text
stringlengths 199
648k
| id
stringlengths 47
47
| dump
stringclasses 1
value | url
stringlengths 14
419
| file_path
stringlengths 139
140
| language
stringclasses 1
value | language_score
float64 0.65
1
| token_count
int64 50
235k
| score
float64 2.52
5.34
| int_score
int64 3
5
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OverviewThe Imatong Mountains are located in the worlds newest country, South Sudan. Mount Kinyeti is the highest mountain of the range at 3,187 metres (10,456 ft), and the highest in the whole of South and North Sudan. The range has an equatorial climate and had dense montane forests supporting diverse wildlife. In recent years the rich ecology has been severely degraded by forest clearance and subsistence farming, leading to extensive erosion of the steep slopes.
There has been little exploration of the Imatong Mountains for over 40 years, due to long running conflict in the region. Apart from a 1984 report, there have been hardly any western visitors to the region, until a Secret Compass.expedition in February 2012.
Little is known of the area before the arrival of Europeans. The explorer Samuel Baker was the first European to visit the region, travelling in the northwest and west of the area in 1863. He visited Tarrangolle (Tirangole) and observed unnamed mountains to the south. Later he passed through these mountains, the western Acholi range of the Imatongs. Emin Pasha made a trip in 1881 in which he traveled along the eastern foothills of the mountains and then southwest to the Nile. J.R.L. Macdonald passed through the region in 1898 on a patrol towards Lado, and later the Ugandan colonial government established a post at Ikotos, just east of the mountains. However, the official map of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan published in 1922 only showed the outlines of the mountains.
The first map to show the mountains and give them the name of the Imatong Mountains was published in the Geographical Journal in May 1929, prepared from a compilation of the Sudan Government Survey Department. Apart from a visit by R. Good to Gebel Marra which had obtained a few specimens, no European botanist had investigated the mountains. In 1929 the botanist Thomas Ford Chipp, then deputy director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, reached the peak of Kinyeti. The same year he published a report on the flora with several photographs. The first detailed map appeared in 1931. Later the British established an observation post on the north side, above the village of Gilo (1800 meters) at an altitude of about 2200 meters. The biologist Neal A. Weber examined the ants in the area in 1942/1943.
Getting ThereThe Imatongs are best accessed via Katire, an old British forestry station. Katire is accessed by a recently graded dirt road from Torit, the capital of Eastern Equatoria state. The journey will take 1.5-2 hours in a 4x4. You can catch local minibuses infrequently from opposite the main market in Torit. Torit is accessed from Juba, the capital, via a recently graded dirt road. The journey takes 3-4 hours and you can catch minibuses to Torit from the main river bridge in Juba.
Juba is accessed overland from Uganda, or by air from Nairobi, Kampala and Addis Ababa.
The only realistic time to travel is in the dry season; Nov - Mar each year, otherwise roads can become impassable.
Red TapeSouth Sudan Visas are available at the airport on arrival for $100.
Permits for the Imatong mountains are available from the Ministry of Wildlife, Conservation and Tourism in Torit, near to the main market.
External LinksFor expeditions to the region see www.secretcompass.com
For a video of the Imatong Mountains made during Independence see www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oox-zO3fk5o
Camping and trekkingThere is an excellent camp site in Katire on the site of an old colonial house. It has a clean long drop and a stream for water close by.
On the trail to Mount Kinyeti there are streams every 2-3 hours, with excellent clean water. There are good campsites that can be cleared with machetes within 5 min walk of each stream.
You will need local guides for the trail to Kinyeti, who can be hired at Katire, where a number of people speak good English. The forest is very dense once past the old plantation forest and local paths will have to be followed.
It will take fit trekkers 3 days to summit Kinyeti and return to Katire, the majority of people will need 4 days.For an excellent blog article of the route click here
|
<urn:uuid:fe4c73bd-ee0b-4fbd-b772-80500604746e>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.summitpost.org/imatong-mountains/761693
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.945134 | 943 | 2.796875 | 3 |
|LESS LIGHT! OK, I can hear all the groaning… we're really stretching it this time. But in some way this statement is true. The primary purpose of Chiropractic is to locate and correct subluxations. When you break the word down into it's roots, SUB-LUX-ATION you get this…|
"SUB" – means less than, or lower than normalThe literal definition of subluxation is a state or condition of less LIGHT or power than normal. Subluxations occur when spinal bones mis-align and restrict the normal flow of “light” through the spinal cord and nerves. The effect… your body gets less of the Life energy or “light” it needs from the nerve system to maintain health and vitality.
"LUX" – is latin for LIGHT and
"ATION" – is a state of being, or a condition
When Chiropractors locate and correct subluxations, they're removing blockages to the light so it can flow freely through your nerve system, illuminating every cell, tissue and organ in your body. If sub-lux-ations produce darkness in your health, Chiropractic adjustments bring EN-LIGHTEN-MENT.
So don’t let the shorter, darker days get you down. Fall back into a healthy Chiropractic routine and keep your nerve system lit up. Life is brighter when you’re subluxation free.
|
<urn:uuid:f68c9c0d-91c2-4b95-8062-327952e23172>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://morriswellnesscenter.blogspot.com/2012/08/clocks-and-chiropractic.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00024-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.896807 | 305 | 2.734375 | 3 |
1 - Overview
Λευκα Ορη – the Greek name for Crete’s largest mountain range can be transcribed in several ways. On most maps you will find Lefka Ori, sometimes Levka Ori or if Greeks transcribe it, they will say Leuka Ori. I opted for the middle ground for the name of this page on SP.
Levka Ori – the White Mountains – named like that since the range is the only one on Crete to be covered with snow until late in spring. Moreover, being built from pale limestone, its peaks glisten in the hot Cretan sun even without a snow cover so that the name is really well deserved. The range is Crete’s largest one, one of the largest mountain ranges of Greece. To some accounts it has 54 summits above 2000m. However, there are much less named peaks that tall, most of which have multiple summits thus accounting for the big number. The highest mountain is Pachnes / Παχνες, at 2453m Crete’s second highest one, only beaten by Psiloritis / Ψηλορειτις, which reaches (2456m).
Crete’s mountain ranges are made up from limestone – and the Levka Ori are no exception. Everywhere on the island you find karst phenomena and again – in the Levka Ori they are most pronounced. Wind and rain have leveled much of the range so that summits appear like rounded hills presiding above large high plateaus. The whole area has been hollowed out from the inside and you’ll finde lots of caves, crevices, ravines and gorges in the area. The most common phenomenon is the doline, a collapse zone, where underground structures have given way to crater-like depressions, which nowadays are filled with vegetation of all kinds. The most impressive of these are the orphrys orchids and the endemic arum species.
Probably the White Mountains are best known for their gorges – the four most important ones cut through the range in its southern part. The Samaria Gorge draws most visitors, being the longest of European Gorges and a natural line of separation between the main part of the range and its western subgroup. The Aradena Gorge runs though the far south of the Levka Ori while the Agia Irini Gorge and the Imbros Gorges serve as western and eastern boundaries of the range. The southern boundary is the coast (with very impressive cliffs) while the northern one is a bit fuzzy and can be envisioned as the last line of habitations surrounding the range.
Two branches of the European long distance trekking trail E4 run through the range. The coastal one follows the shoreline and can be extreme in terms of heat, difficulty and exposure. The Alpine one, which wriggles its way between the high summits is unmarked in its central part, which poses serious problems in orientation. Like any karst mountain range the Levka Ori are somewhat “featureless”, with no significant landmarks to guide you. Crossing the plateaus can mean large detours because of crevices which cut through the ground or dolines opening up before you. On lower elevations thorny bushes add to the problem. Crossing the Levka Ori in foggy conditions definitely is no good idea unless you are equipped with good guiding material and/or a GPS receiver.
2 - Levka Ori on SPThough a compact range the Levka Ori have been divided into five subgroup for submission here at SP. All groups are identified by their location and by the highest summit within their boundaries. The westernmost group, beyond the Samaria Gorge, sometimes is not considered part of the range anymore but since it contains two of the most visited 2000ers of the area which can serve as examples for the karst phenomena of the whole range they have been added here.
Together with the map posted above the following list is supposed to give you an overview over the mountains submitted to SP and where you will find them on this page. The map is interactive so that clicking the numbers will direct you to the section on this page. The list below contains mountains and canyons. The canyons are located at the back end of the listing for the respective range.
- Western Range (Volakias)
- Main Range (Pachnes)
- North-Western Range (Melindaou)
- Northern Range (Grias Soros)
- Eastern Range (Kastro)
3 - Western Range (Volakias)
The western range is separated from the bulk of the Levka Ori by the Samaria Gorge and the Omalos Plain. Sometimes not considered part of the White Mountains due to this separation it nevertheless shows the same karst phenomena as the central Levka Ori. Two of its summits, Gingilos and Volakias, are the most visited mountains on Crete, thanks to the perfect location of the Xyloskalo trailhead beneath their east slopes. The subgroup spreads between the Agia Irini and Samaria Gorges and possesses several villages on its outskirts. The E4-branch, which runs along the coast between the two gorges is the most extreme part of the whole treck.
- Kaimeni / Καυμενη (1398m)
- Tourli / Τουρλι (1458m)
- Psilafi / Ψηλαφι (1984m)
- Gingilos / Γινγιλος (2080m)
- Volakias / Βολακιας (2116m)
- Katsaromoura / Κατσαρομουρα (1694m)
- Toumba / Τουπα (1139m)
- Ochro / Οχρο (807m)
4 - Main Range (Pachnes)
In its north the Samaria Gorge bends eastward in a wide circle, separating the southern from the northern summits of the Levka Ori Range. The southern ones are the highest summits of the whole range, Pachnes and Troharis, located close to each other in the middle of the range. Reaching them is far from easy, mainly because of the very long access routes, making them some of the least climbed mountains on the whole island.
To the south of these main summits the subgroup quickly drops towards a large plateau, the fertile plain of Anopolis, Aradena and Agios Ioanis. It stretches foar towards the sea, where it suddenly drops almost vertically towards the small bays and beaches of southern Crete. Not surprisingly this part of the range also is cut through by profound canyons, the Aradena Gorge being the longest and most impressive one.
- Kouvara / Κουβαρα (1186m)
- Psiristra / Ψιριστρα (1766m)
- Korifi Avlimonakou / Κορυφη Αβλιμονακου (1858m)
- Papakefala / Παπακεφαλα (1020m)
- Zaranokefala / Ζαρανοκεφαλα (2140m)
- Pachnes / Παχνες (2453m)
- Troharis / Τροχαρης (2410m)
- Kerdokefala / Κερδοκεφαλα (1720m)
5 - North-Western Range (Melindaou)
The north-western subgroup, the highest mountain of which is Melindaou at its south-eastern end, is the “tamest” one of the subgroups. Except for its highpoint and the neighbouring mountains, which all tower above the eastern branch of the Samaria Gorge, the summits are lower and covered with dense vegetation. Apart from the ridge Psari – Mavri – Melindaou only Koukoule is climbed regularly since there is a direct trail from Omalos to the Kallergi Hut. Still the subgroup is visited rather often since the Alpine branch of E4 runs straight through it.
- Koukoule / Κουκουλε (1629m)
- Psari / Πσαρη (1810m)
- Mavri / Μαυρι (1828m)
- Melindaou / Μελινταου (2133m)
- Kaloros / Καλορος (1925m)
- Agavani / Αγαβανη (1552m)
- Konstantinou / Κωνσταντινου (809m)
- Xirokefalia / Ξηροκεφαλια (860m)
6 - Northern Range (Grias Soros)
Formed like a triangular wedge the northern subrange probably is the most photographed one of the Levka Ori. It can be seen from almost anywhere on the northern coast of the island where the tourist towns and beaches are located. Its summits are often covered with snow late into spring, which serves as an explanation for the range’s name – the White mountain. However, the highest summits, Agio Pnevma and Grias Soros, are hidden from view behind the lower Mavri and Spahi. Again, the alpine branch of E4 runs through this subgroup and it is here where the trail is unmarked and orientation is most difficult. Moreover the cols beneath the highest summits are very lonesome and only the Katsiveli Hut can serve as a base.
On the group’s northern outskirts the Volakias Hut can be found which serves as base for climbs of the northernmost 2000ers Spahi and Mavri. However, these paths are also unmarked and orientation is difficult as well.
- Xerakokefala / Ξερακοκεφαλα (1238m)
- Anginares / Αγγιναρες (1115m)
- Halassi / Χαλασσι (1221m)
- Mavri / Μαυρη (2069m)
- Spahi / Σπαδι (2046m)
- Ornio / Ορνιο (2153m)
- Agio Pnevma / Αγιο Πνευμα (2254m)
- Grias Soros / Γριας Σωρος (2331m)
- Anthropolithos / Ανθροπολιθος (2096m)
- Lines / Λινες (2093m)
7 - Eastern Range (Kastro)
The eastern part of the Levka Ori reaches down to civilization again. While its highest mountains, Kastro and Kakovoli are still located very far inside the range its southern and eastern parts are either inhabited or used for farming, goat and sheep grazing by the local shepherds. Here you can find some of the most beautiful high plateaus, all circular, surrounded by hills and covered with all kinds of greenery. In the south the range drops into the Lybian Sea near Chora Skafion, the “capital” of Crete’s south.
- Korda / Κορδα (1612m)
- Agriokefala / Αγριοκεφαλα (1478m)
- Agrimokefala / Αγριμοκεφαλα (1340m)
- Kastro / Καστρο (2218m)
- Kakovoli / Κακοβολι (2214m)
- Skoutsio Korifi / Σκουτσιο Κορυφη (1893m)
- Vigla / Βιγλα (1415m)
- Kastri / Καστρι (846m)
8 - Getting There
8.1 - By Plane
There are two international airports, both in the north of the island. One is at Chania in the west, the other is at Heraklion in the centre.
8.2 - By Ferry
There are myriads of ferries in Greece, which connect the many islands of the country. Consequently there are many ferry harbours and Crete is no exception. However, most of the smaller harbours only cater for transportation to the other islands while the major lines to the mainland are reserved to two harbours, Souda near Chania and Heraklion. Both serve connections to Peiraias and Thessaloniki.
8.3 - By Bus and Car
All of the villages on the outskirts of the Levka Ori can be reached by bus. However, except for the lines which connect Chania with Omalos and Chora Skafion bus transfer is rather sporadic. The Omalos and Chora Skafion lines run about once an hour and many tour organizers also serve the two villages.
With a car you can reach all trailheads in all villages though, especially in the north, roads signs can be a bit confusing. Again, the roads to Omalos and Chora Skafion serve as the best itineraries as well as the western route from Chania to Sougia.
9 - AccommodationYou can quite easily find hotel rooms and apartments everywhere on the coasts. All European travel companies offer accommodation so a visit to your nearest travel office will find you some. In the mountain villages there always are inns and if everything fails you can pitch a tent.
9.1 - Camping
There are abundant campgrounds along the coast and on many of the beaches you can pitch your tent. The tourist beaches in the north and the beaches in the vicinity of tourist towns are mostly off-limits but there is many a cove which you can use. In the mountains you will often find cattle (goat and sheep) fences which you should respect. There is many a green meadow in one of the plains but you should be aware that you’ll be woken up by goats. Again, in the vicinity of villages, rather ask the locals if you can use their land. Any place within the natural park Fysikon Parko Samarias, which encompasses the Samaria Gorge and the surrounding mountains, is off limits for camping
9.2 - Mountian Huts
There are four mountain huts in the Levka Ori, maintained by EOS, the Greek Alpine Club. The ones close to habitation are generally open most times of the year while the remote ones can be closed as late as May.
|Refuge / Hut||Height|
10 - Red Tape
There is not much red tape on Crete. There is a National Park, Fysikon Parko Samarias, which encompasses the Samaria Gorge and its surroundings where over night accommodation is strictly forbidden (even in the huts in the area). You will find that you have to pay entry fees for the most popular locations (again the Samaria Gorge but also the Agia Irini Gorge) but apart from that there are no / few limitations.
On the other hand there are a lot of rare endemic flowers on the island. I'm not aware of any restrictions concerning them but you might take care not to pluck any of them. The mountains around the Samaria gorge are home to the last specimen of the Golden Eagle and Bearded Vulture, which you might see soar above the gorge. Their eyries are located in the steep faces of the mountains above the upper Samaria Gorge but rather far away from the regular climbing routes. Still, take care not to disturb them, especially in the first half of the year when thy raise their little ones.
More information on the park Fysikon Parko Samarias
11 - Weather ConditionsThe weather sites on the web only carry information for the cities on the north coast, which are 2000m lower than the mountains of the Levka Ori. Consequently temperatures will be lower by some 15° C on the summits. Also, especially in winter and spring, the White Mountains are covered in clouds while the coast is clear. On a day like this don't venture in the range - orientation is difficult enough without clouds. The nearest weather link I could find was at Souda near Chania on the north coast of the island, some 60km to the north:
12 - Maps & BooksThere are quite a number of maps and books out there, which deal with the island of Crete and naturally I don’t know them all. This is the list of maps and books which I used and I appreciate it very much if you can add to it
12.1 - Maps
Unfortunately there are no topographic maps of Crete. The best maps I could find are scaled 1:100000 and contain the main hiking routes on the island. In one case the map showed wrong paths and roads (exchanged them) but in general they were quite useful.
- Kreta / Crete / ΚΡΗΤΗ Western Part
12.2 - Books
Since there are no good topographical maps of Crete you should take care to get a good guidebook. The ones I used have good tour suggestions though the descriptions often are somewhat shortish. In one case the maps were wrong but since the above map also showed wrong paths (as well as other maps I saw later) I attribute this to a general problem with the cartography of this specific area. Moreover, the books were issued in 2002 and thus paths might have changed meanwhile. The books are available in German and English.
- Crete: The White Mountains - A Walker's and Trekker's Guidebook
- Kreta West / Crete West
Gert Hirner / Jakob Murböck (translation: Gill Round)
Additions and Corrections[ Post an Addition or Correction ]
|
<urn:uuid:87e7e561-d76c-451b-93c7-746626ac8431>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.summitpost.org/levka-ori/317413
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00186-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.928258 | 3,962 | 3.0625 | 3 |
South Carolina's Bald Eagles - Mortality
Shooting has historically been the most significant cause of mortality in eagles. Between 1961 and 1965, 62 percent of eagles found dead were shot. More recently, the percentage of eagles that died as a result of illegal shooting has declined to under 20 percent. This is undoubtedly one major reason for eagle recovery. Delisting the bald eagle may mislead the public by inferring that eagles are no longer protected and could result in increased shooting mortality. Additionally, when eagles lose protection under the Endangered Species Act, they may lose much of the habitat protection currently afforded to the species. This may lead to habitat degradation that can make current and future nesting habitat unsuitable.
Chemical contamination of eagle habitat has long been a problem for this top carnivore. Eagles have been shown to be sensitive to a variety of toxins, particularly persistent organo-chlorine pesticides, such as DDT. A ban on widespread use of DDT was implemented in 1972. Since then, an array of effective pesticides has been developed that have limited impacts on non-target species. Overall, pesticide poisoning has been greatly reduced and is another reason for recovery of the species. However, even with many new products on the market, the problem persists.
Lead poisoning in eagles has also been identified as a significant problem. However, non-toxic shot has been required for waterfowl hunting. A more recent source of poisoning is from barbiturates at landfills where eagles feed on animals that have been euthanized. Deposition of mercury in eagle foraging habitat also poses a potential threat to the health of bald eagle populations.
Currently there are two emerging diseases affecting eagles. West Nile virus (WNV) and Avian Vacuolar Myelinopathy (AVM) have both been identified as new sources of eagle mortality. Recovery of the bald eagle population will result in larger concentrations of eagles and less fit individuals as a result of competition. This may lead to an increased risk of disease.
Finally, other significant sources of mortality in eagles include electrocution at power lines and collision trauma. A variety of raptor safe power line configurations have been developed and are available from the Avian Power Line Interaction Committee.
Carcasses that are found are shipped to the National Eagle Repository where they are made available to Native Americans. More information on the Repository.
|
<urn:uuid:42200f42-d861-419b-b78c-63225bd770ea>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.dnr.sc.gov/wildlife/baldeagle/mortality.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395346.6/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.964217 | 492 | 3.609375 | 4 |
Vegetables are categorized by their type: root vegetables are edible plant roots; bulb vegetables are edible bulbs and leafy vegetables are edible leaves. Vegetables are further differentiated by when they are planted; however, these two categories are not mutually exclusive. For example, some root vegetables are cool-season vegetables and others must be planted after the last frost.
There are a wide assortment of bulb vegetables. Garlic matures into a cluster of bulbets. Scallions and leeks are grown more often than onions, according to the "Reader's Digest Illustrated Guide to Gardening," because home-grown scallions and leeks are more flavorful. Shallots are similar to garlic in appearance but have a more delicate flavor.
There are several different types of leaf vegetables with the most recognizable being lettuce. Lettuce varieties include crispheads, which form a solid head with white, densely packed inner leaves; loose heads, such as bibbs or butterheads with thick outer leaves covering a yellow or white center; romaine, which are tall, upright heads with long, thick leaves; and looseleaf that do not form heads, according to "Gardening" by the National Gardening Association. Kale is a hardy, leafy vegetable that tolerates fall frost. Collard looks like an elongated cabbage.
Root vegetables are edible plant roots. Turnips are a cool weather crop that can be harvested any time during the growing season. Sweet potatoes are a warm season root vegetable that has a 150-day harvest cycle, according to "Fruits and Vegetables." Radishes are available in different colors including red and white, and red and black. Carrots are warm weather annuals. Beets are fast-growing and as a cool-season vegetable, can be planted in early spring and then into the fall.
|
<urn:uuid:8fbf0e10-5976-445c-acf6-fb5e8bc4a66d>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.gardenguides.com/111569-types-vegetables-grow.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00027-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.962942 | 372 | 3.71875 | 4 |
The Braille system is a way of writing things. It is named after Louis Braille, the French man who invented it. The system is used by blind people to read and write. The Braille system uses a set of raised bumps or dots that can be felt with a finger. Each set of dots is a character in an alphabet, and the numbers and some punctuation.
- 1 Before Braille
- 2 The Braille alphabet
- 3 Braille transcription
- 4 Braille for other scripts
- 5 Reading Braille
- 6 References
- 7 Other websites
Before Braille[change | change source]
Louis Braille was not the first person to think about how to let the blind read and write. In the 17th century the Italian Jesuit Francesco Lana thought about different systems of writing for the blind. He invented a system of dashes that could be felt.
Valentin Haüy was one of the first French who was interested in the problems the blind had when they wanted to communicate. Haüy was born in Picardie in 1745, and studied languages at the university in Paris. First he studied deaf people who could not speak, then blind people. In his opinion the biggest problem of the blind was that they could not read. He then invented a system which allowed them to read and write sentences and to do mathematics. Later he started a school for blind children. His writing system used two columns which had between one and six positions each. Vowels had a dot in the left column, for example.
Charles Barbier used a similar system, because Napoleon wanted a code that soldiers could use to exchange messages silently and without light at night. Barbier called it night writing. Night writing uses two columns of six dots. It uses phonemes (separate sounds), not letters. Barbier's system was too hard for soldiers to learn, and the military did not use it. From the year 1821, he started to test his system in the school Haüy had founded. There it became very successful. Even though the system was difficult to learn, it did help the blind to read better than earlier systems. Barbier had understood that it was better to use a system that used dots over one that used lines.
Barbier met Braille when he visited the National Institute of the Blind. Braille saw the biggest problem of the code: The human finger cannot feel the whole symbol at one time. This makes it impossible to move rapidly from one symbol to the next. Braille's change was to use a 6 dot cell — the braille system — which completely changed how the blind would read and write.
The Braille alphabet[change | change source]
- Defining the letters of the French language with tuples (groups) of six bits or "dots".
- Showing these six-bit characters as raised dots in Braille cell.
Braille is used with different languages today. In each language, the letters are encoded differently, depending on the alphabet. The list of codes is known as braille code, or code page. There are also different braille codes in use for special purposes, like writing shorthand, mathematics or music.
The Braille cell[change | change source]
Braille uses cells of six raised dots, in two columns of three dots. The dot positions on the left are numbered one, to three, the ones on the right four to six, as shown in the picture.
Each symbol is coded with certain dots present, and others absent. The dots are approximately 0.02 inches (0.5 mm) high; inside the cell, the dots are about 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) apart. The space between the dots of two cells is about 0.15 inches (3.75 mm) horizontally and 0.2 inches (5 mm) vertically. A standard braille page is 11 inches by 11 inches and typically has between forty and forty-two braille cells per line and twenty-five lines.
Encoding[change | change source]
As first made by Louis Braille, the first group of characters, using just the top 4 dots of the braille cell, represents letters "a" through "j" (this group of ten characters is called a decade). Dot 3 (bottom left) is added to each of the "a" through "j" symbols to give letters "k" through "t". Both of the bottom dots (dots 3 and 6) are added to the first decade to give letters "u", "v", "x", "y", and "z". The letter "w" is left out of this group because French did not use the letter "w" when Louis Braille made his alphabet. The fifth decade is the same as the first decade, but shifted down by a row (dots 1 and 4 are blank).
English braille has codes for the letters and some punctuation, and some double letter signs and word signs directly, but capitalization and numbers need a prefix symbol. In practice, braille produced in the United Kingdom does not use capital letters.
Writing braille[change | change source]
Braille can be made using a "slate" and a "stylus" in which each dot is created from the back of the page, writing in mirror image, by hand, or it may be produced on a special braille typewriter or "Perkins Brailler", or produced by a braille embosser attached to a computer. It may also be made using a refreshable braille display.
Extensions[change | change source]
The six bit braille code is very limited, it only allows 64 different possible combinations. This means that many things need more than one braille character to be coded. One example for this is how numbers are coded in English braille: First there is a symbol that says the next symbol is a number, and then there is the symbol for the number. The symbol for number is usually given only once; every symbol that follows is treated as a number, until there is a space.
Braille has been extended to an 8 dot code, particularly for use with braille embossers and refreshable braille displays. In 8 dot braille the added dots are added at the bottom of the cell, giving a cell 4 dots high by 2 dots wide. The additional dots are called 7 (for the lower-left dot) and 8 (for the lower-right dot). 8-dot braille has the advantages that capital and lower cases of the letters are directly coded in the cell, a capital letter does not need two cells. All the printable ASCII characters can be represented in a single cell, and all 256 possible combinations of 8 bits are encoded by the Unicode standard. Braille with six dots is frequently stored as braille ASCII.
Braille transcription[change | change source]
Grade 1 braille[change | change source]
It is possible to transcribe braille by replacing each letter with the braille code for the letter. This is usually known as Grade 1 Braille. Grade 1 braille is mostly used by beginners.
The basic problem of Grade 1 braille is that braille letters are much larger than printed ones. The standard page is 11"x11" (28 cm by 28 cm) in size and only has room for twenty-five lines of forty characters. This means a book would need to be very thick compared to a standard printed book.
Grade 2 braille[change | change source]
For this reason almost all English braille books use a transcription known as Grade 2 braille. Grade 2 braille uses contractions, which allows to save space and increase reading speed. Grade 2 braille was developed by linguists (people who study languages), who also looked at customs, styles and practices. Transcribing a text into Grade 2 braille is difficult, and the people doing the transcription need to have a special education.
In English, there are 23 words which are replaced with a single letter. That way, the word but is contracted (shortened) to the single letter b, can to c, do to d, and so on. Even this simple rule has exceptions and special cases, which must be thought of. As an example, only the verb to do is replaced by d, the noun do (which stands for a note in music) is a different word, and is written in full.
Sometimes, part of words are contracted, and a character can mean different things in different parts of a word. There are many rules for this process. For example, the character with dots 2-3-5 (the letter "f" lowered in the braille cell) stands for "ff" when used in the middle of a word. At the beginning of a word, this same character stands for the word "to" although the character is written in braille with no space following it. At the end of a word, the same character represents an exclamation point.
The contraction rules cannot be used when it would make a problem with a prefix or suffix on the word. Also, some rules are flexible and may depend on the situation. So when the rules permit the same word to be written in more than one way, preference is given to "the contraction that is closer to the correct pronunciation."
Grade 3 braille[change | change source]
Grade 3 Braille is a system that includes many additional contractions. It is almost like a shorthand. It is rarely used for books, but people use it to be able to write and read fast, for themselves. It can be used for taking notes.
Grade 4 braille[change | change source]
Only very few people can use grade 4 braille. It uses many rules to shorten grade 3 even further. It allows a blind person to use shorthand to follow spoken conversation. Very often, systems of seven or eight dots are used.
Braille on banknotes[change | change source]
The current Canadian paper money has raised dots on the bills that shows its value. This helps blind people who might otherwise be cheated. This 'tactile feature' does not use standard braille but, instead, a system developed by working with blind and visually impaired Canadians after they found that not all people who needed it could read braille.
Writing systems other than braille[change | change source]
Though braille is thought to be the main way blind people read and write, in Britain (for example) out of the reported 2 million visually impaired population, it is estimated that only around 15-20 thousand people use Braille. Younger people are turning to electronic text on computers instead which can be read aloud by computer programs; a more portable communication method that they can also use with their friends. A debate has started on how to make braille more attractive and for more teachers to be available to teach it.
Braille for other scripts[change | change source]
There are many extensions of Braille for additional letters with diacritics, such as ç, ô, é.
When braille is adapted to languages which do not use the Latin alphabet, the blocks are generally assigned to the new alphabet according to how it is transliterated into the Latin alphabet, not the alphabetic order of the national script. This is the case with Russian (Cyrillic alphabet), Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, and Chinese. In Greek, for example, gamma is written as Latin g, even though it is the third letter of that alphabet (like the Latin c). Hebrew beth, the second letter of the alphabet and cognate with the Latin letter b, is instead written v, as it is commonly pronounced. Esperanto letters with circumflexes, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ and ŝ, are written as those letters without circumflexes with a filled sixth dot.
More differences are in Chinese braille. In Mandarin Braille, which is based on Zhuyin rather than the Latin Pinyin alphabet, the Latin braille values are used for the first consonants and the simple vowels. There are additional blocks for the tones, diphthongs, and any following vowel + consonant combinations. Cantonese Braille is also based on Latin braille for many of the initial consonants and simple vowels, but the blocks also have different values depending on whether they are in a leading syllable or following syllable position. For instance, the block for Latin k represents old-style Cantonese k (g in Yale and other modern Romanizations) when initial, but aak when final, while Latin j represents Cantonese initial j but final oei.
However, at least two adaptations of Braille have completely reassigned the Latin sound values of the blocks. These are:
In Japanese Braille, alphabetic signs for a consonant and vowel are combined into a single syllable block; in Korean Braille, the consonants have different leading and following syllable forms. These changes made Braille much more compatible with Japanese kana and Korean hangul, but meant that the Latin sound values could not be kept.
Reading Braille[change | change source]
Trained readers of Braille can read about 100 words per minute; trained readers who do not have sight problems can get to around 250 to 300 words per minute.
References[change | change source]
Other websites[change | change source]
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Braille letters|
- The National Library for the Blind
- Unified (English) Braille Code (including information specific to British braille)
- English Braille: American Edition
- Online Braille Translation
- How Braille Began—a detailed history of braille's origins and the people who supported and opposed the system.
- A braille alphabet card
|
<urn:uuid:30237a7a-d44f-448e-a2ce-a0fce2073a68>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Braille
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00030-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.948806 | 2,866 | 2.75 | 3 |
Simple Definition of extrapolate
: to form an opinion or to make an estimate about something from known facts
Full Definition of extrapolate
1 : to infer (values of a variable in an unobserved interval) from values within an already observed interval
2 a : to project, extend, or expand (known data or experience) into an area not known or experienced so as to arrive at a usually conjectural knowledge of the unknown area <extrapolates present trends to construct an image of the future> b : to predict by projecting past experience or known data <extrapolate public sentiment on one issue from known public reaction on others>
: to perform the act or process of extrapolating
extrapolationplay \-ˌstra-pə-ˈlā-shən\ noun
extrapolativeplay \-ˈstra-pə-ˌlā-tiv\ adjective
extrapolatorplay \-ˌlā-tər\ noun
Examples of extrapolate in a sentence
We can extrapolate the number of new students entering next year by looking at how many entered in previous years.
With such a small study it is impossible to extrapolate accurately.
Origin and Etymology of extrapolate
Latin extra outside + English -polate (as in interpolate) — more at extra-
First Known Use: 1874
Rhymes with extrapolate
abbreviate, abominate, accelerate, accentuate, accommodate, acculturate, accumulate, adjudicate, adulterate, affiliate, agglomerate, alienate, alleviate, alliterate, amalgamate, ameliorate, amyl nitrate, annihilate, annunciate, anticipate, apostolate, appreciate, appropriate, approximate, arpeggiate, articulate, asphyxiate, assassinate, asseverate, assimilate, associate, at any rate, attenuate, authenticate, barbiturate, bicarbonate, calumniate, capacitate, capitulate, catholicate, certificate, coagulate, coelenterate, collaborate, commemorate, commiserate, communicate, compassionate, concatenate, conciliate, confabulate, confederate, conglomerate, congratulate, consolidate, contaminate, cooperate, coordinate, corroborate, deactivate, debilitate, decapitate, decelerate, decerebrate, deconcentrate, deconsecrate, decorticate, decrepitate, de-escalate, defibrinate, defoliate, degenerate, deliberate, delineate, demodulate, denominate, depopulate, depreciate, deracinate, deregulate, desegregate, desiderate, detoxicate, devaluate, diaconate, dilapidate, discriminate, disintegrate, disseminate, dissimulate, dissociate, domesticate, effectuate, ejaculate, elaborate, electroplate, eliminate, elucidate, emaciate, emancipate, emasculate, encapsulate, enumerate, enunciate, episcopate, equivocate, eradicate, etiolate, evacuate, evaluate, evaporate, eventuate, eviscerate, exacerbate, exaggerate, exasperate, excited state, excogitate, excoriate, exfoliate, exhilarate, exonerate, expatiate, expatriate, expectorate, expostulate, expropriate, extenuate, exterminate, facilitate, felicitate, fish or cut bait, garrison state, gesticulate, habilitate, habituate, hallucinate, humiliate, hydrogenate, hypothecate, illuminate, impersonate, inactivate, inaugurate, incarcerate, incinerate, incorporate, incriminate, indoctrinate, inebriate, infatuate, infuriate, ingratiate, ingurgitate, initiate, inoculate, inseminate, insinuate, instantiate, intercalate, interpolate, interrelate, interrogate, intimidate, intoxicate, invalidate, investigate, invigorate, irradiate, Italianate, Korea Strait, lanceolate, legitimate, luxuriate, mandarinate, manipulate, matriarchate, matriculate, Merthiolate, necessitate, negotiate, noncandidate, obliterate, officiate, Orange Free State, orientate, originate, oxygenate, participate, particulate, patriarchate, patriciate, perambulate, peregrinate, perpetuate, pontificate, precipitate, predestinate, predominate, prefabricate, premeditate, preponderate, prevaricate, procrastinate, prognosticate, proliferate, propitiate, proportionate, quadruplicate, quintuplicate, reciprocate, recriminate, recuperate, redecorate, reduplicate, reeducate, refrigerate, regenerate, regurgitate, reincarnate, reintegrate, reiterate, rejuvenate, remunerate, repatriate, repudiate, resuscitate, retaliate, reticulate, revaluate, reverberate, scholasticate, second estate, self-flagellate, self-immolate, self-pollinate, seventy-eight, sextuplicate, Singapore Strait, sophisticate, subordinate, substantiate, syllabicate, tergiversate, transliterate, triangulate, vanity plate, variegate, vaticinate, vituperate, vociferate
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up extrapolate? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
|
<urn:uuid:512afd7c-3566-42d2-a9fc-f2b1963e76b6>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/extrapolating
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00117-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.730109 | 1,190 | 3.5625 | 4 |
PASADENA, Calif. - NASA is inviting members of the media and public to participate in online and televised events May 30 to 31 with NASA officials and experts discussing the agency's asteroid initiative and the Earth flyby of the 1.7-mile-long (2.7-kilometer-long) asteroid 1998 QE2.
At 1:59 p.m. PDT (4:59 p.m. EDT), Friday, May 31, the 1998 QE2 asteroid will pass by Earth at a safe distance of about 3.6 million miles (5.8 million kilometers) - its closest approach for at least the next two centuries. The asteroid was discovered Aug. 19, 1998, by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Lincoln Near Earth Asteroid Research Program near Socorro, N.M.
The schedule of events is:
Thursday, May 30
- 10:30 to 11:30 a.m. PDT (1:30 to 2:30 p.m. EDT): NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, Calif., will show on NASA Television live telescope images of the asteroid and host a discussion with NASA Administrator Charles Bolden and experts from JPL and the Goldstone Deep Space Communications Complex. Scientists at Goldstone will be using radar to track and image the asteroid.
Viewers may submit questions in advance to @AsteroidWatch on Twitter with the hashtag #asteroidQE2.
- 5 to 7 p.m. PDT (8 to 10 p.m. EDT): Bill Cooke of the Meteoroid Environment Office at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Ala., will host an online chat at: http://www.nasa.gov/chat .
Friday, May 31
- 11 a.m. to 12 p.m. PDT (2 to 3 p.m. EDT), NASA Deputy Administrator Lori Garver will participate in a White House "We the Geeks" Google+ Hangout. Participants will discuss asteroid identification, characterization, resource utilization and hazard mitigation. The hangout can be viewed at the White House website at: https://plus.google.com/+whitehouse/posts .
NASA recently announced plans to find, study, capture and relocate an asteroid for exploration by astronauts. The asteroid initiative is a strategy to leverage human and robotic activities for the first human mission while accelerating efforts to improve detection and characterization of asteroids.
For more about NASA's asteroid activities, visit: http://www.nasa.gov/asteroid .
More information about asteroid radar research is at: http://echo.jpl.nasa.gov/ .
|
<urn:uuid:9ec58371-bc1f-41fb-8726-74be00112728>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/asteroids/news/asteroid20130529.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00173-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.864105 | 539 | 2.75 | 3 |
Discover the cosmos! Each day a different image or photograph of our fascinating universe is featured, along with a brief explanation written by a professional astronomer.
2011 January 6
Explanation: For many Europeans, the Sun and New Moon rose together on January 4 in a partial solar eclipse. Arriving close on the heels of the new year, it was the first of a series of four(!) partial solar eclipses due in 2011. This composite image documents the graceful celestial event in colorful morning skies over Graz, Austria. Beginning before sunrise, frames were taken to record the position and progress of the eclipse every 15 minutes. As Sun and Moon rose above the eastern horizon, the town of Graz is seen bathed in warming sunlight only partially blocked by the New Moon, spreading beneath the town's landmark clock tower.
Authors & editors:
(MTU) & Jerry Bonnell (USRA)
NASA Official: Phillip Newman. Specific rights apply.
A service of: ASD at NASA/GSFC
& Michigan Tech. U.
|
<urn:uuid:669f61ac-39a8-4f17-9b6c-6485a1cc234c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://teacherlink.ed.usu.edu/tlnasa/reference/ImagineDVD/Files/apod/apod/ap110106.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00036-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.897625 | 213 | 3.203125 | 3 |
The Poultry Site – Since the inception of the Clean Water Act and subsequent creation of the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in the early 1970s, industrial, institutional and commercial entities have been required to continually improve the quality of their process wastewater effluent discharges. At the same time, the rise in population and production rates has increased water use, creating a corresponding rise in wastewater quantity.
This increased water use and process wastewater generation requires more efficient removal of by-products and pollutants that allows for effluent discharge within established environmental regulatory limits.
By Elton Alisson
Agência FAPESP – Brazil is recognized as the country with the world’s most efficient biofuel production, which is principally based on sugarcane. The success that the country has enjoyed in transforming this plant into a bioenergy source, however, is due more to a pioneering initiative to create an industrial system for ethanol production than the plant itself.
The system began to be developed in the 1930s when an agronomic development program that made the plant highly efficient was established. Despite these efforts, the agronomic performance of sugarcane is still below that of the other raw materials tested for this purpose over the last few years in different parts of world.
Posted in About Brazil, Bioenergy, Bioethanol, Biofuel, Documents and Reports, Environment, Renewable Energy
Tagged Bio-ethanol, biofuels, Renewable Energy, Sugarcane, Sustainability
By Elton Alisson
Agência FAPESP – Water resource management in Brazil represents a critical problem due to the lack of mechanisms, technologies and, above all, sufficient human resources to adequately manage the country’s hydrographic basins, according to researchers participating in the “Seminar on Water Resources and Agriculture” held on October 2 at FAPESP.
The event was part of the activities surrounding the 58th Bunge Foundation Award and 34th Bunge Foundation Youth Award, which this year is exploring the areas of Water Resources and Agriculture and Literary Criticism. In the area of Water Resources and Agriculture, the awards were given to Klaus Reichardt of the Center for Nuclear Energy in Agriculture (CENA) at the Universidade de São Paulo (USP) and Samuel Beskow of the Universidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPEL), respectively…. Continue Reading
Source and Photo: Agência FAPESP, November 27, 2013
Labex Korea on Twitter and Facebook
By Noêmia Lopes
Agência FAPESP – The increases in temperatures and changes in the rainfall regime due to global warming that are forecast for several regions of Brazil could significantly impact agriculture in the country. Crops such as beans, soy, wheat, and maize will be particularly affected, according to studies by the Brazil Global Climate Change Research Network (Rede Clima).
By cross-referencing the models of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and Brazilian regional models, researchers at Rede Clima analyzed the expected impact of climate change on national crop-growing areas.
The Poultry Site – The livestock sector is one of the fastest growing sub-sectors of the agricultural economy, and faces several unprecedented and concomitant challenges, according to the FAO report, Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Pig and Chicken Supply Chain. The sector needs to respond to the increasing demands for livestock products that are arising from population growth and changing consumer preferences. It also has to adapt to changes in the economic and policy contexts, and in the natural environment upon which production depends. At the same time, it has to improve its environmental performance and mitigate its impact on climate.
The Korea Herald – Oceans that grow more acidic through Man‘s fossil fuel burning emissions, can amplify global warming by releasing less of a gas that helps shield Earth from radiation, a study said Sunday.
And the authors warned the potentially vast effect they uncovered is not currently factored into climate change projections.
Scientists say that Man’s carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions contribute to planetary warming by letting the Sun‘s heat through the atmosphere but trapping heat energy reflected back from Earth, so creating a greenhouse effect.
By Elton Alisson
Agência FAPESP – The climate in Brazil in the next few decades should be hotter, with a gradual increase in the average temperature in all regions of the country, varying between 1 °C and 6 °C by 2100 compared with the temperatures at the end of the 20th century.
In the same period, rainfall should also decrease significantly in the majority of the central regions and the north and northeast. In contrast, there will be an increase in precipitation in the south and southeast.
|
<urn:uuid:60e24d75-e662-4595-8f68-b33a58833b88>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
https://labexkorea.wordpress.com/category/environment/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.928937 | 985 | 3.015625 | 3 |
There is nothing more important in the lives of everyday people than protection against fire and smoke. The life-safety industry has been busy over the past few decades as insurance companies, the government and the public are demanding faster, more reliable and accurate fire detection.
Equipment manufacturers have responded by working to provide products that are better and more dependable. New and improved sensors, as well as enhanced algorithms, work to reduce false alarms while improving detection time.
Such high-tech solutions must first be conceived in the mind, fabricated by custom means and perfected in the lab before they can be released to the public. In this month’s Fire Side Chat, we will talk about a number of innovations that are acting to improve the life-safety market, thus saving lives and reducing property damage.
Negating Nuisance Alarms
In the early years, when the life-safety industry sought to sell the public on the merits of smoke detectors, many salespeople used the catch phrase, “where there’s smoke, there’s fire.” Although most of the time this is true, there are times when what appears as smoke to a sensor may actually be something else. That can result in a nuisance alarm.
According to St. Charles, Ill.-based fire detection manufacturer System Sensor in a white paper entitled, “Reducing Detector-Based Nuisance Alarms,” nuisance alarms are not the same as false alarms. However, since nuisance alarms and false alarms both generate an alarm signal, the two terms are often interchanged. The difference lies in the fact that where a false alarm is the detection of something not there, a nuisance alarm is caused by conditions that, at the least, resemble smoke, but are not generated by heat or flames. There’s smoke, but no fire.
The primary mission of almost all smoke detectors is to detect life-threatening conditions in the environment. If a common smoke detector comes into contact with an airborne substance that resembles smoke but is not, a nuisance alarm can occur.
Advances in fire science, microprocessor technology, and firmware — combined with new and improved state-of-the-art, solid-state sensors — have rendered a means whereby detection is more assured while greatly reducing nuisance alarms. The result is greater detector reliability and growing public trust.
Sometime ago, equipment manufacturers in the life-safety market devised a means where smoke detectors — or the head-end systems to which they are connected — can detect a buildup of dust inside the smoke chamber. Such a buildup can cause unwanted alarms. The sensitivity level of the detector can be adjusted according to the amount of dust buildup inside the sensor. This feature, known as drift compensation, has greatly reduced nuisance alarms, but there was still room for improvement.
Equipment manufacturers continued the search for greater reductions in nuisance alarms. What they came up with, and what they continue to work on, is both surprising and effective.
Smoothing Out Output Spikes
One way to minimize nuisance alarms is through a method called smoothing algorithms. Smoke detectors are often exposed to airborne particles other than smoke particulates from an actual fire. Possible sources include dust particles, radio frequency (RF) interference, insects and high humidity levels.
Such conditions can cause rapidly changing spikes in the output of the smoke sensors inside of traditional smoke detectors. As the electronics within these smoke detectors analyze these output signals, and as these spikes repeatedly occur over a given period of time, the result is nuisance alarms.
Smoothing algorithms essentially act to dampen these surreptitious output spikes, enabling these specially designed detectors to discriminate between false and real smoke signatures. In addition to traditional drift compensation, maintenance alerts and other features, smoothing algorithm technology has the potential to significantly reduce nuisance alarms.
Multiple Sensors Aid Recognition
Another way to combat the nuisance alarm problem is to utilize more than one sensor technology in the same individual and system-type smoke detectors. The simultaneous monitoring of several sensor types enables the smoke detector to better determine whether smoke is being generated by a fire, burning toast or a room full of smokers.
This technology works by comparing the output of each sensor and comparing the composite sum to a standard model. This model is developed from actual data obtained during fire tests. It exists as a mathematical representation contained in microprocessor memory inside individual smoke detectors or the analog addressable head-end system they connect to.
This technique enables a smoke detection system or an individual detector to render a better decision as to whether there is a fire in the vicinity. The two common criteria used in this type of detection scheme are that of analog heat and smoke detection via airborne particulates.
“It has been shown that the best combination for early detection has been the complement of ionization, photoelectric, carbon monoxide and temperature,” said Walter W. Jones, a physicist with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), in a research paper entitled, “An Algorithm For Fast And Reliable Fire Detection.”
The detection of a fire using the multiple-criteria approach hinges on the use of several low-level sensors that have the ability to report analog information regarding specific conditions in the environment. By monitoring the ambient temperature, the rate of temperature rise and the presence of smoke particulates in the air, a more reliable method of detection can be derived.
“The information from the sensors themselves is analog data, measuring temperature, obscuration, species density, heat flux and other characteristics of the environment. What is needed is a means to use this information directly to provide earlier warning, and more specific information before and after alarm using these sensor suites,” he says.
Innovation Doesn’t Stop
No matter how good a job fire detection equipment manufacturers do, the work will never be entirely finished. As more sensor technologies and software options come to light, better and more reliable detection schemes will emerge. Fire technicians and security dealers must be poised to utilize them for the betterment of their clients.
|
<urn:uuid:4ac030ac-b04d-46a6-892a-b0da665e7a41>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.securitysales.com/article/technological-innovations-strengthen-reach-of-detection/False_Fire_Alarms
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.71/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.929665 | 1,231 | 2.75 | 3 |
January 13, 2004
The horseshoe is considered very lucky and used to be hung in many homes to protect and attract good fortune for the family residing inside. As with many superstitions, there are contradictions to be found with the beliefs associated with the horseshoe. For instance, many believe that to hang it with the ends pointing upwards is good luck as it acts as a storage container of sorts for any good luck that happens to be floating by, whereas to hang it with the ends pointing down, is bad luck as all the good luck will fall out. Others believe that no matter which way you hang the horseshoe, good luck will come. According to this superstition, the ends-pointing-down display simply means that the good luck is able to flow out and surround the home. If the horseshoe is hung over a doorway, ends up will catch good luck and ends down will let the good luck spill over the door and stop evil from entering. Perhaps a combination of the two was used so that after a few days, when the horseshoe was filled with good luck, it would then need to be emptied so that residents could benefit from that luck and the process would be repeated until the end of time.
Horseshoes were also considered lucky because they were made by blacksmiths, which is also considered a very lucky trade. Because they worked with elemental fire and magical iron, they were thought to have special powers. It was believed that a blacksmith could heal the sick and if a couple was married by a blacksmith, their marriage would be a happy one. Their work with horses also brought them much power and prestige, not just because they made the lucky horseshoe but also because they were the keepers of the Horseman's Word (the basis for the movie, The Horse Whisperer.)
Horseshoes were originally made from iron, which may also account for the superstitions that are associated with this object. Iron was considered magical because it was able to withstand fire and was much stronger than other metals. The superstitions for iron are thought to originate in prehistoric times. It was used as a charm to ward off evil spirits.
Another aspect of the horseshoe that added to it's good luck was the fact that it was commonly held in place by seven iron nails. Since ancient times, the number seven was considered very important. Life was divided into seven ages; a rainbow has seven colors; astrology once held that seven planets made up the universe; there are seven deadly sins; a seventh child was thought to have special powers; there are seven days in a week; the moon changes from one phase to another every seven days; and a long-held belief states that the body goes through a radical change every seven years.
|
<urn:uuid:747e0fb4-3899-418a-934c-1bc249c0b9b5>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/horseshoes
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00106-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.989278 | 567 | 2.8125 | 3 |
Lunges are a worthy mainstay of fitness regimens for people of all skill levels, from those simply trying to stay in shape to elite amateur and professional athletes. This tried-and-true exercise is simple to master, effective and provides several physical benefits. Lunges work well for warming up or lower body strength training.
Basic lunges, also known as forward or static lunges, take advantage of your body weight to strengthen the leg muscles, especially the quadriceps of your front thigh. The hamstrings, located in your posterior thigh, and the gastrocnemius and soleus of the calf are also worked when you perform lunges. The forward leg does most of the work during a forward lunge, which is why it is important to alternate legs while performing this exercise.
Men and women alike appreciate a toned derrière and lunges are a good option to improve this area. According to the American Council on Exercise, lunges are one of the best exercises to strengthen your gluteal muscles and give your bottom a firm, rounded shape. Other effective glute-toning options include squats, four-way hip extensions and stepups.
Lunges improve your core strength, which leads to better posture and balance. Your core muscles include those of your abdomen, back, chest, pelvis and buttocks. These muscles perform the critical function of enabling you to adjust and maintain your position without losing your balance. Improving your core strength by practicing lunges enhances your balance and may prevent back pain due to poor posture.
Try These Exercises!
Sitting for extended periods may cause tightness in the muscles that bend, or flex, your legs at the hips. Lunges stretch these muscles, improving the flexibility of your hip joints and preventing low back pain caused by tight hip flexors. You can increase the hip-stretching effect of a forward lunge by resting your lower knee on the floor, tightening your abdominal and gluteal muscles, and moving your hips slightly forward while in the lunge position. This variation of the forward lunge is called a hip flexor, or Samson, stretch. Other variations of the forward lunge, such as side and long lunges, also keep your hip joints flexible.
To gain maximum benefit from forward lunges and to avoid injuries, position your body carefully when performing the exercise. Keep your back straight and avoid leaning forward as you lower your body. Align your shoulders with your hips throughout the exercise, and keep your head up and facing forward. Maintain your forward knee over your ankle as you lower your back knee toward the floor; avoid extending the knee of your forward leg past your ankle. If you feel wobbly, use a chair or the wall to steady yourself when you practice lunges.
- ExRx.net: Lunge
- National Athletic Trainers' Association: Biomechanics of the Squat, Lunge, Kick, and Pivot
- ACE Fitness Matters: Glutes to the Max
- Harvard Health Publications: Strengthening Your Core: Right and Wrong Ways to Do Lunges, Squats, and Planks
- American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: Flexibility Exercises for Young Athletes
- University of New Mexico: Fitness and Low Back Pain
- University of Florida: Hip Flexor (Samson) Stretch
- American Council on Exercise: Forward Lunge
- California State University Northridge: Lunges
- Jupiterimages/Goodshoot/Getty Images
|
<urn:uuid:661068b1-a98e-4a46-b78b-a06a5af23e06>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://healthyliving.azcentral.com/benefits-lunges-5447.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.922097 | 721 | 2.75 | 3 |
Here you will learn about trigonometry, the study of triangles. You will use similar triangles to connect the sides and angles of right triangles. You will learn how to use the three trigonometric ratios of tangent, sine, and cosine to find missing sides and angles within right triangles. Then, you will extend your knowledge of the trigonometric ratios. You will see how you can use the sine ratio to find the area of a triangle. You will learn how sine and cosine can be applied to non-right triangles. Finally, you will explore many different applications of trigonometry.
You learned that right triangles with one pair of acute angles congruent are similar, so the ratios between their sides are constant. This led to the development of the tangent ratio, sine ratio, and cosine ratio. Due to the nature of these ratios, the sine and cosine of complementary angles are equal. The tangent of complementary angles are reciprocals.
Inverse trigonometric ratios work backwards, allowing you to find missing angles when you know the ratio between two particular sides of right triangles. The Law of Sines and the Law of Cosines extends the trigonometric ratios to non-right triangles.
The following summarizes the key formulas that were used in this chapter:
- SOH CAH TOA is a mnemonic device to help you remember the three trigonometric ratios:
- The Law of Sines: (watch out for the SSA case)
- The Law of Cosines:
- The area of a triangle is or
|
<urn:uuid:61e82ebf-e97c-4599-9fad-3ad9f136eb77>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Geometry-Honors-Concepts/section/7.0/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396455.95/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.893075 | 327 | 4.5 | 4 |
1. One of the ways that the Children's Defense Fund galvanizes people to action is the provision of clear statistics on the lives of children in poverty. Having looked briefly at the CDF website (below), begin the lesson by giving students a few of the statistics found there.
2. Then, divide the class into five groups, assigning each group the task of compiling both statistical and programmatic information about poor children in five categories:
- Child Health
- Child Welfare and Mental Health
- Early Childhood Development
- Education and Youth Development
- Family Income and Jobs
3. When the groups have completed their research in these five areas, ask them to share what they have learned. Why do they think Marian Wright Edelman named her organization the Children's Defense Fund?
4. Then, they should select what they consider to be the most important information and set out to find the same kind of information about poor children in their own community.
5. Students should compare local information with the national data on the CDF website, and come to some conclusions about the status of poor children in their localities.
6. Engage students in a discussion of what steps might be taken to make things better in their own localities.
The Children's Defense Fund
The CDF Mission
Marian Wright Edelman
This lesson was developed by Averil McClelland, Kent State University.
|
<urn:uuid:3dd0ddea-00b4-4147-a754-1c1fb1ba4b22>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.firstladies.org/curriculum/curriculum.aspx?Curriculum=1834
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.950141 | 286 | 3.6875 | 4 |
A team of researchers from Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School have discovered a protein complex that disrupts the process known as dedifferentiation (1), known to promote tumor development.
Dedifferentiation (reversion) is a process that leads progenitor (2) or mature cells to become 'ectopic neural stem cells' which causes tumors. By detecting this protein complex, Duke-NUS researchers have shed light on a process that inhibits tumor development and gives hope for the discovery of therapies and treatments that target tumor prevention through this pathway.
Researchers study neural stem cells (NSC) or 'neuroblasts' in the larval brains of fruit flies in order to better understand stem cell behavior in the lab. NSCs are multi-potent cells key to the function of the body's brain and nervous system. In the Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program laboratory at Duke-NUS, 'type II' neuroblasts, found in fruit flies that are especially similar to human NSCs, are studied.
Type II neuroblasts, like stem cells, divide to generate another neuroblast and a second cell which are the progenitor cells. These cells can then undergo differentiation - the process they undergo to become specific types of cells. However, progenitor cells are prone to dedifferentiate into NSCs and become 'ectopic NSCs'. When this happens, 'ectopic NSCs' can undergo uncontrolled growth, leading to brain tumor development.
Asst Professor Hongyan Wang led her team, using the fruit fly (Drosophila melanogaster) model, to uncover how a protein complex, composed of Brahma, HDAC3 and Earmuff, plays an important role in preventing the progenitor cells from undergoing dedifferentiation. These findings have provided a critical and novel insight into a process that was previously poorly understood, and have implications for the overall understanding of NSCs and for the development of future cancer therapies.
Published online in eLIFE on March 11, 2014, the research is supported by the National Research Foundation, Prime Minister's Office, Singapore under its Research Fellowship (NRF-RF2009-02) and the Duke-NUS Signature Research Program, with funding from Singapore's Agency for Science, Technology, and Research and the Ministry of Health.
(1) Differentiation is a process that progenitor cells in the nervous system undergo to become specific types of cells such as neurons and glial cells that are crucial to proper brain functions. Dedifferentiation, on the other hand, is what happens when these cells instead revert back to neural stem cells, which is a more primitive state. This is problematic as it can lead to tumor development.
(2) Progenitor or mature cells are generated from neural stem cells or 'neuroblasts', thereby rendering them more specific and ready to differentiate than stem cells.
|
<urn:uuid:d0ea4c1f-a817-4f67-a007-de2dc6635b57>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2014-03/dgms-ffh031114.php
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394414.43/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.944641 | 592 | 2.640625 | 3 |
So.. a man climbs 24 miles above the Earth, then freefalls at Mach 1.24 on the way back down again.
From my long forgotten A-level physics, I reckon that must've required a fair amount of gravitational potential energy.
But, where did that energy actually come from, originally?
Helium... floating up on lighter-than-air buoyancy, but from where, how??
How is The First Law upheld in this instance??
|
<urn:uuid:5116e2e9-c0ed-4283-936c-27d09b920eac>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://singletrackworld.com/forum/topic/physicists-where-did-the-energy-come-from-for-red-bull-stratos
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395560.69/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.851324 | 95 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Science works by demanding evidence and logical arguments to support claims and by continually searching for more accurate theories. Evidence helps in interpreting and evaluating accounts of climate change in the media and elsewhere and helps to distinguish scientific fact from opinion. What kind of evidence exists that helps us determine how climate has changed over time and how it might change in the future?
In this section, you will examine the evidence for global climate change.
Data Activity: Examining the Vital Signs
Travel through Earth’s recent climate history with the “Climate Time Machine” interactive. Carefully examine the changes over time in sea ice, sea level, carbon emissions, and average global temperature. Reflect on the key changes in the four variables shown in the interactive by thinking about the following questions:
- When did the key changes occur for each variable?
- Can you hypothesize as to why these key changes occurred when they did?
- How does this information compare with what you have heard in the media?
- Is any of this data surprising or new to you?
Next, view the interactive data for “Vital Signs of the Planet” on NASA’s Global Climate Change: NASA’s Eyes on the Earth website to give you a sense of the scale of change we have seen in our climate system. Click on the tabs across the top to see changes over time for sea ice, sea level, carbon emissions, and average global temperature. View the interactive data that accompanies each vital sign.
Now, look at graphical and pictorial representations of data that show trends up to the present for Sea Level, Carbon Dioxide Concentration, Global Surface Temperature, Arctic Sea Ice, and Land Ice. Go to NASA’s Key Indicators and for each of these indicators, consider the data source for the information, the length of time the data covers, what is being measured, and what causes the changes. Make sure to look at the visualization Time Series for each data set. What is more useful to you to understand the data—looking at the graph or the visualization?
Why should we be concerned about these specific indicators?
What impact do these trends have on our Earth?
What is your new understanding of the data sources you explored from NASA’s Key Indicators?
Solidify what you have learned in this section by exploring the “Piecing together the temperature puzzle” webpage and watching the “Warming World” video. After watching the video, return to your summary of your understanding of the data sources you explored from NASA’s Key Indicators. Are there any changes or updates you would like to make to your notes after watching this video?
© PBS. All rights reserved.
Global Climate Change Modules
Online Professional Development
PBS TeacherLine, the premier provider of online professional development services for PreK-12 educators, has the goal of making professional development accessible, affordable and engaging for teachers. Our hope is that our courses can help inspire and guide STEM learning at every age and in every discipline.
Integrate science and mathematics learning with technology and the engineering design process to investigate solutions to real-world problems with our STEM courses.
|
<urn:uuid:1aa6e9e6-b8a8-4e9f-9f11-7629e0db4a71>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.pbs.org/teachers/stem/professionaldevelopment/015/explore/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00188-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.905457 | 648 | 3.890625 | 4 |
SUNDAY, Nov. 25 (HealthDay News) -- The arrival of cold weather increases the risk of carbon monoxide poisoning, which can occur when gas furnaces, fireplaces and other heating devices don't work properly and release the dangerous gas into homes, experts warn.
"You can't see or smell carbon monoxide, but it can cause significant health issues and possibly kill you," Dr. Kalpalatha Guntupalli, chief of the pulmonary critical care and sleep section at Harris Health Ben Taub Hospital and a professor at Baylor College of Medicine, said in a Harris Health System news release.
Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream and robs the body of oxygen. Mild exposure to the gas can be easily treated, but high or prolonged exposure to carbon monoxide can be fatal.
Signs of carbon monoxide exposure include headache, dizziness, confusion, nausea or vomiting, and weakness.
Each year in the United States, about 400 people die and 4,000 are hospitalized for carbon monoxide poisoning, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. About 20,000 people get sick enough from carbon monoxide exposure to visit an emergency department.
The elderly, children and people with chronic conditions such as heart disease, anemia and lung problems are at greatest risk, the study authors noted.
Guntupalli's team urged everyone to get their gas heating devices checked for carbon monoxide leaks. Other potential sources of carbon monoxide include gas stoves, lanterns and wood-burning fireplaces.
In addition, Dr. Nick Hanania, director of the Asthma Clinical Research Center at Harris Health Ben Taub Hospital and an associate professor at Baylor College of Medicine, pointed out that people should never use gas-powered generators or charcoal grills indoors, or use gas stove tops and ovens to stay warm.
All homes should have carbon monoxide detectors, he added.
"You could be creating carbon monoxide and not realize it until it's too late," Hanania said. "The dangers of carbon monoxide are too great to ignore."
The American College of Emergency Physicians has more about carbon monoxide.
-- Robert Preidt
SOURCE: Harris Health System, news release, Nov. 12, 2012
All rights reserved
|
<urn:uuid:86700794-e07a-4c0b-b782-e3be47ddb418>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news-1/Carbon-Monoxide-Poisoning-Hazards-Rise-in-Colder-Weather-95721-1/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393518.22/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00092-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.913226 | 468 | 3.15625 | 3 |
HVGA vs WVGA
Screen resolutions refer to number of pixels a monitor displays in a given area. These resolutions, called graphic display resolutions, usually pertain to computer monitors and mobile screens. There are many combinations of these resolutions with varying widths and heights. As these combinations are commonly used for mobile screens by electronic companies, many of them have been standardized and even given names to easily remember the number of pixels each of these combinations refer to. HVGA and WVGA are two such famous combinations that are commonly used by computer monitor manufacturers and mobile screen manufacturers. Let us find out the differences between these two resolutions.
HVGA also refers to half Size VGA (Video Graphics Array). The screen in HVGA has many combinations of pixels depending upon aspect ratios. Some of these pixels are 480×320 (3:2 aspect ratio), 480×360 pixels (4:3 aspect ratio), 480×272 (16:9 aspect ratio) and finally 640×240 pixels (8:3 ratio). The starting pixel combination in HVGA is used by lots of PDA devices. On the other hand last of the ratios is used by many handheld PC manufacturers. Some of the popular models that make use of HVGA are Blackberry Bold, LG GW620, HTC Hero, and Samsung M900. Some projector manufacturers such as Texas Instruments is also utilizing HVGA resolution. 3D computer graphics made use of HVGA during 1980’s.
This type of resolution is also called Wide VGA (Video Graphics Array). This type of display has the same height as VGA which is 480 pixel height but it is wider. Some of the common examples are 800×480, 848×480, and 854×480. This display is most commonly seen in LCD projectors and notebooks that easily display websites that are designed for a window that is 800 wide in a full page width. WVGA is today preferred by many mobile set manufacturers.
HVGA vs WVGA
• HVGA and WVGA are two of standardized resolutions used for display on computer monitors and mobile screens.
• HVGA stands for half VGA while WVGA stands for Wide VGA.
• VGA refers to Video Graphics Array.
|
<urn:uuid:38e9e7c2-4328-45ea-9892-dd9749efc3ea>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-hvga-and-vs-wvga/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00057-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.947074 | 465 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Golden Gate National Recreation Area - http://www.nps.gov/goga
The Golden Gate National Recreation Area (GGNRA) is one of the largest urban national parks in the world. Established in 1972, as part of a trend to make national park resources more accessible to urban populations and bring “parks to the people”, GGNRA’s 75,398 acres of land and water extend north of the Golden Gate Bridge to Tomales Bay in Marin County and south to San Mateo County, encompassing 59 miles of bay and ocean shoreline. These lands represent one of the nation’s largest coastal preserves and attract 16 million visitors each year, making GGNRA one of the National Park Service most highly visited units.
The park contains numerous historical and cultural resources, including Alcatraz, Marin Headlands, Nike Missile Site, Fort Mason, as well as Muir Woods National Monument, Fort Point National Historic Site, and the Presidio of San Francisco. These sites contain a variety of archeological sites, military forts and other historic structures which present a rich chronicle of two hundred years of history, including Native American culture, the Spanish Empire frontier, the Mexican Republic, evolution of American coastal fortifications, maritime history, 18th century and early 20th century agriculture, military history, California Gold Rush, Buffalo Soldiers, and the growth of urban San Francisco.
Golden Gate National Recreation Area is also rich in natural resources—it is comprised of 19 separate ecosystems in 7 distinct watersheds and is home to 1,273 plant and animal species. With 80 sensitive, rare, threatened, or endangered species —including the Northern Spotted Owl, California Red-legged Frog, and Coho Salmon— the park has the fourth largest number (33) of federally protected or endangered species of all units in the National Park System.
|
<urn:uuid:b510cd55-e0e8-46ee-8778-356d64555d5a>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.pbase.com/ambadale/image/70489211&exif=Y
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397744.64/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00199-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.900028 | 380 | 3.015625 | 3 |
The model for Obama? Woodrow Wilson -- alas.
- Article by: CHUCK CHALBERG
- December 25, 2012 - 5:33 PM
During his first term as president, Barack Obama has been compared to a number of predecessors. The current favorite, of course, is Lincoln, given the hit movie. But whether it's Lincoln or Roosevelt or Kennedy or Johnson, the comparison is typically meant to be flattering, likening Obama to activist presidents seeking a more powerful federal government.
But the most striking parallel is seldom mentioned and terribly troubling. That would be the intellectual and political kinship between Obama and Woodrow Wilson.
Let's begin with a seeming superficiality. Wilson was the only president to hold an earned doctorate degree. While Obama lacks that credential, he is like Wilson an Ivy Leaguer with both an advanced degree and a reputation for intellectual prowess.
Like Obama, Wilson burst upon the national scene. A professor and college president -- as opposed to a professor and community organizer -- Wilson held no elective office until winning the governorship of New Jersey in 1910. Two years later, he won the White House. By comparison, Obama's four years in the U.S. Senate made him a seasoned politician.
Once in the Oval Office, each man based his presidency on a similar assumption, namely that the president, and only the president, represents the general will of the country. Both also presumed that history is moving in a statist direction. Both deemed that what Wilson called the "administrative state" -- or government by experts and bureaucrats -- is a good thing, and both sought to hasten this ever-evolving, and ever-progressive, process along.
The original "Progressive" movement was largely concerned with domestic policy. Wilson confided to his "man Friday," Colonel Edward House, that it would be the height of irony if his administration became consumed with foreign policy, given his lack of expertise and interest in that area.
Well, look what happened. By 1914, the Great War was underway, and by 1917, America was in it. This truly was a watershed in American history. A country peopled by those fleeing European conflicts was now going to send an army to save Europeans from themselves. Suddenly, Wilson was very much a foreign-policy president, and he moved quickly to use his war powers to enhance the very administrative state that he had promoted as a progressive.
What does all this have to do with Obama? Let's hope not much. And at first the parallels seem minimal. In 1914, America was not a world power with global interests. Today it is. Unlike Obama, Wilson assumed the presidency when Americans were just beginning to feel their oats and expand their ambitions. Today, we are tired of the burdens of world leadership.
Still, a troubling potential parallel remains.
Between 1914 and 1917, both England and Germany repeatedly violated American neutral rights. But it was German U-boats that killed Americans on the high seas. Remember the Lusitania? Wilson huffed and puffed; he drew lines in the sand and offered American mediation. All to no avail. In January 1917, he delivered a speech calling for "peace without victory." Germany responded by renewing unlimited submarine warfare.
A safely re-elected Wilson had finally had enough. All his overtures spurned, he asked Congress to declare war on Germany and used the same address to call for a grand crusade to "make the world safe for democracy."
Who knows what a safely re-elected Obama might do as he faces today's dangerous world? The worry in 2008 and again in 2012 was that a President McCain or a President Romney would be much more likely to land us in a wider war than would a President Obama. Really?
Having had his entreaties spurned repeatedly, might an equally aggrieved Obama follow in Wilson's footsteps by dealing harshly with Iran or Pakistan or Syria or North Korea? It's possible. And might Obama, as a war president, put the country on a full-bore war footing by ramping up the administrative state in any number of ways? It's far from unthinkable. It's just what Wilson did in 1917.
Between 1914 and 1917, American waffling and weakness ended in war. One wonders where apology tours, defense cuts and signals of disengagement will take us in 2013 and beyond, especially if a leader in the Middle East or Far East takes his measure of President Obama and bets as the Kaiser bet in 1917. No longer content with his campaign to make America safe for the world, might President Obama mount a new American effort, with guns drawn, to "make the world safe for democracy?"
After all, that's just what happened when another Ivy League progressive occupied the White House nearly a century ago.
John C. (Chuck) Chalberg teaches at Normandale Community College in Bloomington.
© 2016 Star Tribune
|
<urn:uuid:4871d19d-8c20-4cdd-b1a7-866161b5ca0e>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.startribune.com/printarticle/?id=184496691
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00178-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.972135 | 1,001 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Scripture Reading: Colossians 2:11-17
The Seventh-day Adventist Church
1. Seventh-day Adventism champions the 7th day (Sabbath) & the imminence of Christ’s Advent (return), hence, their name.
2. Membership in mid-2004: 13,663,497 (“Annual Council: 13.6 Million Are Adventist Members; 2,756 Baptized Daily,” Mark A. Kellner, Source: Adventist News Network, http://news.adventist.org/data/2004/09/1097445625/index.html.en).
a. Increase of 1 million during the year of July ’03 – June ’04.
b. On average, 2,756 new Adventists are baptized daily, with 13 congregations formed in the same 24 hour period.
3. SDA is representative in government; headquartered in Silver Spring, Maryland, since 1989.
4. Discuss: Origin, its sources of authority (Ellen G. White), sin & salvation, 10 commandments & the Sabbath, & some other practices & doctrines.
I. ORIGIN OF THE SDA CHURCH.
A. Beginning of Adventism Generally:
1. “Adventism began in Massachusetts in 1831, under the leadership of Wm. Miller. In 1833, in Low Hampton, New York, he began to preach that the end of the world was at hand, publishing a pamphlet entitled, “Evidences from Scripture and History of the Second Coming of Christ about the year 1843 and of His Personal Reign of One Thousand Years” (Churches of Today in the Light of Scripture, L.G. Tomlinson, 76).
2. “Adventism is based on the conviction that the Second Advent of Christ is the sole hope of the world. The present age is evil and irredeemable, except through the direct action of God. Adventism holds that humanity’s nature is fallen because of sin and that those who rebel against the government of God will be ultimately destroyed, while believers, by God’s grace, will be saved. After that cataclysmic event, Jesus Christ will reign in triumph through the thousand-year period, or millennium, of Revelation 20:1-6. Thus Adventists are pessimistic about the present but are filled with confidence and hope for God's future. In the meantime, they teach that God’s people must be righteous, devout, and disciplined. Those who would be saved should practice a wholesome personal and family life, as well as a life of obedience to God. They should also work diligently toward the evangelization of the whole world in preparation for the return of Christ.
3. “In other areas there have been differing viewpoints among Adventists. Are the dead conscious or unconscious as they await the resurrection? Who are to arise: Both the righteous and the wicked or only the righteous? Is there to be eternal punishment or ultimate annihilation for the wicked? What is the nature of immortality? Does the cleansing of the sanctuary in Daniel 8 refer to a sanctuary in heaven or to one on earth? Should the sabbath be recognized as the first day or the seventh day of the week? Answers to these questions have served to divide various Adventist groups.” (“Adventist Churches,” Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 11th Ed., Mead et al.)
4. SDA arose out of the “Great Disappointment” of Oct. 22, 1844 (failed prediction of Christ’s return).
B. Timeline of SDA Church:
1846: Washington, N. H. – Small group of Adventists began observing Sabbath (7th day), including James White & his wife, Ellen Harmon (Ellen G. White)
1855: Set up headquarters in Battle Creek, Michigan, with a publishing house
1860: Name “Seventh-day Adventists” was officially adopted
1863: The Sabbath-keeping Adventists were organized as the Seventh-day Adventist Church with 3,500 members in Battle Creek, Michigan
1903: Headquarters moved to Takoma Park, a suburb of Washington, D. C.
1989: Headquarters moved to Silver Spring, Maryland
II. SOURCES OF AUTHORITY.
A. The Holy Scriptures.
“Seventh-day Adventists accept the Bible as their only creed and hold certain fundamental beliefs to be the teaching of the Holy Scriptures.” (Preamble, Statement of Fundamental Beliefs, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, April, 1980)
“The Holy Scriptures, Old and New Testaments, are the written Word of God, given by divine inspiration through holy men of God who spoke and wrote as they were moved by the Holy Spirit. In this Word, God has committed to man the knowledge necessary for salvation. The Holy Scriptures are the infallible revelation of His will. They are the standard of character, the test of experience, the authoritative revealer of doctrines, and the trustworthy record of God’s acts in history. ” (Statement of Fundamental Beliefs, 1)
B. The Gift of Prophecy.
“One of the gifts of the Holy Spirit is prophecy. This gift is an identifying mark of the remnant church and was manifested in the ministry of Ellen G. White. As the Lord’s messenger, her writings are a continuing and authoritative source of truth which provide for the church comfort, guidance, instruction, and correction. They also make clear that the Bible is the standard by which all teaching and experience must be tested.” (Statement of Fundamental Beliefs, 17, emp. mine)
1. Ellen G. White (1827-1915): The Spirit of Prophecy in the SDA Church.
a. Her claim: Messenger of the Lord.
“She said: “My commission embraces the work of a prophet, but it does not end there” (Selected Messages, Book One, p 36); “If others call me by that name [prophetess], I have no controversy with them” (ibid., p 34); “My work includes much more than this name signifies. I regard myself as a messenger, entrusted by the Lord with messages for His people” (ibid., p 36).” (A Statement of Confidence in the Spirit of Prophecy, General Conference, June 30, 1995)
“In these letters which I write, in the testimonies I bear, I am presenting to you that which the Lord has presented to me. I do not write one article in the paper expressing merely my ideas. They are what God opened before me in vision – the precious rays of light shining from the throne” (Testimonies, V:31, p. 63).
b. SDA claims: Spirit of Prophecy.
“In the life and ministry of Ellen G. White (1827-1915), we see God’s promise fulfilled to provide the remnant church with the “spirit of prophecy.” Although Ellen G White did not claim the title “prophet,” we believe she did the work of a prophet, and more.” (A Statement of Confidence in the Spirit of Prophecy, General Conference, June 30, 1995)
c. Applicable & authoritative:
“We believe that Ellen White was inspired by the Holy Spirit and that her writings, the product of inspiration, are applicable and authoritative, especially to Seventh-day Adventists” (Adventist Review, July 15, 1982).
d. Inspired like the Bible:
“…we reaffirm our abiding confidence in the teaching of Sister White to the church, as the teaching of the Spirit of God.” (SDA Yearbook for 1914, p. 253)
“We do not believe that the quality or degree of inspiration in the writings of Ellen White is different from that of Scripture” (Adventist Review, July 15, 1982).
e. Avoid two extremes?
“We conclude, therefore, that a correct understanding of the inspiration and authority of the writings of Ellen White will avoid two extremes: (1) regarding these writings as functioning on a canonical level identical with Scripture, or (2) considering them as ordinary Christian literature” (Adventist Review, July 15, 1982).
-Yet, E.G. White said:
“If you lessen the confidence of God’s people in the testimonies he has sent them, you are rebelling against God as certainly as were Kora, Dathan, and Abiram” (Testimonies, V:31, p. 62).
2. Not canonical, not ordinary: Why the uncertainty? -Because much of Ellen G. White's writings resulted from plagiarism.
a. Plagiarize: “copying, or imitating the language, ideas, and thoughts of another author and passing off the same as one’s original work;” “to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own: use (another’s production) without crediting the source” (Webster).
b. Chief accuser & documenter: Walter Rea (The White Lie, 1982): Adventist Minister for 33 years who lost faith in White’s inspiration while writing a commentary on the Bible using only White’s writings when he discovered how extensively she “borrowed” from other writers.
“On the basis of his research he challenges anyone to find even twenty percent of her writings that were original and not borrowed from others” (Ellen G. White & Inspiration, Maurice Barnett, 5).
3. SDA recommendation:
“We consider the biblical canon closed. However, we also believe, as did Ellen G White’s contemporaries, that her writings carry divine authority, both for godly living and for doctrine. Therefore, we recommend:
1) That as a church we seek the power of the Holy Spirit to apply to our lives more fully the inspired counsel contained in the writings of Ellen G White, and
2) That we make increased efforts to publish and circulate these writings throughout the world.” (A Statement of Confidence in the Spirit of Prophecy, General Conference, June 30, 1995)
1. Writing that was inspired by the Holy Spirit is Scripture – 1 Cor. 2:13; 14:37; 2 Tim. 3:16-17.
2. Holy Spirit is not a plagiarist – 2 Pet. 1:20-21 (origin & interpretation).
3. Inspiration ended with completed gospel – Jno. 16:13; 1 Cor. 13:8-10.
4. Ellen G. White was not the “spirit of prophecy” in the church.
III. SIN AND SALVATION.
A. SDA: Men are Born Sinners (Original Sin).
-THE Bible: Sin is actual & is committed, not inherited – Ezek. 18:20; Rom. 5:12-13.
B. SDA: How to be Saved.
1. SDA: Believe, repent & exercise faith.
a. “Led by the Holy Spirit we sense our need, acknowledge our sinfulness, repent of our transgressions, and exercise faith in Jesus as Lord and Christ, as Substitute and Example.” (Fundamental Beliefs, 10)
b. On becoming a Christian:
“You are a sinner. You cannot atone for your past sins; you cannot change your heart and make yourself holy. But God promises to do all this for you through Christ. You BELIEVE that promise. You confess your sins and give yourself to God. You WILL to serve Him. Just as surely as you do this, God will fulfill His word to you. If you believe the promise – believe that you are forgiven and cleansed – God supplies the fact; you are made whole, just as Christ gave the paralytic power to walk when the man believed that he was healed. It IS so if you believe it.” (Steps to Christ, E.G. White, 51; cited in Handbook of Religious Quotations, Dawson & MacArthur, 164)
c. SDA distinguish between “forgiveness of sins” (prior to 1844) & “blotting out of sins” (Christ in the Most Holy Place of heaven after 1844).
a. Condition of church membership.
“Baptism by immersion typifies the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ, and openly expresses faith in His saving grace, and the renunciation of sin and the world, and is recognized as a condition of entrance into church membership.” (“Summary of Doctrinal Beliefs,” #22; cited in Handbook of Religious Quotations, Dawson & MacArthur, 164)
b. A Symbol…
“By baptism we confess our faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ, and testify of our death to sin and of our purpose to walk in newness of life. Thus we acknowledge Christ as Lord and Saviour, become His people, and are received as members by His church. Baptism is a symbol of our union with Christ, the forgiveness of our sins, and our reception of the Holy Spirit. It is by immersion in water and is contingent on an affirmation of faith in Jesus and evidence of repentance of sin. It follows instruction in the Holy Scriptures and acceptance of their teachings.” (Fundamental Teachings, 14)
c. Prerequisites to being baptized into the SDA Church:
(1) Thorough instruction previous to baptism (individually & baptismal class).
(2) Public examination of readiness.
(3) Publicly affirm (vow) acceptance of the doctrinal beliefs of the SDA Church by answering 13 questions, including:
-Vow to keep the Sabbath
-Vow to abstain from all unclean foods (pork, ham, shrimp, lobster & clams) for health reasons, (The Four Major Cults, Hoekema, 133-134).
1. Actual reception after baptism: Remission, blotting out, forgiveness, blessings of the Spirit: All before 1844 & now – Acts 2:38; 3:19; Eph. 1:7.
2. Union with Christ is after baptism – Rom. 6:3-5.
3. Bible prerequisites: Believe, confess faith, repent of sins – Mk. 16:15-16; Acts 8:36-37; Acts 2:38.
4. Result: Lord adds the saved person to His church – Acts 2:47 (1 Cor. 12:13).
IV. THE TEN COMMANDMENTS & THE SABBATH.
A. SDA: Ten Commandments are God’s Unchangeable Law & Binding on All.
“The great principles of God’s law are embodied in the Ten Commandments and exemplified in the life of Christ. They express God’s love, will, and purposes concerning human conduct and relationships and are binding upon all people in every age.” (Fundamental Beliefs, 18)
1. 10 Commandments: To Israel, not binding on all people – Deut. 5:1-3.
2. 10 Commandments: Part of old law nailed to cross – Col. 2:14-15.
a. Includes its Sabbath law: Col. 2:16-17. Not to be bound today.
b. Includes its moral laws: Rom. 7:7 (coveting); Discharged from that law, 7:6; Dead to it, 7:4. (Morality is now defined & revealed in the gospel teaching on love – Rom. 13:8-10.)
B. SDA: The Sabbath: A Perpetual Commandment; Required as a day of rest, worship and ministry.
“The beneficent Creator, after the six days of Creation, rested on the seventh day and instituted the Sabbath for all people as a memorial of Creation…The Sabbath is God’s perpetual sign of His eternal covenant between Him and His people.” (Fundamental Beliefs, 19)
DEFINITION OF “SABBATH.”
A. Root Meaning: To Cease, Desist (Vine, III:311).
1. “The idea is not that of relaxation or refreshment, but cessation from activity” (Ibid.).
2. “Sabbath” means rest, not ‘seventh.’
SABBATH OBSERVANCE ESTABLISHED?
A. At Mount Sinai – Neh. 9:13-14 (Exo. 20:1, 8-11, 22; Deut. 5:1-3, 12-15).
B. The Sabbath was not Commanded at Creation.
1. Gen. 2:2 – God rested on the 7th day of creation – Not man.
2. Fact that God “sanctified” the 7th day does not
address for what purpose He dedicated it -- that must be learned from
other Scripture (Deut. 5:12-15).
3. Exo. 20:11 – God used His day of rest from creative work to illustrate the rest (Sabbath) He commanded Israel.
TO WHOM WAS THE SABBATH GIVEN?
A. To the Nation of Israel – Exo. 31:13, 16-17; Deut. 5:2-3 (12-14).
-(Not to Abraham, Isaac, Jacob & his sons, Deut. 5:2-3.)
B. Not to All Men (the Gentiles) – Ezek. 20:9-12, 18-20.
-(Not to the Egyptians, Deut. 5:12-15.)
WHY WAS ISRAEL GIVEN THE SABBATH?
A. It was a Sign between God & Israel –
Exo. 31:13, 17.
1. Sign: “a distinguishing mark,” a token of agreement.
2. 31:13 – Of Israel’s faith in & relationship with the Lord.
3. 31:16 – Hence, it was a covenant (divine ordinance).
B. It was a Memorial for Israel to Remember God Delivered them Egyptian Bondage – Deut. 5:15.
HOW LONG WAS
ISRAEL TO OBSERVE THE SABBATH?
A. Until the End of Israel’s Obligation to the Law of Moses – Exo. 31:13, 16-17.
1. 31:13 – Throughout your generations: Those living during a period (period of Israel’s history).
2. 31:16 – Perpetual: Everlasting, always, continuance existence.
3. 31:17 – Forever: Age-lasting.
4. A “perpetual” & “forever” covenant is age-lasting in nature:
a. Levitical priesthood (sons of Aaron) – Exo. 40:15.
(1) Yet, that priesthood ended with changing of the law –
(2) Therefore, what was “forever” had an end.
b. The age of the OT law has ended – Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:13 (1:1-2).
B. Old Law & the Christian: Dead to it (Rom. 7:4); Discharged from OT law (Rom. 7:6), done away (2 Cor. 3:14), blotted out (Col. 2:14), abolished (Eph. 2:15), no longer under it (Gal. 3:25).
1. Therefore, the Sabbath is not binding on anyone today – Col. 2:16-17.
2. Those who do so are debtors to keep all, severed from Christ & without grace – Gal. 5:2-4.
A SABBATH REMAINS FOR THE PEOPLE OF GOD: Heaven – Heb. 4:9-11 (Rev. 14:13).
V. OTHER SDA PRACTICES & DOCTRINES.
A. SDA: Tithing.
1. “Scripture tells us that the tithe is “holy to the Lord,” symbolizing God’s ownership of everything (Lev. 27:30, 32).” (Seventh-day Adventists Believe…, 271, Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists).
2. “The tithe belongs to the Lord, and He requests that we return it to Him” (Ibid.).
1. Tithing was part of OT law to Israel – Lev. 27:34: “These are the commandments which the Lord commanded Moses for the children of Israel on Mount Sinai.”
2. NT teaches Christians about giving to the Lord:
a. First give ourselves to the Lord – 2 Cor. 8:12, 5.
b. As prospered on first day of week – 1 Cor. 16:2.
c. Purpose of heart, freely & cheerfully – 2 Cor. 9:7.
B. SDA: The Communion Service.
1. Foot washing and the Lord’s Supper. (Observed quarterly)
“The ordinances of foot washing and the Lord’s Supper make up the Communion services. Thus, Christ instituted both of these ordinances to assist us with entering into communion with Him.” (Seventh-day Adventists Believe…, 196, Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
“So believers must confess and repent of all sin – including pride, rivalry, jealousy, resentful feelings, and selfishness – before they can be in the right spirit to have communion with Christ at this deepest level.
“To this end Christ instituted the ordinance of foot washing. Not only did He set an example but stated they ought to do the same, and promised them a blessing: “If you know these things, happy are you if you do them” (Jno. 13:17). This ordinance, preceding the Lord’s Supper, fulfills the injunction that all should examine themselves so as not to participate in that meal “in an unworthy manner” (1 Cor. 11:27-29).” (Ibid.)
-SDA says foot washing is…
a. A memorial of Christ’s condescension.
b. A type of higher cleansing of the heart & deeper communion with Christ.
c. A fellowship of forgiveness.
d. A fellowship with Christ and believers.
1. Foot washing: Common courtesy of the day (Lk. 7:44).
2. Jesus in Jno. 13:12-17: Gave an example of humble service for disciples to follow; not a ceremonial “ordinance” to keep.
3. 1 Cor. 11:27-29: Examination of self to not eat “in an unworthy manner” – Failure to discern the Lord’s body – to remember His death (cf. 11:20-21).
4. If foot washing, why not a holy kiss ceremony? (Rom. 16:16)
5. Lord’s Supper:
a. First day of every week – Acts 20:7.
b. Communion, memorial & proclamation – 1 Cor. 10:16; 11:23-26.
C. SDA: After Death, Man Sleeps in a State of Unconsciousness.
1. The wages of sin is physical death.
“But after they transgressed God’s command, Adam and Eve discovered that the wages of sin is, indeed, death (Rom. 6:23). Their sin brought this sentence: You shall “return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; for dust you are and to dust you shall return” (Gen. 3:19). These words do not point to a continuation of life but to its cessation.” (Seventh-day Adventists Believe…, 350, Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
2. Soul sleep.
“The wages of sin is death. But God, who alone is immortal, will grant eternal life to His redeemed. Until that day death is an unconscious state for all people.” (Fundamental Beliefs, 25)
“The teaching of the Bible regarding the intermediate state of man is plain. Death is really and truly a sleep, a sleep that is deep, that is unconscious, that is unbroken until the awakening at the resurrection.
“In death man enters a state of sleep. The language of the Bible makes it clear that it is the whole man which sleeps, not merely a part. No intimation is given that man sleeps only as to his body, and that he is wakeful and conscious as to his soul. All that comprises the man sleeps in death.” (Life, Death, and Immortality, 202; cited by Hoekema, 135)
1. The wages of sin is spiritual death – cf. Gen. 2:17.
a. Consequence of sin is physical death – Gen. 3:17, 19.
2. If physical death is the wage of sin, then…
a. Free gift of grace in Jesus (salvation) means no more physical death, Rom. 5:12-15.
b. But, that gift is spiritual life, Rom. 6:4, 11-13, 22-23.
c. Therefore, spiritual death is the wage of sin!
3. Conscious after death – Lk. 16:19-31 (22-25).
D. SDA: No Hell.
1. No eternal place of never-ending punishment. (All those who have rebelled against God, including Satan, will be wiped out of existence.)
2. Wicked are annihilated.
“…The finally impenitent, including Satan, the author of sin, will, by the fires of the last day, be reduced to a state of non-existence, becoming as though they had not been, thus purging God’s universe of sin and sinners.” (Fundamental Beliefs, Article 12; cited by Hoekema, 142)
“When Christ spoke of ‘everlasting punishment’ (Matt. 25:46) He did not mean everlasting punishing. He meant that as the “eternal life [the righteous will enjoy] will continue throughout the ceaseless ages of eternity; and the punishment [the wicked will suffer] will also be eternal – not eternal duration of conscious suffering, however, but punishment that is complete and final. The end of those who thus suffer is the second death. This death will be eternal, from which there will not, and cannot, be any resurrection.” (Questions on Doctrine, 539; cited in Seventh-day Adventists Believe…, 370-371, Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists)
1. Hell is real – Matt. 10:28; 23:33.
2. Place of destruction (Matt. 10:28); condemnation (Matt. 23:33).
3. Hell & its punishment is everlasting – 2 Ths. 1:8-9.
a. Everlasting fire that is never quenched & worm does not die – Matt. 25:41; Mk. 9:43.
b. Lake of fire where torment of Satan & wicked occurs “day and night forever and ever” – Rev. 20:10.
c. No rest day or night as “the smoke of their torment ascends forever and ever” – Rev. 14:11; the “second death” (Rev. 20:14-15).
d. Matt. 25:46: If “everlasting punishment” does not mean everlasting punishing, then “everlasting life” does not mean everlasting living!
E. SDA: The Earth Will Last Forever.
-(SDA is premillennial with a twist: Believe in a future 1000 year reign of Christ on earth…final annihilation of all the wicked…the earth will be restored & last forever.)
“The earth, restored to its pristine beauty, will become forever the abode of the saints of the Lord. The promise of Abraham, that through Christ he and his seed should possess the earth through the endless ages of eternity, will be fulfilled.” (Fundamental Beliefs, Article 22, cited by Hoekema, 143)
“On the new earth, in which righteousness dwells, God will provide an eternal home for the redeemed and a perfect environment for everlasting life, love, joy, and learning in His presence. For here God Himself will dwell with His people, and suffering and death will have passed away. The great controversy will be ended, and sin will be no more. All things, animate and inanimate, will declare that God is love; and He shall reign forever. Amen.” (Fundamental Beliefs, 27)
1. Kingdom of Christ exists now – His church (Col. 1:13; Rev. 1:9).
2. Land promise to Abraham’s seed was fulfilled long ago – Gen. 12:7; Josh. 21:43.
3. Earth & its works will “burn up”, not be “restored” – 2 Pet. 3:10, 12.
4. “New heavens and a new earth” is heaven, the eternal realm of righteousness – 2 Pet. 3:13.
-Rev. 21:1: “Now I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away.”
5. Meet the Lord in the air & in this manner we will always be with Him – 1 Ths. 4:17.
1. SDA Church began because of a mistake (Wm. Miller’s false dates of the return of Jesus).
2. It is perpetuated by false doctrine & false hopes.
3. To Seventh-day Adventists we say:
a. “Let no one cheat you of your reward” by binding the abolished laws of the Sabbath & by promising false hope of the future. (Col. 2:18)
b. Come out from among them and be separate (2 Cor. 6:17-18).
Barnett, Maurice, Ellen G. While and Inspiration
Dawson, Samuel G. and MacArthur, Rod, Handbook of Religious Quotations
General Conference of Seven-day Adventists, Seventh-day Adventists Believe…, A Biblical Exposition of 27 Fundamental Doctrines
Hoekema, Anthony A., The Four Major Cults
Kellner, Mark A., “Annual Council: 13.6 Million Are Adventist Members; 2,756 Baptized Daily,” Adventist News Network,
Mead, Frank S., Handbook of Denominations in the United States, 8th Edition
The Seventh-day Adventist Church Web Site, www.adventist.org/
Tomlinson, L. G., Church of Today in the Light of Scripture
|
<urn:uuid:dbec9b5c-6d43-44eb-9b88-a9828d567bd3>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.bibleanswer.com/adventist7.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00096-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.910064 | 6,658 | 2.578125 | 3 |
By Simon Eliot
For most of the history of the printed book, from Gutenberg in 1455 onwards, the most expensive part of the material book was paper. Until the mid-nineteenth century, by which time paper was being made by steam-driven machines using esparto grass and wood pulp rather than traditional linen rag as raw material, paper commonly represented at least half the cost of a book’s production.
Paper, its quality, its quantity and its provision was therefore a recurrent theme in the deliberations of the Delegates (those who ran Oxford University Press). On 20 May 1791 ‘the very best paper made by Whatman’, a specimen of which the Delegates had seen, was to be used for the new quarto edition of Aristotle’s Poetics. This almost certainly would have been wove paper rather than the more traditional laid paper (which had a chain and wire pattern). Wove paper, which had no such pattern, was first developed by James Whatman between 1754 and 1756, though it only became widely manufactured in the 1780s and 1790s.
The excise duty on paper was a frequent problem for all printers and publishers. The reorganisation of the duty in 1794, whereby it was charged by weight rather than ream, had the effect of making the burden heavier; paper duty was to change again in 1801, 1809, and 1819. In 1795 there was a discussion between the Delegates and those who ran Cambridge University Press (the Syndics) on how to respond to an increase in paper duty. In June 1808 they were again exercised by the rising cost of paper and its effects, in particular on the printing of bibles. This preoccupation is not surprising. In 1779 the Delegates’ accounts recorded that over £762 had been spent on paper alone, 55.3% of a total expenditure of £1,378 of the Learned Press and, though perhaps an exceptional year, the proportion of the Press’s costs represented by paper remained very high throughout these early decades. In 1800, for instance, the Learned Press spent £825 on paper or 34.6% of its total expenditure of £2,382.
An Act of 1794 also required the dating of watermarks in paper in an attempt to prevent a fraud that might otherwise have taken place during the process of ‘drawback’. This requirement was rescinded in 1811 but many papermakers continued to date their paper. Drawback allowed those entitled institutions (including the two university presses) to claim back the duty paid on paper that was subsequently used to print bibles, new testaments, psalms, and books of common prayer. A similar arrangement had been established by an Act of 1712 which allowed the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge to claim a refund of duty paid on paper that was then used to print works in Greek, Latin, oriental, and ‘northern languages’. By the early nineteenth century the drawback on paper was worth a considerable amount to OUP. As production increased so did the amount of paper used, the duty on which the Press could now claw back. In 1804 the sum was £1,088.3.5, by 1808 it was up to £1,891.3.0 although this was exceptional. On average drawback amounted to £1,088 per annum between 1804 and 1817.
In 1800, and for many decades afterwards, learned printing was small beer to the Press. In 1800 the paper bought for bible printing was valued at £7,542.17.0, nine times the value of paper bought by that part of the Press devoted to producing learned books. The printing of bibles may have been regarded as an act of piety, but by the early nineteenth century was becoming a big business amid the dreaming spires of Oxford.
Simon Eliot is Professor of the History of the Book in the Institute of English Studies, School of Advanced Study, University of London. He is general editor of The History of Oxford University Press, and editor of its Volume II 1780-1896.
With access to extensive archives, The History of Oxford University Press is the first complete scholarly history of the Press, detailing its organization, publications, trade, and international development. Read previous blog posts about the history of Oxford University Press.
|
<urn:uuid:4516e48d-1a36-4f8c-8d20-1e116574a714>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://blog.oup.com/2014/01/paper-cost-printed-book-publishing/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00063-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.981141 | 894 | 3.34375 | 3 |
Once a week we will be featuring a fun and/or educational activity you can try at home or in the classroom. Tomorrow, August 19, is World Humanitarian Day, a global celebration of people helping people. Today's activity involves several ideas to help people tomorrow and beyond.
Shop for a neighbor. You can offer to make a trip to the store for a neighbor who may find it hard to get around. Or a parent who is tied up watching the kids.
Make a sandwich for a homeless person. Or, you can donate food to your local food pantry.
Visit an elderly person. Just a short time can light up the day of someone who doesn't always have company.
Give away something you no longer use. We all value our stuff, but if we no longer use it, what good is it? Give it to someone else who will enjoy using it.
Read to a younger child. Do you have a neighbor with little kids? Ask the parents if you can read to them. It will give a very welcome break to a parent, and will enrich the little kids as well.
Clean up a local park, or your neighborhood, or simply your street. A less-polluted area makes life more enjoyable for everyone, not to mention the help you are giving Mother Nature.
You can see from these activities that being a humanitarian can be relatively simple. A little good can go a long way, and it is possible for you to be a part of it. So pick one of these activities, or make up one on your own, and try it out tomorrow. We'd love it if you shared the activity you choose by writing about it in our comments section.
Go to www.whd-iwashere.org, devoted to World Humanitarian Day 2012, for more ideas or to "add your voice" to the social campaign.
For educational activities relating to Heifer International and our work, go to www.heifer.org.
|
<urn:uuid:199dc679-52f2-4ee8-8715-7b58c6c44b41>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.heifer.org/join-the-conversation/blog/2012/August/do-a-good-deed-or-two-on-world-humanitarian-day.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392069.78/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.949723 | 404 | 2.640625 | 3 |
January 31, 2014
Predictions For Climate Change Effects On Savanna Vegetation Best Done By Continent
North Carolina State University
A "one-size-fits-all" model to predict the effects of climate change on savanna vegetation isn't as effective as examining individual savannas by continent, according to research published in Science this week.Savannas – grasslands dotted with trees – cover about 20 percent of the earth's land and play a critical role in storing atmospheric carbon, says Dr. William Hoffmann, associate professor of plant and microbial biology at North Carolina State University and co-author of the study.
"We wanted to find out what controls savanna vegetation – essentially the density of trees within the savanna – and whether we can use a single global model to predict what will happen to savannas if global temperatures rise," Hoffmann said. "We found that the rules determining tree density are fundamentally different among the three continents studied – Africa, Australia and South America. That means a 'one-size-fits-all' approach won't work."
The researchers examined more than 2,100 sites in savannas across the three continents. They found that tree density was influenced by a number of different factors, including moisture availability, temperature, soil fertility and frequency of fires. Yet the power of these relationships differed significantly among the three continents.
"For example, greater moisture availability – a combination of rainfall, rainfall seasonality and drought indices – meant greater tree density in Africa and Australia, but it had almost no relationship with tree density in South America," Hoffmann said.
Not surprisingly, he added, the study showed that fire reduces tree density.
But the researchers found some strong counter-intuitive relationships between rainfall and fire frequency, namely that more moisture meant more fires. Hoffmann explained that more rainfall in a savanna meant faster-growing grasses, which meant any fires in that savanna would have ample fuel to spread quickly and easily.
The researchers also modeled what would happen to tree density if the mean annual temperature increased by 4 degrees Celsius. Because tree density is controlled differently on the three continents, the study predicts different responses to global warming. In Africa, tree density is predicted to climb in hotter temperatures, while it is expected to decline in Australia and Africa. These differences, Hoffmann says, could not be predicted if savannas are assumed to behave identically across the tropics.
"Climate modelers examining atmospheric carbon dioxide levels use these types of models to make projections on carbon storage, which has major global implications," Hoffmann says. "We're trying to make these models better."
Caroline E.R. Lehmann of Macquarie University in Australia led the study. Researchers from some 20 universities around the globe contributed to the work.
On The Net:
|
<urn:uuid:95ba20da-7412-45e8-a8cf-13e9903fc358>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113060261/predictions-climate-change-effects-on-savanna-vegetation-best-done-by-continent-013114/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403826.29/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.94046 | 572 | 3.5 | 4 |
The biggest volcano in the solar system, Olympus Mons on Mars, is three times as high as Mount Everest, rising nearly 27 kilometres from the surface of the red planet.
It has sheer cliffs up to 10 kilometres high, and its base would sit comfortably between Sydney and Melbourne.
Next week, Olympus Mons will be closer to Earth than it has been for 60,000 years. But even seen through a powerful telescope, this massive volcano will look simply like a black mark on a bed of orange.
NSW has a wealth of small observatories open to the public.
The astronomy enthusiasts who run them, inundated with inquiries about viewing Mars, are treading a delicate balance between encouraging excitement at the closest approach of the planet in recorded history and providing a realistic view about what people can expect to see down a telescope.
Peter Neilson, manager of Dubbo Observatory, said he made a point of showing people pictures first, so they knew what to look for. In the case of Mars, this was the glow of the polar caps, and the black marking of three volcanoes.
"Any level of interest in astronomy is good. But it's a matter of expectation," he said.
Steven Williams, astronomer at Grove Creek Observatory, 60 kilometres outside Bathurst, said Halley's Comet was a classic case of hype leading to bitter disappointment, when the comet did not live up to public expectations 18 years ago.
Exaggerated claims by some astronomers and close-up pictures of the Mars surface in TV stories risked creating a similar debacle, he said.
"I have had to get on radio and say, 'This is the best you will have ever seen Mars, but it is still a small planet'."
A non-profit, research grade facility, with its own accommodation, Grove Creek has already been heavily booked for viewings.
In the Blue Mountains, both Linden Observatory and Kings Tableland Observatory at Wentworth Falls are putting on special sessions.
The University of Western Sydney is opening its Nepean Observatory in Penrith to the public on August 23 and August 28. UWS astrobiologist Ragbir Bhathal said the next approach as close as this one would not be for another 284 years.
The big night is August 27, when Mars will be only 55.76 million kilometres away, but viewing will be good from now until mid-September.
Other sites with special Mars events include Sydney Observatory, Wollongong Science Centre and Planetarium, Magellan Observatory near Goulburn, Darby Falls Observatory near Cowra and Koolang Observatory at Bucketty on the Central Coast.
|Print this article Email to a friend||Top|
|text | handheld (how to)||
Copyright © 2003. The Sydney Morning Herald.
|advertise | contact us|
|
<urn:uuid:1b7156e4-8dd4-46ec-9747-c379b9d45ced>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/08/15/1060936055152.html?from=storyrhs
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00136-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.93944 | 578 | 2.703125 | 3 |
Trichinosis is an infection with the roundworm Trichinella spiralis.
Trichinosis is a disease caused by eating meat that has not been thoroughly cooked and contains cysts (larvae, or immature worms) of Trichinella spiralis. Trichinella spiralis can be found in pork, bear, walrus, fox, rat, horse, and lion.
Wild animals, especially carnivores (meat eaters) or omnivores (animals that eat both meat and plants), should be considered possible sources of roundworm disease. Domestic meat animals raised specifically for eating under United States Department of Agriculture (government) guidelines and inspection can be considered safe. For this reason, trichinosis is rare in the United States, but it is a common infection worldwide.
When a person eats meat from an infected animal, Trichinella cysts break open in the intestine and grow into adult roundworms. The roundworms produce other worms that move through the gut wall and into the bloodstream. The worms invade muscle tissues, including the heart and diaphragm (the breathing muscle under the lungs). They can also infect the lungs and brain. The cysts remain alive for years.
Symptoms of trichinosis include:
- Abdominal discomfort
- Facial swelling around the eyes
- Muscle pain (especially muscle pain with breathing, chewing, or using large muscles)
- Muscle weakness
Exams and Tests
Tests to diagnose this condition include:
- Complete blood count (CBC)
- Eosinophil count (a type of white blood cell)
- Creatine kinase level (an enzyme found in muscle cells)
- Muscle biopsy
- Blood antibody test
Medicines can be used to treat infections in the intestines, though mild infection does not usually need treatment. Pain medicine can help relieve muscle soreness after the larvae have invaded the muscles.
Most people with trichinosis have no symptoms and the infection goes away by itself. More severe infections may be difficult to treat, especially if the lungs, heart, or brain is involved.
Possible complications include:
- Encephalitis (brain infection and inflammation)
- Heart failure
- Heart rhythm problems from heart inflammation
When to Contact a Medical Professional
Call your health care provider if you have symptoms of trichinosis and you recently ate undercooked or raw meat that might have been contaminated.
Pork and meat from wild animals should be cooked until well done (no traces of pink). Freezing pork at subzero temperatures (5°F - 15°C, or colder) for 3 to 4 weeks will kill the worms. Freezing wild game meat does not always kill the worms. Smoking, salting, and drying meat are also not reliable methods of killing the worms.
Diemert DJ. Tissue nematode infections. In: Goldman L, Schafer AI, eds. Goldman's Cecil Medicine. 24th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2011:chap 366.
Kazura JW. Tissue nematodes including trichinellosis, dracunculiasis, and the filariases. In: Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolan R, eds. Mandell, Douglas, and Bennett's Principles and Practice of Infectious Diseases. 8th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Churchill-Livingstone; 2014:chap 289.
Reviewed By: Jatin M. Vyas, MD, PhD, Associate Professor in Medicine, Harvard Medical School; Assistant in Medicine, Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Isla Ogilvie, PhD, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
|
<urn:uuid:f4b3d2d6-dd69-4373-a173-3b60b75790e2>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://westernbaptist.adam.com/content.aspx?productId=101&pid=1&gid=000631
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00038-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.870422 | 798 | 3.5 | 4 |
OUR VIEW: Coyotes not to blame, but control still needed
As the pheasant population in South Dakota dwindles, many fingers are pointing in many directions as we all look for the cause.
Saturday, we reported that some in the state are attributing the decline in pheasants to a rise in the coyote population.
Anecdotal evidence tends to show that the coyote population is high. During the recent Pheasant Habitat Summit in Huron, some landowners said coyotes are more prevalent than ever in South Dakota, and a joke by an attendee was that CRP (Conservation Reserve Program) actually is an acronym for Coyote Reproduction Program.
Actual statistics indicate an increase in coyotes, too. From July 1, 2012, to June 30, 2013, for example, the state Department of Game, Fish and Parks received 1,409 requests for assistance regarding livestock loss due to predators, resulting in 7,184 coyotes killed. That was up from 1,120 requests and 6,735 dead coyotes the year before, and up quite a bit from 2010, when there were 1,262 requests and 3,700 kills.
But are predators entirely to blame for the decline in the pheasant population?
The GF&P doesn’t believe so, and neither do we.
We believe it’s a combination of poor weather conditions, a rise in predator numbers and a recent change in farming practices — such as increased crop production along with a reduced number of set-aside acres and wetlands.
However, we cannot argue with statistics that show predator numbers on the rise. And just last week, a member of our editorial board saw a sight that a few years ago would have been quite rare: a lone coyote jogging near a highway after sunup.
While we do not believe predators are the sole reason for this drastic change in the pheasant population, we do feel the rising predator population is a problem that deserves a high priority within the state.
And, from what we’ve learned, the GF&P is taking appropriate action. The department created three additional wildlife damage specialist positions last year and has made increasing use of a federal program to shoot coyotes from the air. We take those developments as signs that the GF&P is listening to landowners, even though we realize some landowners may not be satisfied that enough is being done.
|
<urn:uuid:15c15513-e359-4960-a88e-f7304d9c9316>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.mitchellrepublic.com/content/our-view-coyotes-not-blame-control-still-needed
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.960706 | 497 | 2.59375 | 3 |
-Scott D. Benjamin, DDS
-Joel Berg, DDS
-Daniel J. Coluzzi, DDS, FACD
-Lyndon Cooper, DDS, PhD
-Allen G. Farman, BDS, PhD, MBA, Dsc
-Dennis J. Fasbinder, DDS
-Roger P. Levin, DDS
Experimental microscopic devices search for disease
Caries is still a big problem. Part of the issue is that we don’t see the disease early enough to deal with it medically. Restorative dentistry is needed in most cases given the late stage of detection. This is where new and emerging technologies could have a big impact.
It is useful to examine caries in very young children to understand where we are and what is needed in detection and risk assessment for all populations. Early childhood caries (ECC) continues to prevail in epidemic proportions. This generally preventable disease is highly morbid and costly. The numerous well-baby visits to the pediatrician during the first years of life offer many opportunities to identify risk for caries and to provide required preventive interventions to avert caries lesions on the teeth, which often progress quickly. Of the hundreds of thousands of children who present with ECC at 2 or 3 years of age, essentially all of them had approximately 6 “healthy” teeth at 1 year.
The caries assessment tools we currently use are based upon historical, environmental, and social circumstances that have been shown to predispose children for ECC. Although these tools are somewhat useful in that they raise awareness of caregivers about the importance of prevention and aggressive intervention, they are mostly highly sensitive but not highly specific. Too many false positives emerge.
A more desirable assessment tool would be one that not only hones in on who is at risk, but one that is able to identify the actual disease process at a very early stage. The extremely complex milieu of circumstances (eg, presence of certain biofilm, salivary factors, frequency of sugar intake, oral hygiene behavior imposed, fluoride regimen) that ultimately leads to clinical manifestation of ECC is nearly always already present by 1 year, when clinical signs of disease are rarely, if ever, perceptible by visual or other currently available means. What is clinically observed as ECC at age 2 or 3 years was likely already developing microscopically below the enamel surface as young as 12 months. The enamel continuously repairs itself via salivary mediated mineral deposition to protect its surface integrity, allowing daily insults of acid attack to be reversed, and averting progression of disease unless this biofilm/sugar-mediated acid attack persists unabated, such as in ECC.
What is needed—and what is currently under rapid development—are technologies that can be deployed to identify the ECC process “microscopically” at a very early stage, as young as at age 1, so that children who will otherwise manifest ECC can be specifically targeted early. Technologies such as laser fluorescence, infrared, and/or near ultaviolet spectroscopy and others are being created and will soon be tested to learn if inexpensive, rapid, and easy-to-use devices using these technologies can “see” the ECC process at 1 year during a well-baby checkup. Such a device could scan the facial and lingual surfaces of the maxillary central incisors to identify the presence and form of ECC subsurface (which is not yet clinically discernible) that if unabated would result in ECC. Loss of fluorescence in the enamel detected by various currently studied devices has been shown to provide reliable information as an analog of caries manifestation and progression.
The work of Eric Seibel at the University of Washington’s Human Photonics Laboratory is an example of an existing technology that is now entering clinical evaluation to test its ability to visualize early caries lesions. His scanning fiber endoscope could help determine patients who should be aggressively targeted not only because of the existence of discrete lesions, but because of the specific predictability that the existence of these lesions at an early stage will lead to ECC if untreated. Prevention methods include a variety of remineralizing and other therapeutics already in existence. Such technology will be useful in engaging providers and caregivers to aggressively intervene when a child is not only identified as high risk, but is already shown to manifest an early of stage disease at a very young age.
The Bottom Line
Rapidly deployed and inexpensive technology for the early detection of ECC during a well-baby checkup will lead to lower costs, lower morbidity, and improvement of oral and overall health for a lifetime.
Joel Berg, DDS, MS, is dean of the University of Washington School of Dentistry in Seattle, Washington.
Cameras are getting smaller, data files can do more
Dental professionals are continually assessing the application of innovative technology for their practice. Digital impression systems are one such technology, as they offer an alternative to conventional impression-taking that is accurate, efficient, and met with significant patient acceptance. Digital impressions are based on the broader workflow of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM). By the year 2050, it is predicted that 50% of dental services will involve CAD/CAM technology.1
The Process Today
The CAD/CAM workflow involves three distinct processes. The first process is to use a scanner or camera to record the intraoral condition. The camera transmits the recorded data to a computer software program. The second process involves manipulating the data file to create the desired volume model of the final restoration or prosthesis. The third process fabricates the restoration from the computer design. The most common fabrication process today uses subtractive milling, in which a set of milling diamonds cut away excess material from a premanufactured block of restorative material, leaving the restoration.
Digital impression systems focus on the first process in the CAD/CAM workflow. They are designed to efficiently and accurately record the patient’s teeth and soft tissues to a computer data file. The systems include an intraoral camera or scanner connected to a computer. The computer has a software program to manage the administrative information for the case, such as patient information, and allows for evaluation of the scanned data in a 3-dimensional virtual model. The software program also includes an online laboratory prescription form for ordering restorations from the laboratory. The computer electronically transmits the data file over the Internet to the laboratory for processing. Once the laboratory downloads the data file, it can use it to process models as well as import it to a CAD/CAM program to fabricate the desired restoration.
Getting More Mobile, Accessible, and Versatile
Digital impression systems are mobile units that have a computer in the base of the unit with the camera and monitor on top for easy access and visibility for clinical use. They are self-contained units in which the manufacturer ensures consistent compatibility of the computer, software, and camera. A more recent development is the introduction of modular systems. These systems rely on a “plug and play” type of camera that can be easily moved between multiple computers in the office. Most current digital impression systems utilize a video-type camera to record intraoral structures.
Digital impression systems create large files such as stereolithography (.stl) files. Where and how these data files may be used is one characteristic that sets different systems apart. Some manufacturers restrict the import of their digital files to specific computer programs. This is referred to as “closed architecture,” and it essentially limits the uses of the files as determined by the manufacturer. As digital impression systems have continued to evolve, however, manufacturers have allowed for more widespread import of .stl files in a greater array of software programs, significantly increasing the clinical applications. This is called “open architecture.” Dental laboratories are especially interested in open architecture use of .stl files to limit the number of CAD/CAM programs and devices they need to process restorations from a variety of digital systems. Open architecture systems will likely be a key trend in the future.
Digital impressions are becoming more versatile with expanding clinical applications. Once intraoral data have been recorded with the camera, an .stl file can be used to fabricate any number of laboratory-processed restorations and prostheses. The accuracy of the data file does not degrade with use or over time. The most common uses for digital impressions are fabrication of crowns, onlays, veneers, and fixed partial dentures. However, intraoral scanning abutments have been introduced for implant applications. The encode abutment or scan body is screwed to the implant and a fixture-level digital impression is scanned. The recorded .stl file can be used to fabricate custom abutments as well as resin models for complete CAD/CAM fabrication of the abutment and restoration from a single digital impression. A particular benefit of this process is that it can be done at the time of surgery without contamination of the surgical site.
Additional applications of digital impressions include diagnosis and treatment planning. Several orthodontic software programs accept digital impressions for case planning and appliance fabrication. Some manufacturers have merged .stl files from digital impressions with DICOM files from cone-beam computed tomography scans for diagnosis and case planning for implant placement, abutment design, restoration contours, and surgical guides.
The Bottom Line
Digital impressions offer a very accurate technique to replicate the intraoral condition. The ability to record the dentition with an intraoral camera—without impression material or trays—significantly improves the patient experience. In addition, it is not uncommon for discrepancies in traditional impressions to go unrecognized until the impression has been poured and a model recovered. Digital impressions provide the benefit of visualizing the virtual model on the monitor immediately after the dentition is scanned. The virtual model can be magnified and rotated to determine if critical data for the case have been accurately recorded prior to transmitting it to the dental laboratory. The software program can also provide quantitative feedback on the clearance of the scanned preparation from the opposing dentition. This helps prevent under-reduced preparations from being sent to the dental laboratory, maximizing the success of the desired restoration.
1. Silwadi M. CAD/CAM & Digital Dentistry International Conference website. www.cappmea.com/cadcam8. Accessed June 6, 2013.
Dennis J. Fasbinder, DDS is a clinical professor of dentistry and director of the Advanced Education in General Dentistry Program at The University of Michigan School of Dentistry in Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Get an insider perspective on CAD/CAM and digital dentistry from Daniel Alter, MDT, CDT. dentalaegis.com/go/id805
Using Digital Technology to Enhance Restorative Dentistry [CE] : dentalaegis.com/go/id801
Digital Impression Technology: New Advances: dentalaegis.com/go/id802
Putting It Together: Integrating New Digital and Restorative Options: dentalaegis.com/go/id803
Digital Intraoral Impression Systems: dentalaegis.com/go/id804
New systems maximize resolution, minimize radiation
The modern dental office is now a digital environment, as is the rest of our lives. The same enabling technologies apply inside and outside the dental office—namely, inexpensive computing power and digital storage, both of which are key components of trends in diagnostic imaging.
X-Ray: The Old Standard
Technological evolution in dental diagnostic imaging is continuous, whereas paradigm shifts occur less frequently. The first paradigm shift in x-ray generators was the introduction of intraoral dental radiography in 1896 within weeks of the discovery of the x-ray. The next was in the early 1950s with the introduction of pantomographic scans, and the most recent was the introduction and rapid adoption of cone-beam computed tomography (CBCT) at the turn of the millennium. For most of the history of dental radiography, the recording medium was analog silver halide film which, with the exception of a brief introduction of xeroradiography in the 1970s and 1980s, was the only real option for dentistry until solid state and photostimulable phosphor systems were introduced in the 1990s.
Despite these advances, one should never forget that there are some constants within the imaging chain. First and foremost are the patient and the disease processes that need to be diagnosed, and second, for the most part, the use of x-radiation. X-radiation has been designated by the Food and Drug Administration as a carcinogen, and so its use requires that there should be clinical needs that exceed the risk. No dental radiograph should be made as a routine without prescription by a dental practitioner following history taking and clinical inspection of the individual patient. This is true whether it is a periapical, bitewing, panoramic, or CBCT exposure. When images are made, irrespective of what technology has been selected, the full image or image volume should be read to maximize the diagnostic yield that can benefit the patient.
For the most part, the x-ray manufacturing industry has been striving to minimize radiation dose by using more efficient detectors and better reconstruction algorithms for digital imaging. There are also faster scan techniques that can be used when finer detail is not needed for diagnosis. However, it should never be concluded that digital imaging per se is lower dose or safer than the analog methods it is rapidly making obsolete. The imaging parameters should be set for the task concerned to achieve necessary image quality and area of coverage. Unfortunately, it is possible for the user to overexpose the patient many times over and still have images that are diagnostically acceptable. It is the user, and not the manufacturer, who is most important in restricting dose by proper selection of image parameters after using professional judgment to select which images are needed. Any unnecessary dose should be avoided, and certainly it is inadvisable to use ionizing radiation merely as a substitute for impression materials that do not involve its use.
The Resolution Revolution
Evolution continues for both panoramic and CBCT systems, and in general images are of greater clarity while the doses of radiation required are less. The use of computer-controlled movement and digital receptors has made it possible to provide better projection geometry for panoramic imaging and even to open contact areas between teeth by using specific reconstructions, sometimes misnamed as “panoramic bitewings.” These bimaxillary pro;jections certainly improve clarity of the teeth, but are of far lower spatial resolution than comparable intraoral projections of the crowns of teeth, and certainly do not employ a “wing” that is bitten upon. On the other hand, unlike bitewings, these panoramic bimaxillary projections show the whole of the tooth, including the roots as well as the crown.
Medium- and large-view CBCT scans can be used to reconstruct panoramic images that, unlike traditional panoramic systems, are free from projection distortion, and can sometimes be achieved at doses equal to or lower than standard panoramic systems. Where it has been established that there is no dose disadvantage, the use of CBCT as a substitute for traditional panoramic imaging may be condoned; however, it is still the responsibility of the practitioner to read the full information present to maximize the diagnostic yield from the exposure of the patient to ionizing radiation.
Regarding digital intraoral radiography, for almost two decades there have been the two approaches of photostimulable phosphors (PSP) versus solid-state detectors, and these methods are rapidly making analog film radiography and the associated darkroom and chemical processors obsolete. Where an instant image is desired, the use of solid-state technology is preferred, and generally this is now using a complimentary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chip.
Both PSP and CMOS technologies are mature industries and for the most part all established systems are acceptable, depending on how the sensors fit in your hand and your patient’s mouth and how the software interacts seamlessly with your practice management system. CMOS systems combined with a protective fiber optic and using a structured cesium iodide scintillator are usually preferred for image quality and reliability. One caution to make is that digital intraoral radiology is not necessarily safer than analog film in terms of dose. Both PSP and CMOS detectors have a wide recording latitude, so extreme overexposure can still result in acceptable image quality. Such unnecessary overexposure is obviously not acceptable considering our professional duty to lower radiation doses to as low as practical.
The Bottom Line
Our goal is, and always has been, to produce diagnostic images in situations when professional judgment of the individual patient suggest that scientific evidence exists that benefits of the procedure outweigh the estimated risks. This can be considered “risk within reason.”
Allan G. Farman, BDS, PhD, MBA, DSc, is professor of radiology and imaging science at the University of Louisville in Louisville, Kentucky and is past president of the American Academy of Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology.
Radiation by the Numbers
Every year, 68 million computerized tomography scans are given in the United States; 10% are on children. Source: American College of Radiology
Medical use accounted for 15% of all ionizing radiation in the 1980s, but is estimated to be up to 50% today. Source: USA Today
An individual is exposed to approximately 5 microsieverts of radiation from a dental x-ray, whereas a mammogram provides 3 millisieverts of exposure. Source: PBS
Clinical applications are increasing, but ambivalence persists
Lasers emit a precise beam of light that causes a temperature rise in the target tissue, causing a range of effects from hemostasis to cellular vaporization.1-4 In 1989, the first laser specifically designed for dentistry was cleared by the FDA and subsequently sold in the United States. Although advertised as being able to treat almost every aspect of dental disease, the reality was that this laser would perform only soft tissue surgical procedures. I was one of a handful of dentists to purchase that laser; after 23 years of using the technology, I can say that lasers are definitely an essential part of dental care.
In the present day, estimates are that between 15% and 20% of dentists worldwide own some model of laser. There are approximately 30 indications for their use, including soft tissue surgery, adjunctive treatment of periodontal disease, treatment of aphthous ulcers and herpetic lesions, coagulation, removal of carious lesions and tooth preparation, debridement of calculus, osseous surgery, and endodontic applications.5 Not every laser can perform all of the above listed procedures; however, they can be used for soft tissue applications. Only the erbium family of lasers performs well on tooth and bone. All laser devices have general similarities in terms of delivery systems (optical fiber or articulated arm) and controls. Each manufacturer has specific features that can make the operation of the device easier. The surgical result is not dependent on any of those items.
The two disadvantages to the current offering of instruments are the relatively high cost and the requirement for training. This instruction can vary with each manufacturer, but the clinician should insist on completion of rigorous hands-on simulation exercises to gain an adequate understanding of laser-tissue interaction for the various procedures that he/she intends to perform.
Examining the Evidence
Among the questions I’m asked about lasers is, “Where’s the science?” Many articles point to some of the general benefits of the use of lasers. In dental soft tissue, these include pathogen reduction, hemostasis, less need for sutures, better postoperative courses of healing, biostimulatory effects, and much more safety adjacent to implant fixtures than electrosurgical devices.6-12 For hard tissue, enamel shows no microfractures in a cavity preparation,13 and laser energy applied to dentin and bone produces no smear layer, as well as some disinfection.14
An area of continued controversy is that of laser use for periodontics. Although there are many studies that show effective therapy, there are some meta-analyses of the literature that claim no additional benefit over “conventional therapy.” Confusion seems to abound: a literature review published in February 2013 showed that when compared with no laser use, the adjunctive use of an Nd:YAG laser along with scaling and root planing offered “significant differences in pocket depth reduction…but no difference in clinical attachment gain.”15 However, another clinical study from late 2012 that included bloc biopsy extractions with the same laser and similar protocol showed significant new attachment.16 Other recent manuscripts show the benefit of adding a laser to the initial periodontal treatment protocol.17-22
I’m a firm believer in evidence-based best practices (even though my dental education included such things as mixing amalgam from gelatin capsules of mercury and using high-speed handpieces without water spray). However, the patient’s needs and preferences, the practitioner’s clinical expertise, and the science are all equal components to evidence-based dentistry.23
The safe and effective use of dental lasers is firmly supported by good science. The clinical applications continue to increase, making the laser one of dentistry’s most exciting advances with unique patient benefits. One of the challenges in accurately capturing a digital image of a tooth preparation is getting a clean, dry field in the soft tissue adjacent to the gingival margin. Any laser can easily and quickly provide hemostasis and a clean sulcus. Another example is creating an ideal emergence profile for the final restoration of an implant. A laser allows the clinician to carefully contour the soft tissue in small increments while avoiding any damage to the fixture. Lasers are also useful for the management of the gingival tissue around recurrent carious lesions to allow both complete tooth preparation and placement of restorative materials that are moisture sensitive.
If considering a purchase, one key step is determining what procedures are performed where a laser could be used in addition to or in substitution for the present armamentarium. The practitioner can become more efficient; using a laser in place of retraction cord for a subgingival impression is much faster for control of bleeding and recontouring tissue to access a carious lesion allows placing and finishing of the restoration at the same appointment. Additional production is also possible in that the clinician may perform some straightforward surgical procedures—a frenectomy or fibroma removal—that would have otherwise be referred out of the practice.
The Bottom Line
We practitioners fundamentally believe that our patients are entitled to be made aware of all of the options for treatment. Lasers are a part of those options. We are ethically bound to obtain sufficient education and training so that we meet the standard of care. That standard is subject to both tradition and change, a seeming paradox (think about implants versus a fixed bridge or minimally invasive dentistry.) A clinician must ultimately use a laser in accordance with his or her scope of practice, experience, and training.
Donald J. Coluzzi, DDS, is a clinical professor at the University of California San Francisco School of Dentistry and a charter member and past president of the Academy of Laser Dentistry.
1. Knappe V, Frank F, Rohde E. Principles of lasers and biophotonic effects . Photomed Laser Surg. 2004;22(5):411-417.
2. Springer TA,Welch AJ. Temperature control during laser tissue welding . Appl Opt. 1993;32(4):517-525.
3. McKenzie AL. Physics of thermal processes in laser-tissue interaction . Phys Med Biol. 1990;35(9):1175-1209.
4. Rechmann P, Goldin DS, Hennig T. Er:YAG lasers in dentistry: an overview. In: Featherstone JDB, Rechmann P, Fried DS, eds. Lasers in Dentistry IV. Bellingham, WA: SPIE Press; 2006:2-13.
5. 501(k) Clearances. U.S. Food and Drug Administration Web site. www.fda.gov/medicaldevices/productsandmedicalprocedures/deviceapprovalsandclearances/510kclearances/default.htm. Updated June, 18, 2009. Accessed May 15, 2013.
6. Miyazaki A, Yamaguchi T, Nishikata J, et al. Effects of Nd:YAG and CO2 laser treatment and ultrasonic scaling on periodontal pockets of chronic periodontitis patients . J Periodontol. 2003;74(2):175-180.
7. Ando Y, Aoki A, Watanabe H, Ishikawa I. Bactericidal effect of erbium YAG laser on periodontopathic bacteria . Lasers Surg Med. 1996;19(2):190-200.
8. Romanos G, Nentwig GH. Diode laser (980 nm) in oral and maxillofacial surgical procedures: clinical observations based on clinical applications . J Clin Laser Med Surg. 1999;17(5):193-197.
9. Watanabe H, Ishikawa I, Suzuki M, Hasegawa K. Clinical assessments of the erbium:YAG laser for soft tissue surgery and scaling . J Clin Laser Med Surg. 1996;14(2):67-75.
10. Ross G, Ross A. Low level lasers in dentistry . Gen Dent. 2008;56(7):629-634.
11. Haytac MC, Ozcelik O. Evaluation of patient perceptions after frenectomy operations: a comparison of carbon dioxide laser and scalpel techniques . J Periodontol. 2006;77(11):1815-1819.
12. Christensen GJ. Soft-tissue cutting with lasers versus electrosurgery . J Am Dent Assoc. 2008;139(7):981-984.
13. Keller U, Hibst R. Experimental studies of the application of Er:YAG laser on dental hard substances: II. Light microscopic and SEM investigations . Lasers Surg Med. 1989;9(4):345-351.
14. Stübinger S, Ghanaati S, Saldamli B, et al. Er:YAG laser osteotomy: preliminary clinical and histological results of a new technique for contact-free bone surgery . Eur Surg Res. 2009;42(3):150–156.
15. Sgolastra F, Severino M, Petrucci A, et al. Nd:YAG laser as an adjunctive treatment to nonsurgical periodontal therapy: A meta-analysis [published online ahead of print March 10, 2013]. Lasers Med Sci.
16. Nevins ML, Camelo M, Schupbach P, et al. Human clinical and histologic evaluation of laser-assisted new attachment procedure . Int J Periodontics Restorative Dent. 2012;32(5):497-507.
17. Eltas A, Orbak R. Clinical effects of Nd:YAG laser applications during nonsurgical periodontal treatment in smoking and nonsmoking patients with chronic periodontitis . Photomed Laser Surg. 2012;30(7):360-366.
18. Kreisler M, Al Haj H, d’Hoedt B. Clinical efficacy of semiconductor laser application as an adjunct to conventional scaling and root planing . Lasers Surg Med. 2005;37(5):350-355.
19. Kamma JJ, Vasdekis VG, Romanos GE. The effect of diode laser (980 nm) treatment on aggressive periodontitis: evaluation of microbial and clinical parameters . Photomed Laser Surg. 2009;27(1):11-19.
20. Saglam M, Kantarci A, Dundar N, Hakki SS. Clinical and biochemical effects of diode laser as an adjunct to nonsurgical treatment of chronic periodontitis: a randomized, controlled clinical trial [published online ahead of print November 16, 2012]. Lasers Med Sci.
21. Lopes BM, Theodoro LH, Melo RF, et al. Clinical and microbiologic follow-up evaluations after non-surgical periodontal treatment with erbium:YAG laser and scaling and root planing . J Periodontol. 2010;81(5):682-691.
22. Kelbauskiene S, Baseviciene N, Goharkhay K, et al. One-year clinical results of Er,Cr:YSGG laser application in addition to scaling and root planing in patients with early to moderate periodontitis . Lasers Med Sci. 2011;26(4):445-452.
23. About EBD. ADA Center for Evidence-Based Dentistry. http://ebd.ada.org/about.aspx. Accessed May 15, 2013.
Laser Technology: Its Role in Treating and Managing Periodontal Disease: dentalaegis.com/go/id806
Academy of Laser Dentistry Resources for Professionals : dentalaegis.com/go/id807
Why Are Lasers Still Controversial?: dentalaegis.com/go/id808
5 key questions to answer before investing
During the past 25 years, practice management software has revolutionized dental practice operations in the areas of scheduling, accounting, patient communication, and data management. According to the Levin Group Data Center™, more than 90% of dental practices now have some form of practice management software.
Staying Ahead of the Curve
Although practices have made significant gains in efficiency, technology also presents challenges. Practice software must be regularly upgraded or replaced in a similar timeframe. If not, inefficiency begins to take over processes and protocols, reducing staff productivity and effectiveness.
In the aftermath of the Great Recession, many dentists postponed making practice investments. Trying to get by with outdated software is a self-defeating proposition, however. The longer an inefficient system is allowed to exist, the greater the problem becomes.
To put their practices in the best position for success, dentists must provide their teams effective tools for successfully performing their duties. In today’s digital offices, updated practice management software is a requirement. Before purchasing practice management software, dentists must ask these five questions:
1. What features am I looking for?
Today’s practice management software provides a wealth of functionalities, from appointment scheduling, perio charting, and visual imaging to patient recall, electronic insurance claim submissions, and patient billing. As more and more offices consider going paperless, almost every administrative function can be migrated to a digital realm.
2. Is the software easy to use and how is the support?
Most practice management software has been designed to be user-friendly. But practices should “test-drive” any software before purchasing. In addition, dentists need to know how the software will be supported once it is purchased. Does the company provide in-office or web-based training? Does it have sales representatives who regularly visit the office or is support only available by phone? Does it have a proven track record when it comes to customer satisfaction? In addition, practices should examine what type of warranty the company provides.
3. Can it be integrated with other technologies?
When selecting software, dentists should make sure it integrates with other technologies in the office. Although this is a chief concern of many dentists, it often occurs too late—after a purchase has been made. Having also advised numerous dental companies over the years, I can say that when new technologies do not integrate with the practice management software, they fail in the marketplace. This question needs to be asked before—not after—purchasing software.
4. Can it easily provide the data I need?
Without accurate practice data, good decision-making is undermined. Software that could deliver essential practice data at the press of a button would be an invaluable tool. For example, according to Levin Group Data Center™, the national average of the number of new patients declined 5.1% for practices in 2012. This means that practices need to be much more effective at retaining current patients. Software that can run reports on overdue and inactive patients, enabling the practice to get them back on the schedule, would be highly valuable.
5. What is the cost and will it provide an adequate ROI?
A return on investment is vital because it contributes to the practice’s financial stability. Dental practices operate with significant overhead. Therefore, each new technology purchase should be able to provide a timely return on investment (ROI). Most software systems are similarly priced, but that does not mean they provide a similar value. In addition to the initial price, there can be hidden costs, such as yearly upgrades that may be necessary but expensive.
The Bottom Line
The right practice management software will increase office efficiency, team effectiveness, and practice production. No matter what new systems come to market in the future, these five questions will help dentists make the best decision regarding their purchase.
Roger P. Levin, DDS, is a third-generation general dentist and the chairman and chief executive officer of Levin Group, Inc.
Advances in hardware and 3D software removes barriers
The lifecycle for adopting a new technology includes innovators, early adopters, a majority, and laggards. It can be argued that implant surgical guides remain in the early adopter phase and we will soon see the early majority (suggested to be more than 1/3 of a profession) begin to use and prefer the use of surgical guides.
Planning Goes 3D
Planning for implant therapy is essential. Ultimately, accurate dental implant placement can be facilitated or enhanced using 3-dimensional (3D) surgical guides created using volumetric imaging through computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacture (CAD/CAM).1 The value of using 3D guides is reflected in greater (not absolute) accuracy and by an often expedited surgical experience. A recent review of this technology indicates a spectrum of approaches to achieving surgical guidance during implant placement.2 Use of 3D planning and derived surgical guides offers benefits of improved planning options, safety, accuracy, and speed. Depending on the clinical scenario, each of the benefits acquires more or less value for the implant team.
The clinical process required to create a useful surgical guide offering 3D guidance is a multistep process that requires envisioning the final prosthesis. Although traditionally achieved by diagnostic waxing or trial tooth arrangement, newer approaches include virtual tooth arrangement. Some mechanism (duplication, scanning, or design) is needed to place and align a 3D rendering of the envisioned prosthesis within the 3D image of the jaws and teeth. Without careful restorative protocols, this essential step can introduce or promulgate errors that corrupt the intended plan.
The essence of planning involves placement of implants within visualized bone such that the implant axis is congruent with the geometric constraints of the prosthesis. 3D planning software provides an enriched environment for planning; obstacles are noted, distances can be calculated, and implants of different dimensions may be evaluated. Visualization is enhanced directly and conceptualization expands. This is particularly important in the communication among the engaged clinical team.
Multiple solutions can be explored with great facility and remarkable ease. The interactive and iterative nature of computer-based planning for dental implants represents one advantage over conventional planning using planar radiographs and study casts. More significant perhaps is the collaborative potential and communication opportunities made available by this planning technology. The multi-disciplinary nature of dental implant therapy is realized here and the patient may be included in the visualization of the ultimate plan or plans.
Surgical guidance is derived from the 3D plans generated from planning software. The accurate replication of contemporary scanning prostheses in a digital format informs CNC manufacture by milling/drilling or lithographic procedures of surgical guides that enable surgical procedures developed from osseous support, tooth support, or mucosal support. The advantages of mucosa-supported guides include reduced surgical morbidity and increased safety by improved accuracy during a “closed” procedure.
Advantages and Barriers
The noted advantages of implant surgical guides include safety and accuracy. Measures of accuracy indicate that there are current practical limitations that should be carefully regarded.3 However, some newer protocols have illustrated that it is possible to design a prosthesis, plan implant placement, and deliver the implants and a well-fitting prosthesis according to the digital model. This achievement affirms the importance of visualizing the restorative plan congruent with implant planning.
If dentistry has the technology to place implants according to enhanced planning with improved accuracy or using expedited surgical procedures that may offer reduced morbidity, then why is this not fully adopted in clinical practice? There are certainly many facets to this question. Among them are financial and practical matters that include the logistics (or workflow), time, and cost associated with planning, scanning, producing the guide, and performing the procedure. Continued streamlining of software and integration of hardware (eg, increased communication among cone-beam computed tomography [CBCT], scanners, and mills or printers) are lowering these barriers to surgical guide use.
Education is another barrier to use and generational differences come into play. The youngest of dentists—born with a computer mouse in one hand and a smartphone in another—find the technology comfortable. We older dentists have found more formal training necessary in adopting this technology. Still another perceived barrier to use is that of access. Special software and hardware are today widely available in most communities. Beyond access to CBCT, the remaining pieces of technology are also widely available through our valued dental laboratory technicians. There are few capital expenditure investment barriers to becoming fully engaged with digital technologies and surgical guides.
The Bottom Line
Adopting new technology is an interesting cultural phenomenon and the dental implant surgical guide offers an example of this process. The forces that may influence adoption of this technology include a growing outcomes database,3 patient awareness, professional risk aversion, logistical improvements, and cost reduction.
I use surgical guides. Some;times. The reasons may reflect some of the reasons stated above. If they reflect any perceived logistical barriers to use, I surely remind myself that these barriers are being eroded by improvements in software, the integration with and improvement of hardware, and the widespread adoption of both by radiologists and dental technicians.
Lyndon Cooper, DDS, PhD, is the Stallings Distinguished Professor of Dentistry of the Department of Prosthodontics at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he serves as director of graduate prosthodontics.
1. Ganz SD. Presurgical planning with CT-derived fabrication of surgical guides . J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 2005;63(9 suppl 2):S59-S71.
2. Orentlicher G, Abboud M. Guided surgery for implant therapy . Oral Maxillofac Surg Clin North Am. 2011;23(2):239-256.
3. Vercruyssen M, Jacobs R, Van Assche N, van Steenberghe D. The use of CT scan based planning for oral rehabilitation by means of implants and its transfer to the surgical field: a critical review on accuracy . J Oral Rehabil. 2008;35(6):454-474.
H. Ryan Kazemi, DMD, MD, demonstrates common problems that can occur with implant surgical guides. dentalaegis.com/go/id80
Emerging TechnologyLab-Grown Teeth Could Change the Future of Implants
Researchers from King’s College London have successfully created—and transplanted—new teeth that were grown in a lab without using traditional embryonic stem cells. Their research, which was published in the Journal of Dental Research, describes a technique that combined human epithelial cells with embryonic mesenchymal cells from mice.
Mesenchymal cells are undifferentiated connective tissue cells that are derived from the mesoderm. When combined with mesenchymal cells, the human gingival epithelial cells began developing into a tooth. Although the mesenchymal cells used in this study were embryonic in nature, wisdom teeth are a potential source of adult human mesenchymal cells.
When researchers implanted the cultured cells, the resulting human/mouse hybrid tooth had its own root structure. If this technology were to become readily available and affordable, it has the potential to revolutionize the implant industry.
Devices allow detection at earlier stages than ever before
s dental practitioners, all too often we get caught up in what procedures we are performing and sometimes overlook our most important and vital function—a thorough assessment and management of the patient’s overall oral and related systemic health. Arguably, the most important condition to detect at its earliest stages is cancer and the disorders that have the potential to progress into this deadly disease. However, the clinician’s true goal is to discover and manage any abnormality or condition that the patient has, no matter how benign or trivial it may be. New technologies have been critical in meeting this goal.
Detection, Assessment, Diagnosis
Over the past few years, there have been several technological advances that are giving clinicians the ability to detect and diagnosis conditions at early stages that were never dreamed possible before. As our patient’s systemic and oral health situations are becoming increasingly more complex, due in part to a longer life expectancy, an increase in multiple chronic and/or acute conditions, and the use of an increased number of medications, the need and desire to have advanced technologies to assist the practitioner has never been greater.
Today’s enhanced diagnostic modalities include specialized illumination and visualization technologies that allow practitioners to enhance their clinical exam, new salivary and cellular collection techniques, and computerized databases that forewarn of possible oral conditions, side effects, and interactions that may be caused by a patient’s medications and systemic conditions.
The diagnostic process involves 3 very distinct steps that often get blurred together, which causes much confusion, especially when evaluating diagnostic modalities. The first step in the examination process is detection, which has the objective of determining whether or not any abnormal process or disease condition is present. The second step is the assessment of the discovered condition, which is to characterize the situation that exists. One of the primary goals of this assessment process is to determine what other screening and examination techniques should be performed. The third step is diagnosis, which is when a healthcare professional or professionals compile all the information available from multiple sources and assessment techniques to arrive at a consensus decision.
For a general practitioner (GP), the primary objective of the enhanced examination is to confirm that the patient is in a healthy state free from any abnormalities, not to provide a definitive diagnosis for a condition. When evaluating the technologies available, the GP’s primary focus should be for the detection of an abnormality. The expectation that a single adjunctive screening modality by itself will provide a definitive diagnosis, while it may be desirable, it is entirely unrealistic.
A full thickness surgical biopsy with intact architecture is the gold standard for the diagnosis of oral cancer. All of the clinical assessments and technologies are adjunctive modalities that may help determine if, where, and when a surgical biopsy would be appropriate.
Screening for Breadth and Depth
The concept of adjunctive screening technologies is divided into 2 basic categories. The first is a field-of-view technology that assesses a wide region or area, the second is a site specific technology that focuses on a limited area once an area of concern has been detected.
A field-of-view screening technology’s initial role is to assess a wide region to discover any abnormality or irregularity. Some of these modalities also have the ability to additionally give the clinician some site-specific information once an area has been detected. An example of this type of device is a fluorescence mucosal screening technology. Following the clinician’s visual and tactile exam, these instruments are initially used to perform a cursory fluorescence screening looking for any abnormal fluorescence patterns or responses. An unexpected change in the auto-fluorescence pattern in the tissue being examined may indicate that there is an abnormal process occurring in the area. The location, size, shape, and type of fluorescence pattern may suggest what questions should be addressed or additional information should be collected, but it does not render a definitive diagnosis.
Another example of a field-of-view technology is an aceto-whitening process where the patient rinses with a mild acetic acid solution to slightly desiccate the tissue in an effort to make a white lesion more prominent when examined under enhanced illumination.
If such an area of concern is discovered with any of these field-of-view screening techniques, the clinician re-examines the specific area with a more intense focus on the findings with all of the modalities necessary and available to establish a clinical impression or working diagnosis for the area of concern.
Cellular, bacterial, viral, salivary, and genetic assessments are laboratory tests that also provide the clinician with additional information to aid in establishing the proper diagnosis and management of many conditions of both oral and systemic nature.
Before any of the enhanced screening technologies are incorporated into a practice, establishing patient communication processes is imperative. This includes both how the technology is introduced to the patient and what is said and done when an area of concern is discovered. Never tell the patient you are performing an “oral cancer exam,” as we are examining the patient for a variety of conditions not just cancer.
A more positive and nonintimidating way to describe the in process is to tell the patient that you are performing “an enhanced comprehensive oral examination, looking for everything from cavities to periodontal disease to a cheek bite to cancer.” When an area of concern is discovered, it is much more likely be another condition rather than cancer, and the patient is not unnecessarily alarmed until the definitive diagnosis is made.
The Bottom Line
The diagnosis of a condition is never established by a single modality or examination process or, more importantly, a single device. This concept should not be overlooked when clinicians are evaluating which detection or assessment technologies might be most appropriate and beneficial for their practices. A thorough understanding of the benefits and limitations these devices is mandatory, and the clinician’s knowledge of the disease process is the foundation of the examination process, not the technology used to gather the information.
Scott D. Benjamin, DDS, has worked in full-time private practice for more than 25 years. He is a member of many associations, including ADA committees addressing dental informatics, digital photography and imaging, and electronic health records. He is also on the board of directors for the Academy of Laser Dentistry.
The American College of Prosthodonists demonstrates how to conduct a thorough oral cancer screening exam. dentalaegis.com/go/id810.
DentalChart provides a flexible, customizable way to maintain electronic patient records. Charts can include a record of procedures, a color-coded materials list, photo galleries, and more. The app is password protected and all information can be backed up to a computer or iCloud.
DentalSTAT eliminates the need for manual calculations for patient-specific doses of common dental medicines. Clinicians determine proper dosages by selecting drug category, type, and patient weight, when applicable. Results are displayed in a pharmacy-friendly format.
For: iPhone, iPad, iPod touch;Android devices
Dental CT View
Dental CT View provides a resource for previewing CT and CBCT scans over the Internet in a secure and rapid way. Within minutes, it provides preview panoramic cross sections with intuitive pan-zoom viewing with password protection to keep data secure.
For: iPhone, iPad,iPod touch
Dental Spanish Guide
Dental Spanish Guide is designed to increase communication between practitioners and their Spanish-speaking patients. The guide contains questions, instructions, and explanations logically divided into easy-to-find chapters covering from the pre-exam through discharge.
For: iPhone, iPad, iPod touch; Android devices
Dentapedia helps dentists to explain dental procedures and treatments with patient-friendly interactive videos. The app includes more than 100 high-quality 3D animations, and is available in six languages for working with a variety of patient populations.
For: iPhone, iPad,iPod touch
|
<urn:uuid:f7dc1e02-4b63-4257-9618-160e6fb14584>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.dentalaegis.com/id/2013/07/caries-detections-lasers-cadcam-digital-impressions-surgical-guides-oral-cancer-screening-imaging-software
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393442.26/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00040-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.921464 | 10,115 | 3 | 3 |
Car Seat and Booster Seat Safety for Kids
7 of 9
The Importance of Rear-Facing Car Seats
Although many car seats can be installed facing forward, it's actually safer to face your car seat backwards until your child is at least two years old. This video explains why.
Next: More Resources
More on: Childhood Safety
|
<urn:uuid:bbf6d058-640a-4b1a-9e63-45592443bf95>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://life.familyeducation.com/slideshow/car-seats/54237.html?page=7
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395548.53/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00102-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.939439 | 71 | 2.75 | 3 |
This species lives in freshwater areas, including ponds, lakes, slow-moving streams and other lentic regions. They select terrestrial locations with open, high, and sandy soil habitats for nesting. These turtles search for habitats in shallow, fertile areas with adequate food supplies and minimal predators. (Bodie, 2001; Gadow, 1958)
Extensively variable coloration is seen within this generally small species, however there is usually some light speckling on a dark (often black) background color. The shape and coloration of the shell changes with age. Young (Feldman and Parham, 2002; Gadow, 1958; Harless and Morlock, 1979)have a rounded shell, and the shields are rough and slightly keeled, uniformly dark brown above and black below, with a yellow spot on each marginal and plastral shield along the rim of the carapace. As they age, the dorsal shields become smooth and are generally spotted or striated with yellow markings on a dark background. The head, limbs, and tail are dark with yellow or light brown spots and small dots. Shell size ranges from 12 to 38 cm (5 to 15 in.) and they have 12 pairs of marginal shields. The head is covered with smooth skin and the limbs are extensively webbed. has a flexible hinged plastron that is loosely united to the carapace by ligaments. Males of this species mature earlier and generally remain smaller than females, but they have similar growth rates.
Once a pair-bond is formed, courtship and copulation follow. Mating may occur in sandy areas if not hidden within foliage. Most males and females cohabitate peacefully, but some adults are more aggressive toward each other. (Gans, 1985)
Males in this species make no parental investement, and female investment in her offspring ends when she lays her eggs and covers her nest.
Compared to many other reptiles and amphibians, this species has a relatively long lifespan. Individuals living in northern populations tend to exhibit longer lifespans than those in more southern locations. Records have shown averageturtles living fifteen years or longer and adults may potentially live for decades. Mortality is very high for hatchlings due to abundant predators and lack of protection from the elements. Captive individuals may live several years longer than those living in natural populations. The age of turtles can be determined by counting the annuli growth rings on the scutes of the shell. It is assumed that only one growth ring forms annually.
During the day, these turtles bask with their bodies stretched out for long periods of time upon stones or banks lying motionless. From underwater, they survey the area and prey with just the nose and eyes emerged above the surface, or conceal themselves behind or within floating vegetation. They hibernate during the cold season buried in the mud and do not reappear until late spring.
Studies have shown male dominance hierarchies, particularly during breeding seasons. They may also exhibit territoriality and agonistic behaviors during food competition. Their behavioral movements include head extension, bobbing, biting, and similar activities. They have been known to assume dominant and subordinate postures. In captivity they become very tame, but in their native habitats they are extremely shy and cautious.
Adults exhibit pair-bonding and live in small groups. Their activities and behaviors are altered by changes in season and environmental conditions. For example, feeding decreases with decreased temperatures. Generally, this species performs regional migration, emigration, and active foraging. They can remain below water for many hours before returning to the surface. (Gadow, 1958; Gans, 1985; Harless and Morlock, 1979)
During the mating season members of this species emit short piping sounds. Other possible vocalizations include whistles, chirps, and groans, which are often used in stressful situations. Head movements are also used to communicate. Auditory stimuli may be involved in mating rituals. (Gadow, 1958; Harless and Morlock, 1979)
insects, frogs, and fishes comprise their main sources of sustenance and they generally feed in water. These turtles attack and capture their prey, biting with a sideward turn of the head, then tearing the prey to pieces with sharp claws on the forelimbs. Generally, in the wild, their prey must be moving to be seized. In captivity, these turtles may resort to eating fruits and vegetables. (Gadow, 1958)is a generalsit carnivore diet. Most small aquatic animals are prey, and their diet may shift as they grow and can eat larger animals. Worms,
Hinges in the plastron allow these turtles to withdraw into the shell and close off shell openings as protection from predators. Hatchlings and eggs are preyed upon by various animals including: herons, raccoons, bears, king snakes, ghost crabs, hermit crabs, dogs, gulls, alligators, crocodiles, foxes, rats, cats, and cormorants. Young turtles are at risk of becoming prey to predacious fish species as well. Adult are subject to attack by wild dogs, coyotes, carnivorous birds, and humans. (Gadow, 1958; Gans, 1985; Harless and Morlock, 1979)
Freshwater turtles, including (Bodie, 2001), are hunted as sources of food, used for medicinal applications, and kept as pets.
is generally harmless and does not normally have extensive contact with humans
Matthew Wund (editor), University of Michigan-Ann Arbor.
Aryn Bereznay (author), Western Maryland College, Randall L. Morrison (editor), Western Maryland College.
living in the northern part of the Old World. In otherwords, Europe and Asia and northern Africa.
uses sound to communicate
having body symmetry such that the animal can be divided in one plane into two mirror-image halves. Animals with bilateral symmetry have dorsal and ventral sides, as well as anterior and posterior ends. Synapomorphy of the Bilateria.
an animal that mainly eats meat
uses smells or other chemicals to communicate
ranking system or pecking order among members of a long-term social group, where dominance status affects access to resources or mates
a substance used for the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease
animals which must use heat acquired from the environment and behavioral adaptations to regulate body temperature
A substance that provides both nutrients and energy to a living thing.
mainly lives in water that is not salty.
having a body temperature that fluctuates with that of the immediate environment; having no mechanism or a poorly developed mechanism for regulating internal body temperature.
the state that some animals enter during winter in which normal physiological processes are significantly reduced, thus lowering the animal's energy requirements. The act or condition of passing winter in a torpid or resting state, typically involving the abandonment of homoiothermy in mammals.
An animal that eats mainly insects or spiders.
offspring are produced in more than one group (litters, clutches, etc.) and across multiple seasons (or other periods hospitable to reproduction). Iteroparous animals must, by definition, survive over multiple seasons (or periodic condition changes).
makes seasonal movements between breeding and wintering grounds
having the capacity to move from one place to another.
specialized for swimming
the area in which the animal is naturally found, the region in which it is endemic.
reproduction in which eggs are released by the female; development of offspring occurs outside the mother's body.
the business of buying and selling animals for people to keep in their homes as pets.
an animal that mainly eats fish
Referring to something living or located adjacent to a waterbody (usually, but not always, a river or stream).
breeding is confined to a particular season
reproduction that includes combining the genetic contribution of two individuals, a male and a female
associates with others of its species; forms social groups.
a wetland area that may be permanently or intermittently covered in water, often dominated by woody vegetation.
uses touch to communicate
that region of the Earth between 23.5 degrees North and 60 degrees North (between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic Circle) and between 23.5 degrees South and 60 degrees South (between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle).
Living on the ground.
defends an area within the home range, occupied by a single animals or group of animals of the same species and held through overt defense, display, or advertisement
uses sight to communicate
Belaid, B., N. Richard-Mercier, C. Pieau, M. Dorizzi. 2001. Sex reversal and aromatase in the European Pond Turtle: treatment with letrozole after the thermosensitive period for sex determination. J. Experimental Zoology,, 290: 490-7.
Bodie, J. 2001. Steam and riparian management for freshwater turtles. J. Env. Management, 62: 443-55.
Feldman, C., J. Parham. 2002. Molecular phylogenetics of emydine turtles: taxonomic revision and the evolution of shell kinesis. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution,, 22: 388-98.
Gadow, H. 1958. Amphibia and Reptiles. England: Wheldon & Wesley, Ltd..
Gans, C. 1985. Biology of the Reptilia: Vol. 14. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
Harless, M., H. Morlock. 1979. Turtles: Perspectives and Research. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
|
<urn:uuid:e69d9c15-1203-4b8c-862f-e9f9ccd08901>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Emys_orbicularis.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.931733 | 1,989 | 3.78125 | 4 |
Pathogenesis. An ischemic stroke results when cerebral blood flow to an area of the brain is interrupted. Ischemia produces impaired energy metabolism and depolarization of cells that leads to an accumulation of calcium ions in the intracellular space, elevated lactate levels, acidosis, and production of free radicals. If the disruption is severe enough, cell death occurs. Activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor by an increase in glutamate leads to a cascade of chemical reactions that ultimately leads to cell death (“theory of excitotoxicity”). Modulators of this receptor include polyamines, glycine, magnesium, zinc, and phencyclidine. Magnesium delivered during ambulance transfer is under active investigation as a neuroprotective agent (Saver et al 2004). However, magnesium delivered in the first hour after stroke fails to improve outcome (Saver et al 2015b). Normal adult brain cerebral blood flow is 50 to 60 mL/100g/minute. When cerebral blood flow falls below 18 mL/100g/minute in baboons, sensory evoked potentials disappear (Symon 1980). In the same experiment, when cerebral blood flow fell below 12 mL/100g/minute, infarction occurred. Therefore, cerebral blood flow between 10 and 20 mL/100g/minute is considered consistent with ischemic penumbra. Cerebral blood flow below 10 mL/100g/minute is considered compatible with infarction. These delineations are not absolute because time is also a factor in the fate of tissue. Cerebral blood flows of 5 mL/100g/minute result in infarction within 30 minutes, whereas those between 5 and 15 mL/100g/minute result in infarction after 1 to 3 hours (Marcoux et al 1982).
Gross pathology. The pathological characteristics of ischemic stroke are dependent on the mechanism of the stroke, the size of the obstructed artery, and the availability of collateral blood flow. There may be advanced changes of atherosclerosis visible within arteries. The surface of the brain in the area of infarction appears pale. With ischemia due to hypotension or hemodynamic changes, the arterial border zones may be involved. A wedge-shaped area of infarction in the center of an arterial territory may result if there is occlusion of a main artery in the presence of collateral blood flow. In the absence of collateral blood flow, the entire territory supplied by an artery may be infarcted. With occlusion of a major artery, such as the internal carotid artery, there may be a multilobar infarction with surrounding edema. There may be flattening of the gyri and obliteration of the sulci with cerebral edema. A lacunar infarction in subcortical regions or the brainstem may be barely visible, with a size of 1.5 cm or less. Emboli to the brain tend to lodge at the junction between the cerebral cortex and the white matter. There may be early reperfusion of the infarct when the clot lyses, leading to hemorrhagic transformation. Over time the necrotic tissue is absorbed (leaving a cystic cavity) and is surrounded by a glial scar.
The initiation, progression, and activation of atherosclerosis are predominantly inflammatory conditions produced by a “response to injury” mechanism after exposure to certain injurious vascular risk factors. Individual genetic profiles can affect pathophysiological mediators of plaque development, symptomatic manifestations, and recovery from strokes associated with cerebrovascular atherosclerosis. A number of stimuli can initiate endothelial injury, which, in turn, leads to a cascade of events that result in lipid deposition and inflammatory cell migration (de Boer et al 2000; Worrall and Degraba 2002). This inflammatory process includes the increased expression of adhesion molecules, cytokines, chemokines, metalloproteinases, and antigen-mediated activation of macrophages and T-lymphocytes. As the plaque matures, platelet aggregation and clot formation with or without plaque rupture may ensue. The clinical result is an atherothrombotic ischemic stroke.
Microscopic pathology. Microscopic changes after infarction depend on the age of the infarction and may be delayed up to 6 hours after infarction. Initially there is neuronal swelling, followed by shrinkage, hyperchromasia, and pyknosis. Chromatolysis appears and the nuclei become eccentric. There is swelling and fragmentation of the astrocytes and endothelial swelling. Neutrophils infiltrate as early as 4 hours after the ischemia and become abundant by 36 hours. Within 48 hours, the microglia proliferate and ingest the products of myelin breakdown and form macrophages. There is neovascularity with proliferation of capillaries and increased prominence of the existing capillaries. The elements in the area of necrosis are gradually reabsorbed and a cavity, consisting of glial and fibrovascular elements, forms. In a large infarction, there are 3 distinct zones: an inner area of coagulative necrosis; a central zone of vacuolated neuropil, leukocytic infiltrates, swollen axons, and thickened capillaries; and an outer marginal zone of hyperplastic astrocytes and variable changes in nuclear staining.
Genetics. As with most diseases, stroke is a result of the interaction between genetics and environmental exposure (Flossmann et al 2004). There are a number of genetic causes of stroke (Meschia et al 2005). These disorders often result in an early age of stroke onset (ie, younger than 40 years of age). Some inherited diseases predispose to accelerated atherosclerosis, such as the hereditary dyslipoproteinemias. A number of inherited diseases are associated with nonatherosclerotic vasculopathies, including cerebral autosomal dominant arteriopathy with subcortical infarcts and leukoencephalopathy (CADASIL) (Joutel et al 1996), Ehlers-Danlos (type 4) syndrome, Marfan's syndrome, Rendu-Osler-Weber disease, and Sturge-Weber syndrome. Inherited cardiac disorders that predispose to stroke include familial atrial myxomas, hereditary cardiomyopathies, and hereditary cardiac conduction disorders. Inherited hematologic abnormalities that are associated with venous stroke include deficiencies of protein C, S, and antithrombin III. Other hematologic abnormalities including mutation of factor V Leiden, polymorphism of thermolabile methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase, and G20210A mutation of the prothrombin gene have been associated with venous and arterial stroke. Sickle cell disease is a well-known cause of stroke and frequently leads to strokes during childhood (Carson et al 1963). Finally, rare inherited metabolic disorders that can cause stroke include mitochondrial encephalopathy, lactic acidosis, and stroke-like episodes (Pavlakis et al 1984), Fabry disease (Mitsias and Levine 1996), and homocystinuria.
Other potential genetic factors, particularly for carotid atherosclerosis, include PDE4D (Gretarsdottir et al 2003), interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1ra) (Worrall et al 2003), toll-like receptor-4 (TL4) (Reismann et al 2004), 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) (Dwyer et al 2004), interleukin-6 (IL-6) (Chapman et al 2003), hepatic lipases (Rundek et al 2002), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) (Cipollone et al 2004), and matrix metalloproteinase polymorphisms (MMP) (Abilleira et al 2006). More recently, the potential importance of certain microRNAs (miRNAs) has been demonstrated in the walls of unstable plaques (Cipollone et al 2011).
|
<urn:uuid:4f599779-ca3b-4865-9694-90000de36189>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.medmerits.com/index.php/article/ischemic_stroke/P5
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.863482 | 1,694 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Have you looked at other people’s style sheets lately? Were you baffled to find square brackets in the CSS code? If so, this article might be of interest to you.
What Does It Mean?
Curly braces should feel comfortable to any CSS author, since you cannot write any useful CSS without them. Regular parentheses should be fairly familiar, too, at least if you’ve used functional notations like
color:rgb(128, 128, 255). But square brackets?
The square brackets denote an attribute selector – a concept that was introduced in 1998 in CSS Level 2. An attribute selector modifies a simple selector by imposing an additional constraint on it. Does that sound like Greek to you? (Or like something other than Greek, for those of you who are, in fact, Greek?) Don’t worry, we’ll look at some examples in a short while.
Why Should You Even Bother?
But first, let’s address another question: If attribute selectors really are useful, why didn’t you already know about them? Or, to turn it around, since you’ve managed to get by without them, what’s the point of using them?
The reason you may not have heard about them is quite simple: Internet Explorer for Windows up to and including version 6 don’t support attribute selectors. Since the market share for those browser versions has been well above 80% until very recently, there hasn’t been much incentive for using attribute selectors in public-facing websites.
Version 7 of IE does support attribute selectors, though, and as more and more users upgrade from IE6, attribute selectors gain more interest.
What can those newfangled attribute selectors do then, that’s so useful that you should take some of your precious time to learn about them? The answer is that they allow you to do a lot of things that you hitherto have had no other way to achieve than to pollute your markup with
|
<urn:uuid:1b75faae-bf56-4b99-a591-7778dd0900f4>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.search-this.com/2007/11/page/2/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.933541 | 422 | 2.6875 | 3 |
Learn something new every day
More Info... by email
A tap root, also spelled "taproot," is a large, thick root that generally grows straight down from a plant in order to collect water and minerals from deep in the soil. In most cases, small, fibrous projections grow horizontally outward from the large tap root. Many types of common plants have tap roots, including dandelions, carrots, turnips, and some types of trees. In contrast to tap roots, fibrous root systems are composed of a multitude of small, branching roots that grow outward from the plant and tend not to go deep into the ground. Grass, clovers, and marigold plants are common examples of plants with fibrous root systems.
Many commonly eaten vegetables are actually roots that grow underground as opposed to the other types of vegetables that are actually leaves or stems of plants. A carrot, for example, has a tap root — its large orange root is eaten while the rest of the carrot is not. Similarly, the roots of parsnips, beets, radishes, and turnips are all eaten. In some cases, as with carrots and parsnips, the whole tap root is eaten. In others, such as beets and radishes, it is common to eat the bulbous section at the top of the tap root but not the rest of the root.
Tap roots tend to grow very deep into the ground and often have many small branching tendrils that extend from the main root, so they can be quite difficult to uproot. As such, removing weeds or transplanting other plants that have such roots can be quiet difficult. Failure to destroy a weed's tap root, for instance, generally means that the plant will just grow back within a few days. Common weeds with tap roots include dandelions and plantains. Removing such plants is difficult, and one must often dig a wide circle around the plant in order to uproot it.
A young tree is likely to possess a taproot, but most trees tend to develop shallow fibrous root systems as they age. Hickory trees and some other types of trees do maintain tap roots even as they age, however, and such roots can grow quite massive and quite deep. The branching roots of most trees actually help them to stay upright in spite of wind, rain, and erosion. For such conditions to successfully topple a tree, they would need to cause substantial damage to the soil at least several feet (a couple meters) around a given tree.
If you are uprooting dandelion bear in mind that the taproot can be ground up and used as a substitute for coffee.
Apparently it is quite bitter, but it's something to try.
I saw them do this in one of those shows that follows a group of people doing the 100 mile diet, which is where they try to only eat food that comes from within a 100 mile radius of where they live.
Coffee is almost always grown quite far from where it is drunk, since it requires quite a specific habitat and climate. So if you are going to follow a diet like that, you're not going to be able to drink coffee and still stick to the rules.
If you try dandelion root instead, you'll be able to gather your hot drink at any roadside.
Chicory is another option for a taproot that can stand in for coffee.
@irontoenail - I loved the carrots we grew in the garden when I was a kid. They were so much sweeter and juicier than the ones we got from the supermarket.
Now that I've got my own garden I grow a bunch of different kinds of carrots. You can actually get small, round carrots to grow in containers or if you only have a small amount of top soil to work with.
You can also use carrot greens in the place of parsley. So, if you want to grow a carrot top with your kids, even if you can't get the taproot to grow back, you can still make some use of the resulting plant.
You can also eat beet greens. I try to use as much of my garden as possible in the kitchen, just because fresh food at the supermarket is so expensive.
You have to take the taproot into consideration when you're growing carrots. They like the soil to be deep and loose, or else they tend to end up deformed or too short.
I did aid work in a developing country for a while and this was one of the things we had to teach people. They were used to growing a different kind of crop where they only had to dig up and compost a very shallow area and then the roots would do all the rest of the work.
But, carrots won't grow through hard or stony soil. They'll just stop or start growing in weird directions, meaning you get a less edible and less marketable carrot.
The same goes for potatoes I believe, although in that case you are supposed to grow them in mounds of soil so they won't get waterlogged. That might be because the potatoes aren't taproots, but tubers.
One of our editors will review your suggestion and make changes if warranted. Note that depending on the number of suggestions we receive, this can take anywhere from a few hours to a few days. Thank you for helping to improve wiseGEEK!
|
<urn:uuid:3216d625-e7bb-4f6f-9d6d-fbd940a94a5a>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-common-plants-have-a-tap-root.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394605.61/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00010-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.973753 | 1,101 | 3.921875 | 4 |
Environmental sensors are used everywhere from heavy industry to UAVs hunting the troposphere for water vapor. The new postage-stamp sized, self-powered, flexible wireless sensor unveiled today by Japan's Green Sensor Network Laboratories could make home applications a breeze, letting you measure the humidity of your greenhouse or make sure your pipes don't burst in a winter freeze.
The sensor, about as thick as a credit card, has a three-layer construction composed of a microprocessor, a flexible antenna, and a power-generating semiconductor nanofiber. The flexible construction allows the sensor to be attached to surfaces like a sticker, and once deployed, data is transmitted wirelessly. The sensor can be configured to monitor things like temperature, CO2, infrared light or dust levels, and at under $10 a piece, you could network a whole gang of them for highly-detailed data. Current prototypes generate about 80% of the electricity needed, but the research team intends the sensors to be self-powered by launch time.
So whether you're planning on measuring industrial smog output or you just want to see how hot your apartment gets during a summer workday, these sensor-stickers could someday let you put a gauge on pretty much anything, though we're not sure when they might reach production. [PhysOrg]
|
<urn:uuid:350d3109-613d-4e1f-8f6a-b0aee51f61f6>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://gizmodo.com/tiny-sticker-like-sensors-will-let-you-monitor-everythi-733444895
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403825.35/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00127-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.935523 | 268 | 2.703125 | 3 |
What is Line Of Site? (LOS)
Since most all wireless access is based on microwave frequencies, you must have
line of site in order to use wireless technology.
Line of site means there can be no obstructions between your antenna and our
broadcast antenna. In other words, if you had a powerful enough telescope
mounted on your antenna, you would be able to see our antenna with no trees or
any other obstructions in the way.
The pictures below demonstrate what is and is not clear line of site.
As shown above, trees, buildings and other obstacles will
block line of site and
therefore will block wireless transmissions.
Above shows a clear line of site which allows the wireless
transmissions to pass. In
some cases, a tower or taller mast pipe may allow you to reach over obstacles
obtain a clear line of site.
|
<urn:uuid:64028784-314a-4947-956e-fe07e2ecb896>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://wireless.udata.com/lineofsite.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00037-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.922031 | 180 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Telling the truth
Ask another teacher beforehand to participate in the 'lie detector' game at the start of the assembly. Decide together which questions you're going to ask him/her - you could pick some designed for him/her to be able to give a funny or silly answer (e.g. how old are you - 21).
Some red cards and an equal number of white ones. A chair. A list of questions to ask the teacher: e.g. What's your favourite X (tv programme, food, drink, school lesson), how old are you, do you have any brothers or sisters, etc.
HymnFight the Good Fight
Series Links (Optional)
Truth matters - both in what we say and in what we do.
Ask for some volunteers to act as a lie detecting machine. Ask your volunteer teacher to come to the front and sit in the chair, facing the children. The volunteers stand behind the teacher with a red and a white card each. You ask the teacher a question, and if the children think s/he is telling the truth then they hold up their white cards, or if they think s/he is lying then they hold up the red ones.
Thank everyone and send them to sit down again. Talk about how it's not always easy to work out whether someone is telling the truth or not.
What happens when people lie to us? Do the children know the story of the boy who cried wolf? If we are caught out in a lie, then people are less likely to believe us next time we say something. For instance, if a teacher tells us off for doing something naughty and we deny it, but then it's discovered that we were lying, then the next time we deny being the culprit it's unlikely that we'll be believed.
We have sayings, don't we, to show people that we really are telling the truth - e.g. "cross my heart" - do the children know any others? In Jesus' time, people also had sayings like this, but Jesus told his followers not to use them. He said, "Let your yes be yes and your no be no." In other words, simply tell the truth, and you will gain a reputation for telling the truth, so people will come to trust and believe you.
Lord Jesus, you know that there are times when it's hard for us to be brave enough to tell the truth. Please help us to be truthful in everything we say and do. Amen.
This assembly is based on an idea from Margaret Cooling, "Assemblies for Primary Schools: Summer Term", Association of Christian Teachers, 1990..
|
<urn:uuid:313926ad-db82-4cf5-ae88-12993937725b>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://ccgi.distin.plus.com/cgi-bin/fosse/assembly.pl?index=139
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396945.81/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00076-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.95929 | 548 | 3.171875 | 3 |
Combination of Genes May Enable Hepatitis C Recovery Without Treatment, Study Says
August 9, 2004
A specific gene combination may explain why 20% of people infected with hepatitis C are able to clear the infection from their bodies without treatment, according to a study published in the August 6 issue of Science, the AP/Las Vegas Sun reports. Three million people in the United States and 180 million people worldwide are chronically infected with hepatitis C, leaving them at risk for developing liver cancer or liver failure; 10,000 to 12,000 people in the United States die from hepatitis C annually (Neergaard, AP/Las Vegas Sun, 8/5). Approximately 300,000 HIV-positive people in the United States are co-infected with hepatitis C (Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report, 7/30). Researchers from the University of Southampton in England and colleagues examined the DNA of 1,037 hepatitis C patients, 352 of whom had recovered without treatment. Previous studies of the virus in chimpanzees suggested that natural killer cells -- which attack viruses in the body -- are more active in animals that had recovered from hepatitis C infection. Inhibitory receptors called KIRs keep natural killer cells in check between infections so that they do not attack healthy tissue. When the body detects a viral infection, it activates the natural killer cells by inhibiting its KIRs, according to the AP/Sun.
Canada: Ontario Hospital Association Sending Health Care Workers to Lesotho to Help Begin Lesotho's HIV/AIDS Treatment Program
South African Inkatha Freedom Party Leader Buthelezi Announces Second Child Dead of AIDS-Related Causes
This article was provided by Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. It is a part of the publication Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report. Visit the Kaiser Family Foundation's website to find out more about their activities, publications and services.
|
<urn:uuid:5d99b9c0-ba36-44de-8217-d084edbec96c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.thebody.com/content/art11040.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00171-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.921685 | 378 | 3.09375 | 3 |
There are too many voices that continue to suggest peace will only come to the Arab-Israeli conflict if Israel gives up more land and allows a Palestinian state to be formed. For the record, Israel has made it clear it's willing to make this huge sacrifice. However, history has proven when Israel makes sacrifices it comes out on the short end of the deal. The case is made with the following examples:
The Balfour Declaration of 1917 set aside 43,000 square miles of land in the Middle East for the Jewish people in their biblical homeland. However, shortly after this in 1922 approximately 76% of this land was turned over to King Abdullah to form
Transjordan (today's Jordan). Thus, without ever realizing the benefit of what was to be theirs, the Jews saw most of it vanish.
In 1947 the UN voted to divide the remaining 24% of the land into two separate states, one Arab, one Jewish, (aka: the original two-state solution). This took away an additional 50% of the remaining land, meaning the Jews would receive a mere 12% of the original "promised land," while the Arabs received an overwhelming 88% of what had been committed to the Jews. Nonetheless, the Jews made the sacrifice and agreed to the deal. What was the Arab reaction? Rejection of the UN's vote, and a war attempting to destroy the tiny Jewish state the day after independence was declared in 1948.
The Jews made another sacrifice after the Six Day War of 1967, when in order to promote peace with the Muslims, Moshe Dayan turned over control of the Temple Mount to the Muslim Wafq. As a result, Muslims enjoy complete freedom of access and worship, while Jewish access is highly restricted and praying by Jews is forbidden. How have the Arabs reacted? A drumbeat of lies that there is no Jewish connection to Jerusalem. Muslims also continue to demand complete control of the entire Old City, and claim 'East' Jerusalem as the capital of their presumed state.
In 1993 Yitzhak Rabin made yet another sacrifice by signing the Oslo Accords, which turned over large sections of Judea and Samaria to the Arabs. What was the Arab reaction? Mounting terrorist attacks against Israeli civilians originating from these areas. After several years and repeated requests from Israel that the Arabs crack down on the terror attacks, Israel ultimately had no choice but to take matters into its own hands and decided to erect a security barrier.
In 2000 construction began on the security barrier to protect innocent Israeli civilians from being murdered. What was the Arab response? A dramatic increase in the number of terrorist attacks, which averaged 23 Israelis killed per year (a total of 67) in the three years prior to construction, to an average of 288 deaths per year (a total of 865) during the following three years as the wall was being constructed.
In 2005 Prime Minister Ariel Sharon made one of the most gut wrenching sacrifices of any Israeli leader, when he chose to uproot almost 8,000 Jews who had made the Gaza Strip their home for 38 years. This move pitted Jew against Jew, and brought about so much internal tumult it threatened permanent damage to the heart of the tiny Jewish state. Promises of compensation and housing were made to all the Jews evicted from Gaza, but today, seven years hence, a large percentage of those forcibly removed have yet to be settled in permanent housing.
In spite of the traumatic sacrifice Israel made in leaving Gaza, what was the reward it received from the Arabs? Thousands of rocket attacks against Israel's southern cities from Hamas, which took control of Gaza after the elections in 2006. They have repeatedly vowed never to accept Israel's existence and say "it will exist until Islam obliterates it," according to their charter. The rocket attacks were so numerous Israel was eventually forced to go into Gaza in Dec. 2008-Jan. 2009 and eliminate many of the sites rockets were being launched from (Operation Cast Lead). Today, rocket attacks continue, making it clear the goal of Israel's destruction remains unaltered.
As to the current potential 'sacrifice' - handing over land for a Palestinian state - I would remind its proponents of the following- Mahmoud Abbas is on record stating he will never accept a Jewish state of Israel. Approximately 300,000 Jews live in Judea and Samaria. If the Arabs are given the very heartland of Israel for a state, Abbas has said "there will be room for not a single Jew." This in spite of the fact over a million Arabs live in Israel, making up 20% of its population. He has also indicated he views 100% of Israel as "occupied Palestine."
Just recently Abbas made conciliatory comments during an interview on Israeli TV, but before taking his remarks seriously keep in mind both he and his predecessor Yasser Arafat, have a long history of making statements for Western audiences, which end up being dismissed when they speak in Arabic to their own audiences. Thus, his comments cannot be viewed as sincere. Deeds, not words will demonstrate his sincerity.
History has proven the "rewards" the Jews have received from the previous sacrifices have been to Israel's detriment, and have not resulted in peace.
There's an old saying "fool me once, shame on you, fool me twice, shame on me." Israel has been fooled too often, and cannot allow its security to rest upon the shoulders of those who fail to learn from history.
Dan Calic is a writer, historian and speaker. See additional articles on his Facebook page .
|
<urn:uuid:ac9e218f-435c-4ccf-94eb-057f03819ae9>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4301293,00.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397567.28/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00039-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.976665 | 1,126 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Can any one define quantum jump 9 quantities jump of an electron ? I know it it is a silly question but can anyone please explain me in detail.I am a learning about the structure of atom and I want some help. Can anyone help.
Electron's quantum jump is the same thing as an atomic electron transition.
At the beginning, the electron has one energy and sits at some level which may be represented by some "typical distance" from the nucleus.
At the end, it has another value of the energy, so a different "typical distance from the nucleus".
Quantum mechanics, the theory of atoms etc., implies that not all values of energy but only some particular values are allowed. This is why the electron can't gradually slowly walk or creep from one energy (or one orbit) to another. It has to "jump" i.e. omit all the values in between. It directly changes from one level of energy to another, i.e. by absurbing a photon to obey the energy conservation law.
Energy jumps are behind the emission and absorption of light by atoms.
To learn everything about the jumps and why the energy levels are discrete etc., one needs to learn quantum mechanics.
(add my comment as an answer)
Classicaly a particle can access only system (energy) states which are compatible with its (current) energy. Actually this is still true in quantum mechanics, the difference is the time-energy uncertainty which provides a twist if you like.
A particle can transition to another (energy) state by a change of its energy. Due to the uncertainty relation, given a (small) time-frame, some energy can be given so to say, to the particle, so the jump to another state (which was classicaly unlikely) is now possible and can happen. Of course this works both ways.
|
<urn:uuid:214b287c-d291-4b0e-ab83-65d8b22e206b>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://physics.stackexchange.com/questions/129281/what-is-quantum-jump-of-an-electron
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396224.52/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00176-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.942816 | 381 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Mold has become a major source of concern related to health in the indoor environment. Molds are an important part of the natural environment and have been around for a long time. They are classified as part of the kingdom fungi being neither plant nor animal but a little of both and their role is to decompose dead organic matter such as fallen trees and dead leaves. There are approximately 150,000 types of molds and they are present everywhere in the indoor and outdoor environment. Molds reproduce by means of tiny spores, which will grow where there is sufficient moisture and food (organic materials such as paper, wood, cellulose, etc.). In the indoor environment, mold growth is a symptom of a water problem. It can cause structural damage by decomposing wood, drywall, carpeting and other porous building materials.
The presence of mold does not present a health risk in most cases. Airborne mold spores are a common allergen. Individuals with allergies to certain types of mold may exhibit allergic symptoms such as sneezing, runny nose, upper respiratory irritation, cough and eye irritation. Exposure to excessive amounts of mold can also cause an increase in the frequency or severity of asthma symptoms. If you suspect you or someone in your family may be experiencing health symptoms because of exposure to mold, you should contact your health care provider to receive diagnosis and treatment.
In most cases, if visible mold growth is present, sampling is unnecessary. Mold sampling is not recommended for the following reasons:
- Mold will always be found in testing. It is everywhere and there will always be some level of mold.
- Sampling for mold does not assess health risk.
- Mold testing is not standardized.
- There are no Missouri or Federal laws that set limits or standards as to what types or levels of mold exposure or of mold presence are healthy or unhealthy.
- Neither Missouri nor the Federal Government "certifies" any individual or firm claiming such designation of mold tester. In Missouri, mold testers may receive a business license; however, since it is not a regulated industry, no standards or levels of training are required to become “licensed.”
- Cleanup methods are the same regardless of the type of mold.
What about Black Mold or Stachybotrys?
Recently, there has been heightened concern regarding exposure to a specific type of mold commonly referred to as black or toxic mold. Currently there is no conclusive scientific evidence linking the inhalation of black mold spores or any type of mold in the indoor environment to any illness other than the previously described allergy symptoms. The term “toxic” is an inaccurate description of this mold. There are many common molds that are black in color.
If you see mold growing in your home, the most important thing to remember is not to panic. You do not have to leave your home or belongings behind or destroy everything in the house. Instead, seek the help of someone who is knowledgeable and experienced in dealing with mold. Contact your local public health agency or state health department for more information on mold.
Professional cleaners or remediators may use methods not covered in this publication. Please note that mold may cause staining and cosmetic damage. It may not be possible to clean an item so that its original appearance is restored.
Protecting Yourself During Mold Cleanup
Before starting your cleanup process, make sure you have the proper equipment and take precautions to protect yourself.
- Avoid breathing in mold or mold spores. In order to limit your exposure to airborne mold spores, you may want to wear an N-95 respirator, available at many hardware stores and from companies that advertise on the Internet. Some N-95 respirators resemble a paper dust mask with a nozzle on the front; others are made primarily of plastic or rubber and have removable cartridges that trap most of the mold spores from entering. In order to be effective, the respirator or mask must fit properly, so carefully follow the instructions supplied with the respirator. Look for the label of N-95 and NIOSH to assure the respirator will provide the protection needed.
- Wear gloves. Long gloves that extend to the middle of the forearm are recommended. When working with water and a mild detergent, household rubber gloves may be used. If you are using a disinfectant, chlorine bleach or a strong cleaning solution, you should select gloves made from natural rubber, neoprene, nitrile, polyurethane or PVC.
- Wear goggles. Goggles that do not have ventilation holes are recommended to avoid getting mold or mold spores in your eyes.
Tips and Techniques for Mold Cleanup
While much has been written about mold cleanup, the simplest advice is still the best; Control the Moisture, Control the Mold. Without moisture, mold will not grow. With sufficient moisture, mold will keep coming back no matter how many times it is cleaned up.
Take the following steps when mold is spotted or suspected:
- Stop the mold growth by finding and repairing the source of the excess moisture. Fix the plumbing leaks, roof leak, flooding, a large spill or high relative humidity.
- Dry all items within 24-48 hours.
- Porous items such as drywall, ceiling tiles, carpeting, padding, books, clothing and other paper or cloth materials soak up moisture. Items that are not dried quickly should be discarded if they show signs of mold or water damage.
- Scrub mold off hard surfaces with detergent and water, then dry.
- If the water was from a sewage backup or flood, the items should probably be discarded. If you clean the items, use a diluted household bleach solution of 1 part bleach to 10 parts water. Avoid breathing the fumes, getting on skin, or in eyes. Note: Do not mix bleach with other cleaners!
- For more information, see: Red Cross: Repairing Your Flooded Home.
- Do not paint or caulk moldy surfaces. Clean up the mold and dry the surfaces before painting. Paint applied over moldy surfaces is likely to peel.
- If the moldy area is localized to one room or an area of a room, you may choose to isolate the area by placing heavy plastic sheeting over the door to help keep airborne spores from circulating through the entire house.
- Placing discarded items in plastic trash bags before moving them will help prevent spreading mold spores throughout the house.
- Use of HEPA filters in your furnace will help eliminate many mold spores that have become airborne due to the cleaning process.
- Consult a specialist if you are unsure about how to clean an item or if the item is expensive or of sentimental value.
Consult "A Brief Guide to Mold, Moisture, and Your Home" for more detailed information.
Information on schools or commercial buildings can be found in, "Mold Remediation in Schools and Commercial Buildings."
Mold and Rental Situations
- Consult the Missouri Landlord Tenant Law to understand your rights.
- Fix the problem if possible. See the above Tips and Techniques for Mold Cleanup for recommendations.
- If the problem is something that has to be fixed by the landlord, send a letter in writing to your landlord describing the nature of your complaint and keep a copy of the letter. If the rental is managed by an agency such as Housing and Urban Development or the Rural Housing Administration, be sure to contact that agency. If your doctor made specific recommendations regarding your living environment, be sure to include those statements.
- If the landlord refuses to address the issue, you may find some assistance through local city hall or housing authority regarding local building codes, nuisance ordinances, or tenant codes. The codes will vary across Missouri from city to city and county to county. The codes do not address mold or the health effects from mold. You should discuss the code violations that exist and promote mold ggrowth, such as: faulty plumbing, construction and ventilation issues, leaky roofs, growndwater infiltration due to improper site placement, improper lumber selection, etc.
- If no assistance is available locally you may consider contacting an attorney.
- In some situations, moving may be the final option to protect the health of you and your family.
- Consult with an attorney to consider placing language in your next rental contract guaranteeing the quality of your indoor environment.
|
<urn:uuid:64f67b0d-1006-463f-b406-99203c45c726>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://health.mo.gov/living/environment/indoorair/mold.php?style=mobile1
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.922528 | 1,700 | 3.5625 | 4 |
The frontier in the fight against childhood obesity should be pushed back to toddlers and preschoolers, a new study suggests. The researchers found that kids ages 3-5 already have developed a taste for sugary, fatty, and salty foods, and easily recognize the brands that offer these options.
The university researchers found that very young children, once exposed to foods with high sugar, fat and salt contents, develop a palate for those foods, which are usually higher in flavor than their healthier alternatives, but are also the foods most closely linked to childhood obesity.
The study was comprised of two experiments. In the first, 67 children and their parents were asked a series of questions about what foods the children liked. Foods with added flavor, such as chips, ketchup and chocolate milk, were favorites among the children, and parent responses confirmed their children’s affinity for foods with high amounts of sugar, salt and fat.
The second experiment examined whether marketing affects children’s preferences for unhealthy foods. One hundred eight children were shown pictures of fast food and soda, and asked to determine whether the product was made by Brand A, Brand B, or not offered in fast food stores. The study found that children who were able to match the most foods and drinks with their brands were also those whose parents reported their children as having the strongest preference for sugary, fatty and salty foods.
In other words, children exposed to fast foods and soda were more likely to favor these flavors over others.
All of the 3-5-year-olds were able to match some foods with the brands that serve them, and some turned out to be experts.
“It’s amazing to sit down a 3½ or 4-year-old and have them get 90 percent right,” says Dr. Bettina Cornwell, a marketing professor at the University of Oregon and co-author of the study.
Cornwell explains that, in a vicious cycle, marketers want to promote foods that appeal the most to consumers. Consumers choose more flavorful foods over their blander competitors, but these foods rely on sugar, fat or salt to achieve a bigger flavor pop. As people buy more of these unhealthy products, their palate for sugary, fatty and salty foods increases, which creates further incentive for marketers to push them.
“They’re in a war against each other of being more flavorful, more extreme,” she says.
The study reports that children partial to these more flavorful foods are also more likely to add extra flavors, such as condiments or salt, to existing food to get an even bigger “flavor hit.”
Cornwell says the study’s biggest implication is that the fight against childhood obesity needs to start at a young age, and start at home.
“If we want to influence the obesity epidemic, we have to start earlier. If we wait until school age, a child’s palate is probably developed,” she says. She explains that once children arrive in a new environment like school, they will choose what they know and like. If they prefer sugary, fatty and salty foods, they’ll be likely to ignore the salad bar altogether.
The study suggests reducing kids’ exposure to unhealthy foods so that they don’t develop a taste for big flavor kicks. Cornwell says the rule to remember is “repeated exposure leads to preference formation,” so the goal is to eliminate opportunities for exposure.
The study recommends putting foods high in sugar, fat or salt out of sight of young children. “Little kids are great about that kind of stuff,” Cornwell says. “Out of sight out of mind.” The same principle applies to food advertising. The less kids see ads for foods, the less they’ll demand those foods.
Not sure where to draw the line on what you let your kid eat or watch? Cornwell has some novel advice: “Interview them.” Ask your own child what makes them want to eat certain foods. “They’ll tell you all about it,” she says.
The study was conducted by Cornwell and Anna McAlister, a professor at the University of Wisconsin, Madison. An early version was released in the journal Appetite. The final version is due to be released in print soon.© Food Safety News
|
<urn:uuid:a3a58368-4fe7-4d17-adda-a0d46e95bedb>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.foodsafetynews.com/2011/02/study-shows-need-to-promote-healthy-eating-earlier/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395679.92/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.977246 | 901 | 3.28125 | 3 |
While I was looking for an image for yesterday’s post on camp stoves, I came across this photo of WWII GI’s using a specially made “Pocket Stove” that was designed and manufactured for soldiers by Coleman. And I learned this interesting historical tidbit from the Coleman’s site:
“Less than twenty years later, World War II swept across the globe. Like many companies, The Coleman Company did its part to support the war effort. Allied munitions and air forces contained parts manufactured in Kansas by The Coleman Company. In June of 1942 the Army Quartermaster Corps issued an urgent request to the Coleman Company. Field troops were in dire need of a compact stove that could operate within a wide range of conditions in multiple theaters, weighed less than five pounds, could be no larger than a quart bottle of milk, and could burn any kind of fuel. And, the U.S. Army wanted 5,000 of the stoves delivered in sixty days.
Work commenced immediately to design and manufacture a stove that met the Army’s strict specifications. The end product far exceeded anything that the Army had requested: the stove could work at 60 degrees below and up to 150 degrees above Fahrenheit; it could burn all kinds of fuel; it weighed a mere three and one-half pounds; and it was smaller than a quart bottle of milk. The first order for 5,000 units was flown to U.S. forces involved in Operation Torch, an allied invasion of North Africa in 1942. World War II journalist Ernie Pyle devoted 15 news articles to the Coleman® pocket stove and considered it one of the two most important pieces of noncombat equipment in the war effort, the other being the Jeep.”
|
<urn:uuid:a2449a02-dc36-40cd-8c49-dd8707bff2fd>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.artofmanliness.com/trunk/2240/wwii-pocket-stoves/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400031.51/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.96716 | 354 | 2.828125 | 3 |
< Browse to Previous Essay | Browse to Next Essay >
The ASARCO smokestack -- once the world's largest -- is demolished at the company's old copper smelter in Ruston, north of Tacoma, on January 17, 1993.
HistoryLink.org Essay 8744
: Printer-Friendly Format
At 12:40 p.m. on January 17, 1993, demolition experts collapse the landmark American Smelter and Refining Company (ASARCO) smokestack as part of a Superfund toxic cleanup of the old copper smelter in Ruston. As many as 100,000 people gather to witness the detonation that, with one push of a plunger, sets off charges that in eight seconds reduces the structure to rubble and dust.
A Key Tacoma Firm
The ASARCO plant site had nearly 100 years of history, beginning as the Ryan Smelter, a lead-refining company built by investor Dennis Ryan in 1888. Two years later it became the Tacoma Smelting and Refining Company, under the ownership of William Rust (1850-1928) who began modernizing and expanding the facility. Rust sold the plant for $5.5 million in 1905 to the American Smelter and Refining Company (ASARCO), which converted the plant for copper smelting and refining in 1912.
In the 1920s the Port of Tacoma granted a 30-year lease of harbor land to the American Smelters Securities Company to allow for an extensive plant expansion. ASARCO operated the smelter at the Ruston site until its closure in 1985 due to weak copper markets and a need for pollution control. It had been one of Pierce County’s largest employers.
From Gem to Polluter
The smokestack dated to 1917. Considered at the time an engineering gem, it was constructed of 2.5 million bricks, approximately 5,000 tons of mortar and stood 571 feet tall, making it then the largest smokestack in the world. Earthquake damage in 1937 necessitated repairs and the stack was reduced to 562 feet in height. Once a sign of prosperity, the stack had over the years become a symbol of environmental pollution. Structurally it had become unsafe; many of its bricks were loose and in danger of falling. The smokestack had even attracted daredevils, from local youths to Greenpeace protestors.
The 67-acre ASARCO smelter site was listed as one of the country’s most polluted sites, primary contaminants being arsenic and lead. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) called for an eight-stage cleanup that included demolishing structures, excavating soil and slag from the most contaminated locations, disposing of the contaminates, plugging or removing surface water drainage, capping the project area, protecting the site from erosion, continuing monitoring impacts on groundwater and marine sediments and integrating cleanup with future land use plans.
A Festive Occasion
Some who came to witness the smokestack’s demolition had been plant employees or knew people who had worked there and expressed nostalgia at the event. But mostly, as the newspapers reported, it was a well photographed and festive occasion. Local stores even sold sweatshirts commemorating the event. Souvenir hunters hoped to collect bricks after the demolition but, for fear of arsenic and lead contamination, the bricks were swept into a previously prepared 360-foot ditch.
Only days after the smokestack’s demise, ASARCO faced fines from the EPA for being late with a draft plan for future site cleanup. Legal hassles continued and the site eventually accommodated waste from the old ASARCO smelter in Everett. On May 25, 2004 work crews began demolishing the old ASARCO Fine Ores Bins Building, the last remaining landmark of the company’s copper smelter in Ruston and thus making way for new development. A billion-dollar condominium project called Point Ruston will add residential units in the $300,000 price range. Construction of the first building commenced in May 2008.
Joe Mooney, “Tomorrow the ASARCO Stack Falls,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, January 16, 1993, p. B-2; Rob Taylor, “Smokestack Now Smithereens: Structure’s Demolition Part of Toxic Cleanup,” Ibid., January 18, 1993, p. B-1; C. R. Roberts, “City Without Smokestack Will Be Forced to Decide Its Destiny”, Ibid., January 17, 1993, p. B-1; Susan Gordon, “Farewell to a Piece of Industrial History: Homes with Unbelievable Views Might Someday Replace Eyesore”, Ibid., May 26, 2004, p. 1; Susan Gordon, “Workers Begin Demolition of Ruston, Wash., Ore Bins Building, Ibid., May 26, 2004; John Gillie, “Port Ruston Moves Right Along”, Ibid., May 30, 2008, D1; Gregory L. Glass, “Tacoma Smelter Plume Site Credible Evidence Report: ASARCO Tacoma Smelter and Regional Soil Contamination in Puget Sound” The EPA Final Report, September 2003, 5-10, Washington Department of Ecology website accessed August 6, 2008 (http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs/TCP/sites/tacoma_smelter/ Sources/Credible_Evidence/web%20pieces/Credfinl.pdf).
Travel through time (chronological order):
< Browse to Previous Essay
Browse to Next Essay >
Licensing: This essay is licensed under a Creative Commons license that
encourages reproduction with attribution. Credit should be given to both
HistoryLink.org and to the author, and sources must be included with any
reproduction. Click the icon for more info. Please note that this
Creative Commons license applies to text only, and not to images. For
more information regarding individual photos or images, please contact
the source noted in the image credit.
Major Support for HistoryLink.org Provided
By: The State of Washington | Patsy Bullitt Collins
| Paul G. Allen Family Foundation | Museum Of History & Industry
| 4Culture (King County Lodging Tax Revenue) | City of Seattle
| City of Bellevue | City of Tacoma | King County | The Peach
Foundation | Microsoft Corporation, Other Public and Private
Sponsors and Visitors Like You
This essay made possible by:
Port of Tacoma
ASARCO smokestack, Ruston, 1940s
|
<urn:uuid:75e50dce-bcc1-4cc7-8a77-c5de9a7a2f94>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.historylink.org/index.cfm?displaypage=output.cfm&file_id=8744
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403508.34/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00189-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.917236 | 1,401 | 3.125 | 3 |
Integrate a Function Using the Sine Case
When the function you’re integrating includes a term of the form (a2 – bx2)n, draw your trig substitution triangle for the sine case. For example, suppose that you want to evaluate the following integral:
This is a sine case, because a constant minus a multiple of x2 is being raised to a power
Here’s how you use trig substitution to handle the job:
Draw the trig substitution triangle for the correct case.
This figure shows you how to fill in the triangle for the sine case. Notice that the radical goes on the adjacent side of the triangle. Then, to fill in the other two sides of the triangle, you use the square roots of the two terms inside the radical — that is, 2 and x. Place 2 on the hypotenuse and x on the opposite side.
You can check to make sure that this placement is correct by using the Pythagorean theorem:
Identify the separate pieces of the integral (including dx) that you need to express in terms of theta.
In this case, the function contains two separate pieces that contain x:
Express these pieces in terms of trig functions of theta.
This is the real work of trig substitution, but when your triangle is set up properly, this work becomes a lot easier. In the sine case, all trig functions should be sines and cosines.
To represent the radical portion as a trig function of theta, first build a fraction using the radical
as the numerator and the constant 2 as the denominator. Then set this fraction equal to the appropriate trig function:
Because the numerator is the adjacent side of the triangle and the denominator is the hypotenuse
this fraction is equal to
Now a little algebra gets the radical alone on one side of the equation:
Next, you want to express dx as a trig function of theta. To do so, build another fraction with the variable x in the numerator and the constant 2 in the denominator. Then set this fraction equal to the correct trig function:
This time, the numerator is the opposite side of the triangle and the denominator is the hypotenuse
so this fraction is equal to
Now solve for x and then differentiate:
Rewrite the integral in terms of theta and evaluate it:
To change those two theta terms into x terms, reuse the following equation:
So here’s a substitution that gives you an answer:
This answer is perfectly valid so, technically speaking, you can stop here. However, some professors frown upon the nesting of trig and inverse trig functions, so they’ll prefer a simplified version of
To find this, start by applying the double-angle sine formula to
Now use your trig substitution triangle to substitute values for
in terms of x:
To finish, substitute this expression for that problematic second term to get your final answer in a simplified form:
|
<urn:uuid:78413e5f-8209-47cf-97f4-0dc242140987>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/integrate-a-function-using-the-sine-case.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00170-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.850954 | 619 | 3.859375 | 4 |
Firefighters in West Sussex are reminding those taking part in the WW1 ‘Lights Out’ remembrance campaign on Monday (August 4) to take care with their candles.
Lights Out is a national initiative that marks 100 years since the outbreak of World War 1 when the then British foreign secretary, Sir Edward Grey, famously remarked: “The lamps are going out all over Europe; we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”
As a mark of remembrance the Royal British Legion is encouraging people to turn off their lights on Monday from 10-11pm leaving a single light or candle on for a shared moment of reflection.
With more than 50 fires started nationally by candles every day, West Sussex Fire & Rescue Service are asking people to take a little extra care if they are planning to join the remembrance by lighting a candle.
Jackie Boyle, Community Fire Safety Officer for West Sussex Fire & Rescue Service, said: “We certainly don’t want to discourage anyone from taking part in this national moment of reflection; we just want to remind people to take some simple precautions if they are planning to light a candle.
“It’s important to think about where you are placing your lit candles, they should always be away from curtains and out of the reach of pets and children. Most importantly, remember to extinguish your candles if you leave the room, it only takes a moment for a fire to start.”
West Sussex Fire & Rescue Service offers this easy to follow advice if you are using candles:
. Never leave a burning candle unattended
. Always place candles and tea lights well away from curtains, furniture or flammable materials and out of draughts
. Always place candles upright in suitable holders on a stable surface
. Keep candles out of reach of children and pets
. Ensure that candles or tea lights are placed in suitable heat resistant holders
. Working smoke alarms save lives, make sure your home and loved ones are protected
For a full range of free home fire safety advice visit www.westsussex.gov.uk/fire
|
<urn:uuid:a4a381e8-828d-4df9-aaea-0e3546641822>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.midsussextimes.co.uk/news/firefighters-encouraging-caution-for-lights-out-remembrance-campaign-1-6214041
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397636.15/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.923667 | 431 | 2.921875 | 3 |
The Peace of Kaaden was a treaty of peace signed at Kaaden on the Eger in Bohemia on 29 June 1534, by Philip of Hesse and King Ferdinand of Austria, by which Duke Ulrich of Württemberg regained his land. This treaty was of great importance to Lutheranism by sanctioning for Württemberg the achievements of the peace of Nürnberg; "but all Sacramentists, Anabaptists, and all other new unchristian sects. . . shall not be tolerated in the land." Thereby Anabaptists were for several centuries prohibited from living in Württemberg, although this law was not strictly enforced.
Bossert, Gustav. Quellen zur Geschichte der Täufer I. Band, Herzogtum Württemberg. Leipzig: M. Heinsius, 1930: 11, 37.
Hege, Christian and Christian Neff. Mennonitisches Lexikon. Frankfurt & Weierhof: Hege; Karlsruhe; Schneider, 1913-1967: v. II, 449.
Thudichum, Fr. Die deutsche Reformation. Leipzig, 1909: II, 415-429.
Witte, J. , Philipp der Grossmutige von Hessen und die Restitution Ulrichs von Württemberg 1526-1535. Tubingen, 1882: 205.
Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte XI: 215 ff.
Cite This Article
Neff, Christian. "Kaaden, Peace of (1534)." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1957. Web. 27 Jun 2016. http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Kaaden,_Peace_of_(1534)&oldid=88465.
Neff, Christian. (1957). Kaaden, Peace of (1534). Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 27 June 2016, from http://gameo.org/index.php?title=Kaaden,_Peace_of_(1534)&oldid=88465.
©1996-2016 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved.
|
<urn:uuid:2bac788a-5869-425c-abae-397feff3f9c0>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.gameo.org/index.php?title=Kaaden,_Peace_of_(1534)&oldid=88465
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396027.60/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00098-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.679008 | 482 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Burial practices of the Final Neolithic pastoralists at Gebel Ramlah, Western Desert of Egypt
Michał Kobusiewicz, Jacek Kabaciński, Romuald Schild, Joel D. Irish and Fred Wendorf
During three seasons of research (in 2000, 2001 and 2003) carried out by the Combined Prehistoric Expedition at Gebel Ramlah in the southern part of the Egyptian Western Desert, three separate Final Neolithic cemeteries were discovered and excavated. Skeletal remains of 67 individuals, comprising both primary and secondary interments, were recovered from 32 discrete burial pits. Numerous grave goods were found, including lithics, pottery and ground stone objects, as well as items of personal adornment, pigments, shells and sheets of mica. Imports from distant areas prove far-reaching contacts. Analysis of the finds sheds important light on the burial rituals and social conditions of the Final Neolithic cattle keepers inhabiting Ramlah Playa. This community, dated to the mid-fifth millennium B.C. (calibrated), was composed of a phenotypically diverse population derived from both North and sub-Saharan Africa. There were no indications of social differentiation. The deteriorating climatic conditions probably forced these people to migrate toward the Nile Valley where they undoubtedly contributed to the birth of ancient Egyptian civilization.
To reference this article we suggest:
Kobusiewicz, M., J. Kabaciński, R. Schild, J. D. Irish and F. Wendorf. 2009. Burial practices of the Final Neolithic pastoralists at Gebel Ramlah,Western Desert of Egypt. BMSAES 13: 147–74.
Contact the author
|
<urn:uuid:eb7828f2-63b0-4861-b770-e29618ed627c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_journals/bmsaes/issue_13/kobusiewicz.aspx
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00053-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.931717 | 356 | 2.703125 | 3 |
World Aids Day
Worldwide, 1 December 2012
Host / Sponsor: UN
World AIDS Day is celebrated around the world on December 1st each year. It has become one of the most recognized international health days and a key opportunity to raise awareness, commemorate those who have passed on, and celebrate victories, such as increased access to treatment and prevention services. UNAIDS took the lead on campaigning for World AIDS Day from its creation until 2004. From 2004 onwards the World AIDS Campaign's Global Steering Committee began selecting a theme for World AIDS Day in consultation with civil society, organisations and government agencies involved in the AIDS response. Themes run for one or two years and are not just specific to World AIDS Day. Campaigning slogans such as 'Stop AIDS. Keep the Promise' have been used year-round to hold governments accountable for their HIV and AIDS related commitments.
> Read more
> 2012 UNAIDS World AIDS Day Report - Results
> Infographic: Every minute, a young woman is newly infected with HIV
> UNAIDS Google+ Hangout with Annie Lennox, Michel Sidibé and Florence Ngobeni-Allen
> Educating for an AIDS-free world
> WFP Marks 10 Years On Front Lines Against AIDS
> UNAIDS Executive Director's World AIDS Day message (video)
> Message by UN Women Executive Michelle Bachelet on the occasion of World AIDS Day
16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence Campaign
Worldwide, 25 November - 10 December 2012
Host / Sponsor: Center for Women's Global Leadership
The 2012 16 Days Campaign global theme is "From Peace in the Home to Peace in the World: Let's Challenge Militarism and End Violence Against Women!".
The sub-themes of the Campaign are:
- Sexual and gender-based violence committed by state agents, particularly the police or military
- Proliferation of small arms and their role in domestic violence
- Sexual violence in and after conflict
The 16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence is an international campaign originating from the first Women's Global Leadership Institute coordinated by the Center for Women's Global Leadership in 1991. Participants chose the dates 25 November (International Day Against Violence Against Women) and 10 December (International Human Rights Day) in order to symbolically link violence against women and human rights and to emphasize that such violence is a violation of human rights. This 16-day period also highlights other significant dates including 29 November, International Women Human Rights Defenders Day, 1 December, World AIDS Day, and 6 December, which marks the Anniversary of the Montreal Massacre.
> Read more
|
<urn:uuid:46b3ef5a-3277-47a8-a39d-d9e4e0ac6a39>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.un.org/womenwatch/calendar/12-12.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394937.4/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00135-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.912197 | 530 | 3.1875 | 3 |
Stanley C. Lartey
Today, Elmina Castle is a tourist attraction and World Heritage Monument in Cape Coast, Ghana. This hasn’t always been the case. Looking at the castle from the outside, nothing can ever prepare the unsuspecting visitor or tourist emotionally to hear about the tales of horror and atrocities that went on beyond those walls.
The Portuguese built the castle in 1482, originally established as a trading post for goods bartered for local gold and valuable gem. However, as the demand for slaves increased in the Americas and Caribbean, the castle became strategic in the perpetuation of this abhorrent human cargo trade. The storerooms of the castle were converted into dungeons, and the ownership of the castle changed hands several times, eventually ending up being seized by the British in 1872. By this time, slavery had been abolished. The British didn't use Elmina to house slaves; they used Cape Coast Castle for that.
Elmina Castle, known then as the slave castle, is one of over twenty castles built along the shoreline of the Gold Coast (now known as Ghana). The Gold Coast was one of the richest markets for slave traders during the peak of the slave trade. Hundreds of thousands of captives passed through the dungeons of Elmina Castle, and were shipped off, like commodities into the Americas and Caribbean against their wishes. This illicit human trade carried on for close to 300 years.
Slaves were captured through civil wars, and out-and-out attacks on villages. In some cases, social deviants were alleged to have been sold into slavery. Other times also, slaves were simply captured by slave hunters, like Kunta Kinte was in the Gambia. They were shackled and made to march gruelling journeys, which could last hundreds of miles at times. It could be days or weeks before the slaves reached Elmina Castle and other castles and forts along the coast. Half of all captives did not even make it.
Not knowing what awaited them on the slave ships, those who made it to the coast were held captives in the castle’s dungeons. They were subjected to all sorts of indignities, intimidation and torture. They were shackled in the damp and dark dungeons. It is said that up to three hundred captives were packed into each dungeon, without room to even lift an arm or move around. Food was scarce and disease was rampant.
The unsanitary conditions under which the captives lived were unbelievable. Without room to breathe properly in those dungeons, the captives had to defecate there. The sick were often not attended to, and many of them died while held captives there. Air quality wasn’t a priority. The stench in those dungeons must have been nauseating. Even today, the dungeons still reek.
A visit to Elmina leaves one with an eerie feeling of ghostly hallucinations. As the tour guide is talking, it is easy to visualize hundreds of captives in the dungeons, screaming out their agonies, just pleading to be returned home. But alas, we know that didn’t happen. Countless number of them died under these atrocious conditions. Those who survived the dungeons had to endure further indignities of being shackled together, tightly packed like cattle, on those slave ships. As we all know, when they died, they were simply tossed over-board into the sea, and their names were forgotten.
Throughout the slave trade period, at different times, thousands of captured slaves were chained to cannonballs at the castle, and made to stand in the blazing sun. Women, when their capturers were not raping them, could be made to lift heavy cannonballs in the blistering sun as punishment. Other so-called rebellious captives were either murdered outright, or placed in solitary confinement in an airtight, dark holding ‘facility’ in the courtyard, and could be left there to starve to death. Yet, while all these atrocities were going on, the castle also served as a missionary sanctuary and housed a church. The slave traders held church services there.
Perhaps the most significant memory from Elmina Castle is ‘The Door of No Return’. This was where hundreds of thousands of our ancestors passed during the slave trade era to awaiting slave ships to be transported across the Atlantic to the so-called New World. This is where the ancestors of many African descendants in the diaspora, namely in the Americas, Canada and the Caribbean, passed to their doom. Those who survived were introduced to racism, and forced to loose their African language, identity and culture. They had to assimilate to a new culture or bear the consequences of being punished. Remember Kunta Kinte in Alex Haley’s Roots? Look at what happened to him when he refused to respond to his assimilated name – Toby.
There is a plaque next to the condemned dungeon door at Elmina. It reads:
“In Everlasting Memory of the anguish of our ancestors. May those who died rest in peace. May those who return find their roots. May humanity never again perpetrate such injustice against humanity. We, the living, vow to uphold this.”
This article avoided assigning blame to any particular party, for what happened during the slave trade era. It however recognizes the need to make sure that what happened, never happens again.
|
<urn:uuid:2d56a110-229b-473c-b3c0-9e02fc043563>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.blackhistorysociety.ca/news.php/news/27
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395039.24/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00115-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.984206 | 1,096 | 3.625 | 4 |
While natural, homemade cleaners using ingredients such as water, lemon, vinegar and baking soda are the healthiest way to go, most of us rely on ready-made purchased cleaners at least some of the time. How do you know if the cleaner you purchased with good intentions is really safe for you and the environment? Sure, the bottle says it is “green” and its packaging is adorned with pictures of sunshine, leaves and Mother Earth, but what can you do to be sure? Here are some tips to help you make smarter cleaning product choices:
Read the labels. If there are unfamiliar ingredients, you can look them up at the National Institutes of Health’s ingredient search tool. If you prefer to get a quick snapshot of the product’s overall health and environment scores, or you are already out shopping, GoodGuide’s app can help with many of the most common cleaners.
Smell it. Your nose knows a lot. If the product smells harsh, it probably is. But what if it actually smells good and fresh? Again, check the label. Stick to products that list how the scents are derived, such as from essential oils. If a product simply lists “fragrance,” you cannot be sure what chemicals are used to create the scent. Also remember, if someone in your home is scent-sensitive or prone to allergies, even natural fragrances can be troublesome. Best to stick with unscented products in those cases.
Look for green seals that have meaning. There are a LOT of “green” seals of approval out there, but not all can be trusted equally. Two that we think you can count on are “Design for the Environment” issued by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and “Green Seal”.
Follow the instructions! Do not use more than you need and make sure to rinse well if it is required. Also, do not use cleaners in places they were not intended to be used. For example, it is not a good idea to use bathroom or floor cleaners on the kitchen counter. That might sound obvious, but how many times have you picked up the nearest bottle to catch a spill? Not all cleaners are “all purpose,” especially those not even claiming to be “green.”
Keep out of reach. This is likely on the label, but we will say it again here. Cleaners, even natural and environmentally friendly cleaners should be in a locked cabinet, away from young children. To a toddler, lemony liquid in a bottle under the sink does not seem much different than the lemony liquid in the pitcher in the fridge, which brings us to the final point…
Teach your children about cleaners. Even if your cleaners are properly stowed away, teach young children that they are dangerous and should never be touched. As we saw with the recent cabinet latch recalls, sometimes things may not be as out-of-reach as we thought. Knowledge is an important added protection. For older children, show them how to use cleaners properly, including putting them away and washing their hands thoroughly when finished.
Use Safer in Color! as an opportunity to make the message stick. Ask your children to draw a picture about what they learned. Then post it on our facebook wall so that other parents can share it with their children. It will make them (and you) feel great knowing that they helped protect another child.
Lastly, if you are curious about the environmental and cleaning performance of three of the most popular green cleaners, watch the video below with Dara O’Rourke of GoodGuide. You can also read more spring cleaning tips over on the GoodGuide blog.
|
<urn:uuid:a4a53f8d-590a-41a3-b69d-7b5743699890>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://wemakeitsafer.com/blog/2012/04/is-my-%E2%80%9Cgreen%E2%80%9D-cleaner-really-safe/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396459.32/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00075-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.961004 | 759 | 2.515625 | 3 |
It was a last-minute addition, almost an afterthought.
But against virtually all expectations, the archaeological excavation of the President's House, now more than two months running, has uncovered powerful physical evidence evoking presidents and slaves, eliciting excitement and deep interest from the thousands who have packed the public observation platform to view the site at Sixth and Market Streets.
In response, the city and Independence National Historical Park have extended the dig through July Fourth. It had been expected to wrap up about now.
"We want to take advantage of all the interest," said Joyce Wilkerson, Mayor Street's chief of staff.
"This is a national story," directly related to July Fourth, she added.
At the same time, the city and park face an extraordinary conundrum: what to do next.
Should the dig and its findings simply be filled in and the long-awaited memorial to the President's House and its residents proceed as planned? The house was where George Washington and John Adams created the presidency in the 1790s. And it was where Washington quartered at least nine slaves as he helped launch modern democracy.
Or should the findings - which include Washington's great bow window and the foundations of the kitchen and an underground passageway, the subterranean world of slaves - somehow remain accessible, open to view?
What U.S. Rep. Bob Brady saw Friday when he visited unannounced, almost anonymously, left him nearly speechless.
"I was completely shocked," he said in an interview later in the day. "I never thought anything like this would be there. I looked at it, and there was the oval window and the passageway. How can you cover that up?"
"I'll tell you one thing," he continued. "We need to stop and rethink what we're doing there. . . . Damn! I got chills."
The city and the park, partners in the project, are discussing the matter, officials said. And every option is on the table, Wilkerson emphasized, noting that decisions should be made in a matter of weeks.
"We're asking all the questions," she said. "None of us has the answers yet. None of us anticipated the findings. I think when you stand and look down at the archaeologists working, it's hard not to be drawn in."
The first question, she added, is what is generating the excitement: "Is it the hole? Is it the excitement of the discovery? Is it the opportunity people are having to see archaeologists at work?"
For visitors, all those issues may come into play. But what is heard over and over on the viewing platform as blacks and whites, Philadelphians and out-of-towners gaze down at the network of walls and stones are expressions of awe:
This is the actual foundation of the curved bow window that was the antecedent to the oval rooms and ultimately the Oval Office in the White House. This is where Washington stood to greet dignitaries and the public.
Steps away are remains of the actual room where slaves, including Washington's renowned chef, Hercules, labored - hidden from those upstairs.
"It's the real deal," one visitor said in a typical comment: democracy and America, the good, the bad and the ugly.
Wilkerson said an oversight committee appointed by Street to keep tabs on the project will meet again Tuesday to talk.
"We're trying to figure out how to get the issues framed with enough information so that the decisions can be made about how we proceed from here," she said. "What does it mean to keep [the excavation] open? Just keep it open? Or do you keep it open and preserve it in some way, protect it? What does protect it mean? Can you incorporate it into a design? What does that mean to the competition that we had that was pursuant to a public process?
"We're just examining all those issues. We haven't made any final decisions. There's not a single opinion. On the oversight committee, not everybody feels the same way."
Kelly/Maiello Architects & Planners, which won the design competition to create the commemoration, did not foresee incorporating archaeological findings into a memorial. Nor did any of the other bidders for the $4.5 million project.
Emmanuel Kelly, principal of the Philadelphia design firm, said last week that "everyone agrees that what has been discovered is very valuable."
He declined comment beyond that, except that "we're waiting to be given some direction" by the city and the National Park Service.
Several participants at a meeting about 10 days ago said Kelly had argued that incorporating archaeological findings would add substantially to the cost of the memorial.
Because the exposed foundations are about 10 feet below the street, for instance, moving visitors to that level might prove expensive. Elevators and ramps were mentioned at the meeting.
And once visitors were down there, what would they do? The site is small, hardly the Roman Forum.
And if the foundations were left exposed to the elements, they would crumble quickly. Not because the stone is soft, but because the mortar holding it together incorporates earth and would dissolve.
Despite that, "there's a strong belief among . . . historians involved from the beginning that the archaeological findings need to be taken into account" in the design, said Charlene Mires, associate professor of history at Villanova University and a member of the project's oversight committee.
"What we don't know," she said, "is what that means in practical terms. I recognize there are challenges. What I haven't heard are some researched possibilities of how we might take advantage of what we've found. I've heard reasons why it's going to be difficult, but I haven't heard an analysis of possibilities."
Some members of the oversight committee are concerned that excessive focus on the archaeological findings will detract from the stories of the people who lived in the house, particularly the long-hidden stories of the slaves.
There is also a concern that redesigning the memorial would take too long.
Dennis Reidenbach, superintendent of the park, said the main concern for the park service was finding the best means to "interpret" the site.
The President's House represents "one of the most important stories the park service can tell," he said.
"The question is whether keeping the archaeology exposed adds to the story. At the end, what this is about is communicating stories, experiencing the site, and hearing the stories communicated by the site. Will the archaeology add to that?"
That said, Reidenbach added that "I think there is general agreement that the archaeology needs to be incorporated in the interpretation. How to do it is up in the air."
Reidenbach and Wilkerson said a decision must be made in the next month or so.
Money is an issue. The city has committed more than $1.5 million to the project. The federal government has added $3.5 million. The dig, not included in the memorial budget, has proved expensive.
"I don't have any more money that I can lay my hands on in the short term," Wilkerson said. "I think it would be appropriate for some of these foundations to step forward. We will probably be reaching out and finding out: Are there others who might want to participate?
"But I think before you even have that conversation, you have to know what you're talking about. You're talking about keeping it open and putting up walls and creating the appropriate environment and having some kind of transparent surface over at least part of it for people to look at. What's the order of magnitude in terms of cost? We've got work to do in order to figure that out."
Brady, who said he planned to return to the site with his grandchildren, said he would work at the federal level to free up more money for the project if it was needed.
In the meantime, he said, "we need to stop and look at what they're finding and at what we're doing."
Contact culture writer Stephan Salisbury at 215-854-5594 or [email protected].
|
<urn:uuid:d1a2dcf9-cf6d-4de8-bab6-c2f05dc90f83>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.philly.com/philly/news/special_packages/inquirer/20070603_Should_Presidents_House_stay_on_view.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.2/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00141-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.975755 | 1,693 | 2.53125 | 3 |
May 9, 2011 -- Many people who suffer strokes have them while they are asleep, which may prevent them from getting clot-busting treatment in the critical first few hours after a stroke, a study shows.
Such strokes, referred to as wake-up strokes, account for about 14% of all strokes, according to the study. Previous research estimated the percentage of wake-up strokes between 8% and 28%.
The new research was based on 1,854 ischemic strokes -- strokes caused by blood clots -- seen in emergency departments in the greater Cincinnati and Northern Kentucky region.
The study is published in the May 10 issue of Neurology, the medical journal of the American Academy of Neurology.
Of the 1,854 strokes in the study, 273 (14%) were wake-up strokes. By extrapolating that number to the general U.S. population, the researchers estimate that 58,000 people in the U.S. go to emergency rooms and urgent care departments with a wake-up stroke every year.
“Because the only treatment for ischemic stroke must be given within a few hours after the first symptoms begin, people who wake up with stroke symptoms often can’t receive the treatment since we can’t determine when the symptoms started,” study researcher Jason Mackey, MD, of the University of Cincinnati, says in a news release. “Imaging studies are being conducted now to help us develop better methods to identify which people are most likely to benefit from treatment, even if symptoms started during the night.”
The researchers compared people who reported to emergency departments with wake-up strokes to those who had strokes while awake. No differences were noted between the two groups in terms of sex, whether they were married or living with a partner, and their stroke risk factors, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, smoking, or high cholesterol.
Researchers say they noticed minor differences in age and severity of the wake-up strokes.
People with wake-up strokes were an average of 72 years old, compared to 70 for people who had strokes while awake.
Researchers say the people with wake-up strokes had an average score of 4 on a test of stroke severity vs. 3 for those who had strokes while awake. Scores from 1 to 4 on the scale indicate mild strokes.
|
<urn:uuid:fb27f0d7-7eb6-4ee4-bfd9-72222f5a835a>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.webmd.com/stroke/news/20110509/many-strokes-occur-in-sleep-preventing-treatment?src=rsf_full-4041_pub_none_rltd
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783394987.40/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154954-00174-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.973616 | 479 | 3 | 3 |
On this day in 1904, with war in Europe a decade away, Britain and France sign an agreement, later known as the Entente Cordiale, resolving long-standing colonial disputes in North Africa and establishing a diplomatic understanding between the two countries.
Formally entitled a Declaration between the United Kingdom and France Respecting Egypt and Morocco, the Entente Cordiale of April 1904 amounted more than anything to a declaration of friendship between these two great European powers. By its terms, France promised not to challenge British control over Egypt; for its part, Britain recognized France’s right, as a Power whose dominions are conterminous for a great distance with those of Morocco to act in that country to preserve order and to provide assistance to bring about whatever reforms in the government, economy or military it deemed necessary.
Through the Entente Cordiale, Britain and France established the beginnings of an alliance, promising, in the concluding words of the agreement, to afford to one another their diplomatic support, in order to obtain the execution of the clauses of the present Declaration regarding Egypt and Morocco. The agreement stopped short, however, of requiring the two nations to provide military support to each other; this aspect of the alliance would come later.
A motivating factor behind the agreement was undoubtedly France’s desire to protect itself against possible aggression from its old rival, Germany, who had steadily been growing stronger in the years since its victory in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71 and now possessed the most powerful land army in the world. Britain was also eager to keep Germany in check, especially in light of a revamped, ambitious German naval program, which—if successful—threatened to challenge Britain’s clear dominance at sea.
The German government, anxious over this agreement, decided to test its limits, sending Kaiser Wilhelm II to Morocco in March 1905 to declare his support for the sultan—a clear challenge to France’s influence in that country, which had been sanctioned by the Entente Cordiale. This bid to shake the Anglo-French alliance failed, as Britain sided with France; an international conference that convened at Algeciras, Spain, the following year also recognized France’s claims in the region.
The clash between Germany and the new allies became known as the First Moroccan Crisis—a second occurred in the summer of 1911, when both France and Germany sent forces to Morocco—and resulted in a tightening and solidifying of the Entente Cordiale, as Britain and France, aiming to confront German aggression, moved from mere friendship to an informal military alliance and, later, to talks and an agreement with France’s ally, Russia. By 1912, then, two powerful and hostile blocs had been formed in Europe, with France, Britain and Russia on one side, and an increasingly isolated Germany—with relatively lukewarm support from Austria-Hungary and Italy—on the other. Two years later, this volatile situation would erupt into the First World War.
|
<urn:uuid:da2ffa52-860e-4daa-b06c-3c32e90ac4b5>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/britain-and-france-sign-entente-cordiale?catId=16
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391766.5/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00088-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.963985 | 612 | 4.15625 | 4 |
This easy-to-use, best-selling collection of reading materials effectively assesses reading ability at emergent though high school levels. Qualitative Reading Inventory-5 includes both narrative and expository passages at each grade level, questions to assess prior knowledge, and word lists. Instructors can measure comprehension by retelling passages, implicit and explicit questions, and other devices. Based on the latest reading research, this comprehensive inventory focuses assessment on specific questions regarding word identification, fluency, and comprehension. It also provides suggestions for intervention instruction, procedures for assessment of strategic reading, and inclusion of results in classroom portfolios.
What's new to this edition...
"synopsis" may belong to another edition of this title.
The QRI-5 Continues to Garner Praise:
"I have used previous versions of the QRI in my own teaching and research and found it a superb informal reading inventory...this inventory has allowed me to help teachers do their best with typically developing and striving readers." - Karen Jorgensen, University of Kansas
The QRI-5 has long led the field in offering students and teachers alike a reliable and easy-to-use informal assessment instrument. This Fifth Edition continues to emphasize authentic assessment of children’s reading abilities, from the most emergent readers to advanced readers.
One of the keys to the success of the QRI-5 is that it contains narrative and expository passages at each pre-primer through high school level. All are self-contained selections highly representative of the structure and topic of materials found in basal readers and content-area textbooks. This new edition includes new narrative texts that are even easier than the pre-primer passages previously included. At the same time, it provides graded word lists and numerous passages designed to assess the oral reading, silent reading, or listening comprehension of a student as well as questions to assess prior knowledge. Instructors can measure comprehension by retelling passages, using implicit and explicit questions, and using other devices.
What’s New in the QRI-5?
Don’t forget Intervention Strategies to Follow Informal Reading Inventory Assessment , 2/e (ISBN: 9780205608553)! It’s the perfect companion for the QRI-5 providing strategies to connect the results of the informal reading inventory with the instruction sessions that follow. Learn more at www.pearsonpd.com
Joanne Schudt Caldwell is the co-author/author of seven titles includingThe Qualitative Reading Inventory-4 and Reading problems: Assessment and Teaching Strategies both published by Allyn & Bacon. She received her Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from Marquette University and currently teaches Literacy and Language Development at Cardinal Stritch University. In 1996 she received the Outstanding Service Award from the Wisconsin State Reading Association, as well as the Wisconsin Teacher Educator of the Year Award in 1997 and the Achievement Award from Marquette University School of Education in 2005.
Lauren Leslie received her Ph.D. in Educational Psychology from the University of Iowa and is currently Emeritus Professor at Marquette University where she served as the director of the Hartman Literacy Center for many years. She has published over 25 research articles, and she is the co-author of the Qualitative Reading Inventory-4. She received the Albert J. Harris Award from International Reading Association (2001) for article written with L. Allen, “ Factors that predict success in an early literacy intervention program.” She also received the Mary Neville Bielefeld Award for Career Achievement for her contributions to teaching, research and service, particularly the mentoring of women faculty and students.
"About this title" may belong to another edition of this title.
Book Description Pearson. SPIRAL-BOUND. Book Condition: New. 0137019238 New Condition. Bookseller Inventory # NEW4.0056808
Book Description Pearson, 2010. Book Condition: New. Brand New, Unread Copy in Perfect Condition. A+ Customer Service! Summary: " I have used previous versions of the QRI in my own teaching and research and found it a superb informal reading inventory.this inventory has allowed me to help teachers do their best with typically developing and striving readers." - Karen Jorgensen, University of Kansas. Bookseller Inventory # ABE_book_new_0137019238
|
<urn:uuid:089b4b35-8818-4a1f-8b80-a1f00577f068>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.abebooks.com/products/isbn/0137019238?cm_sp=rec-_-plp-_-plp
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399425.79/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.923025 | 885 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Your child may have a runny nose that is blocked with mucus. This is sinus congestion. Most of the time it comes with colds or nasal allergies. Your child may feel fullness, pressure, or pain in the face around the nose. The pain may also be above the eyebrow, between the eyes, or over the check bone.
Put several drops of warm water or saline nose drops or spray in your child's nose. You can get saline nose drops at the drug store. You can use a suction bulb to gently suction out mucus from your child's nose. Suction mucus at least 4 times a day or any time your child cannot breathe through the nose. If your child is old enough, he can blow his nose instead of using a suction bulb.
If your child's sinuses are still blocked, use decongestant nose drops or sprays. Do not use decongestant nose drops for children under age 12 unless your doctor tells you to. If your child is age 12 or over, use 2 drops or sprays per side. Do this two times a day.
Have your child use the nose drops for the first 2 or 3 days.
Do not use decongestant drops or sprays for more than 5 days. When you use the drops longer than that, it can cause more problems.
Give your child acetaminophen (Tylenol) or ibuprofen (Advil) to stop pain. No aspirin. Putting a cold pack on the sinus for 20 minutes may also help with pain.
If your child also has hay fever, give the allergy medicines your doctor thinks best.
Make sure your child drinks a lot. This helps thin the mucus.
|
<urn:uuid:535ed189-d87b-4316-bc0b-18597f59eef3>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.abcdpediatrics.com/advisor/pa/pa_svsinusc_hhg.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783403823.74/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155003-00142-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.909388 | 359 | 3.046875 | 3 |
What is rust and its causes?
Rust is a kind of corrosion -- a decay or breakdown of a material in reaction to its environment. Specifically, rust is an electrochemical corrosion that occurs in the presence of iron, oxygen, and water. Oxygen and water are available in the open air, and iron is the principal ingredient in steel.
For rust to occur it needs an anode (a piece of metal that gives up electrons), an electrolyte (a liquid that helps transport electrons), and a cathode (a piece of metal that accepts electrons). The more conductive the electrolyte, the quicker rust will occur. For this reason, humid air, salty air, or salty water will accelerate the formation of rust.
Iron, with the chemical symbol of Fe, combines with oxygen, O, to form Fe2O3, the chemical formula for common reddish-brown rust. In its mineral form, Fe2O3 is known as hematite.
Rust is commonly referred to as iron oxide. An oxide is a type of chemical compound that contains oxygen and other elements (like nitrous oxide, N2O). Oxides are typically formed when elements come into contact with air, through a process known as oxidation. Oxides are common, comprising most of the earth's crust. Elements can have multiple oxides. For example, there are sixteen known iron oxides. Thus, it's more accurate to say that rust is an iron oxide, rather than saying that rust is iron oxide.
Other metals besides iron oxidize, but their oxidation is not referred to as rust. For example, when aluminum oxidizes, it forms a protective, corrosion-resistant coating that is similar in appearance to un-oxidized aluminum. Zinc oxidizes similarly, which is why it is used for galvanizing. Only the oxidation of iron and steel is known as "rust". Why? Because iron oxide takes up more physical space than iron. It's bigger. So, when iron and air combine to make Fe2O3, it "puffs out", exposing even more of the original steel to the elements.
There is another iron oxide also referred to as "rust". It's Fe3O4, commonly called "black oxide", or, in mineral form, magnetite. This is the stuff that's left over after using certain products to "convert" rust. Black oxide takes up the same amount of space as iron, so it doesn't bulge it out, like reddish-brown rust, Fe2O3. Since black oxide itself doesn't offer much protection against corrosion, it's typically covered up (often with epoxy primer). Black oxide is an example of a conversion coating, a metal coating where part of the surface is converted into the coating itself, by a chemical or electrochemical process.
Why do older cars rust more than newer cars?
- Cars are more aggressively coated these days. Galvanizing (explain).
- Steel used in cars is of a higher quality these days.
- More salt is used on roads these days.
- Progressive evolution of engineered 'self rinsing' technology, such as strategically designed/placed drain holes to allow rain or wash water to purge body cavities of moisture absorbing rust producing sediments, moreover, robotic assembly methods to lessen the possibility of human error which may compromise the operation of such a design by 'less than precise' assembly. eg; the human worker adds an over-sized glob of body filler next to a fender well drain hole which inadvertently clogs it, causing the fender well to hold moisture laden debris instead.
- Electrolysis due to some older cars (British) having 'positive ground' electrical systems -where the car's electrical system is basically all 'ground wires' instead. (eg: AMC Metropolitan assembled by Austin Motor Company in Longbridge, England -neither were they dipped in a rust preventing primer bath, then they were shipped in ocean salt air to be sold in USA)
Rust assessment
The "best" way to handle rust
The "best" way to do something often implies the existence of the "best" conditions in regard to skill, time, and money.
For example, the "best" way to handle anything more than surface rust on body panels is to liberally cut out the rusted area, and weld in a patch panel. Ideally, any metal shaping and metal finishing should be done without the use of any body filler products whatsoever. Many people don't have the necessary skill to do this.
The "best" way to handle surface rust on an entire body is to have it professionally dipped, often at a cost of over $1000. This amount of money may not be available for a specific project, or it may be impractical to invest it.
If you take time to properly assess your own rust situation, you can choose a well thought-out solution that's "best" for you.
Areas to assess
The rusted part or piece
- Can the part be removed? How large is it? Is it small enough to be soaked?
- What part is it? Is it a body panel?
The rust itself
How bad is it? Exactly how to assess:
- Jab rusty areas with a screwdriver, scratch awl, or icepick, and see if they go through.
- After cleaning rust off of floor pans, wait until it's dark, and put a trouble light under your car. Pinholes in the sheet metal will show up very well in such a situation.
- Rust coming through seams? (research this)
Climate and operating environment
Do you live in a climate where water or salt will be present in the air? Is it a wintery climate where snow and/or salt will be present on the roads? Near the ocean?
What environment will the part be operating in? Interior of car? Undercarriage? Submerged in oil?
Most of the skills required for removing rust are commonplace. However, certain jobs may require welding, or metal shaping.
Besides basic hand tools, do you have an air compressor? Access to a DA sander? Angle grinder with wire wheel? Media blaster? Spot blaster? Blast cabinet? Spray gun? In some cases electric powered tools can be used instead of pneumatic tools.
How much money do you have to put into the rust removal? What's the value of the project? Are you doing it "for money or for love"? If you plan on selling the project, can you expect a reasonable return on your investment?
How much time can you put into the project? Both work time, and wait time. Do you have the time necessary to eliminate surface rust from a body by hand? Do you have time to drop a part into a bucket, and wait a few weeks while it soaks?
Overall vehicle plan
What's your overall plan for the vehicle with the rusted part or piece? What kind of abuse is it going to take, and how important are looks? Will it be a daily driver? Are you going to show it?
Rust removal, treatment, and prevention
Chemicals and finish products
Understanding "magic formula" marketing
The market for rust removal, conversion, and encapsulation products is rife with far-fetched claims of "secret formula" rust solutions.
Realistically, it's not very difficult for one company to chemically analyze another company's "secret formula", and produce an identical (or extremely similar) product. Many of the various rust removal and encapsulation products are, more or less, the same. A lot of it boils down to marketing, and the situation is only exacerbated by the fact that it's difficult to make a thorough assessment of a rust treatment product. Properly assessing a rust treatment solution would likely involve waiting several years, and then removing any outer layers of finish so that any existing underlying rust could be examined.
The uneducated consumer will likely recoil at the abundance of "magic" formulas for treating rust, and revert to selecting a safe, well-known, name-brand product line. This is a reasonable solution for many, but the name-brand rust treatment products tend to be rather expensive, especially in consideration of the fact that they are often comprised of inexpensive, common chemicals.
Someone who has achieved good results with a certain combination of rust treatment products will often stay loyal to their method, without exploring other potential options that may indeed provide better results at a lower cost.
Miscellaneous (need to be sorted)
- Body-Tec amber rustproofing. 24 oz spray can. manufac: " Light viscosity allows material to flow into hard to reach areas easily. Ideal for core supports, sheet metal, frames etc"
- D-Rust-It -- available in concentrate.
- Amsoil HD
- Krylon rust tough primers
- RustBeeter (made from beets, maybe it's like molasses?)
- Duro Extend
- Devoe Bar-Rust
- Loctite Extend Rust Treatment
- Rustoleum (generally considered a poor choice for automotive applications. Good for cheap shop shelving, etc.)
- Permatex Rust Treatment
- Rust Fighter
- DuPont 5717S Metal Conditioner
- Mar-Hyde Rust Converter
- Rust N-M-E
- Fluid Film
- Duplicolor Rust Fix
- Rust Doctor
- Blue Lightning
- Rust Knockout
- Rust Destroyer
- Evapo-Rust Rust Remover
- Safest Rust Remover
- Klean Strip Rust Converter
- Zero Rust -- tech page, faq. Rust cleaning product is "prep-step", and clearcoat is called "crystal coat".
- Rust Reformer
- Rust Bullet
- DuPont Metal Conditioner
- PPG Metal Prep
- DuPont Vari-Prime
- TNT Rust Remover
Rust removers and "converters"
After using an acid to remove rust, flush the surface with water and baking soda (confirm or expand on this).
When converting/neutralizing rust:
- Get everything off first that you can by sanding and wire brushing (wire brushing will get into the pits better).
- A rust converter/neutralizer containing tannic acid, phosphoric acid or another type of acid should be used
- Be careful of getting this stuff on your concrete floor as it will bubble and decompose it.
- Follow the instructions on the bottle when you are done there should be a fine coating on the metal which will help prevent further rust from developing.
- This stuff is hard on paintbrushes (eats away the bristles) and you must be very careful of your eyes. Also it will ruin paint, so, again, use caution.
Lots of "rust neutralizers/metal etchers/floor etchers/metal conditioners" contain primarily phosphoric acid, which reacts with rust (iron oxide) to create iron phosphate, a hard black substance over which primer can be applied.
Don't use battery acid (sulfuric acid) or muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid) for rust removal. Strong acids are dangerous, and there are many more effective chemicals.
- Ospho Manufacturer description: When applied to rusted surfaces, it resists/retards rust in chemical change on drying to a tough, hard surface ready for priming.
- Rustbeeter Merchant description: A byproduct of the sugar refining process. Probably similar to molasses. Parts must be submerged. Parts soak in a bucket for usually under a week, but as long as several weeks. Food product. Dry powder that gets mixed with water. Non-acidic or caustic. After use, parts are cleaned with dish soap and water, dried, and coated.
- Must for Rust Merchant description: removes rust and corrosion, non-caustic to skin, needs no neutralizing, primer goes right over it. $28/gallon.
- Eastwood Rust Converter Merchant description: 2-part mix, adheres to bare or rusty steel, and can be top coated with most coatings. 1 gallon each of the 2-part mix is $125.
- Rust Cure Merchant description: phosphoric acid-based. leaves a thin film that bonds well with most primers and paints. for pricing, need to see this page: http://rustcure.bizland.com/xwheretobuy.html .
- Oxisolv Rust Remover Merchant description: dissolves rust and leaves behind a zinc phosphate coating. Spray/brush/dip. Non-toxic, non-flammable, and re-usable. Must be cleaned off before priming.
- Eastwood Rust Dissolver Merchant description: acid free rust remover, leaves surface ready to paint, plate, or powder coat. Suitable for engine parts, and harmless to copper, brass, aluminum, solder, lead, plastic, rubber, seals, wood or vinyl. Surface must remain wet for product to work. $40/gallon.
- Rust-Mort Merchant's description: "Converts rust to a black or grayish, hard, insoluble, protective coating".
- SEM Rust-Seal Manufacturer description: "Transforms rust leaving a tough, permanent, black protective coating. RUST-SEAL can be left exposed or may be top coated with enamels, lacquers or urethanes."
(Make sure that none of the above count as "encapsulators". Also, what about the converters that leave a "protective film" on the metal. They say that they don't need neutralization, and they don't need to be washed off. Is this as good as cleaning to bare metal, and then hitting with epoxy primer?)
- Muriatic acid (not for use on body panels, as it causes hydrogen embrittlement)
- Toilet cleaner (?)
- Cola (yes, contains phosphoric acid)
- Phosphoric acid: leaves behind a coating of iron phosphate
- Naval jelly (gelled phosphoric acid)
- Mag wheel cleaner (?)
- Molasses (a 1:10 solution of molasses to water can be used for soaking rusty parts, although it loses its strength after several months)
- Powdered household cleaning products such as Comet or Ajax
Rust encapsulators
Main article: Rust encapsulators
Rust encapsulators work by sealing off existing rust, denying it the oxygen it needs to grow.
The use of rust encapsulators in hotrodding is controversial. Hotrodders typically divide into 3 distinct camps over the use of rust encapsulation products on vehicles:
- Won't use rust encapsulation products at all.
- Will use rust encapsulation products, but not on body panels.
- Will use rust encapsulation products on a variety of parts, including body panels.
Rust preventive oils and waxes
- Cosmoline . "Cosmoline" is a trade name for a generic rust preventative which conforms to US military specification MIL-C-11796C. It's a soft, brushable grease that's commonly used for preserving and storing firearms. "Rated to protect polished steel panels from rust for one year in open shed storage, and 30 days, minimum, in a humidity cabinet." $30/gallon
- Boeshield T-9 "Designed to penetrate metal pores and dissolve minor corrosion, then leave a resilient waxy coating that lasts for many months." $100/gallon
- Eastwood Heavy-Duty Anti-Rust. Merchant's description: spray-on brown wax film which forms an air and water-tight barrier. won't crack, flake, or peel. used for inside door panels, or to protect bare metal parts during storage. $15/quart
- Oxisolv rust inhibitor long term -- Merchant description: displaces water on metal parts to prevent rust. environmentally safe, bio-degradable, protects steel. Apply by spraying thoroughly, or dipping.
- SEM internal panel coating Manufacturer description: "provides corrosion protection to inner body panels and other metal parts"
- 3M Rust Fighter application wand
- 3M Rust Fighter
- Brownpolymer rust inhibitor long term -- Merchant description: displaces water on metal parts to prevent rust. environmentally Safe,It's a Cleaner,It's a Polish,It's a Lube, It's a Grease,It's a Protective Coating,Multi Use Polymer Substance
- You can make your own basic rust protection coating from 1 part anhydrous lanolin (available from a pharmacy), and 5 parts paint thinner.
- For machine tools, this is recommended: http://www.clclubricants.com/waylubes.htm .
- Use something that releases rust-inhibiting vapor. Rust-blox vapor tabs, vpi paper, permatex in-charge corrosion inhibitor.
Epoxy primer
Main article: Epoxy primer.
Epoxy primer/sealer is a non-porous finish that is typically recommended as the first basecoat over bare steel. Various epoxy primers can also be applied over fiberglass, plastic, or the black iron phosphate coating that remains after "converting" rust.
Epoxy primer is a two-part mix, with a hardener that has to be added before spraying. Body fillers and high-build primers can be used on top of epoxy primer.
Seam sealers
Seam sealers are used to seal roof channels, drip rails, trunk seams, door seams, and other body seams. They can be either one or two-part, and are typically applied over primer, sometimes with the use of a specially-designed caulking gun or spray gun.
- Lord Corporation makes several seam sealers: Lord Corporation sealers and foams.
- 3M manufactures several different types of seam sealers: 3M seam sealers.
- SEM Products makes a seam sealer, a beige seam sealer, a high build self-leveling seam sealer, and a self-leveling seam sealer.
- Transtar Autobody Technologies makes a variety of seam sealers: Transtar seam sealers.
- International Epoxies and Sealers: International Epoxies and Sealers body sealers.
- Valvoline makes their Pliogrip line of seam sealers.
- Evercoat has the Maxim line of seam sealers.
- McKanica makes a seam sealer in an aerosol can: McKanica seam sealer.
See also
Metal washes, wax and grease removers
- Eastwood Metal Wash. Merchant's description: dry compound that is mixed with water. removes grease and oils from bare metal, and leaves behind corrosion inhibitors that prevent flash rusting and promote paint adhesion. $11 for enough dry mix to make 7 quarts.
- Metalprep 79 Manufacturer's description: phosphoric acid-based cleaner. leaves surface chemically clean and corrosion free. thoroughly rinse with water when done. brush/spray/dip
- Is DuPont's "Quick-Prep" equivalent to Metalprep?
Read this thread thoroughly: What to use to remove wax, etc.
The following are not to be used as metal cleaners: lacquer thinner, acetone, reducers. Use the product within the recommendations of your product system. Cleaners typically vary as to strength, and time they take to evaporate.
Use clean, purpose-designed paint rags for cleaning with cleaners.
Weld-through primer
Weld-through primer zinc-rich coating that conducts current from a welder, and doesn't burn off when welding. It can provide protection on lap welds and inner weld seams.Weld-through primer is often applied to the mating areas when welding body panels.
Panel adhesives
Used to adhere body panels, as an alternative to welding. Need more information on these.
- Shop vac
- Putty knife
- Metal brush
- Sand paper. 36 grit to 220 grit.
- Wire wheel on drill. When the wire bristles start to bend one way, reverse the drill and work in the other direction for a while.
- Wire wheel on grinder, or, these discs are considered to be superior to wire wheels: 3M clean & strip disc, or 3M bristle disc, or Surface Conditioning Disc.
- Scotch-brite pads
- Steel toothbrush
- Media blaster
- Blasting cabinet
- Spot blaster
- Steel wool
- When using a wire wheel, don't sit in one spot for too long -- the localized heat from friction can warp sheet metal.
Body panel rust removal
Ideally, only surface rust on body panels is "treated". Anything more than that would mean that the affected area would be cut out, and replaced with fresh metal.
Removing surface rust from body panels
First, remove all the heavy surface rust with a DA sander and 80-180 grit paper. To remove surface rust, use naval jelly (jelled phosphoric acid) and steel wool.
- Work in small areas, not larger than a square foot. Wear rubber gloves, and scrub with naval jelly and steel wool.
- Apply jelly with 000 steel wool, rub it in, and allow it to set for a couple of minutes. Don't let it dry. Keep it wet, using a squirt bottle. For inclines, you can also soak some fabric in water, and lay it on the naval jelly.
- Rub again with steel wool. Repeat a few times.
- When finished, wipe off the excess naval jelly with a paper towel, squirt on warm soapy water, and dry thoroughly.
- Wipe down with lacquer thinner.
- Sand with 180 grit.
- Use wax and grease remover, and then spray with epoxy primer.
- From there, you can apply body filler (the epoxy may need to be scuffed, read instructions).
- When the filler work is done, scuff with a red scotch-brite pad.
- Then, apply two more coats of epoxy, followed by high-build primer.
Cutting out rust
First, make a tape template. Tape off the area that's going to be cut off, leaving a healthy border of good metal. Transfer the tape template to the patch panel, in one piece. Cut out the templated piece from the patch panel. Then, screw the cut-out piece to the car as a temporary guide. From there, rough-shape the patched piece. Cut some slits if necessary, and hammer. Then, make the cut on the body panel, with the patch still screwed to the car. Then, unscrew the panel from the car, and hammer-form it on a bench, anvil, etc. Finally, butt-weld it back onto the car. Weld, with lots of spread-out spot welds (wait for them to cool), so the panel doesn't warp. Then, grind down the welds. Treat with rust protection, then body filler, primer, etc.
A quarter panel rust fix demonstrating the above is illustrated here: http://www.a2zautoforums.com/showthread.php?t=700
Treating light body rust (from storing panels) prior to epoxy
Sand with 80 grit, wash with wax and grease remover. Use waterborne wax and grease remover, instead of solvent-borne (research exactly what that means), let set 15-30 minutes. Dry with a blower and a tack rag. Spray epoxy.
Getting the entire vehicle body dipped
(Need more info on Redi-Strip. What chemical do they use? What's the cost? Can a hobbyist acquire and use the same chemical that Redi-Strip uses? When the body is returned to you, is it truly completely clean, or does it have to be cleaned to get all of the chemical removed from nooks and crannies, etc.?)
Quick fix for exposed areas (dents, etc.)
If a dent causes an area of bare metal to be exposed. To "hold" it so it won't rust until a paint job is ready to be done: gently bump out the dent, sand, rattle can primer, rattle can sealer.
Do both sides of a panel have to be treated with rust converter/encapsulator?
Removing pitted rust in body panels
See: pitted rust.
Fixing rust holes in body panels
See: pitted rust.
Storing body panels
Use epoxy primer (aka "epoxy primer/sealer"), it won't allow rust. Not the same as regular primer. Wet-sand down to 400 grit, wash/dry, grind down rust to bare metal, apply body filler where needed, blow off, clean with prep-sol or similar cleaner, tape it up, and prime with epoxy primer.
Removing rust in seams
A spot blaster is useful.
To do it right, you will generally need to pull the seam apart, remove the rust, and then hit it with a rust conversion product. However, sometimes you can open up the layers slightly with a hammer and putty knife used between the spotwelds. Bend the flange open, media blast into the seam, clean, prime with epoxy primer, brush in urethane seam sealer, and close the seam back up. If the seam is not accessible, flood it with a penetrating cavity wax, like 3M's Rustfighter.
Accessing rust between interior panels
Pressure washer with pencil tip can knock everything loose out.
Drill small holes, get a spray wand with a 360-degree head. Then, when done, weld the holes shut.
Turn panels around to slosh rust remover around. Blow compressed air inside the panel.
Cut hole in panel? Spray rust killer with garden sprayer?
A mirror can be used to check areas for rust.
Don't spray expanding foam. It absorbs water, and will cause more rust. It can also expand and cause the panels to push out.
How to treat rusty drip-rails?
- wash with wax and grease remover
- spray with 2 coats of epoxy
- spray with seam sealer
Plasma spray welding
With plasma spray welding, metal wire is converted to sprayable form, and used to repair rust holes, fill panel joints, and blend patch panels. One example is the machine sold by Rustbusters.
Rusted window channels
(Difficult to fabricate, need more info on this.)
Vinyl tops
Rust is common in vinyl tops. The vinyl gets porous after a few years, and lets in moisture.
(How to prevent?)
Vaseline ,push it in between the moldings around the top and wipe off excess.Spray a heavy oil around Landau /opera windows let sit and wipe off excess any little tears should also have a drop of silicone pushed in them to avoid moisture.
Leaf spring rust
Remove rust, then, ideally, paint them separately. Re-assemble with teflon strips.
Preventing rust at chassis to ground connection
Silicone dielectric grease, electrical bonding paste; spray well with clear lacquer after bonding the connection.
Cleaning light surface rust off crankshaft
Have a machine shop polish the journals.
May require a regrind to the next correct bearing size prior to polishing depending on tolerances.
Using a decent regular flow of CRC 5.56 or a PTFE type spray and an M3 grey scotchy (then try green scotchbrite if need) rubbed in direction of crank travel, localised to effected area. Mask off area with masking tape to prevent scratching unaffected areas if necessary.
Rust is tough, and large areas vigourously rubbed (mechanically or otherwise) may cause damage to the finish of the journal. Initial contact needs to be with clean CRC rinsed rag, keep the journal area clean and use a light touch, buffing in one direction until the initial rust colour no longer shows.
If sand paper is to be employed, try starting with 2000 grit (no less than 1200 grit), change paper regularly, and keep the strokes light. You are only removing the outer scale, you are not resurfacing the journal just rubbing out rust.
Phosphoric acid localised can help in any pits.
Acids on hardened steels can cause embrittlement so dont leave it on long, only enough to blacken the rust. Afterwards switching to a microfibre rag with a product like Autosol, Blue Magic or even Brasso, you can polish out any minor scratches on the journal. Steel wool usually isn't recommended as it can scratch the journal finish, and it creates fine particles that must be throuoghly cleaned from the crank. If rust is more than 0.005" deep get it resurfaced.
- Very fine steel wool or scotchbrite pad, and light oil. Rub around the journals in the direction of rotation, not across.
- Cut 600 grit wet or dry sandpaper into strips the width of the crank journals. Wrap it around the journal, and secure it with tape. Then, make a strap from leather, about one-half the width of the sandpaper strips. Use the strap on the paper in a shoeshine motion. Finish off with some light oil on the sandpaper. Do a few strokes first, then clean the paper, because the rust will clog the sandpaper.
(LP3 as rust inhibitor on crankshafts?)
Advantages: self-limiting (can't remove too much), safe (low electrical current), won't harm good metal, not an acid (less dangerous, and no risk of hydrogen embrittlement)
Need: a plastic tub, iron electrode, water and washing soda (sodium carbonate), and a batter charger. About 1 tablespoon of soda per gallon of water. Can't find washing soda, then lye will work. Wear eye protection and protect skin too. Connect the electrode to the positive battery terminal. Connect the rusted object to the negative terminal. Submerge the object. Make sure the contact is good (may need to clean off some of the rust from the rusty part). Typically takes a few hours, but can take up to overnight. Rinse or scrub with brush to remove final rust debris. May need to re-treat. Oil, wax, or prime soon after. Surface of rusted metals is black after treatment.
Be creative to clean oddly-shaped objects:
- plastic PVC pipes
- large 2x4 wood boxes lined with plastic sheeting
- suspend an electrode in a cavity
- use a sponge soaked in the electrolyte solution, with a backing electrode, for objects that can't be submerged.
The powder used is a mild alkali.
- Electrolytic rust removal Crankshaft Coalition wiki article
How to remove rust from chrome
- Mag wheel polish, or Turtle Wax Chrome Polish.
- Fine steel wool, scotch-brite pads, crumpled-up pieces of aluminum foil.
Preventing engine rust
Engine storage spray, or wipe down with Marvel Mystery Oil.
Cylinder walls with flash rust: Marvel Mystery Oil, steel wool, etc. Pitted rusting will necessitate a rebuild.
How to de-rust gas tanks
Put a handful of nuts and bolts in, chain, chainsaw blade, etc., and shake it around a bit to knock out the loose stuff. Not too aggressive -- you'll dent the tank. Then, clean with phosphoric acid. Pour it in, let it sit for up to an hour, then flush with water and baking soda to neutralize. Or, Eastwood has a kit for this: an acid to clean it, and then something to coat it with. However, some people say that the coating can clog up the fuel filter, or trash your OEM sending unit. The best way to do it is to take it out and get it re-tinned.
How to clean engine water jackets or radiator of rust
Flush with CLR, Kool Klean (can't find). Manufacturers of CLR say that it shouldn't be used in a radiator: http://www.jelmar.com/CLRbasic.asp .
When building an engine, to prevent rust: when done washing it and blowing it dry, oil it down, and store it in a plastic bag -- sealed (confirm this).
"Oiling" your car
In climates that are more prone to rust, cars are sometimes "oiled". Rocker panels, doors, and other body passages are drilled and sprayed inside with oil, used oil, or gelled oil substances. Entire frame and suspension are also oiled. Can be done yearly in very rust-prone climates.
Historically, this procedure has been used before driving the car down a dirt road. The dirt sticks to the oil on the underside of the vehicle, providing an effective sealing layer. Consider how, when removing a dirty, oily gasket, the metal beneath it is clean. Same concept.
Now, this might be done with an application-specific undercarriage wax or oil.
Preventing MIG wire rust
Store in a bag with some dessicant packets. Here's a list of dessicants: List of dessicants. Also, can use small old refrigerator with 100 watt bulb inside, for storing rods and wires. Stays about 100 degrees. Small fan inside too.
Underside rust removal
Best not to do this as overhead work. Tilt the car on a rotisserie, or raise it significantly overhead.
Another option is to keep the car low to the ground, and, with plastic sheeting and duct tape, seal the area between car and floor. Leave the rear area of the plastic "tent" open for access. At the front of the "tent", affix a shop vac hose (exhaust). Blast.
Rustproofing brake rotors
Zinc dip, also Eastwood has some solutions? Research this.
Axle tube rust
When rebuilding a rear end, the rust can be cleaned out with naval jelly/shoving rags down it with a broomstick.
Cleaning hand tools
Tumble in a cement mixer with oil and sand. Or, soak in a bucket with parts cleaner or paint thinner.
Rust prevention on tools
Keep tools in a wooden toolbox. Also, use a shop dehumidifier. Avoid dust on your tools, as it can attract moisture, and thus, rust.
Electronic rust inhibition
Frame rust
Sandblasting or dipping is best. Then, stripping wheel or wire wheel is next-best. Can be professionally sandblasted and powder-coated for ~$250 at a good price.
Patching is usually not worthwhile, unless it's a special or valuable frame. Too easy to replace, and too much potential structural damage. Has to be done perfectly. Can be replaced with steel of the same gauge as the original frame, and welded in to place.
Where is the rust on the frame? In a critical stress area? How bad is it?
For minor surface rusting, with mostly metal showing through, it's OK to just powder-coat it.
- blast/wire wheel
- phosphoric acid
- clean off acid with thinner
- etching primer
- epoxy primer
Cleaning the inside of a boxed, open-ended frame
Blow out all the dirt, etc. Then, attach a strong towel to some strong cord. Soak the towel with rust treatment chemical, and pull it through the frame.
Media blasting rust
See: Media blasting.
- Sand is not recommended for media blasting panels. It acts like little hammers, warping panels with compressive forces (analagous to hail). It can be done, but extreme caution must be used. Sand also dulls as it is used, which reduces its cutting efficiency with each reuse.
- Use softer media (list examples):
- 55 grit silica-based media
- Sugar sand is finer and less-damaging than regular sand.
- Can sandblasting "increase" rust? Or, if the rust is removed and the metal is sealed, shouldn't it be eliminated? Some thoughts on this are:
- Although sandblasting may appear to have removed all the rust to the naked eye, it hasn't really done so.
- It's caused by water in the air compressor line, as sand will harbor some moisture. Also, compressed air contains moisture. And, sand has salt in it. A moisture trap in the line should solve the problem with the water in the air line.
- Sand by hand after sandblasting, to eliminate this issue.
- Many panels have seams, hems, and bends that are inaccessible by blasting, and can hold moisture and rust. A spot blaster is recommended.
- One option is to use chemical paint stripper, then use a sandblaster to lightly "dust" the remaining rust.
- Media blasting can remove good metal from body panels too. Also, used media can have metal particles left in the media.
- Soda blasting can remove light rust, and won't warp panels. However, when soda blasting body panels, the resultant film can negatively affect finish adhesion. For more details, see: Soda blasting.
Flooded vehicles
Flooded vehicles can be very difficult to handle, as there can be rust in any and all places. They are best avoided, unless it's the car that you really want.
What's galvanization?
"Galvanizing" typically refers to hot-dip galvanizing, a process by which iron or steel is coated with a thin layer of zinc, by dipping it in a molten bath of zinc. Galvanized steel can be welded. It's been used for more than 150 years.
Zinc oxidizes when exposed to air, forming zinc oxide, which then reacts with water molecules in the air to form zinc hydroxide, which then reacts with carbon dioxide in the air to form zinc carbonate. Zinc carbonate (the final "galvanizing" layer), is a thin but very tough protective layer. It also acts as a "sacrificial anode". It will corrode before the steel it is protecting.
Many modern automotive body panels are galvanized.
You can buy cold galvanizing spray. (list examples here)
Hydrogen embrittlement
All acids contribute hydrogen to metal. This causes hydrogen embrittlement, which weakens the metal. Untrue: you can "bake" the hydrogen out at 400 degrees F, after exposing a metal to acid.
Fiberglass resin patches
One technique that has been recommended is to grind/clean the rust, tape the underside of the panel to be patched, and then fill the holes with fiberglass resin, then paint and undercoat. This trick is not really a good idea -- when the body flexes, there will be cracks in the fiberglass pieces. Metal also expands at different rates than fiberglass, causing cracks to form, allowing more rust to form in these cracks.
Using POR-15 (a moisture-cured urethane) and fiberglass cloth will produce a low-cost repair that will bond and flex with the metal. In fact, POR-15 sells a $20 kit to do this very thing. While this method does fill the holes and provides a rust-resistant repair, it does not restore any mechanical strength to the metal like an actual metal patch panel would.
Do metal etches leave coating?
Follow up on metal etches like DuPont's Metal Etch or POR's Metal Ready leaving a phosphoric acid coating on the metal that will prevent flash rusting while storing.
How to remove rust protection
How to remove old rust protection finishes? Or undercoating?
- Wire wheel
- Brake cleaner
- Heat gun
- EZ-Off oven cleaner
- Mineral spirits
- Freeze with dry ice, then chisel out
- Wallpaper steamer
What about riveting in patch panels?
Very low-end solution, like fiberglass patching metal. Panel adhesives are a better choice when you can't weld.
Resource dump
Drop links in here if they're relevant to this article. They'll be reviewed, incorporated, and referenced.
- CarCraft article on using POR-15 and fiberglass mat for hole repair
- articles at theruststore.com
- Fertan rust remover
- Electrolytic rust removal
- rust protection paint
- rust primer
- rust removal and prevention articles
- rust faqs and info
- rust removal by electrolysis
- rust removal
- electrolytic rust removal
- zero rust application tips
- Rust defender product
- Hotrodders Bulletin Board rust discussion
Related resources
- MetalWeb Rust Primer
- Electrolytic Rust removal FAQ
- How does rust work? HowStuffWorks.com
- Quarter panel rust fix, A2Z Automotive Forums, March 26, 2002.
- Acceptable ways to handle rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, September 7, 2004.
- Rust pits, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 27, 2001.
- Rustbusters: good or bad?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 4, 2001.
- Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 26, 2002.
- Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 15, 2002.
- Pitted Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 26, 2002.
- Removing that interior rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, September 29, 2002.
- Treating rusted body panels Eastwood Company.
- How do I address rust?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 7, 2002.
- Rust spot, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 7, 2002.
- What would be good to rust proof the inside of new panels?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 11, 2005.
- Completely covered with surface rust...help, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 24, 2002.
- D/A sanders and rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 25, 2002.
- Chrome wheels rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 9, 2002.
- Filling up holes in body, including rust holes, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 12, 2002.
- Surface rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 12, 2003.
- Rust dimples, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 20, 2003.
- Some rust in the floor pans. Suggestions?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 26, 2003.
- What rust treatment will resist welding -- frame?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 29, 2003.
- Rust treatment, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 18, 2003.
- Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 4, 2003.
- Surface rust removal., Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 20, 2003.
- Rust pitting!, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 26, 2003.
- First hints of rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, April 1, 2003.
- Getting at interior rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 15, 2002.
- Rusting gas tank help, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 25, 2003.
- Rust in my cylinders, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 10, 2003.
- Rust and sludge in the rear, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 18, 2003.
- Rust proofing parts, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 25, 2002.
- Is it the snow or the salt that causes rust?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 21, 2003.
- Evapo-Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 25, 2003.
- Small rust patch -- anything else I can do?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 12, 2003.
- Primer that won't rust..., Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 10, 2003.
- Rust pits, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 17, 2003.
- Phosphoric acid + prevention of flash/surface rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 20, 2003.
- Weeks later - rusting through the Zero Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 23, 2003.
- How to protect from rust until I paint, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, August 21, 2003.
- Rustoleum, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, September 29, 2003.
- Body work (rust), Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 2, 2003.
- Best blast media for rust removal, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 29, 2003.
- Zero Rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 20, 2003.
- Frame rust prevention, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 8, 2004.
- Remove sunbaked surface rust before priming, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 10, 2004.
- Rusted '39 Ford frame, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 21, 2004.
- Welding rust spots in floor, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 3, 2004.
- Galvanizing a frame, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 19, 2002.
- Gas tank rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, August 17, 2004.
- Best rust inhibitor, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 4, 2004.
- Naval Jelly, Wikipedia, retrieved April 24, 2007.
- Rust-coat primer, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 27, 2004.
- Chassis rust repair, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 15, 2004.
- Internal rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 1, 2005.
- Getting rust out of nooks and crannies, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 27, 2005.
- Hydrogen embrittlement, Wikipedia, retrieved April 24, 2007.
- New motor, rust on cylinder walls, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 2, 2005.
- Secrets of surface rust removal revealed, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 8, 2005.
- Hydrochloric acid, Wikipedia, retrieved April 24, 2007.
- Newbie question, and rust problems, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, April 21, 2005.
- Removing rust on the inside of frames, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 9, 2005.
- Rust creeping from seam, what to do?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 13, 2005.
- Rust removal trick, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, June 26, 2005.
- Getting an old rusty spring back to prime shape, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 6, 2005.
- Rust around the vinyl top, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 24, 2005.
- A cure for rusty tank, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, August 8, 2005.
- Cleaning old rusty tools, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, August 15, 2005.
- Rust proofing with oil, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, October 19, 2005.
- Question about panel rust repair, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 12, 2005.
- Rust in flooded cars, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 30, 2005.
- Best way to clean rust from chrome, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 6, 2006.
- Wirewheeling rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 16, 2006.
- Rust pitting, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 22, 2006.
- Magic rust removers?' Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 21, 2006.
- What to spray on sandblasted steel to kill rust? Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 19, 2006.
- Fixing rust between seams, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, March 27, 2006.
- Removing rust protection, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, April 13, 2006.
- How to remove rust from under car floor, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, April 19, 2006.
- Soda blasting, SPI Users Forum, February 25, 2006.
- Surface rust on inside of door, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 12, 2006.
- Rust pits, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 17, 2006.
- How to treat light body rust prior to epoxy, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 21, 2006.
- Preventing rust at ground to chassis connections, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, May 22, 2006.
- Rusted from the inside or outside, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, September 18, 2006.
- MIG wire rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 26, 2006.
- Cleaning rust off crankshaft, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, January 11, 2007.
- Surface rust prep before paint, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, July 20, 2006.
- Quick question about Rustoleum, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, September 2, 2006.
- Solution to preventing all rust?, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, August 26, 2006.
- Save your rusty floor board, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 1, 2007.
- Hard to reach rust, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, December 13, 2006.
- Stopping rust from the inside, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, November 26, 2006.
- Rust treatment and repair, Hotrodders Bulletin Board, February 25, 2007.
|
<urn:uuid:56eabab8-28e3-49f8-b8a7-9d885c13411e>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.crankshaftcoalition.com/wiki/Rust
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.87969 | 10,410 | 3.796875 | 4 |
Why octo-core, and where will it end?
Those who like to follow hardware will have no-doubt noticed the increasing prevalence of quad-core processors in top of the line products, and it looks like the trend is set to continue with the introduction of octo-core processors later this year.
We’ve already had our first snippets of information about Samsung’s new Exynos 5 Octa processor, which will come in an eight-core variety. Then there’s also Nvidia’s Tegra 4, which sports an overwhelming 72 core GPU on top of a five core CPU.
Is there any end in sight to this exponential growth in core numbers, and is it even the solution we really need to pump up the performance of our portable devices? Well, that’s what I’m here to discuss.
Where did this trend originate from?
If you can recall back to the turn of the millennium and Intel’s introduction of the Pentium 4 processor, you’ll probably remember that even these decade old PCs were commonly clocked up above 3Ghz. Fast forward to today’s modern PCs and you’ll still find that even the most expensive Intel i7 doesn’t venture beyond the 4Ghz wall without some tinkering and customized cooling solutions.
The problem is that processors hit the wall, in terms of clock speed, a decade ago, and in the search for ever faster computing solutions we’ve had to turn to multiple cores.
Looking more specifically at recent portable computing solutions, it’s obviously important that the device is power efficient and that remains relatively cool. Higher clock speeds not only require more power, but also churn out more heat, which can’t be cooled particularly well when you want your smartphone to only be 1cm thick.
This is where multi-core processors provide the perfect solution, a good balance of power and heat, but also allowing you bypass the performance problems associated with lower clock speeds. This is because each CPU core can run at lower frequency and voltage, compared with a single core chip, whilst maintaining performance.
What’s the maximum number of cores?
Now that we’ve established that running two cores side by side solves the problems of low performance in smartphone and tablet devices, similarly, you could argue that continuing to increase the number of cores for parallel processing would overcome any speed bottleneck. However this is where the multi-core solution starts to look less impressive, as there are diminishing returns as the number of cores increases.
Firstly there’s the problem of wasted clock cycles, instructions need to finish at the same time otherwise you’re processor will be wasting energy. In order to utilize every clock cycle on a quad or octo-core processor efficiently, a software developer needs to optimize their application to sync parallel processing, but this ads time and costs to software production. In some cases applications simply aren’t very demanding anyway, so your cores are just going to sit there using battery.
One solution to this is to clock down the processor’s speed when the cores aren’t being utilized fully. But more powerful chips require a higher minimum amount of energy than slower processors, even whilst idling, which still causes wastage.
Then you also have to consider bandwidth constraints, in other words how much data can we feed to multiple processors at any one time. Once the bandwidth is reached you can’t push any more data through, regardless of the number of cores available. This limits the real world performance improvements of multi-core over single core processor speeds, you’ll find that other bits and pieces of hardware bottleneck the rest of your system.
So whilst theoretically you could add more and more cores, it doesn’t necessarily allow you to push more data through at once. And when you’re not using them, multiple cores can be a massive power drain.
The 8 core myth
Taking all of that technological jargon on board, it seems like there are certainly limitations when it comes to multi-core systems. But we’ve heard so many mixed messages from manufacturers over the years it’s hard to tell who to believe. Intel for example talked of hundreds of processor cores back in 2011, and Nvidia seem certain that GPGPUs are the future. However, Qualcomm remains adamant that a few cores with higher clocks are the best solution. So who’s right?
Well rather than listen to the cheap talk, when we actually look at processor specs you’ll notice something quite interesting — 8 core ground breaking performance is actually a bit of a myth, at least for now.
Take Samsung’s new Exynos 5 Octa processor for example. Although it’s called an octo-core processor, all eight cores aren’t working in tandem as you might think. Instead there are two sets of quad-cores, a set of powerful ARM Cortex A15’s and a set of low power ARM Cortex A7’s, only one of which can be used at any one time. An elegant solution for the power efficiency problem I mentioned earlier.
Whilst this allows the chip to be more economical, by switching to the faster power hungry cores only when needed, there’s no performance benefit over a standard ARM Cortex A15 quad core chipset. Nvidia’s Tegra processors work in a similar way, using a single low power core for low-intensity tasks and the quad-core only when needed.
As another example, take a look at the PC market for the past five years. The number of cores hasn’t ventured above four in mainstream or high-end gaming products, despite the fact that a Q6600 is now over five years old. If you take a look at the only full 8 core product in the consumer market, the AMD FX-8 range, it actually performs poorly compared to better designed Intel quad-core processors. Even Intel’s new Haswell chips aren’t increasing the number of cores available; the PC market has clearly reached a plateau.
So why is it such a struggle to push past four cores, well it all lies in the nuts and bolts, it’s down to transistors. Either way you look at it, a fast single-core or slower multi-core processor has to be made up of increasing numbers of transistors, and more transistors means more heat and more power consumption.
Problem 101 with handheld devices, there’s only a limited amount of battery power and no room for cooling. So it’s doubtful that a fast, real eight core chip is a viable solution on smartphones or tablets, at least in the immediate future.
Looking to the future
Don’t misunderstand me though, the Exynos 5 Octa is an incredibly good idea for handheld devices, and is a decent indicator of what processors are likely to look like in the future.
It’s doubtful that the next improvements in processor technology are going to come from simply slapping 16 cores together on one chip. Even Nvidia’s boastful sounding 72 core GPU isn’t ground breaking. High end graphics cards contain thousands of stream processors, or cores as Nvidia likes to call them.
Instead it’s more likely that we will see companies look for more efficient ways to run their processors, continuing to reduce the die size of their chips to save on heat, and looking to ingenious solutions, like interchangeable cores, in order to conserve power where they can.
Whilst we will certainly see more eight core processors in the future, they are unlikely to be multi-core chips in the current understanding.
To sum up
As strange as it seems ,we aren’t actually venturing off into the realms of infinity any time soon, technology isn’t quite moving forward as fast as the marketing hype would have you believe. We are probably going to need another technological breakthrough and a change in both hardware and software developer mindsets before we see huge numbers of real cores become the norm.
Even so, you can expect that “8-core” will be the marketing buzz word throughout 2013 and 2014 when it comes to smartphones and tablets. A better term would probably be “dual quad-core”, but I suppose that would be a little confusing.
As always, beware of product marketing, they love to let consumers misinterpret their words.
|
<urn:uuid:961f0428-3794-4ad7-8795-1613cfe8a77c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.androidauthority.com/octo-core-where-will-it-end-153910/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392099.27/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00083-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.935228 | 1,746 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Amusement parks have been around for decades and they are just as popular as they have ever been. For the most part, the physics and theories used to build these wonderful theme parks in the early years have withheld the test of time and are still exactly the same. Most people don't stop to think about how many amusement parks really rely on physics. If these thrilling rides were just constructed like you might build a tree house and physics was never applied, then the millions of people that flock to these attractions each year would simply have to find something else to waist their money and adrenaline on.
First, we will look at the roller coaster. This is possibly one of the main attractions at an amusement park. What many people don't recognize is the fact that roller coasters aren't propelled by an engine. There is a good reason to back up the fact that the first hill is always the highest. Once the coaster is pulled up the hill by the crank, potential energy is at its fullest. As the coaster is making its way down the hill, that potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. At the bottom of the hill, kinetic energy is at its highest. Throughout the rest of the ride, the coaster is simply propelled by the constant conversion from potential to kinetic energy and back again. Another factor that enters into the extreme speeds that roller coaster can reach are the wheels. There are basically three types of wheels. The running wheels keep the coaster on its path along the rails. The friction wheels help to control the side to side movement of the coaster. And, the last set of wheels helps the coaster stay planted on the rails of the track, even when inverted. The car is eventually stopped by a compressed air braking system. (Amusement Park Physics)
The carousel is one of the most traditional theme park rides. At first glance, the carousel may look as though it's only a simple, graceful wheel of steel.
|
<urn:uuid:a639ee91-3bb3-4b44-86f3-63a6ad7db578>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.exampleessays.com/viewpaper/67640.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402746.23/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00078-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.976077 | 390 | 3.203125 | 3 |
Consumers Drive Climate Crisis
17 November, 2013
Consumers, rather than people per se, drive climate change, finds a study.
Models of future climate scenarios have taken insufficient account of population patterns and trends, according to a UCL review to be published in the print edition of The Lancet in November 2013. The review, "Population, development, and climate change, links and effects on human health", examines the interconnections between population growth and climate change, from the perspective of global health.
The authors found that while population growth is an important factor, it is consumers, rather than people per se, who drive climate change. Reducing consumption thus represents the most effective way to reduce carbon emissions. This can have substantial health co-benefits, and consideration of human health should therefore be integral to future plans for tackling climate change.
Professor Judith Stephenson, UCL's Institute for Women's Health, says: "Disruption of the environment and climate system caused by unprecedented human activity since the industrial revolution confronts us with an urgent and complex problem that requires reduction in growth of both consumption and population for a sustainable world."
Population growth and health
The world's population is expected to be ten times larger by 2050 (roughly 10 billion) than it was for most of the 19th century (around 1 billion). Future population size in poor countries will have significant consequences for health and the environment, say the authors. Improved sanitation, nutrition and healthcare are allowing more children to survive into adulthood, whilst a reduction in fertility rates is leading to an aging population.
When implemented with other social and economic improvements, family planning is one of the most effective ways of managing increases in population growth and for delivering extensive health benefits, in both developed and poor countries. Access to family planning has significantly reduced maternal and infant deaths, although there remains a considerable unmet need for family planning, say the authors.
Population, health and climate change
Although population is an important factor, demographic trends are more significant for climate change than total population, says the review.
Consumption patterns, together with aging and urbanization in some countries, have bigger implications for health and the reduction of carbon emissions than the total number of people in the world.
The world's poor have contributed little to climate change and yet will experience the biggest effects. Although poor countries have some of the world's highest fertility rates, growth in consumption exceeds growth in population in developing and developed countries.
According to the authors reducing consumption and achieving more sustainable lifestyles in rich countries thus represents the most effective way to reduce carbon emissions and ultimately deliver health benefits.
The authors say insufficient attention has been paid to the interconnections between population, development, climate change and human health.
According to Professor Judith Stephenson: "Bringing together natural and social scientists with people from different organizations and communities in the global South and global North is essential to improve understanding of the interactions between consumption, demographic change and the climate, and to devise more scientifically and politically integrated solutions for global health."
The story is based on materials provided by University College London - UCL, via AlphaGalileo.
Judith Stephenson, Susan F Crane, Caren Levy, Mark Maslin. Population, development, and climate change: links and effects on human health. The Lancet, 2013; 382 (9905): 1665 DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61460-9
University College London - UCL (2013, November 14). Key links between consumption, climate change. ScienceDaily. Retrieved November 17, 2013, from http://www.sciencedaily.com /releases/2013/11/131114193245.htm
Comments are moderated
|
<urn:uuid:397e1322-96ec-4083-841c-e3621e35826d>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.countercurrents.org/cc171113A.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398628.62/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00035-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.933694 | 757 | 3.234375 | 3 |
Every temple of Mithras had a bas-relief at one end depicting Mithras killing the bull. On either side stand two figures carrying torches, one with the flame pointing up, the other with it pointing down. Every textbook refers to these as “Cautes” and “Cautopates”, although no literary text mentions either.
So how do we know that these were their names? And which is which?
In Cumont’s Textes et Monumentes, vol. 1, p.207 we find the following statement about the torch-bearers or dadophores. (The reader should bear in mind that in vol. 2, for some curious reason, Cumont gave the inscriptions first, with numerals; and then the monuments, with fresh numbers; and that a relief or statue with an inscription would be listed twice).
By a happy accident we know the barbarous names that the two dadophores bore in Mithraic ritual. Two pairs of statues accompanied with inscriptions have recently come to light, and demonstrate that the being with the raised torch is named Cautes and the one with the lowered torch is named Cautopates. Elsewhere the statues themselves have not been preserved, but the pedestals on which they stood have survived, grouped in pairs, and on one is engraved the dedication Caute or Cauti and on the other Cautipati.
5) Monument 248 c, discovered in 1851, which bears the inscription D. I. M. Cautopati, was supposed at this period by Dieffenbach and by Ring to indicate that the dadophor with the lowered torch was called Cautopates, but that Cautes and Cautopates were synonymous. New discoveries permit us to rectify this mistake. Cautes and Cautopates are the two dadophores at Sarmizegetusa: mon. 140 (inscr. 259); at Heddernheim: mon. 253 i, 2, 4 (inscr. 441 b, c).
6) Aquileia: inscr. 165 a, b; Aquincum: mon. 213 d, inscr. 329, 330 — Similarly in the temple recently discovered at Pettau by Gurlitt, an altar has been brought to light with the dedication Cauti, another with Cautopati. — Were there two dedications to Caute at Heddernheim? Cf. Lehner, Korrespondbl. Westd. Zeitsch., XVII, no. 89, p.129 — The complete list of inscriptions mentioning these deities is given in vol. 2, p. 533, col. a. — The only forms that are encountered are Caute or Cauti or Cautopati or Kautopati. The dative Cauto and therefore the nominative Cautus does not exist (inscr. 165 a, note). — The abbreviation C. P. for Cautopati, does not prove that we should decompose this name into two words. Rather it serves to distinguish it from Caute, for which the abbreviation is a simple C. (inscr. 371, 434).
That is a lot of material packed into a couple of lines and a couple of footnotes; but Cumont was a great man, which is why his work in some respects has yet to be superceded, 110 years later. Let’s look at some of these references.
In vol. 2, p.283-4, under monument 140 we find these images of statues of the two figures, taken from the Mithraeum at Sarmizegetusa (see.p.280 f.) or Varhély (Gréditchjé) in Hungary in 1881-3. Happily for us, they have inscriptions on the base.
These are described as follows:
Mithraic dadophores, in the usual costume and pose. They carry in their right hands, one a lowered torch, the other a raised torch, but both are broken … in the left hand the first carries a scorpion, the second the head of a bull. On the bases are inscriptions 259.
The inscriptions 259 can be found on p.135 of the same volume, where they are listed as CIL III 7922.
a) Cautopati sac(rum) | Synethus adiu[t(or)] | tabul(arii) | v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito)
b) . . . . v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) m(erito)
That identifies “Cautopates” as the object of the votive offering on the first statue-altar.
Monument 253 is in vol. 2, p.372, and covers the third Mithraeum found at Heddernheim, in 1887. There is a mistake in Cumont’s note in vol. 1; it should be item j, not i, that is referenced. This is the stela, carved on three sides. Cumont gives fig. 298, 290 and 291, from photographs:
Inscription 441 is vol. 2, p.155-6, transcribing the above. On the front:
D(eo) inv(icto) Mit(hrae) | Senilius Car|antinus | c(ivis) Mediom(atricus) | v(otum) s(olvit) l(ibens) l(aetus) m(erito) | Sive Cracissius.
Under a representation of Mithras born from a rock are the words:
On the right-hand side, under the torchbearer holding a torch up:
Under the person on an urn:
On the left-hand side, under the torchbearer holding a torch pointing down:
Under the eagle on a sphere:
That seems fairly final: we have the image, and a label underneath.
An afterthought: inscription 442, Friedberg, (mon. 248) reads “D(eo) I(nvicto) M(ithrae) | Cautopati” which would seem to suggest that Cautopates (and therefore Cautes also) was an aspect of Mithras himself.
|
<urn:uuid:fcb71f28-3312-43e1-986a-f1e373a7d471>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2011/11/19/how-do-we-know-that-mithras-sidekicks-were-called-cautes-and-cautopates/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398873.39/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00060-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.888827 | 1,349 | 3.484375 | 3 |
Hong Kong—The governments of China and Hong Kong don’t seem to want to mention the situation of Hong Kong’s sluggish economic growth, and even Hong Kong’s economists and professionals have kept silent on the issue.
When comparing Hong Kong’s economic growth to that of other countries during the 15 years from 1997 to 2012, the results highlight the dilemma Hong Kong has faced for the past decade. After Hong Kong was handed over to China in 1997, there have been major changes to its economic growth and social development.
Most Hong Kong citizens are under the impression that although Hong Kong’s economic situation has not improved for the past decade, it is hard to understand why. Hong Kong people often refer to Hong Kong’s economic growth as “worse off than some, better off than many.”
Citizens believe that while Hong Kong cannot compare to China, South Korea and Singapore, it is still better than Taiwan, Japan, and Southeast Asia which was badly affected by the 1997 Asian financial crisis.
Upon closer investigation, however, the figures show that Hong Kong’s economic growth was the least in East Asia and Southeast Asia from 1997 to 2012—even lower than Japan.
The Last of the Four Asian Tigers
Hong Kong’s economic growth has been subpar among the four Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Singapore, Taiwan, and South Korea).
According to data from the World Bank, the ranking of the Asia-Pacific’s major economies can be obtained by comparing the increase in each country’s real GDP per capita between 1997 and 2012. In those 15 years, Hong Kong’s real GDP per capita increased from US$27,300 in 1997 to US$36,796 in 2012 at an overall rate of 34.06%.
Within the same time frame, South Korea’s increase rate was 101%, Singapore’s was 87.7%, and even Taiwan, which has been looked down upon by neighboring countries’ media, increased by 49.22%, which was 15% more than Hong Kong.
Based on the results, in 1997 both Hong Kong and Singapore had a considerably lower real GDP per capita than they do now. In 2012, however, Singapore reached US$51,709, exceeding Hong Kong by nearly US$15,000. In other words, Hong Kong’s real GDP per capita is only 70% of Singapore’s.
South Korea and Taiwan have a similar situation. South Korea’s real GDP per capita has rapidly increased in the past 15 years, from 41% of that of Hong Kong in 1997 to 61% now.
At the same time, Taiwan’s GDP per capita has increased from 50% to 56%.
Lower Than Japan During “Lost Decade”
The Japanese economy experienced rapid growth in the 1970s and 1980s, but it started to deteriorate in the 1990s. From 2000 onward, the Japanese economy gradually slowed down.
Japan was criticized by its competitors, the Japanese public, and professionals from all over the world. Japan was burdened with both deteriorating economic growth and, at the same time, evaporating real estate prices.
For the past few years the Japanese society has been dissatisfied with the limited economic growth, and this has been reflected in election results. The Japanese Prime Minister has frequently been replaced, the Liberal Democratic Party has continuous internal struggles, and it has even come to the stage of turning over the Prime Minister’s position to the Democratic Party for the first time since World War II.
Many economists have analyzed the performance of the Japanese economy for the past decade and concluded that Japan is currently experiencing an economic Lost Decade that began in 2000.
Nevertheless, economic figures show that Japan is better off than Hong Kong. Japan’s real GDP per capita increased by 36.02% from 1997 to 2012, 1.6% more than Hong Kong’s.
Far Below Nearby Asian Countries
In East and Southeast Asia from 1997 to 2012, mainland China had the greatest increase in real GDP per capita, increasing by seven times. Some of the reasons for this economic growth come from the additional value of full monetization as well as the appreciation of Chinese renminbi against US dollars.
For reference, the real GDP per capita of India, also considered a large underdeveloped economy, increased by 2.48 times.
Compared to other Southeast Asian countries, Hong Kong’s increase rate is much lower. From 1997 to 2012, the real GDP per capita rate in Malaysia increased by 127%, Thailand by 167%, Philippines and Indonesia by 230%, and Laos and Vietnam by 313% and 383% respectively.
The economic difference between these countries and Hong Kong is evidently smaller. They are rapidly increasing while Hong Kong is faltering.
Lower Than Developed Countries
As a smaller economy with moderate growth, Hong Kong can never catch up with America and England. Even Ireland, whose economy was similar to Hong Kong’s in 1997, has widened the economic gap.
If we assume that the rapid economic growth of underdeveloped countries is a natural phenomenon, then Hong Kong’s economic dilemma in the past decade is even more obvious compared to developed economies.
From 1997 to 2012, America’s real GDP per capita increased from US$31,573 to US$51,749 at an increase rate of 63.09%, nearly twice Hong Kong’s increase rate.
Then there’s the situation between Hong Kong and England. Before the handover of Hong Kong’s sovereignty in 1997, Hong Kong’s real GDP per capita had just exceeded its former suzerain England.
Over the next 15 years, however, the difference between Hong Kong and England gradually increased again. In 2012, England’s real GDP per capita was US$39,093 with an increase rate of 64.07%.
Ireland has a similar population size and GDP to Hong Kong. In 1997, Ireland’s real GDP per capita was 80% of Hong Kong’s.
However, in 2012, Ireland’s real GDP per capita reached US$45,932, not only exceeding Hong Kong but also gradually increasing the difference between itself and Hong Kong. At present, Hong Kong’s GDP per capita is not even 80% of Ireland’s.
Purchasing Power Parity Has Gone Down
Within the 15 years from 1997 to 2012, Hong Kong’s annual average growth rate was at 2%. This was not only lower than China and other Southeast Asian countries, but also lower than the other three Asian Tigers. It was lower than Japan, America, England, and even France, which has been widely criticized.
As a comparison, in the 15 years before 1997, Hong Kong’s growth rate was always in the front. In the 15 years after 1997, according to current trends, Hong Kong’s economic growth has been the worst in the Asian region.
According to the World Bank’s calculation, Hong Kong’s GDP per capita in 2012, in true value according to purchasing power parity, is in fact lower than that in 1997 by about US$1000.
Hong Kong experienced the Asian financial crisis in 1997. However, South Korea and other Southeast Asian countries experienced the same financial crisis and were affected even more deeply than Hong Kong.
Hong Kong’s growth may be deteriorating more than theirs because it is a more developed and mature economy. Then again, judging by the situation in other developed countries such as America, England, Germany, and Japan, this might not be the real reason.
Other reasons could include changes to the production industry, technological upgrades, or drastic changes to the economic environment. However, none of these reasons can account for the current snail-like speed of Hong Kong’s economic growth.
Therefore, sources believe that Hong Kong must have been left behind due to special circumstances. In 1997, the only circumstance Hong Kong had that other countries did not have was the return of sovereignty to the People’s Republic of China, causing many people to suspect that this is the real reason behind Hong Kong’s deteriorating economy.
Translated by Veronica Wong. Written in English by Sally Appert.
|
<urn:uuid:13afc65f-1a44-4079-b805-7beb46a18e23>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/610657-hong-kongs-economy-grows-at-snails-pace-since-1997/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395992.75/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00017-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.961254 | 1,700 | 3 | 3 |
Click Banner For Home Court
Side Spin Serve, Chop Serve and A Small Serve of Rocket Science
: How-Hie (Tom) Ling
Date Written: May 2002 at Brisbane, Australia
Acknowledgement: Viki Ling and James Ling
Before I talk about how to do the side spin serve and chop serve, I would
like to introduce some physics involved in serving a ball and the aerodynamics
of a ball in flight. The reason I want to include these topics firstly
is that by discussing the fundamental mechanics, I hope some serious minded
players will develop the side spin and chop serves further or develop other
forms of serves. I developed and used the side spin and chop serves
in late 1970s (among other moves and playing systems). Since then,
I haven’t seen any player doing real side spin serves. A quick search
on the internet and books showed that most publications covered under-arm
serve, float serve and jump serve; and none on side spin serve and chop serve.
Disclaimer: The discourse below could be flawed as I am no expert in the
rocket science stuff although I have studied fluid mechanics and aerodynamics
some thirty years ago and co-designed a commercial catamaran in 1974.
I have been out of playing volleyball for twenty-five years, the serving
actions described here are based on my memory.
Force of the Serve (A Guesstimate Only)
Both the striking hand and the ball are soft objects, so the impact is semi-elastic.
The energy carried by the hand is transferred to the ball with some energy
loss as heat
in deforming the hand and the ball. The length of the impact
is guesstimated by the author to be about 30 milliseconds (based on the impact
of the tennis racket on the ball
of 5 milliseconds which I read somewhere). After the hand hit the ball,
the ball travels at
about 30m per second (for man). The mass of the ball is about 10 ounces
or 0.2841 kg. Using the Newton’s Laws of Motions (v = u + at, u = 0),
the applied force (f = ma) can be calculated as about 284 newton. The
maximum force is twice the average force, which is equal to 568 newton.
It is expected that the greater the force applied, the greater is the ball
speed. Also, the greater the speed of the striking hand (about 10m
per second), the greater is the speed of the ball. The mass of the
hand (and lower arm) has some effect on the speed. This is because
the mass of the hand (about ¾ kg) and the forearm is a few times heavier
than the ball (I think no body wants to lend a hand here to verify my assertion)
J. In Chinese, the striking force exerted is called jin(4), which loosely
translates as fast-twitch-muscle plus strength.
(The maximum force exerted by a open hand calculated above as 568 newton
is comparable to a black-belt karate chop whose force is estimated to be
around 3000 newton. Karate uses special technique to exert that force
and is appropriate for breaking
boards and bricks only. The force is not normally transmitted beyond
Forces Acting on the Ball During Flight
For a perfect round ball moving through the air, it experiences three forces
acting on it, namely, a drag force caused by air resistance which acts against
the direction of motion, the gravity force acting downward and a lateral
force called the Magnus force which acts at right angles to the direction
In the case of a not-so-round ball, it will also experience a net force due
to unbalanced atmospheric pressure acting on its unequal surface areas.
Drag Force and Reynolds’ Number
A ball moving through the air will have boundary layer (also called laminar)
flow in front and a turbulent wake behind. Since the wake is eddying,
it possesses energy which can only come from the ball itself. Thus
the ball is continually losing its energy to this eddying wake, which causes
it to slow down. This eddying wake is the main cause of the drag force.
In normal circumstances, it is expected that the faster the ball is moving,
the bigger is the eddying wake, and the greater is the air resistance drag.
(Actually, the air resistance increases as the square of the velocity).
However, at a certain critical value of speed, the ball will experience a
sudden reduction in air drag to about one quarter of the previous value.
This is because at this high speed, the air in the front boundary layer becomes
turbulent as well. The result is that there is now some mixing of air
in the boundary layer and the free air outside the stream. There is
now new energy coming from the outside into the front boundary layer which
enables the air flow to flow around
the ball further back before the eddying wake occurs. This means the
wake is smaller and the drag is smaller as well. (The dimpling of the
golf ball is a good example of roughing the surface in order to produce turbulence
further in front (thus less eddying wake at the back) so it can fly further).
In Fluid Mechanics, an indicator called the Reynolds Number measures the
transition point at which the boundary layer flow turns into turbulent flow.
For a volleyball of about 21cm in diameter and travels at about 20m per second
through the air, the Reynolds Number is about 268800 (RN = 640vd in normal
indoor air), which is well beyond the standard critical number of 150000.
This means that a reduced air drag is experienced by most serves from speed
of 12m per second to 40m per second or beyond.
The effects of variations in weather conditions have a minute effect on the
air resistance. The denser the air, the greater is the air resistance.
A rise in pressure will produce a proportional rise in density, while a rise
in temperature will decrease the density. A ball will fly slightly
more quickly on a warm day and low pressure than on a cold day
and high pressure.
Magnus Force and Magnus Effect
The above discussion assumes that the ball moves through the air without
spinning. A spinning ball will cause a different air flow pattern
which will cause the ball to swerve from left to right, right to left, to
float upwards or to dip down depending on the rotation of the ball.
We all know that a float serve (very popular nowadays L) tends to stay up
longer in the air. This is due to a mysterious but real force called
the Magnus force acting upward on the ball. In a float serve, the ball
is rotating clockwise in a horizontal axis (as seen from a side view at position
5 corner), so the air flows faster at the top than the air at the bottom.
The wake is deflected downwards. According to the Bernoulli’s Principle,
the pressure at the top is now lower than the pressure at the bottom.
This means that there is a net force acting upwards which counters the gravity
force. This net force due to differential air flow pattern around a
body is called the Magnus force. This lateral movement effect is known
as the Magnus effect. The Magnus force is greatest when the axis
of rotation is at right angles to the direction of the air flow.
It will be proportionally less when the angle between the rotation axis and
the flow direction is less than 90 degrees. When the axis of rotation
and the direction of the air flow coincide, the force will be zero.
A rough ball will produce a more pronounced Magnus effect because the wake
is dragged around further as explained in the previous Section.
(Heinrich Gustav Magnus was a German physicist who first explained the lateral
movement of a spinning ball in 1852)
Atmospheric Force on a Not-so-round Ball
Normal atmospheric pressure is about 10 newton per square cm in all directions.
The cross-sectional area of a volleyball is about 350 square cm. Hence,
for a perfectly round ball, it will experience about 3500 newton of equal
and opposite forces on its opposite sides. If, due to imperfect roundness
of its sides, the forces were to be out of balance by 0.1%, then there will
be a sideway force of 3.5 newton. To compute how much a non-spinning
ball will deviate from its original trajectory due to the unbalanced atmospheric
forces acting sideway, we know that the mass of the ball is 2.841 newton.
This means there will be a sideway acceleration of 1.232 m per second squared.
In a typical flight lasting about 16/30 second (for a 30 m per second serve),
using Newtons’s Laws of Motions (s = ut + 1/2a t2 , u = 0), the sideway movement
at the end of the flight can be calculated as 1.75m.
Of course, one cannot hope to achieve a swing of 1.75m due to unbalanced
atmospheric forces, but it can be deduced that with a minute imbalance in
the sideway forces due to unequal surface areas, it is highly possible that
the ball can deviate by 20cm at the end of the flight. However,
this deviation is gradual along its trajectory.
Side Spin Serve
(The discussion below is for a person who serves right-handed.)
The side spin serve will make the ball swerve from left to right or from
right to left due to the Magnus effect. To swing the ball to the right
– I called it the side-spin-right serve, you impact the ball with an open
full hand at an area slightly to the left (2 cm) of the ball with a slight
follow through to the right. The effect will be more lethal if you
are standing at the left corner behind the base line aiming at the opposite
far right corner. As the ball spins in a clockwise rotation (as seen
from above) about a vertical axis of rotation, it will produce a Magnus force
acting to the right. To swing the ball to the left – I called it the
side-spin-left serve, you strike with your open full hand at an area slightly
to the right of the ball with a slight follow through to the left.
The effect is most marked if you stand at the right corner serving to the
far left corner.
I normally served by bouncing the ball three times with my left foot forward
and tossed the ball up slightly up and relied on my seeing (or proprioception)
hand to strike the ball
while my eyes were looking at the net and the opponent court. The wrist
was tensed up (using jin4) so that from the finger tips to the forearm arm,
the hand became one rigid weapon. The bend at the elbow ranged from a slight
bend to 90 degrees. As I hit the
ball, my right foot was brought forward to complete the serve. A sideway
movement of 30cm to to 60cm for the ball was easily achieved.
Due to the movement restriction imposed by the skeletal and muscular systems
of a person’s right hand (for a right-hander who serves right-handed), the
side-spin-right serve is easier to execute than the side-spin-left serve.
However, in outdoor court situations, with a cross wind blowing from right
to left, in order to magnify the Magnus effect, you may have to serve the
side-spin-left serves. A softer ball will also produce more swing because
you can compress and spin the ball better. The compressed ball has
the added effect of suddenly deflating to its original shape thus changing
the path suddenly (normally during the last leg of its flight). The
differential atmospheric forces will also come into play on the compressed
(A seeing or proprioception hand in volleyball is one which can aim at a
target and hit the ball over the net to the target easily, much like a person
can touch his/her index finger to his/her nose with his/her eyes closed)
The chop serve presents the edge of the hand to strike at the ball just like
a karate chop.
Minute or no follow through with this kind of serve. The line of contact
can be either center, to the left or to the right of the ball. I normally
tensed my wrist up and curved my fingers slightly in order to guide the ball
in a certain direction. The curved fingers have the effect of contacting
the ball surface more than a straight edge hand. It also protects the
fingers from being hurt during contact if they happen to come into contact
with the ball.
The impact of a chop serve will compress and distort the ball most because
of the small contact area. This makes the ball unsteady in flight and has
the effect of moving it side to side (about 10 cm) due to differential atmospheric
forces acting. I normally hit the ball off its center, so it swerved
to one side as well as yawed in the air.
I also tensed my lump of flesh at the edge of my hand during chop serve (by
tensing my wrist muscle). This produced a hard edge which helped to
hit the ball harder.
(The lump of flesh at the edge can be built up over years by striking the
two hands together on their edges repeatedly. This also helps in producing
During 1970s, I had also tried these types of serves:
A side spin full open hand with a glancing chop serve,
A side spin hand with the folded-in thumb, and
A slanting chop serve.
Go and try it yourself. Use your imagination. Work at it.
Good luck to you all………..
|
<urn:uuid:38288e0b-8537-4e51-aa3e-b38b25f54dce>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://home.earthlink.net/~tfakehany/SideSpinServe.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.927872 | 2,941 | 2.78125 | 3 |
Zone Of Privacy
zone of privacy: an area or aspect of life that is held to be protected from intrusion by a specific constitutional guarantee (as of the right to be secure in one's person, house, papers, or effects against unreasonable searches or seizures) or is the object of an expectation of privacy [allowed disclosure of medical records, records which were deemed to fall within a zone of privacy , upon a showing of proper government interest "Stenger v. Lehigh Valley Hosp. Ctr. , 609 A.2d 796 (1992)"] compare expectation of privacy , penumbra
Source: Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law ©1996. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Published under license with Merriam-Webster, Incorporated.
|
<urn:uuid:a92f0002-3b24-4070-bff7-b3787061f8f0>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://dictionary.findlaw.com/definition/zone-of-privacy.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395621.98/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00172-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.903181 | 161 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Portable Sound-Detector Units Made for Airplane Spotters (Jun, 1942)
What could I possibly add to this?
Portable Sound-Detector Units Made for Airplane Spotters
A self-contained sound detector, easily carried and operated by one person, makes it possible for individual aircraft spotters to hear approaching aircraft through a set of earphones. When the low-pitched sound is picked up, the spotter slowly turns his body until the sound is loudest. He is then facing in the direction of the plane and can orient his binoculars. The headpiece of this detector consists of earphones topped by a concentrator. Made of thermoplastic material, this is molded to a parabolic curve and contains crossed perpendicular veins which sharpen the aural focus on a sensitive microphone. Amplification is supplied by a three-tube unit slung over the spotter’s shoulder and housed in a case smaller than the usual gas-mask container. A volume-control knob regulates the sound in the earphones to the watcher’s comfort. Special filters eliminate noises other than those of a plane.
|
<urn:uuid:958bd28f-09b1-4122-a8f2-4a36a712093c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://blog.modernmechanix.com/portable-sound-detector-units-made-for-airplane-spotters/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399385.17/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00000-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.940655 | 233 | 2.890625 | 3 |
Tá cuntas uirthi ag Helena Bean Thomáis Uí Choncheanainn in The Poor Clares in Ireland A.D. 1629-A.D 1929, 1929, agus ag Nollaig Ó Muraile in The celebrated antiquary: Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh (c.1600-1671) : his lineage, life and learning, 1996. Ceannaí saibhir i gcathair na Gaillimhe ba ea a hathair; bhí sirriamacht an chontae le fáil aige ach é a bheith sásta Mionn an Ardcheannais a ghlacadh. Chuaigh sí isteach i Siúracha Bochta Naomh Clára i gclochar Bheithil in aice le Baile Átha Luain agus bhí ann go 1647 nuair a ceapadh í ina ban-ab i nGaillimh. Cheana féin bhí tosaithe ag beirt Fhroinsiasach ar bhunreacht agus cáipéisi eile a bhain leis an ord a aistriú go Gaeilge. Thug si léi as Clochar Bheithil go Gaillimh an chóip a rinne Michél Ó Cléirigh i 1636 dá raibh déanta acu. Bhí an chuid is mó gan aistriú go fóill agus ba í a chuir an Dubhaltach Mac Fhirbhisigh i mbun an ghnó. Ba é an toradh a bhí air ‘Riaghail ar Máthar Naomtha S. Clára ar na tionntúdh i ngaoidhilic as bérla ... 1636’ (in eagar ag Eleanor Knott in Ériu XV, 1948, faoin teideal ‘An Irish seventeenth-century translation of the Rule of St. Clare’). Deir Bean Uí Choncheanainn: ‘It is an additional proof of Mother Bonaventure’s keen interest in Irish to find that she had brought this MS. with her from Bethlehem.’ Cuireann Ó Muraíle leis sin: ‘It is also an interesting index of the status of the Irish language in a community whose members were drawn so predominantly from the Old English section of the Irish population ...’.
Nuair a ghéill Gaillimh d’arm na Parlaiminte i 1652 d’éalaigh na siúracha go dtí an Spáinn. D’éag sí ann roimh 1694 (cé go luaitear 1703 mar bhliain a báis freisin). Seo é an cur síos a rinneadh uirthi in annála an Oird i 1694: ‘She was prudent, wise and well-spoken in English, Irish and Spanish. She was the mirrour and looking glasse of the religious observance that belonged to her rule and statuts all her life time. She left a true chronicle written under her owne hand, which shee sent to this convent of Sainct Clare, Galway, and a Remonstance, a chalice, a holy curious relick, many pictures, books, ornaments, and other fine things fitting for the Altar and Divine Service. All the aforesaid things were lost and burnt in the late wars, 1691. She and her holy sister [Mother Catherine Bernard] made their profession in the year 1633.’ Deir Ó Muraíle: ‘She is said to have compiled “a huge work, in quarto, in the Irish language” – a rare achievement for a woman of that era.’
Máire Ní Mhurchú
|
<urn:uuid:06706df9-4534-4629-b9f6-e1842d3057c5>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.ainm.ie/Bio.aspx?ID=1296
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396872.10/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00197-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.663004 | 877 | 2.5625 | 3 |
Bubbles: Science in Soap
Visitors delight in experimenting with surface tension, concocting new ways to create a bubble, crafting a foam sculpture, and injecting a bubble with mist.
The Bubbles: Science in Soap exhibition includes:
Foam Fountains—Feel, scoop, hold, and form bubble foams.
Three foam stations encourage visitors to compare different-sized foams. The foams are surprisingly light because they are made up almost entirely of air, similar to the bubbles in a bubble bath, bubbles of shaving cream, or the bubbles you see when you’re washing the dishes. Foam is a collection of bubbles.
Bubble Domes—Experiment by filling bubbles with mist.
Hold the tip of the tube in the bubble solution to make a dome, or dip the tip of the tube in the bubble solution, then raise it up to make a bubble at the end of the tube.
Try inserting air or mist into a bubble, create a bubble city, or make a bubble inside a bubble. The two stations with six hoses invite collaboration and experimentation with others.
Giant Bubbles—Pull the hoop through the air to make a giant bubble.
Gently lift the hoop to make a soap film, and see if you can form a bubble over your head, or create interesting and unique shapes. Very large bubbles are tricky to make because the soap film has to stretch extra far. Giant bubbles are actually shaped by the air around them, so they aren’t always round.
Sheet of Soap—Discover the force of surface tension while experimenting with large soap films.
Pull the rope down to make a bubble sheet. As it’s stretched, notice the rainbow-like colors that indicate the changing thickness of the soap film. See what happens when you pop part of the sheet. The surface tension that holds the molecules of soap film together pulls the string outward when the film inside the loop is popped.
Bubble Booth—Get inside a three-sided bubble.
Surround yourself in a massive bubble and try talking with a friend on the other side, or see if you can push your hand right through the bubble “walls.” Try blowing on the sheet to change the shape of the film. The soap film will stretch, making a rounded bubble. If you blow on it just right, you can cause the bubble to break free of the sheet.
Blow a Bubble—Use the blowers or your breath to make a bubble, or wave the custom-designed wands in the air.
The two bubble stations each have three blower holes, providing plenty of opportunities to make lots and lots of bubbles and bubble clusters. Hold a wand over the blower to make a bubble. Use a wand with multiple holes to make bubble clusters. Experiment with different-shaped bubble wands and bubble-blowing techniques, and invent some bubble tricks of your own.
Bubble Dropper—Enjoy a whimsical bubble-art machine that drops bowling-ball-sized bubbles from the ceiling.
Wet your hands and try to catch the bubble as it drops, or gently blow on the falling bubble—aiming for the target. The projection screens show the turbulence of the bubble solution as a bubble is formed.
Soap Shapes—Explore the math of soap film formation as wire frames demonstrate how bubbles have a geometry all their own.
Use the three different wire frames to create soap film shapes that connect in surprising ways. Observe the shape of the soap film in each frame, and then pop a part of the film to see how the shape changes. Mathematicians use computers and formulas to predict the complex shapes of soap films. These unique shapes have inspired both architects and artists.
Bubble Recipe—Get information on how to mix the best bubble recipe and learn a little chemistry at the same time.
Take a recipe card home with you to make perfect bubbles and continue experimenting on your own. Find more information about bubble chemistry and bubble solution recipes at soapbubble.wikia.com.
Bubble Art—Take a closer look at the large wall panels for an expanded view of bubbles.
From bubble-inspired architecture and magic, to frozen bubbles, these images present a fresh take on the bubbles we see in our daily lives.
Bubbles: Science in Soap was made possible by donors to the David Goudy Discovery Fund.
|
<urn:uuid:711d8a63-f13d-48c9-a5a8-1dd3d3b3d4b2>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.montshire.org/exhibits/detail/bubbles
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00070-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.896764 | 915 | 3.734375 | 4 |
UNICEF contributes towards the protection of children from all forms of abuse, violence, exploitation and discrimination. By the year 2012, UNICEF in Sudan aims to have supported the establishment of wide-ranging policies and community-based services for children in conflict with the law, victims of violence, abuse and exploitation, children suffering discrimination and those without parental care.
Special focus is made on ensuring access to justice for children (including victims, offenders and witnesses), assistance to children associated with armed forces and groups, support for children without primary care-givers, the ending of harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation and early marriage, and the expansion of birth registration.
UNICEF also works with partners to develop new initiatives that better protect children's rights and welfare - including Child and Family Protection Units within the Sudanese police that provide quality health, psychosocial and legal services to women and children affected by crime and abuse, and the establishment of alternative family care programmes that reduce dependance upon institutional care for children deprived of parental support.
Children affected by armed conflict
Children associated with armed forces and groups are being supported through demobilization and reintegration programmes across Sudan. This work also includes the training of armed forces on child protection issues to reduce the risk of new or repeated recruitment of children.
UNICEF also supports mine risk education programmes, focusing particularly on internally displaced persons, returnees and children, often linked to the mainstream education system.
Policy, systems and capacity development
Much of UNICEF's activity focuses around ensuring that laws, policies and procedures are "child friendly" and in line with international standards. This includes support for review of legislation and assistance with drafting and finalisation of key laws such as the Armed Forces Act inSudan (which criminalises the recruitment of children into the armed forces).
UNICEF has launched a major communication campaign in the north of Sudan to raise awareness and understanding of issues including abandonment of babies, sexual and gender-based violence, children in contact with the law, female genital mutilation and cutting, child recruitment into armed forces and groups, and mine risk education.
|
<urn:uuid:5a9e176a-2e45-4ce1-b4fd-5636d85e35b8>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.unicef.org/sudan/protection_4251.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399428.8/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00056-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.950154 | 432 | 2.53125 | 3 |
Human Anatomy, Physiology, and Medicine. Anything human!
4 posts • Page 1 of 1
Most organisms don't eat salt [NaCl ] although they don't suffer from any deficiency.
Then is really required to eat the salt? When Did the humans begin to eat salt ?
I have heard of some elephants digging caves to eat some minerals which are really required , but I think we eat NaCl only for taste . What do you think?
I think as we are taking extra doses of salt and extra salt consumption is harmful .
Although no any harms are being observed [ atleast by me] . So, have we become
able to sustain the disadvantages of extra salt consumption in the course of time?
And if we find that extra salt consumption is not required and it is harming us , then would we stop taking extra salt doses ? Is it in our hands now?
well, I think the mammalians quite often eat some kind of minerals, just remember they get salt in the feeders in winter. We need both Na+ and Cl- e.g. for nerve impulses and they are excreted all the time. And I guess it's more convenient to get your bread salted than eat some stone
Cis or trans? That's what matters.
The reason why we like the taste of salt so much is probably the fact that during the evolutionary history humans often lacked sufficient amounts of salt, and thus "salty food" was a very good thing -> evolutionary good thing to like the taste of salt in food.
All mammals require salt in some form, and many eat it actively e.g. by licking salty minerals in the nature. Other organisms require Na+ and Cl- ions as well and they also have means to obtain them from their environment as well.
And no, (as a species) we have not had time to become able to sustain the disadvantages of eating too much salt: excess salt increases the blood pressure, which in turn causes circulatory problems over a long time (years or usually decades). Some people have naturally low blood pressure levels and thus can also sustain more salt in their food - perhaps they now have some kind of evolutionary advantage and in the future people have lower natural blood pressure. However, since high blood pressure exerts its harmful effects almost exclusively on humans that have already passed their reproductive age long ago, the evolutionary benefit of low blood pressure is likely to be small even if it increased the average life-span of those humans who posses that trait.
4 posts • Page 1 of 1
Who is online
Users browsing this forum: No registered users and 2 guests
|
<urn:uuid:7eddd086-1f70-4795-b54a-feb87146c20c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.biology-online.org/biology-forum/post-129708.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391519.0/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00009-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.969201 | 538 | 2.953125 | 3 |
Section 3. Local Production Starts in North America
Item 1. Negotiations with Ford
As the shift to compact cars accelerated following the second oil crisis in 1979, American automakers found themselves in a predicament, and economic tensions between Japan and the United States intensified.
At this time, Toyota Motor Corporation (TMC) was pressed to make a crucial decision concerning local production in the United States. Honda Motor Company announced in January 1980 that it would produce passenger cars in the U.S. state of Ohio, where it already had a motorcycle plant, and, in April, Nissan Motor Co., Ltd. adopted a plan to build a small truck plant in the state of Tennessee.
TMC was receiving offers of inducements to build a plant from numerous states, and in April 1980 it hired three Japanese and American research companies and began investigations for establishing operations in the United States. The results of the research ranged from suggesting that TMC should aggressively move to set up local production to warning that TMC should watch its steps very carefully. Determining whether such a venture would be profitable or not depended on what assumptions were used, and there was no definite conclusion provided that indicated local production would be beneficial.
As the investigations proceeded, TMC began to form a concrete plan for starting local production. The plan was based on joint production of passenger cars with Ford Motor Company (Ford). In May 1980, Toyota Motor Co., Ltd. President Eiji Toyoda sent a personal letter proposing joint production to Ford President Donald Petersen. President Toyoda had determined that industrial cooperation between Japan and the United States through the joint development and production of a compact car would support the restoration of the American automobile industry, which had fallen on hard times. One of the reasons Ford was selected as Toyota's candidate partner was because Toyota had learned much from Ford in the past.
President Petersen visited Japan in June 1980 and met with senior managers at the Toyota Motor Co., Ltd. head office to start full-fledged negotiations. Toyota proposed that a new model under development to be sold as the Camry be manufactured at a Ford Plant and sold through both companies' sales channels. However, this model would be in competition with a new compact car that Ford was developing, so this proposal was discarded. Toyota next proposed a passenger car somewhat smaller than the Camry, but Ford determined that this model too would compete against a vehicle that it planned to develop, and the negotiations came to an impasse.
Later, Ford developed an interest in the marketability of the Toyota Townace van, and agreement was tentatively reached in March 1981 on joint production of a passenger van based on the Townace. However, when Ford conducted a product clinic to solicit customer opinions of the vehicle, the assessments were not entirely positive, with some saying that the vehicle was too small to be a successor vehicle to Ford's Econoline van series, so this proposal too came to nothing.
Ultimately, the inability to reach agreement on the vehicle was the decisive cause of the negotiations breaking down. The companies confirmed the conclusion of the negotiations in July 1981.
|
<urn:uuid:d8544f7a-ee47-4f59-b259-41ebe3612b73>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.toyota-global.com/company/history_of_toyota/75years/text/leaping_forward_as_a_global_corporation/chapter1/section3/item1.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00105-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.976948 | 622 | 2.984375 | 3 |
Nationalism Rises in Northeast Asia
Since the end of the 20th century Northeast Asia has emerged as a central force in globalization of the world. But the specter of rising nationalism in the area now threatens to undo the gains that global interdependence has brought to the region and to the world.
"The most important strategic choice the Chinese made was to embrace economic globalization rather than detach themselves from it," wrote leading Chinese reformer and economist Zheng Bijian in his seminal article for Foreign Affairs, "China's Peaceful Rise," in October 2005, a reference to the reform program launched in the late 1970s by Deng Xiaoping. The speed, intensity and breadth of that embrace have transformed the planet.
The first country in Northeast Asia that recognized the imperative of "embracing globalization" was Japan in the late 19th century. Detached in the 1930s, by the 1950s and 1960s Japan was reengaged with the global market economy, providing low-cost, high-quality goods and building up well-known global brands.
Then followed South Korea, which under military dictator Park Chung-hee, 1961 to 1979, embarked on a highly successful export-driven growth strategy. South Korea is the only sizeable developing nation to have risen from deep poverty to first world prosperity.
Today, China, Japan and Korea, respectively the world's second, third and eleventh biggest economies, are significant global economic powers. Collectively they reflect one of the profoundest changes in the 21st century global economy: the emergence of global supply chains. The Apple iPhone, iPod or iPad may be American designs and brands assembled by a Taiwanese company in China, hence labeled "assembled in China," but the devices also contain vital parts, components and technological knowhow from Korea, Japan and many other countries. Billions of consumers worldwide depend on and benefit from products emanating from the Northeast Asian-based supply-chain.
Similarly, the economic growth of many countries, such as Australia, Mozambique and Peru, is driven primarily from supplying commodities to China, including for the manufacture of products in the supply chains.
China, Japan and Korea are one another's major trade and investment partners. Japan has been engaged in outward foreign investments since the 1970s, Korea especially since the late 1990s and more recently China has launched what it calls its "going out" strategy. Thus millions of jobs globally are generated by internationalizing Northeast Asian firms. Similarly while Japan has been a significant source of overseas aid for developing countries for the last three decades, more recently South Korea has gone from being a recipient to a donor, while China since 2009 has provided more loans to Africa than the World Bank, and in Central and South America the China Development Bank has given more aid than the Inter-American Development Bank, the Andean regional bank and the World Bank combined.
While the Chinese, Japanese and Korean economies differ in some respects, they also have strong resemblances. Clearly, industrializing Japan provided a "demonstration effect." The Korean economic structure bears certain similarities with Japan, notably in, for example, the predominance of large conglomerates, with the Korean chaebol modeled on the Japanese zaibatsu, subsequently known askeiretsu. In launching the reforms in China in the late 1970s Deng urged his countrymen to "learn from Japan." China, Japan and Korea are also Confucian societies, which scholars suggest accounts at least, in part, for the strong emphasis all three have given to education, widely believed to be a powerful driving force in the countries' respective economic development.
China, Japan and Korea individually and collectively through the supply chain greatly depend on the global market economy, while the global market economy greatly depends, and increasingly so, on the Northeast Asian economic powers individually and collectively.
In that context there is a problem, indeed a cause for alarm. While China, Japan and South Korea may have embraced economic globalization, they have emphatically not embraced one another. Occasional attempts at patching old wounds up notwithstanding, the Northeast Asian powers display a tremendous lack of trust. This mistrust can generate what is at times profound hatred manifested in outbursts of violent nationalism and xenophobia.
For the Chinese and Koreans, the suspicions and nationalism are directed against Japan because of past actions for which it has not, they argue, atoned, and currently manifested in acute territorial disputes in the East China Sea. These disputes have escalated in recent months; alarm bells are ringing throughout much of East Asia, especially in respect to the Sino-Japanese confrontation. In reaction, strong anti-Chinese and anti-Korean nationalism has re-emerged in Japan, in good part driven by overt collective amnesia and negation about past atrocities. Recently elected Japanese Prime Minister Abe Shinzo, whose grandfather Kishi Nobusuke served in the wartime cabinet of Tojo Hideki, for example, denies, despite overwhelming evidence, that the Japanese engaged in sexual slavery during World War Two in Korea or elsewhere.
In South Korea there is the legacy of China's role in the Korean War and support, even if ambivalent, of the regime in Pyongyang. Japan and Korea worry more about China's future goals.
This anxiety, it must be stressed, is not a Northeast Asian monopoly. Countries in Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines and Vietnam, also worry about China's apparent nationalist territorial expansion, and India looks upon China's ambitions suspiciously. China's "peaceful rise" would appear to be a distant, forlorn dream. Reality is more brutal and ugly. Nationalism is a powerful Chinese political force.
From the viewpoint of global economic interdependence, it is the three economic juggernauts and their collective impact on the global economy through the global supply chain that matters most. Today it must be recognized that while the embrace of globalization have generated great prosperity for all three countries - in stark contrast to North Korea which still rejects globalization and interdependence - by no means has it ensured trust, let alone peace.
While history does not repeat itself and comparisons are, by definition, odious, it is difficult not to draw parallels between Northeast Asia in the early 21st century and Europe in the first half of the 20th. It's probably the case that if the economy seriously deteriorated, as it did in the 1930s, that this would exacerbate nationalist tensions between the Northeast Asian powers, but it is not at all obvious that if the economic situation were to considerably improve, especially in Japan, that this would diffuse nationalist tensions. Economics alone, it seems, cannot trump emotions.
Whereas Chinese, Japanese and Korean tourists once flocked to one another's countries, there has been recently a significant decrease in traffic. Furthermore, while the "pop-scene," encompassing Canto-pop, Mando-pop, J-pop and K-pop, created an increasingly united Northeast Asian regional musical space, nationalist backlashes have also arisen; the Japanese NHK popular new year song festival has this year eliminated Korean singers. That is ominous.
As the forces of xenophobia are irrational, it is difficult to know what measures need to be taken beyond banal platitudes. Perhaps the first step is for the international community to recognize the perilousness of Northeast Asian geopolitics. If the fuse goes off on the Northeast Asia powder keg, the consequences will be immediate, global and dramatic. If, on the other hand, global governance would improve, so might governance in Northeast Asia.
|
<urn:uuid:d4ceab49-103a-4c17-8016-dd6eaffe85a3>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.realclearworld.com/articles/2013/01/07/nationalism_rises_in_northeast_asia_100455-2.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783408840.13/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155008-00016-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.949083 | 1,520 | 2.546875 | 3 |
Caldey Abbey was built in 1910 by Anglican Benedictine
monks who came to the Island in 1906. Under the direction
of Abbot Aelred Carlyle, the building was designed by Penarth
architect John Coates-Carter in traditional Italianate style.
of its unusual design, Caldey Abbey has received
much attention in recent years and is now a grade
II* listed building.
The Anglican Community
converted to Roman Catholicism in 1913 and sold the Abbey to monks of the Cistercian Order in 1926. They took up residence in 1929 and still
occupy Caldey Abbey today.
The Abbey Church
(above & below) has a beautiful simplicity
befitting its purpose as a place of prayer for
The Refectory (left) where the monks have their
communal meals is an imposing oak panelled hall
with a fine timbered roof.
The Cloister (left) is a
place of silence and quiet contemplation set
around a central garden known as the cloister
|
<urn:uuid:2657c5d1-6e2e-4b0f-8ba5-557826c6cf32>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.caldey-island.co.uk/caldey%20abbey.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397797.77/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00032-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.962223 | 216 | 2.71875 | 3 |
After the Civil War, herds of Texas cattle were driven north to marketing points in eastern Nebraska, but settlement by homesteaders forced the trail further west each year. Beginning in 1875, Union Pacific selected Ogallala as its main shipping point. During the following decade, thousands of longhorn cattle were trailed through Perkins County, in the vicinity of this marker.
Beginning in Texas the trail turned northward through the Indian Territory into western Kansas. From Dodge City on the Arkansas River, the trail continued to Buffalo Station, Kansas, entering Nebraska in Hitchcock County. The hardest day's drive for the trail-weary men and cattle was the 30 miles from the head of Stinking Water Creek in southeast Perkins County to Ogallala on the South Platte; it was the longest and driest drive of the trip.
In 1876 over 60,000 Texas cattle were driven over the trail,
and between 1879 and 1884 over 100,000 cattle made the trip each
year, with the last great drive occurring in 1884. Due to settlement
in the counties to the south, as well as in Perkins County,
the last drives were made through the western part of the county.
Perkins County Historical Society
Nebraska State Historical Society
Nebr. 61, east of Madrid
|
<urn:uuid:c2c59a4e-9115-4108-bb97-95276eb9c8de>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.nebraskahistory.org/publish/markers/texts/texas_trail.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393463.1/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00064-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.970288 | 265 | 3.515625 | 4 |
Sancti Spíritus province, located almost exactly in the middle of the island, is one of Cuba's main tourist attractions. The province is also an important contributor to Cuba's sugarcane production, with wide fertile valleys and a moist climate. The province's capital city, Sancti Spíritus, is one of the original seven cities founded by the Spanish when they came across the island.
Tourists are attracted to Sancti Spíritus for more than the usual reasons. While its southern coast does feature some of the most stunningly beautiful beaches on the island, Sancti Spíritus also attracts a fair number of foreigners for its numerous historic sites. Much of the tourist traffic heads south through the province, admiring the landscapes and wildlife. The province's single greatest tourist attraction is probably the city of Trinidad. Unlike many other colonial cities in Cuba, Trinidad has been exceptionally well maintained and provides a visitors with a rich experience of what colonial life under the Spanish must have been like.
The province's geography is primarily small foothills, with narrow plains running along both the northern and southern coasts.
|
<urn:uuid:6a971441-e130-40e0-b392-89201446692c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.schoolnet.org.za/PILAfrica/en/webs/18355/sancti_spiritus_province.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397749.89/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00006-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.957167 | 228 | 2.546875 | 3 |
As household pets go, it’s probably fair to say that the lives of fish are among the least active, and the creatures can rarely be described as adventurous. Even their homes are a term synonymous with being couped up. But thanks to the wonderful folks at Studio diip, at least one goldfish has a new lease on life. The little aquatic vertebrate is free to drive his own motorized aquarium around, getting the stimulation and exercise missing from the lives of so many household fish. Hit the jump to watch the video!
Lest you think this is all some kind of prank, the fish is actually—well, sort of—driving the aquarium. Dutch digital imaging group Studio diip developed this “fish on wheels” by placing an aquarium atop an Arduino-controlled robot car, and then affixing a webcam to the top of it. The contrast between the fish and its environs is used to determine which direction the fish is swimming, and that information is sent to the Arduino to steer the car.
And as easily as that, the studio created what they have called the world’s “first self-driving car for fish,” in the hope that they will “encourage more development in enhanced pet mobility, so pet animals can travel the world more freely.” That, and it’s a fish driving a car.
|
<urn:uuid:e3a27b51-06e2-46ca-b4da-e1365aab90ff>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://inhabitat.com/this-fish-is-driving-his-very-own-aquarium-on-wheels-sort-of/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397865.91/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00019-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.969485 | 284 | 2.921875 | 3 |
Large numbers of ubiquitin molecules can be attached in sequence to proteins. A certain kind of binding marks this protein as "rubbish" which has to be removed. Another type of ubiquitin attachment to proteins functions as a kind of transport signal. It negotiates the transfer, for example, of proteins into the nucleus. The study shows that this is the case with Bcl-3. It only functions like this, however, when Cyld does not get in the way. This protein was first found in patients suffering from cylindromas. These are tumours that grow on the face, neck, and scalp. Cyld is a deubiquitinase - an enzyme that removes ubiquitin groups from other proteins. "We could show in our study that Cyld proteins can accumulate around the nucleus," says Fässler. "They can intercept Bcl-3 there and prevent it from being imported into the nucleus, by removing ubiquitin appendages." This is the first evidence ever of a specific mechanism that regulates and controls the Bcl-3 oncogene.
The team of researchers from Munich flawlessly reconstructed Cyld interaction with Bcl-3. They demonstrated every step in the process, from the recruiting of Cyld over to the nuclear membrane, to the ubiquitinisation of Bcl-3, and Cyld's reversal of this process. They also showed in detail that Bcl-3 collects without Cyld in the nucleus, and can cause cell proliferation with p50 and p52. All in all, it seems not unlikely that Cyld functions as a tumour suppressor in mice and in humans. In humans, there is evidence that a defective Cyld gene can have negative consequences, like the largely benign tumours of cylindromas. The researchers also found very little, or no, Cyld in the cells of other skin tumours. The situation is similar in some cases of liver, kidney, and uterine cancer. "Cyld is expressed in every cell in the body", Fässler says. "I believe personally that the deubiquitinase activit
Contact: Eva-Maria Diehl
|
<urn:uuid:46535318-1642-4d36-ab95-e27df9ebb17e>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://news.bio-medicine.org/biology-news-3/A-tumour-suppressor-in-mice-and-men-6605-2/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404405.88/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00033-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.940216 | 444 | 2.765625 | 3 |
Definitions for early warning system
This page provides all possible meanings and translations of the word early warning system
early warning system(noun)
a network of radar installations designed to detect enemy missiles or aircraft while there is still time to intercept them
The numerical value of early warning system in Chaldean Numerology is: 1
The numerical value of early warning system in Pythagorean Numerology is: 5
Sample Sentences & Example Usage
History is a vast early warning system.
This is the most affordable and the most direct way for the Mexican public to connect to the early warning system.
Art at its most significant is a distant early warning system that can always be relied on to tell the old culture what is beginning to happen.
OWL is the early warning system for the darknet — we watch what is happening 24/7, and can alert companies and consumers to the presence of their data, IP, goods, and confidential information being online—often before it is exploited before the bad guys, we believe OWL's database of darknet content is the largest in the world outside the federal government.
Images & Illustrations of early warning system
Find a translation for the early warning system definition in other languages:
Select another language:
Discuss these early warning system definitions with the community:
Word of the Day
Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily?
Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography:
"early warning system." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2016. Web. 28 Jun 2016. <http://www.definitions.net/definition/early warning system>.
|
<urn:uuid:dfc5be7d-514b-4c5e-afbc-22579c992d67>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.definitions.net/definition/early%20warning%20system
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396887.54/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00072-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.841709 | 347 | 2.53125 | 3 |
I. What is a contract?
a. A Promise that the law will enforce
b. Law won’t enforce:
i. Promises for gifts
ii. Against public policy (illegal)
iii. Illusory promises (promisor’s future is not bound by the statement – I promise to sell it to you if I want to.)
1. if you limit your future though, (If I buy the car, I’ll loan it to you) could be an enforceable promise
2. If the promisor has alternatives, it’s not necessarily illusory (If I buy the car, I’ll loan it to you or your cousin)
c. Bilateral contract
i. Promise exchanged for a promise
ii. I promise to give you my car if you promise to pay me $500.
d. Unilateral contract
i. Only a promise on once side, that promise is answered by an act or a forbearance to act (if you do not do something), not a promise to perform.
ii. I’ll pay you 10 if you mow my lawn.
i. If the contract involves a transaction in goods the UCC is the governing principal
ii. If not involving goods, it’s the common law
iii. Art. II(a) – transactions of leases of goods
II. When does the contract begin?
a. When there is a definite and clear offer, a contract comes into existence
b. If a manifestation has been made (handshake, signature) and the offer has been accepted, it is too late for one party unilaterally to change the agreement w/o the agreement of the other
i. This rule is always broken for some reason.
a. Intentional statement by the offeror that creates in the mind of the offeree the reasonable expectation that the offeror intended to get into a contract.
b. Things that don’t intend offers bound by contractual liability
i. Social situations (I’ll offer to make dinner tomorrow night)
ii. Marital situation (promises to take out the trash, etc)
1. if they enter into some kind of commercial venture, they can enforce the thing
iii. Gentlemen’s agreement
1. Even in a commercial situation, promisor and promise can Agree that promises have no legal enforceability
1. Don’t usually make contracts
2. Dr. says “You should be well in no time.”
c. Offer must be definite enough that we know what the contract is about
i. UCC 2-204 test if an offer is sufficiently definite
1. Did the parties intend to have a contract?
2. If yes, can the court fashion a remedy?
3. UCC allows gap filling for elliptical promises in commerce
a. Ex. if the K leaves out price, reasonable price is put in
b. If the place of delivery is left out, Seller’s place of delivery is assumed
c. If time is left out, reasonable time is presumed
4. Construction terms
a. Usage of trade
i. §1-205 Custom w/in the industry
ii. Determine how to fix contracts based on how other people do it in industry
b. Course of dealing
i. If parties dealt In the past – history then forms the course of dealing – base issue of contract on that dealing.
c. Course of performance
i. §2-208 – what parties do in performing this one K
ii. Especially used in installment K’s
iii. This was called practical construction at common law
iv. Even if the course of performance deviate from the express K, they can trump the terms of the K
ii. Preliminary Negotiations
1. Don’t want to create legal liability in negotiations
2. Courts are loath to let people out of contrats but are slow to admit they are in contracts
1. Mere solicitations for K’s and tough to enforce
2. Usually there is too much to be negotiated
3. Usually, the Buyer makes the offer
4. They can, however, be contracts in a first come first serve issues so long as a price and quantity is also listed (the black stoal)
iv. If parties agree on K but havn’t actually signed the K?
1. Look at intent and factors like were the parties supposed to perform prior to signing the contract?
a. If so, the courts will usually find that there was a K to protect the reliance interest
i. The reliance interest is where the party is acting such that it is to his detriment if the K is not fulfilled
b. If not, then the parties can feel free to back out
v. UCC Art II is to transactions of goods and bailment’s
1. bailment is where the goods are handed to a bailor for holding
2. goods are defined as objects that are movable
3. This, then excludes transactions in real property (home land) or contracts for services.
5. Mixtures – courts tend to ask which predominates?
a. Ex.: patron goes to beauty salon and a product put on the hair eats the ear
b. Really portends to what the court likes.
c. Is the Sale of Software the sale of goods?
i. Initially it was that they were intangibles
ii. Now people are saying UCC does apply to software
1. It’s bought as a package in a store
2. Lawyers like UCC
3. Court uses UCC by analogy
iii. Statute for sale of software UCITA
1. statute is unpopular b/c it has no protection of consumers – hasn’t been adopted.
6. Merchants don’t have to be involved
a. It is the sale of goods that is important
b. Merchants, though do have some special UCC rules that apply to it.
1. People who either deals with this good or in the practice on a regular basis; or
2. Should, by virtue of his/her profession, be held to that standard; or
3. He or she employs an agent, who should be held to that standard.
a. Often are not held to merchant standards because they are viewed as dumb
b. Lately, today’s farmer is smarter so courts are now holding them to merchant standards – they look at the expertise of the farmer
d. Termination of the offer
i. Offer lasts as long as it states as it is to last
ii. In the mean time, it is subject to revocation
1. Offoror can revoke the offer by giving notice to the offeree prior to the offeree’s acceptance of the offer.
a. This notice can be any true information that is inconsistent with the offeror’s continued intent to keep the offer on the table.
b. Ex. If while the offer is extended, the offeror makes the K with a third party, there is sufficient notice to the original offeree that the offer has been revoked.
2. The courts allow this except in the case of an option contract
3. Once revoked, the acceptance power is gone.
4. Extra consideration
a. If a separate consideration has been given to hold the offer open for a specific period of time this is now called and Option contract
i. A separate consideration or payment has been given to keep the offer open for an extended period of time.
ii. During that time, the offer is not revocable.
5. §2-205 Firm offer rule
a. If a merchant has made a signed statement that the offer will be held open, it is not revocable for as long as the statement says, but never longer than 3 months.
6. Unilateral contract
If I offer you $1000 to walk across the
ii. §45 of R1K says NO – once the oferee begins performance, the offeror’s power of revocation is gone for a reasonable time to see if full performance will be achieved.
7. Reliance on the offer
a. Can keep it from being revocable
b. Any time there is foreseeable detrimental reliance on an offer, the doctrine of promissory estoppel makes the offer binding.
c. Estoppel is a legal gag
i. You can’t bring anything up in a legal context
ii. The promissory is estopped from backing out of the offer
d. This happens in contracting and sub-contracting issues.
8. Stated time of Offer
a. If the offer is to remain open for an agreed time, it remains open for that reasonable time
b. If time is not made clear, it is open for a reasonable amount of time
i. If in a face to face/telephone conversation, the offer is revoked by the termination of the conversation
ii. In Rewards
1. The offer is open, reasonably (the purpose of the offer is fulfilled etc…
c. Death of the offeror or declared incompetence destroys ofer
a. Destroys power of acceptance.
a. Implied rejection, destroys power of acceptance
b. In option, however, counteroffer’s don’t really destroy acceptance unless there is reliance
c. Mere inquiry rule
i. I’ll sell you the tie for $10 (you ask if you would consider $5) as long as it’s merely an inquiry, you can still count on the original offer.
i. Announced intention of the offeree to accept the offer
ii. Can be done by conduct
iii. Performance will conotate an acceptance unless offeror has requested a formal promise.
b. §2-206 Offer is construed as inviting acceptance in any reasonable manner including shipping goods
i. Ex. You say “reply by return mail” and you email it back
ii. Court asks, “What would a reasonable person have thought that to mean?”
c. Mirror image rule
i. Acceptance has to look like the offer
ii. If the acceptance tries to add new terms, it becomes a counter offer.
iii. In business deals this brings trouble
1. Often exchanges of forms in the sending and receiving of goods, if the seller’s acknowledgement is not exactly like the buyer’s purchase order, it is viewed as a counteroffer and the performance makes the contract.
iv. §2-207 Battle of forms provision
1. an acceptance that purports to be an acceptance is an acceptance even if it changes the terms slightly, unless it requires express agreement to the new terms. Then it would be a mere counter offer.
2. A proviso clause is clause that requires agreement to the new terms and thus, the acceptance becomes a counter offer.
3. If they are not merchants, the new terms are merely proposals for addition to the contract that must be agreed to either by action or words.
4. If both parties are merchants: new terms become bart of the contract unless:
a. Buyer objects to the new terms (they are out of the contract)
b. Objection could be initially or after the new clauses were there.
c. if the new clauses would materially alter the original offer, the new terms aren’t part of it
5. Terms that would result in hardship or material alteration
a. Disclaimer of warranties
b. Arbitration clause
c. These are merely stricken from the contract, The rest of the acceptance are still a legit acceptance
6. If the parties perform, the contract exists and the new clauses are allowed.
7. Use of proviso gets to subsection 3 – non use of proviso goes to subsection 2 (battle of forms)
i. If you pick up an object on the shelf, the offer is the placing of the object on the shelf, and the acceptance is the buyer taking the object off the shelf.
1. by custom, he is free to put it back on the shelf, but for all intents and purposes, the contract is made.
2. If the product malfunctions prior to the buyer’s paying for it
i. Typically not acceptance unless there is a duty to speak
ii. If the past dealings, it is reasonable for a person to speak up if he’s not obliged to
1. this is with mail order – CL says if you keep it and use it, you have accepted
2. 1970 code – unsolicited mail orders are a gift and don’t need to be returned.
1. if true unilateral contract, acceptance is not until you complete b/c you have made no promise
iv. If you are a contractor building a house, and go halfway and stop. If this doesn’t feel right, it’s a bilateral contract where the building of the house is an implied promise.
1. Bilateral contracts protect both parties and are made quicker, courts, then like them.
1. seller got a late acceptance and didn’t say anything.- was there a contract?
a. Offeror said no, the acceptance was late
b. Late acceptance was a new offer which original offeror accepted with his silence
2. Failure to object ot a late acceptance is an acceptance of that late acceptance as if it were an offer.
i. Buyer’s motive in acceptance doesn’t destroy power of acceptance
ii. Reward offer for info leading to murderer’s capture
1. woman is dying and was trying to clear her conscience and gave the info.
2. She recovered and wanted the reward money. Courts said, we won’t look at motive, only the requisite act.
iii. You have to know of the reward to claim the reward.
1. if you don’t know of the offer, you can’t make an acceptance.
2. If you’re a government offering a reward, the acceptor doesn’t have to know of the offer before acceptancing.
g. Mail Box Rule
i. The acceptance is the instance it goes into the mail
1. Option K’s – if offeree has paid separate option to keep offer option, the acceptance must be received during option period
2. Seller in original offer demands receipt as condition of the contract.
iii. If the offeree mails the acceptance and phones a rejection, the rejection is ineffective b/c the mail box rule.
1. If the offeree mails the rejection then the acceptance, they protect the innocent parties.
i. Auctioneer is soliciting bids, the audience is the offeror, the auctioneer is the offeree
ii. The offeror, then, can retract a bid before the gavel hits (when the auctioneer accepts) by announcing to do so, then the auction must start over.
iii. Auctions with reserve
1. seller reserves the right to stop the auction if the auctioneer doesn’t like the amount (too low)
i. What ever the promise is exchanged for, the exchange that goes on necessary to creation of the contract
b. Sufficient consideration
i. That which is exchanged for the promise must be a benifit to the promisor and a detriment to the promisee
ii. I sell you car for $500, it benefits me to get $500, detriment to lose the car.
1. If you don’t do certain things, I’ll give you a certain amount of money.
2. Paying promisee to forbear from doing bad things (their detriment is them not doing something they had a legal right to do)
3. Benefit to the promisor (he got to control the promisee’s lifestyle)
c. Consideration must be exchanged
i. Hypo: I get into a surety for a person, is there any benefit for me?
ii. The detriment to the promisee (the person who credited the money) is enough – surety’s don’t get to argue consideration
i. Sufficiency is that which is exchanged must have some value in the eyes of the law – some legal value
ii. Adequacy is how much was exchanged
1. the Law will not question the adequacy, only the sufficiency
iii. What has legal value sufficient for consideration?
1. Love and affection has NO value in the eyes of the law
a. Offer $500 to love me – can’t do it, promises to make a gift would be unenforceable
2. Something must be truly exchanged
a. Voodoo is not sufficient consideration (nothing was exchanged)
3. Sale of Ideas where the idea is obvious
a. Man wants profits to give idea to company, his idea, then, is raise prices – you can’t sell obvious ideas
iv. “How much” usually isn’t asked (don’t police bargains)
1. If contract is uncontionable, the courts won’t enforce
a. you will buy jalopy for 100,000
2. A fungable exchange
a. Fungable - Objects you can mix up and not care if you get back the original (ex: grain, money)
b. I’ll give you $50 now for $500 – can’t do it unless there’s time value (like a loan)
c. Courts will allow option contracts to be sold for very small amount
v. Forbearance is sufficient consideration
1. Forbearance to exercise a valid lawsuit (baby daddy) is fine, if the lawsuit is not real however, there is no sufficient consideration.
2. the CL is if the woman had a good – faith belief that he was father, then it was ok though
3. A creditor comes to the door and Sarah answers, she says if you promise to forbare from collecting this debt for 1 year, I’ll pay it at the end, the creditor says nothing and leaves. 1 year passes and he comes to collect, she says that she was lookding for a promise to forbear, not performance, the court sided with her (she was looking for peace of mind)
vi. Illusory promise is not sufficient, but requirement or necessity contracts do
1. Can’t though – I promise to sell you all that you want to buy from me – no quantity
vii. Past- consideration
1. Has no legal value – must be recent consideration
viii. Moral-Obligation of past consideration
1. Girl taken care of by her aunt – she becomes an adult and the aunt asks her for help. The girl then signs a contract to help the aunt. She does not and the aunt dies. The girl wasn’t responsible b/c the consideration happened too far in the past.
2. Some courts will say that the relief from moral obligation can be sufficient consideration, most will say that it’s not sufficient.
3. A promise by one who was an infant, makes a contract, and then upon 18 reaffirms his debt – that is enforceable.
4. A promise to pay a debt barred by the running of statute of limitations – this is enforceable as well
a. Sometimes the act of making a payment on an old debt is enough to revive the entire debt – unless the payment specifically says, “this is all that will be paid”
5. Where there is obvious benefit to promise but it happened in the past so it’s not really exchanged
a. Man saves another’s life, and cripples himself in the process
b. The person he saved then promised him to pay for all his injuries (problem here, the promise was made after the performance – the saving of his life)
c. Courts, though, may be nice and allow this.
6. Car brakes down and garage fixes the car w/o discussion of the payment, then later, the person comes and says, I’ll pay you now for it.
a. This isn’t really quibbiled with b/c there was understanding that the garage fixing it was going to be for pay and was kinda a credit situation
b. It is called a quasi-contract situation.
ix. Pre-Existing Duty Rule
1. If one has a pre-existing duty, there is no consideration for a new contract to do the same thing.
a. If you offer a reward for felon’s capture – you can’t allow the police officer to collect the reward. – even if it happens on his day off.
b. There is PP in preventing officials from accepting rewards for doing their job.
2. Modification of a pre-existing duty
a. If there is simply more money for same job, there is no extra consideration.
i. PP - don’t want to reward extortion.
ii. If, however, there is unforeseen difficulty in a pre-existing duty, sometimes the court will allow additional fees for the same job.
b. If, you don’t give full-payment and forgive the rest, it often is not acceptable in courts b/c there is also a pre-existing duty to pay in full, and the new sum doesn’t have sufficient consideration.
i. Courts have way around this though, if there is a legit dispute as to amount due, the compromise is called an accord and satisfaction.
ii. Idea here is that it isn’t common sense to not accept anything at all.
3. UCC – no consideration needed to modify the contract of a sale of goods – it just allows modifications (unless they are substantial modifications)
x. Payment-in-Full checks
1. If you have a good faith dispute and a good faith effort to solve it. (this is another form of accord and satisfaction)
a. (you bought something and had to pay to get it to work, you can deduct the costs of the services needed and pay with a payment in full tendered check w/ not of why that small amount is the payment in full.
2. UCC – Doesn’t allow the payee to cross out the payment in full check to cross out the language, write cashed under protest to avoid accord and satisfaction and cash the check.
a. – If the person cashes the check, usually that means you are just fine.
b. UNLESS – the company who cashed the check is some big bureaucracy like sears and refunds the money in 90 days –
c. If there is a legal dispute, and the money isn’t refunded in 90 days, the dispute is over.
VI. Promissory Estoppel
a. Estoppel is a legal gag
i. Forseeable detrimental reliance, of a substantial nature no the promise
ii. The promise is enforced b/c other wise injustice would be done.
c. In Charities
i. There is no proof of reliance necessary – promises to charities are always enforceable.
ii. If it were for the law school, however, there would have to be proof of reliance – the rule only works for charities.
d. Cases where doctrine comdes up
i. Promises to obtain insurances
1. we bought boat, you promised to get insurance, I rely on it, you didn’t get insurance, the boat sinks, you are now responsible for the amount of the boat.
e. Problem w/ PE – you are confessing that there is something legally wrong w/ the original contract.
i. Shouldn’t be the first line of attack
f. Courts have curtailed the damages
i. Ex: Man trying to obtain Randalls store franchise, Randalls req’s him to sell his bakery, for 1 summer run a small town grocer to see if you can do it, buy land, borrow money, get your father in law to kick in money as gift – Man saw that they were just upping the ante so he quit and sued
1. Since he relied on the success of the venture, much to his detriment – the courts allowed a case to be brought on promissory estoppel – the first where it wasn’t a shield, it was a sword.
2. Lost profits, though, you really can’t allow in PE cases, you get you’re out of pocket expenses.
VII. Statute of Frauds
a. To prevent against fraud and perjury: Certain agreements have to be in writing.
b. Writing must contain:
i. A signature by the person to be sued, but doesn’t need the plaintiff (he affirms when he sues on it.)
ii. Must contain all of the terms of the agreement, doesn’t need be in one writing – can be in different writings and the court can tack them together as long as:
1. the writings must include all the essentials elements
2. one must be signed by the person being sued
3. they must all refer to each other so we can see that they naturally belong together.
c. Attacking integrity of the writing: If client signed the writing, but the client wants to get out of it. Ask them, what was left out of the written contract that you had agreed too? You get in the evidence that there was something agreed to that was left out of the contract, now you have a statute of frauds defense.
d. What kinds of K’s need writing
i. Promises by executors or administrators to answer debts of estate out of own personal pocket.
ii. Promises of a surety--Promises to answer for the debt of another
1. Ways around the SofF’s for surety’s
a. A surety is if one does not pay his debt, the debt goes to me. If I am paying the amount he owes, but he is not the primary obligor, just a 3rd party beneficiary, there is no SoF situation.
b. The promise that must be in writing for surety must be the promise between the creditor and the guarantor, not between the guarantor and the principal.
c. Main Purpose rule—Leading object rule – if the object of the surety is not to help the principal, but to further the guarantor’s interests, it really doesn’t need to be in writing.
iii. Promises in consideration of marriage.
1. Two people being married, I promise them I’ll give them a wedding gift. – This must be in writing to be enforceable.
2. Promise of one fiancée to another to get married is not required to be in writing, but it is actionable. – in many jurisdictions, however, they are outlawed.
iv. Contracts in any interest of real property
1. Sales, mortgages or leases of land must be in writing.
2. Some states have special statutes for oral leases
3. Licenses to use land are not covered by SoF.
v. Promises that cannot be performed w/in one year.
1. Long term contracts have to be in writing.
2. If it’s one year and a day, though, the courts tend to ignore one day problems.
a. Most states have time statutes (which dates to count, etc.)
3. Writing doesn’t have to be the contract, just evidence of the contract.
4. If contract might naturally terminate w/in the year’s period, doesn’t need to be in writing.
vi. UCC – K’s for sale of goods over $500 must be in writing
1. Leases of goods must be over $1,000
vii. Quantity is the only complete necessary element that must be included in a written contract
1. basically everything else can be inferred from other evidence.
e. Statutes of Fraud exceptions
1. Any mark denoting signature is good. (even initials are ok)
ii. Times when no writing is required.
1. Special manufacturing exception
a. If goods are specially manufactured by seller for the buyer and there will be no market for them, then no writing is necessary
2. Admissions exception
a. Admission of a quantity that’s part of pleadings testimony is enforceable. Then no writing is necessary
3. Part performance exception
a. If goods have been paid for, or goods have been accepted up to the amount paid for or accepted, we can assume there was a K.
i. If it’s a down payment on an item, the seller tries to get out of the K, the courts have said that a down payment on an indivisible item is sufficient to not involve the statute of frauds.
4. Merchants confirmation rule
a. If two merchants deal together orally and negotiate out deal. A letter is sent confirming the deal and signs it. If the merchant receives the letter and does not object to the terms, he loses his statute of frauds defense.
i. The terms of the contract can still be at issue, but the statute of frauds defense is relinquished.
iii. A modification of the writing
1. Unless the contract, as modified, is no longer covered by the statute of frauds, any modification must be also in writing.
iv. Mitigating Doctries where there is no requirement in writing.
1. if there has already been full performance – there obviously was a contract.
2. Estoppel to get around the statute of frauds.
a. If you tell someone you signed the K and didn’t, you are estopped from using that defense in the lawsuit.
b. Opinions of experts (attorneys) that a K was not supposed to be in writing and it’s relied upon, the courts estopp parties from using the SoF defense.
a. Statute of Frauds is an affirmative defense and it must be brought up in answer or it’s waived
4. Promissory estoppel
a. The foreseeable detrimental reliance on a contract is enough to estopp the defense of the Statute of Frauds.
a. If one party has given enough benefit to the other side that it would be unfair not to make them pay for it, there is still a possibility of recovery.
VIII. Defenses- Avoidance of the K
i. Contract on mistake is voidable and not automatically void
1. Parties have both made mistakes, they courts then have them return remedies exchanged.
a. A misunderstanding on the basis of the K prevented a meeting of the minds so the K is voidable
b. The test is whether the substance of the K is substantially different once the mistake has been discovered. Ex – you sell a supposedly barren cow for meat, it is discovered that the cow could bear children (it’s worth much more now) therefore the cow with calf is substantially different than a cow for meat.
c. Another test is if in selling something, you also sell the risk that it is worth a great deal more than you sold it for. Ex – you sell a rock to a person for $1 – but the rock turns out to be worth $700, you can’t rescind the K.
3. Mistakes of value are almost never the kinds of mistakes that result in the rescinding of a K b/c we are all aware of the uncertainty of value.
1. Tougher to get relief b/c only one party erred – they usually feel the errant party is simply careless.
2. Courts give relief when:
a. Mistaken bid situations – usually arithmetic errors – courts allow mistake as long as the error is caught before there is substantial reliance by the bidding authority.
i. If the Non mistaken party should know the other side made a mistake, you can’t take advantage of the mistaken party.
ii. Example – bid is stupidly low, the non mistaken party asks him to look at the low bid, and he eats it (it’s just fine – a revocation of the bid before it’s accepted)
b. If the other side caused the mistake – the court rushed the bid or bad information
c. If it would be unconscionable to enforce the bid.
3. A mistaken contract (Ex. A sale of a horse is spoken as a sale of a cow), if the other side realizes the mistake and goes forward assuming what the mistaken party meant, the court will assume the mistaken issue and basically treat the contract as if were for the right thing.
1. material misrepresentation of an existing fact,
a. If someone makes an unintentional misrepresentation, it’s called constructive fraud.
b. Conduct can be fraud (spray painting the engine black to make it shiny)
i. It’s generally difficult to hold silence a fraud but is usually ok if there would be a serious miscarriage of justice if the fraud wasn’t corrected.
ii. If something dangerous is left out of a contract (house you’re selling has rats) it can be found to be fraud.
i. A misrepresentation of the state of a man’s mind, if you can prove it, it’s actionable
ii. A man’s state of mind can certainly be an existing fact.
iii. An opinion of someone who has superior knowledge (lawyer or doctor) is usually found to be a material misrepresentation.
i. If at the time the person made the promise he had no intention of fulfilling the promise, and you can prove it, it’s a fraud
2. done with reckless disregard for whether or not the mistaken statement is true;
3. the frauded individual relied upon the misrepresentation; and
a. reliance need not be reasonable (courts dosen’t usually require reasonable reliance) just justifiable reliance (why did the person rely – gullibility is just fine for why he relied)
4. There were damages.
a. Often punitive damages will be administered.
1. Fraud contracts are voidable – but the plaintiff accusing fraud can argue rescinding the contract AND for the amount he expected to get on the K
a. At CL: You usually can’t do this, rescission plus lost profits isn’t generally allowed b/c it would be arguing for a recession and a completion of a K.
b. At UCC: A claim for recession shall not bar the remedies a person would otherwise be awarded (including lost profits)
c. Duress and undue influence
i. K was entered into when he was deprived of free will (K signed at gun point)
ii. The K is voidable
iii. How much coercion is subjective (matter of convincing that the person was deprived of free will)
iv. Economic duress is a hard sell (b/c of my financial difficulties, he made me sign the K) the situation must be extreme for this to be allowed
d. Undue Influence
i. Influence of Trust
1. K was signed in situation where someone had free will but were tricked by someone they trusted
2. A person who uses a person’s trust to feather their own nest
ii. Influence of situation
1. K’s negotiated under inappropriate circumstances – man accused of homosexuality in 50s as a schoolteacher – super and principal insist a K is signed renouncing his right to be a school teacher.
2. this is over influence – he was allowed to rescind his resignation b/c his situation was ridiculous
iii. Influence of mental situation
1. K signed at grieving woman at husbands funeral or with ill people in hospitals.
iv. Courts can reform or rescind the K at option of the Plaintiff
v. Releases of future liability
1. People thinks injuries are minor, signs release of liability but his injuries turn out to be much more
2. Lots of cases say that if no one who thought that the injury that occurred was involved in the transaction, the release can be avoided no matter how it is phrased.
i. Void as a matter of Public Policy
ii. Ex: agreements to not support spouse during marriage, or not to support children
iii. If it violates a statute or law, it’s illegal
1. Truth in lending act language on paperwork can’t be misrepresented b/c it would be illegal.
iv. The law leaves guilty parties on an illegal contract outlawed – they cannot go to a court on the K. they are left as they are.
1. While guilty parties are forbidden to enforce the contract, the innocent parties get some enforcement – law takes pity upon them
v. Gambling contracts are illegal except in casino’s
vi. Failure to get a license to practice law but you practice law anyway
1. Courts line is “what was the purpose of the license?”
a. If it’s to limit the actions of the people (with atty’s and dr.’s), the contracts, then are tainted with illegality.
b. If it’s to generate money, not so much
vii. Covenants not to compete
1. Okay in a sale of business
a. Selling retain establishment – you’ll sell the goodwill of the business, the valuable reputation.
b. If you then set up another store across the street, you take all the goodwill with you. So a covenant not to compete is usally signed with the sale of the business to protect the buyer.
2. in employment situation, however,
a. An agreement that if you are employed by a law firm (or something else) and you leave, you can’t set up a competing lawfirm
i. Viewed w/ much suspicion b/c it’s less volitional so they can get a job.
b. For a court to uphold an agreement not to compete (by issing injunction not to establish businesses):
i. Person to be enjoined must have particular talents or abilities that will hurt the other side - he’s a super sales person or has knowledge of trade secrets.
1. Dr’s, Attys, Athletes and entertainers are usually held to have particular talents.
ii. Place in which the injunction is to cover, must be reasonable
iii. Time period must be reasonable – can’t stop someone from practicing for the rest of time.
1. Should court blue pencil by reforming the contract through cutting out what is unreasonable?
a. Some say yes, done in situations with a business rather than an employee situation.
b. Some say no b/c it doesn’t encourage careful drafting. They would then draft overly broad contracts.
3. Palimony agreements (unmarried coinhabitants)
a. Agreements on how they will live their lives
b. Any meretricious elements (trading money for sex) is bad (the K is void for illegality)
c. The courts are divided
i. Some say no enforcement (states have law to not allow common law marriages)
ii. Some say wait, enforcement is necessary
i. Capacity is the illegal ability to enter into a contract.
ii. K made with parties who lack legal capacity are voidable, not void.
1. a minor who makes a K may elect to pay after he is aged.
iii. Minors below 18
1. no capacity to make K’s except for the necessities of life (food, clothing, shelter)
2. Can disaffirm K’s prior to being 18 and a reasonable time thereafter
3. Minor must give back any consideration if the minor still has the property. If he doesn’t have it still, he can still disaffirm.
4. PP with kids is to leave them alone b/c disaffirming K’s is your risk.
5. In business situations (infant opens a business) where the other side doesn’t know about it, the Infant can’t disaffirm usually (Ex. Rockstars buying a bus)
6. Some statutes allow infants to contract after certain things
a. after an infant is married
b. getting into the military
7. Estoppel to assert the infancy
a. he lied about his age
i. kids are thought of as chimps. But in some states, if it’s in writing it can be estopped
iv. Mental Infirmaty
1. voidable by person or guardian
2. Courts usually look to equity:
a. People who took advantage of infirm is usually acted upon quickly
b. If the infirm appeared normal, the courts are more forgiving.
1. it is volitional, the courts are usually not so kind to them
2. the drunkedness has to be extreme to the point of insanity and blindness, the courts require the the person, upon sobering up must immediately disaffirm
i. K’s that are too unfair to be enforced
1. b/c one party has superior bargaining position isn’t enough.
ii. UCC 2-302, 2-108
1. If court as matter of law decides that the K is unconscionable, the K may be stricken or blue-penned to create fairness
2. Where there is an unconscionablility argument, there must be a hearing as to commercial setting – the hearing is a precedent.
3. procedural uncons. Is enough to make the K uncons. If it’s a lease.
4. Atty’s fees can exceed the amount sued for if it’s a lease issue
iii. The issue is a question of law for the courts. (not juries)
iv. K likes this definition of Unconscionability
1. the court must find procedural and substantive unconscionability
a. Procedural - Unfairness in the bargaining process, the superior position in the K is used to make the other party sign an adhesion K. or some kind of trick
b. Substantive – K must be really unfair
v. Kinds of K’s
1. A person who is uneducated signs a K that has an indemnity and exculpatory clause
a. The person should have been warned of the clauses and getting atty to help you on this.
2. There is also a duty to read.
3. Termination clauses – if there is substantial reliance.
a. UCC requires notification for termination clauses to be valid.
IX. Impossibility, Impracticability, Frustration
i. Destruction of Subj. Matter
ii. Under UCC, delay or non-delivery is not breach of seller’s duty if perf. As agreed was made impracticable by something that wasn’t supposed to happen happened
iii. If an essential but intangible aspect of the K becomes impossible, this defense works (Ie: bankrupt, so can’t pay)
iv. Due to failure of 3rd party to perform; depends on if the 3rd party is mentioned in the K, if the 3rd party is willing to contract, and the 3rd party necessary for perf.
v. Death or illness of K specific perf by a specific person, or of 3rd party necessary for perf.
i. Less severe than impossible: “infeasible from a commercial viewpoint”
ii. Sellers usually cannot use this for price increases when the K is fixed price.
c. Frustration of Purposes
i. A party’s purpose for entering into the K is destroyed
ii. Cts will not enforce a pointless K.
iii. Distinguish cannot perform from makes no sense to perform.
iv. Look at:
1. Frustrationability: the less frustrationable the event, the better the chance.
2. Totality: the more totally frustrated the party is, the better the chance.
i. Cts will try to allow one of the parties to recover the value rendered to the other or preparations for perf.
i. It is explicit promise that the goods have a certain quality.
ii. Includes a description of the goods (“3 carat white flawless diamond”).
iii. Includes a sample or model the buyer is shown.
iv. Does not include “puffing.”
b. Implied warranty of merchantability
i. The goods are merchantable: goods are fit for which such ordinary goods are used.
ii. Always given unless otherwise disclaimed, in which case there ware stringent requiredments in the UCC
c. For a particular purpose
i. Seller must have reason to know the goods are for a particular purpose and know the buyer is relying on seller’s judgment, and the buyer must in fact rely on the judgement.
ii. Does not count if buyere demands particular brand of goods.
i. Express: rare. Must be clearly and rashionably done.
1. must be explicit, and if done in writing, must mention the word “merchantability” and be easy to see.
2. Same for Particular Purpose.
iii. Language of the sale may also implicitly limit or disclaim warranty
1. if buyer asked to examine sample, model, or the actual goods
2. course of dealing
a. If a K is executory only on one side, the completely performing party can give up his rights and discharge the other party
b. The release must usually have cons’n (in addition to that of the K)( or a statutory substitute (ex: a signed writing)
c. Under UCC, a signed writing is sufficient even w/o consideration.
XII. Implied Contracts
a. Implied in Fact - implied from conduct
b. Implied in Law – quasi K – So there’s no injustice, the K will be made by the courts.
|
<urn:uuid:fbf1b7bc-9751-49e8-ae15-84c468a90d64>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.stcl.edu/students/SBA%20Outline%20Bank/Contracts%20I%20-%20Powers%20Fall%2004.htm
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00045-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.940603 | 9,723 | 2.515625 | 3 |
Mark I. Vuletic
Cell biologist Kenneth Miller relates:
By 1994, [Phillip] Gingerich and fellow paleontologists, including Hans Thweissen, had found not one, but three intermediate species [Pakicetus inachus, Ambulocetus natans, and Rodhocetus kasrani] linking land mammals to the archeocetes, the oldest swimming mammals. The midpoint of the series, a marvelous animal called ambulocetus natans (the "swimming whale who walks"), displayed exactly the combination of terrestrial and aquatic adaptations that critics of evolution had called impossible, even in principle. (Miller 1999:264)
Miller KR. 1999. Finding Darwin's God: A Scientist's Search for Common Ground Between God and Evolution. New York: Cliff Street Books.
Last updated: 21 Mar 2008
Copyright © 1997, 2016, Mark I. Vuletic. All rights reserved.
|
<urn:uuid:763d0fa6-3c2e-4b8b-9bdc-13503a938310>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.vuletic.com/hume/cefec/5-6.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00124-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.866376 | 191 | 2.640625 | 3 |
Rehabilitation of Juvenile Offenders Requires New Model
In Missouri, the DYS approach to juvenile offenders is more successful and cost effective than other youth correctional programs. It depends on helping troubled and chronically delinquent young people make deep and lasting changes in how they behave, think, view themselves, and foresee their futures.
DYS has certain beliefs about youth and the change process that facilitate the positive changes that are sought
Beliefs About Youth
Every young person wants to succeed—and can succeed.
No matter how serious their past crimes, and no matter how destructive their current attitudes and behaviors, all youth hunger for approval, acceptance, and achievement.
Change can only result from internal choices made by the young people themselves.
Delinquent youth can’t be “scared straight”; they cannot be reformed through a military-style boot camp; and few will be deterred from crime by fear of punishment. Rather, change happens through a process that helps them to adopt more positive behaviors, seek out more positive peers, and embrace more positive goals.
Relationships are critical to overcoming resistance and fostering positive change.
Youth respond best and overcome resistance most readily when they know that staff members care about them and expect them to succeed. Young people also benefit enormously both from helping and being helped by other youth in the treatment group.
Youth are more likely to succeed in a safe, nurturing, and non-blaming environment.
It is critical that youth be listened to and guided by trusted adults, encouraged to try out new behaviors, and treated with patience, acceptance, and respect.
Every young person is unique.
Each DYS youth has fallen into delinquent behaviors in response to his or her own individual circumstances, and each will make the decisions to change and grow—or not to—for his or her own personal reasons.
Many youth lapse into delinquency as a coping mechanism in response to earlier abuse, neglect, or trauma.
These underlying difficulties must be acknowledged and addressed before change is likely to occur. 11
Delinquent youth typically suffer from a lack of emotional maturity.
They have an absence of insight into their own behavior patterns; an inability to distinguish between feelings and facts, perception and reality; along with an underdeveloped capacity to communicate their feelings clearly and express disagreement or anger responsibly.
All behavior, no matter how maladaptive or destructive, has an underlying emotional purpose.
Therefore, the emotions expressed by young people during treatment should not be judged, lest youth withhold their feelings and lose out on crucial opportunities for personal growth.
Most youth entering custody have very low confidence in their ability to succeed as students, or adults, and lack exposure to mentors or positive role models.
Enabling youth to taste success in the classroom and to develop trusting relationships with DYS staff (and other caring adults) can provide an invaluable impetus for them to embrace healthy attitudes and adopt a law-abiding lifestyle.
Parents and other family members remain the most crucial people in young people’s lives—and the keys to their long-term success.
Families retain enormous influence over youth, for good or ill. Rebuilding family relationships is a powerful motivator for virtually every young person who enters a DYS facility.
Beliefs About the Change Process
The therapeutic process leading to sustained behavioral change typically involves five core stages:
Young people enter this safe and therapeutic environment and become acclimated to the routines and expectations of life in a DYS facility, where the aggressive or belligerent behaviors many have relied upon habitually for self-defense and stature are neither required nor rewarded.
Personal growth and self-discovery.
During their stays in DYS facilities, youth are frequently asked to think and talk about their feelings and to discuss their behaviors. Gradually, youth gain insights into their own thought processes and behavior patterns; identify the emotional triggers that typically lead them to act out and lose emotional control; examine how current behaviors are connected to past experiences and the dynamics in their own families; and develop the capacity to express their emotions clearly, calmly, and respectfully—even negative emotions like anger and fear.
Integration and mastery.
Youth begin applying their new self-knowledge and learning to behave consistently as mature, responsible, and focused-on-the-future young adults. In this phase, youth learn to avoid emotional outbursts and aggressive or self-destructive behavior by setting personal boundaries and avoiding situations that provoke these reactions; and (often through family therapy) they begin to identify, discuss, and resolve underlying family tensions and devise strategies in advance to address family problems that might arise when they return home.
Youth begin talking with service coordinators, facility staff, parents, and others to create a positive and realistic plan for their futures—where they will continue their education, what career they might want to pursue, where they will look for short-term employment, and how they will avoid negative peers and dangerous temptations that might lead them back into custody.
|
<urn:uuid:d86fc53d-cbef-454e-8fb7-b7311c87b395>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://drjenna.net/about-dr-jenna/forensic-psychiatry/juvenile-delinquency-evaluations/rehabilitation-of-juvenile/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783393146.70/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154953-00140-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.95443 | 1,023 | 2.9375 | 3 |
The Life of Meresamun: A Temple Singer in Ancient Egypt
February 10 - December 6, 2009
Members' Preview February 9, 2009
The Life of Meresamun: A Temple Singer in Ancient Egypt focuses on the life of a priestess-musician in Egypt in about the year 800 BC. The exhibit’s centerpiece is the coffin and mummy of Meresamun, who probably lived in Thebes.
The exhibit illustrates the duties of a temple singer and explores what her life was like inside, as well as outside, the temple. Her temple duties are illustrated by a selection of objects she would have used, including a sistrum, an ivory clapper, a harp, and cult vessels [11394, 10578]. Other objects document ritual activities that she would have participated in, such as animal cults and the consultation of divine oracles.
The section of the exhibit on her life outside the temple includes an examination of the social and legal rights of women in ancient Egypt and what professions were open to them. Examples of dishes, jewelry, and cosmetic vessels show what sort of objects could have been in her home. Religious rituals enacted within the home are illustrated by artifacts related to ancestor cults as well as amulets and other objects believed to improve fertility.
In preparation for the exhibit, the mummy of Meresamun was examined with a Philips Healthcare Brilliance iCT 256-slice scanner at the University of Chicago Hospital. The thousands of CT scans obtained during the procedure allowed the creation of detailed 3-D images and reconstructions. Linking that data with forensic science has allowed specialists to recreate Meresamun’s original appearance.
The exhibit is supported by Exelon and Philips Healthcare.
The Oriental Institute Museum is located at 1155 East 58th Street, Chicago. The Museum is open Tuesday, Thursday through Saturday from 10 a.m. to 6:00 p.m., Wednesday from 10:00 a.m. to 8:30 p.m., and Sunday from noon to 6:00 p.m. For information, call (773) 702-9514.
This exhibit supported by:
|
<urn:uuid:96957d07-0316-48cc-85e9-fd3894b2d9bc>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://oi.uchicago.edu/museum-exhibits/special-exhibits/life-meresamun-temple-singer-ancient-egypt
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396538.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00034-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.96262 | 444 | 2.96875 | 3 |
Simple Definition of rhapsody
: a piece of music that is meant to express a lot of emotion and does not have a regular form
: a written or spoken expression of great enthusiasm, praise, etc.
Full Definition of rhapsodyplural
1 : a portion of an epic poem adapted for recitation
2 archaic : a miscellaneous collection
4 : a musical composition of irregular form having an improvisatory character
Examples of rhapsody in a sentence
The mayor launched into a long rhapsody about his plans for the city.
<listening to Mozart always left him in a rhapsody that lingered for the remainder of the evening>
Origin and Etymology of rhapsody
Latin rhapsodia, from Greek rhapsōidia recitation of selections from epic poetry, rhapsody, from rhapsōidos rhapsodist, from rhaptein to sew, stitch together + aidein to sing — more at ode
First Known Use: 1542
Seen and Heard
What made you want to look up rhapsody? Please tell us where you read or heard it (including the quote, if possible).
|
<urn:uuid:8c2561a1-ce49-498d-bf97-463efb7530ab>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/rhapsodies
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395620.56/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00055-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.916082 | 244 | 3.53125 | 4 |
Introduction to the Federal Nuclear Emergency Plan (FNEP)
Aim of the FNEP
The aim of the FNEP is to provide the structure for federal nuclear emergency preparedness and response in order to:
- protect the public from immediate and delayed health effects due to exposure to uncontrolled sources of radiation;
- minimise the impacts of a nuclear emergency on property and the environment; and
- maintain public confidence in the ability of responsible authorities to protect public health.
Content of the FNEP
The FNEP describes the federal government's preparedness and coordinated response to a nuclear emergency. Specifically, the FNEP:
- outlines the federal government's aim, authority, emergency organisation and concept of operations for handling a nuclear emergency;
- describes the framework of federal emergency preparedness policies, the planning principles on which the FNEP is based, and the links with other relevant documents;
- describes the federal responsibilities of participating organisations that have a role to play in preparing for a nuclear emergency; and
- contains provincial annexes that describe the interface between the federal and provincial emergency management organisations.
The FNEP and the Provinces
Health Canada coordinates federal operations with provincial and territorial operations as required. The FNEP includes provincial annexes for Ontario, Québec, and New Brunswick as they have nuclear power stations, and with Nova Scotia and British Columbia as they have ports which are visited by nuclear-powered vessels. The FNEP also supports the provinces and territories without specific annexes as required.
Scope of the FNEP
The FNEP could be implemented in the following nuclear emergencies:
- An emergency at a nuclear power plant in Canada
- An emergency at a nuclear power plant in the United States or Mexico
- An emergency involving a nuclear-powered vessel in Canada
- Other serious nuclear emergencies or potential threats in North America that require a multi-departmental or multi-jurisdictional response
- A nuclear emergency occurring outside of North America
|
<urn:uuid:b042ad31-f54a-4c55-8daa-ccb41cec07fc>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/ed-ud/fedplan/intro-eng.php
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397873.63/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00131-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.922626 | 398 | 3.59375 | 4 |
(Update 2:30 p.m. Saturday: No flight today, Lyon Air Museum says. The B-17G bomber nicknamed "Fuddy Duddy" was grounded Saturday because of mechanical issues that arose following test flights earlier this week. The museum hopes to reschedule a flight in Orange County soon. Offiicials said they were sorry to disappoint visitors, but that safety was paramount when operating the 68-year-old warbird.)
The most famous kind of bomber that took the fight to Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan in World War II will make a rare appearance over John Wayne Airport on Saturday.
A B-17G Flying Fortress, nicknamed "Fuddy Duddy," will crisscross Orange County airspace as part of the Lyon Air Museum's "History Takes Flight" program. The fly-by above the museum is scheduled for noon.
The museum touts the four-engine heavy bomber as "the most powerful bird" in Lyon's collection. The earliest B-17 flew in 1935 and was present on the opening day of U.S. involvement in World War II. A flight of U.S. Army Air Corps was on its way from California to the Philippines and scheduled for a refueling stop at Oahu's Hickam Field on Dec. 7, 1941. The bombers, stripped of guns to save fuel on the long flight, arrived unarmed and out of gas. Remarkably, several were able to land or safely crash despite being attacked by Japanese fighters and U.S. anti-aircraft guns, who mistook them for the enemy. Some of the first aerial photos of the attack seen by military leaders, and later the U.S. public, were taken from the B-17s.
After the U.S. entered the war against Germany and Japan, U.S. bomber crews were dispatched to England to fly daylight missions over occupied Europe, including Germany. The British bombed at night. The "G" variation is the most produced of the B-17s, accounting for 8,680 of the estimated 12,726 built.
The "Fuddy Duddy" was designed by Boeing but built by Douglas in 1944 and ended the war in good shape because its primary duty was as a transport for military brass. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower, who went on to become President after the war, flew in the plane. So did Gen. Douglas MacArthur, who would lead troops in the Pacific and lead the Japanese surrender ceremonies in Tokyo Bay that formally ended the war in 1945. By the time of the surrender, the B-17 was being replaced by the B-29 Superfortress, which could fly higher and farther and had pressurized crew compartments.
The "Fuddy Duddy" went on to a film career, including the somewhat anti-war 1962 Steve McQueen movie, "The War Lover" and "Tora, Tora, Tora," the 1970 American-Japanese joint film project retelling of the attack on Pearl Harbor from both sides.
Though the B-24 Liberator has its supporters for "top American bomber" of the European Theater of the war, the B-17 has numbers on its side, according to the Lyon Museum. Of the 1.5 million metric tons of bombs dropped on Germany by U.S. aircraft, 640,000 tons were dropped from B-17s, more bombs than any other U.S. aircraft type in WWII.
By the end of World War II, the B-17 was obsolete and those that weren't destroyed were sold or given to allied countries, scrapped or used as unmanned target drones by Boeing and the Air Force. The last active duty B-17 was retired from the Brazilian Air Force in 1968, 32 years after the Boeing prototype flew. Beginning with the 1970, interest in restoring "warbirds" became popular and several B-17s are now on display around the world and a small number, like "Fuddy Duddy" can still fly.
About the B-17G
Wartime manufacturers: Boeing, Douglas, Lockheed Vega
Engines: Four 1,200 horsepower Wright/Cyclone R-1820-97 radial engines each driving a three-blade propeller.
Crew: Nine including two pilots, a bombardier, a radio operator, and five gunners.
Top speed: 287 mph
Cruising speed: 150 mph
Range (max.): 3,750 miles
Max. altitude: 35,600 feet
Power: Four 1,200-horsepower Wright R-1820-97 engines
Armament: 11 to 13 machine guns.
Bomb load: 9,600 pounds
-- source: Boeing Aircraft Co.
About the museum
Lyon Air Museum opened in Dec. 2009, a project of retired U.S. Air Force Gen. William Lyon, a veteran and local homebuilder. The museum, across the runways from the Tom Riley Terminal at John Wayne Airport, has a 30,000-square-foot hangar which holds several vintage military aircraft and a collection of Lyon's other passion, classic cars
Lyon Air Museum, 19300 Ike Jones Road, Santa Ana, 714-210-4585 or www.lyonairmuseum.org
Hours of operation are daily from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. General admission is $12; Seniors and Veterans cost $9; Ages 5-17 are $6; Under age are free. Reduced rates for groups and free admission for pre-arranged school groups.
Contact the writer: [email protected]
Correction: An earlier version of this story said the B-17 engines featured a four-blade propeller. It is three blades. The B-29, also built by Boeing, featured four blades on each engine.
Video: U-Report: B-17 test flight over OC
- Clippers have a seat at Kevin Durant's table, but who else will they target and how will
- Man dies after car crashes into pole in Huntington Beach
- Search for Laguna Beach swimmer called off
- Man, 53, dies after being struck by minivan in Huntington Beach
- Water park in Irvine's Great Park is closer to reality five years after Wild Rivers close
|
<urn:uuid:ecec61db-02ed-408a-a396-0dca024fda69>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.ocregister.com/articles/war-339469-museum-air.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398075.47/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00109-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.961454 | 1,280 | 2.671875 | 3 |
The bodily process of digestion and absorption is one of the most important to our health. Hippocrates made this statement over two thousand years ago and it is truer today than ever.
What are the signs of unhealthy digestion?
Throat and nose issues (clearing throat, runny nose, etc.)
Inflammation anywhere in the body
Skin disorders anywhere on the body
Negative reactions to food
Loose stools or constipation
Our bodies rely on proper enzymes and healthy microbes to work with pathogenic bacteria and to produce anti-bacterial cultures in order to strengthen the intestinal walls and to support our immune system.
Today we are challenged on many fronts: lifestyle and diet, deficient intestinal flora, stress, toxic chemicals in our food/water/environment, consumption of alcohol, and frequent use of antibiotics all deplete our healthy supply of beneficial enzymes and bacteria. This allows disease to take hold beginning with yeast strains. Supplementing with friendly bacteria help keep harmful bacteria from multiplying in our intestines
Poor digestion will eventually cause one's health to break down. Some examples of this breakdown are listed below:
Food and general allergies
Chronic viral infections
Liver cirrhosis and biliary disease
The trend of mental illness is particularly disturbing and related to enzyme deficiencies.
One study found that enzyme loss is connected to a specific familiar neurological disease.
Another study examined the effects of lifestyle--including diet--on mental health, and found that diet is a crucial factor in synaptic plasticity and overall mental health.
An article on the Verge listed several studies, including one in which switching gut bacteria in mice caused behavior alterations.
To safeguard our bodies, enzymes must be incorporated into the diet and unless you are vegan, it should be full spectrum and include the following, ox bile (bovine bile), pancreatic enzymes, protease, betaine hydrochloride, and even kale and l-lysine. To be sure of quality the enzyme source is critical look for those produced and sourced in Canada or from the US. And the ox bile be ensured it is from USDA certified beef cattle, this will ensure that the gall bladder was removed at the slaughterhouse, and that the bile was then lyophilized and safe to be used for supplements. All quality measures should be in place by attestation to ensure that the material is BSE and TSE free.
|
<urn:uuid:37b0b24a-0125-4b5d-ac4f-2bd1d70ea6f1>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://preventdisease.com/news/15/030615_All-Disease-Begins-In-The-Gut.shtml
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396222.11/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00084-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.923333 | 490 | 3 | 3 |
The gallon (//) is a unit of measurement for liquid capacity in both the US customary units and the British imperial systems of measurement. Three significantly different sizes are in current use: the imperial gallon defined as 4.54609litres, which is used in the United Kingdom, Canada, and some Caribbean nations; the US gallon defined as 231 cubic inches (3.785 l), which is used in the US and some Latin American and Caribbean countries; and the least-used US dry gallon defined as 1⁄8 US bushel (4.405 l).
While there is no official symbol for the gallon (as there are for SI units), gal is in common use.
The gallon currently has one definition in the imperial system, and two definitions (liquid and dry) in the US customary system. Historically, there were many definitions and redefinitions.
The imperial gallon
The imperial (UK) gallon, now defined as exactly 4.54609litres (about 277.42 cubic inches), is used in some Commonwealth countries and was originally based on the volume of 10 pounds (approximately 4.54 kg) of water at 62 °F (17 °C). The imperial fluid ounce is defined as 1⁄160 of an imperial gallon; there are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart, and 20 Imperial fluid ounces in an imperial pint.
The US liquid gallon
The US gallon is legally defined as 231 cubic inches, which is exactly 411784 liters. 3.785 A US liquid gallon of water weighs about 8.34 pounds or 3.78 kilograms at 62 °F (17 °C), making it about 16.6% lighter than the imperial gallon. There are four quarts in a gallon, two pints in a quart and 16 US fluid ounces in a US pint, which makes the US fluid ounce equal to 1⁄128 of a US gallon. In order to overcome the effects of expansion and contraction with temperature when using a gallon to specify a quantity of material for purposes of trade, it is common to define the temperature at which the material will occupy the specified volume. For example, the volume of petroleum products and alcoholic beverages are both referenced to 60 °F (16 °C) in government regulations.
The US dry gallon
This dry measure is one-eighth of a US Winchester bushel of 150.42 cubic inches; it is therefore equal to exactly 268.8025 cubic inches or about 2L. The US dry gallon is not used in commerce, and is not listed in the relevant statute, which jumps from the dry quart to the 4.405 peck.
Worldwide usage of gallons
The Imperial gallon is used in everyday life (and in advertising) in the United Kingdom, and less frequently in Canada, including fuel economy expression in advertisements and other official publications. Gallons used in fuel economy expression in Canada are Imperial gallons.
The gallon was removed from the list of legally defined primary units of measure catalogued in the EU directive 80/181/EEC, for trading and official purposes, with effect from 31 December 1994. Under the directive the gallon could still be used – but only as a supplementary or secondary unit. One of the impacts of this directive was that the United Kingdom amended its own legislation to replace the gallon with the litre as a primary unit of measure in trade and in the conduct of public business, effective from 30 September 1995.
Ireland also passed legislation in response to the EU directive with the effective date being 31 December 1993. Though the gallon has ceased to be the legally defined primary unit, it can still be legally used in both the UK and Ireland as a supplementary unit.
The Imperial gallon continues to be used as a unit of measure in Anguilla, Antigua and Barbuda, the Bahamas, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Is., Dominica, Grenada, Montserrat, Myanmar (Burma), St. Kitts & Nevis, St. Lucia, and St. Vincent & the Grenadines.
The United Arab Emirates started selling gasoline by the litre in 2010, along with Guyana, and Panama in 2013. The two former had used the Imperial gallon, and the latter the US gallon until they switched.
Antigua and Barbuda plan to switch over to using litres by 2015.
Despite its status as a U.S. territory, and unlike American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam, and the U.S. Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico ceased selling gasoline by the US gallon in 1980.
In the Turks & Caicos Islands, both the U.S. gallon and Imperial gallon are used, due to an increase in tax duties disguised by levying the same duty on the 3.79 L U.S. gallon as was previously levied on the 4.55 L Imperial gallon.
Some cowboy hats have been called "ten-gallon" hats. The term came into use about 1925. The Stetson hat company boasted that the tight weave of most Stetson hats made them sufficiently waterproof to be used as a bucket. Early print advertising by Stetson showed a cowboy giving his horse a drink of water from a hat. However, even the Stetson company notes that a "ten-gallon" hat holds only 3 quarts (about 3 L instead of about 38 L).
Relationship to other units
Both the US liquid and imperial gallon are divided into four quarts (quarter gallons), which in turn are divided into two pints. These pints are divided into two cups (though the imperial cup is rarely used now), which in turn are divided into two gills (gills are also rarely used). Thus a gallon is equal to four quarts, eight pints, sixteen cups or thirty-two gills. The imperial gill is further divided into five fluid ounces, whereas the US gill is divided into four fluid ounces. Thus an imperial fluid ounce is 1⁄20 of an imperial pint or 1⁄160 of an imperial gallon, while a US fluid ounce is 1⁄16 of a US pint or 1⁄128 of a US gallon.
The imperial gallon, quart, pint, cup and gill are approximately 20% larger than their US counterparts and are therefore not interchangeable. The imperial fluid ounce, on the other hand, is only 4% smaller than the US fluid ounce and therefore they are often used interchangeably.
The term derives most immediately from galun, galon in Old Northern French, but the usage was common in several languages, for example jale in Old French and gęllet (bowl) in Old English. This suggests a common origin in Romance Latin, but the ultimate source of the word is unknown. The gallon originated as the base of systems for measuring wine, and beer in England. The sizes of gallon used in these two systems were different from each other: the first was based on the wine gallon (equal in size to the US gallon), and the second on either the ale gallon or the larger imperial gallon.
By the end of the 18th century, three definitions of the gallon were in common use:
- The corn gallon, or Winchester gallon, of about 268.8 cubic inches (≈ 4.405 L),
- The wine gallon, or Queen Anne's gallon, which was 231 cubic inches (≈ 3.79 L), and
- The ale gallon of 282 cubic inches (≈ 4.62 L).
The corn or dry gallon was used in the United States until recently for grain and other dry commodities. It is one-eighth of the (Winchester) bushel, originally a cylindrical measure of 18 1⁄2 inches in diameter and 8 inches in depth. That made the dry gallon (9 1⁄4)2 × π cubic inches ≈ 52 in3268.802. The bushel, which like dry quart and pint still sees some use, was later defined to be 2150.42 cubic inches exactly, making its gallon exactly ( 268.8025 in388377086 L). In previous centuries, there had been a corn gallon of around 271 to 272 cubic inches. 4.404
The wine, fluid, or liquid gallon has been the standard US gallon since the early 19th century. The wine gallon, which some sources relate to the volume occupied by eight medieval merchant pounds of wine, was at one time defined as the volume of a cylinder 6 inches deep and 7 inches in diameter, i.e. 6 in × (3 1⁄2 in)2 × π ≈ 230.907 06 cubic inches. It had been redefined during the reign of Queen Anne, in 1706, as 231 cubic inches exactly, which is the result of the earlier definition with π approximated to 22⁄7. Although the wine gallon had been used for centuries for import duty purposes there was no legal standard of it in the Exchequer and a smaller gallon (224 cu in) was actually in use, so this statute became necessary. It remains the US definition today.
In 1824, Britain adopted a close approximation to the ale gallon known as the imperial gallon and abolished all other gallons in favour of it. Inspired by the kilogram-litre relationship, the imperial gallon was based on the volume of 10 pounds of distilled water weighed in air with brass weights with the barometer standing at 30 inches of mercury and at a temperature of 62 °F. In 1963, this definition was refined as the space occupied by 10 pounds of distilled water of density 859 g/mL weighed in air of density 0.998217 g/mL against weights of density 0.0018.136 g/mL (the original "brass" was refined as the density of brass alloys vary depending on metallurgical composition). This works out at approximately 0903 L ( 4.54645 in3). The metric definition of exactly 277.41909 cubic decimetres (also 4.54609 L after the litre was redefined in 1964, ≈ 4.546433 in3) was adopted shortly afterwards in Canada, but from 1976 the conventional value of 277.419092 L was used in the United Kingdom until the Canadian convention was adopted in 1985. 4.546
Historically, gallons of various sizes were used in many parts of Western Europe. In these localities, it has been replaced as the unit of capacity by the litre.
|Comparison of historic gallons|
(gallons per cubic foot)
@ 62 °F)
|(cu in)||(L or dm3)||Diameter
|216 (Roman unciae)||≈ 3.5396||Roman congius||8||7.8||5||11||0.01|
|224||≈ 3.6707||preserved at the Guildhall, London (old UK wine gallon)||7.71||8.09||9||3.5||0.6|
|231||4117843.785||statute of 5th of Queen Anne (UK wine gallon, standard US gallon)||7.48||8.33||7||6||0.04|
|264.8||≈ 4.3393||ancient Rumford quart (1228)||6.53||9.57||7.5||6||0.1|
|265.5||≈ 4.3508||Exchequer (Henry VII, 1497, with rim)||6.51||9.59||13||2||0.01|
|266.25||≈ 4.3631||ancient Rumford (1228)|
|268.8025||883770864.404||Winchester, statute 13 + 14 by William III (corn gallon, old US dry gallon)||6.43||9.71||18.5||1||010.000|
|271||≈ 4.4409||Exchequer (1601, E.) (old corn gallon)||6.38||9.79||4.5||17||0.23|
|272||≈ 4.4573||corn gallon (1688)|
|277.18||≈ 4.5422||statute 12 of Anne (coal gallon) = 33⁄32 corn gallons||6.23||10|
|277.274||4604.543||Imperial Gallon (1824) as originally evaluated.||6.23||10|
|≈433277.419||094.546||standard imperial gallon (metric) (1964 Canada gallon, 1985 UK gallon)||6.23||10||5⅔||11||0.000 2|
|≈555277.419||0924.546||Imperial gallon (1895) Re-determined in 1895, as defined in 1963.||6.23||10|
|278||≈ 4.5556||Exchequer (Henry VII, with copper rim)||6.21||10.04|
|278.4||≈ 4.5622||Exchequer (1601 and 1602 pints)||6.21||10.06|
|280||≈ 4.5884||Exchequer (1601 quart)||6.17||10.1|
|282||≈ 4.6212||Treasury (beer and ale gallon)||6.13||10.2|
|Look up gallon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|Wikimedia Commons has media related to Gallon.|
- "NIST Handbook 44 - 2012 Edition Appendix C "General Tables of Units of Measurement"". p. C-5.
- Uniform Laws and Regulations in the areas of legal metrology and engine fuel quality (PDF). US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. 2011. pp. 9–13, 69.
- State of New Hampshire Dept of Weights and Measure
- 27 CFR section 5.21
- Authorized tables, US Code, Title 15, ch. 6, subchapter I, sec. 205, accessed 19 July 2008.
- Statutory Instrument 2001/3523 Environmental Protection - The Passenger Car (Fuel Consumption and CO2 Emissions Information) Regulations 2001 (PDF). The Stationery Office. 30 October 2001. ISBN 0-11-038743-0. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- "Energy Map". Sustainable Energy Authority of Ireland. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- The Council of the European Communities (9 February 2000). "Council Directive 80/181/EEC of 20 December 1979 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to Unit of measurement and on the repeal of Directive 71/354/EEC". Retrieved 7 February 2009.
The legal units of measurement ... for economic, public health, public safety or administrative purposes ... litre
- "The Units of Measurement Regulations 1995 (Article 4)". 13 July 1995. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- "Units of Measurement Directive". LACORS. 1995. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- "Guidance Note on the use of Metric Units of Measurement by the Public Sector". Department of Trade and Industry. 1995. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
- "S.I. No. 255/1992 — European Communities (Units of Measurement) Regulations, 1992.". Irish Statute Book. Office of the Attorney General. 9 September 1992. Retrieved 1 December 2011.
- "Anguilla Renewable Energy Integration Project Final Report" (PDF). Anguilla RE Integration Final Report. Government of Anguilla Ministry of Infrastructure, Communications, Utilities, and Housing (MICUH). 19 October 2012. p. 104. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
In 2008—the most recent year where WTI crude oil averaged US$100 per barrel—ANGLEC paid an average of about US$4 per imperial gallon (IG) for diesel.
- "Budget Statement for 2012" (PDF). Antigua Observer. 5 December 2011.
- "The Nassau Guardian".
- Webmaster. "Biwater project draws scrutiny".
- "Fuel costs driven by factors".
- "PHOTO OF THE DAY: Up and up it goes". Dominica News Online.
- Grenada: Third Review under the Three-Year Arrangement. p. 17. Retrieved 13 October 2013.
- "Gasoline price increases, diesel decreases, cost of living goes up - The Montserrat Reporter".
- "Gas prices rise 30 percent in Myanmar for new year". Boston.com.
- "The St. Kitts-Nevis Observer".
- "Rotary has a new President - St. Lucia Voice News".
- "Another service station sues SOL over fuel volume discrepancy". iWitness News.
- "International Fuel Prices 2010/11 - 7th Edition" (PDF). GTZ Transport Policy Advisory Services on behalf of the [German] Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development. p. 100. Retrieved 16 January 2012.
- Badih, Samia (30 December 2009). "Petrol stations in UAE go the metric route". Gulf News. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
- "Gas prices at Guyoil stations remain below $1,000 mark". Caribbean Millers Association. 20 April 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- "Liters replace gallons at pump as Panama goes metric". Newsroom, Panama. 20 April 2013. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- "The Re-Launch Of Antigua And Barbuda's Metrication Programme". Diversity Global Magazine. 2013. Retrieved 20 May 2013.
- "Gasoline goes up eleven cents per gallon tomorrow". Samoa News.
- "UPDATE: Gas prices down 10 cents to $4.73 for a gallon of unleaded". Pacific Daily News.
- JOY BLACKBURN (July 16, 2012). "7-cent-per-gallon WAPA tax goes into effect". Virgin Islands Daily News.
- Pesquera de Busquets, Carmen T; Barcelo, Carlos Romero (14 June 1979). "Order to establish the price of half (1/2) galon [sic] of gasoline as transitory measure and that the litter [sic] should be the final metric measurement for the sale of gasoline in Puerto Rico" (PDF). San Juan, Puerto Rico: Departamento de Asuntos del Consumidor. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
- "thebahamasweekly.com - New Measures to Improve TCI Finances And Prioritise Spending".
- "gallon, n.". Oxford English Dictionary (2 ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. 1989.
- "English wine gallon".
|Look up gallon in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.|
|
<urn:uuid:b94816e6-95ea-47e6-968d-af5d966296a4>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallon
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00177-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.881492 | 3,931 | 3.671875 | 4 |
Good Morning, I am Dr. Nancy Lee, Associate Director for Science, within the Division
of Cancer Prevention and Control of the National Centers for Chronic Disease Prevention
and Health Promotion, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in Atlanta,
Georgia. I am pleased to be here this morning to discuss how CDC approaches cervical
cancer early detection through CDC's, National
Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP).
Cervical cancer is nearly 100 percent preventable, yet according to the American Cancer
Society, an estimated 12,800 new cases of invasive cervical cancer will be diagnosed in
1999 with about 4,800 women dying of the disease. The cervical cancer death rate declined
45 percent between the periods 1972-74 and 1992-94 and the overall incidence of the
disease has decreased steadily from 14.2 per 100,000 in 1973 to 7.4 per 100,000 in 1995.
This is largely attributed to the effectiveness of Pap smear screening for cervical
Even with this success, there remains significant disparities in the incidence and
mortality of cervical cancer among some racial and ethnic minority women, when compared to
the rate in white women. The incidence rate for all U.S. women is about 8 per 100,000;
however, the highest age-adjusted incidence rate of 43 per 100,000 occurs among Vietnamese
women, probably reflecting lack of appropriate screening. Incidence rates of 15 per
100,000 or higher also occur among Alaska Native, Korean, and Hispanic women. The death
rate of 6.7 per 100,000 in African American women continues to be more than twice that of
whites even though their incidence rate is slightly lower.
Cervical cancer occurs at an average age of 54; however, cervical intraepithelial
neoplasia (or CIN), the precursor lesion to cervical cancer, most often occurs in much
younger women. For a woman with CIN, her likelihood of survival is almost 100 percent with
timely and appropriate treatment. The fact that CIN occurs at a younger age tells us that
it usually takes a substantial amount of time for cervical cancer to develop. This means
that screening younger women is an important strategy that actually prevents cervical
cancer from ever developing. Furthermore, when cervical cancer is detected at its earliest
stage, the 5-year survival rate is more than 90 percent.
Studies that have identified risk factors associated with cervical cancer have shown
that cervical cancer is closely linked to sexual behaviors, human papillomavirus (or HPV)
infection, immunosuppressive disorders such as HIV/AIDS, as well as a failure to receive
regular Pap smear screening. The sexual behaviors specifically associated with greater
risk are intercourse at an early age, multiple male sexual partners, and sex with a male
partner who has had multiple sexual partners. Experts agree that infection with certain
strains of the HPV is one of the strongest risk factors for cervical cancer, but the most
important risk factor for developing cervical cancer, at least from the point of view of
what we can do about it, is the failure to receive regular screening with a Pap smear.
The principal screening test for cervical cancer is the Pap smear. Since its
introduction 50 years ago by Dr. Papanicolaou, the Pap smear has been widely used and is
credited with the steady decline in cervical cancer deaths in the United States
Nationwide estimates from 1994 indicated that well over 90 percent of all U.S. women had
received a Pap test at least once in their lives and that 80 percent had obtained one
within the preceding 3 years.
Despite the ability of the Pap test to help reduce cervical cancer mortality, the test
is far from 100 percent accurate. Approximately half of the inaccuracies are due to
inadequate collection of the Pap smear by the health care provider and the other half are
due to errors at the laboratory. Detecting a precancerous lesion such as CIN does not
always mean that a cancer has been prevented because only some of the early
precancerous lesions progress to cancer. Thus, the search for a more efficient means of
screening for cervical cancer and precancer is ongoing.
The Food and Drug Administration has approved three new technologies for Pap smears:
ThinPrep, AutoPap, and Papnet. The technologies all appear to do a somewhat better job of
detecting cervical disease than conventional Pap tests. They are rapidly being adopted by
laboratories nationwide and at least double the price of the conventional Pap test.
However, there are concerns that the extra costs associated with these technologies will
overshadow their benefits.
Two evaluations of cervical cytology were released in January: one done for the Agency
for Health Care Policy and Research, and the other published in the Journal of the
American Medical Association. Although the analyses were independently done, each
determined that new screening technologies were cost-effective only if screening was
infrequent, done every 3-4 years. They also found that the new technologies increased life
expectancy by a relatively small amount compared with conventional Pap testing.
In spite of the promise of these new technologies, the American College of
Obstetricians and Gynecologists stated last year that their routine use "[could] not be recommended based on costs and the
lack of sufficient data demonstrating whether they reduce the incidence of or improve the
survival rate from invasive cervical cancer."
The college also concluded that the main focus should remain screening women who are not
receiving regular screening, as they account for the majority of cervical cancer cases.
There are several different recommendations from national, professional and
governmental organizations on the frequency that women should receive a Pap test. The
American Cancer Society, National Cancer Institute, American College of Obstetricians and
Gynecologists, American Medical Association, American Academy of Family Physicians, and
others developed a consensus agreement regarding cervical cancer screening. These
organizations recommended annual Pap testing for all women who have been sexually active,
or have reached the age of 18.
After three consecutive annual exams with normal findings, the Pap test could be
performed less frequently at the discretion of the physician.
The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommends regular Pap tests for all women who
are or have been sexually active, or who are 18 or older, and who have a cervix. The Pap
test should be performed at least every 3 years. However, the interval for each patient
should be determined by the physician, based on the woman's history of risk factors.
National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program
Recognizing the value of appropriate cancer screening, Congress passed the Breast and
Cervical Cancer Mortality Prevention Act of 1990 (Public Law 101-354). This Act authorized
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to establish a national screening
program to ensure that low income women who are uninsured or underinsured receive regular
screening for breast and cervical cancer and prompt followup when necessary. In fiscal
year 1999, with Congressional appropriations of $159 million, the CDC entered into the
ninth year of the National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early Detection Program (NBCCEDP).
This landmark program brings critical breast and cervical cancer screening services to
underserved women, including older women, women with low income, and women of racial and
CDC supports early detection programs in all 50 states, five U.S. territories, the
District of Columbia, and 15 American Indian/Alaska Native organizations. The goal of the
national program is to establish, expand, and improve community-based screening services
for women at risk. The goal is achieved by screening medically underserved women for
breast and cervical cancer, providing appropriate and timely diagnostic evaluations for
women with abnormal screening tests and treatment services if needed, developing and
disseminating public information and education related to the detection and control of
breast and cervical cancer, improving training of health professionals in the detection of
these cancers, and finally, evaluating program activities through the establishment of
The program targets cervical cancer screening services to women who are hard to reach
and are unlikely to seek a Pap test because of cultural, language, monetary or
institutional barriers. As a major public health program, our overall concern must be to
reach the largest number of unscreened, eligible women as possible. Thus, we also consider
all women who do not receive regular Pap tests a priority population for the program.
Currently, the national program follows cervical cancer screening guidelines that are
consistent with the consensus guidelines developed by the American Cancer Society and
Providing cervical and breast cancer health education and outreach services is an
essential component to the NBCCEDP. With technical guidance, our funded programs have
developed projects that are focused on specific at-risk populations and cover a wide range
of prevention and research activities. For example, many programs are involved with
developing low literacy, bilingual and culturally appropriate educational materials that
are used in a myriad of unique training and outreach programs and educational campaigns.
These various strategies used by the different programs result in the common goal of
increasing knowledge and awareness of breast and cervical cancer and promoting screening
for early detection.
CDC partners with many national organizations to address issues related to breast and
cervical cancer screening in priority populations. For instance, CDC funds the American
Social Health Association to formulate a national model for the prevention of cervical
cancer, using two counties in North Carolina as pilot sites and focusing upon economically
disadvantaged Hispanic and African-American populations and women living in hard-to-reach
urban and rural areas. This cervical cancer prevention project consists of developing and
delivering culturally appropriate media messages, educational materials, client support
services, and health education workshops in the community setting.
CDC is committed to increasing the awareness, availability and use of cervical cancer
screening services for women. The main purpose of cervical cancer screening is not to find
cancer, but to find precancerous lesions. Early detection and treatment of precancerous
cervical lesions identified by Pap screening can actually prevent cervical cancer; thus,
the success of any cervical cancer screening program depends on the early detection, case
management and treatment of precancerous cervical lesions.
The breast and cervical cancer program has provided more than 1.1 million Pap test to a
total of more than 700,000 women. With existing resources, the national program is able to
screen 12%-15 percent of the eligible population annually. Almost half of the women
screened are from minority racial and ethnic groups. Of Pap tests provided, about 3
percent were abnormal; more than 31,000 cases of precancerous lesions were ultimately
diagnosed, and 508 women were diagnosed with invasive cervical cancer. These statistics
illustrate a key point for this essential public health program. The main purpose of
cervical cancer screening is to find precancerous lesions, treat them, and cure them, so
that these women do not go on to be diagnosed with cervical cancer. Of all the women
diagnosed with cervical disease through our program, fewer than 2 percent actually had a
diagnosis of cancer. The program has potentially averted cancer in more than 31,000 women!
This underscores the success of Pap testing and emphasizes the proven strategy that we as
public health practitioners can use to fight this cancer.
As mentioned earlier, the success of any cervical cancer screening program depends on
the early detection and treatment of precancerous cervical lesions. But we must also work
hard to screen those women who are not regularly screened elsewhere. Research has shown
that they are at the greatest risk for developing cervical cancer. This is the hardest
part of our job, but one we cannot ignore. The National Breast and Cervical Cancer Early
Detection Program will continue to develop strategies to find those women and provide the
life-saving benefit of Pap smear screening.
Thank you for your interest in the cervical cancer early detection activities at CDC. I
would be pleased to answer any questions you may have.
|
<urn:uuid:dfb087ac-82af-4773-b163-24dd3b2fe840>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.hhs.gov/asl/testify/t990316b.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783404826.94/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155004-00011-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.941259 | 2,520 | 2.96875 | 3 |
- The Group for the East End
joined with over 20 organizations from the environmental and health communities to protect Long Island's drinking water supply. These groups are urging the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC) to use its legal authority to ban the three pesticides that are most prevalent in Long Island's drinking water supply.
These toxic chemicals are making their way into the underground water supply or into our local surface waters, posing threats to the health of humans and animals. The solution is clear - ban the most harmful pesticides and create a plan to eliminate all pesticides from Long Island's drinking water supply. The DEC has legal authority to adopt a zero tolerance policy for pesticides in groundwater within the Long Island Pesticide Use Management Plan, and environmental advocates are calling for action. A letter of comment on the DEC's most recent plan was submitted by all groups on January 6, 2012.
"The science of pesticide development and standards for application must evolve over time if we are serious about protecting human and environmental health, and creating a safe and sustainable agricultural future for Long Island," said Bob DeLuca, President of Group for the East End.
A total of 123 pesticides have been detected by the DEC in drinking water wells on Long Island. Among the most prevalent and toxic are atrazine, metalaxyl, and imidacloprid. Though it was banned in Europe, atrazine is one of the most widely used herbicides in the U.S. and has been linked to cancer. Metalaxyl is a fungicide that can cause kidney and liver damage, and it is toxic to birds. Imidacloprid, a chemical that is toxic to fish and shellfish, is found in many common products for lawns, pets, and in households. This chemical has been found in wells clustered throughout the North Fork of Long Island, with some wells revealing imadacloprid in concentrations that exceed drinking water standards by 800 percent.
"When the pesticide Temik was found in over 1,000 Long Island wells in 1979, we learned that local conditions can have a major impact on the fate of pesticides in our environment," said DeLuca. "Today, we face a rising level of new pesticide threats to Long Island's drinking water and we must confront these threats with the same conviction that got Temik out of the local market nearly 35 years ago."
Organizations involved in this endeavor include ABCO, Citizens Campaign for the Environment, Friends of the Bay, Group for the East End, Sierra Club LI Group, Long Island Pine Barrens Society, and Sustainability Institute at Molloy College.
Group for the East End protects and restores the environment of eastern Long Island through education, citizen action, and professional advocacy.
For more information, click here.
|
<urn:uuid:bdca7e77-f29e-4bfd-80d1-6f1beeff917a>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.hamptons.com/North-Fork/Headlines/16296/Group-For-The-East-End-Urges-DEC-To-Ban.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783400572.45/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155000-00020-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.949876 | 565 | 2.59375 | 3 |
LEGO may be a Danish abbreviation for “play well”, but students at H-B Woodlawn have used the toy blocks to create a functioning robot, and in the process generated innovative ways to preserve the world’s oceans.
The H-B Woodlawn LEGO Robotics team finished in second place at the Northern Virginia regional tournament two weeks ago and participated in the state championships on Dec. 4.
The team, nicknamed the “Shark Bytes,” won first place in the research project portion of the regional tournament, which was held on Nov. 20 at Eagle Ridge Middle School in Ashburn.
At the state championships, held at Virginia Tech, the team improved upon its previous scores, but did not win any awards in the competitive 66-team field.
The theme of this year’s international competition was “Ocean Odyssey,” and groups presented methods to promote ocean conservation. During the competition the robot performed ocean-themed missions, such as rescuing a toy dolphin, recovering sunken treasure and protecting a pumping station.
Eight students, aged 11-13, spent more than eight weeks designing and building their robot, which consists of 150 different LEGO blocks and gears. The robot is approximately 8 inches long and 4 inches wide, possesses three motors to move its wheels and manipulate its arms and has three sensors to guide its navigation.
“This was such a creative bunch of kids,” said Andrew Tarr, who mentored the team, which included his son Harrison. “They took it very seriously and every kid was involved and contributed.”
TEAMS WERE JUDGED in four separate categories: robot performance, robot design, teamwork and the research project. In the regional tournament the H-B Woodlawn group finished fifth of eight teams in the robot obstacle course, but their research project so impressed judges that they accumulated enough points to be invited to the championships.
The obstacle course was held on a 5-foot by 10-foot field, and the robot had to maneuver around LEGO obstacles and perform the ocean-themed tasks. In the regional tournament the robot struggled to put up a flag without running over it, said Maliek Wilson, a seventh-grader at H-B Woodlawn. But in the championships the robot was able to perform a greater number of tasks, Tarr said.
“Sometimes these robots don’t go the way you think they are going,” Tarr said. “It’s difficult to control the size of their turns.”
What impact fishing has on the shark population was the focus of the team’s research project. The students concocted a device to be placed on large fishing nets that would repel sharks by emitting a chemical. For the presentation, the students devised a mock newscast to portray how various industries and individuals are directly impacted by sharks.
“We were working since day one on the project and came in during weekends and after school,” Wilson said.
Besides improving their engineering techniques and learning how to write better programs, the students discovered the importance of teamwork, Tarr said.
“The kids learned that each person has a different approach to a problem and all of them are valid,” Tarr said. “They learned that if they listen to each other they can come up with something better than they can do on their own.”
Though the team will not be bringing any medals back to Arlington, the students exceeded their expectations and had fun competing, Tarr said.
“The awards are not the important part for the kids,” he added. “They were excited that their robot performed well and they all want to come back next year.”
|
<urn:uuid:36f58c4d-6e6a-4c26-9bfb-b0f18d26fc75>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.connectionnewspapers.com/news/2005/dec/06/wining-one-block-at-a-time/
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399117.38/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.975379 | 777 | 2.546875 | 3 |
How to prevent unintentional injuries
Many unintentional injuries and emergencies can be prevented by reevaluating your family's environment, lifestyles, and risks. Early detection and a prompt response is crucial in keeping situations manageable, and from becoming an emergency.
It is important to be alert and to follow a program designed to help you and your family stay safe.
Follow safety rules and guidelines:
Supervise all children's activities, especially swimming.
Install safety devices in your home, such as smoke detectors, hand rails, and fire extinguishers.
Maintain heating equipment, and unplug supplemental heaters when sleeping.
Develop and practice using a fire escape route and plan, and make sure each family member knows what to do in case of emergency.
Set your water heater thermostat to 120 degrees Fahreinheit (49 degrees Celsius) or below to prevent scald burns.
Wear appropriate safety equipment at home, work, or play.
Always insist that all passengers are wearing seat belts, and that children are restrained in car seats properly.
Make sure small children are always seated in the rear seat.
Read and understand the labels on medications and food products.
Store medications and potential poisons in a safe place, away from children.
Keep a well-stocked, first-aid kit at home, work, and in the car.
Keep a list of emergency numbers in your home, business, and place of play, including the police, fire department, poison control center, local emergency service (if different than 911), local hospital, and family doctor.
|
<urn:uuid:54d0774c-7d59-44d9-8f4d-07256514bd6f>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.stvincent.org/Health-Library/Greystone-Adult/Preventing-Unintentional-Injuries-Overview.aspx
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783398216.41/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154958-00195-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.941078 | 321 | 3.453125 | 3 |
|Name: _________________________||Period: ___________________|
This test consists of 15 multiple choice questions and 5 short answer questions.
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Where does Frank's father's give the boys money to visit?
(b) Air show
(c) Air plane graveyard
2. What punishment does Henry get from his father when he brings home the note from the principal?
(a) Beating with a razor strop
(b) Whipping with a belt
(c) Whipping with a branch
(d) Beating with a wooden spoon
3. Why do the other players say that Henry should play on the baseball team that plays teams from other schools?
(a) Because Henry makes a great catch
(b) Because the others want Henry away from the school
(c) Because he hits a home run
(d) Because Henry beats up a lot of students
4. What did Henry find odd about his grammar school teacher?
(a) She only spoke to the girls in the class.
(b) She had two different colored eyes.
(c) She couldn't speak English.
(d) She never went to the bathroom.
5. With whom does Henry spend most of his free time?
(d) Lila Jane
6. What were Katherine and Betsy making when Henry and his family visited?
(a) Peanut butter sandwiches
(c) Chicken sandwiches
7. Which of the following homophones did Henry's father use in a joke?
(a) Pee and pea
(b) Carrot and caret
(c) Flower and flour
(d) Bear and bare
8. What does Frank like?
9. In what year did Henry's memory take place?
10. Why did Henry's family come to America?
(a) To avoid prison for his father.
(b) It is not explained.
(c) To live near his relatives who had already moved to America.
(d) To escape debts in Germany.
11. What was odd about his parents when Henry visited his grandfather?
(a) They were always berated by his grandfather.
(b) They never got out of the car.
(c) They would call his grandfather nasty names.
(d) They refused to make eye contact with his grandfather.
12. Why does David's mother berate him when he arrives home from school when Henry walks him home?
(a) He stole potato chips from her
(b) He has a bloody nose
(c) He brought a friend home from school
(d) His shirt is torn
13. What would Henry lose when he got through the afternoon fights with the other boys at school?
(a) His homework
(b) His teeth
(c) The need to relieve himself
(d) The frustration from living with his father
14. What do Frank and Henry sell to the Jewish ladies who sit on the benches at the beach?
(a) Home-made muffins
(d) Sea shells
15. What sport does Henry imagine that he is great at playing?
Short Answer Questions
1. What does Henry do which makes Chuck, Eddie, Frank and Gene upset with him for a few weeks?
2. When is Henry first exposed to other children?
3. What does Henry tell the principal?
4. What term does Henry use to describe sperm?
5. Where do Henry and Red go together occasionally?
This section contains 499 words
(approx. 2 pages at 300 words per page)
|
<urn:uuid:d8a48a93-edcf-4f77-b807-e6fa28097a75>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.bookrags.com/lessonplan/ham-on-rye/test1.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783399522.99/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154959-00116-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.955225 | 757 | 3.1875 | 3 |
1. Acourtia runcinata (D. Don) B. L. Turner, Phytologia. 38: 460. 1978.
Featherleaf desertpeony, desert paeonia
Clarionia runcinata Lagasca ex D. Don, Trans. Linn. Soc. London 16: 207. 1830
Plants 5–35 cm. Leaves basal; petioles 0.5–9 cm; blades oblong-oblanceolate, 2.5–23 cm, bases cuneate, margins pinnately lobed (lobes ovate), spinulose-dentate, apices acute, faces hirtellous and/or finely stipitate-glandular. Heads borne singly or 2–3 together (on scapiform peduncles). Involucres turbinate, 14–17 mm. Phyllaries in 2–4 series, lanceolate to subulate (3–15 mm), margins glandular-hairy, apices acuminate, abaxial faces glandular. Receptacles reticulate, hispidulous. Florets 25–53; corollas pink or lavender-pink, 12–22 mm. Cypselae fusiform to linear-fusiform, 4–8 mm, stipitate-glandular and/or hispidulous; pappi tan or white, 1–17 mm. 2n = ca. 54.
Flowering year round (mostly Mar–Aug). Juniper forests, oak woodlands, dry matorral, desert scrub on calcareous, sandy clay, and gypsiferous soils; 0–1600 m; Tex.; Mexico (Chihuahua, Coahuila, Hidalgo, Nuevo León, San Luis Potosí, Tamaulipas).
Acourtia runcinata is the most widespread species of the genus, within which it is unique in possessing fasciculate, tuberous-fusiform roots. In the flora, it grows in central and southwestern Texas.
|
<urn:uuid:462e9934-f88f-40c7-8b7d-4de8175b5d15>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=250066007
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783392159.3/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154952-00074-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.665174 | 434 | 2.796875 | 3 |
Popular Science Monthly/Volume 32/December 1887/The Color of Words
By N. E. NEWELL.
THERE are some curious things in regard to the way in which the human mind is affected by colors as well as the human sight. We are all familiar with what is termed color-blindness, and the unexpected results that sometimes attend it; but color-sound is something which has received much less investigation.
How much, or in what way, animals are affected by colors, is not very well understood; but the subject has been investigated enough to know that they are influenced by them, and the future will probably bring out some surprising results to the one who shall thoroughly cultivate this comparatively unexplored field of research.
Some people can select and appreciate the colors of sounds; and to them the speaking of a name presents, mentally, a well-defined color, or combination of colors, different names having different shades or combinations.
The same name should, of course, always present the same color, or combination, when spoken, although, to different people, possessing the faculty, a given name or sound does not present the same characteristics. To prove the first of these two facts, a list of names was prepared, and the shade or color given by a lady who has this power, marked against each one of the list. After several weeks the names were again read to her, and the colors designated by her marked. This course was pursued several times during a year or more, the lady not being allowed to see the results in that time. During these several experiments the only variations in the answers given were such as would be natural where there was some uncertainty in regard to terms: for example, the answer to a given name at one time might be, "bluish," and at another, "lead-color"; so, what was called "straw-color" might be afterward called "buff." The approach to similarity in the shades shows that the same mental picture was present, and only language was at fault.
With one or two exceptions these were the only changes noted in the several trials; and the extent to which the experiments were carried warrants the belief that there was a well-defined idea of the color of words.
A few years ago a New York physician had two patients that probably had this faculty of the mind abnormally developed: one had a horror of all words in which the letters ch were placed; and the other was taken with hysterics at a certain shade of blue. Whether or not the latter case has any bearing on the subject, may be questioned; but it seems as though a perception so acute in regard to certain colors would involve the power of word-coloring.
Following are the words and the colors assigned to them in the experiments noted above, including a few double numbers: 1, black; 2, light-cream; 3, dark-cream; 4, brownish-red; 5, black; 6, tancolor or cream; 7, greenish-black; 8, dark-straw; 9, mud-color; 10, black; 21, black and straw; 22, light-cream; 23, dark strawcolor; 24, light and brown.
Some three years ago Professor E. S. Holden contributed a paper to "Science" on "Visualized Numbers," in which examples were given that differ in some points from the results obtained by the writer. For the purpose of comparing, I quote from Professor Holden's article: "1, black; 2, cream; 3, blue; 4, brown; 5, white; 6, crimson-pink; 8, white; 9, greenish; 10, brown."
It will be seen that where there is a variation it is a radical one. I do not attempt to explain the reason, but state it as a curious example of mental idiosyncrasy.
Following some familiar names are given, and the color of each, and also the letters of the alphabet: Mary, dark-red; Abbie, tan; Lucy, dark-blue; Richard, light-gray; Atalanta, steel-gray; Charlotte, light-red; Claire, light-blue; Kewcomb, dark-red; Lincoln, black; Morse, brown; Newhall, gray-black; Frank, dark-green; A, lightstraw; B, gray; C, tan; D, blue; E, black; F, black; G, lightstraw; H, red; I and J, black; K, blue; L, black; M, brown; N, dark-blue; O, light-red; P, light-green; Q, blue; R and S, lightstraw; T, green; IT, gray; V, yellow; W, blue; X, gray; Y and Z, dark-brown.
"Color-hearing" has been considered in "The Popular Science Monthly" [August, 1883]. I quote from the article: "There are, in fact, persons who are endowed with such sensibility that they could not hear a sound without at the same time perceiving colors." These are the colors of sounds, and the sound of colors is what can be regarded as another branch of the same scientific mystery. Dr. Sophus Trombolt has investigated in this direction and according to the testimony of one hundred and forty-four persons in Norway in relation to the emission of sound by the northern lights, ninety-two were found who believed in such sounds, and fifty-three asserted that they had heard them. The sound was described as sizzling, hissing, whizzing, crackling, rushing, rippling, rolling, flapping, creaking, and roaring.
[Note by the Editor.—Connected with this subject it may be well to recall an interesting relation of experiences which was started several years ago by Mr. Francis Galton, respecting what he designated "visualized numerals," and the association of colors with various numbers. The term "visualized numerals" in its simplest sense means the conception, or mental vision, when any number is spoken or thought of, of that number as it is written, the power to form which may extend in some cases to lines of considerable length. In a fuller sense the terra means more, and may be associated with very curious shapes and orders in which the digits or numbers arrange themselves, of which a considerable variety have been described by Mr, Galton and his correspondents, and by M. Jaques Bertillon. One correspondent reported to Mr. Galton that when a child he counted by imaginary cards from one to ten, and his little boy in the same way used an imaginary domino; another pictured numbers in groups of so many dots; to the same person, the numbers, from the part they played in the multiplication-table, had been personified. Thus, 9 was a wonderful being of whom he felt almost afraid; 8 was his wife; "and there used always to seem a fitness in 9x9 being so much more than 8x8"; 7 was masculine; 6, of no particular sex, but gentle and straightforward; 3, a feeble edition of 9, and generally mean; 2, young and sprightly; 1, a commonplace drudge. "In this style the whole multiplication-table consisted of the actions of living persons, whom I liked and disliked, and who had, though only vaguely, human forms." Mr. George Bidder, who was known in early life as "the calculating-boy," saw the numbers arranged in their order along a concavely-scalloped curve, the first part of which, comprising the first ten numbers, followed the arrangement of figures on a clock-face.
Another person's experience was to see the numbers arranged in association with certain colors up to 108. After 108 the notion of place became hazy and indistinct, though visualization was still possible, with effort. This writer as a child had a great liking for 6, arising, possibly, from his desire to be six years old. He was also very fond of blue, the color which he associated with 6. One of this writer's sisters saw numerals in a differently arranged diagram, and the figures themselves colored, each its own color. Another sister and a brother saw the figures in diagrams, but less clearly. The effects of heredity were strongly marked in two families of cousins. A sister in the first family saw the figures up to 200 in a rather complicated arrangement in a kind of cloud-land of different degrees of shading; another sister saw them ascending in a directly perpendicular line in front of the eye up to 1,000, when they became vague and seemed to turn to the left. A brother saw them in a straight line from left to right, black, on a ground varying in illumination—the millions in a vague, bright distance to the right. Other members of these families associated them with figures or with linear arrangements peculiar to themselves.
To another writer the figures presented themselves in an intricate curve, in which "the zero-point never moves; it is in my mind; it is that point of space known as 'here,' while all other points are outside, or 'there.' When I was a child, the zero-point began the curve; now it is a fixed point in an infinite circle." To another, who saw the numerals arranged for the most part in a regular row, like park palings, they appeared as far as 12 to be concealed in black shadow; from 12 to 20 was illuminated space, in which he could distinguish no divisions. A person who was described as a mathematical astronomer, of rapidly-rising reputation, saw the numbers in a straight row, while be would be standing a little on one side. They went away in the distance, so that 100 was the farthest number be could see distinctly. The row was dusky-gray, and paler near to the observer. The tens were marked by a kind of fleecy lumps.
M. d'Abbadie made a communication on the peculiarities of numerical vision to the Anthropological Society of Paris, and this led M. Jaques Bertillon to relate his experiences in the matter, beginning with the time when he learned to count. "I connected," he says, "each of the numbers as it was taught me with some object in our garden, so that when I went over the series I would in imagination walk along an alley that led from the house to the end of the garden. Thus, an indestructible association of ideas arose between the figures and the plants in the garden: the figure 1 became attached to a chestnut-tree that marked the beginning of the walk, the figure 5 to a bench near it, the figure 7 to a tub farther on, the number 14 to a little laurel; 30 and the following figures were lost in a dark avenue of trees that terminated the walk; while beyond 40 the numbers ceased to be associated with any object, probably because I had not learned to count further when I made the pleasant associations. If I wished to add 14 and 5, I would in fancy go to the place (the laurel-bush) that 14 occupied in the garden, and go some steps farther to 19. The puerile work was wholly involuntary; and I well recollect when my tendency to proceed thus was almost invincible. I had another process for fractions: the idea of ¼, for example, was directly associated with the idea of a quarter of an hour marked on the clock; and if I had to add ¼ and ⅓, I imagined the hand pushed forward twenty minutes, or one third of an hour, and I immediately had the result, 7. I was not able, however, to calculate any fractions in this way the denominators of which were not factors of 60."
A professor of mathematics in Geneva saw the numbers in a zigzag line which made turns at 10 and at 60, up to 116, and no further, and added to his description that when young he likened some sounds to colors: a grave sound was black, a less grave one, red; an acute sound, yellow; a very acute one, bright yellow.
Another correspondent saw the numbers arranged in their regular orders in a system of lines—the first 10 in a horizontal line, the next 10 in a line perpendicular to it, the third 10 in a line running diagonally from right to left, the numbers from 30 to 90 in a perpendicular line parallel to the line of the second series, and the larger numbers to 1,000 in a line running from right to left parallel with the first one. The vision stopped at 1,000.
To another correspondent of M. Bertillon's the numbers presented themselves—not very clearly distinct from one another—in a descending column, quite narrow down to 10, where it doubled in width; from 16 to 20 the column swelled out till it formed a rectangle twice as broad as the double column from 10 to 16; passing 20, the column narrowed again, changed direction, and ascended perpendicularly, but in such a way that it was impossible to tell how the new column was connected with the former descending column; but it went up, whatever might be the fate of the other column, presenting its rectangular swelling at every 10. Passing 50, it curved to the right, still retaining its dimensions and its swelling at every 10, then descended in a curve to 100, where the vision stopped.
All of the seers so far quoted had the numbers presented to them in a plane. One other one described his vision as that of an arrangement around the three sides of a triangular prism. On the first face appeared the first 30 numbers, running in a zigzag line, 10 and 30 being seen at apical angles, 20 at a depressed angle; on the second face the numbers from 30 to 100 ran in a straight horizontal line; and on the third face those from 100 to 1,000 in a straight ascending line. The spiral returning to the first face of the prism, the numbers from 1,000 to 30,000 appeared upon it in a zigzag line parallel to the first line of 1 to 30. The second face again contained the numbers from 30,000 to 100,000, and the third face those from 100,000 to 1,000,000 in lines parallel to the other lines on the same faces.]
|
<urn:uuid:d3557e6e-8f63-49d2-a393-2b2a4ad4bbfa>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_32/December_1887/The_Color_of_Words
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783396106.25/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154956-00002-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.97551 | 2,965 | 3.5625 | 4 |
Conservation Department hatcheries have been in production for more than 75 years and annually produce millions of fish. In addition to raising sport fish, MDC hatcheries also participate in research and breeding of rare or threatened animals such as mussels, Topeka shiners and hellbenders. Recent improvements to these facilities will ensure that their role in Missouri’s management of aquatic animals will continue into the future.
Bennett Spring, Maramec Spring, Montauk, Roaring River and Shepherd of the Hills
Improvements to the five cold water hatcheries focused on facility efficiency and increasing production space for early development stages of trout.
To increase the number of fish they can produce, Shepherd of the Hills, Roaring River and Montauk installed liquid oxygen systems. Montauk combined their liquid oxygen system with a recirculation pump and a backup power source. During flooding events, the combination of these systems protects existing trout production from muddy water with low oxygen levels. The liquid oxygen system at Roaring River is used with a recirculation pump that maintains oxygen levels in raceways during periods of low spring water flows and oxygen levels. At Shepherd of the Hills, a liquid-oxygen system is used to combat low-oxygen levels from water received from Table Rock Lake before turnover.
Roaring River, Maramec and Bennett Spring renovated and repaired existing raceways that allowed water loss, thus making them more efficient. Shepherd of the Hills installed covers on raceways to prevent fish loss from kingfishers, green herons and great blue herons. Maramec also installed covers that keep fish from leaving raceways during flooding.
Shepherd of the Hills and Bennett Spring each had a new facility built. The Shepherd of the Hills facility is dedicated to producing brown trout. The Bennett Spring facility is dedicated to producing rainbow trout eggs, fry and fingerlings.
Blind Pony, Chesapeake, Hunnewell and Lost Valley
A variety of improvements are underway at all four warm water facilities that will increase fish production, reduce costs and ensure that hatchery infrastructure will last many years to come. Paddlewheel aerators will be installed at all four warm water hatcheries. These aerators provide high levels of oxygen in the pond water while reducing fresh water needs.
Pond water control structures and harvest kettles are being replaced at Blind Pony and Hunnewell hatcheries. These structures control water into and out of the pond. When a pond is drained, the harvest kettle is where all the fish are collected, counted and weighed prior to being loaded on a delivery truck.
Expansion of the hatchery production room at Blind Pony will begin in the near future. This improvement will provide needed egg, fry and fingerling production space.
Modifications have been made on several ponds at Lost Valley to eliminate groundwater under the pond liners. This will allow the pond to drain out totally and the fish to reach the harvest kettle. Bird netting is being installed on several ponds at Lost Valley to protect fish from bird predators.
At Cheseapeake, a diesel-powered pump was replaced with an electric pump to supply a more consistent and less expensive water supply for the hatchery. A monitoring/alarm system and flow meters have been installed to monitor water flows, water temperatures, heat pumps and water supply pumps.
MDC partnered with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to use Sport Fish Restoration Act funds to help with up to 75 percent of the total construction cost. These improvements will allow MDC hatcheries to operate much more efficiently, making the best use of available production space while conserving water and energy demands. With these improvements, our hatcheries are ready to produce fish for another 75 years for Missouri anglers.
Editor In Chief - Ara Clark
Managing Editor - Nichole LeClair Terrill
Art Director - Cliff White
Staff Writer - Bonnie Chasteen
Staff Writer - Jim Low
Photographer - Noppadol Paothong
Photographer - David Stonner
Designer - Stephanie Thurber
Artist - Mark Raithel
Circulation - Laura Scheuler
|
<urn:uuid:0ae429d9-bedc-41a7-bddd-5a233bda304c>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/2011/12/hatchery-improvements
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397695.90/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00065-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.925547 | 847 | 2.828125 | 3 |
School Science/Mercury cleanup
||Mercury is HIGHLY toxic. Under no circumstances should children or pregnant women attempt to clean up a mercury spill|
Mercury and most of its compounds are extremely toxic. Spillage requires specific cleaning procedures to avoid toxic exposure. Inhalation and contact with the skin are dangerous. If you are handling mercury in a school and you spill some you should follow your school's procedure. This will almost certainly involve immediately contacting a teacher or other member of the staff.
Under no circumstances should you try and clean up a spill with a broom or vacuum cleaner. These can cause the mercury to disperse into small droplets or become vapour - both of which are more dangerous.
|
<urn:uuid:5b16bc4a-d6d6-48ff-9d72-33d9b21ae412>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/School_Science/Mercury_cleanup
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783402516.86/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624155002-00165-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.937215 | 146 | 2.640625 | 3 |
August 23, 2004
2,400BC golden mask of Thracian king
Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov holds a 2,400-year-old golden mask he discovered Thursday in the tomb of a Thracian king in Shipka, Bulgaria. The solid gold mask “has no comparison in the world,” said Kitov, who believes it may depict the image of King Seutus III.
Toronto Star. Aug. 21, 2004. 01:00 AM.
Golden mask `sensational'
Artifact unearthed in Bulgaria
Find may depict ancient king
SHIPKA, Bulgaria—A Bulgarian archaeologist has unearthed a 2,400-year-old golden mask in the tomb of an ancient Thracian king — a find he says is unrivalled in the study of classical antiquity.
"It is sensational," said Georgi Kitov, who found the mask Thursday near the village of Shipka, 200 kilometres east of Sofia.
He believes it may depict King Seutus III, a 5th century BC leader of the Thracians, the dispersed tribes who once lived in parts of what is now modern-day Bulgaria, Romania, Macedonia, Turkey and Greece.
Kitov said the mask "has no comparison in the world," and may be a more significant find than the Mask of Agamemnon, the Greek hero described by Homer in the Iliad. It's one of the most famous images of Greek antiquity, and the centrepiece of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens.
"The Mask of Agamemnon was made of gold foil and weighs only 60 grams, while this mask weighs 690 grams (24 oz.) and is of solid gold," Kitov said.
The burial place was covered with six stone slabs, each weighing at least two tonnes. The king's remains have not yet been found, but excavations at the tomb continue.
The Thracians lived on the fringes of the Greek and Roman civilizations, often intermingling and clashing with the more advanced cultures until they were absorbed around 45 AD. Archaeological finds have provided most of what is known of the culture.
|
<urn:uuid:75ecbad5-5ef7-44af-8521-b6f692eb6919>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://dienekes.blogspot.com/2004/08/2400bc-golden-mask-of-thracian-king.html
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397565.80/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00025-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.9488 | 447 | 3.046875 | 3 |
Years ago the best thinking among genealogists included the necessity of creating a "preponderance of evidence" (a legal term). We looked to Donald Line Jacobus whose work far eclipsed the late 19th century seemingly self-serving and largely undocumented printed family histories. His example provided new standards for research. We consulted Cite Your Sources: A Manual for Documenting Family Histories and Genealogical Records by Richard S. Lackey hoping to get it right. During this time we experienced the emergence of the home computer with primitive genealogy management programs, but soon we were off and running.
Through all this, software kind of "ruled" as we became dependent on just "filling in the blanks" on a computer screen. If there wasn't a field for the information, some of us put the info in notes. Many did not. And those original programs had no source citation fields.
Then there was the development of the "Genealogical Proof Standard" described at the BCG website page and detailed in the BCG Genealogical Standards Manual. The esteemed Helen F. M. Leary explains "Science and the law are in agreement: there is only one way to prove kinships beyond reasonable doubt — DNA testing. As a genealogical standard, that is hardly practical. For at least the past 25 years, genealogists have tried to use another standard for judging the persuasiveness of evidence: the preponderance of the evidence — popularly called the POE. In practice, the results have been troublesome. During the summer of 1997, trustees of the Board for Certification voted to discontinue use of the term. They based that decision upon several factors [...]" See "Evidence Revisited: DNA, POE, and GPS," published originally in OnBoard 4 (January 1998.)
For many years now, US researchers have been following the development of "evidence" style citation and analysis as expressed by Elizabeth Shown Mills in Evidence! Citation and Analysis for the Family Historian and in Evidence Explained:Citing History Sources from Artifacts to Cyberspace now in its second edition. (I particularly like the first two chapters for the "reasoning" and I use the subsequent chapters as a "look-up" reference book for how to cite a source.)
We've been pleased as our genealogy management programs adopted forms for citing our sources that more closely align with Elizabeth Shown Mills' citation examples. Many of us have taken classes from Mrs. Mills' to work through citation challenges at APG Professional Management conferences and the like.
The result? We've become obsessed with the difference between an original and a derivative source. We are careful to determine whether information in that source is primary (first hand) or secondary (second hand), or any combination thereof. We've learned to resolve conflicting information and write about it in notes for an ancestor.
In other words, we're getting better at leaving a BIG AUDIT TRAIL for those that follow.
Happy family tree climbing!
Your friend in genealogy.
|
<urn:uuid:0cfa27b6-fdb5-4c39-ae27-6f78587ccafd>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://blog.dearmyrtle.com/2011/06/21st-century-genealogists-consider.html?pfstyle=wp
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783395160.19/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154955-00050-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.948893 | 622 | 2.65625 | 3 |
Booming Palm Oil Demand Fueling Climate Crisis
SINGAPORE - Indonesia's peatland forests are a ticking "climate bomb" and Kit Kats, Pringles and other palm oil-based products are lighting the fuse, global conservation group, Greenpeace said.
Clearing forests that grow on the country's thick carbon-storing peatland releases more than a billion tonnes of greenhouse gases a year, the group said at the unveiling of its "Cooking the Climate" report in Singapore.
"A handful of international corporations are ultimately responsible for slashing and burning Indonesia's peatlands," said Emmy Hafild, executive director of Greenpeace Southeast Asia.
"Some of the best-known brands are literally cooking the climate."
Greenpeace estimates that peatlands in Riau Province, on Sumatra island, store the equivalent of one year's global greenhouse emissions -- an estimated 14.6 billion tonnes of carbon.
About three million hectares (7.5 million acres) of these peatland forests are earmarked for conversion to palm oil plantations over the next decade, Greenpeace said.
This "climate bomb" is ticking loudly in the run-up to December's United Nations' climate change meeting in Bali, which is expected to debate forests' role in accelerating -- and slowing -- climate change, said Sue Connor, Greenpeace International Forests Campaigner.
"(If the Riau peatlands are cleared) it would wipe out any chance we have of keeping the temperature increase below two degrees Celsius," she said, referring to a threshold given by the UN's climate panel.
Palm oil is used in anything from body lotions and toothpaste to chocolate bars, crisps and as a component of biofuels, such as biodiesel.
It is the world's second most popular edible oil after soyoil.
FUEL FOR CRITICS
The report names multinationals such as Unilever, Nestle and Procter & Gamble, the makers of brands such as Flora margarine, Ben & Jerry's ice cream and Kit Kat chocolate bars.
Greenpeace says the companies are implicated in causing rainforest destruction in Southeast Asia.
But just as fans of the companies' chocolate bars and ice creams might not realize their snacks' global environmental impact, the companies were often also in the dark, Connor said.
While the link between peatland clearance and carbon emissions is well established, opaque global supply chains and lack of forest law enforcement in Indonesia make it impossible for end-users to guarantee their oil has come from plantations on legally cleared peat forests.
Greenpeace's recent investigation in Riau found one of Indonesia's ten-largest palm oil refiners, Duta Palma, had violated Indonesian law by clearing trees growing on peat deeper than the limit of three meters (10 feet) set by presidential decree, Connor said.
"The palm oil industry is out of control," she said.
"There's no way for the end user to know whether the oil comes from destructive sources or not... None of the oil is segregated by traders."
Even companies that are members of industry watchdog the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), whose goal is to verify sustainably grown palm oil, cannot be certain of the provenance of the product they are buying, she said.
"At the moment there is no certified oil. The rules are very weak."
Some of the companies named in the report are RSPO members.
Unilever, for example, is president of the board.
"Unilever was one of the founders of the RSPO -- an industry-led initiative set up in co-operation with the conservation organization WWF in 2003," the company says on its Web site.
Procter & Gamble isn't a member.
"We have not yet come up with a way to measure the sustainability of renewable materials or crops, such as wheat, coffee or palm oil," the company says on its Web site.
|
<urn:uuid:f40f0afb-1d2e-4a91-a3d9-a6b03c14bd34>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.enn.com/climate/article/24330
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783397795.31/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154957-00058-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.954553 | 821 | 2.609375 | 3 |
UC Berkeley Press Release
US experiment extending Daylight Saving Time unlikely energy saver, researchers say
BERKELEY – As the United States readies to launch Daylight Saving Time (DST) this Sunday (March 11) - three weeks earlier than previous years - residents can count on more sunshine later in the day, but not on saving energy, advise two University of California, Berkeley, Ph.D. students.
In a University of California Energy Institute working paper, Ryan Kellogg and Hendrik Wolff of UC Berkeley's Department of Agricultural & Resource Economics contend that the extension of DST won't cut back energy consumption by the proffered goal of 1 percent and could actually increase it.
Their study is the first to report that the extension of DST- the adjustment by an hour or so of standard time to more closely match the solar day with regular human activities - does not save electricity or promote more efficient energy usage.
"Does Extending Daylight Saving Time Save Energy? Evidence from an Australian Experiment" offers a detailed look at what happened in one of the two states in Australia that stretched out DST by two months to facilitate the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney.
The researchers' data included comparisons of half-hourly electricity consumption, prices and weather conditions in the state of Victoria, which extended DST, and its neighbor state, South Australia, which did not. The researchers avoided confounding their results with the direct effect of the Olympics by excluding from their analysis the two weeks during which the Olympics were held. They also excluded the state of New South Wales, where the games were hosted, and where construction could be expected to affect electricity consumption before and after the international competition.
"Our results show that the extension failed to conserve electricity," wrote the student researchers. In fact, they said, it appears that energy suppliers experienced higher peak loads in the mornings than before, and that morning wholesale electricity prices rose sharply in response.
"The decrease in evening electricity demand and the increase in morning demand almost perfectly balanced each other out," said Wolff, a native of Germany, in an interview, noting a slight but statistically negligible increase in overall usage.
The findings, the students said, have significant implications for Australia, which ranks highest in greenhouse gas emissions per capita worldwide and is considering making Daylight Saving Time permanent.
"Our results indicate that the claims that extending DST in Australia will significantly decrease energy use and (greenhouse gas) emissions are at best overstated, and at worst carry the wrong sign," wrote Kellogg and Wolff. "Also, while we cannot directly apply our results to other countries without adjustment for behavioral and climatic differences, this study raises concern that the U.S. is unlikely to see the anticipated energy conservation benefits from extending DST."
Meanwhile, the researchers said that the federal Department of Energy told the students it will officially respond to their work sometime in the coming weeks, and the California Energy Commission has expressed interest in revamping its own simulation models of electricity use. The commission in 2001 developed simulations that ultimately supported a California Senate resolution to drop Pacific Standard Time in favor of a year-round Mountain time zone designation - in essence, DST in the winter and double-DST in the summer.
The Australia report carries added import for Central California, said Wolff and Kellogg, because the two regions occupy similar latitudinal locations and typically record similar weather conditions during the time periods when they typically put DST into effect: October in Australia and April in California.
"What happened in Australia intuitively fits with what will likely happen here," said Kellogg, also a graduate student researcher at the UC Energy Institute. He said he will informally monitor energy usage in California this year during the first week or so of DST.
With the United States and other nations dependent on foreign oil emphasizing "oil above all else" in terms of energy policy, Wolff said, he and Kellogg suggested including gasoline consumption data in future analyses of the energy implications of extending Daylight Saving Time.
The pair began by reviewing 2005 national energy policy, which extolled the virtues of extending DST and claimed it would save 1 percent in electrical energy consumption daily - the equivalent of 100,000 barrels of oil.
That policy, said Kellogg and Wolff, relied on previous experience in the United States with the extension of DST that occurred in response to the Arab oil embargo of the early 1970s, when a recession and other energy conservation efforts may also have reduced electricity use.
"Until now, studies were restrained by a lack of recent observable data," said Kellogg, a Cleveland native. "No one until now knew how imperfect it was to rely on older work."
Both Wolff and Kellogg acknowledged that even without energy savings, Daylight Saving Time will have its boosters among those who enjoy evening outings in the sunshine and detractors among early morning joggers and others who dislike extended morning darkness.
"In the public mind, more important than any energy issue is, 'How is this going to affect my life?'" noted Kellogg. "Some people will really appreciate an extra hour of daylight."
Wolff recommended that DST - first instituted in the United States to save energy at the end of World War I - be removed as a component of national energy policy and assigned to other legislative and governmental forces that might consider it more in terms of its impact on traffic accidents, crime and culture. "For the 21st century, if we want to keep Daylight Saving Time," he said, "we should find better, more efficient arguments for it rather than just energy conservation."
|
<urn:uuid:1bb25775-8d46-4191-ae06-d8a9d5543f1d>
|
CC-MAIN-2016-26
|
http://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2007/03/08_dst.shtml
|
s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2016-26/segments/1466783391634.7/warc/CC-MAIN-20160624154951-00104-ip-10-164-35-72.ec2.internal.warc.gz
|
en
| 0.954057 | 1,136 | 3.15625 | 3 |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.