waves recombine through interference to generate the resultant particle wave in the image plane of the microscope. The amplitude of each wave illustrated in Figure 3 represents the sum of the electric vectors of the individual component waves.
Relative to the surround wave, the diffracted wave has lower amplitude (because there are fewer diffracted than surround photons at the image point) and is retarded in phase by approximately 90 degrees (a quarter wavelength) through interaction with the specimen. The slight phase shift of 1/20th wavelength exhibited by the resultant particle wave (which arises from interference between the diffracted and surround waves) is typically observed for minute details in a cell, and is related to the optical path length difference. Because the amplitudes of the surround and particle waves are nearly the same, the transparent specimen completely lacks contrast and is almost invisible when superimposed against the bright background.
The relationship between individual wavefronts in brightfield and phase contrast microscopy can be described vectorially using a system of polar coordinates. In this system, the vector length represents the amplitude of a particular wave, while the angle of rotation of the vector relative to a fixed reference (the angular phase shift) signifies the degree of phase displacement (see Figure 3(b)). Vector representation of wave interactions in phase contrast microscopy was introduced by Frits Zernike, and later developed in detail by Robert Barer. Although this descriptive aid is seldom utilized today, many texts and research reports published over the past few years rely on discussions of wave relationships illustrated by vector diagrams.
In phase contrast vector diagrams, phase retardations are illustrated as clockwise rotations (with reference to an arbitrary azimuth), whereas phase advancements are depicted as counterclockwise rotations. In Figure 3(b), which is technically a phasor diagram, the vector sum of the surround (S) and diffracted (D) wavefronts yields the resultant particle (P) wavefront. This mechanism of presenting wave relationships is convenient because it aids the visualization of phase shifts in the diffracted wave and how they affect the phase of the resultant particle wave (and vice versa). The phase shift of the diffracted wave relative to the surround wave on the graph in Figure 3(b) is presented as Φ, where:
Φ = ± 90° + φ/2
In the equation, φ is the relative phase shift (a function of the optical path difference) between the surround (S) and particle (P) wave vectors. For specimens displaying a negligible optical path difference (in effect, no phase shift), the latter term of the equation equals zero and Φ becomes ± 90 degrees. As presented in Figure 3(b), a diffracted (D) wave having a very low amplitude and small (or nonexistent) phase shift results in a particle wave with an amplitude that is nearly equal to that of the surround wave. When the surround and particle waves have similar amplitudes (or intensities), there is no generation of contrast, and the specimen remains invisible on a bright background.
The Phase Contrast Microscope
The most important concept underlying the design of a phase contrast microscope is the segregation of surround and diffracted wavefronts emerging from the specimen, which are projected onto different locations in the objective rear focal plane (the diffraction plane at the objective rear aperture). In addition, the amplitude of the surround (undeviated) light must be reduced and the phase advanced or retarded (by a quarter wavelength) in order to maximize differences in intensity between the specimen and background in the image plane. The mechanism for generating relative phase retardation is a two-step process, with the diffracted waves being retarded in phase by a quarter wavelength at the specimen, while the surround waves are advanced (or retarded) in phase by a phase plate positioned in or very near the objective rear focal plane. Only two specialized accessories are required to convert a brightfield microscope for phase contrast observation. A specially designed annular diaphragm, which is matched in diameter and optically conjugate to an internal phase plate residing in the objective rear focal plane, is placed in the condenser front focal plane.
The condenser annulus (illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 4) is typically constructed as an opaque flat-black (light absorbing) plate with a transparent annular ring, which is positioned in the front focal plane (aperture) of the condenser so the specimen can be illuminated by defocused, parallel light wavefronts emanating from the ring. The microscope condenser images the annular diaphragm at infinity, while the objective produces an image at the rear focal plane (where a conjugate phase plate is positioned, as discussed below). It should be noted that many texts describe the illumination emergent from the condenser of a phase contrast microscope as a hollow cone of light with a dark center. This concept is useful for describing the configuration, but is not strictly accurate. The condenser annulus either replaces or resides close to the adjustable iris diaphragm in the front aperture of the condenser. When conducting phase contrast experiments utilizing a condenser with both a phase annulus and an aperture diaphragm, check to ensure that the iris diaphragm is opened wider than the periphery of the phase annulus. Unlike differential interference contrast and Hoffman modulation contrast, the circular geometry of phase contrast illumination and detection enables specimen observation without orientation-dependent artifacts. Phase contrast is also insensitive to polarization and birefringence effects, which is a major advantage when examining living cells growing in plastic tissue culture vessels.
Under conditions of Köhler illumination, surround light waves that do not interact with the specimen are focused as a bright ring in the rear focal plane of the objective (the diffraction plane). Under these conditions, the objective rear focal plane is conjugate to the condenser front aperture plane, so non-diffracted (zeroth order) light waves form a bright image of the condenser annulus at the rear aperture of the objective (superimposed over the image of the phase plate). The spherical wavefront that is diffracted by the specimen (the D waves) passes through the diffraction plane at various locations across the entire objective rear aperture. The distribution (amount and location) of diffracted light depends on the number, size, and refractive index differential of light-scattering objects in the specimen. For most specimens, only a small portion of the incident light waves are diffracted, and a majority of the light passes through undeviated to eventually illuminate the entire image plane.
In contrast, the surround planar wavefront occupies a smaller proportion of the objective rear aperture, which corresponds to the conjugate of the condenser annulus. Thus, the two wavefronts do not overlap to a significant extent, and occupy distinct portions of the objective rear focal plane. Because the direct, zeroth order light and diffracted light are spatially separated in the diffraction plane, the phase of either wave component (surround, S or diffracted, D) can be selectively manipulated without interfering with the other.
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A phase plate is mounted in or near the objective rear focal plane (see Figures 4 and 5) in order to selectively alter the phase and amplitude of the surround (or undeviated) light passing through the specimen. In some phase contrast objectives, the thin phase plate contains a ring etched into the glass that has reduced thickness in order to differentially advance the phase of the surround (S) wave by a quarter-wavelength. Often, the ring is also coated with a partially absorbing metallic film to reduce the surround light amplitude by 60-90 percent. Because the rear focal plane usually resides near an internal lens element, some phase contrast objectives are produced by actually etching into the surface of a lens. Regardless of how the objective is manufactured, the most important point to remember is that every phase contrast objective is modified to include the phase plate, a feature that is absent from all other microscope objectives.
Because the resultant particle wave is produced exclusively by interference of the surround and diffracted wavefronts, interference between the wavefronts arriving at the image plane generates a particle (P) wave having an amplitude that is now considerably less than that of the surround when the neutral density coating is applied. The net effect is to transform the relative phase difference introduced by the specimen into a difference in amplitude (intensity) of the light emerging from the image plane. Because the human eye interprets differences in intensity as contrast, the specimen is now visible in the microscope eyepieces, and can also be captured on film with a traditional camera system, or digitally, utilizing a CCD or CMOS device. All positive phase contrast systems selectively advance the phase of the linear surround (S) wavefront relative to that of the spherical diffracted (D) wavefront. Alternatively, negative phase contrast retards the surround wavefront with respect to the light waves diffracted by the specimen.
In general, specimens having a higher refractive index than the surrounding medium appear dark on a neutral gray background, while those specimens that have a lower refractive index than the bathing medium appear brighter than the gray background. This is not always the case, however, because specialized phase contrast objectives having higher neutral densities coupled to lower retardation values (one-eight of a wavelength or less) can produce contrast inversion in thicker specimens. The net result is that regions with very high optical path differences begin to appear bright.
In order to modify the phase and amplitude of the spatially separated surround and diffracted wavefronts in phase contrast optical systems, a number of phase plate configurations have been introduced. Because the phase plate is positioned in or very near the objective rear focal plane (the diffraction plane) all light passing through the microscope must travel through this component. The portion of the phase plate upon which the condenser annulus is focused is termed the conjugate area, while the remaining regions are collectively referred to as the complementary area. The conjugate area contains the material responsible for altering the phase of the surround (undiffracted) light by either plus or minus 90-degrees with respect to that of the diffracted wavefronts. In general, the phase plate conjugate area is wider (by about 25 percent) than the region defined by the image of the condenser annulus in order to minimize the amount of surround light that spreads into the complementary area.
A typical series of phase contrast objectives having increasing magnification, and their corresponding condenser annuli, are presented in Figure 5. As a general rule, when objective numerical aperture and magnification is increased, the phase plate width and diameter both decrease. In contrast, the condenser annulus size increases with objective magnification. Also illustrated in Figure 5 are cut-away diagrams showing the basic concepts behind positive and negative phase plate construction. The positive phase plate produces dark contrast and contains a partially absorbing film designed to reduce the amplitude of the surround wavefront. In addition, this plate contains phase retarding material designed to shift (retard) the phase of the diffracted light by 90 degrees. The negative phase plate also contains both phase retarding and partially absorbing materials. However, in this case, both materials are sandwiched within the phase plate so that the undiffracted surround wavefront is the only species affected (attenuated and retarded in phase by 90 degrees).
Most of the phase plates available from modern microscope manufacturers are produced by vacuum deposition of thin dielectric and metallic films onto a glass plate or directly onto one of the lens surfaces within the microscope objective. The role of the dielectric thin film is to shift the phase of light, while the metallic film attenuates undiffracted light intensity. Some manufacturers utilize multiple antireflection coatings in combination with the thin films to reduce the amount of glare and stray light reflected back into the optical system. If the phase plate is not formed on the surface of a lens, it is usually cemented between successive lenses that reside near the objective rear focal plane. The thickness and refractive indices of the dielectric, metallic, and anti-reflective films, as well as those of the optical cement, are carefully selected to produce the necessary phase shift between the complementary and conjugate areas of the phase plate. In optical terminology, phase plates that alter the phase of surround light relative to diffracted light by 90 degrees (either positive or negative) are termed quarter wavelength plates because of their effect on the optical path difference.
Contrast is modulated by varying the properties of the phase plate, including the absorption of the metallic film (or anti-reflective coatings), the refractive index of the phase retarding material, and the thickness of the phase plate. Several microscope manufacturers offer a variety of phase contrast objectives having progressive degrees of contrast. For example, the Nikon lineup includes five types of phase contrast objectives. The DL (Dark Low) series of objectives produces a dark image outline on a light gray background. These objectives are designed to furnish positive contrast in specimens having a significant difference in refractive index from the surrounding medium, such as tissue culture cells. A slightly lower contrast version objective, the DLL (Dark Low Low), yields better images in brightfield illumination than do the DL objectives, and is utilized as a universal objective for combined observations in fluorescence, brightfield, darkfield, and differential interference contrast.
Nikon also produces an apodized phase contrast objective that contains a secondary neutral density ring, designed to reduce halo artifacts, on either side of the central phase ring. Specimens having very small phase differences are ideal candidates for imaging with Nikon's DM (Dark Medium) positive phase contrast objectives, which produce a dark image outline on a medium gray background. For negative phase contrast, Nikon offers the BM (Bright Medium) objective, which is especially suited for visual examination of bacterial flagella, protozoa, fibrin fibers, minute globules, and blood cells. Bright medium phase contrast objectives produce bright images on a medium gray background.
In most cases, merely advancing the relative phase of the surround wavefront alone is insufficient to result in the generation of high-contrast images in the microscope. This occurs because the amplitude of the surround waves is significantly larger than that of the diffracted waves and suppresses the resulting images created by interference from only a small portion of the total number of waves. In order to reduce the amplitude of the surround wavefront to a value closer to that of the diffracted wave (and enforce interference at the image plane), the phase plate in the objective is increased in opacity by application of a semi-transparent metallic (neutral density) coating. Surround light waves, which pass almost exclusively through the phase plate by design in the phase contrast microscope, are dramatically decreased in amplitude by the opaque phase plate to a value that ranges between 10 and 30 percent of the original intensity.
The phase plate configurations, wave relationships, and vector diagrams associated with the generation of positive and negative phase contrast images are presented in Figure 6. In addition, examples of specimens imaged by these techniques are also illustrated. As previously discussed, the spherical wavefront of diffracted light emerging from the specimen plane is retarded by a quarter-wavelength relative to the phase of the planar surround (or undiffracted) wavefront. In the positive phase contrast optical configuration (upper row of images in Figure 6), the surround (S) wavefront is advanced in phase by a quarter-wavelength when traversing the phase plate to produce a net phase shift of 180 degrees (one half wavelength). The advanced surround wavefront is now able to participate in destructive interference with the diffracted (D) waves at the intermediate image plane.
An overview of positive phase contrast is presented in the upper portion of Figure 6. Positive phase contrast plates (left-hand side of Figure 6) advance the surround wave by a quarter-wavelength due to the etched ring in the glass plate that reduces the physical path taken by the waves through the high refractive index plate. Because the diffracted specimen rays (D waves) are retarded by a quarter-wavelength when interacting with the specimen, the optical path difference between the surround and diffracted waves upon emergence from the phase plate is one-half wavelength. The net result is a 180-degree optical path difference between the surround and diffracted waves, which results in destructive interference for a high refractive index specimen at the image plane. The amplitude profiles of the destructively interfering waves for positive phase contrast are depicted in the upper graph of Figure 6. The amplitude of the resultant particle (P) wave is lower than the surround (S) wave, causing the object to appear relatively darker than the background, as illustrated by the image of Zygnema green algae at the far right (labeled POS). A vector diagram illustrating advancement of the surround wave by a quarter-wavelength, which is shown as a 90-degree counterclockwise rotation in positive phase contrast, appears between the graph and the image in Figure 6.
It is also possible to produce microscope optical systems yielding negative phase contrast, as illustrated in the lower portion of Figure 6. In this case, the surround (S) wave is retarded (rather than being advanced) by a quarter-wavelength relative to the diffracted (D) wave. The result is that specimens having high refractive indices appear bright against a darker gray background (see the image labeled NEG in the lower portion of Figure 6). In negative phase contrast, the objective phase plate contains an elevated ring that retards the phase (rather than advancing the phase as in positive phase contrast) of the zeroth-order surround wave by a quarter-wavelength relative to the phase of the diffracted wave. Because the diffracted wave has already been retarded by a quarter-wavelength when passing through the specimen, the optical path difference between the surround and diffracted waves is eliminated, and constructive interference occurs for a high refractive index specimen at the image plane. Note that the resulting particle (P) wave is higher in amplitude than the surround (S) wave in negative phase contrast (see the lower graph in Figure 6). Also illustrated is the vector diagram for negative phase contrast, where the surround wave vector undergoes a 90-degree clockwise rotation.
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It is important to note that the diffraction pattern formed at the objective rear focal plane is the Fourier transform of all spatial frequencies deviated and scattered by the specimen in phase contrast and all other forms of optical microscopy. Consequently, the image produced at the intermediate image plane and the final image observed through the eyepieces (or recorded by a detector) represent inverse Fourier transforms of the diffraction patterns formed at the objective rear focal plane and the eyepoint (floating above the eyepiece front lens), respectively. Phase contrast microscopy takes advantage of these optical conjugate properties to enhance image contrast by modifying the microscope aperture function to introduce spatial filtration of specific image information. Introduction of a phase plate (filter) in the objective rear diffraction plane enables transformation of specimen phase variations into intensity variations that can be observed in the final image.
Interpretation of Phase Contrast Images
Images produced by phase contrast microscopy are relatively simple to interpret when the specimen is thin and distributed evenly on the substrate (as is the case with living cells grown in monolayer tissue culture). When thin specimens are examined using positive phase contrast optics, which is the traditional form produced by most manufacturers, they appear darker than the surrounding medium when the refractive index of the specimen exceeds that of the medium. Phase contrast optics differentially enhance the contrast near the edges surrounding extended specimens, such as the boundary between a cellular membrane and the bathing nutrient medium, and produce overall high-contrast images that can be roughly interpreted as density maps. Because the amplitude and intensity of a specimen image in phase contrast is related to refractive index and optical path length, image density can be utilized as a gauge for approximating relationships between various structures. In effect, a series of internal cellular organelles having increasing density, such as vacuoles, cytoplasm, the interphase nucleus, and the nucleolus (or mitotic chromosomes), are typically visualized as progressively darker objects relative to a fixed reference, such as the background. It should also be noted that numerous optical artifacts are present in all phase contrast images, and large extended specimens often present significant fluctuations in contrast and image intensity. Symmetry can also be an important factor in determining how both large and small specimens appear in the phase contrast microscope.
Sensible interpretation of phase contrast images requires careful scrutiny and examination to ensure that artifacts are not incorrectly assigned to important structural features. For example, some internal cellular organelles and components often have a lower refractive index than that of the surrounding cytoplasm, while others have a higher refractive index. Because of the varying refractive indices exhibited by these numerous intracellular structures, the interior of living cells, when viewed in a positive phase contrast microscope, can reveal an array of intensities ranging from very bright to extremely dark. For example, pinocytotic vesicles, lipid droplets, and air vacuoles present in plants and single cell protozoans have a lower refractive index than the cytoplasm, and thus appear brighter than other components. In contrast, as discussed above, organelles that have high refractive indices (nuclei, ribosomes, mitochondria, and the nucleolus) appear dark in the microscope. If the phase retardation introduced by the specimen is large enough (a phase shift of the diffracted wave by approximately a half-wavelength), interference between the diffracted waves and the surround waves becomes constructive, rendering these specimens brighter than the surrounding background.
In order to avoid confusion regarding bright and dark contrast in phase contrast images, the optical path differences occurring within the specimen preparation should be carefully considered. As discussed above, the optical path difference is derived from the product of the refractive index and the specimen (object) thickness, and is related to the relative phase shift between the specimen and background (diffracted and surround) waves. It is impossible to distinguish between high and low refractive index components in a phase contrast image without information pertaining to the relative thickness of the components. For example, a small specimen having a high refractive index can display an identical optical path difference to a larger specimen having a lower refractive index. The two specimens will have approximately the same intensity when viewed through a phase contrast optical system. In many biological experiments, conditions that produce a shrinking or swelling of cells or organelles can result in significant contrast variations. The external medium can also be replaced with another having either a higher or lower refractive index to generate changes in specimen image contrast. In fact, the effect on image contrast of refractive index variations in the surrounding medium forms the basis of the technique known as immersion refractometry.
Presented in Figure 7 are several semi-transparent specimens imaged with both positive and negative phase contrast optical systems. Figures 7(a) and 7(b) illustrate a ctenoid fish scale in positive phase contrast (Figure 7(a)) and negative phase contrast (Figure 7(b)) at relatively high magnification (200x). These scales are commonly found in the majority of bony fishes (referred to as the Teleostei). The anterior (or front) part of each scale is usually tucked behind the rear portion of the preceding scale. As the fish grows, so do the scales, resulting in a pattern of concentric growth "rings" that increase in number with the scale size and appear similar to those found in the cross section of tree trunks. In some cases, ctenoid scale growth patterns are utilized to estimate the age of a fish. The growth rings appear dark surrounded by lighter gray halo regions in positive phase contrast (Figure 7(a)), but are rendered much lighter and surrounded by dark troughs with negative phase contrast (Figure 7(b)).
A culture of living Chinese hamster ovary cells appears transparent in brightfield illumination mode when bathed in growth medium, and the cells have a refractive index that is very close to the nutrient saline buffer. In positive phase contrast (Figure 7(c)), internal cellular details, including the nucleus and organelles, can be readily visualized. However, when examined under negative phase contrast illumination, the cellular outlines become difficult to distinguish, and internal details are largely obscured with the exception of high-refractive index organelles that become very bright (Figure 7(d)). Finally, human erythrocytes appear as dark gray oblate ellipsoids featuring a doughnut contour and bright centers in positive phase contrast (Figure 7(e)), but the same cells are bright with dark centers (Figure 7(f)) and stand out sharply from the background in negative phase contrast.
Two very common effects in phase contrast images are the characteristic halo and shade-off contrast patterns in which the observed intensity does not directly correspond to the optical path difference (refractive index and thickness values) between the specimen and the surrounding medium. Although these patterns occur as a natural result of the phase contrast optical system, they are often referred to as phase artifacts or image distortions. In all forms of positive phase contrast, bright phase halos usually surround the boundaries between large specimen features and the medium. Identical halos appear darker than the specimen with negative phase contrast optical systems. These effects are further accentuated by optical path difference fluctuations, which can turn bright halos dark in positive phase contrast, and dark halos bright in negative phase contrast.
Halos occur in phase contrast microscopy because the circular phase-retarding (and neutral density) ring located in the objective phase plate also transmits a small degree of diffracted light from the specimen (it is not restricted to passing surround waves alone). The problem is compounded by the fact that the width of the zeroth-order surround wavefront projected onto the phase plate by the condenser annulus is smaller than the actual width of the phase plate ring. The difference in width between the phase plate ring and surround wavefront is usually around 25 to 40 percent, but is necessary due to restrictions and requirements of the optical design. Because of the spatial location of the circular phase-altering ring in the objective diffraction plane, only those wavefronts corresponding to low spatial frequencies diffracted by the specimen pass through the annulus of the phase plate. Thus, the diffracted specimen waves passing through the phase plate remain 90-degrees (a quarter-wavelength) out of phase relative to the zeroth-order (undeviated or surround) light. The resulting phase contrast halo artifact is due to attenuation of the low spatial frequency information diffracted by the specimen through a very shallow angle with respect to the zeroth-order surround wavefronts. In effect, the absence of destructive interference between low spatial frequency wavefronts diffracted by the specimen and undeviated light waves produces a localized contrast reversal (manifested by the halo) surrounding the specimen. In order to create a sharp edge in the image, all of the spatial frequencies diffracted by the specimen must be represented in the final image.
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Phase contrast halos are especially prominent and noticeable around large, low spatial frequency objects such as nuclei, diatoms, and entire cells. Another contributing factor to the halo artifact is the redistribution of light energy at the image plane, from regions where it is destructive to regions where it is constructive. Large, high contrast halos can produce confusing images for specimens generating large optical path differences, such as erythrocytes, molds, protozoa, yeast cells, and bacteria. On the other hand, halo effects can often emphasize contrast differences between the specimen and its surrounding background and can increase the visibility of thin edges and border details in many specimens. This effect is particularly helpful in negative phase contrast, which produces a dark halo surrounding low frequency image detail. In many cases it is possible to reduce the degree of phase shift and diffraction, resulting in reduced halo size around the specimen. The easiest remedy for removing or attenuating the intensity of halos is to modify the refractive index of the observation medium with higher refractive index components, such as glycerol, mannitol, dextran, or serum albumin. In some cases, changing the refractive index of the medium can even produce a reversal in image contrast, turning dark specimen features bright without significantly disturbing the background intensity.
The halo effect can also be significantly reduced by utilizing specially designed phase objectives that contain a small ring of neutral density material surrounding the central phase ring material near the objective rear aperture. These objectives are termed apodized phase contrast objectives, and enable structures of phase objects having large phase differences to be viewed and photographed with outstanding clarity and definition of detail. In most cases, subcellular features (such as nucleoli) can be clearly distinguished as having dark contrast with apodized objectives, but these same features have bright halos or are imaged as bright spots using conventional phase contrast optics. With the apodized optics, contrast is reversed due to the large amplitude of diffracted light relative to that of the direct light passing through the specimen.
In practice, halo reduction and an increase in specimen contrast with apodized optical systems can be achieved by the utilization of selective amplitude filters located adjacent to the phase film in the phase plates built into the objective at the rear focal plane. These amplitude filters consist of neutral density thin films applied to the phase plate surrounding the phase film. The transmittance of the phase shift ring in the classical phase plate is approximately 25 percent, while the pair of adjacent rings surrounding the phase shift ring in the apodized plate have a neutral density with 50 percent transmittance. The width of the phase film in both plates is the same. These values are consistent with the transmittance values of phase shifting thin films applied to standard plates in phase contrast microscopes.
Shade-off is another very common optical artifact in phase contrast microscopy, and is often most easily observed in large, extended phase specimens. It would normally be expected that the image of a large phase specimen having a constant optical path length across the diameter would appear uniformly dark or light in the microscope. Unfortunately, the intensity of images produced by a phase contrast microscope does not always bear a simple linear relationship to the optical path difference produced by the specimen. Other factors, such as absorption at the phase plate and the amount of phase retardation or advancement, as well as the relative overlap size of the phase plate and condenser annulus also play a critical role. The intensity profile of a large, uniformly thick positive phase contrast specimen often gradually increases from the edges to the center, where the light intensity in the central region can approach that of the surrounding medium (the reverse is true for negative phase specimens). This effect is termed shade-off, and is frequently observed when examining extended planar specimens, such as material slabs (glass or mica), replicas, flattened tissue culture cells, and large organelles.
The effects of halo and shade-off artifacts in both positive and negative phase contrast are presented in Figure 8 for a hypothetical extended phase specimen having rectangular geometry and a higher refractive index than the surrounding medium (Figure 8(a)). The intensity profile recorded across a central region of the specimen is illustrated in Figure 8(b). In positive phase contrast (Figure 8(c)), the specimen image exhibits a distinctively bright halo and demonstrates a dramatic shade-off effect, which is manifested by progressively increasing intensity when traversing from the edges to the central region of the specimen (see the intensity profile in Figure 8(d)). The halo and shade-off effects have reversed intensities in negative phase contrast (Figure 8(e) and 8(f)). A dark halo surrounds the specimen image when viewed with negative phase contrast optics (Figure 8(e)), and the shade-off transition ranges from bright at the edges to darker gray levels in the center. In addition, the intensity profile (Figure 8(f)) is reversed from that observed with positive phase contrast.
The shade-off phenomenon is also commonly termed the zone-of-action effect, because central zones having uniform thickness in the specimen diffract light differently than the highly refractive zones at edges and boundaries. In the central regions of a specimen, both the relative angles and the amount of diffracted light are dramatically reduced when compared to the edges. Because diffracted wavefronts originating from the central specimen areas have only a marginal spatial deviation from the zeroth-order non-deviated surround wavefronts (but are still retarded in phase by a quarter-wavelength), they are captured by the phase plate in the objective rear focal plane, along with the surround light. As a result, the intensity of the central specimen region remains essentially identical to that of the background. The appearance of shade-off effects in relatively flat planar specimen areas, along with the excessively high contrast produced by edges and boundaries, provides strong evidence that the phase contrast mechanism is primarily controlled by the combined phenomena of diffraction and scattering.
Halo and shade-off artifacts depend on both the geometrical and optical properties of the phase plate and the specimen being examined. In particular, the width and transmittance of the phase plate material play a critical role in controlling these effects (the phase plate width is typically about one-tenth the total aperture area of the objective). Wider phase plates having reduced transmittance tend to produce higher intensity halos and shade-off, whereas the ring diameter has a smaller influence on these effects. For a particular phase objective (either positive or negative), the optical path difference and specimen size, shape, and structure have significant influence on the severity of halo and shade-off effects. In addition, these effects are heavily influenced by the objective magnification, with lower magnifications producing better images.
Phase contrast is an excellent method for enhancing the contrast of thin, transparent specimens without loss of resolution, and has proven to be a valuable tool in the study of dynamic events in living cells. Prior to the introduction of phase contrast optical systems, cells and other semi-transparent specimens were rendered visible in brightfield microscopy by artificial staining techniques. Although these specimens can be observed and recorded with darkfield and oblique illumination, or by defocusing a brightfield microscope, this methodology has proven unreliable in providing critical information about cellular structure and function.
The technique of phase contrast is widely applied in biological and medical research, especially throughout the fields of cytology and histology. As such, the methodology is utilized to examine living cells, tissues, and microorganisms that are transparent under brightfield illumination. Phase contrast enables internal cellular components, such as the membrane, nuclei, mitochondria, spindles, mitotic apparatus, chromosomes, Golgi apparatus, and cytoplasmic granules from both plant and animal cells and tissues to be readily visualized. In addition, phase contrast microscopy is widely employed in diagnosis of tumor cells and the growth, dynamics, and behavior of a wide variety of living cells in culture. Specialized long-working distance phase contrast optical systems have been developed for inverted microscopes employed for tissue culture investigations. Other areas in the biological arena that benefit from phase contrast observation are hematology, virology, bacteriology, parasitology, paleontology, and marine biology.
Industrial and chemical applications for phase contrast include mineralogy, crystallography, and polymer morphology investigations. Colorless microcrystals, powders, particulate solids, and crystalline polymers, having a refractive index that differs only slightly from that of the surround immersion liquid, are often easily observed using phase contrast microscopy. In fact, quantitative refractometry is often utilized to obtain refractive index values and for identification purposes. Other commercial products scrutinized by phase contrast optical techniques include clays, fats, oils, soaps, paints, pigments, foods, drugs, textiles, and other fibers.
Incident light phase contrast microscopy, although largely supplanted by differential interference contrast techniques, is useful for examination of surfaces, including integrated circuits, crystal dislocations, defects, and lithography. A good example is the stacking faults in silicon epitaxial wafers, which are of tremendous significance to the semiconductor industry. In reflected light phase contrast systems, an image of the illuminating annulus is projected into the rear focal plane of the objective, where the phase plate is normally located. In addition, the phase plate is not positioned within the objective, but an image of the rear focal plane is formed by an auxiliary lens system that avoids reflections and scattering generated by the phase plate. It should be noted that in reflected light phase contrast microscopy, phase differences arise from relief on the specimen surfaces, rather than phase gradients within the specimen.
Reduction in halo and shading-off artifacts remains a primary concern in phase contrast microscopy. Apodized phase plates are useful for reducing the severity of halo, and specialized variable phase contrast systems can be fine-tuned to control these effects in order to optimize image quality and the fidelity of information obtained by the technique. There is also considerable interest in development of advanced phase contrast systems that provide accurate measurements of phase specimens having large optical path differences, as well as combined observations with other contrast-enhancing techniques. In particular, phase contrast is often utilized with fluorescence imaging to determine the locations of fluorophores, and shows promise for enhancing contrast in scanning optical microscopy.
Douglas B. Murphy - Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy and Microscope Facility, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, 725 N. Wolfe Street, 107 WBSB, Baltimore, Maryland 21205.
Ron Oldfield - Department of Biological Sciences, Division of Environmental and Life Sciences, Macquarie University, New South Wales 2109, Australia.
Stanley Schwartz - Bioscience Department, Nikon Instruments, Inc., 1300 Walt Whitman Road, Melville, New York 11747.
Michael W. Davidson - National High Magnetic Field Laboratory, 1800 East Paul Dirac Dr., The Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, 32310.
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Evolution is the foundation of an immoral worldview (Talk.Origins)
Source: Moon, Rev. Sun Myung. 1990 (27 Mar.). Parents day and I.
On the subject of morality, it is important to remember that there are two types of evolutionists:
- Those who believe in morals - some atheists and all theists
- Those who believe there is no such thing as morality (right and wrong) - some atheists
In establishing that "evolution is the foundation of an immoral worldview", there needs to be such a thing as immorality. It is uncommon for an atheist to admit that there is no such thing as morality. Therefore, this response will deal with those who acknowledge morality, and leave discussion of a worldview void of morality for a different page.
(Talk Origins quotes in blue)
1. Evolution is descriptive. It can be immoral only if attempting to accurately describe nature is immoral.
Evolution in and of itself is not immoral but it tends to remove the foundation for morality, thereby leading to immorality.
If evolution were true, then describing it would not be immoral. However, just as we have seen in the real world, this "description" has provided a convincing justification, if not a motivation, for the grossest immorality you can imagine in human history, including eugenics, genocides, and social Darwinism.
The act of describing, and any conclusions from that description, can be described as morally neutral only if the description is accurate.
2. Any morals derived from evolution would have to recognize the fact that humans have evolved to be social animals. In a social setting, cooperation and even altruism lead to better fitness (Wedekind and Milinski 2000). The process of evolution leads naturally to social animals such as humans developing ethical principles such as the Golden Rule.
There are some cases in which natural selection would favor cooperation and perhaps altruism. It is equally true, though, that natural selection has mostly favored the greedy, selfish, and sexually violent. In other words, any morals derived from evolution would have to recognise the fact that no behaviour can be considered right or wrong. Cooperation and altruism are no more or less virtuous than greed or selfishness in the grand scheme of history.
Even as an abstract argument, evolution reduces morality to just another biological attribute, a simple matter of predicating it on the condition that it "helps us survive". Any "moral code" then must get its basis in terms of "better fitness". And what is this basis in natural selection but survival and reproduction?
What argument can you use against the guy who wants to steal your car? "Don't do that, it's not in your genes"? "This is counter-productive to the survival of our gene pool?"
3. Some bad morals, such as eugenics and social Darwinism, are based on misunderstandings of evolution. Therefore, it is important that evolution be taught well to negate such misunderstandings.
The key to this argument is the word "some". It is irrelevant whether some immoral behaviour is based on a misunderstanding of evolution. The important thing is that some immorality does come logically from a correct understanding of evolution.
According to the theory of evolution itself, assuming its chief mate, natural selection, the rule is whatever aids survival and reproduction of the genes. As to the specific examples of eugenics, and its sibling racism and racial genocide, and social Darwinism, one only needs to use the subtitle of Darwin's "Origins.. And the Preservation of the Favored Races".
4. Despite claims otherwise, creationism has its own problems. For one thing, it is founded on religious bigotry, so the foundation of creationism, by most standards, is immoral.
This statement is blatantly false. See the response to It is bigotry to claim that the Bible/creation is right.
Regardless, it is irrelevant whether Christianity promotes religious bigotry or not. Claiming this does absolutely nothing to refute the claim that evolution leads to an immoral worldview. The logical conclusions of Christianity are an independent topic to the logical conclusions of evolution.
5. Probably the most effective weapon against bad morals is exposure and publicity. Evolution (and science in general) is based on a culture of making information public.
Actually, the most effective weapon against bad morals is a firm foundation for good morals. Evolution removes the foundation for good morals, allowing those who do not want morals to exploit others.
6. Scientists are their own harshest critics. They have developed codes of ethical behavior for several circumstances, and they have begun to talk about a general ethics (Rotblat 1999). Creationists have nothing similar.
Many creationists are scientists, so a separate professional code of ethics is not needed. Furthermore, creationists have the Bible as a foundation of ethics, which is firmer than any discussion based on subjective (human) or faulty (evolutionary) foundations. Any claim about the nature of scientists applies to both creationists and evolutionists, unless it is first established that there are no creationist scientists.
7. Some people feel better about themselves by demonizing others. Those people who are truly interested in morals begin by looking for immorality within themselves, not others.
No disagreement here, but it also irrelevant as to the question of a relationship between Evolution and immorality.
- Women's dilemma: Sex on first date? (Mature Content) According to Dr. Diana Luzzatto, the doctrine of evolution says the instinct of the male is to spread his seed. Hence, according to evolution, a man should have various sexual partners to insure the propagation of the species. This is considered fundamentally immoral by society in general, and by most of the world's religions.
- Answers in Genesis Q&A: Morality and Ethics
- Who’s really pushing ‘bad science’? - Evolution and Morality
- Rape and evolution - Evolution shows its true colours
- Morals decline linked to belief in evolution
- Evolutionary biology: Polygamy and parenting (Paper: "[M]onogamy, if it even exists, is a sort of evolutionary last resort: it arises only when both partners’ full efforts are required to raise offspring successfully.")
- Truth is, everyone lies (Montclair State University's Julian Keenan: "Lying has played a key role in our evolution, in making humans, human.")
- Evolution teaches that we are animals and to behave as such response to Talk.Origins
- Evolutionary psychology
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Stories of Edgar Allan Poe Commentary
The tale of "The Black Cat" was first published on August 19, 1843, in the United States Saturday Post, later called the Saturday Evening Post, in Philadelphia. The story's placement of a murderer as the narrator embodies much of Edgar Allan Poe's stylistic method, using words to manipulate the mind of his readers. It is this fresh approach to storytelling that caused Poe's writing to find such appeal amongst a developing America still searching to define itself. Poe's work contributed to this quest very much, as in "The Black Cat." Here, a rather sick man blames everyone else for causing his behavior. When he becomes a violent alcoholic, it is "Intemperance" that causes him to behave as such, and later it is another personification that causes him to hang his cat, that of "Perverseness." It is the cat's fault that his wife murdered, for if the cat hadn't gotten in his way, he would never have swung the ax. Finally, it is the cat's fault that his crime is discovered, for it is the cat's howls that the policemen hear, causing them to tear apart the wall concealing her body. The setting and human characters are non-specific; only the black cat bears a name, Pluto. The focus is thus upon the man's inner world, and the psychology of why a crime is committed remains a central key to understanding the story.
Furthermore, the man is afflicted by paranoia and distrust of all that is around him, which started after he began staying out all night to get drunk. He first grew paranoid that the cat was following him, which is why he would become violent towards it, eventually causing it to die. The man's fears were reaffirmed when the cat's shape was burned into the wall in his ruined house, which he desperately sought to explain away by an elaborate course of events. After moving to a new residence, the man found a new cat, but quickly feared this creature because it had a white patch on its breast that resembled a gallows, where men are hung. The man's paranoia increases to the point that he murdered his wife when she prevented him from killing the cat. He felt relief only when the cat had disappeared and did not get nervous at all when the police came to investigate his wife's disappearance. Indeed, it is his overconfidence which leads to the discovery of the body, as he gloats that they don't know her body to be buried so nearby in the basement. It is this false security that led to her discovery, and the man is again consumed by paranoia and fear towards the "monstrous cat" which he had wanted to kill.
By means of these detailed descriptions, Poe paints a portrait of how the criminal thinks and comes to rationalize his crimes. In this instance, the man did not make a conscious decision to kill his wife, but instead was consumed by a sudden and violent outpouring of human emotion. Perhaps this is the lesson that Poe makes of the story, contrasting the mention of blacks cats as "witches in disguise" to the actual darkness that exists within the human heart. The first is rooted in superstition and paranoia, whereas the second is evidenced at length within the story because of the narrator's actions. The reader is left to decide between the narrator's narrow perception of the world, where black cats set out to destroy a man's life, and the wider lens of common sense which suggests that this is a disillusioned man who becomes violently abusive when under the influence of alcohol.
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The dog days of Summer are fast approaching. In many parts of our beautiful country sweltering temperatures can bring on the craving for a cool refreshing treat. A simple icy fruit cocktail such as a citrus spiked Granita can instantly placate a parched tongue. Ever wonder what exactly is a granita or how sorbet differs from ice cream? Keep reading for the 101 on these sweet frozen treats and more.
Ice Cream – consists of milk, cream, sugar, and sometimes egg yolks. Constant churning during the cooling process incorporates air into the ice cream giving it a smooth light creamy texture.
Spumoni – resembles Neapolitan ice cream. It consists of three layers of different flavored ice cream: Chocolate, pistachio and cherry or raspberry. Unlike the ice cream version of Neapolitan spumoni has actual bits of fruit and nuts.
Gelato – begins with a base of sugar, milk, very little cream, and sometimes eggs. The Italian gelato differs from ice cream in three ways. First, it uses a lower proportion of cream. The reduced butterfat does not coat the tongue as ice cream tends to do producing a more intense flavor. Second, the gelato mixture is churned at a slower rate. Less churning equals less air and a more dense gelato. Thirdly, gelato is frozen at a slightly warmer temperature. The higher freezing temperature results in a silkier and softer texture.
Sherbet– is often confused with sorbet. Sherbet differs from sorbet in that sherbet contains milk and sorbet is made with fruit.
Sorbet – is a frozen fruit puree made from fruit juice or frozen fruit, and simple syrup. A classic sorbet has alcohol in it and it may be used to cleanse the palate before the main course. To make sorbet all the ingredients are blended together in a blender or food processor; then poured into an ice cream maker. The churning process helps to create a very smooth fine texture. It is possible to make sorbet without an ice cream maker using a container and mixing periodically by hand.
Granita – is made with pureed fruit, a simple syrup, and a squeeze of lime or lemon juice to balance the flavors. The result is a refreshing ice. Unlike sorbet the liquid is poured into a shallow dish and frozen. At intervals, the mixture is scraped with a fork to break up the ice crystals as they form. Because the granita is not churned it is coarser than the sorbet in texture.
Snow Cones – (shaved ice) are coarse grainy cups of shaved ice flavored with sugary syrups. The Hawaiian shaved ice has a ball of ice cream in the center similar to a cream pop.
Italian Ice – is the American invention of the Italian Grattacheca. Grattacheca is similar to shaved ice except that the flavors are added before freezing. Italian Ice is sweetened with real fruit juices and bits of fruit. The ice is coarser than a sorbet and finer than a granita.
Water Ice – is also an American concoction often referred to as “Italian Ice”. Water ice is as smooth as a slushy yet firmer and is eaten with a spoon rather than sipped through a straw.
Slushy – (called slurpee/ICEE) is a frozen drink flavored with sugary syrup. The constant churning motion keeps the slushy smooth. You can make a slushy at home by putting a plastic bottle of soda in the freezer. Rotate the bottle every half hour to distribute the ice crystals evenly until chilled but not frozen.
Smoothie – is a fruit flavored drink. Fresh fruit is blended together with flavored water or fruit juice or milk.
Mochi – is a confectionary treat from Japan. Little ice cream balls are wrapped in soft fluffy dough called mochi, pounded rice cakes, and dusted with rice flour. They come in a variety of flavors but chocolate, strawberry, vanilla, mango and green tea are the most commercial.
Spritzer – is a drink made with alcohol and carbonated water. Spritzers can also be made non-alcoholic by replacing the alcohol with fruit juice. Sub flavored syrup for the juice and you have an “Italian Soda” that is not so Italian but rather another American invention. Add a scoop to either one for a refreshing frozen treat similar to the “ice cream float”.
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'Don't give me any more facts! I need to make a decision right now!' Although one can question knowledge endlessly, one cannot forever suspend judgment while researching and reflecting. What would it mean to act responsibly in a situation where one cannot possess certainty? How would one justify the decision?
Within all individuals, there is a basic necessity to obtain certain answers to questions, which is known as gumption. The satisfaction of this "gumption” in certain cases, becomes the basic factor of life needed to function. Hence, people often search for explanations to these uncertainties. This endless search will only lead to losing the truth.
Gumption is the attempt to have answers to for everything in order to be able to function. In other words, it is an innate need to answer things; curiosity. People try to get all these answers in vain because either way there are too many variables to assess and hence it would be impossible to attain certainty. It is towards satisfying this gumption that most of our actions are steered. It is towards satisfying this gumption that most of our actions are steered. Humankind needs to stop trying to acquire knowledge to be able to function; they need to coming up with temporary answers through the use of common sense and intuition. As Bertrand Russell said, "All human knowledge is uncertain, inexact and partial.” People cannot rely on common sense, the mind cannot organize anything. Common sense and beliefs are but just mere memories of past experiences. We rely on memory to acquaint us with the continuance and exert of this succession of perceptions.
This is where the metacognition comes in. People need to be metacognistant, this is, they need to realize that they could never know everything possible. Searching for answers is pointless. As David Hume said, "It is impossible to know everything so we need to concentrate on what we know.” A decision not to de
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What Is Concept-Based Curriculum?
A site that explores the what, why, how and when of a concept-based curriculum
Beane, James. Toward A Coherent Curriculum. Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, 1995. ASIN: 0871203111
Eighteen contributors – professors, administrators, and classroom teachers – discuss their experiences in answering the question of what an educated person should be.
Campbell, Dorothy., & Harris, Linda. Collaborative Theme Building: How Teachers Write Integrated Curriculum. New York: Allyn & Bacon, 2000. ISBN: 0205323545
This book was written to assist preservice and inservice elementary school teachers, principals, and curriculum specialists in developing a thematic, interdisciplinary curriculum.
Erickson, Lynn H. Concept-based Curriculum and Instruction: Teaching Beyond the Facts. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2002. ISBN: 0761946403
This book describes specific strategies that teach students the skills they need in order to think conceptually and solve problems in today’s complex world.
Erickson, Lynn H. Stirring the Head, Heart, and Soul (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2000. ISBN: 080396885X
This is a thoughtful "how to" of curriculum design, where educators will find practical structures and specific classroom examples of effective curriculum strategies.
Hayes Jacobs, Heidi. Interdisciplinary Curriculum: Design and Implementation. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. 1989. ISBN: 0871201658
This book provides advice for teachers on how best to present material in a manner that connects subject areas together and is relevant to life outside the classroom.
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Although a type of hammerhead shark, the bonnetheads have a much smaller, shovel-shaped head, but it does have the classic shark-shaped body and distinctly taller first dorsal fin of other hammerheads. They are gray-brown above, fading to white underneath, and grow to around 48 inches long but rarely as much as 59 inches. These warm-water coastal sharks migrate with the seasons, and have excellent senses for hunting and communication with other bonnetheads.
Order - Carcharhiniformes
Family - Sphyrnidae
Genus - Sphyrna
Species - tiburo
English language common names include bonnethead, bonnet hammerhead, bonnet shark, bonnethead shark, bonnetnose shark, and shovelhead. Other common names throughout the world include cabeza de pala (Spanish), cação (Portuguese), cação-chapéu (Portuguese), cachona (Spanish), cambeva-pata (Portuguese), cornuda de corona (Spanish), cornuda tiburo (Spanish), cornudo de corona (Spanish), kaphamerhaai (Dutch), kleiner hammerhai (German), lopatoglów (Polish), martelo (Portuguese), pata (Portuguese), peixe-martelo (Portuguese), pex martillo (Spanish), requin-marteau tiburo (French), rodela (Portuguese), sarda cachona (Spanish), tiburón bonete del Pacífico (Spanish), and uchiwa-shumokuzame (Japanese).
Importance to HumansBonnetheads are a common inshore shark and are often taken by small fisheries with shrimp trawls, nets, longlines, and hook-and-line. The flesh is marketed as fresh, fresh frozen, or dried salted for human consumption as well as processed into fishmeal. Although it is marketed, this species if of little economic importance.
Recreationally, bonnetheads can provide great sport on light tackle or fly fishing gear. They are often found on shallow water flats and caught on live and cut bait including crabs.
Danger to Humans
Considered harmless to humans, this species is rather shy. There has been only one recorded unprovoked attack attributed to the bonnethead.
Currently, this species is categorized as a species of "Least Concern" due to its high population numbers by the World Conservation Union (IUCN). The IUCN is a global union of states, governmental agencies, and non-governmental organizations in a partnership that assesses the conservation status of species.
Geographical DistributionThe bonnethead is limited to warm waters of the Northern Hemisphere, ranging in the Atlantic Ocean from New England (U.S.) (rare) south to the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil. It is common throughout the Caribbean Sea including Cuba and Bahamas. This shark is rare in Bermuda. In the Pacific, this shark can be found from southern California to waters off of Ecuador.
Summertime finds the bonnethead commonly residing in the inshore waters off the Carolinas and Georgia (U.S.) while during the spring, summer, and autumn it is found off the coast of Florida and in the Gulf of Mexico. Bonnetheads move closer to the equator, as waters grow colder during the winter months.
HabitatBonnetheads reside on continental and insular shelves, over reefs, estuaries and shallow bays from depths of 32-262 feet (10-80 m). They usually occur in small schools of up to 15 individuals, however during migration events they are seen in groups of hundreds or thousands. As spawning time approaches, bonnetheads tend to group by gender. During pupping season; females predominate in shallow waters where they give birth. Bonnetheads travel long distances everyday, following changes in the water temperature. This preference for water temperatures over 70°F (21°C) leads to migrations to warmer waters during the winter months. As a result, the bonnethead is found closer to the equator during the winter, moving back to higher latitudes during the summer.
This species must swim continuously so that its gills receive oxygen from the water, otherwise it will sink. Although this shark is not territorial, it appears a hierarchy exists within groups of bonnetheads. Another interesting aspect of this species is a cerebrospinal fluid used in chemical communication among individual bonnetheads, informing others when there is a bonnethead in the area. Further studies are needed to learn more about this communication system.
1. Head is shovel-shaped with evenly rounded between the eyes
The shovel- or bonnet-shaped head is a distinguishing characteristic of this species, making it easy to identify among hammerhead sharks. The eyes are located at the ends of the evenly rounded lobes of the flattened head, increasing the field of vision. When the bonnethead swims, the head rolls from side to side. The arched mouth is located ventrally. The body is moderately compact and lacks a mid-dorsal ridge. The high first dorsal fin originates just behind the base of the pectoral fins. The second dorsal fin is slightly less than ½ as long as the base of the first dorsal fin with a slender free rear corner. The pectoral fins are short and the anal fin has only a slight indentation. The caudal fin has a nearly straight upper margin with a lower lobe about 1/3 as long as the upper lobe with a nearly straight rear edge. Bonnetheads lack air bladders and have strong digestive chemicals in their specialized intestines.
Bonnetheads can be distinguished from other species by the flattened, bonnet-shaped head that is rounded between the eyes rather than hammer-shaped. Also, the head lacks a notch at the midline. It is the smallest of the hammerhead-type (family Sphyrnidae) sharks, reaching an average of 3-4 feet in length in comparison to the scalloped hammerhead which grows to an average of 6 feet and the great hammerhead growing to almost 20 feet in length.Coloration
Coloration of the bonnethead ranges from gray to gray-brown, occasionally with a green tint. Dark spots are sometimes seen on the sides of the body. Viewed from the side, the color changes from top to bottom to a lighter gray and then white on the underside. There are no conspicuous markings on the fins.
Dentition of the bonnethead includes small, sharp teeth located in the front of the mouth used for cutting up prey and flat, large molars in the back for grinding hard prey items. The sharp front teeth have short, stout cusps lacking serrations, followed by teeth with oblique cusps and then the flat molars in the back of the mouth. As with all sharks, the bonnethead has additional rows of teeth that are used as the older teeth become lost or worn.
The dermal denticles are larger than those found in the smooth hammerhead (S. zygaena) and vary greatly in arrangement from closely overlapping to loosely spaced. The blades are steeply raised with 5 ridges and 5 sharp marginal teeth.
Size, Age, and Growth
Bonnetheads reach an average size of 36-48 inches (100-120 cm) with a maximum length of approximately 59 inches (150 cm), with females reaching greater lengths than males. The maximum recorded weight of a bonnethead is 24 pounds (10.8 kg). Males mature between 20-30 inches (52-75 cm) and females mature at 33 inches (84 cm) or less in length.
Bonnetheads feed during daylight hours primarily on crustaceans, dominated by blue crabs. They also feed on mantis shrimp (Squilla empusa), pink shrimp (Penaeus durorarum), mollusks, and small fishes. Occasionally bonnetheads will also feed on seagrasses as documented by stomach contents of some individuals. This species has been reported burrowing under coral heads in search of small fishes and invertebrates in the waters of southern Florida. Females tend to feed more often due to the need for increased amount of energy budgeted for reproductive efforts.
The bonnethead has evolved well-developed sensory and nervous systems that allow them to be efficient predators. Vision and hearing capabilities are exceptional as well as the sensitivity of the lateral line to small vibrations, alerting them to nearby potential prey. Upon locating a prey item, the bonnethead swims slowly within range followed by a quick acceleration to attack that item. The item is then crushed with the molariform teeth. There are two jaw closing phases, continuing the closure of the jaws. This differs from the capture event typical of other sharks, where the jaws are initially closed and biting ceases at jaw closure. This allows the bonnethead to take advantage of prey that is not available to other species of sharks. After the prey is crushed, it is moved by suction to the esophagus.Reproduction
In Florida waters, bonnetheads are believed to mate during the spring and autumn or perhaps even year-round. In the waters off the coast of Brazil, mating occurs during the spring. After mating, the females can store sperm for up to four months prior to actually fertilizing the eggs. The control over the fertilization period is believed to be an adaptation to ensure that the pups are born during optimal conditions for their survival.
Bonnetheads are "viviparous", or livebearing. Female bonnetheads produce eggs that are maintained and nourished by a yolk-sac during the initial phase of gestation.
The eggs withing the female are tough but elastic with folded ends allowing for growth of the embryos. The embryos released from the eggs absorb the yolk-sac. This sac attaches to the uterine wall of the mother forming a yolk-sac placenta. Blood vessels running through this placenta provide nourishment until birth of the embryo. Also, after hatching, sections of the uterine wall come together to separate each embryo and its placenta in its own uterine compartment. The gestation period, shortest among all sharks, is only four to five months.
Females move to shallow inshore waters during pupping season, giving birth in late summer and early fall. Litter sizes average 4-14 pups, each approximately 14 inches (35 cm) in length and 0.4 pounds (0.2 kg) in weight. During this time, the females lose their desire for food, which prevents them from feeding on their pups. Males move to a different location, also an adaptation to avoid feeding upon their own young.Predators
Larger sharks are potential predators of the bonnethead.
The monogenean Erpocotyle tiburonis has been reported to cause gill lesions on bonnetheads. Other parasites include copepods such as Eudactylina longispina collected from the gill filaments of a bonnethead caught in Tampa Bay, Florida.
Karl Linnaeus first described this species as Sphyrna tiburo in 1758 after initially naming it Squalus tiburo. Synonyms referring to this species in past scientific literature include S. vespertina Springer 1940. The genus name Sphyrna is derived from the Greek word "sphyra" which translates as hammer. Bonnetheads are the smallest species in the family Sphyrnidae.
There are approximately 10 related species of hammerheads throughout tropical and temperate regions including the scalloped hammerhead (Sphyrna lewini), great hammerhead (Sphyrna mokarran), and smooth hammerhead (Sphyrna zygaena).
Prepared by: Cathleen Bester
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Dental Hygiene Practice
What is Collaborative Dental Practice?
Here is an excellent place to start!
So You Want to Be a Public Health Dental Hygienist? Working in a School Setting
A Practical Definition of Collaborative Practice:
[Dentist-dental hygienist] collaborative practice is different from and greater than [dentist-dental hygienist] collaboration. Collaboration is a single, temporal event that can occur intermittently in the day to day practice of health care. Conversely, [dentist-dental hygienist] collaborative practice is a dynamic process, a commitment to interact on a professional level, that empowers the participants to blend their talent, to achieve a goal that neither can do alone. *
Why Should a Dental Hygienist Be Interested in Collaborative Dental Hygiene Practice Opportunities?
Historically, dental hygiene was created as a distinct profession positioned in dental public health. Wide access to preventive care provided by educated dental hygiene professionals was the incentive leading Dr. Alfred C. Fones to educate the first dental hygienist, Irene Newman.
"Dental hygiene opens up paths of usefulness, activity, and inspiration hitherto undreamed of, allying her with the workers of the world who are helping humanity in masses". **
Emphasis was placed on the dental hygienist as an outreach worker to bring patients in need of restorative dental care, in particular school children, to private dental practices. The effectiveness of the care provided in communities and schools by a dental hygienist quickly spread to the private dental practice. Consequently, for decades the majority of dental hygiene positions have been held in private employment settings.
For various reasons, access to oral health care in a private practice setting by certain populations has become difficult. Our nation's health care leaders are quickly realizing the important connection between oral health and total health. Being part of a health care profession that is truly focused on prevention as its core foundation, dental hygienists are well-placed to play a key role in expanding the delivery of health care services to prevent and help treat disease while it is still manageable.
As our nation's health care system struggles to provide effective care for all of its citizens, this is an important time for dental hygienists to adopt a holistic view of health care and fill new roles to provide equal access to oral health care. An essential first move is for dental hygienists and dentists to reflect back to the time when dental hygiene was introduced as a "public" health profession and the impact that it made. Collaborative Practice dental hygienists in Minnesota are playing active roles in the delivery of care to Minnesota Health Care Program enrollees and to the growing number of un-insured populations in a range of settings: schools, public health clinics, mobile dental units. Emphasis by both dental hygienists and dentists is now wisely being placed on interdisciplinary health care delivery options.
As one of the top ten fastest growing health professions in the country, the dental hygiene workforce is well positioned to effect change as our health care system seeks to improve and streamline the delivery of oral health and total care for all. ***
* Thomson, D.J., 1995. Physicians' perceptions of nurse-physician collaborative practice. Florida Atlantic University. MSN Dissertation.
** Nathe, C.N., 2001. As written in Dental Public Health: Contemporary practice for the dental hygienist. New Jersey: Prentice Hall. (4).
*** American Dental Hygienists' Association. July 10, 2010. ADHA Offers Testimony at CMS National Dental Medicaid Dental Town Hall
- Clare Larkin July 16, 2010, 6-23-11
This website is made possible by a generous grant from the Minnesota Community Foundation. Thank You!
Generous additional funding to maintain a quality website has been granted by Delta Dental of Minnesota. Thank You!
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As the outermost layer of skin, epidermis is crucial in forming a permeability barrier and protection against various environmental agents. Thus, investigating the biology of its most important cell type, the keratinocyte, is key to understanding the effects of solar ultraviolet radiation in skin, and helps design effective means of protection against excessive exposure. It has already previously been shown with both cell culture and in vivo animal models that UV irradiation increases the expression of hyaluronan, which is an important carbohydrate of the extracellular matrix. Hyaluronan is also clearly increased in tissue sections from early stage squamous cell carcinomas, one important risk factor of which is exposure to UV radiation.
Hyaluronan metabolism in cells and tissues has long been a special area of interest in the research group of Professors Raija and Markku Tammi at the Institute of Biomedicine, University of Eastern Finland. One important target tissue and focus in these studies has been the skin. In a recent paper published in The Journal of Biological Chemistry, the group demonstrated that already fairly low doses of UVB activate the accumulation and degradation of hyaluronan. This occurs in both simple monolayer cultures of keratinocytes and a stratified, three-dimensional model that mimics normal skin epidermis. As intracellular signalling pathways are activated, the hyaluronan producing enzymes (Has1-3) and hyaluronan synthesis are upregulated. Particularly, it was shown that Has1 and Has2 are regulated by the MAP kinase p38, and Has3 by the calcium-dependent protein kinase CaMKII.
Since hyaluronan content and the absolute and relative quantities and activity of the hyaluronan synthases depend on the tissue context and physiological conditions, it's crucial to understand the underlying regulatory mechanisms. In this study, the significantly upregulated hyaluronan metabolism in the keratinocytes seemed to be dependent specifically on the Has3 enzyme. Blocking its expression with a specific siRNA reversed the UVB-induced hyaluronan production nearly to the level of the control cells. The results thus strongly indicate that epidermal keratinocytes exposed to UVB specifically activate their hyaluronan synthesis by regulating the HAS-enzymes via at least two different signalling pathways. This may be one mode for the cells to adapt to radiation damage.
Even though more research is warranted, the new data further our understanding about the significance of hyaluronan for keratinocyte function under environmental stress. This activation of hyaluronan metabolism after excessive UVB exposure may also prove to be a target for regulation when trying to control and understand tissue malignancy and pre-cancerous alterations.
|Contact: Leena Rauhala|
University of Eastern Finland
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A Commentary on Human Nature and Self Government
Defend and/or criticize Ralph’s actions as a leader. What were his motivations? Did he contribute to the tragedy in any way? Could he have acted to prevent any of the deaths? What should he have done differently? Do governments act in this way?
Within the film, Lord of the Flies, a group of young boys are forced to cooperate with one another if they are to have any chance of survival on an unknown island, on which their plane has crash landed. It is essential that the boys appoint a reliable and responsible group leader to aid with assigning tasks essential for survival. As the movie progresses, the youngsters face numerous challenges which jeopardize their chance of survival. After being selected, many of the boys refuse to obey Ralph’s orders. Jack, another older boy, decided to make a “tribe” of his own. Jack’s tribe acts in a barbaric manner and in turn, leads to a series of unfortunate events including Simon and Piggy’s death.
Ralph’s intentions as a leader were to keep all the boys together on the island which would maximize their chances for survival. He was aware that they would eventually be rescued, but needed to aid in the group’s survival until then. Ralph’s was motivated to keep all the boys together, find food and water, and build a shelter for them all so that they could ensure survival. Ralph’s behaviour was quite different than Jack’s, which prevented him from causing any further tragedies. Ralph’s maturity was beyond that of the other boys, proven by the time that he tried talking sense into Jack, after he had created his own tribe. Simon’s death sent a shockwave through the island and left many boys thinking that there was a monster on the island, whereas it was actually just the pilot, hiding in a cave. When Simon approached the camp, to tell the boys that the pilot was dead in the cave, he was mistaken for the monster and killed. Ralph made...
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| 0.983929 | 427 | 3.578125 | 4 |
Montana Oil Spill - Silvertip Pipeline Incident
NOTE: This page is archived for historical purposes and is no longer being maintained or updated.
Response Worker Safety and Health
On July 1, 2011, a break occurred in a 12-inch pipeline under the Yellowstone River, 20 miles upstream from Billings, Montana. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency is leading the response efforts in close coordination with the state of Montana and other federal agencies. See ( http://www.epa.gov/yellowstoneriverspill/ ).
Oil spill clean-up activities can be hazardous. Workers and volunteers involved with cleanup activities should be aware of the potential dangers involved, and the proper safety precautions. Work-related hazards that could be encountered include: heat stress, cold stress, fatigue, chemical hazards, and musculoskeletal hazards. Links to information about hazards associated with cleanup activities can be found below. This information is intended to help employers and workers prepare for anticipated response activities, and to prevent work-related injuries and illnesses in the field.
Public health support on-scene currently includes local Montana’s State environmental health leadership, local response groups and ExxonMobil spill response contractors. The federal spill response leadership is being provided by the USEPA Region VIII and USCG Pacific Region response agency disaster response specialists.
At no cost to employers or employees, or their representatives, the NIOSH Health Hazard Evaluation (HHE) program may be able to help with problems like these. This site lets you know about the program and how to ask for NIOSH help.
Workers are urged to report any symptoms they associate with their response work to their employer, physician, poison control center, state or local health department of a local health facility. As part of a comprehensive worker safety and health program there should be a system for reporting symptoms, near-misses, injuries and illnesses. These reports should be analyzed to assess real-time trends so that actions can be taken to prevent similar incidents.
Symptoms reported from excessive exposure to crude oil commonly include the following:
- eye, nose and throat irritation
- upset stomach
- cough or shortness of breath
Health Recommendations for Relief Workers Responding to Disasters
Provides a broad scope of information on risks and prevention strategies for relief workers.
NIOSH Emergency Response Chemical Hazards Page
Chemical agent information is needed for workers to appropriately plan for risks resulting from possible chemical incidents. Several organizations have developed information databases, including short-term and long-term criteria, each with specific purposes, exposure scenarios, and severity of adverse health effects considered in their development.
NIOSH Emergency Response Personal Protective Equipment Page
Personal protective equipment is very important for any emergency responder. There are five main types of PPE that are covered on this page: respirators and protective clothing (selection, proper use, etc.), skin exposures and eye and hearing protection.
Workers who are exposed to extreme cold, work in cold environments, have prolonged contact with cold river water may be at risk of cold stress. Extreme cold exposure, including from water, is a dangerous situation that can bring on health emergencies in susceptible people.
Workers who are exposed to extreme heat, work in hot environments, areas of high elevation, low humidity, or intense sun are at high risk for heat stress. Exposure to extreme heat can result in occupational illnesses and injuries. Heat stress can result in heat stroke, heat exhaustion, heat cramps, or heat rashes.
Disaster response workers often work longer shifts and more consecutive shifts than the typical 40-hour work week. Working longer hours may increase the risk of work injuries and accidents and can contribute to poor health. Management plans should be in place to minimize fatigue risks, recognize hazards, and provide regular opportunities for worker rest and recovery.
NIOSH Ergonomics and Musculoskeletal Disorders Topic Page
A resource of practical ways to reduce ergonomics hazards to workers.
- Page last reviewed: July 7, 2011 (archived document)
- Content source:
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Office of the Director
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June 10, 2009
A New Way Measure Of Global Warming From Carbon Emissions
Damon Matthews, a professor in Concordia University's Department of Geography, Planning and the Environment has found a direct relationship between carbon dioxide emissions and global warming. Matthews, together with colleagues from Victoria and the U.K., used a combination of global climate models and historical climate data to show that there is a simple linear relationship between total cumulative emissions and global temperature change. These findings will be published in the next edition of Nature, to be released on June 11, 2009.
Until now, it has been difficult to estimate how much climate will warm in response to a given carbon dioxide emissions scenario because of the complex interactions between human emissions, carbon sinks, atmospheric concentrations and temperature change. Matthews and colleagues show that despite these uncertainties, each emission of carbon dioxide results in the same global temperature increase, regardless of when or over what period of time the emission occurs.
These findings mean that we can now say: if you emit that tonne of carbon dioxide, it will lead to 0.0000000000015 degrees of global temperature change. If we want to restrict global warming to no more than 2 degrees, we must restrict total carbon emissions "“ from now until forever "“ to little more than half a trillion tonnes of carbon, or about as much again as we have emitted since the beginning of the industrial revolution.
"Most people understand that carbon dioxide emissions lead to global warming," says Matthews, "but it is much harder to grasp the complexities of what goes on in between these two end points. Our findings allow people to make a robust estimate of their contribution to global warming based simply on total carbon dioxide emissions."
In light of this study and other recent research, Matthews and a group of international climate scientists have written an open letter calling on participants of December's Conference of the Parties to the U.N. Framework Convention on Climate Change to acknowledge the need to limit cumulative emissions of carbon dioxide so as to avoid dangerous climate change.
On The Net:
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A team of astronomers including J. Xavier Prochaska, professor of astronomy and astrophysics at UC Santa Cruz, has discovered the first known quasar quartet: four quasars, each one a rare object in its own right, in close physical proximity to each other. The quartet resides in one of the most massive structures ever discovered in the distant universe (a "proto-cluster" of galaxies) and is surrounded by a giant nebula of cool dense gas.
The findings, published May 15 in Science, are based on observations using the 10-meter Keck I Telescope at the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii. Either the discovery is a one-in-ten-million coincidence, or cosmologists need to rethink their models of quasar evolution and the formation of the most massive cosmic structures, according to first author Joseph Hennawi of the Max Planck Institute for Astronomy (MPIA) in Heidelberg, Germany.
Quasars constitute a brief phase of galaxy evolution, powered by the accretion of matter onto a supermassive black hole at the center of a galaxy. During this phase, they are the most luminous objects in the universe, shining hundreds of times brighter than their host galaxies, which themselves contain hundreds of billions of stars. But these hyper-luminous episodes last only a tiny fraction of a galaxy's lifetime. As a result, quasars are exceedingly rare and are typically separated by hundreds of millions of light years from one another. The researchers estimate that the odds of discovering a quadruple quasar by chance is one in ten million.
How did they get so lucky? Clues come from peculiar properties of the quartet's environment. The four quasars are surrounded by a giant nebula of cool dense hydrogen gas, which emits light because it is irradiated by the intense glare of the quasars. In addition, both the quartet and the surrounding nebula reside in an unusual region of the universe with a surprisingly large amount of matter.
"There are several hundred times more galaxies in this region than you would expect to see at these distances," said Prochaska, the principal investigator of the Keck observations.
Given the exceptionally large number of galaxies, this system resembles the massive agglomerations of galaxies known as galaxy clusters that astronomers observe in the present-day universe. But because the light from this cosmic metropolis has been travelling for 10 billion years before reaching Earth, the images show the region as it was 10 billion years ago, less than 4 billion years after the big bang. It is thus an example of a proto-cluster, the progenitor or ancestor of a present-day galaxy cluster.
Piecing all of these anomalies together, the researchers tried to understand what appears to be their incredible stroke of luck. "If you discover something which, according to current scientific wisdom, should be extremely improbable, you can come to one of two conclusions: either you just got very lucky, or you need to modify your theory," Hennawi said.
The researchers speculate that some physical process might make quasar activity much more likely in certain environments. One possibility is that quasar episodes are triggered when galaxies collide or merge, because these violent interactions efficiently funnel gas onto the central black hole. Such encounters are much more likely to occur in a dense proto-cluster filled with galaxies, just as one is more likely to encounter traffic when driving through a big city.
"The giant emission nebula is an important piece of the puzzle, since it signifies a tremendous amount of dense cool gas," said coauthor Fabrizio Arrigoni-Battaia of MPIA. Supermassive black holes can only shine as quasars if there is gas for them to swallow, and an environment that is gas rich could provide favorable conditions for fueling quasars.
On the other hand, given the current understanding of how massive structures in the universe form, the presence of the giant nebula in the proto-cluster is totally unexpected, according to coauthor Sebastiano Cantalupo of UC Santa Cruz and ETH Zurich. "Our current models of cosmic structure formation based on supercomputer simulations predict that massive objects in the early universe should be filled with rarefied gas that is about ten million degrees, whereas this giant nebula requires gas thousands of times denser and colder," he said.
The discovery of the first quadruple quasar may force cosmologists to rethink their models of quasar evolution and the formation of the most massive structures in the universe.
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Revealing historic sound recordings, with donors' help
What motivates donors to give to museums? As a development intern at the National Museum of American History, I was curious to find out.
One of the most rewarding experiences during my internship was my conversation with long-time museum supporters John and Ellen Thompson. The Thompsons made a generous matching grant to our Sound Recovery Project, and I was thrilled to talk with them about what drew them to this project.
John's memories of museum go back to his childhood, when his father would bring him to the museum on the weekends. Today, John and his wife Ellen are dedicated friends of the museum, supporting various exhibitions and projects. As John and Ellen prepared to make their next gift, they asked "what would the staff like to do?" One of the options presented struck a chord with the Thompsons, especially John.
Alexander Graham Bell, best known as the inventor of the telephone, gave an extensive collection of laboratory materials to the Smithsonian Institution, including more than 400 of the earliest experimental sound recordings developed in his Washington, D.C., Volta Laboratory. Because our experts did not have the means to play such fragile artifacts, the content of most of his recordings remained a mystery for over a century.
The Sound Recovery Project made it possible to hear Bell's recordings for the first time since the 1880s through a newly invented sound recovery process. In collaboration with Library of Congress and Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, the museum used a non-invasive optical technique, electronic imaging, to scan and recover recordings from these disks without damaging them.
One of John’s hobbies and interests over time has been in sound reproduction, and after he retired, he ran a consulting business focusing on the restoration of vintage audio equipment. "Just from the technology of doing the sound recovery, that alone was of interest to us. But also, of course, is being able to help bring Bell’s legacy back to life for the first time is truly amazing!"
John and Ellen offered a challenge grant to the museum, promising to match up to a certain amount. The Thompsons chose a matching grant because of a desire to take their donation and "leverage it to get other people involved in supporting the project." After a few months, several other donors responded to the challenge, and as a result, we were able to recover, study, and share sound from six more of Bell’s recordings!
John enthusiastically told me about the time he and Ellen went behind the scenes with Carlene Stephens, a curator in the Museum's Division of Work and Industry. With Carlene, John and Ellen learned more about the sound recovery process and even listened to a couple of Bell's recordings. John told me that it was "very impressive to hear something for the first time like that. I am looking forward to the public having that same feeling and moment we had."
Talking to John taught me that donating to the museum can go beyond the simple act of writing a check. Donors can seek out their areas of interest while making an impact, and the Thompsons are an example of invested supporters. I asked John if he had any advice for someone who was interested in giving and becoming involved at the museum. "Go find your own project and be a part of it," he told me, and I couldn't agree more.
Experience the science, technology, and sounds from Bell's lab in Hear My Voice, on display in the Albert H. Small Documents Gallery, open now through September 17, 2015.
Allison Pagliaro is an intern in the Office of External Affairs at the National Museum of American History. She is studying to receive her Master's in Museum Management at the George Washington University.
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|Thimble Shoals Light|
first Thimble Shoal Lighthouse was a six sided screwpile light erected in
1872. This light was first lit on October 15, 1872. This light
replaced the last lightship in the bay. The light was listed as 3
½ miles east of Old Point Comfort at Willoughby's Spit and The Thimble entrance
to Hampton Roads.
On October 30, 1880, a fire destroyed the wooden lighthouse leaving only the iron work and other un-burnable items. The Lazaretto depot in Baltimore just happened to have another screwpile light ready to be delivered to Bell's Rock, Virginia. This light was sent to Thimble Shoal instead to replace the light that had burned. This new light was lit for the first time on December 24, 1880.
In March 1891 the screwpile was rammed by a steamer and damaged. Then again in 1898 it was rammed by a coal barge. This time there was considerable damage and extensive rebuilding was required.
In December of 1909 the hexagonal cottage was completely destroyed by fire and the pile foundation destroyed when it was rammed by the schooner "Malcom Baxter, Jr.". This ship in tow hit the light so hard that it over turned the coal stove and the resultant fire completely destroyed the light. The two keepers were able to escape in their small boat and survived the snow and gale force winds that night on the bay.
Congress appropriated funds for a new lighthouse at this site in 1910, but this new caisson structure was not ready to be installed until 1914. It is three stories tall and stands 55 feet above the water. When it was first lit, the light had a fourth-order Fresnel lens that had a clockworks that rotated an eclipser that flashed the light one for one-second and off for one-second.
In 1964 this light was automated with the instillation of a power cable from shore with a battery back-up. In 1987 the electric cable was replaced by solar cells.
|D R I V I N G D I R E C T I O N S|
|This is another light that you need a boat to see up close. The best was to see it from land is to visit Old Point Comfort at Fort Monroe, VA (See the driving directions for this light) and look east and slightly north and the light is about three and a half miles off shore.|
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| 0.979096 | 506 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Task of the Native Schools Network
The Project „Immersion Schools“ fosters schools for children learning the language and the culture of their nation in a natural way. The communication between these schools moderates the exchange of experience and knowledge of the „First Nations“.
The connecting principle of all the schools is „Immersion“. Language and cultural knowledge is used to teach the language itself (see FAQ).
Children are the future of culture and bearer of hope for the entire mankind. The happiness of the children and the following contentedness of the grown ups is substantially dependent on the possibilities they achieve in their education. Let us take care of their happy childhood to expand their possibilities as adults.
The entire world needs a paradigma of a creative and nature related culture. When globalism has lost the game, a new game with new rules has to be introduced. This new deal has to take care of natural resources, family and community development. The project „Native Schools“ has the goal to reverse the trend.
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| 0.947855 | 212 | 2.875 | 3 |
Our most popular game! Come up with as many words as you can that begin with the three letters provided.
Spatial recall involves your sense of space. It is important for keeping track of changes in your physical environment and orientating yourself within it.
Feeling like your reaction time could use some improvement? Race against the clock and put your reaction speed to the test.
Lost In Migration
Focus entails being able to pay attention to pertinent information while ignoring irrelevant distractions.
Problem Solving Game
We can’t all be naturally good with numbers, but we can get better! Play this to improve your arithmetic skills.
It is thought that the ability to resist initial gut reactions towards making more informed responses is one of the main advantages of being human.
View the discussion thread.
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http://mentalfloss.com/article/28317/lumosity-train-your-brain
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| 0.903628 | 161 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Nicaragua POLITICAL DYNAMICS
Sources: The Library of Congress Country Studies; CIA World Factbook
Office of the former Ministry of Interior in Managua
Casa del Gobierno in Managua
Conflict Between the Executive and Legislative Branches
Almost from the day it took power, the Chamorro government was a stepchild. All groups recognized the necessity of a relationship with the Chamorro government, but even though Violeta Barrios de Chamorro personified the Nicaraguan people's desire for peace, neither the UNO nor the FSLN recognized the government as the legitimate representative of its political, social, and economic aspirations for Nicaragua. The strong constitutional powers of the executive branch theoretically should have given the president adequate control over the political and economic systems, but the transition agreements left the Sandinistas with control over the military and the police, thus curtailing the executive branch's power of coercion. The Sandinistas also continued to control the strongest labor unions, which became a powerful political bloc on the issue of economic reforms. Although increasingly divided, the Sandinistas provided, as Daniel Ortega had warned in his concession speech, a critical opposition that limited the government's range of action.
The president was further weakened by her estrangement from the political and economic coalition that had supported her during the election. Distrust initially was sparked by the transition agreements, which much of the UNO viewed as too accommodating to a political movement that had lost an election and would lose further support when no longer in power. The political parties composing the UNO coalition were quick to establish their own bases of support within the legislature and the municipalities. Although few of the parties reached for grassroots support, whatever was developed was done so by legislators and municipal officials to enhance their personal power bases or for their own parties, not for the central government or the UNO coalition. From the beginning of the Chamorro administration, UNO leaders were critical of the tight family networks that controlled the executive branch they began to accuse the president of nepotism and criticize the government for using its prerogatives for private gain.
Other influential voices on all sides also opposed the Chamorro government. Most of the media and the university leadership were joined with opposition forces of either the UNO coalition or the Sandinistas. The hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, which had forcefully contested the Sandinista government, also began strongly criticizing the Chamorro administration. Groups of businesspeople and farmers, the unemployed (including former Contras and dismissed Sandinista soldiers), and the unions all entered, sometimes violently, the contest over the future shape of the economy, property ownership, and the redistribution of wealth and land.
Although in stable, democratic countries the panorama would appear to be no more than the normal cacophony of competing voices, in Nicaragua the stakes were high. At issue was the government's ability to stimulate a war-torn, depressed economy in which nearly half of the population of 4 million was unemployed or underemployed by early 1992. Also at issue was the government's capacity to institutionalize democratic attitudes and procedures. Different political parties, interest groups, and other influential voices all had their own visions of what form the economy and a democratic government should take and what each group's share and role in both should be. Rather than leading the country, the Chamorro government was compelled to act as a broker among competing interests in resolving the two central issues of her early administration: the resolution of property issues and the establishment of peace through the demobilization and resettlement of the Contras and the Sandinista military.
Data as of December 1993
NOTE: The information regarding Nicaragua on this page is re-published from The Library of Congress Country Studies and the CIA World Factbook. No claims are made regarding the accuracy of Nicaragua POLITICAL DYNAMICS information contained here. All suggestions for corrections of any errors about Nicaragua POLITICAL DYNAMICS should be addressed to the Library of Congress and the CIA.
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| 0.965477 | 822 | 3.546875 | 4 |
Skip to Content
View Additional Content In This Section
Most parents are nervous about their teenager driving a
car. As a parent, you are right in your concern. While teenagers only account
for 6% of all drivers (6 out of 100), young drivers ages 15 to 20 are
involved in 13% of fatal crashes (13 out of 100).footnote 1
Most teens learn to drive by taking driver's
education classes. While teens are
learning to drive, they need to get as much experience as possible with another
adult in the car. Not all parents have the temperament to do this, though. If
you find yourself screaming at your teen or making sarcastic remarks, ask
another adult family member or friend to help out.
Don't let your
teen drive alone—even after he or she gets a license—until your teen has had
enough experience and until you as a parent feel comfortable with your teen's
driving skills. Also, make sure your teen has enough supervised experience
driving in adverse conditions, such as rain or snow or at night, before you
allow him or her to drive in these conditions unsupervised.
things about driving that parents need to emphasize:
Remember to always set a good example for your child.
National Center for Statistics and Analysis, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (2007). Young drivers. Traffic Safety Facts. Available online: http://www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/Pubs/811001.PDF.
ByHealthwise StaffPrimary Medical ReviewerSusan C. Kim, MD - PediatricsSpecialist Medical ReviewerLouis Pellegrino, MD - Developmental Pediatrics
Current as ofAugust 21, 2015
Current as of:
August 21, 2015
Susan C. Kim, MD - Pediatrics & Louis Pellegrino, MD - Developmental Pediatrics
To learn more about Healthwise, visit Healthwise.org.
© 1995-2015 Healthwise, Incorporated. Healthwise, Healthwise for every health decision, and the Healthwise logo are trademarks of Healthwise, Incorporated.
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| 0.902492 | 430 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Start-1 and Start launcher tech dossier:
Start launcher development team:
Start program developments:
1996 October: Akjuit Aerospace of Canada and NTTs Complex of Russia signed an agreement to launch Start boosters from a commercial spaceport in Northern Manitoba near Churchill, Manitoba. The construction of the "Spaceport Canada" was scheduled to start in the summer of 1997 and the first launch was expected in late 1998. Both Canadian and Russian government reportedly endorsed the project. (104)
Start launch log:
1993 March 25: A Start-1 launch vehicle lifted off from Plesetsk for the first time successfully delivering an experimental EKA-1 satellite.
1995 May 24: A Start launch vehicle failed to reach orbit after a liftoff from Plesetsk destroying the Russian EKA-2, an Israeli Gurwin (Techsat) and the Mexican Unamsat satellites.
1997 March 4, 05:00 local time (2 a.m. GMT): A Start-1 launch vehicle successfully delivered the 87-kilogram Zeya experimental satellite from Svobodny Cosmodrome into a Sun-synchronous orbit. The Zeya satellite was developed at NPO PM design bureau in cooperation with Mozhaisky Academy under a contract with the Russian space forces, VKS.
1997 Dec. 24: Start-1 placed EarlyBird satellite for the US company Earth Watch Inc, into sun-synchronous orbit after launch from Svobodny Cosmodrome in Western Siberia.
2000 Dec. 5: Start-1 booster successfully placed an Israeli-built EROS-A1 commercial imaging satellite into the sun-synchronous orbit after the launch from Svobodny Cosmodrome in Western Siberia.
2001 Feb. 20, 11:48:27 Moscow Time: Start-1 booster launched Odin research satellite from Svobodny Cosmodrome. The satellite separated from the fourth stage of the launch vehicle at 12:04:35 Moscow Time.
2006 April 25, 20:46 Moscow Summer Time (16:46 GMT): (planned time: 20:47:16) A converted ballistic missile delivered an Israeli remote-sensing satellite, after a blastoff from a launch site in the Russian Far East. The Start-1 launch vehicle, carrying the EROS-B1 satellite, blasted off from a mobile launcher deployed at the Svobodny.
The payload entered a nominal 508-kilometer circular polar orbit with the inclination 97.3 degrees toward the Equator approximately 16 minutes after the launch. The solar panels of the satellite had been successfully deployed some 30 seconds later.
The mission of the EROS-B1 received more attention from the media that those of its predecessor, in light of recent threats to Israel from the Iranian government. The world press emphasized that the Israeli government, as one of the major customer of the satellite's data, could use it to monitor Iranian military activities, including its nuclear and missile programs.
The launch was delayed from the fourth quarter of 2005 and March 21, 2005.
Text by Anatoly Zak; Last update: March 12, 2013
All rights reserved
A five-stage Start launcher blasts off on an ill-fated mission in 1995. Credit: MIT
Integration of the payload section, KGCh, with the Start-1 booster. Credit: SSC
The rollout of the Start-1 mobile launcher in Svobodny. Credit: MIT
The Star-1 launch vehicle lifts off from Svobodny Cosmodrome. Credit: MIT
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<urn:uuid:4f6e1692-e773-4f2f-930a-0dacf18fca4f>
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http://www.russianspaceweb.com/start.html
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en
| 0.897337 | 726 | 2.671875 | 3 |
About half a million chickens died on an egg farm near Roggen, Colorado at Moark Hatcheries. Three large buildings used to house hens were destroyed. No people were harmed, but the damage is extensive and most of the animals on the site lost their lives. The chickens killed in the fire produced about 250,000 eggs daily, about one eighth of Colorado’s egg production.
Firefighters not only had to contend with the blaze, but there were also limited water supplies nearby, so they had to transport water in to do their jobs. The egg farm supplies retail outlets such as Wal-Mart and others in the Denver area.
One of the leading causes of barn fires on smaller farms is heating equipment malfunctions or placement too close to flammable material. Portable heaters, heat lamps and box fans sometimes are used with the assumption they are suitable for agricultural settings, but that assumption can be false.
A woman who began tracking fires on farms said, “My original intent was to see what factors were involved – to find patterns. What I found through keeping this chart was that, in almost every instance, animals were dying in preventable fires, and the cost of prevention was very low when compared to economic disruptions. But, economics aside, the emotional toll suffered, not just by owners, but by the firefighters on scene who are subjected to the screams of the dying and the smell of death, can stay with them for the rest of their lives.”
Because of the tremendous density of animals compressed into relatively small spaces on factory farms, one can easily imagine any disaster like a fire, tornado or flood could cause a very large number of animals to perish or suffer.
Considering this very large egg farm did not have enough water close by to help firefighters, one wonders how many other factory farms are also lacking in water resources adequate enough to stop fires from killing huge numbers of animals packed into small spaces. Of course, there are many other issues associated with factory farming as well.
Image Credit: Public Domain
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.care2.com/greenliving/500000-chickens-perish-in-farm-fire.html
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en
| 0.980871 | 412 | 2.9375 | 3 |
Irritable bowel syndrome is a disease characterized by abnormal functioning of transit, which generally consists of alternating diarrhea with constipation, diffuse abdominal pain (cramps), sometimes the release of mucus.
Irritable bowel pathology is widespread in the population functionally. Irritable bowel disease is a functional disorder characterized by transit problems, consisting of constipation alternating with diarrhea, diffuse abdominal pain (usually in the form of cramps), sometimes the release of mucus.
Irritable colon was called a lot of synonyms, such as irritable bowel, nervous diarrhea, but perhaps the most suggestive name would be “unhappy colon” . Patients with irritable bowel usually consult many doctors, the internist, gastroenterologist and surgeon even, on one hand because of the fear of cancer, but also because of long evolution of the disease . Usually patients are concerned about disease, anxious, depressed or under stress, often working extended.
Anxiety neurosis, depression is common in these patients so that the doctor they will present a very detailed history of the disease, detailed, often dramatic. Fund may be constipation disease (related to the absence of fiber in the diet and inactivity), the appearance of stools with, diarrhea, which occur most often in emotional states, stress. Irritable colon is a functional disease, so organic lesions, detectable by laboratory techniques, are absent.
Not part of the picture: rectoragia (removal of red blood), anemia, weight loss.
- abdominal pain: common colicativ character, or abdominal discomfort, symptoms disappear during holiday relaxation;
- transit disorders: diarrhea alternating with constipation, morning diarrhea;
- emission of mucus without blood;
- frequent bloating, improved by gas emissions.
- anuscopy, Rectoscopy, colonoscopy, irigography – for exclusion of organic bowel pathology;
- gastroscopy – exclude gastric disorders;
- abdominal pelvic ultrasound – for pathology of the pancreas, gallbladder, genitals;
- Radiological assessment of small intestine or enterosopy – for organic pathology of small intestine.
- Anorectal and colorectal neoplasm;
- Colonic inflammatory disease (RUH, BC);
- Colonic diverticulosis and diverticulitis;
- Lactase deficiency;
- Functional dyspepsia.
1. Diet: avoid foods that cause symptoms, in case of constipation, high fiber diet + / – Forlax.
-Diarrhea: Smecta, Imodium.
-Antispasmodic: Spasmomen, Debrid, Ditecel, No-Spa, is seeking the most effective preparation for the patient.
-Sedative: hydroxyzine, Rudotel, psychotherapy.
Watch the clip with 10 recommendations for IBS:
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<urn:uuid:44056690-e926-4252-8483-8704b1337fc1>
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.bendomd.com/85-irritable-bowel-syndrome.html
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en
| 0.907155 | 598 | 2.90625 | 3 |
188.8.131.52 Water Mass Properties
Interior water masses, which are directly ventilated at the ocean surface, act to integrate highly variable surface changes in heat and freshwater, and could therefore provide indicators of global change (Stark et al., 2006). Some studies have attempted to investigate changes in three-dimensional water mass properties (Section 5.3). Sub-Antarctic Mode Water (SAMW) and the subtropical gyres have warmed in the Indian and Pacific basins since the 1960s, waters at high latitudes have freshened in the upper 500 m and salinity has increased in some of the subtropical gyres. These changes are consistent with an increase in meridional moisture flux over the oceans over the last 50 years leading to increased precipitation at high latitudes (Section 5.2.3; Wong et al., 1999) and a reduction in the difference between precipitation and evaporation at mid-latitudes (Section 5.6). This suggests that the ocean might integrate rainfall changes to produce detectable salinity changes. Boyer et al. (2005) estimated linear trends in salinity for the global ocean from 1955 to 1998 that indicate salinification in the Antarctic Polar Frontal Zone around 40°S and in the subtropical North Atlantic, and freshening in the sub-polar Atlantic (Figures 5.5 and 5.7). However, variations in other terms (e.g., ocean freshwater transport) may be contributing substantially to the observed salinity changes and have not been quantified.
An observed freshening of SAMW in the South Indian Ocean between the 1960s and 1990s has been shown to be consistent with anthropogenically forced simulations from HadCM3 (Banks et al., 2000) but care should be taken in interpreting sparse hydrographic data, since apparent trends could reflect natural variability or the aliased effect of changing observational coverage. Although SAMW was fresher along isopycnals in 1987 than in the 1960s, in 2002 the salinity was again near the 1960s values (Bindoff and McDougall, 2000; Bryden et al., 2003). An analysis of an ocean model forced by observed atmospheric fluxes and SSTs indicates that this is likely associated with natural variability (Murray et al., 2007), a result supported by an analysis of 20th-century simulations with HadCM3 which shows that it is not possible to reject the null hypothesis that the observed differences are due to internal variability (Stark et al., 2006), although this model does project a long-term freshening trend in the 21st century due to the large-scale response to surface heating and hydrological changes (Banks et al., 2000).
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CC-MAIN-2016-26
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http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch9s9-5-1-2.html
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| 0.919378 | 559 | 2.859375 | 3 |
The cold is the most common illness in the U.S. Catching a cold is such a fact of life that most people expect they'll get one or two every year. Although colds and flu infections usually are not considered serious illnesses, they are inconvenient and can disrupt our everyday lives. You may miss several work days each year because of colds and other upper respiratory illnesses. You may also miss additional work because you have to stay home with a child with a cold or the flu. The average adult has two to four colds a year; children have as many as 10.
Use Antibiotics the Right Way Many people believe antibiotics are a remedy or cure for almost any illness, but that is not true. According to NACCRAware, antibiotics can work very well in destroying and preventing certain bacteria from growing. However, antibiotics do not work on viruses, including the common cold, flu or typical seasonal related illnesses. Therefore, it is important to not treat these viruses with antibiotics.
Overuse and misuse of antibiotics is a great health concern. Using antibiotics for conditions that they do not treat are making people resistant. Once you take an antibiotic, your body starts to build an immunity - or resistance - to it. After too many doses, the antibiotic simply doesn't work anymore. This can be very dangerous if you develop a serious bacterial infection, such as pneumonia or staph infection (an infection that develops in open wounds), and the common antibiotics to treat it won't work.
When you become resistant to antibiotics, it affects you and others. Some diseases and infections once thought to be under control or wiped-out are now reappearing (and can be spread more easily) due to an increase in antibiotic resistance.
Antibiotics should only be used when they are necessary or when they can be effective. Recent data from the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) shows that upper respiratory illnesses account for 75 percent of all antibiotics prescribed by office-based physicians. In addition, more than 10 million courses of antibiotics are prescribed each year for viral conditions that do not benefit from antibiotics. Unfortunately, sometimes doctors feel pressure from parents who want an antibiotic to help their children who have a sore throat or severe cold to feel better quickly. Only your doctor can determine what kind of infection you or your children have and how to treat it.
Antibiotic resistance is now a leading campaign of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. The Get Smart: Know When Antibiotics Work is a national campaign to reduce the rate of the rise of antibiotic resistance. It helps by making you and your doctor aware of the increased dangers of using antibiotics for upper respiratory and viral infections.
How Not to Become Antibiotic Resistant The best way to prevent antibiotic resistance is to use antibiotics only when prescribed by your doctor and only when necessary. If a condition will go away on its own without antibiotics, it is recommended to wait it out.
Here are some other recommended practices: Do not take or give your children antibiotics for the cold, flu, coughs, or ear aches unless your doctor determines the symptoms are due to an infection caused by bacteria.
If you or your child get a cold, treat the symptoms but let the illness run its course. If your child is younger than 7 years old, check with your doctor before giving a cold medicine.
When you or your child take an antibiotic, take the full prescribed dosage. Do not skip doses. Do not stop taking it even when you or your child start to feel better or the symptoms go away.
Throw away any unused portions of the antibiotic when you are done taking the prescribed amounts.
Do not give antibiotics prescribed for you or your child to another person.
Do not demand antibiotics from your doctor when it is determined they will not help.
Getting a cold or flu or having a sore throat or ear infection is no fun. Children get cranky, weepy, and irritable. The best way to help your child feel better with these kinds of viral illnesses is to treat his or her symptoms:
Fever: Give plenty of liquids throughout the day. Ask your doctor if a fever reducer is needed.
Discomfort: Make sure your child is cool and comfortable. Room temperature should not be too hot. Use a humidifier if your child's nose is stuffy.
Sneezing, Coughing, Sore Throat: Have plenty of tissues ready. Give foods that are easy on the throat. Ask your doctor if it is okay to give your child over-the-counter medications for these symptoms.
We can't escape the fact that sooner or later we will come down with the cold or flu. Luckily, for most of us, it won't be serious. But when children get sick, we know it is a big deal for them. The best way to help your child with the cold or flu is to use common sense and know that in a few days the symptoms will get better.
Heidi Woodard is a resident of Jamestown, NY. She graduated from Jamestown Community College with honors, and earned an Associates degree in Social Sciences. She also graduated from SUNY Fredonia with highest honors earning a Bachelor’s degree in Social Work. She is currently employed with the Chautauqua Child Care Council a service of Chautauqua Opportunities, Inc.
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http://www.timesobserver.com/page/content.detail/id/522710/KEEPING-YOUR-FAMILY-FROM-BECOMING-ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT.html?nav=5108
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en
| 0.947333 | 1,090 | 3.296875 | 3 |
The most accurate thermometer in the known universe looks nothing like a thermometer. It is a copper vessel the size of a large cantaloupe, filled with ultrapure argon gas and studded with microphones and microwave antennas. The purpose of the gadget, which sits on the campus of the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) in Teddington, England, is not simply to measure temperature, however. Rather the device and others like it may allow scientists to completely overhaul the concept of temperature and recast it in terms of fundamental physics.
The plan rests on linking temperature to energy via a physical constant. Today the international standard temperature unit, the kelvin, is based on the properties of water, but scientists would like to bring it in line with other measurement units that have been liberated from the vagaries of the macro world. The second is now defined by the oscillations of a cesium atom; the meter relates to the speed of light in a vacuum. “It's bonkers that the kelvin doesn't directly relate temperature to energy,” says Michael de Podesta, who leads the research team.
The NPL device measures the Boltzmann constant, which links changes in energy to changes in temperature. De Podesta's team and its competitors hope to nail down the constant well enough to relate one kelvin to a certain number of joules of energy.
The new thermometer—technically an “acoustic resonator”—rings like a bell when the physicists feed certain sound frequencies into its microphones. From that sonic resonance, the researchers can determine the speed of sound within the gas-filled cavity and thus the average speed of the argon molecules—that is, their kinetic energy. In July, de Podesta's team reported in the journal Metrologia the most accurate measurement yet of the Boltzmann constant.
The current temperature definition makes use of water's phase changes. One key threshold is the so-called triple point, 273.16 kelvins, where water ice, liquid and vapor can coexist. In 1954 an international agreement defined the kelvin as 1/273.16 the difference between absolute zero and water's triple point.
The 1954 definition works well in general but begins to break down for extreme temperatures, such as those found within stars. “It only happened this way because people started measuring temperature long before they knew what it actually was, before temperature was known to just be atoms and molecules buzzing around,” de Podesta remarks. “Now that we know better and have the opportunity to correct it, we should.”
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<urn:uuid:e04ef190-7345-47cd-8f48-6af3d3b1d648>
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https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/its-time-to-modernize-the-antiquated-definition-of-temperature/
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For over a century, U.S. Postage stamps have been collected using a numbering system devised by the Scott Publishing Company. While comprehensive, its primary shortcoming is a lack of a hierarchical arrangement among the listed stamps. In other words, certain "whole numbers" in the Scott system represent entirely different issues (i.e., different denomination and/or face design) while other whole numbers signify an extremely minor and sometimes unintentional design anomaly due to such things as a stamp's position on a certain printing plate or the particular shade of ink mixed that day.
In many mid-19th century stamps, what most collectors would consider a minor variety is elevated to whole number status, leading to a lack of proportionality to the structure.
As an example, consider the one cent blue perforated Franklin stamp of 1857. The Scott Catalog lists no fewer than seven whole numbers for this stamp (18 through 24 inclusive) plus some letter suffixes and several different reliefs, types and plates within the whole numbers. Under the USD system, the government's one cent stamp of 1857-1860 is represented by No. 8, regardless of the completeness of the design elements at the edges resulting from different positions on different plates. For many collectors, one example of the type is sufficient. That is the basic premise behind the U.S. Design Numbering System.
The USD number is designed as neither a replacement nor a substitute for the Scott Numbering System. Countless millions of hours over the past century and a half have been devoted to researching every nuance of U.S. stamp production and design. For those whose interests lie in the hundreds of varieties, both major and minor, the Scott Numbering System will provide the basis for collecting for many years to come. However, for those interested in an overview, or cross section of U.S. philately, we believe that the U.S. Design Number will be of use in forming a design type set.
A collection based on the USD number system will make a truly interesting and extremely challenging set, particularly in high grade. It is hoped that this fresh approach to U.S. philately will open the door for thousands of new collectors as well as thousands of existing collectors to rediscover this fascinating and time-honored hobby.
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| 0.932868 | 467 | 3 | 3 |
To make food healthier, don't just cut the salt. Instead, try serving it with a knife as well.
The cutlery a person uses can alter the tastes they experience when eating, possibly making blander (and healthier) foods taste like the saltier (less healthy) variety, new research suggests.
For instance, cheese tastes saltier when eaten with a knife, and yogurt tastes denser and more expensive when eaten with a plastic spoon, according to a new study published today (June 25) in the journal Flavour.
"This thing that we've ignored for so long, the cutlery, in fact does have an impact on the food we eat," said study co-author Charles Spence, a psychologist at the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom.
The findings could one day help scientists tweak utensils to help people eat healthier, for example, by giving eaters the same salty sensation they get from processed foods, but with reduced salt. [9 Snack Foods: Healthy or Not?]
"The idea would be to use these cues to reduce the actual content of the unhealthy ingredients in a food by giving the psychological impression of saltiness or sweetness without the negative consequences," Spence told LiveScience.
A growing body of research suggests that people's enjoyment of food is related to many factors beyond a meal's actual taste.
A 2011 study found that white plates make food seem tastier, while another study found that hot chocolate tastes better in orange cups. And other research has shown that everything from the price on a bottle of wine to the size of a bowl can affect people's experience of foods.
To see how cutlery affected taste, Spence and his colleague Vanessa Harrar conducted three experiments. In the first, the researchers asked 35 participants to rate the expensiveness, sweetness and density of yogurt eaten with several plastic spoons, some of which were lighter weight than others.
The yogurt eaters rated food eaten from a lighter spoon as denser, more expensive and more enjoyable than yogurt eaten from heavy spoons.
In a second experiment, 30 participants rated yogurt eaten from different-colored spoons. Blue spoons seemed to make the pink yogurt taste saltier, whereas other colors didn't show a significant effect.
In the third experiment, 30 participants rated the saltiness of cheddar cheese eaten using a fork, a spoon, a toothpick or a knife. The cheese tasted saltiest when served on a knife.
It's not clear exactly why these trends occur.
But the findings could have implications for chefs, food scientists and cutlery makers hoping to subtly enhance the eating experience.
Several of the researchers' previous findings on cutlery and plates are being tested in cooking schools and restaurants, to see if they hold true outside the laboratory setting, Spence said.
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Submitted by Sammy Smith ([email protected])
The Southeast Region Archives, supported by your tax dollars, house diverse historical records collected by the government. They note on their website:
Records in the National Archives tell the story of southern families and communities, technological advances that changed lives, and social and economic forces that shaped the makeup of our society.
Most people go to the Archives to look up records and do research. I went there recently and looked at photographs and records of houses and farms purchased and destroyed to create an impounded lake in Tennessee. This project was done by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), which was chartered by Congress in 1933. The lakes were created primarily to reduce flooding and to enable power generation at the dams. They also became important recreational destinations, and improved opportunities for economic development.
Below is a photograph of a farm that was destroyed so the land could be flooded, I think to make Douglas Reservoir, near Dandridge, Tennessee.
The Douglas Dam was completed in 1943, and lies on the French Broad River, which is part of the Tennessee River drainage, which has nine TVA dams with hydroelectric plants. Hydropower constitutes only about 10% of the power TVA generates; other power sources are from fossil-fuel plants (60%) and nuclear plants (30%). Green power contributions are negligible. Hydroelectric facilities are integrated into the dams that impound the water, and use the power of the water flowing because of gravity from higher in the reservoir to the lower elevation below the dam to generate electricity. The water flows through a turbine as it falls, making the turbine move. This movement is converted into electricity. The TVA provides a drawing of this here.
The TVA cautions fisherfolk to eat smaller, younger fish and avoid the fatty flesh and skin to reduce exposure to toxins like PCBs, chlordane, DDT, dioxins, and mercury, which are mostly in the mud at the bottom of the reservoirs, rather than in the water.
Many families were uprooted when these dams and reservoirs were built. The government can legally take people’s land through laws pertaining to eminent domain, even if the owners do not consent. The government can do this if the land is converted to public use.
Eminent domain laws are a legal means for our country to balance the needs of all (public needs) against the rights of the few. In the USA, eminent domain was adopted from British laws extant at the time the Constitution was drafted in the late 1700s. However, our government cannot take lands (property) without just compensation, and only if it benefits the public good.
A family who loses their farm and lands so that a dam and reservoir can beconstructed suffers a great loss; however, a whole region that endures less flooding and has more and more inexpensive electricity enjoys considerable benefits. Nevertheless, balancing the good of all against the rights of few is tricky and difficult. Should the family receive the same money for their farm as they would if they sold it to another farmer or a neighbor? Should they receive more or less?
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There has never been a better time to make education systems smarter
School and higher education systems are straining under budget cuts. The demand for knowledge workers with specialized skills is growing by 11 percent a year. Many jobs will require lifelong training and a continuous updating of skills. And the education industry has grown increasingly complex and difficult to negotiate, as students pursue a variety of personal learning paths.
One of the greatest challenges lies in making our education technologies more efficient. For example, North America has over 15,000 individual school districts and more than 4,000 higher education institutions, most with their own goals and management processes. In China, many of the nearly 500,000 primary and middle schools are responsible for managing their own infrastructures. These redundancies have created tremendous inefficiencies, ballooning costs and silos of resources.
The good news is that advances in education technology —classroom solutions, analytics, early warning systems to identify at-risk students, cloud computing—can help our systems refresh outdated infrastructures with new functionality. They can become more interconnected, instrumented and intelligent. In a word, smarter. And it is already happening.
Top performers in science (OECD average: 500).
Finland - 563
Canada - 534
Estonia - 531
New Zealand - 530
Australia - 527
Netherlands - 525
Korea - 522
Slovenia - 519
Germany - 516
United Kingdom - 515
Czech Republic - 513
Switzerland - 512
Austia - 511
Belgium - 510
Ireland - 508
Hungary - 504
Sweden - 503
Poland - 498
Denmark - 496
France - 495
Iceland - 491
United States - 489
Slovak Republic - 488
Spain - 488
Norway - 487
Source: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) - Education at a Glance 2009.
The cost of education rose 42% in a decade (1995-2004) across OECD countries
With better management, measurement and processes, it is estimated effectiveness of school systems could be raised 22% at the existing spending levels
On a smarter planet, education systems on all levels can turn vast amounts of disparate data into usable information.
Using analytics, everything from student attendance to the energy use of a school building has a place in identifying targets for improvement and sharing of resources to enhance learning, spot troubling trends earlier, and instill a sense of common purpose in working toward goals.
Patterns for persistence
Students drop out of school for any number of reasons. The Hamilton County Department of Education uses analytics and advanced modeling tools to identify the diverse patterns of kids at risk, enabling earlier intervention to keep them on the right track and resulting in increased graduation rates throughout the system.
A framework for risk management
Along with great teaching and research, institutions need a solid framework of financial stability and resource protection. The University of California looked to IBM to implement an Enterprise Risk Management Information System to turn siloed data into reports about risk, ROI and loss management that have saved the university millions of dollars.
BYOD – Bring Your Own Device
Schools today are faced with students bringing in their own devices, be it smartphones, laptops or tablets. The BYOD—Bring Your Own Device phenomenon is here to stay. IT departments are looking for ways to manage it and teachers are developing methods to take advantage of it. Toronto Catholic District School Board is one of the many districts to embrace it.
A major for tomorrow's world
IBM is collaborating with more than 250 universities that offer degrees in Service Science, Management and Engineering (SSME). This new academic discipline, now available at schools in 50 countries, combines technology and business skills and focuses on complex service systems such as healthcare and transportation networks.
A series of conversations for a smarter planet
A new school of thought for a smarter planet
Our education systems are one of the great, enduring achievements of the 19th century. They were designed to prepare children for success in a burgeoning industrial economy, and they did their job well. But a 21st century services-and-knowledge-based economy has altered the landscape, and it requires different skills and ways of learning. If we hope to help our children achieve their potential—and realize the potential of a smarter planet—then school itself will have to get a lot smarter.
As a start, we can better integrate the collection of cottage industries that make up today's education "system." There are more than 15,000 local school districts in the United States delivering K-12 programs, and they face a conundrum. Local involvement is crucial, but local districts suffer from the inefficiency of separate operating systems, measurements and management processes, wasting precious resources. Developed countries, on average, spend nearly 4% of their GDP on education, and costs are rising—up 42% between 1995 and 2004, according to an OECD study. And the situation is similar no matter where you look. In China, there are nearly 500,000 primary and middle schools, each managing its own infrastructure.
A smarter education system would start by reducing waste and upgrading aging infrastructure—crucially important during an economic crisis, when funds are needed for improved instruction. But most importantly, smarter education will reshape learning not around administrative processes, but around the two key components of any education system: the student and the teacher.
Consider a town in Illinois, where educators are mining student data electronically—from academic records to information on student mobility and attendance. Or a Florida county with one of the largest school systems in the U.S., whose Teacher Workbench provides teachers with instructional resources linked to timely student data. This information will help teachers to identify what each student needs and thus individualize instruction to improve student achievement, while protecting confidentiality. Smarter systems also ensure that schools don't bear the education burden alone. They enable the inclusion of supporting organizations and communities—from colleges to health and social service agencies to families—transforming schools into a student-centered educational ecosystem.
In China, the Ministry of Education is expanding access and improving knowledge sharing through its open source "Blue Sky" e-learning platform, which has been used by more than 780,200 Chinese students and teachers since July 2006. The state of Brandenburg in Germany is harnessing Web-based tools that help teachers and other education experts across a widely dispersed region to connect systematically for the first time. In Broward County, Florida, parents can access a "virtual counselor" to track their children's attendance, assignments and progress. In Ohio, student data is feeding performance dashboards for teachers, helping them to share courseware and lesson plans. On the horizon is the opportunity to create education "clouds"—like the one North Carolina State University uses to provide computing power and IT tools to students and faculty for research, student learning and administration.
Despite intense fiscal pressures around the world, economic stimulus programs offer the opportunity to foster real innovation in the way education is delivered. Many regions, states and provinces are exploring new models, including shared service delivery for routine functions. And the savings that result can be invested in improved teacher compensation and new hiring in key areas such as math and science. Because in the end, the chief beneficiaries of smarter education must be those who teach and those who learn.
Let's build a smarter planet.
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You have already learned that medical doctors and veterinary doctors have a lot in common. Use the following links to learn more about the specific kinds of work some veterinarians perform with animals.
Research using these links to learn about careers in medicine and make a list of these careers and what they mean in your notebook. Be sure to leave spaces at the end of your list in case you find more careers later.
Now see how many veterinary careers you can find. List and define them in your notebook just like you did before. Challenge yourself to make the longest list you possibly can. Talk to your classmates about any new or unusual careers you find in your research.
- Purdue Veterinary Team
- Animal Careers
- Animal Jobs
- Jobs with Animals
- More Jobs with Animals
- Animal Career Guide
Think about similarities and differences between doctors and veterinarians.
Compare doctors and vets by creating a Venn diagram in your notebook. You will need this information to build a concept map with your class.
Well done! Now you may advance to your Next Task.
The project described is supported by a Science Education Partnership Award (SEPA) from the Office of Research Infrastructure Programs (ORIP), a component of the National Institutes of Health (NIH).
NIH . . . Turning Discovery Into Health
Its contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of ORIP or NIH.
The PVM Office of Engagement collaborates with Discovery Park's Discovery Learning Research Center, Purdue's College of Liberal Arts, Purdue's College of Agriculture, parents, schools, teachers, counselors, and communities to give P-12 students the skills and support they need for future success.
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| 0.920132 | 347 | 2.71875 | 3 |
If is the angle between a unit vector and a coordinate axis, then is the projection of that vector to that axis. Then Pythagoras theorem can be used to prove that the sum of squares of the coordinates of a unit vector is 1.
One way to prove the distance between two planes is to use the equation Cos(alpha_1)^2 + Cos(alpha_2)^2 + Cos(alpha_3)^2 = 1. In this equation Cos(alpha) is the angle between the normal to the plane and the (x,y,or z axis).
My main question is why is this equation (Cos(alpha_1)^2 + Cos(alpha_2)^2 + Cos(alpha_3)^2 = 1) true?
Thanks in advance.
I have attached a figure to illustrate the problem more clearly.
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| 0.923588 | 179 | 3.3125 | 3 |
Reviewing journal articles is an ideal way to learn more about a specific area of interest and how research is conducted. Knowing how to do this according to American Psychological Association (APA) standards helps prepare you to be a professional.
Begin With Citation
Start by citing the article according to APA style. Begin with the last name(s) and initial(s) of the author(s). This is followed by the year of publication in parentheses. The article name comes next, followed by the title of the journal (in italics), volume number (in italics) and issue number in parentheses. End with the page numbers.
Punctuate the citation as follows:
Shofner, W. P., & Chaney, M. (2013). Processing pitch in a nonhuman mammal (Chinchilla laniger). Journal of Comparative Psychology (italicized), 127 (italicized), (2). 142-153.
Text of Review
The body of your review varies according to the type of article and your instructor's requirements. You may have to include the intended audience, the research question, methodology, results, implications and your own assessment of how it relates to what you are studying.
- Photo Credit Ammentorp Photography/iStock/Getty Images
How to Write a College Article Review
A college article review is an essay in which a student critiques an academic article. More than a summary, an article review...
How to Write Critical Reviews of Journal Articles
Writing a critical review of an article published in a scholarly journal is a common assignment for students enrolled in a higher...
How to Cite a Review in APA Format
Readers should not confuse a "literature review" with a "review." Literature reviews provide detailed information on the latest published research on a...
How to Critique an Article in APA Format
Review the article for proper APA format.The article should display the following standard APA sections: Abstract, Introduction, Method, Study, Results and Discussion.
How to Cite Peer Reviewed Journal Articles
How to Write a Journal Article Review APA Style; ... For example: 20, 6. ... The American Psychological Association ...
How to Write a Summary & Review Essay on an Article
Writing a summary and review essay of an article strengthens a reader's critical thinking skills. It allows the reader to fully understand...
How to Write a Journal Entry in APA Format
How to Write a Journal in APA Format; How to Write a Journal Article Review APA Style; How to Cite a Journal...
How to Write a Journal Article
Writing for a professional journal is quite different from other types of professional writing. The publishers normally expect a particular style of...
Writing a Summary Paper in APA Style
How to Write an Executive Summary in APA Format. The American Psychological Association (APA) ... How to Write a Journal Article Review...
How to Write for Peer-Reviewed Journals
How to Write a Journal Article Review APA Style. A journal article review is a common assignment in college and graduate school....
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| 0.856167 | 634 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Evolution, second edition
Now in its second edition, Evolution is described by its publisher as "a comprehensive treatment of contemporary evolutionary biology that is directed toward an undergraduate audience. It addresses major themes — including the history of evolution, evolutionary processes, adaptation, and evolution as an explanatory framework — at levels of biological organization ranging from genomes to ecological communities. Throughout, the text emphasizes the interplay between theory and empirical tests of hypotheses, thus acquainting students with the process of science. Teachers and students will find the list of important concepts and terms in each chapter a helpful guide, and will appreciate the dynamic figures and lively photographs."
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| 0.951836 | 126 | 2.953125 | 3 |
(VAN DEN BUNDERE).
A Flemish theologian and controversialist, born of distinguished parents at Ghent in 1482; died there 8 January, 1557. He entered the Dominican Order in his native city about 1500, and after having made his religious profession was sent to Louvain to pursue his studies in philosophy and theology. He obtained the degree of Lector in Sacred Theology, and in 1517 returned to Ghent, where, until near the close of his life, he taught philosophy and theology. While occupied in teaching he filled the office of prior of the convent of Ghent three times (1529-35; 1550-53), and discharged the duties of General Inquisitor of the Diocese of Tournai. As inquisitor he was untiring in his efforts to check the spread of the errors that were being disseminated by Lutherans, Calvinists, and Mennonites ; but always used prudence in his dealings with heretics. Long training in the schools and the experience he had gained as the professor of theology fitted him especially well to explain and defend Catholic doctrine, and to detect and expose the errors of heretical teaching. While prior of the convent of Ghent for the first time, he formed a federation of religious orders in that city for the safeguarding of the faith of the people and of the preservation of the rights of the Church and the privileges of the orders. In recognition of his ability as a preacher and as a reward for his long labours in the pulpit a general chapter of his order conferred upon him the degree of Preacher General. Of his writings, which are nearly all of a polemical character, the most worthy of note are:
The Catholic Encyclopedia is the most comprehensive resource on Catholic teaching, history, and information ever gathered in all of human history. This easy-to-search online version was originally printed between 1907 and 1912 in fifteen hard copy volumes.
Designed to present its readers with the full body of Catholic teaching, the Encyclopedia contains not only precise statements of what the Church has defined, but also an impartial record of different views of acknowledged authority on all disputed questions, national, political or factional. In the determination of the truth the most recent and acknowledged scientific methods are employed, and the results of the latest research in theology, philosophy, history, apologetics, archaeology, and other sciences are given careful consideration.
No one who is interested in human history, past and present, can ignore the Catholic Church, either as an institution which has been the central figure in the civilized world for nearly two thousand years, decisively affecting its destinies, religious, literary, scientific, social and political, or as an existing power whose influence and activity extend to every part of the globe. In the past century the Church has grown both extensively and intensively among English-speaking peoples. Their living interests demand that they should have the means of informing themselves about this vast institution, which, whether they are Catholics or not, affects their fortunes and their destiny.
Copyright © Catholic Encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company New York, NY. Volume 1: 1907; Volume 2: 1907; Volume 3: 1908; Volume 4: 1908; Volume 5: 1909; Volume 6: 1909; Volume 7: 1910; Volume 8: 1910; Volume 9: 1910; Volume 10: 1911; Volume 11: - 1911; Volume 12: - 1911; Volume 13: - 1912; Volume 14: 1912; Volume 15: 1912
Catholic Online Catholic Encyclopedia Digital version Compiled and Copyright © Catholic Online
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| 0.96726 | 726 | 2.828125 | 3 |
Study Demonstrates Complex Cells Could Not Evolve from Bacteria
by Brian Thomas, M.S. *
One mystery that naturalists have yet to solve is how randomly shaped and distributed chemicals were organized, concentrated, and combined into the first living bacterial cell. The next great mystery is how eukaryotic cells—or cells with a nucleus—could have come from bacteria.
In their exploration of this key question, a pair of evolutionary biologists has unwittingly uncovered specific reasons why such cells could not have evolved from bacteria.
Eukaryotic cells are typically much larger than bacterial cells, have much more DNA (and much more of that DNA dedicated to self-regulation), and have compartments for the performance of important tasks like energy production. The biologists calculated that the energy costs of processing eukaryotic DNA require the presence of mitochondria, cellular structures that contain the instructions and tiny machinery to produce energy in cells.
In a study published in Nature, the authors asked, "If the compartmentalization of energy coupling within cells gives such a massive energetic advantage, why don't prokaryotes [tiny cells without nuclei] just compartmentalize themselves?"1 One possibility is that they simply can't. But the authors do not entertain that option, since it would close the door on naturalistic origins for cellular life.
The study's authors found that the total energy required to process eukaryotic DNA is far more than any bacterial system can produce. They therefore maintained that "mitochondria are prerequisite to [eukaryote] complexity."1 They further wrote:
The transition to complex life on Earth was a unique event that hinged on a bioenergetic jump afforded by spatially combinatorial relations between two cells and two genomes (endosymbiosis), rather than natural selection acting on mutations accumulated gradually among physically isolated prokaryotic individuals.1 (emphasis added)
In other words, the first eukaryotic cell must have had fully functioning mitochondria right from the beginning. "To exist at all, they have to have an interaction between these genomes," lead author Nick Lane said in an online mini-lecture.2
The "endosymbiosis" mentioned in the Nature paper is the evolutionary story offered to "explain" how the first mitochondria evolved. One bacterium (or archaebacterium) supposedly engulfed a smaller one. Then, the captured cell morphed into a mitochondrion, producing energy for its host and receiving nutrients in return.
Based on the study's observations of the energy required by all eukaryotic cells, how feasible is this story? The report unwittingly helped answer this question by mentioning some of the required specifications for eukaryotic cells. All of them must be met precisely or the whole cell would die. With each specification, the likelihood of it occurring by chance-based natural processes diminishes.
For example, the first eukaryote must have had a mitochondrial membrane of sufficient surface area. All known mitochondria have very convoluted and folded membranes to achieve this, unlike the bacterial membrane from which it supposedly evolved.
Further, Lane and co-author William Martin described how the very first mitochondrion had to contain just the right genes—and just the right gene density—to specify the manufacture of required proteins. Also, the new mitochondrion needed thousands of copies of those genes, with each copy placed close enough to the appropriate machinery so that energy could be produced fast enough to meet the cell's needs.
And the authors did not explore all the hurdles. Even though it has its own unique DNA, today's mitochondria rely on the cell's nuclear DNA to specify most of its required parts. What are the chances that just these genes migrated from the engulfed bacteria and were spliced into their host's nuclear DNA?
And what naturalistic explanation is there for the required complete set of regulatory communication signals and signal receivers that activate those genes, as well as the transportation of their new products to just the right destinations? Then there is the issue of that first cell couple being able to reproduce in tandem so that the next generation contained components from both the original cell and its new mitochondrion.
Thus, not only is there precious little evidence favoring endosymbiosis, but there is overwhelming evidence that refutes it.
Such a one-time event, wherein some bacterium instantly received a fully prepped mitochondrion, "is essentially an 'evolutionary miracle', assumed to have happened in the past, but never seen or duplicated in the present."3 Since the observable structures in eukaryotic cells cannot reasonably be explained through any natural cause, they therefore clearly demand a supernatural origin.
- Lane, N. and W. Martin. 2010. The energetics of genome complexity. Nature. 467 (7318): 929-934.
- Mini-lecture: The origins of complex life. University College London online video. Posted on ucl.ac.uk October 22, 2010, accessed October 25, 2010.
- Demick, D. 2006. Mitochondria―created to energize us. Journal of Creation. 20 (3): 11.
* Mr. Thomas is Science Writer at the Institute for Creation Research.
Article posted on October 28, 2010.
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Kung fu fighting comes in many styles. The best known is Shaolin kung fu, the oldest form and the basis of fighting styles in the more modern schools, such as Wing Chun. The Shaolin monks used the natural world of animals as the source of their inspiration for combat stance and strike styles.
Anyone who practices a Chinese martial art, whether it is the more gentle qi gong and tai chi, or the more energetic kung fu, will notice that all these forms base moves and strikes on animals. Shaolin is the oldest, and probably best known, fighting style. The Shaolin temple monks during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) devised 170 moves based on the combat behavior and movements of the tiger, dragon, leopard, snake and white crane. Original kung fu masters studied these and devised fighting movements based on each of them. Students learn each animal's style and how to combine them. Other kung fu schools generally use fighting styles based on combinations of the Shaolin animal stances and strike methods.
For example, Wing Chun kung fu is a fast style requiring little force to block your opponent's strikes. It uses a combination of snake and white crane fighting stances. The snake tenses itself ready to strike, and the kung fu student must learn the same total body awareness before striking an opponent with the four-finger "snake hand" that strikes like a spear. As the snake is low to the ground, students learn grappling techniques with this style. The white crane style is an elegant form that uses long range blows that intercept the attacker without getting into close body contact.
Hung Gar and Dragon Style
Hung Gar kung fu bases itself on the Shaolin tiger fighting style.The tiger totally relaxes his muscles before using their power to spring silently on an opponent. It is an energetic, physical style using close-quarter fighting techniques, so students go through a lot of vigorous physical training. The main weapon is the tiger claw, in which you form your hands into claw shapes and use circular arm motions before you attack, imitating a tiger. The dragon is a mythical beast highly revered in Chinese culture. Learning this style is considered more a form of spiritual training than the others. It uses a combination of hard and soft techniques combined with floating and sinking body movements. The dragon claw is considered one of the deadliest hand weapons, and allows you to grab your opponent and pull him to the ground.
Monkey and Praying Mantis
The monkey style is one of the later animal styles that appeared independently of the Shaolin school. Developed during the mid-1800s by an imprisoned Chinese man who observed monkeys from his cell, the monkey style uses hopping and squatting movements defensive movements. The praying mantis style dates from around the 1600s. Again the style developed from a kung fu master's observation of the animal's combat style. The praying mantis school uses a range of combat techniques depending on which branch of this martial art style a school uses. However, one feature that connects all the branches is the technique of directing energy at your opponent from the waist level, whether your stance is low or more upright.
- Jupiterimages/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
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Brown vs. Topeka Board of Education timeline
1896 -- The "separate but equal" doctrine was established in Plessy vs. Ferguson, which stated that segregation didn't conflict with the 14th Amendment as long as separate facilities for blacks were "equal" to those of whites.
February 1951 -- Topeka lawyers John, Charles and Elisha Scott filed suit on behalf of the Rev. Oliver Brown and 12 other black parents in a federal district court in Topeka.
Linda Brown, who was selected to represent the class action suit, wanted to attend Sumner Elementary School, an all-white school, which was only five blocks from her home. Instead, she was required to attend Monroe, an all-black school, which was 20 blocks from her home.
The U.S. District Court in Topeka, following Plessy vs. Ferguson, ruled schools attended by black children in Topeka were equal in all respects to those attended by white children. The case was appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
May 17, 1954 -- The U.S. Supreme Court handed down a unanimous opinion written by Chief Justice Earl Warren, which ruled "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," and the "separate but equal" doctrine had "no place" in public education.
May 31, 1955 -- The U.S. Supreme Court handed down its final order requiring dismantlement "with all deliberate speed" of separate school systems for black children in the suit, and the case was sent back to the U.S. District Court for implementation.
1955 -- The U.S. District Court concluded desegregation hadn't been accomplished in the Topeka schools, but a good-faith effort had been made. The plan adopted by the Topeka Board of Education was approved as a good-faith beginning to complete desegregation.
1979 -- Attorney Rich Jones persuaded Linda Brown -- now with her own children in Topeka schools -- to be a plaintiff in a resurrected version of Brown, which still has the same title. She sued the school district for not following through on desegregation.
1987 -- Federal Judge Richard Rogers sided with the school district that it couldn't control where people live in a neighborhood school system. He found "there is no illegal, intentional, systematic or residual separation of races" in Topeka Public Schools. The decision was was appealed by the plaintiffs to the 10th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in Denver.
1989 -- A three-judge panel of the 10th Circuit reversed Rogers on 2-1 vote, finding that the vestiges of segregation remained with respect to student and staff assignment.
1990 -- Topeka Unified School District 501 filed a request with the U.S. Supreme Court, seeking review of the Circuit Court ruling.
April 1992 -- The U.S. Supreme Court ordered the 10th Circuit to reconsider its decision based on two other recently decided desegregation cases -- DeKalb County, Ga., and Oklahoma City schools.
October 1992 -- The 10th Circuit upheld its previous decision.
January 1993 -- USD 501 asked the U.S. Supreme Court to review the case.
June 1993 -- The U.S. Supreme Court declined to review, allowing the Circuit Court's decision to stand.
July 25, 1994 -- Judge Rogers approved the USD 501 desegregation plan, which included some boundary changes, a transfer program to enhance racial balance at the receiving school, placing English as a Second Language children at four elementary schools and one middle school with high-white percentages to balance the numbers, and construction of three new schools.
Feb. 21, 1995 -- Judge Rogers awarded $521,571.97 in fees to plaintiff's attorneys for nearly 15 years of litigation. Taxpayers foot the bill with a special levy, which is allowed under Kansas law because it is part of a court judgment.
Nov. 8, 1995 -- USD 501 patrons approved the first bond issue in more than 30 years to fund three new elementary schools, two of them magnet schools. The $19.5 million bond issue passed by a margin of more than 2-1.
September 1996 -- Topeka's three new schools opened. Enrollment counts later that month showed they met the integration plans. USD 501's six middle schools and three high schools had met court standards of racial balance since the fall of 1994. But USD 501 had opened each school year since the fall of 1993 with several elementary schools out of balance. Students and staff remain racially balanced in fall 1998.
-- Heather Hollingsworth/The Capital-Journal
Copyright 1998 The Topeka Capital-Journal
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|Student Learning Outcomes -|
- Demonstrate proper equipment manipulation and positioning criteria for selected radiographic procedures, applying appropriate patient care and radiation protection principles in the clinical setting.
- Perform image evaluation, which includes anatomy and pathology identification for various radiographic procedures.
|Description - |
|Third of three courses that includes clinical participation and application of basic positioning, patient care, equipment manipulation, radiation protection and image analysis. Emphasis on radiographic techniques and positioning in trauma radiology. Intended for students in the Radiologic Technology Program; enrollment is limited to students accepted in the program.|
|Course Objectives - |
|The student will be able to: |
- Demonstrate accuracy in radiation protection for the patient, personnel, and self.
- Exhibit knowledge, understanding, and dexterity in the proper use of radiographic equipment.
- Adhere to the Program's standards of attendance, punctuality, and dependability.
- Conduct themselves in a professional manner with co-workers, the public, and other hospital staff.
- Apply theory to practice by exhibiting ongoing, satisfactory job performance skills.
- Select proper technical factors for radiographic procedures on an average patient.
- Exhibit proper positioning skills as outlined by department protocol.
- Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of various nursing procedures and basic patient care.
- Demonstrate competence on radiographic procedures as outlined in the Clinical Education Manual.
- Apply principles, radiographic techniques and positioning in trauma radiology.
|Special Facilities and/or Equipment - |
|Rotation to a clinical affiliate with energized x-ray unit. |
Laptop for viewing digital teaching file in the clinical setting.
|Course Content (Body of knowledge) - |
- Radiation Protection (Lab)
- Closing doors during procedures and exposures.
- Shielding all patients.
- Collimating to image receptor size and/or part size.
- Protecting self and others from irradiation by wearing aprons, gloves, and dosimeter.
- Keeping repeats to a minimum.
- Patient pregnancy status.
- Equipment (Lab)
- Competency and proficiency with equipment.
- Safety precautions
- Effective manipulation of control panel.
- Punctuality and dependability (Lab)
- Punctuality in reporting to the room at the start of a shift; being in assigned room and ready for patient at least 5 minutes before start of shift.
- Minimum loss of time due to absenteeism.
- Taking proper length of time for breaks according to department policy.
- Properly notifying the department in case of absence or tardiness.
- Communicating whereabouts appropriately.
- Co-Worker, Hospital Relationships (Lab)
- Being tactful and courteous with staff and others.
- Taking the initiative and helping other staff members.
- Working as a team with the technologist.
- Accepting constructive criticism.
- Conducting oneself in a professional manner.
- Adhering to dress code.
- Communicating effectively and following instructions.
- Contributing to a pleasant work environment.
- Job Performance (Lab)
- Marking all radiographs according to department protocol.
- Planning and organizing work efficiently
- Being alert and interested in what is happening in the room and asking pertinent questions.
- Reading and understanding the requisition and properly identifying the patient.
- Maintaining a neat, clean, and well-stocked room
- Communicating effectively.
- Following verbal instructions with multiple steps.
- Making effective use of free time.
- Completing the exam in a reasonable amount of time.
- Demonstrating proper ethical behavior
- Technical Factors (Lab)
- Setting the control panel accurately for an exposure.
- Understanding how various mA, kV, time, and distance factors effect the radiographic image.
- Being able to differentiate between phototiming and manual technique.
- Checking control panel before exposure.
- Positioning (Lab)
- Knowing department routines for exams stated in objectives.
- Knowing specific centering for each part radiographed including angulation of the x-ray tube and body part.
- Positioning the patient carefully and accurately; using proper immobilization.
- Identifying basic anatomy and critiquing images.
- Handling patients gently when positioning, using concise instructions, and watching patient during breathing instructions.
- Patient Care and Nursing Procedures (Lab)
- Communicating effectively with the patient.
- Explaining exam to the patient.
- Using a safe approach when transferring patients.
- Knowing the location of emergency equipment and supplies.
- Proper handling of a patient with IV's and catheters.
- Applying surgical and medical asepsis when drawing up syringes and working around a sterile field.
- Completing the exam in a reasonable amount of time.
- Radiologic Procedures Competency (Lab)
- Defined by the Clinical Education Manual
- Trauma Radiology (Lab)
- Positioning techniques
- Anatomy considerations
|Methods of Evaluation - |
|Clinical performance evaluation |
|Representative Text(s) - |
|Foothill College (RT): Clinical Education Competency Manual. |
Foothill College (RT): Student Handbook.
Foothill College (RT): Clinical Competency Handbook
Bontrager, Kenneth. Textbook of Radiographic Positioning and Related Anatomy. 8th edition, St. Louis, Missouri: C. V. Mosby, 2013.
|Disciplines - |
|Radiologic Technology |
|Method of Instruction - |
|Methods of instruction may include, but are not limited to discussion, cooperative learning exercises, and demonstration. |
|Lab Content - |
- Radiologic Technology clinical practice.
- Radiation protection
- Equipment operation
- Image production
- Image evaluation
- Radiographic procedures and
- Patient care in a clinical setting.
|Types and/or Examples of Required Reading, Writing and Outside of Class Assignments - |
- Weekly Image Analysis Quizzes
- Identify Radiographic Anatomy
- Evaluate positioning errors
- Formulate options to correct errors
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The United States is launching an effort to save some of its busiest workers, namely honey bees. And Hawaii has a stake in it as well.
President Obama created a task force on Friday to address the issue of rapidly diminishing honey bees and other pollinators.
Honey bees pollinate fruit, nuts and vegetables, and are crucial for the nation’s food industry.
They have declined sharply in recent years due to various factors, including pesticides, mite infestations and loss of genetic diversity.
And it’s the varroa mite, in particular, that’s a risk to Hawaii’s honey bees.
According to the University of Hawaii Honeybee Project, honey bees were introduced to the islands back in the 1850s, and a thriving beekeeping industry has developed from that.
Due to geographical isolation, the bees in Hawaii have been relatively free of pest and diseases which have spread throughout the mainland.
But in early April 2007, a Manoa beekeeper reported what he suspected was a varroa mite infestation. It was subsequently confirmed by the Hawaii Department of Agriculture and surveys detected the mite around Oahu in managed and feral hives. In August of 2008, the mite was detected on Hawaii island in a swarm trap located near Hilo Bay.
The varroa mite is one of the most serious pests of honey bees and it has been associated with the spread of viral diseases and the decline of honey bee colonies in the mainland.
The number of managed honey bee colonies in the United States fell sharply from 6 million beehives in 1947 to 2.5 million today, according to the White House.
Obama said the Environmental Protection Agency and United States Department of Agriculture will spearhead an effort to determine why honey bees, monarch butterflies and other pollinators are dwindling and find ways to boost their conservation.
In addition, Obama’s budget for next year recommends about $50 million for multiple agencies to help boost research, increase the number of acres dedicated to pollinators’ conservation programs and boost funding for research on pollinator losses.
“Pollination is integral to food security in the United States,” a statement from the White House said. “Honey bees enable the production of at least 90 commercially grown crops in North America. Globally, 87 of the leading 115 food crops evaluated are dependent on animal pollinators.”
During pollination, insects, birds, butterflies and bats transfer pollen between plants, which allows them to make seeds and reproduce.
In addition to food sustainability, honey bees boost the economy.
“Pollinators contribute more than $24 billion to the United States economy, of which honey bees account for more than $15 billion through their vital role in keeping fruits, nuts, and vegetables in our diets,” the White House said.
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Consumption is the most important driver of economic growth, but consumption has to be in large part funded from current income, and to the extent that it is funded from borrowing, and thus future income, the ability to repay needs to be considered in the context of risk to future income.
In addition, there is a limit to how long a person can work, and thus a limit to income from employment. Savings for retirement needs to inform the consumption / saving decision in prior years. Returns on investment are an important factor in this estimation. State or employee pension schemes are also factors.
Disregarding or miscalculating any of the above can lead to financial difficulties. Each household needs to consider the above in light of their own circumstances and expectations for the future.
There is therefore no single propensity to consume that is appropriate to all households. Economists who speak of the overly high savings rates in China and the acutely low savings rates in the US are talking about aggregates, and even then, speak in a context which may be misguided or at best outdated, in view of the levels of debt that have accumulated in the world today.
How much consumption is enough or too little? There is the consumers' point of view and there is the producers' point of view. Insufficient consumption from the producers' point of view means insufficient demand for their product. This may seem self serving but is in fact not. Insufficient demand leads to higher unemployment which has implications for households' income assumptions and thus funding ability. Households' consumption decisions impact their own income and wealth through a feedback loop, indirectly, at the aggregate level.
So consumption and employment are circular and it is not very useful to try to determine the 'right' level of consumption, within the framework of economics.
We should focus on happiness instead and consumption only in the context of happiness. Consumption is an intermediate measure, the primary metric is this ill defined, elusive concept of happiness. This takes us away from the realm of economics.
Generally, higher incomes don't translate to greater happiness. Human beings are highly adaptable, and quickly adapt to improved financial circumstances by raising their ambitions. They are also more sensitive to relative wealth than they are to absolute wealth and tend to compare themselves to their fellow humans.
As a species we are a competitive, envious, dissatisfied lot. As the economy continues to languish, some humans will adapt by adjusting their expectations and ambitions to suit a less extravagant future. Others will react by being less cooperative, more selfish, more competitive and more ambitious. On aggregate, as a species, the natural, limbic tendency is the negative reaction. Trade wars, protectionism, mercantilism, and conflict become more likely.
The alternative will take work. Our track record as a species is not reassuring.
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| 0.969096 | 569 | 2.671875 | 3 |
Dr. William Silkworth (1873 – 1951) was the Medical Director at the Towns Hospital and treated Bill W and other early members of AA. He was the first 20th century physician to advocate that alcoholism is an illness, rather than a vice or moral failing. He, probably more than anyone else, is responsible for Step 1 of the 12 Steps (The Origins of the 12 Steps). He also wrote “The Doctor’s Opinion” in Alcoholics Anonymous. This article was first published in 1947 in the AA Grapevine.
Doctor Calls “Slip” More Normal Than Alcoholic
By Dr. William Silkworth
THE mystery of slips is not so deep as may appear. While it does seem odd that an alcoholic who has restored himself to a dignified place among his fellow-men, and continued dry for years, should suddenly throw all his happiness overboard and find himself again in mortal peril of drowning in liquor – often the reason is very simple.
People are inclined to say: “There is something peculiar about alcoholics. They may seem to be well, yet at any moment they may turn back to their old ways. You can never be sure!”
This is largely twaddle. The alcoholic is a sick person. Under the techniques of Alcoholics Anonymous he gets well, that is to say, his disease is arrested. There is nothing unpredictable about him any more than there is anything weird about a person who has arrested diabetes.
Let’s get it clear, once and for all, that alcoholics are human beings just like other human beings – then we can safeguard ourselves intelligently against most of the slips.
Both in professional and lay circles, there is a tendency to label everything that an alcoholic may do as “alcoholic behavior.” The truth is, it is simply human nature!
It is very wrong to consider many of the personality traits observed in liquor addicts as peculiar to the alcoholic. Emotional and mental quirks are classified as symptoms of alcoholism merely because alcoholics have them – yet those same quirks can be found among nonalcoholics, too. Actually they are symptoms of mankind!
Of course, the alcoholic himself tends to think of himself as different; someone special, with unique tendencies and reactions. Many psychiatrists, doctors and therapists carry the same idea to extremes in their analyses and treatment of alcoholics. Sometimes they make a complicated mystery of a condition which is found in all human beings, whether they drink whiskey or buttermilk.
The patient must have full knowledge of his condition, keep in mind the facts of his case and the nature of his disease and follow directions.
To be sure, alcoholism like every other disease does manifest itself in some unique ways. It does have a number of baffling peculiarities which differ from all other diseases. At the same time, many of the symptoms and much of the behavior of alcoholism are closely paralleled and even duplicated in other diseases.
The alcoholic “slip,” as it is known in Alcoholics Anonymous, furnishes a perfect example of how human nature can be mistaken for alcoholic behavior.
The “slip” is a relapse! It is a relapse that occurs after the alcoholic has stopped drinking and started on the AA program of recovery. “Slips” usually occur in the early stages of the alcoholic’s AA indoctrination, before he has had time to learn enough of the AA technique and AA philosophy to give him solid footing. But “slips” may also occur after an alcoholic has been a member of AA for many months, or even several years, and it is in this kind, above all, that one finds a marked similarity between the alcoholic’s behavior and “normal” victims of other diseases.
No one is startled by the fact that relapses are not uncommon among arrested tubercular patients. But here is a startling fact – the cause is often the same as the cause which leads to “slips” for the alcoholic. It happens this way:
When a tubercular patient recovers sufficiently to be released from the sanitarium, the doctor gives him careful directions for the way he is to live when he gets home. He must be in bed every night by, say, 8 o’clock. He must drink plenty of milk. He must refrain from smoking. He must obey other stringent rules.
For the first several months, perhaps for several years the patient follows directions. But as his strength increases and he feels fully recovered, he becomes slack. There may come the night when he decides he can stay up until 10 p.m. When he does this, nothing untoward happens. The next day he still feels good. He does it again. Soon he is disregarding the directions given him when he left the sanitarium. Eventually he has a relapse!
The same tragedy can be found in cardiac cases. After the heart attack, the patient is put on a strict rest schedule. Frightened, he naturally follows directions obediently for a long time. He, too, goes to bed early, avoids exercise such as walking up stairs, quits smoking and leads a Spartan life. Eventually, though, there comes a day after he has been feeling good for months, or several years, when he feels he has regained his strength and has also recovered from his fright. If the elevator is out of repair one day, he walks up the three flights of stairs. Or, he decides to go to a party – or do just a little smoking – or take a cocktail or two. If no serious after-effects follow the first departure from the rigorous schedule prescribed he may try it again, until he suffers a relapse.
In both cardiac and the tubercular cases, the acts which led to the relapses were preceded by wrong thinking. The patient in each case rationalized himself out of a sense of his own perilous reality. He deliberately turned away from this knowledge of the fact he had been the victim of a serious disease. He grew overconfident. He decided he didn’t have to follow directions.
Now that is precisely what happens with the alcoholic – the arrested alcoholic, or the alcoholic in AA – who has a “slip.” Obviously he decides again to take a drink sometime before he actually takes it. He starts thinking wrong before he actually embarks on the course that leads to a “slip.”
There is no more reason to charge the “slip” to alcoholic behavior than there is to lay a tubercular relapse to tubercular behavior or a second heart attack to cardiac behavior.
The alcoholic “slip” is not a symptom of a psychotic condition. There’s nothing “screwy” about it at all. The patient simply didn’t follow directions.
And that’s human nature! It’s life! It’s happening all the time, not merely among alcoholics but among all kinds of people.
The preventative is plain. The patient must have full knowledge of his condition, keep in mind the facts of his case and the nature of his disease and follow directions.
For the alcoholic, AA offers the directions. A vital factor, or ingredient, of the preventative, especially for the alcoholic, is sustained emotion. The alcoholic who learns some of the technique or the mechanics of AA but misses the philosophy or the spirit may get tired of following directions – not because he is alcoholic but because he is human. Rules and regulations irk almost anyone, because they are restraining, prohibitive, negative. The philosophy of AA, however, is positive and provides ample sustained emotion – a sustained desire to follow directions voluntarily.
In any event, the psychology of the alcoholic is not as different as some people try to make it. The disease has certain physical differences, yes, and the alcoholic has problems peculiar to him, perhaps, in that he has been put on the defensive and consequently has developed nervous frustrations. But, in many instances, there is no more reason to be talking about “the alcoholic mind” than there is to try to describe something called “the cardiac mind” or “the t.b. mind.”
I think we’ll help the alcoholic more if we can first recognize that he is primarily a human being – afflicted with human nature!
Copyright © The AA Grapevine Inc. January 1947. Reprinted with permission.
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By Dale OBrien | January 3, 2011
Here’s a belated offering toward understanding the recent, very rare, total lunar eclipse, occurring just hours before the winter solstice and widely visible across North America. Although astrologers tend to focus on upcoming astrological events, particularly at the beginning of the calendar year, the close proximity of the lunar eclipse to the winter solstice suggests a great and long-lasting significance to this celestial event. This piece deals with an analysis of the zodiacal degree imagery for that eclipse.
A Matter of Degree
In 1925 Elsie Wheeler, in collaboration with astrologer Marc Edmund Jones, psychically derived images for each of the degrees of the zodiac. From that time until the present, astrologers have studied the images and commented upon them extensively, including the wonderful work of Australia’s Lynda Hill. The description of the degree image that follows comes from Jones’s own notation of what Elsie Wheeler clairvoyantly “saw” as quoted in Lynda Hill’s book, The Sabian Symbols As An Oracle. (1) These images provide amazing insight into personal charts, but also into any astrological chart, including the recent momentous lunar eclipse.
Ideally, to understand a lunar eclipse via degree image analysis, we would look not only at the degree of the eclipsed Moon, but the opposite degree where the Sun was illuminating this Moon. Since space does not allow that here, we will only look at the most important “Sabian” degree, that of the eclipsed Moon. The 30º Gemini image is “a parade of bathing beauties before large beach crowds.” What might this odd image tell us about 2010 and the astrological year that began just hours later at the winter solstice?
Let’s look at this particular lunar eclipse image within the social context, time, and place from which the symbols “emerged.” Elsie Wheeler received the Sabian symbol images in America, where she lived, in 1925; the cultural milieu of the United States in the early 1920s is a kind of backdrop to the symbols. The “bathing beauties” of the early to mid 1920s were the contestants in the recently created Miss America contest, based in Atlantic City, New Jersey, in September 1920. (2)
At the time, this contest was a highly controversial national issue and a major media event. Prudish, outraged women’s groups and equally outraged conservative, male religious and political leaders, opposed the event, adamant that such public exposure and media attention was a bad thing. On the other side of the issue were various newspapers, promoters, a large portion of the general public, numerous young female contestants and finalists, and a controversial female swimsuit designer. The women in favor of the contest saw it as a unique opportunity for fame and fortune in a male-dominated economy. Since the contest had both a “professional” and “amateur” division, there was significant opportunity for recognition for the typically little known “ordinary” female folk.
Over fifty major U.S. newspapers, attempting to increase circulation, promoted local contests to choose representatives for the national contest. Miss America contestants were judged, of course, on beauty, but also on intelligence, talent, personality, healthiness, and fitness. The judges included artists, such as Norman Rockwell. These judges had a fifty percent say in picking the winner; in-person public opinion delivered the other fifty percent of the decision. In 1923 alone, over 300,000 people ventured to see the contestants and presumably have their voices heard. In 1923 the results were aired on national radio, which was the preeminent media of the time. Some successful contestants moved on to fame and fortune, and various artists shared the images of contest participants in photography, film, and sculpture. Controversy over the contest continued throughout the 1920s, with adversaries even shutting down the event in 1928. However, with time, the annual contest became a widely accepted American institution, just as early contest judge Norman Rockwell became an American icon.
The main controversy regarding the contest involved the public exposure of that which had previously been hidden versus those who wanted “cover-ups,” or wanted the whole thing to simply stop happening and be forgotten. However, ultimately the ongoing “revelations” did not stop what would soon become an accepted part of modern American culture.
Applying This Degree Analysis to the Lunar Eclipse of December 2010
The fine art of astrology involves, in part, the synthesis of a particular planet’s nature in the unique context of celestial place, i.e., its zodiacal sign and degree. Therefore, for example, brightly beautiful Venus on 30º degree of Gemini has quite a different expression than the eclipsed Moon on the same degree. Astrology, as an art, tells us that that which is visually obvious is also symbolically obvious. The lunar eclipse shows bright Moonlight turning dark, even blood red, before returning again to brightness. In this case, all of this occurs just hours before the winter solstice — an extremely rare occurrence.
Each lunar month, the Moon’s light emerges from the darkness of the previous New Moon and grows in light toward the maximum of the Full Moon. At a lunar eclipse, however, that full light will darken, dim, and become “off color.” Knowing this, as astrological detectives, we look to see what captured collective attention from the time of the New Moon (December 5) to the Full Moon lunar eclipse (December 21) for correlation of an issue involving exposure of multiple dark lit facts about people, with an atmosphere of controversy and significant media attention. Since the eclipse was (weather permitting) visible over the first 48 states, we are emphasizing stories involving the United States.
Obviously, for December 2010 (and beyond!), we are looking at the WikiLeaks story, including WikiLeaks principle Julian Assange being involved in a sexual scandal the included the issue of the purportedly forced removal of a woman’s clothing — an issue of exposure. Even more importantly, approximately the first 10% of the WikiLeaks information discloses the murder of innocents, widespread, enormous corruption, and other dark revelations.
Synthesizing the astrology here, the expected sequence is as follows: At first, some of these WikiLeaks revelations are “brought to light” like the fully illuminated Moon before the lunar eclipse, then the revelations are “cast in a dark light” analogous to the Earth’s shadow creating the eclipse. The nature of a lunar eclipse, especially on this particular degree, implies that WikiLeaks and/or similar revelations are likely to emerge in a bright light.
This particular Sabian symbol does not tell us one way or the other about what will happen to the man Julian Assange. However, the lunar eclipse here strongly implies that WikiLeaks (or similar) revelations are not going to go away, and after early strife, their truth is likely to be seen in “a good light” by the general public. Various contemporary artists may very well aid their vindication. For instance, documentary maker/celebrity Michael Moore has already helped with Assange’s bail.
A Tough Act to Follow: Winter Solstice 2010 Upstaged
Every year between 1639 and 2009, no celestial event in December upstaged the significance of the winter solstice. It’s quite a different story in 2010, since the just-eclipsed Moon’s dramatic “show” grabbed our attention from the annual new beginning of the winter solstice. There has been nothing like December 2010 since December 1638, when there was a total lunar eclipse on the same degree, just before winter solstice. (The comparison of then and now is a story in itself. Look for another TMA blog about this soon.)
If there is anything to this Sabian symbol analysis, unprecedented transparent truth will ultimately prevail. Peace in our lifetime? Perhaps. If so, this Sabian’s story implies not now, and probably not right away. But if the U.S. government and other world leaders ever do become peace-oriented, this Sabian symbol implies that we’ll likely have WikiLeaks to thank, as controversial as it may be to write this so soon after this eclipse.
(1) The Sabian Symbols As An Oracle, Lynda Hill, first edition 1995, A White Horse Book, Avalon, Australia, sabiansymbols.com
Dale O’Brien has been a full-time astrologer since 1991 and a member of ISAR (C.A.P.), AFAN, and NCGR, a Jim Lewis-trained Certified Astro*Carto*Graphy Interpreter. His writings have appeared in The Mountain Astrologer, From Here to There (An Astrologer’s Guide to Astromapping), and elsewhere. Dale has taught astrology at all levels and has presented, conventionally and experientially, for UAC, ISAR, NCGR, and elsewhere, as well as on radio. He is also trained as a Dream Tender. Dale lives in Eugene, Oregon.
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by James O’Hanlon
A wet winter, a dry spring
A bloody summer, and no King
Irish prophecy for 1798
The United Irishmen rebellion of 1798 was a defining moment in the political history of Ireland. Far from liberating Ireland or uniting Irishmen, it precipitated the end of the Irish Parliament and led to the Act of Union of 1801. Its degeneration into a peasant revolt, a mix of local score settling and undefined aims, reinforced the mistrust and divisions between Planter and Gael. Never again would Protestants and Catholics seek common political cause; divisions, still maintained to this day, were set in stone.
The Rebellion claimed 25,000 lives, of which 2,000 were on the government side. It was less a cohesive rising, more a fragmented series of skirmishes and uncoordinated attacks. It was less a struggle between a subjugated Hibernia and a perfidious Albion, more a civil war between Irishmen. The composition of the government forces that dealt so ruthlessly with the rebels was three quarters Irish.
In Ulster, from the outset, the uneasy alliance between Catholic and Dissenter was under stress. The endemic land war in the north created an unbridgeable chasm between the suspicious allies. The hope that a revolution would be forged from a combination of ‘Presbyterian rationalism and Catholic nationalism’ was to prove illusory.
Reports of the sectarian nature of the risings in the south, especially at Wexford and Kildare, had alarmed many Presbyterians, hitherto committed to the cause. Many pulled back from the brink of insurrection, seeking either a wary neutrality, or an armed security in the burgeoning ranks of the Orange movement. Catholics, distrustful of their Protestant neighbours, and fearful of the strength of Orangeism, proved unwilling to participate beyond a limited level. Traditional sectarian enmities undermined the naïve hopes for a universal brotherhood.
Belfast, where the first United Society in Ireland had been formed in 1791, had been superseded as the political centre of the movement by Dublin. The city that had celebrated the execution of Louis XVI with a display of fireworks, had, in May 1798, celebrated in similar fashion the official birthday of King George the Third. The radicalism of the populace was now tempered by the curfews, courts martial and coercion maintained since the start of the rebellion.
Ireland in 1798 was a country administered by a beleaguered nation of Protestants “who felt little more identity with the Catholic masses than George Washington’s America with the Red Indians.” This “small, selfish, corrupt oligarchy” of haves faced simmering resentment from the have-nots, Presbyterian businessmen and artisans, and the Catholics. Catholics were divided by class and culture; the middle classes anxious to erode the last vestiges of the Penal Laws that excluded them from the legal profession and political office; the great mass of Irish peasantry an ignored underclass, hapless victims of high taxes and a harsh land system, separated by religion or language from the rest.
The United Irish movement had started out as a non-violent attempt to throw open the Irish parliament to all, irrespective of rank or religion. It was an assault on the Legislative Independence of 1778, granted to the Protestant oligarchy as a means of averting a revolution similar to the one that was then tearing the American colonies from the grip of the British Crown. It was driven by the perceived enlightenment values of the French Revolution, then sweeping Europe. The radical Presbyterians of the North, champing at the bit of Episcopalian supremacy and Ascendancy misgovernment, were galvanised by the prospect of a new liberating breeze from the Continent. The Catholic masses, mired in poverty and excluded from politics, were ripe for revolution.
The outbreak of war between Britain and France in 1793, offered the prospect of a military overthrow of the status quo, and turned the reformers into revolutionaries. The organisation went underground, fatally opening it to a drip feed of informants and infighting that sapped its strength.
The arrest of the leading members of the Directory in Dublin had left the main organisation rudderless, and when the signal for the rising came, discipline and direction were absent as the country fell into a ferment of anarchy. The defining blow was the belated and inadequate intervention of the French, whose hoped for assistance, so long sought by the Paris based Wolfe Tone, had been the clinching argument in deciding to rise in the first place.
In Ulster, the military authorities were kept informed of developments by informers such as Nicholas Magin, a Catholic farmer from Saintfield, colonel in the revolutionary army of Down, and government spy. The old guard of the northern movement, dismayed at the illiberal turn of events in revolutionary Europe, prevaricated about throwing their collective hats into the revolutionary ring, and were replaced by a younger, more militant minded cabal.
Henry Joy McCracken, a prosperous cotton manufacturer and a freethinking Presbyterian, found himself at the head of a northern organisation riven with disputes and weakened by coercion. Eight years before, he had stood with Wolfe Tone on the summit of Cave Hill taking an oath to liberate his country. Now he stood atop Donegore Hill, dressed in regimental scarlet, contemplating an assault on Antrim town with his troop of 12,000 men. Henry Munro, a Lisburn draper, Freemason, and Scottish Protestant, had the unenviable task of marshalling the ragbag of forces at his disposal in Down. His dwindling bands of supporters were fatally weakened by defections from the Catholics, fearful of his Protestant credentials, and the Presbyterians, unnerved by the news of sectarian slaughter filtering in from the south.
Antrim was quickly pacified through a combination of military might and the offer of a conditional amnesty – end the resistance immediately and avoid arrest, or face unremitting repression. Many chose the former option and melted into the countryside, those that fought were repulsed with great slaughter. The rebels in Down faced a similar stark choice.
The end of the rebellion in Ulster came at the Battles of Saintfield and Ballynahinch in June 1798. The Belfast News Letter, which had a jaundiced view of the insurrection, gives a partial, yet illuminating account of these battles, and makes clear how hopeless the rebel position always was:
“Intelligence is just arrived from Major General Nugent, stating that on the 11th instant, he had marched against a large body of Rebels, who were posted at Saintfield. They retired, on his approach, to a firing position on the Saintfield side of Ballynahinch, and there made a show of resistance, and endeavoured to turn his left flank; but Lieutenant Col. Stewart arriving from Down, with a pretty considerable force of infantry, cavalry and yeomanry, they soon desisted, and retired to a very strong position behind Ballynahinch.
General Nugent attacked them next morning at three o’clock, having occupied two hills on the left and the right of the town, to prevent the Rebels from having any other choice than the mountains in their rear for their retreat; he sent Lieut.Col. Stewart to post himself with part of the Argyle Fencibles, and some yeomanry, as well as a detachment of the 22nd Light Dragoons in a situation from whence he could enfilade the Rebel line; while Col Leslie, with part of the Monaghan militia, some cavalry and yeoman infantry, could make an attack upon their front. Having two howitzers and six six pounders, with the two detachments, the Major General was enabled to annoy them very much, from different parts of his position.
The Rebels attacked, impetuously, Colonel Leslie’s detachment, and even jumped into the Earl of Moira’s demesne, to endeavour to take one of his guns, but they were repulsed with slaughter. Lieut.Colonel Stewart’s detachment was attacked by them with the same activity, but he repulsed them, and the fire from his howitzer and six pounder soon obliged them to fly in all directions. Their force was, on the evening of the 12th, near 5000; but as many persons are pressed into their service, and almost entirely unarmed, the General does not suppose that on the morning of the engagement their numbers were so many.
About four hundred Rebels were killed in the attack and retreat, and the remainder were dispersed all over the country. Parts of the town of Saintfield and Ballynahinch were burnt. Major-General Nugent states, that both officers and men deserve praise, for their zeal and alacrity on this as well as on all occasions.
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What is in this article?:
- Livestock organizations have responded to the April 24 announcement that USDA confirmed the nation’s fourth case of BSE.
- The groups praised USDA for its surveillance program and insisted there is no threat to human health.
National Milk Producers Federation
America’s dairy farmers are encouraged that the on-going surveillance and inspections performed by federal authorities continue to ensure that bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), or mad cow disease, does not enter the U.S. food supply.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) announced Tuesday that a BSE-infected animal was detected in California, in a dairy cow that was presented at a rendering plant. Three previous cases of BSE have been discovered in the U.S. in the past nine years.
Although details about the age and origins of the animal are being withheld pending further investigation, NMPF offered the following points about the issue:
• Milk and dairy products do not contain or transmit BSE, and animals do not transmit the disease through cattle-to-human contact. The infectious prions that transmit BSE are found in neurological tissues, such as brains and spinal cords.
• The United States put regulations in place in 1997 to prohibit ruminant protein from being used in animal feed. This applies to all cattle, dairy and beef alike.
• Non-ambulatory animals — those that cannot walk — are not allowed to be processed at facilities where meat animals are handled. This regulation helps ensure that animals that are unwell are not entered into the food supply.
For more background on BSE and the dairy sector, visit the NMPF website.
The USDA also has an FAQ on BSE on its website.
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The Pap smear is a screening test for cervical cancer. Cells scraped from the opening of the cervix are examined under a microscope. The cervix is the lower part of the uterus (womb) that opens at the top of the vagina.
How the Test is Performed
You lie on a table and place your feet in stirrups. The doctor or nurse gently places an instrument called a speculum into the vagina to open it slightly. This allows the doctor or nurse to see inside the vagina and cervix.
Cells are gently scraped from the cervix area. The sample of cells is sent to a lab for examination.
How to Prepare for the Test
Tell your doctor or nurse about all the medicines you are taking. Some birth control pills that contain estrogen or progestin may affect test results.
Also tell your doctor or nurse if you:
- Have had an abnormal Pap smear
- Might be pregnant
Do not do the following for 24 hours before the test:
- Douche (douching should never be done)
- Have intercourse
- Use tampons
Avoid scheduling your Pap smear while you have your period (are menstruating). Blood may make the Pap smear results less accurate. If you are having unexpected bleeding, do not cancel your exam. Your doctor will determine if the Pap smear can still be done.
Empty your bladder just before the test.
How the Test will Feel
A Pap smear may cause some discomfort, similar to menstrual cramps. You may also feel some pressure during the exam.
You may bleed a little bit after the test.
Why the Test is Performed
The Pap smear is a screening test for cervical cancer. Most cervical cancers can be detected early if a woman has routine Pap smears.
Screening should start at age 21.
After the first test:
- You should have a Pap smear every 3 years to check for cervical cancer.
- If you are over age 30 and you also have HPV testing done, and both the Pap smear and HPV test are normal, you can be tested every 5 years. (HPV is the human papillomavirus, the virus that causes genital warts and cervical cancer.)
- Most women can stop having Pap smears after age 65 to 70 as long as they have had three negative tests within the past 10 years.
You may not need to have a Pap smear if you have had a total hysterectomy (uterus and cervix removed) and have not had an abnormal Pap smear, cervical cancer, or other pelvic cancer. Discuss this with your doctor.
A normal result means there are no abnormal cells present. The Pap smear test is not 100% accurate. Cervical cancer may be missed in a small number of cases. Most of the time, cervical cancer develops very slowly, and follow-up Pap smears should find any changes in time for treatment.
What Abnormal Results Mean
Abnormal results are grouped as follows:
ASCUS or AGUS
- This result means there are atypical cells, but it is uncertain or unclear what these changes mean
- The changes may be due to HPV
- They may also mean there are changes that may lead to cancer
LSIL (low-grade dysplasia) or HSIL (high-grade dysplasia):
- This means changes that may lead to cancer are present
- The risk of cervical cancer is greater with HSIL
Carcinoma in situ (CIS):
- This result most often means the abnormal changes are likely to lead to cervical cancer if not treated
Atypical squamous cells (ASC):
- Abnormal changes have been found and may be HSIL
Atypical glandular cells (AGC):
- Cell changes that may lead to cancer are seen in the upper part of the cervical canal or inside the uterus
When a Pap smear shows abnormal changes, further testing or follow-up is needed. The next step depends on the results of the Pap smear, your previous history of Pap smears, and risk factors you may have for cervical cancer.
For minor cell changes, doctors will recommend another Pap smear in 6 to 12 months.
Follow-up testing may include:
- Colposcopy-directed biopsy
- An HPV test to check for the presence of the HPV virus types most likely to cause cancer
Noller KL. Intraepithelial neoplasia of the lower genital tract (cervix, vulva): etiology, screening, diagnostic techniques, management. In: Lentz GM, Lobo RA, Gershenson DM, Katz VL, eds. Comprehensive Gynecology. 6th ed. Philadelphia, Pa: Elsevier Mosby; 2012:chap 28.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice Bulletin No. 131: Screening for cervical cancer. Obstet Gynecol. 2012;120:1222-1238.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Practice Bulletin No. 99: Management of abnormal cervical cytology and histology. Obstet Gynecol. 2008;112:1419-1444.
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Committee Opinion No. 463: Cervical cancer in adolescents: screening, evaluation, and management. Obstet Gynecol. 2010;116:469-472.
Saslow D, Solomon D, Lawson HW, et al. American Cancer Society, American Society for Colposcopy and Cervical Pathology, and American Society for Clinical Pathology screening guidelines for the prevention and early detection of cervical cancer. CA Cancer J Clin. 2012;62(3):147-72.
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(also psychopompos /ˌsīkōˈpämpəs/ /-ˈpämpäs/)
1(In Greek mythology) a guide of souls to the place of the dead.
- Beelzebub was originally called Baal-Zebul, meaning ‘Baal, the Lord’ a widely worshipped Philistine God-King, who was said to be a psychopompos, a guardian of souls (again).
- There is some folklore in England & Scotland which suggests that the owl was thought of as a harbinger of death and a psychopomp.
1.1The spiritual guide of a living person’s soul.
- Most practitioners will be used to psychopomp work, and will be able to locate the spirit and guide it on to wherever it's supposed to be.
- Purification is one of the shaman's tasks, along with healing, psychopomp work, and communicating with nature spirits.
From Greek psukhopompos, from psukhē 'soul' + pompos 'conductor'.
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Definition of psychopomp in:
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These are foods that make up the majority of my diet and that I recommend:
- PASTURE RAISED or WILD MEATS and SEAFOOD (Including ORGAN MEATS), EGGS, RAW DAIRY: Eat animal protein that has been pasture raised, grassfed or from the wild for the optimal amount of nutrition and to support a healthier planet. Animals only contain a rich amount of Vitamin D if they have been raised outside.Their meat contains a much higher amount of amino acids if they are free range rather than grain fed. Organ meats like liver contain some of the highest amounts of vitamins and minerals. If you consume dairy, find a source that is raw, unpasteurized and unhomogenized. Visit www.realmilk.com for more information and to find sources of raw dairy in your area.
- FATS I EAT: Butter, Cream, Egg Yolks, Lard, Beef Tallow, Chicken Fat, Coconut Oil, Palm Oil, Ghee, Olive Oil. Flax and Cod Liver Oil – not for cooking
- FATS I AVOID: Soy, Corn, Cottonseed, Canola Oil and any other other rancid, liquid oils that are too high in Omega 6
- FATS I WILL EAT OCCASIONALLY: It is ok to eat the following fats in very small amounts: sesame, peanut, safflower, sunflower oils, as well as nut oils like walnut oil, pecan oil, macadamia nut oil, etc (make sure they are not rancid and kept in a cool, dark place)
- SALT: Not all salt is created equal. Use unrefined salt that is from the sea, earth or mountains. Avoid salt that has been refined, bleached and has added anticaking agents (this includes most grocery store and restaurant salt). There are many “alternative” good salts available these days including Himalayan, Celtic, Real Salt, Hawaiian Red, Premier Research Labs Salt and more. You can find most of these in health food stores or online.
- CULTURED FOODS: All traditional cultures ate some kind of fermented or cultured food like sauerkraut, kim chi, sourdough bread, yogurt, kefir, buttermilk, kvass, unpasteurized beer and wine, raw cheese, pickles, miso, etc. Eating some kind of fermented food with meals will add enzymes and beneficial bacteria to your gut and greatly enhance your immune system and energy.
- GRAINS: If you choose to eat grains in your diet, make sure they are organic, not genetically modified and prepare them so they are digestible by soaking, sprouting and ideally souring them as well. Make sure your body is okay with eating grains. Even if grains are organic and properly prepared, you still may not be able to tolerate them. Many people are sensitive to grains these days. Try an elimination diet and avoid them for 10 days to see how you feel without them.
- BEANS: To make beans so they are the most digestible, soak them covered in water overnite. Rinse well the next day. If you have time, soak them overnite again in plenty of water. Rinse well. Then cook on low with plenty of water with a piece of seaweed for added minerals (like kombu, wakame, dulse or nori) until tender. Add apple cider vinegar or umeboshi plum vinegar, herbs and spices and good salt at the end of cooking when they are tender.
- NUTS AND SEEDS: To make nuts and seeds the most digestible, it is really best to soak them overnight (or until the nuts become hydrated- they will look puffed up) in water. Rinse off the soaking water. You can turn them into crispy nuts by dehydrating them until dry or roasting on low with a touch of salt in the oven at 150 degrees overnight.
- VEGETABLES: Eat veggies!! If you can only eat one vegetable, eat something green. Emphasize vegetables that are in season and ideally grown locally and without chemicals or organically grown. Eat roasted, steamed, sautéed, grilled, raw…
- FRUITS: Make sure to eat fruit in season, meaning eat the fruit that nature gives to you in the season it is grown. Make sure to eat fruit that is organically grown or free of chemicals. Biodynamically grown fruit is some of the best fruit you can eat. Fruit is generally best to eat alone or before other foods for optimal digestion. If you are going to eat fruit in the non-summer months, make sure you are burning plenty of calories to burn off all the sugar. Eating fruit when it is cold out and when you are not building sufficient heat in your body to burn off the sugar can lead to candida overgrowth or dampness conditions in the body.
- SWEETS: Desserts are one of life’s greatest pleasures to those that love them. Choose desserts or sweet treats made with organic, wholesome ingredients. They will actually taste much better than sweets made with chemicals and preservatives. The best sweeteners to use are stevia, raw honey, maple syrup or sugar, coconut/palm sugar or xylitol. Depending on your sugar sensitivity, you may need to avoid all of these for a while.
Check out my Resources page for links to great products I love.
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Jay Gatsby famously says in The Great Gatsby “Can’t repeat the past? Why of course you can!” He’s a larger than life character in a novel, of course, and (of course) he’s wrong anyway. But in good times or bad, most people would turn back the clock if they could. The past often shines more brightly than the future; it’s fixed and known, and though we can’t relive it, we look for reassurance in connections with it.
These connections take many forms. Some people find them in genealogy, some through country dancing, Civil War reenactments, or whatever. I have friends who grow heirloom tomatoes, in part (I believe), to find this connection with the past. They say that heirloom tomatoes have unique qualities (and histories) not found in “modern” tomatoes and that they taste so much better than the grocery store ones. All true, I suppose; I have grown heirloom tomatoes myself, and almost anything that you grow in your own backyard tastes better than what you buy at the grocery store.
Heirloom crops, tomatoes in particular, are very popular. Seed Savers Exchange offers 4713 varieties of tomato heirlooms alone. So called “heirlooms” are traditional varieties or landraces that were originally selected, grown and passed down within families or local regions. There are literally thousands upon thousands of heirloom tomatoes that are largely unique and distinct from one another from around the world.
Tomato was probably domesticated in Mexico from wild Peruvian stock with fruit similar to what we think of as “cherry” tomato. The first record of cultivated tomato comes from the Spanish who found it consumed at the time of the conquest of Mexico in the early 16th century in a limited area from Central America north to Mexico City. When tomato came into cultivation is unknown, but large fruit types had already developed by the time the Spanish appeared in Mexico and possibly before domestication.
The cultivated tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is a member of the Solanaceae family. Solanaceae contains around 3000 species of both the Old and New World origin, many agriculturally important; worth mentioning are eggplant, from China, and tomato, potato, and pepper, from Central and South America. All wild tomatoes, with the exception of one species found on the Galapagos Islands, are native to mainland South America in a region of the Andes that includes parts of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Chile and Bolivia.
All forms of cultivated tomato are self-fertile and exclusively inbreeders—barring human intervention or other extraordinary circumstances, individual tomato flowers do not cross pollinate each other. Wild tomato species, in contrast, are both self-fertile and self-infertile. With human aid, most of the wild species (thirteen or seventeen, depending on the classification scheme) can interbreed with cultivated tomato.
Domestication of tomato was brought about by inbreeding and intensive selection for desirable traits, in both Mexico and Europe, but this imposed genetic uniformity on cultivated tomato. And if, indeed, the large-fruit types arose before domestication, those large-fruit plants would certainly have been chosen as the progenitor of cultivated tomato. When these plants, which would have been few and possibly genetically identical, were taken from the Andes to Mexico and then to Europe, tomato was isolated from its source of genetic diversity and what evolutionary biologists call a “genetic bottleneck” resulted. Despite the obvious variety in fruit shape and size, flavor, local adaptation, color and aroma, traditional cultivated tomatoes are genetically impoverished with less than 5% of the genetic potential of their wild cousin. Different varietal names may have been applied to genetically very similar lines. Thus, the proliferation and increase in number of heirlooms over time. The variation that exists in these heirloom tomatoes today is mostly the result of rare spontaneously occurring mutations, such as those that induced the large-fruit types.
Tomato was brought back to Europe by the Spanish and was first consumed in Spain and southern Italy in the mid 16th century (this we know from tomato recipes and shopping lists). By the end of that century, tomato had spread to most of the rest of the Mediterranean region and England and much of the rest of continental Europe. By the 17th century, the Spanish had introduced tomato to their North American outposts in Florida, Texas and California. From there, it gradually found its way to Colonial America, which also received different varieties with the floods of immigrants from Europe. In Colonial America, tomato was eaten rarely in the mid 18th century and commonly by the mid 19th century. Since its arrival in Spain nearly 500 years ago, human selection of desirable and valuable traits in all the regions where tomato was grown has produced an array of varietal types adapted to local climates and incorporated into local cuisines.
While heirloom tomatoes represent a fantastic source of valuable traits, there are distinct advantages to hybrid plants, where the aim is to combine the best characteristics of two inbred lines (one of which is perhaps an heirloom). And in the early part of the 20th century, universities and later private companies began formal tomato hybrid breeding programs. Hybrid tomatoes are tailored specifically for uniformity of such traits as yield, type of desired fruit (canning vs. fresh market), shelf life, disease resistance and climate. Because there’s more work involved in producing hybrid seed, the seed is more expensive. And, unlike inbred heirloom seed, hybrid seed does not breed true and must be replenished each year. But despite the additional expense of hybrid seed, the advantages have led most growers, especially commercial growers, to choose hybrid tomatoes over inbred lines like the heirlooms. The first really successful hybrid tomato was Burpee’s ‘Big Boy’, introduced in 1949 and still popular today.
In contrast to traditional, heirloom tomatoes, wild tomatoes exhibit a tremendous amount of genetic diversity. This is especially true of some of strictly self-incompatible species (obligate outbreeders). Wild tomatoes carry a wealth of genes. Within the next 10 years or so, the complete sequence of the tomato genome will have been determined. And as our knowledge of the structure and function of tomato genes increases, it will become progressively easier for tomato breeders to “design” new cultivars that combine traits of traditional, inbred tomatoes with wild-species traits such as resistances to pathogens, pests, and environmental conditions as well as elevated nutrient content, a current breeding goal.
If like my friends, you enjoy growing heirloom tomatoes (for whatever reason), by all means continue to treat yourself. But don’t overlook the great hybrid tomatoes that are currently on the market. And look to the future because the best tomato varieties are yet to come.
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| 0.959085 | 1,444 | 2.53125 | 3 |
An example of exempt is when everyone else is required to get to a meeting ten minutes early, but you are not required to do so.
Origin of exemptMiddle English exempten ; from Anglo-French exempter ; from Classical Latin exemptus, past participle of eximere, to take out: see example
Origin of exemptL exemptus
transitive verbex·empt·ed, ex·empt·ing, ex·empts
- To free from an obligation, duty, or liability to which others are subject: exempting the disabled from military service.
- Obsolete To set apart; isolate.
- Freed from an obligation, duty, or liability to which others are subject; excused: persons exempt from jury duty; income exempt from taxation; a beauty somehow exempt from the aging process.
- Not subject to certain federal workplace laws or protections, especially those requiring overtime compensation: exempt employees.
- Obsolete Set apart; isolated.
Origin of exemptMiddle English exempten, from Old French exempter, from exempt, exempt, from Latin exemptus, past participle of eximere, to take out; see example.
- One who has been released from something.
- (historical) A type of French police officer.
- (UK) One of four officers of the Yeomen of the Royal Guard, having the rank of corporal; an exon.
(third-person singular simple present exempts, present participle exempting, simple past and past participle exempted)
From Middle French exempt, from Latin exemptus, past participle of eximō. The employement sense is due to the position's exemption from provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act.
exempt - Legal Definition
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| 0.851398 | 360 | 3.046875 | 3 |
|Volunteer Participation in Working with the Urban Poor (UNDP - UNV, 64 p.)|
|I. Urbanisation: recognition and response|
The twentieth century growth of the urban population in developing countries is unparalleled in human history. If current trends continue, it is expected that two-thirds of the world's total urban population will live in developing countries by the year 2000. Resource scarcity, social service and infrastructure needs and demands will magnify the already enormous socio-economic and political pressures in urban areas.
Cities in developing countries are increasingly unable to provide their growing populations with productive employment in the "formal" sector, adequate social services or housing. As a consequence, a mammoth "informal sector" has blossomed, which is beginning to dominate developing country economies. Even though there may be material improvement in some rural migrant lives, the general trend is a transfer of poverty from rural to urban areas.
It has been the churches and a few local NGOs -- rather than governments, international aid agencies, or international NGOs - which have worked in low-income urban communities for decades, particularly in Latin America and in some Asian cities. Initially this assistance focused on welfare work, but it has expanded to include micro-development schemes. Governments and municipalities, recognising their limitations in meeting the needs of urban low-income groups, have increasingly acknowledged the importance of the private sector and the communities' own initiatives in meeting basic needs. International organisations and VSAs are also recognising the importance of building upon local initiatives.
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| 0.940161 | 310 | 2.78125 | 3 |
|Print this page|
BHP Independent Environmental Monitoring Agency
|Location:||Northwest Territories, Canada|
|Subject Matter:||Environmental Heritage | Mining and Minerals|
|Summary Information: |
|The BHP Independent Environmental Monitoring Agency (IEMA) was established pursuant to the BHP Billiton Ekati Mine Project Environmental Agreement, by the Governments of Canada and the Northwest Territories, and BHP Billiton Diamonds Inc. The IEMA acts as a public watchdog for environmental regulation of the Ekati Mine Project. It also collects and reviews information on environmental effects, monitoring programs, and the incorporation of traditional knowledge into environmental plans. |
In addition, the IEMA facilitates discussion between BHP, Aboriginal organisations, federal and provincial governments and the general public. The board is composed of seven members, four of whom are appointed by Akaitcho Treaty 8, Kitikmeot Inuit Association, Dogrib Treaty 11 Council and the North Slave Metis Alliance. The remaining three members are appointed by BHP Billiton, and the Governments of Canada and of the Northwest Territories.
Was this useful? Click here to fill in the ATNS survey
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| 0.90109 | 237 | 2.703125 | 3 |
- First let's begin with a discussion of what properties
constitute an effective biological warfare agent. The Media, The Centers
For Disease Control and The Department of Defense would have us believe
that the most threatening biological agents are lethal microbes which cause
acute disease and then death...such as anthrax and smallpox. It appears
that we are being intentionally misled as to where the real danger lies.
- Government biological warfare documents speak of incapacitating
agents as being the most effective at disabling a nation. When a population
is infected with a lethal agent, it is very obvious that measures need
to be taken such as quarantine, antibiotics, etc. This helps to curb and
abort the epidemic.
- A much more discreet, diabolical and effective method
of disabling a country would be to employ a moderately infectious organism
or combination (Russian Doll Cocktails) which would pass slowly through
the population unnoticed. Some of the criteria for effective disabling
- 1. A biological agent which lacks objective signs that
can be determined by medical testing. Many patients who are extremely ill
with mycoplasma or lyme infections are told all their tests are normal
therefore their problems must be all in their heads. Many people labeled
with Chronic Fatigue Syndrome and Fibromyalgia are told the same thing....if
they would only get a new job, hobby or begin to excercise...then they
would be fine.
- 2. An agent which would produce so many symptoms throughout
the body that it would appear that the patient was malingering or faking.
This criteria prevents the medical community from taking the disease seriously
and in the meantime it passes quietly through the population being labeled
as many separate diseases and conditions.
- 3. If the disabling agent is a combination of several
diseases, some of which could be genetically engineered, then it becomes
very difficult if not impossible to diagnose and treat.
- 4. Diseases which are spread by insect vectors are very
much sought after. This makes an epidemic much easier to pass off as a
natural event while concealing the identity of the perpetrators.
- Dr. Donald MacArthur who was in charge of the developement
and testing of biological weapons for the Pentagon had this to say at a
Hearing before a Subcommittee of the Committee on Appropriations in 1969.
- "Incapacitating agents are a more recent developement
and are largely in the R&D phase (in 1969). In fact the prime emphasis
in agent R&D is on developing better incapacitating agents. We are
synthesizing new compounds and testing them in animals. I should mention
that there is a rule of thumb we use before an agent can be classified
as an incapacitant, we feel that the mortality should be very low. Therefore
the ratio of the lethal dose to the incapacitating dose has to be very
high. Now this is a technical job. We have some of the top scientists in
the country working for years on how to get more effective incapacitating
agents. It is not easy." He also tells us that an incapacitating agent
"imposes a greater logistic burden on the enemy when he has to look
after the disabled people."
- When a large portion of the population is sick and unable
to work, this puts an enormous strain on the economy. I predict that if
we do not make this issue an immediate priority, our country will indeed
become quickly disabled.
- The next logical question would be...does Lyme Disease
and it's coinfections fit into this scenerio? Certain doctors and researchers
feel that lyme disease and it's coinfections....such as mycoplasma fermentens
(patented by the U,S. Army) are actually microrganisms with excellent credentials
for qualifying as disabling biowarfare agents..
- Much controversey surrounds the diagnosis and treatment
of Lyme Disease and mycoplasma induced illnesses such as Gulf War Illness.
Professor Garth Nicolson and Lieutenant Joyce Riley....among others...are
seeing evidence everywhere that one cause of Gulf War Illness is microbial
and that it is spreading to the families of the veterans and then on to
the public in general. Many who become ill with this mycoplasma and or
the lyme spirochete are being divided up into separate disease labels such
as Multiple Sclerosis, Fibromyalgia, Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Alzheimer's,
Bi Polar Depression, Lupus,, ALS, etc. Most of these disease labels have
no known definitive tests, causes or cures...only symptomatic treatments.
- The Lyme Spirochete (borrelia burgdorferi..Bb ) and mycoplasma
fermentens are both extremely pathogenic and can cause problems in every
body system. In fact they present with symptoms so similar to each other
that one has to wonder what the connection is. Sufferers of Lyme Disease
are very often coinfected with mycoplasmas, babesia, erlichiosis, Rocky
Mountain Spotted Fever and certain viruses. We are told that Lyme Disease
has been around for hundreds of years and that ticks are filthy organisms
which can spread many diseases in one single bite. This apppears to be
true but is this due to a natural evolutionary process or is this sudden
proliferation of countless coinfections a process which has had some help
from biowarfare researchers? Are all these ticks carrying multipathogens
naturally this way or are they the result of The Russian Doll Cocktail
concept? Have ticks themselves been modified to endure harsh weather extremes?
The ticks that carry Lyme Disease appear to be surviving in climates previously
inhospitable to this species. In fact this disease is becoming endemic
in many parts of the world at once and seems to be just as controversial
everywhere it spreads. Why is this? If Lyme Disease is an unaltered ancient
organism then shouldn't the medical community be aware of it's very diverse
symptom complex? Shouldn't they know that it is a Great Imitator such as
it's close relative Syphilis? Global warming always seems to be one of
the excuses used when insect vectors cross their climate boundaries...but
maybe it's due to genetic engineering. For example...Ades Japonicus is
a genetically altered strain of mosquito and is purported to be the most
efficient vector for West Nile Virus. It just happened to appear over here....out
of it's native habitat...just in time to be an efficient vector for the
West Nile Virus outbreak.
- Borrelia burgdorferi...Bb...the causative agent of Lyme
Disease presents with persistent infection and is many times incurable
with the standard antibiotic regimes. While usually antibiotics are necessary
in controlling and improving the lyme infection, it appears the organism
may never be totally erradicated. It is known that there are techniques
used to enhance bacterial resistance to antibiotics. So....while on the
one hand the medical authorities are warning us of the dangers of the overuse
of antibiotics and even limiting their valid applications...on the other
hand they are creating and perhaps even letting loose antibiotic resistant
- In 1984 Secretary of State Casper Weinberger reported
"Normally harmless, non disease producing organisms could be modified
to become highly toxic or produce disease which an opponent has no known
treatment or cure." (Soviet Military Power, 1984, p. 73.
- Patients are being denied antibiotics for chronic persistent
lyme. Doctors who are treating these chronic patients are being investigated
and many have already had their licenses removed. Many are told they are
malingering...that they either have antibiotic seeking behavior, depression
or autoimmune disease.
- One could say that Bb is most definitely an excellent
candidate as a biological warfare agent. Bb has been shown to pass from
mother to fetus. Many feel that it can be sexually transmitted. Why are
no studies being done in this area? It has been found in semen, tears,
breast milk and other insects in addition to ticks. With lyme disease there
is no immunity. One can be infected and reinfected. The disease is responsible
for neuropsychiatric problems, marriages are often disrupted and patients
are losing their jobs and their homes. Many of our nation's children are
being labeled with learning disabilities when the cause is often lyme disease.
I am also wondering if vaccines are contaminated with Bb and or mycoplasmas?
Is there any way vaccine batches can be independantly studied? Well, there
should be , don't you think?
- I recieved an abstract the other day put out by Brookhaven
National Labs. I am including it below and will let readers come to their
own conclusions. It sounds to me as if it is felt that Bb, erlichia and
babesia are biological warfare candidates.
- Grant Number:
- PI Name:
- DUNN, JOHN J.
- PI Email:
- PI Title:
- SENIOR SCIENTIST
- Project Title:
- Rapid Detection and Identification of Zoonotic Pathogens
- Abstract: DESCRIPTION (provided by applicant): Zoonotic
pathogens including those transmitted by insect vectors are some of the
most deadly of all infectious diseases known to mankind. In the past, wars
and natural disasters were the main catalysts that promoted epidemics of
these ancient afflictions, which are normally transmitted by fleas, lice
- Many of these diseases remain endemic in various regions
of the world and therefore pose serious threats to U.S. armed forces troops
and civilians who might enter endemic disease zones. A number of these
agents have been further weaponized and are widely recognized as being
the most significant biothreat agents.
- Study of disease agents and development of rapid means
for their detection take on added importance in light of the use of anthrax
for a bioterror attack on the U.S.A. The aim of this proposal is to modify
a novel DNA-based methodology we have developed for profiling genomic DNAs
to permit rapid, cultivation-free differential detection and identification
of biothreat infectious agents in their natural environments, including
intermediate infected hosts, and clinical specimens from humans or infected
- We plan to use Borrelia burgdorferi, the arthropod-borne
etiologic agent of Lyme disease and Yersinia pestis, the etiologic agent
of plague, as our principle test agents to work through the systems. We
will begin with B. burgdorferi since although it has a complicated life-cycle
involving both arthropod and animal intermediates, it is easy to grow and
we have extensive experience in working with it in different complex environments
including ticks, rodents and human samples.
- Thus it gives us the opportunity of detecting this pathogen
in a variety of complex environments. We also have significant experience
with characterizing and identifying subtle changes in the genome of Y.
pestis utilizing genomic signature tags. We will use these methods as the
foundation of new, high-throughput sequence-based systems to detect zoonotic
and/or vector-borne biothreat agents such as Yersinia pestis, Francisella
tularensis, Rickettsia ricketsii and other human pathogens such as Ehrlichia
and Babesia species.
- This technology can ultimately be adapted as a sensitive
method to detect specific DNA signature sequences from both known and unknown
pathogens in a wide variety of complex environments and since it is PCR-based
it has the advantage that only minimal quantities of starting material
are needed for analysis.
- Thesaurus Terms:
- biohazard detection, communicable disease diagnosis,
- /evaluation, genetic technique, high throughput technology,
- Borrelia, Yersinia pestis, cooperative study, informatics,
- biology information system, nucleic acid sequence
- biotechnology, bioterrorism /chemical warfare, clinical
- tissue, laboratory mouse, microarray technology
- BROOKHAVEN SCIENCE ASSOC-BROOKHAVEN LAB
- BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LAB
- UPTON, NY 11973
- Fiscal Year:
- Project Start:
- Project End:
- NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF ALLERGY AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES
- It is interesting to note that many of the first outbreaks
of these diseases occurred in areas adjacent to military or biological
testing facilities such as Plum Island. In fact Erlichia Chaffiensis, one
of the tickborne coinfections, is actually named after Fort Chaffi where
it was first isolated. The United States has a long history of conducting
field experiments on it's own citizens without their knowledge or consent.
The U.S. Code, Sec. 50 states it is legal to do so.
- When I speak to others concerning the possibility that
our country is already being intentionally decimated by several insiduous
pathogens, they find it hard to believe that certain officials in our government
may be allowing this to happen.
- In relation to this concern I would like to include part
of an e-mail which was sent to me by one of those government officials.
I had written an article concerning the fear mongering surrounding the
flu vaccine issue being promoted by The Powers That Be. Someone from the
government saw my article and posted it to one of their private lists.
A congressman on this list then temporarily added me to this list because
they were discussing my article. It was being sarcastically criticized
and I responded back to them. The gentleman who had been the most negative
with his comments was surprised to find out I had been able to read his
comments. Part of his response to me, which follows, is an indication of
the mindset of some of our leaders.
- He was asking me if I really thought that the article
"Manipulation Through Fear...And It's Working" would really wake
people up. While he agreed that the press was manipulating us....listen
to his other thoughts. "If someone is stupid enough to wait in a 2
hour line for a flu shot or withdraw half of their child's college savings
to buy 6 years worth of non perishable food and gas masks for their Y2K
bunker, don't you think they deserve it? Perhaps the real question is,
why are Americans so stupid and gullible to believe everything we read
in the media, or to go further, every piece of forwarded chain e-mail we
read spurting off the latest conspiracy theory? The way I see it, it's
social Darwinism baby. And the more morons that leave this God forsaken
earth, the happier I am. After all, I don't want to be sharing my rations
with anyone in my WMD bunker. By the way, I am one of those "Powers
that Be" :=) You must infiltrate before you can make the system capitulate."
- I wrote back to him briefly expressing my sadness that
he must have had many difficulties in life to harden his heart so.
- I have spoken to a Red Cross pathologist who admitted
that the Red Cross does not screen it's blood supply for Lyme Disease or
Mycoplamsa Fermentens. Our Department of Defense knows that these pathogens
are spreading through the population. Instead of taking preventative actions
our government is actually blocking proper research, education, testing,
diagnosis and treatment.
- We need to make these institutions accountable for their
crimes against humanity.
- COMMENT on Lyme DIsease article--Plum Island Connection
- From Bob Anderson
- Hello, Jeff
- This IS interesting, and I have known for some years
that "Lyme Disease" is a man-made illness.
- My ex-colleague John Quinn -- who as you may recall wrote
a book on the so-called Montauk Project activities at Montauk Air Base
on the east end of Long Island New York -- wrote that he was informed UNEQUIVOCALLY
by project operative and subsequent whistleblower Preston Nichols that
Lyme Disease was DEFINITELY developed by the US government at Plum Island
Animal Disease research facility, directly offshore from Montauk in Long
Island Sound. Nichols told Quinn that the disease was first engineered
in the mid-1960s and was initially released at the Montauk base itself
and the surrounding communities. Nichols averred that there was frequent
collaboration between the two facilities.
- It is a FACT that the earliest victims of the disease
were not in Old Lyme Connecticut but at Montauk. The disease rapidly became
fairly widespread by the late 60s among the many farmers and fishermen
in the area and was known at the time as "Montauk Knee" -- as
it primarily affected major joints such as the knee.
- Even more disturbing: Nichols informed Quinn around 1999
that the Lyme Disease spirochete was a PRIME COMPONENT of the materials
being spewed from the aircraft spraying CHEMTRAILS across the length and
breadth of the PLANET EARTH!
- Comforting, No?
- Bob Anderson
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| 0.945868 | 3,656 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Environmentalists, politicians, and scholars express concern about a "race to the bottom" in environmental policy. Yet economic theory indicates that a race to the bottom in environmental policy is highly unlikely, and there is little evidence that such races have, in fact, occurred.
Terry Anderson, Laura Huggins
In the past, the economy of the western United States depended on converting natural resources into lumber, metals, and hydroelectricity. More recently, the relationship to natural resources has moved from extraction toward protection. But this shift has led to acrimony and gridlock.
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| 0.940127 | 116 | 2.515625 | 3 |
At this time of year, potatoes can be earthed up easily when
the soil has been softened by rain. Potatoes can be grown
successfully without this step, but hoeing the soil from
between rows on to the bases of the plants prevents the
tubers being exposed to air and turning green.
Green potatoes have high concentrations of a glycoalkaloid
poison, solanine, and should never be eaten.
Mounding up should be done before the plant tops are too
large and likely to be damaged during the process.
Main-crop potatoes such as Red Rascal, Heather and Agria can
be planted and good crops should be produced in soils that
retain moisture through to late summer.
Onions sown now will not grow to full size, but will produce
bulbs large enough for pickling. Make the ground rich and
firm and sow in shallow drills.
Autumn-sown onions should be growing well and will be helped
by an occasional watering with liquid manure and a
top-dressing of sulphate of potash.
Runner beans live up to their name and growth should now be
rapid. If not planted against a fence or trellis, or on a
bean tepee, they will have to be staked.
Put tall (2m) sticks on either side of the row and tie string
along about halfway up and also near the top. Earthing up on
either side of the plants helps them stay in place in windy
Keep the roots moist and cool with plenty of water.
Lawn clippings can be used as a mulch but make each layer
thin (1cm) as otherwise too much heat will be generated.
Peas can be staked but growing against netting is more
effective for tall varieties. Staple netting to several tall,
strong stakes, leaving the lower 40cm or 50cm below the
netting. This makes a movable fence that can be used for peas
year after year.
As the first tiny broad bean pods appear, the tip of each
stem can be nipped out to help give a better crop. The green
tips of the plants can be eaten in stir-fries.
Rhubarb plants will weaken if too many stems are picked at
once, so take no more than a third of the leaves at any time.
Rhubarb likes cool roots and is a greedy plant, a gross
feeder in gardening jargon, so keep it well watered in dry
weather, and work some compost around the base before
Removing dead heads from rhododendrons and azaleas will pay
dividends with better displays next spring.
Sweet peas sown now will bloom late in the season. In
general, heritage varieties have better perfume but smaller
Sweet-pea seed can be sown in rich soil, then seedlings
thinned to 10cm-12cm apart. Less wasteful is to sow them in
seed boxes and plant out when the first pair of true leaves
Keep plants watered or they will produce small, miserable
flowers on short stems.
Primulas, polyanthus, primroses and auriculas should be
divided as soon as the plants have finished flowering.
Prepare ground for them by adding rotted horse or cow manure
or compost. If the soil is heavy clay, add coarse river sand
to help it drain. The plants like to be firmly fixed in the
soil with the lower leaves just above the surface. Old plants
tend to lift out of the soil and will fail to flower freely
if left undivided too long.
Wallflowers (Cheiranthus) are old-fashioned flowers with a
distinctive sweet fragrance. Seed sown now should give
spring-flowering plants. They keep going for years if
deadheaded during the flowering season and cut back by half
Like most spring-blooming shrubs, lilacs can be pruned when
flowering has finished. A mulch of decayed manure, mixed with
some garden lime, will improve lilacs. Wisteria can also be
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Good! Now, you need to find A' to get the minimum area. But for that, you'll need to get A in terms of either x alone, or b alone.
At point (x, y) = (6, 8), find x in terms of b, or vice versa.
Then, substitute this into your expression for the area.
Differentiate the area, and solve for A' = 0.
You'll get a value of b or x depending on what you chose previously.
Substitute this value into the equation y = mx + b and use the point (6, 8) again to find the other value you need.
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TextFebruary 31, with regard to the modern Western (revised Gregorian) calendar, is an imaginary date. It is sometimes used for example purposes, to make it clear regardless of context that the information being presented is artificial and not real data. February 30 is sometimes used in the same manner, although there are other calendars that legitimately use February 30. In this respect, these "dates" are similar to other clearly fictional data used for a similar purpose, such as the 12th of Never or "John Q. Public".
TextGravestone in the graveyard of the deconsecrated church of St Peter-in-the-East, Oxford, which reads: HOUNSLOW, John d. 31.3.1871 HOUNSLOW, Sarah, his wife, d. 31.2.1835; six children, died in infancy; Ann, wife of John Hounslow, d. 6.11.1890
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Committed to the Diaspora: More Developing Countries Setting Up Diaspora Institutions
Committed to the Diaspora: More Developing Countries Setting Up Diaspora Institutions
More than ever, diasporas — the "scattered seeds" most governments previously ignored and in some cases even maligned — are increasingly seen as agents of development.
Aware of this potential, some developing countries have established institutions to more systematically facilitate ties with their diasporas, defined here as emigrants and their descendants who have maintained strong sentimental and material links with their countries of origin.
The possible size of diasporas varies, from under 50,000 from the Caribbean nation of Dominica to over 30 million from China. The number of countries with diaspora institutions has increased especially in the last 10 years, and they span multiple continents.
This article, based on the opening chapter from MPI's recently released book Closing the Distance: How Governments Strengthen Ties with Their Diasporas, reviews the objectives and activities of 45 diaspora-engaging institutions in 30 developing countries (see sidebar). Although far from exhaustive, the analysis shows the various ways governments choose to institutionalize their relations with the diaspora.
The institutions they have created occupy different levels of government and exhibit diverse priorities and degrees of organization. For instance, some are concerned only with their citizens abroad while others specifically target permanent residents, naturalized citizens, and second and later generations. Countries like Mexico, China, and the Philippines have multiple institutions and represent diasporas at various levels of government.
National bodies established to deal with diaspora issues are based in destination countries, as well as countries of origin. Among the countries studied, three types of bodies emerge: government institutions at home (four types), consular networks, and quasi-government institutions.
Countries in This Review
Government Institutions at Home
Most diaspora-centered government institutions operate at the national or federal level while others operate at the local level. Depending on where they stand in the organizational structure of the government, these institutions can roughly be grouped into four types of institutions: (1) ministry level, (2) subministry level, (3) special offices including diaspora committees, and (4) local level.
This categorization is useful because an institution's position within the government hierarchy in many ways affects its influence within and outside of the government, as well as its mandate and effectiveness.
An increasing number of developing countries have established ministries whose explicit purpose is to address the needs of diaspora populations, with many formed after 2001. Fifteen of the countries examined have a separate diaspora ministry (see Table 1). Nine of these ministries are dedicated solely to diasporas.
One of the earliest examples of a diaspora ministry in the developing world is Haiti's Ministry of Haitians Living Abroad. Created in 1995, the ministry aims to encourage the participation of diaspora communities in technical and professional activities to advance Haiti's development efforts. The ministry informs the diaspora of local realities and changes in Haiti and encourages the diaspora to return to and invest in the country.
A more recent example is India's Ministry for Overseas Indian Affairs (MOIA). Established in 2004 to address the lack of government policy coordination on migration, the ministry has programs that reach out to the Indian diaspora, particularly to youth.
Roughly similar institutions can be found in Serbia (Ministry for Diaspora), Syria (Ministry of Expatriates) and Armenia (Ministry of Diaspora). Like India, these countries have large, generally highly educated and/or well-financed diaspora populations abroad (either in absolute terms or as a percentage of the population).
As can be expected, the ministries focus on developing stronger economic links with the diaspora, mainly by encouraging the transfer of financial and/or human capital.
For instance, the Serbian minister highlighted the return of young experts and the prevention of a further brain drain as the ministry's most pressing task. To this end, the ministry created an Economic Council that includes experts from the homeland and the diaspora. It also has plans to establish a virtual business network that would house information on relevant organizations, individuals, and investment opportunities.
Bangladesh's Ministry for Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment and Sri Lanka's Ministry of Foreign Employment, Promotion and Welfare are unusual because, unlike many of their counterparts, they focus mainly on ensuring the welfare of their expatriate workers and in increasing their ability to find suitable employment abroad. Both ministries attend to complaints from migrant workers, provide international job placement services, and conduct training programs.
Some countries opt for more innovative institutional structures at the ministry level. Instead of creating a separate diaspora ministry, they combine diaspora affairs with other sectors, such as labor, tourism, or foreign affairs, to form a "hybrid" ministry. For instance, in 2000, both Mali (Ministry of Malians Abroad and African Integration) and Lebanon (Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Emigrants) created hybrid ministries.
In 2009, Benin created the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, African Integration, the Francophone Community, and Beninese Abroad to manage its relations with the diaspora. The ministry's objectives, among others, are to provide humanitarian assistance to Beninese abroad in the case of mass deportations or expulsions, inform the diaspora regarding government policies, and propose measures to create favorable conditions allowing Beninese abroad to contribute to Benin's development.
Similar hybrid setups can also be found in Tunisia (Ministry of Social Affairs and Solidarity and Tunisians Abroad), Somalia (Ministry for Diaspora and Community Affairs), and Dominica (Ministry of Trade, Industry, Consumer, and Diaspora Affairs). Typically, these hybrid ministries contain agencies dedicated solely to diasporas, such as Benin's Directorate for Relations with Beninese Abroad, Tunisia's Office for Tunisians Abroad, and Lebanon's Department for Diaspora Affairs.
By establishing either a separate diaspora ministry or a hybrid one, a government recognizes that traditional ministries like labor and foreign affairs cannot manage the expatriate portfolio in all its dimensions.
This review suggests that unlike other institutions occupying lower positions in the hierarchy, diaspora ministries generally enjoy more consistent budgetary allocation, support from the top of government, and, interestingly, a more explicit development-oriented mandate. Their existence also signifies that the government accords diaspora engagement the highest political importance. Indeed, some of these ministries started out as smaller offices within other ministries.
Creating a hybrid ministry can also be a cost-effective approach because it elevates the government's diaspora portfolio while avoiding the larger administrative and legislative expense normally associated with establishing a new and separate institution.
Moreover, hybrid ministries are positioned to make more coherent policies that address the shared and contrasting agendas of the merged sectors. Ideally, the approach can minimize "turf wars" that may arise when two or three ministries deal with the diaspora population in different ways.
Other countries have institutionalized diaspora engagement at the subministry level by creating special offices, typically under the ministry of labor and/or foreign affairs. One of the earliest examples comes from the Philippines.
Faced with increasing problems brought about by a rapidly expanding temporary worker population abroad, the government established in 1981 the Overseas Workers Welfare Administration (OWWA), an agency under the Department of Labor and Employment. OWWA, which is tasked with protecting Filipino migrant workers, provides various services ranging from repatriation to new-business loans.
Another office, the Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA), was created a year later. Considered the "manager" of the overseas employment program, POEA has the sole authority to regulate temporary overseas employment, including recruitment agencies.
Another body, the Office of the Undersecretary for Migrant Workers' Affairs, was created in 1995, this time under the Department of Foreign Affairs. Like OWWA, the office focuses on migrant protection mainly through providing legal advice and judicial support to distressed workers. It was created as a response to increasing reports of maltreatment, illegal recruitment, and even deaths of temporary workers.
A review of the missions and activities of 10 countries with diaspora offices suggests that, like the Philippines, four have a particularly strong focus on protection (see Table 2).
Based on its 2006 activities report, Romania's Department for Relations with Romanians Abroad focuses largely on protecting Romanians abroad and partnering with Romanian associations.
Peru's Undersecretary for Peruvians Abroad, under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, assists with consular paperwork and documentation and provides legal and humanitarian assistance. Also, it has created a Guide for the Peruvian Migrant that discusses important issues encountered in host countries.
In 2004, El Salvador created the Vice Ministry for Salvadorans Abroad under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Like Peru, the vice ministry's mission is to defend the rights of the migrant workers, heighten their opportunities, and safeguard their interests.
Although migrant protection remains an important facet of their work, other offices at the subministry level have diversified their portfolios by adopting initiatives that facilitate their diasporas' integration in the host country and participation in development activities at home.
A good example is Mexico's Institute for Mexicans Abroad (IME), a decentralized body of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs that aims to elevate the standard of living of Mexican communities by promoting their integration in the destination country. Created in 2003, IME formalized a long-standing Mexican government policy to gain the trust and support of an increasingly influential expatriate population who live mainly in Mexico's most important neighbor, the United States.
IME provides an array of services centered on health, education, and financial services. In addition, with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, IME has created the Practical Guide for the Mexican Traveler (Guía Práctica para el Viajero Mexicano), which touches on issues of migration as well as casual travel.
In the long term, the Mexican government hopes to "create a strong relationship with the communities" to pursue joint objectives that the diaspora and the government share in relation to both Mexico and the United States.
Chile's Office for Chileans Abroad, on the other hand, has a more explicit development mandate. Established in 2001 as part of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' General Office for Consular and Immigration Services, its main purpose is not only to attend to the "demands and needs of communities of Chilean residents abroad" but also to "encourage their participation in national development."
Ethiopia has a similar agency. Established in 2002 under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ethiopian Expatriate Affairs has as one of its four main objectives encouraging "the active involvement of the Ethiopians in Diaspora in socioeconomic activities of the country." Likewise, Albania's Institute of National Diaspora is closely linked to the brain-gain initiatives of the United Nations Development Program and the International Organization for Migration (IOM).
The activities and general orientation of subministry diaspora institutions seem to follow the mandate and priorities set by the mother agency, which itself may or may not include a focus on development at home. Interestingly, this review found no diaspora institution directly under a government body or ministry that is mainly responsible for development planning.
Other Government Institutions at the National Level
Some diaspora institutions fall short of full ministry standing but still report directly to the highest executive body. These institutions enjoy a fairly influential position within the government. Six countries in this review had such institutions (see Table 3).
For instance, the Philippines' Commission on Filipinos Overseas (CFO) is directly under the Office of the President.
Established in 1980 as part of an overall government strategy that included OWWA and POEA, the commission has a dual role of promoting both economic and cultural ties between the Philippines and its diaspora. Unlike OWWA and POEA, however, CFO focuses mainly on Filipinos that have either established permanent residence or acquired citizenship in the destination country.
Similarly, Sierra Leone's Office of the Diaspora is directly under the Office of the President. It encourages the return of professionals and other experts from the diaspora in order to fill critical human resources gaps within the country's government. Specifically, the office provides a list of jobs in government departments, a list of educational institutions and professional associations in Sierra Leone, contact details of government officials, and information on dual citizenship and other acts.
China's Overseas Chinese Affairs Office (SCOCAO) is uniquely positioned within the Chinese central government. SCOCAO is an administrative office under the State Council, the country's highest executive body (it includes the premier and ministers, among others). The SCOCAO staff of 120 supports the premier and assists in a wide range of activities. These include establishing databases in each city, county, and province so that overseas Chinese can find their ancestral roots, homes, and properties, and operating two universities catering mainly to members of the Chinese diaspora.
Another example is Morocco's Ministerial Delegate for the Prime Minister Responsible for Moroccans Resident Abroad. Created by a Royal Decree in 1993, the institution, attached directly to the Prime Minister, provides a wide range of resources including remittance/banking references, cultural events, and advice on investment, financial planning, diaspora tax, customs, commerce, transportation, and social security.
Other governments have created intergovernmental and parliamentary committees to coordinate actions on both the executive and legislative fronts. For instance, Poland's Inter-Governmental Committee for Polonia and Polish Minorities Abroad was formed in 2000.
In Chile, the Interministerial Committee for Chilean Communities Abroad formulates public policies on the diaspora and is composed of 12 public institutions that in some way or another are responsible for addressing the needs and demands of the nearly 1 million Chileans residing abroad.
Some governments have also established special committees within the legislative branch of government.
Poland formed the Polish Diaspora Commission in the lower house of its parliament to engage on policy matters pertaining to the diaspora. China (Overseas Chinese Affairs Committee) and the Philippines (Committee on Overseas Workers Affairs) have similar committees within their legislative bodies.
The experiences of Poland, China, and the Philippines suggest that such diaspora committees ease passage of critical legislation that supports creating larger and more organized diaspora bodies.
Institutions at the Local Level
Diaspora engagement does not stop at the national or federal level. Studies have shown that diasporas are often inclined to engage at the local level, usually in their region or locality of origin, where they are familiar with the local context and, in many cases, still have family ties.
Thus, it is not surprising that special offices for diasporas have sprung up locally. Four countries in this review created institutions at the local level (see Table 4).
China exhibits one of the most expansive networks of local diaspora offices. The Overseas Chinese Affairs Office, described earlier, is replicated in 30 provinces, as well as in some cities and townships across China. Although local diaspora offices get their overall policy direction from the central government office, they function with relative independence and are allowed to adopt innovative methods to attract diaspora investments.
Some states in India have diaspora offices as well, the most active of which can be found in Kerala and Gujarat. The Keralan government created the Department of Non-Resident Keralite Affairs (NORKA) in 1996 primarily to protect its migrant workers from abuse and exploitation. NORKA addresses complaints against illegal recruitment agencies, provides assistance to stranded Keralites, and facilitates the repatriation of bodies. It also runs an insurance scheme for unemployed returnees, unskilled laborers, and domestic workers.
In Gujarat, the local government created a Non-Resident Indian (NRI) Division within its administration department. A review of its objectives suggests a stronger focus on development. Using a database that identifies their technical and professional skills, the NRI Division seeks to strengthen ties with Gujaratis abroad.
Similarly, in Mexico, 29 of the 32 states and the Federal District have established state-level offices or ministries that address migrant or expatriate affairs and have a national coordinating secretariat. The local offices aim to strengthen cooperation on migrant protection both within Mexico and abroad.
Local-level diaspora institutions are perfectly positioned to design programs in tune with home-country community needs and opportunities. With proper coordination, they can complement the activities of higher-level institutions and even share the cost of engagement. Members of the diaspora can also more easily monitor their contributions and investments at the local level and more effectively hold their officials accountable, thus increasing the likelihood of successful programs.
For some governments, full diaspora engagement requires creating and developing institutions that are rooted not only at home but also abroad. This approach requires capitalizing on existing structures in consulates, which remain the most important interlocutors for diaspora populations.
A review of the embassy and consulate websites of countries in this study suggests an active consular presence in top destinations of their respective diasporas. More than ever, governments are instructing their consulates to interact with emigrants more systematically.
Help in the Destination Country
The primary responsibility of consulates remains basic consular services, such as processing passports and visa applications and authenticating legal documents like birth certificates, marriage certificates, etc. Almost all countries in this review provide such services.
Consulates also have been involved in integration efforts. For instance, the Salvadoran Embassy in the United States operates a Legal Assistance Section that offers immigration assistance and advice.
Some consulates help connect migrant communities at the destination. The Sri Lankan High Commission in India offers information to organizations that support Sri Lankans in India, such as the Buddhist Pilgrims' Rest, which takes care of Sri Lankan pilgrims in India. The Embassy of Morocco in France maintains Web pages devoted to discussing the presence of Moroccan diaspora in France, including a detailed search tool to find local Moroccan associations.
Consular identification cards that citizens abroad can use in the destination country have also become more popular. For instance, the Consulate General of Pakistan in the United States issues the National Identification Card for Overseas Pakistanis, which is available to all Pakistani citizens in the United States and serves as a national identification card.
Mexico offers a similar card, the matricula consular, at its consulates. Since the U.S. Department of the Treasury announced in 2002 that consular cards are valid government-issued identification, these cards have become increasingly accepted at U.S. banks and government offices.
Some consulates partner with other actors in the private and public realm to assist migrants. For instance, in May 2003, the Mexican Consulate in Chicago responded to feedback from the community and improved access to the U.S. banking system for recent Mexican immigrants by partnering with the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and other stakeholders.
By December 2003, 35,000 immigrants in the Midwest had participated in financial education classes or workshops, and immigrants had opened 50,000 new accounts in Chicago containing $100 million in deposits. Similar initiatives are now underway in Boston, Austin, Kansas City, Los Angeles, and Charlotte and Raleigh, North Carolina.
Beyond helping diasporas integrate at the destination, some consulates assist migrants in difficult situations. The Embassy of the Dominican Republic in the United States provides counseling and information about deportations to prisoners and their relatives.
In the United Arab Emirates, the Indian Embassy offers a hotline for "women and housemaids in distress" while the Philippines' consulate there maintains a safe house for migrants who have escaped abusive employers.
Links to the Homeland
For most consulates in this review, however, activities have focused most on linking migrants, including their descendants, to the homeland. They do so by providing information on developments at home and by implementing programs on culture, education, and economic development.
The Philippine, Chinese, and Sierra Leonean embassies in the United States post news updates on their Web sites. Many consulates also host cultural events to engage their diasporas. The Embassy of the Dominican Republic in the United States hosts cultural events specifically for children of Dominican heritage while the Moroccan Embassy in France promotes language classes.
Aside from cultural events, a number of consulates encourage members of their diasporas to study in the homeland. The Pakistani Embassy in the United States provides links to internships, medical colleges, and other universities in Pakistan. The Moroccan Embassy in France offers an extensive online list of special programs and/or universities where Moroccan nationals may study in Morocco.
Although almost all embassies provide information on business and investment opportunities, most do not specifically target members of the diaspora. However, governments are increasingly using their consular networks to sell diaspora bonds, designed to tap into the diaspora's assets. Israel and India have raised billions of dollars through their diaspora bond initiatives.
Some governments have expanded their diplomatic presence to places with large diaspora populations. Although Mexico has maintained an extensive consular network in the United States since the 1800s, the government established new consulates since 2000 to make sure it could reach the growing number of Mexican citizens in places like Boise, Idaho, and Raleigh, North Carolina. As of mid-2009, Mexico had 50 consulates throughout the United States.
Similarly, the Philippines has opened four diplomatic posts since 2008 to reflect the increasing presence of Filipinos in Ireland, Syria, and China. Currently, it maintains 88 offices in 65 countries.
The composition of diplomatic staff has evolved to accommodate diaspora needs and interests. For instance, each Ethiopian Embassy has assigned a diplomat to handle expatriate issues. About 70 to 75 IME representatives in Mexican consulates in the United States are in charge of implementing IME programs and projects.
Likewise, given its focus on protecting its workers abroad, many consular offices of the Philippines have welfare and labor attachés to attend to distressed and abused workers.
Some governments have adopted unconventional ways of institutionalizing their engagement in destination countries. By establishing and/or maintaining foundations and diaspora councils, a number of developing countries have essentially created quasi-government diaspora institutions that blur the usual distinction between official and nongovernmental bodies.
Such institutions are especially useful to origin governments that do not want to be seen — for whatever reason — as intervening too much in the affairs of host countries. Five countries in this review support quasi-government diaspora institutions (see Table 5).
In 1990, Morocco created the Hassan II Foundation for Moroccans Residing Abroad (FHII). Established via a royal decree, FHII is officially described as a "nonprofit institution with a social vocation, endowed with a moral personality and financial autonomy."
FHII is a private organization that has an especially close relationship with the Moroccan government. It is not a government institution, although the government sets its mandate. Interestingly, at one point in time, the minister in charge of Moroccans abroad also ran the foundation. Currently, FHII's president is Princess Lalla Meryem.
In an analysis of FHII, international relations expert Laurie Brand mentions an interview with then director-general Abderrahman Zahi in which Zahi said (in Brand's paraphrase) that "a foundation was preferable to a ministry because if it intervened on behalf of immigrants, it would not provoke the same sensibilities, but that as more than [an] association or an NGO [nongovernmental organization], it has a stronger voice with host governments."
Another type of quasi-government diaspora institution is an advisory council. The councils, usually a mix of community leaders and government officials, advise the government on diaspora-related matters.
One of the earliest examples is Mali's High Council of Malians Abroad, which serves as the official representative of the diaspora in Mali and in the country of residence. The council aims to promote solidarity between the diaspora and Mali, assist consular officials in the protection of Malians abroad, identify potential investors from the diaspora, and promote a positive image of Mali. Local councils are elected in various countries where Malian expatriates are concentrated. These national councils then elect representatives to the High Council.
Since 2003, Mexico's Institute of Mexicans Abroad has collaborated with the Consultative Council of IME (CCIME). Created in 2003, CCIME is composed of Mexican, Mexican American, and Mexican Canadian community leaders; directors of Latino organizations; and special advisers and representatives of Mexican state governments.
More recently, the Dominican Republic created in 2006 the National Presidential Council for Dominican Communities Abroad. This council primarily aims to integrate the diaspora into the Dominican Republic's national development efforts. The council makes recommendations to the Dominican government and supports the implementation of programs, plans, and projects.
Government-financed councils are particularly significant since they can be an excellent source of feedback from, and other relevant information about, the diaspora. Like local-level institutions, they are ideal and, in some cases, necessary complements to government bodies at both the national and local level.
However, who sits on these councils and how they were chosen are crucial factors in determining whether or not they can fulfill their potential. If the diaspora sees council members as unrepresentative or irrelevant, the councils will at best be ignored and at worst maligned.
Nearly all countries examined here have an institution either at the ministry or subministry level while a few countries with huge diasporas abroad have institutions at nearly all levels of government. Some governments have created innovative institutions at the local level as well as abroad by capitalizing on their consulates and creating quasi-government institutions found typically in civil society.
The real reach and effectiveness of these diaspora-centered institutions are hard to pinpoint, as is their impact on development efforts at home. Evaluations rarely exist; if they do, they are not publicly available.
The limited discussions in both academic and policy literature have mainly assumed a descriptive, nonevaluative tone. Nearly a third of institutions reviewed here are also fairly new, having been established in the last five years.
A closer look at some of these institutions reveals that translating a diaspora's promise into reality is more easily said than done. Origin governments, guided by modesty and pragmatism — and the awareness that members of their diasporas may distrust them — should start with obtaining information about their citizens abroad and what they would like from the government.
An honest assessment of the government's capacity and resources (financial and technical know-how) to initiate and, more importantly, maintain these institutions must also take place early on.
The type of diaspora institution that would be most effective varies from country to country. It should be based on the diaspora's needs and the existing institutional structure. All types of institutions can benefit from building up their technical know-how, creating meaningful partnerships, and forging a stronger link with national development plans.
Any diaspora institution should continually monitor and evaluate its services and programs, making adjustments as often as are necessary. A forum in which government practitioners and members of diaspora could share lessons learned and best practices would be valuable. The Global Forum on Migration and Development and associated preparatory meetings could play this role.
In the final analysis, diaspora institutions are in many ways no different from other institutions in developing countries. They are not immune to the challenges of institutionalization, and they cannot solve the structural problems plaguing the developing world.
Governments can only realize the considerable development benefits of diaspora institutions if they have a national development policy that recognizes their diasporas as critical partners.
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From Uncyclopedia, the content-free encyclopedia
Immigrants are people who have left one country, usually because it sucked, and travel to another country to live. Normally this is made possible because the country they are travelling to has previously colonised them and taught them all how to speak the language. This combined with the natives of the rich countries all being too lazy to do any real work has invited the greatest movement of the people since Bob Marley played to Moses at the parting of the Red sea festival AD 1307.
Usually, immigrants are brown in colour, and so can be easily identified, however, recently we have seen the advent of the "stealth immigrant", a new type of immigrant usually from Poland. Stealth immigrants are white in colour, and are often mistaken for pikeys. They are far more difficult to identify and have appeared on the scene as a result of recent worldwide legislation which frees up limitations on what colour people can be imported into different countries.
edit Types of immigrants
Immigrants come in many shapes, sizes, colours and odours.
Brown immigrants originate mainly from Mexico. They live in dwellings called corner shops and survive by selling produce at vastly inflated prices to the native population who are too lazy to walk slightly further to the supermarket. Their hobbies include taking all the jobs from Americans and the border people are instructed to shoot them on the spot, should they attempt to cross the border. Mexican immigrants can be identified by their funny hats, their eccentric mustaches or their sheer refusal to use the word 'is'.
Black immigrants are divided into Africans who were once our slaves, and the Africans who sold them into it. Because they are all now living here, together they have turned their attention to their common enemy, the Asians. They are very often stereotyped of committing the following crimes:
- Mugging old ladies
- Shouting obscenities into a microphone
- refusing to queue for trains, tubes, buses, etc
- refusing to pay for trains, tubes, buses, etc
- Playing the racist card; (often on trains)
- stabbing each other
- shooting each other
- benefit fraud
Unlike other forms of immigrants, yellow immigrants have little impact on the environment, apart from generating large amounts of waste product. This waste product is known as chicken chow mein. However, this is prized in many countries around the world and these immigrants are able to subsidise their stay in other countries by selling this waste product to the locals.
Yellow immigrants are notoriously good at mathematics. In their spare time they enjoy calculating the value of pi up to a gargantillion decimal points.
Yellow immigrants will generally try to integrate themselves among white people, thus believing themselves to be one of them.
Although still unproven, many are convinced that the yellow immigrants are aliens equipped with supercomputers trying to infiltrate into the human civilization (hence explaining their outrageous aptitudes in terms of science and fertility).
There are many different types of white immigrants and it would be impossible to list them all here. Most of them are from Europe, Canada to US (vise-versa) and Brazil. (But, you can find some white musleum immigrants, BEWARE) For lonely nerdy white men, they should thank the lord for creating the Baltics or the Balkans on the seventh day: a huge supply of mail-order brides! There are also white mexicans these are the best ones into blending into the society because of the color of their skin we should all be aware of them if you see them talking about "futbol", put your guard up. They may attack about futbol not football.
A mix of the above Immigrants, these people are intriguing combinations. They tend to float around by themselves, not being accepted by anyone because of their Retardation and lack of proper nationality. Often they will have a Monkey Fetish.
edit Eastern Europeans
Eastern Europeans are an example of the stealth immigrant recently introduced into EU law. Each member state who signed the Stealth Immigrant Charter has to take a proportion of the available immigrant population according to how long the name of their country is:
- Germany: 7%
- France: 6%
- Spain: 5%
- Portugal: 8%
- Italy: 5% (It's still unclear if they're Eastern Europeans or North Africans).
- Greece: 6%
- Luxembourg: 10%
- Malta: 5%
- The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland: 48%
- Storfors,Värmland,Sweden: 30%
The Eastern European for the phrase, "I do not understand" is "yes". Therefore it is very important to ensure that you are understood when speaking to them in order to avoid confusion. English should be spoken... slowly... with... pauses... after... each... word. (See William Shatner.) Otherwise, even if the question was "can I do your mother up the wrong 'un", the answer will always be "yes". Note: asking a Frenchman the same question will always result in a positive answer, but that's because they're dirty little bastards, ain't they? I mean, if it's got a pulse, they'll have their oily way with it.
Contrary to popular belief, Eastern Europeans are actually very good for the British economy. Every piece of construction work they do collapses approximately six months later. British workers can then come in and charge 3 times as much to repair the damage. They have also created huge numbers of job opportunities for British workers in other fields; for example, any British plumbers who are struggling for work can now readily find employment in Poland.
The E.U. signed a million hot, young, blond, blue-eyed and easy-to-get Eastern European women through a mail-order program. This information was taken from a drunk russian who now thinks he is chinese.
edit Australians/New Zealanders/South Africans
Despite their protests to the contrary, these are in fact all from the same country, as is evidenced by the manner in which they flock together to insult British sporting teams. There are some regional differences, however:
- Australian males are all exclusively called Bruce. Females are all called Sheila.
- South Africans hate kaffirs. Kaffirs is Afrikaans for "coffee"; South Africans prefer tea.
- New Zealanders are very partial to lamb, although they have curious food preparation habits. It is unclear how shoving your cock up a sheep's arse improves the eventual taste of the meat, although this practice is not exclusive to them, being also conducted by the Welsh.
- New Zealanders all look like Jonah Lomu. Even the women. In fact, particularly the women.
Australian/NZ/SA immigrants all work in bars and are incapable of any other work. The recent changes to licensing laws in the UK which allowed pubs to stay open longer were introduced solely so that there were enough hours in the day to ensure that the 47 quadrillion immigrants were all able to pull at least one pint each.
A lot of immigrants make no attempt to learn the language, complain about the indigenous way of life, avail themselves greedily of free health care, only eat food they would expect to have in their own country of origin (e.g. in the case of Mexicans, most forms of fat wrapped in foil), and rigidly stick to themselves (in enclaves of their own people making no attempt whatsoever to integrate into the society that they have joined). These people are known as Scumbag Polish and have moved to Spain or Portugal, where they assist to make up these countries' stealth immigrant quota.
The small community known as smurfs are on the increase in Britain, They usually come by parachute and land in your shed. If you see a smurf you should not approach them as they are very dangerous and always carry an over-sized donkey foot. A new race of blue immigrants is emerging, escaping from the oppression in Avatar.
edit Advocates of immigrants
edit Ken Livingstone
Ex-London Mayor Ken Livingstone claims that immigrants are what makes London the multi-culturalist utopia it is today. He also says that the sky is green, up is down and that charging people to move their car three feet from one parking space to another is not morally bankrupt. Rumours have arisen recently that Livingstone himself is of immigrant stock, having crooked teeth certain races of immigrants possess.
Nevertheless he can become very cross if someone who is Jewish asks him a polite question when he's leaving a private party that was paid for with £10,000 of taxpayers' money.
edit Opponents of immigrants
Yeah. Read the Bible bitch. Or at least say you do... that's what most of us do.
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Income, Wealth, and the Economic Well-Being of Farm Households
by Ashok K. Mishra, Hisham S. El-Osta
, Mitch Morehart, James Johnson, and Jeffrey Hopkins
Agricultural Economic Report No. (AER-812) 77 pp, July 2002
Agricultural policy is rooted in the 1930's notion that providing transfers of money to the farm sector translates into increased economic well-being of farm families. This report shows that neither change in income for the farm sector nor for any particular group of farm business can be presumed to reflect changes confronting farm households. Farm households draw income from various sources, including off-farm work, other businesses operated and, increasingly, nonfarm investments. Likewise, focus on a single indicator of well-being, such as income, overlooks other indicators such as the wealth held by the household and the level of consumption expenditures for health care, food, housing, and other items. Using an expanded definition of economic well-being, we show that farm households as a whole are better off than the average U.S. household, but that 6 percent remain economically disadvantaged.
Keywords: farming, farm income, farm households, farm household wealth, off-farm work, farm typology, farm resource regions, operator age, operator education, household consumption, farm business, nonfarm income, ARMS, farm policy
In this publication...
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Celebrating the Civil Rights Act of 1964: Past, Present and Future
The year 2014 marks the 50th anniversary of the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. According to its preamble, the 1964 Civil Rights Act was enacted, among other things, “to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, [and] to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity.” And, of course, after its amendment on the floor, it provided for private actions to prohibit discrimination in employment on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.
The AALS Minority Section and Civil Rights Section will be holding a Joint Program at the 2014 Annual Meeting on this landmark piece of legislation. We invite the submission of drafts of papers (or detailed abstracts) that explore the 1964 Civil Rights Act’s historical origins, contemporary impact on civil rights, and future role in achieving equality. Papers selected from this Call for Papers will be presented at the Annual Meeting, which will be held in New York, New York. The Joint Program will include both the speakers whose papers have been selected from this Call for Papers and as well as invited speakers. There is the possibility that the papers presented will be published.
Papers or abstracts must be submitted by April 7, 2013 to Rose Cuison Villazor, [email protected], and Neil Cogan at [email protected].
Authors will be notified by April 15 regarding the selection of their papers.
Monday, March 11, 2013
CFP: Celebrating the Civil Rights Act of 1964
From the Association of American Law Schools Minority Section & Civil Rights Section, we have the following Call for Papers:
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Early in American history, brooms were used to sweep everything from cabins and homes to European castles. All brooms were made by individuals from whatever local materials were available. For example reeds, grasses, small twigs, branches and corn husks were used. They were crudely made and served short term use, requiring frequent replacements. History records an original broom made in 1797. It was a most amazing broom made from sorghum fibers that quickly became very popular. By 1820 the Shakers started mechanizing the broom industry.
We are stepping back in time to revisit an era when brooms were made by the individual to brighten and add a decorative flare as well as keeping the home clean. This pattern and design was developed by the immigrants from the British Isles, England, Scotland, Ireland, Wales, and Western Europe. Settlers throughout the Appalachian region blended their skills and crafts. Although brooms were manufactured in Massachusetts and sent all around the country, there were isolated communities that carried on the traditions of the old ways well into the early 1900 century.
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| 0.988826 | 218 | 3.375 | 3 |
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