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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.where is carbonic acid found | Where is carbonic acid naturally found? Answers.com ® Wiki Answers ® Categories Science Chemistry Elements and Compounds Acids and Bases Where is carbonic acid naturally found? Flag Where is carbonic acid naturally found? Answer by Quirkyquantummechanic Confidence votes 96.6KCarbonic acid is normally found in the water of every ocean and sea, and in lakes and rivers, as well as in precipitation. Carbon dioxide exists in the atmosphere, and where ever air comes in contact with water in any form, carbonic acid forms (though it's less so with ice).11 people found this useful Was this answer useful? Yes Somewhat No Boomaster 5 Contributions How is carbon found in nature?it is found in my car exhaust fumes and under rocks. Edit:. Carbon can be found in many typical things including: Car exhaust, ashes, diamonds , etc.. diamonds are a form …Ramkishore Singh Rathore 9,008 Contributions Ph. D., F. B. S. is Ex- Head of Botany Department, R B S College, Agra and Ex- Principal Government College, Port Blair Where is carbon found in nature? In the organic matter and also in carbondioxide gas. Where are acids found in nature? Acids are fund in many places throughout nature including friuts on the trees, vegetation and much more.... Where is carbonic acid found? It is the reaction product of water and carbon dioxide and exists in an equilibrium with water and carbon dioxide whenever the latter is dissolved in the former, for instance …Jake Weatherby 139,353 Contributions Where is sulfuric acid found naturally? Sulfuric acid occurs naturally in volcanic lakes. Tigger68 424 Contributions How is carbonic acid formed in nature? H2O + CO2 -> H2CO3 The reaction is spontaneous when water ismixed with air. Really high concentrations require water mixed withdry ice or carbon dioxide under pressure. It is …Isaac Mc Ardle 154,498 Contributions Enthusiastic teacher and student of global warming and climate change. Where in nature is carbon dioxide found? Carbon dioxide is found abundantly in our atmosphere. As humansbreathe they release Carbon Dioxide. Plants also use Carbon Dioxideto create Oxygen or O2 molecules. Large parts …3u8rbba98edy2 92,787 Contributions Where is carbonic acid found in the body? The blood; it forms when carbon dioxide is dissolved there while being transported around the body. Kemanorel 404 Contributions In what form is carbon found in nature? I think the answer you're looking for is charcoal or diamons. Both are made of carbon. TBruff15 10 Contributions What form is carbon found in nature? Mostly the carbon found in nature is a gas Shadiya Milhan 44 Contributions What acids are found in natural acids? If you mean NATURAL as in ORGANIC then there are many Citric Acid - oranges, lemon Tartaric Acid - Grapes Ascorbic Acid - Citrus Fruits, Black Current Methanoic Acid - Nettle …What are acids found in nature?the natural acids found in nature are basically the organic acids like : citric acid (found in lemon), tomatoes ( oxalic acid),lactic acid in curds,acetic acid in vinegar. Citr …Answered In Rain and Flooding Can acid rain be found naturally? Yes it can,Answered In Gorillas Why is carbon dioxide acidic in nature? Because it is a combination of acid all acids have sour taste Answered In Acids and Bases Where is sulfuric acid found in nature?volcanic activity Norvellwisdom 12,735 Contributions Answered In Elements and Compounds Is carbon synthetic or can it be found in nature? Carbon can certainly be found in nature, but some of its radioactive isotopes are synthetic. Answered In Acids and Bases Is hydrochloric acid found in nature? Stomach acid is hydrochloric acid - the purest form of it. | . View Our Directions View in Google Maps View Our Directions View in Google Maps |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how long to cook boneless pork chops on george foreman grill | Easy Foreman Grill Pork Chops Recipe Easy Foreman Grill Pork Chops Recipe3.3 - 138 votes Grilling pork chops on your Foreman Grill is easy and delicious. Pork chops are very versatile and can be prepared any number of ways with ease. We recommend using center-cut boneless chops, cut to 1/2″ to 3/4″ thick for your Foreman Grill, to produce optimal results. Preheating your Foreman Grill for preparing preparing pork chops is essential as it sears in the flavors. Ingredients:2 center cut boneless pork chops (1/2″ – 3/4″ thick)Kosher salt to taste Fresh ground pepper to taste1 tsp olive oil Total time: 17 min – Prep time: 10 min – Cook time: 7 min Directions: Brush pork chops with olive oil and season to taste with salt and pepper. Additional seasonings of your choice can be added at this point. Preheat your George Foreman Grill for at least 5 minutes on high. Grill pork chops for 6-8 minutes (internal temperature of 145 F cooked to medium). When done, they should be slightly pink in the center. Pork chops are complimented well with side dishes of rice and fresh vegetables. | Boneless Pork Chops Community Pick Boneless Pork Chops (29)Recipe by Art Work“This is the best way I have found to make pork chops.”37people discussing Join In Now Upload Tweak Ask10Save recipe READY IN:25mins SERVES:4YIELD:4 pork chops UNITS: USIngredients Nutrition4 tablespoons olive oil2 teaspoons coarse salt1 teaspoon ground pepper4 boneless pork chops, 1/4 inch thick Directions Preheat oven to 400 degrees farenheit. Heat 2 tablespoons olive oil in oven proof skillet over medium heat. Sprinkle salt and pepper on both sides; add to skillet. Saute until golden brown: about 2 minute. Flip, cook two more minute. Place pan in oven; roast until cooked through. About 10- 20 minutes. Submit a Correction Advertisement Watch more Join the Conversationallreviewstweaksq & a SORT BY: |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.perquisite definition | perquisite Contents [ hide ]1 English1.1 Etymology1.2 Pronunciation1.3 Noun1.3.1 Derived terms1.3.2 Translations1.4 References2 Italian2.1 Verb3 Latin3.1 Participle3.2 References English [ edit]WOTD – 6 March 2016Etymology [ edit]From Medieval Latin perquīsītum ( “ something acquired for profit ”). Pronunciation [ edit] ( Received Pronunciation) IPA ( key): /ˈpɜːkwɪzɪt/ ( General American) IPA ( key): /ˈpɜɹkwəzɪt/Hyphenation: per‧qui‧site Noun [ edit]perquisite ( plural perquisites) ( mostly plural) Any monetary or other incidental benefit beyond salary . The perquisites of this job include health insurance and a performance bonus. A gratuity . After the wonderful service that evening he didn’t hesitate in laying a substantial perquisite on the table. A privilege or possession held or claimed exclusively by a certain person, group or class. quotations ▼Private jets and motor yachts are a perquisite of the rich. Derived terms [ edit]Commonly abbreviated as perq or perk. Translations [ edit]± show ▼ benefit beyond salary± show ▼ gratuity± show ▼ privilege References [ edit]W. Martin; G [uy] A. J. Tops, et al. (1998) Van Dale Groot Woordenboek Engels–Nederlands [ Van Dale Great Dictionary, English–Dutch ], volume I, 3rd edition, Utrecht; Antwerp: Van Dale Lexicografie, →ISBN. Italian [ edit]Verb [ edit]perquisitesecond-person plural present indicative of perquisiresecond-person plural imperative of perquisirefeminine plural of perquisito Latin [ edit]Participle [ edit]perquīsītevocative masculine singular of perquīsītus References [ edit]perquisite in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers | . Credio Find The Company Health Grove Inside Gov Moose Roots Pet Breeds Software Insider Start Class© 2017 Graphiq LLC All Rights Reserved. Terms Privacy Ad Choices and Cookie Policy |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is fnb omaha | First National of Nebraska From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search First National of Nebraska Type Private Company Traded as OTCQB : FINNIndustry Finance and Insurance Founded August 27, 1968Headquarters Omaha, Nebraska, United States Key people Bruce Lauritzen, Chairman Services Financial Services Website http://www.fnni.com First National of Nebraska is a privately held, interstate bank holding company based in Omaha, Nebraska, United States. Its largest banking subsidiary is First National Bank of Omaha. First National of Nebraska ranks as one of the 50 largest banks in the United States. There are locations in seven states and more than 6.6 million customers across the country. First National of Nebraska and its affiliates have more than $20 billion in managed assets and 5,000 employees. [1] As of June 30, 2009, First National of Nebraska had Shareholders' Equity of $1,116,225,000 with 315,000 shares outstanding and a Book Value Per Share of $3,544. [2]Contents1 History2 Ownership3 Board of directors4 Banking Subsidiaries4.1 First National Bank Omaha5 National business rankings6 Sponsorships7 See also8 References9 External links History [ edit]Name Position Years John F. Davis Chairman 1967–1972John R. Lauritzen President 1967–1972Chairman 1972–1994F. Phillips Giltner President 1972–1994Chairman 1994-Unknown Bruce R. Lauritzen President 1994-unknown Chairman current Dan O'Neill President 2001-2017Clark D. Lauritzen President current First National of Nebraska had its roots in the construction of First National Bank of Omaha 's headquarters building, First National Center, in the 1960s. It was determined that total expenses, including the $2.5 million already paid to Woodmen of the World and adjoining property owners for land, would come to $13.9 million. It became necessary to form a holding company because there is a statutory limitation on the amount of money a bank is allowed to invest in brick and mortar. The U. S. Code draws the line at 50 percent of the financial institution's capital and surplus account, and they had decided to invest as much in that building, literally, as First National's entire net worth. A parent corporation, acting technically in its own name and on its own behalf, can go ahead and incur a sizable debt for construction purposes without running afoul of federal law, as long as it owns at least 80 percent of its subsidiary's stock. With that in mind, First National Bank's directors created (August 27, 1968) and its shareholders approved (January 21, 1969) First National of Nebraska, Inc. [3]In 2008, Computer World named First National of Nebraska as the third best in a top 12 list of "Green-IT Companies" [4]Ownership [ edit]First National of Nebraska is a privately held company. Bruce Lauritzen is Chairman of First National of Nebraska, Inc. Lauritzen is also Chief Executive Officer of the Lauritzen Corporation, a financial and bank holding company owning additional banks in Nebraska and Iowa. [5] The Lauritzen Corporation has an approximate 28% voting share in First National of Nebraska, Inc. [6]Board of directors [ edit]The Board of Directors is chaired by Bruce Lauritzen, whose family owns a controlling interest in the Bank's ultimate holding company. The directors are family stockholders, independent directors, and members of the management of the Bank and its holding company. [7]Bruce R. Lauritzen, Chairman Clark D. Lauritzen, President Margaret Lauritzen Dodge Roger A. Fleury George J. Behringer John W. Castle Thomas C. Stokes Bryan E. Slone Banking Subsidiaries [ edit]First National Bank Omaha [ edit]Main article: First National Bank Omaha National business rankings [ edit]Fifth-largest in-house credit card processor Top-ten commercial card issuer Eleventh-largest issuer of bank cards in the United States Top-twenty electronic funds processor Fifth-largest agricultural lender with customers in 49 states Largest commercial bank finance provider to the ethanol industry [8]Sponsorships [ edit]First National of Nebraska is a sponsor for the following: Colorado State Rams (First National Bank of Omaha)Creighton Bluejays (First National Bank of Omaha)Nebraska Cornhuskers (First National Bank of Omaha-Bank of Husker Nation)Northern Illinois University (First National Bank of Omaha)UNO Mavericks (First National Bank of Omaha)See also [ edit]Lauritzen Corporation for information on banks and holdings of the Lauritzens not part of First National of Nebraska, Inc. FNBO Direct First National Bank of Omaha References [ edit]^ (nd) [1]. Retrieved 5/13/2017.^ "Newsroom, First National Bank Omaha". First National Bank Omaha. Retrieved 2009-09-04.^ Szmrecsanyi, Dr. Stephen: "The First National Bank Story", page 83. First National Bank of Omaha, 1996^ Green IT Companies Retrieved 02/19/08^ Nebraska Business Hall of Fame - Bruce Lauritzen, 2006^ Federal Register Online via GPO Access - See note C.2.^ "Board of Directors, First National Bank Omaha". First National Bank. Retrieved 2008-12-17.^ "Company Facts, First National Bank of Omaha". First National Bank of Omaha. Retrieved 2009-06-25. External links [ edit]First National Bank Omaha Agent Issuing You Are Always First First National Equipment Financing has been merged with Diversified Financial Services, LLC in 2007. DFS is a Laurtizen company. Categories: Banks based in Omaha, Nebraska Financial services companies established in 1968Privately held companies based in Nebraska Kountze family | . 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.average temp juno beach | Juno Beach, FL Weather TODAYAPR 12TEMPERATURE 79 °FHUMIDITY 50 %PRESSURE 30.12 in Hg WIND COND. 80° 16.1 mph8174Fri20%8575Sat20% | 30%8366Sun70% | 70%7760Mon30%7464Tueday night Weather update from West Palm Beach - Palm Beach International Airport, on 12 Apr 14:53 pm EDT | . Radar Clouds Traffic Weather In Motion// eslint-disable-next-line Almanac Records & Averages Get records, averages & historic data Sponsored Content |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what organs are affected by pertussis | Whooping cough: What you should know Newsletter MNT - Hourly Medical News Since 2003Search Log in Newsletter MNT - Hourly Medical News Since 2003Search Login Whooping cough: What you should know Last updated Fri 19 May 2017By Christian Nordqvist Reviewed by University of Illinois-Chicago, School of Medicine Symptoms Causes Prevention and vaccines Diagnosis Treatment Complications Whooping cough, also known as pertussis, is an extremely contagious disease caused by the bacterium Bordetella pertussis. Whooping cough is also called the 100 days' cough in some countries. The condition gets its name from a distinctive hacking cough, which is followed by a high-pitched gasp for air that sounds like a "whoop. "Before vaccines, approximately 157 people per 100,000 developed whooping cough in the United States. There were peaks every 2-5 years. In 93 percent of cases, they were children under the age of 10. Experts say the real incidence at that time was much higher because not all cases were reported. After the introduction of mass vaccinations in the 1940s, whooping cough rates dropped to less than 1 per 100,000 by 1970. Today, it mainly affects children who are too young to have completed the full course of vaccinations, as well as adolescents whose immunity has waned. However, since 1980, numbers have started to creep back up. Fast facts on whooping cough Here are some key points about whooping cough. More detail and supporting information is in the main article. Whooping cough is caused by the Bordetella pertussis bacterium. Children who are not vaccinated are 23 times more likely to develop whooping cough. The bacterium is spread in tiny droplets of water when the patient coughs and sneezes. Infants with whooping cough are usually admitted to hospital for treatment. Symptoms Whooping cough symptoms start off mild and progress. Whooping cough symptoms usually appear 6-20 days after the Bordetella pertussis bacterium has infected the patient, in other words, pertussis has a 6-to-20 day incubation period. The illness starts off with mild symptoms, which then get much worse before improving. Initial signs and symptoms of pertussis are similar to those of the common cold: Initial symptomsblocked nosedry and irritating coughmalaise (general feeling of being unwell)mild feverrunny nosesore throatwatery eyesdiarrhea (sometimes)The above signs and symptoms are typical during the first week, after which, they become more severe. Later (paroxysmal) symptoms During the second "paroxysmal" stage, symptoms include: Severe bouts of coughing - a bout can last a couple of minutes. Sometimes, each bout comes so soon after the last that the patient has cluster bouts that last for tens of minutes. There are typically 10-15 bouts each day. During a bout of coughing, the patient eventually gasps for air between coughs and also immediately after the bout is over, producing a "whoop" sound. This is less common in very young children and babies - they may gag or gasp, or even stop breathing temporarily. Young children may become blue in the face (cyanosis) during a coughing bout. Although frightening for parents, it is virtually never as bad as it looks and breathing soon resumes. Coughing bouts may be followed by vomiting; this is more frequent among young children and babies. In adults and teenagers, whooping cough paroxysmal symptoms are less severe than in babies and young children - they are usually similar to the symptoms found in bronchitis. In very rare cases, whooping cough can cause sudden unexpected death in babies. Recovery stage In this stage, the patient starts showing signs of recovery. There are fewer bouts of coughing, which are also less intense. The recovery stage can take 3 or more months. Even in this stage, the patient can experience bouts of intense coughing. Causes Whooping cough is a bacterial infection caused by Bordetella pertussis. Infection occurs in the lining of the airways, principally in the trachea (the windpipe) as well as the bronchi (airways that branch off from the trachea to the lungs). As soon as Bordetella pertussis reaches the lining of the airways, it multiplies and paralyzes mucus-clearing components of the lining, causing an accumulation of mucus. As the mucus builds up, the patient tries to expel it by coughing; the coughing becomes more intense because there is so much mucus. As inflammation of the airways gets worse (they swell up), they become narrower, which makes it harder to breathe and causes the "whoop" when the patient tries to get their breath back after a bout of coughing. How does whooping cough spread? People who are infected with Bordetella pertussis can transmit the infection to others from 6-20 days after the bacterium entered their body to 3 weeks after the start of the "whooping" cough. The bacterium is transported in tiny droplets of water in the air. When the patient coughs and sneezes, hundreds of droplets of moisture are expelled into the air. If people nearby inhale some of this moisture, they are exposed and could become infected. Prevention and vaccines Prevention of whooping cough is key. If a family member is infected, it may be recommended that other family members be treated with antibiotics. The pertussis vaccine The pertussis vaccine prevents whooping cough. For the general population, the pertussis vaccine is available to prevent the illness; the DTa P vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. As part of the recommended immunization schedule, it is given to infants and children in a series of five injections. It is vital that pregnant mothers, as well as those who are in close contact with infants (newborns and babies up to 12 months of age), be vaccinated against pertussis. Whooping cough affects approximately 48.5 million people every year, of these, 295,000 will die. According to WHO (World Health Organization), pertussis is one of the leading causes of vaccine-preventable deaths globally. The majority of cases (over 90 percent) occur in low- and middle-income countries. Children of parents who will not let them be vaccinated are 23 times more likely to develop whooping cough compared with fully immunized children, researchers reported in the journal Pediatrics. Diagnosis and tests During its early stages, misdiagnosis is common, because the signs and symptoms are similar to those found in other respiratory diseases, such as bronchitis, the flu, and the common cold. Doctors can usually diagnose whooping cough by asking questions regarding symptoms and listening to the cough (the whooping cough sound stands out). The following diagnostic tests may be ordered: A throat or nose culture test - the doctor or nurse takes a swab or suction sample, which is sent to the lab and checked for the presence of the Bordetella pertussis bacterium. Blood tests - the doctor may want to know what the white blood cell count is. If it is high, it means there is probably some kind of infection. Chest X-ray - the doctor may want to see whether there is any inflammation or fluid in the lungs. If whooping cough is suspected in an infant, they may need to be diagnosed in a hospital. Treatment Infants are usually admitted to hospital for treatment because, for that age group, pertussis is more likely to lead to complications. Intravenous infusions may be required if the child is unable to keep fluids or food down. The infant will be placed in an isolation ward to make sure the disease does not spread. Older children, adolescents, and adults can usually be treated at home. Drugs Antibiotics are given to kill the bacterium Bordetella pertussis, and to help the patient recover faster. Antibiotics might be prescribed for household members too. Antibiotics also stop the patient from being infectious within 5 days of taking them. If pertussis is not diagnosed until the later stages, antibiotics will not be given, because, by then, the bacteria have gone. Corticosteroids - prescribed if the child has severe symptoms; these are administered together with antibiotics. Corticosteroids are powerful hormones (steroids) that are very effective at reducing inflammation in the airways, making it easier for the child to breathe. Oxygen - may be given through a facemask if additional help with breathing is needed. A bulb syringe may also be used to suction away mucus that has built up in the airways. Treatment for the cough - OTC (over-the-counter) cough medications are ineffective at relieving the symptoms of whooping cough, and doctors advise against their use. Unfortunately, there is not much that can be done about the cough. Coughing helps bring up phlegm that accumulates in the airways. Measures you can take at home For older children and adults, symptoms are usually less severe. The doctor may advise that the patient get: Plenty of rest. Consume plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. Try to keep excess mucus and vomit cleared from the airways and the back of the throat to prevent choking. Tylenol (acetimophen, paracetamol) or ibuprofen to relieve sore throat and reduce a fever. Do not give aspirin to children under 16. Complications Older children and adults - the majority of patients recover from pertussis with no complications or problems. In most cases, complications are caused by the strain of coughing so much and so intensely, and may include:a swollen faceabdominal herniasbroken blood vessels in the sclera (whites of the eyes)cracked or bruised ribsmouth and tongue ulcersnosebleedsotitis media (middle-ear infection)Infants and young children are much more susceptible to serious complications from whooping cough, including:pneumoniasevere dehydrationfits (seizures)hypotension (low blood pressure)kidney failureweight loss if they vomit excessively Temporary pause in breathing - if breathing difficulties are severe, there is a risk of brain damage due to oxygen deprivation (extremely rare). Pregnant mothers, people with a reduced immune system, and people with diabetes are more at risk of complications. Related coverage Vicks Vapo Rub May Lead To Respiratory Distress In Babies And Toddlers The popular remedy that parents rub on their children's chests to ease symptoms of cough and congestion could have the opposite effect and cause babies and young children to have... Read now Why do I cough after I eat? People may find they cough after eating food, and this may have many different causes. Learn more about the role of allergies and when to see a doctor here. Read now Lung cancer and cough: What is the connection? In this article, we look at the connection between coughing and lung cancer, including the causes of coughing, symptoms of lung cancer, and treatments. Read now Ten ways to relieve a nighttime cough Having a persistent cough that occurs at night can be irritating and prevent restful sleep. We look at ten ways to help relieve nighttime coughing. Read now Flu and colds: Why do we cough? Whether dry or chesty, coughing fits are customary when flu or the common cold is involved. But what causes us to cough? We investigate. Read nowemailshare Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses Pediatrics / Children's Health Respiratory Additional information Article last updated on Fri 19 May 2017. Visit our Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses category page for the latest news on this subject, or sign up to our newsletter to receive the latest updates on Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses. All references are available in the References tab. References Citations Spotlight on: Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses What is Pneumococcal Disease? Measles: Causes, Symptoms and Treatments Lyme Disease: Symptoms, Diagnosis and Treatments What causes black gums? Popular in: Infectious Diseases / Bacteria / Viruses'Game-changing' antibiotic can kill off superbugs Ten essential oils to relieve a cough Can you have internal shingles without a rash? These antibiotics may endanger vascular health Epithelial cells in urine: What does it mean? Popular news Editorial articles All news topics Knowledge center Your MNTLog in or sign up Newsletters Share our content About us Our editorial team Contact us Advertise with MNTget our newsletter Health tips, wellness advice and more. Subscribe Your privacy is important to us. Healthline Media UK Ltd, Brighton, UK.© 2004-2018 All rights reserved. MNT is the registered trade mark of Healthline Media. Any medical information published on this website is not intended as a substitute for informed medical advice and you should not take any action before consulting with a healthcare professional. Privacy | Terms | Ad policy | Careers | What Organs Are on the Left Side of the Body? Science Human Anatomy Organs Q: What Organs Are on the Left Side of the Body? A: Quick Answer Several organs are located on the left side of the body, including the left eye, the left ear, the left lung, the spleen, the left kidney, the bladder, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the left ureter, the left Fallopian tube and the left ovary. A handful of organs straddle both sides of the body, such as the skin, the nose, the mouth, the brain, the heart, the stomach, the small intestine, the large intestine and the rectum. In males, the left testicle is also considered a left side organ. Continue Reading Keep Learning What Organs Are Located on the Left Side of the Body? What Organs Are Behind the Left Rib Cage? What Organs Are in the Left Upper Quadrant? Credit: PIXOLOGICSTUDIO Science Photo Library Getty Images Full Answer Many left organs are mirrors, which means they have a counterpart on the other side of the body as well. These include the lungs, kidneys, ureter, Fallopian tubes and ovaries. In males, the testicles are also mirror organs. Approximately one in every 10,000 people is born with a condition called situs inversus, in which the organs are flipped; the left organs are located on the right and the right organs are on the left. Each organ is part of a larger body system, each with a different function. The nervous system is essentially mission control for the human body, sending messages throughout the body that tell it what to do. The brain is a major organ of the nervous system. The heart is part of the cardiovascular system, which pumps blood throughout the body. Blood contains oxygen, which is vital to human survival. This is why humans die if the cardiovascular system permanently ceases to pump blood. The spleen is part of the lymphatic system. The lymphatic system maintains the immune system, which fights disease and illness. The mouth, stomach, large intestine, small intestine, rectum and pancreas are the left-side organs of the digestive system, which breaks down food and dispenses food throughout the body. The bladder, ureter and kidney are part the system that dispenses waste from the body. This system is called the urinary system. The respiratory system, which helps humans breathe, encompasses the left lung and nose. The left testicle, left ovary and left Fallopian tube are part of the reproductive system, which consists of the organs that help humans reproduce. Learn more about Organs Sources: situsinversustotalis.com biology.about.com Related Questions Q: What Organ Is Behind the Lower Left Ribcage? A: The organs found behind the lower left ribcage include the spleen, the pancreas and the colon. The lower left ribcage is anatomically known as the left hyp... Full Answer >Filed Under: Organs Q: What Is Located Under the Ribs on the Left Side of Body? A: The spleen is an internal organ that can be found beneath the ribs on the left side of the abdomen. Many of the body's major organs rely on the rib cage to... Full Answer >Filed Under: Organs Q: On What Side of the Body Is the Pancreas Located? A: The pancreas is located on the left side of the body, explains John Hopkins University. A section of the organ rests inside the curve of the duodenum while... Full Answer >Filed Under: Organs Q: What Organ Is Under the Ribs on the Left Side? A: The spleen is located on the left side of the abdomen, under the ribcage and toward the back of the body. The primary function of the spleen is to filter t... Full Answer >Filed Under: Organs You May Also Like Q: What Is the Main Function of the Respiratory System? Q: What Are the Cylinders Found on the Left Side of Dump Trucks and Some 18-Wheelers? Q: How Many Lymph Nodes Do You Have Under Your Arm? Q: Where Is the Gall Bladder Located in the Human Body? 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.which printer support both mac and hp | Wireless Printer that is both Mac and Windows Compatible Solve tough tech problems with 24/7 support for your company. Sign Up Status: Solved Priority: Medium Security: Public Views: 1208 Last Modified: 2013-11-08Wireless Printer that is both Mac and Windows Compatible Hey Guys! I'm looking for a wireless color printer that is compatible with both Mac 10.6.4 and Mac Lion: Windows XP and Windows 7. The last wireless printer was only compatible with only a limited amount of updates.mbcasey Asked: 2010-12-26Advertise Here Mac OS X Windows 7 Windows XP2+25 Solutions Get instant access to every solution with a Premium Membership. Need tech help now? Our team is standing by. START NOWView Solution Get instant access to every solution with a Premium Membership. Need tech help now? Our team is standing by. START NOWView Solution Get instant access to every solution with a Premium Membership. Need tech help now? Our team is standing by. START NOWView Solution Get expert help—faster!Promoted by Experts Exchange Need expert help—fast? Use the Help Bell for personalized assistance getting answers to your important questions. Go Premium Get instant access to every solution with a Premium Membership. Need tech help now? Our team is standing by. START NOWView Solution Get instant access to every solution with a Premium Membership. Need tech help now? Our team is standing by. START NOWView Solution LVL 12splait Commented: 2010-12-27Although I can't guarantee anything, I'm pretty certain that most manufacturers will support Lion as quickly as they can for any relatively new printers. Question has a verified solution. Are you are experiencing a similar issue? Get a personalized answer when you ask a related question. Have a better answer? Share it in a comment. I'm not a robotre CAPTCHAPrivacy - Terms The 14th Annual Expert Award Winners Promoted by Craig Kehler The results are in! Meet the top members of our 2017 Expert Awards. Congratulations to all who qualified!SEE THE WINNERS | We're sorry, the page was not found: 404 Error We're sorry, the page was not found: 404 Error Find the page you were looking for with the sitemap below Sitemap Home Offers Reviews Rooms & Suites Photos & Videos360 Pictures Location & Map Restaurants & Bars Meetings & Weddings |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.where is xazi smolderpipe | Xazi Smolderpipe This article or section is an NPC stub. You can help expand it by editing it. NPC boilerplate · Boilerplate help · Research: Wowhead Wo WDBUse { { Stub/Char }} for non-in-game characters or { { Stub/Mob }} for non-interactive, non-player characters or monsters. This type of article is usually categorized under " Quest givers ", " Trainers ", or " Vendors ". Xazi Smolderpipe Title (s)<Arena Vendor>Gender Female Race Goblin (Humanoid)Level75Health8,025Reaction Alliance Horde Location The Underbelly, Dalaran [59.0, 59.0]See Xazi Smolderpipe is a goblin vendor found in the Underbelly beneath Dalaran. [59.0, 59.0] She can do repairs . External links Edit Wowhead Thottbot Wo WDBCategories: NPC stubs Level 75 NPCs Dalaran NPCs Goblins Vendors Add category | . Map data ©2018 Google Terms of Use Map Satellite |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what are meerkats called in spanish | Definitions &Translations Vocabulary What does meerkat mean? Definitions for meerkat ˈmɪər kæt Here are all the possible meanings and translations of the word meerkat. Princeton's Word Net (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:meerkat, mierkat (noun)a mongoose-like viverrine of South Africa having a face like a lemur and only four toes Wiktionary (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:meerkat (Noun)A small carnivorous mammal of the mongoose family, from the Kalahari Desert, known for its habit of standing on its hind legs. Scientific name: Suricata suricatta. Origin: From meerkat, transferrative use of meerkat. Compare English mercat. Webster Dictionary (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Meerkat (noun)a South African carnivore (Cynictis penicillata), allied to the ichneumons Origin: [D.]Freebase (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Meerkat The meerkat or suricate, Suricata suricatta, is a small mammal belonging to the mongoose family. Meerkats live in all parts of the Kalahari Desert in Botswana, in much of the Namib Desert in Namibia and southwestern Angola, and in South Africa. A group of meerkats is called a "mob", "gang" or "clan". A meerkat clan often contains about 20 meerkats, but some super-families have 50 or more members. In captivity, meerkats have an average life span of 12–14 years, and about half this in the wild. Numerology Chaldean Numerology The numerical value of meerkat in Chaldean Numerology is: 5Pythagorean Numerology The numerical value of meerkat in Pythagorean Numerology is: 1Images & Illustrations of meerkat Translations for meerkat From our Multilingual Translation Dictionaryسرقاط, ميركات Arabicsurikata Czechsurikat Danish Erdmännchen Germanmeerkat Greeksurikato Esperantosuricato, suricata Spanishmeerkat Persiannelisormimangusti, meerkat Finnishsuricate Frenchszurikáta Hungarianmeerkat Indonesiansuricato Italianמירקאט Hebrewミーアキャット Japanese Meerkat Latinsurikat Norwegiandlǫ́tʼą́ʼí Navajo, Navahosuricate, Meerkat Portugueseмиркат, суриката, сурикат Russianmosha Southern Sothosurikat Swedish Get even more translations for meerkat »Translation Find a translation for the meerkat definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these meerkat definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Please enter your email address: Subscribe Citation Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: Style: MLA Chicago APA"meerkat." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2018. Web. 30 Mar. 2018. < https://www.definitions.net/definition/meerkat >. Are we missing a good definition for meerkat? Don't keep it to yourself... Submit Definition | Megabyte Usage 1 2 Previous Next10 Replies Latest reply on Jan 8, 2010 2:09 PM by kittymom Megabyte Usage Patti-Jane Aug 8, 2009 12:34 AMI received my Verizon bill and there was a charge for Megabyte usage. None of us use the internet on our phones so I called and questioned this charge. I was told we had either downloaded music, games or ringtones - which we had not!!! So I balked and the rep decided to put a credit through for one of the charges (there were a total of 3)...anyways I told her to block the internet access. We don't use it (she didn't believe us) and I refuse to pay every month for the service. Now we can't send or receive photos - is this part of the megabyte thing? It was my understanding that we had unlimited text messaging that included the picture message as well. I'm really confused. The transition from Alltel has been extremely frustrating. Would appreciate the clarification on the picture messaging. Thanks!! !15650 Views Tags: block , block , megabyte , megabyte , access , access , charges , charges , national , national , megabytes , megabytes , per , per1. Re: Megabyte Usagenmchileman Aug 8, 2009 12:55 AM ( in response to Patti-Jane )Picture/Video messaging (MMS) does not charge you megabytes to send/receive messages, however it is a service that accesses Verizon's data network. You are currently unable to send/receive MMS because there is what's called a National Access Block on your account. This is a total block of all your data services on the phone, which is why it blocks your MMS. Megabyte usage isn't exclusive to the "web" and the term "web" can be very subjective. There are several ways your phones can access data that will charge you megabytes. Pulling up the Mobile Web application is what's truly considered browsing the "web". The Mobile Web can be accessed by a shortcut key on the keypad or thru the Media Center menu under News & Info. Also in the Media Center are several options for Pictures, Music, Games and Browse & Download. Each one of these menus will have a Get New selection (ex; get new applications or get new pictures) and when you click on it the Media Center catalog will load. Browsing the Media Center catalog will charge you megabytes even if you don't purchase anything. Browsing the Media Center catalog can also be referred to as "browsing the web" but in actuality it's not the internet as you and I know it. Also, some types of applications you might have will charge you megabytes for their usage. So you'll need to figure out which apps you have to see if an application such as a game or VCast Song ID is the culprit. Anytime you access the app and you see a little phone icon with arrows going back and forth then you're accessing the data network and getting charged for megabyte usage. There are several blocks that you can have on the account without it affecting your MMS: App Downloads, Ringback Tones, VCast Music, VCast Videos, Web Access, VCast Mobile TV and Premium SMS. With all these blocks in place the phone will still have access to the Media Center catalog (the Get New link) which as we know will charge you megabytes just for pulling it up and browsing. It may seem like a cat & mouse game and on Verizon's part it may seem a bit sneaky; but have a good discussion with the family, let them know what they can and cannot do and it's something that you can control. The megabytes will only show up if something is accessed, that's why it's a pay-as-you-go feature. If it isn't used then it isn't charged. Good luck. Like (0)Actions2. Re: Megabyte Usage Patti-Jane Aug 8, 2009 11:19 AM ( in response to nmchileman )Thankyou soooo much for your explanation. That really helps. I wish the representatives at Verizon could be so clear with their explanation!! !My next question - can I revise this National Block from my online account or do I have to go through a representative at Verizon? Like (0)Actions3. Re: Megabyte Usagenmchileman Aug 8, 2009 2:18 PM ( in response to Patti-Jane )The National Access block can only be removed/added by customer service. So you'll need to call them 800-922-0204. Good luck. Like (0)Actions4. Re: Megabyte Usagenmchileman Aug 10, 2009 7:29 PM ( in response to Patti-Jane )Also, I wanted to post this since you were unblocking National Access. It's a reference guide to let you know what charges megabytes and what doesn't. Hope it helps to further clear things up. Like (0)Actions5. Re: Megabyte Usagemlobell Aug 11, 2009 12:05 AM ( in response to nmchileman )Thanks very much for the explanation. I had unlimited messaging on my kids phones, and many of the blocks in place on my kids account, and was getting these data charges. I just called customer service to complain and my kids were able to access the internet and a "dashboard", which we are now blocked along with National Access. Though they rep claimed that blocking national access won't block the unlimited texting ... we will see shortly... they only do about a 2500 texts a month!Message Edited by mlobell on 08-10-2009 06:05 PMMessage Edited by mlobell on 08-10-2009 06:05 PMLike (0)Actions6. Re: Megabyte Usage Dani Love13 Aug 11, 2009 9:43 PM ( in response to mlobell )mlobell wrote: Thanks very much for the explanation. I had unlimited messaging on my kids phones, and many of the blocks in place on my kids account, and was getting these data charges. I just called customer service to complain and my kids were able to access the internet and a "dashboard", which we are now blocked along with National Access. Though they rep claimed that blocking national access won't block the unlimited texting ... we will see shortly... they only do about a 2500 texts a month!It's true that the National Access block will not block TEXT messages but it does block the ability to send and receive PICTURE messages. Like (0)Actions7. Re: Megabyte Usagemlobell Aug 11, 2009 11:58 PM ( in response to Dani Love13 )Thanks for the clarification - I should have read more carefully. So far no complaints from my kids. I guess they haven't sent pictures or tried to receive them, since we blocked national access about 24 hours ago. But then again, I'm not going to raise their awareness. My guess is that I will have to re-enable national access sometime soon. Like (0)Actions8. Re: Megabyte Usagejimcricket Aug 23, 2009 2:43 PM ( in response to nmchileman )Hi -I was charged $1.99 for Megabyte usage and the only thing I can think of was that I used the Mobil Web to check my airtime usage. I thought that Mobil Web for the purpose of checking airtime was "airtime free." Am I charged Megabyte usage for checking my airtime usage with Mobil Web? Thanks Like (0)Actions9. Re: Megabyte Usage Seeking Truth Nov 14, 2009 8:51 PM ( in response to Patti-Jane )This is one of Verizon's most unethical practices - charging you for accessing the web when you in fact had no intention of using the web. And it is very intentional, Verizon arranges the phone buttons and makes blocking so difficult as to pretty much guarantee accidental usage that adds up to millions of dollars in revenue for Verizon. There was an expose of this in the New York Times this week at http://pogue.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/11/12/verizon-how-much-do-you-charge-now/With this very public exposure I would not be surprised if the State Attorney General comes knocking on Verizon's door over this bit of fraud. Like (0)Actions1 2 Previous Next Go to original post |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how much does millennium, inc. - miami, fl pay | Miami Assisted Living Home > Assisted Living > Florida > Miami Miami Assisted Living There are 35 Assisted Living Facilities in Miami, FL and 30 Assisted Living Facilities nearby. The average cost of Assisted Living in Miami, FL is $2,125 per month. Communities Costs Reviews Map The Pointe of North Gables Get Info5890 SW 8 Street Miami, FL 33144Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLHere at The Pointe of North Gables there is no time in our community that our residents are left alone, our staff are available on site 24 hours seven days a week. Our community provides care and assistance that makes them feel a part of the family. The Palace Renaissance Get Info 11355 SW 84th Street Miami, FL 33173Call (800) 991-9257 for details.1 review Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLPalace Royale is an Assisted Living community offering all the services of traditional Assisted Living but with more stringent admissions criteria, particularly in the area of cognitive impairment. The Residences Of United Homecare Get Info9355 Sw 158Th Ave Miami, FL 33196Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLHere at Residences of United Homecare we provide our residents family like support. We provide assistance and care and treat residents a part of our family Live Well at Courtyard Plaza Get Info 15520 NW 2nd Avenue Miami, FL 33169Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLLivewell Senior Living offers South Florida's seniors a carefree assisted living at in North Miami Beach, Florida. We provide an unmatched quality... 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Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLNorita Adult Family Care11971 SW 118th Street Miami, FL 33186Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLCentral Palace Residential, Inc4491 S. W. 8TH STREETMiami, FL 33134Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLMaggie's Retirement Home7930 SW 11 STREETMiami, FL 33144Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLUnlimited Senior Solutions Elderly Care701 Southwest 27th Avenue # 202Miami, FL 33135Call (800) 991-9257 for details. Provides Assisted Living in Miami, FLBack to Top Miami Assisted Living Facility Costs The median cost of Assisted Living in Miami for a single-occupancy apartment is $2,125/month (Genworth - 2013). This monthly cost typically includes rent, utilities, dining, housekeeping and transportation. Cost of Miami Assisted Living Facilities Community Starting Price Live Well at Courtyard Plaza$3,500/month The Palace Renaissance$3,400/month The Pointe of North Gables$2,500/month The Residences Of United Homecare$4,100/month Cost of Nearby Assisted Living Facilities Community City Starting Price Adam F/F Inc Hialeah $1,600/month Apollo Gardens Retirement Residence Hollywood $1,800/month Avalon Park Retirement Residence Hollywood $1,800/month Azalea Gardens Hollywood $2,150/month Emerald Park of Hollywood Hollywood $2,695/month Hammond House Hollywood $2,500/month Hidden Ranches Assisted Living Miami Gardens $2,000/month Hollywood Beach Retirement Home Hollywood $2,500/month Home Sweet Home Oakland Park $2,800/month Imperial Club Independent and Assisted Living Community Aventura $3,000/month Lakeview Retirement Residence, Inc Tamarac $2,500/month Oceanside Senior Living Hollywood $2,200/month Pacifica Senior Living Forest Trace Lauderhill $4,750/month Presidential Place Hollywood $3,075/month Professional Home Care III, Inc Hialeah $1,100/month Sterling Aventura Aventura $3,200/month Symphony at the Waterways Fort Lauderdale $5,050/month The Colony Club in Sunrise Sunrise $2,175/month The Palace Gardens Homestead $4,900/month The Peninsula Pembroke Park $2,395/month The Sheridan at Cooper City Cooper City $4,200/month Victoria Villa Assisted Living Davie $4,000/month Villa Rio Vista Fort Lauderdale $3,500/month Williamsburg Landing Fort Lauderdale $2,585/month Cost data provided by senior living communities and compiled by Senior Homes.com is subject to change without notice. This data is for informational purposes only and may contain inaccuracies. Your actual senior living costs may vary depending on your personal situation. Back to Top Reviews of Miami Assisted Living Facilities The Palace Renaissance Review by Visitor Consumer The staff did not speak much English at the Palace. A friend of mine was called to take her husband out because they could not handle a resident with dementia. That was a total turnoff as far as I was concerned. I will not put my husband there. Read more The Palace Renaissance reviews Back to Top Map of Miami Assisted Living Facilities | . Credio Find The Company Health Grove Inside Gov Moose Roots Pet Breeds Software Insider Start Class© 2017 Graphiq LLC All Rights Reserved. Terms Privacy Ad Choices and Cookie Policy |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how many hours is part time for aca | Part-Time vs. Full-Time: Frequently Asked Questions July 5, 2016Part-Time vs. Full-Time: Frequently Asked Questions By HR Solutions Blog Team Hiring Employers with a part-time workforce sometimes have questions about how federal, state, and local employment laws apply to their part-time employees. Below we answer common questions about part-time employees. Background: Q: How many hours are considered full-time, and how many hours are considered part-time? A: The definitions of full-time and part-time can vary depending on law and policy. For example, most employers define full-time as an employee who works anywhere from 32 to 40 or more hours per week. However, the Affordable Care Act (ACA) defines full-time as working, on average, at least 30 hours per week. Under the ACA, a part-time employee is any employee who works fewer than 30 hours per week on average. Other laws may define full-time using higher or lower thresholds. In addition, your company may determine the definition of full-time employment based on policy and business needs. Regardless of how your company defines full-time, you may still be subject to certain employment laws if your employees' hours meet the laws' definitions. Affordable Care Act (ACA): Q: I have 30 part-time employees in addition to my full-time staff. Do I have to count the part-time employees when determining whether I need to provide health coverage under the ACA? A: Yes, under the ACA, you need to use your part-time employees' hours to calculate the number of full-time equivalent (FTE) employees you have. The number of FTE employees is calculated by adding all the hours worked by part-time employees in a month and dividing by 120. Employers must add their FTE count to their full-time employee count to determine the total size of their workforce. Under the ACA, employers with 50 or more full-time and full-time equivalent (FTE) employees must generally offer health coverage to their full-time employees and their dependents. These employers are also subject to specific reporting requirements. Q: If the ACA's definition of a full-time employee is 30 or more hours, does that mean I have to pay overtime after 30 hours per week instead of 40? A: The ACA's definition only applies to the ACA—it does not apply to federal, state, or local overtime laws. Federal overtime law requires overtime pay whenever an employee works more than 40 hours in a workweek. A few states also require overtime when employees work more than a certain number of hours in a workday. Keep in mind that each federal, state, and local law typically has its own definition of who is eligible for a certain benefit, so make sure your policies and practices comply. Benefits: Q: If I offer vacation to full-time employees, must I do the same for part-time employees? A: There is typically no requirement for employers to offer vacation time, either to full-time or part-time employees. Generally, employers can offer vacation and other voluntary benefits to full-time employees and not part-time employees. However, some employers do offer vacation to part-time employees, usually on a pro rata basis. Q: If I offer vacation to full-time employees only, what happens if a full-time employee becomes part-time? A: If an employee accrues paid time off as a full-time employee but subsequently changes to part-time, you may be required to either pay the employee for any unused vacation or allow the employee to use the accrued vacation as a part-time employee. Check your state law to ensure compliance. Q: Do I have to offer paid sick leave to part-time employees? A: Certain states and local jurisdictions require employers to provide paid sick leave to employees. These laws typically require the employee to work in the jurisdiction for a minimum number of hours to be eligible for sick leave. In most cases, the threshold is set low enough that many part-time employees satisfy this requirement. Check your state or local law for specific eligibility rules. Q: We have part-time employees in California. How does the state's paid sick leave law apply to them? A: In California, part-time employees are entitled to accrue paid sick leave as long as they work in the state for the same employer for 30 or more days within a year from the start of employment. In California, paid sick leave generally accrues at a rate of one hour per 30 hours worked. Whether full-time or part-time, employees are entitled to use up to 24 hours or three days (whichever is more) of paid sick leave per year. For example, a part-time employee is typically scheduled to work five hours per day, five days per week. She has accrued 24 hours of paid sick leave and takes three scheduled days off. In this case, the employee has used 15 hours (three five-hour workdays) and she can still use an additional nine hours that year. Note: Some California cities have enacted their own paid sick leave laws that are more generous than state law. When these laws conflict, the law that is more generous to the employee applies. Wage & Hour: Q: I have a senior manager who works 20 hours per week. If she satisfies the duties test for the professional exemption under the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA), do I still have to satisfy the full minimum salary requirement or can I prorate her salary? A: Under the FLSA, to be classified as exempt from overtime, the employee must generally satisfy all of the following tests: Meet the minimum salary requirement;With very limited exceptions, the employee must receive their full salary in any week they perform work, regardless of the quality or quantity of the work; and The employee's primary duties must meet certain criteria. There is no option to prorate the salary. Generally, if you pay the employee a salary less than the minimum, the employee must be classified as non-exempt. Q: Do I have to pay part-time, non-exempt employees on an hourly basis or can I pay them a salary? A: As long as the employee receives at least the applicable minimum wage for each hour worked and overtime pay whenever they work more than 40 hours in a workweek, you can pay part-time (and full-time) employees a salary. Q: I have a part-time, non-exempt employee who is paid on a salary basis. When he was hired, we both agreed that he would receive a weekly salary of $400 for a 20 hour per week schedule. For our busy season, we will need him to work 50 hours per week. How do I pay him for this time? A: The hours worked from 20 to 40 would be compensated at $20 per hour, which is the hourly equivalent of his weekly salary ($400 divided by 20 hours = $20/hour). For the time worked in excess of 40 hours in a workweek, you must pay him overtime, or $30 per hour (1.5 times his "regular rate of pay"). This employee's pay for the week where he works 50 hours would be:$400 salary (for first 20 hours)$400 additional straight-time pay (for hours 20 to 40)$300 overtime (for 10 overtime hours)Total = $1,100Note: For salaried non-exempt employees, the employee's "regular rate of pay" is generally determined by dividing the straight-time salary by the hours it was intended to compensate. Some states have different rules. Check your state law to ensure compliance. Conclusion: If you have or plan on hiring part-time employees, make sure your policies and practices on benefits and overtime comply with federal, state, and local laws. | Working hours The Working Time Regulations (WTR) prevent employers from overworking their employees and enforce the right to basic entitlements such as time off and holiday pay. Why was the WTR introduced? It’s clearly an issue that has become significant in recent times. Research by the Trade Union Congress in 2008 stated that five million workers in the UK are clocking up nearly £5,000 in unpaid overtime every year. And, according to figures released by the Office for National Statistics in 2009, just over a fifth of people in employment in the UK (6 million, or 20.1%) work more than 45 hours a week. This is a high proportion by EU standards though other developed countries such as Australia, Japan and the United States have more long-hours workers than the UK. What are the Regulations? Essentially, the average working week should not exceed 48 hours, although this is an average, not a limit on each week. You also have the right to a 20-minute break in a six-hour working day, a rest period of 11 hours in every 24 hours, a guaranteed rest of 24 hours once in every seven days, and four weeks' paid leave (pro rata for part-timers). There are additional protections for night workers, and also for young workers under the age of 18. You can waive your rights if you wish, but you must do so in writing and you cannot be forced to do this. The working hours laws have widespread implications. One of the latest to affect employees in the construction industry who work on short-term contracts is a European ruling that employers can no longer 'roll-up' holiday pay. Employers will now have to pay holiday pay at the time their workers actually take their holidays rather than include an amount for holiday pay in the hourly rate of pay. As a result employers may need to renegotiate contracts. It’s also worth noting here that the wider definition of ‘worker’ includes certain agency workers and self-employed contractors. How is my company made accountable? Employers have a general duty to ensure that the workforce works appropriate hours with adequate rest. They must also keep records to show that the regulations are being complied with and take reasonable steps to ensure that the workforce is complying with the 48-hour maximum week. Ultimately, they must ensure that employees are not subject to any detriment on WTR grounds. The information on these pages is provided for your information and reference only. Before making any important decisions regarding your employment or any legal matter, you should consult a qualified professional adviser who can provide specific advice based on your individual position. You can receive additional guidance from the government-run employment advice service Acas. Related articles: Beware of fraudulent recruitment sites References - legal overview Surviving the notice period Coming to work in the UKUnfair dismissals Tags:contract, employers, law, work issues, work rights, working hours |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what does bi mean in chemistry | bi- bi-navigation search See also: Appendix: Variations of "bi"Contents1 English1.1 Etymology1.1.1 Alternative forms1.2 Pronunciation1.3 Prefix1.3.1 Usage notes1.3.2 Synonyms1.3.3 Derived terms1.3.4 Translations1.4 Anagrams2 Azerbaijani2.1 Etymology2.2 Pronunciation2.3 Prefix2.3.1 Derived terms3 Danish3.1 Pronunciation3.2 Etymology 13.2.1 Prefix3.3 Etymology 23.3.1 Prefix3.4 See also4 French4.1 Etymology4.2 Pronunciation4.3 Prefix4.3.1 Derived terms5 Gothic5.1 Romanization6 Ido6.1 Prefix6.1.1 Derived terms7 Irish7.1 Prefix7.2 Mutation7.3 Further reading8 Italian8.1 Etymology8.2 Pronunciation8.3 Prefix8.3.1 Derived terms9 Latin9.1 Etymology9.2 Pronunciation9.3 Prefix9.3.1 Derived terms9.4 References10 Navajo10.1 Prefix10.1.1 Usage notes10.1.2 Related terms10.1.3 See also11 Norwegian Bokmål11.1 Prefix11.2 See also11.3 References12 Norwegian Nynorsk12.1 Prefix12.2 See also12.3 References13 Old English13.1 Alternative forms13.2 Etymology13.3 Prefix13.3.1 Derived terms13.3.2 Descendants14 Old Saxon14.1 Etymology 114.1.1 Prefix14.1.2 Descendants14.1.2.1 Derived terms14.2 Etymology 214.2.1 Prefix14.2.1.1 Derived terms15 Portuguese15.1 Prefix15.1.1 Derived terms16 Spanish16.1 Alternative forms16.2 Etymology16.3 Prefix16.3.1 Derived terms17 Swedish17.1 Pronunciation17.2 Prefix17.2.1 Derived terms English [ edit]Etymology [ edit]From Latin bis ( “ twice ”) or Latin bīnus ( “ double ”). Alternative forms [ edit]bin- ( before some vowel-initial roots)Pronunciation [ edit]IPA ( key): /baɪ-/, ( rare) /bɪ-/Prefix [ edit]Latin number prefix Previous: uni-Next: tri-bi-two, paired, both ( chemistry, proscribed) half ( before a vowel) bio-Usage notes [ edit]In an old, common method used to indicate the presence of an acidic hydrogen, sodium hydrogen sulfate is called "sodium bi sulfate " and sodium hydrogen carbonate is called "sodium bi carbonate ". This method is not recommended by IUPAC and does not denote a “doubling up” of a specific group, which is reserved for the Greek prefix di-, as in carbon di oxide ( “ CO 2 ”). The prefix bi in the older system comes from the observation that there is two times as much carbonate (CO 3) in sodium bicarbonate ( Na HCO 3) and other bicarbonates as in sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO 3) and other carbonates. Synonyms [ edit]di-duo-Derived terms [ edit]► English words prefixed with bi-Terms derived from bi-Translations [ edit]two-Anagrams [ edit]IB, ib. Azerbaijani [ edit]Etymology [ edit]From Persian بی ( bi). Pronunciation [ edit]IPA ( key): [bi]Prefix [ edit]bi- ( rarely productive) -less, un-, in- . Synonyms: -siz Derived terms [ edit]► Azerbaijani words prefixed with bi-Danish [ edit]Pronunciation [ edit]IPA ( key): /bi/, [ˈb̥i]Etymology 1 [ edit]From German bei- ( “ by- ”). Prefix [ edit]bi-by-, side-Synonyms: side-Etymology 2 [ edit]From Latin bis ( “ twice ”). Prefix [ edit]bi-bi-Synonyms: di-, tve-, dobbelt-See also [ edit]► Danish words prefixed with bi-French [ edit]Etymology [ edit]From Latin bis ( “ twice ”). Pronunciation [ edit]IPA ( key): /bi/Prefix [ edit]bi-bi-Derived terms [ edit]► French words prefixed with bi-Gothic [ edit]Romanization [ edit]bi-Romanization of -Ido [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-bi-Derived terms [ edit]► Ido words prefixed with bi-Irish [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-Alternative form of bith-, used before a slender T. Mutation [ edit]Irish mutation Radical Lenition Eclipsisbi- bhi- mbi-Note: Some of these forms may be hypothetical. Not every possible mutated form of every word actually occurs. Further reading [ edit]" bit- " in Foclóir Gaeilge-Béarla, An Gúm, 1977, by Niall Ó Dónaill. Italian [ edit]Etymology [ edit]From Latin bis ( “ twice ”). Pronunciation [ edit]Rhymes: -i Prefix [ edit]bi-bi-di-Derived terms [ edit]► Italian words prefixed with bi-Latin [ edit]Etymology [ edit]A shortened form of bis ( “ twice ”), which drops its final s when when making compositions. Pronunciation [ edit] ( Classical) IPA ( key): /bi/, [bɪ]Prefix [ edit]bi-having two partsoccurring twice Derived terms [ edit]► Latin words prefixed with bi-References [ edit]bi- in Charlton T. Lewis (1891) An Elementary Latin Dictionary, New York: Harper & Brothers“ bi- ” on page 231/3 of the Oxford Latin Dictionary (1st ed., 1968–82)Navajo [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-his, her, its, their Usage notes [ edit]This prefix often corresponds to an English possessive ’s appended to the preceding word. For example, Diné bizaad means literally “the People their-language”, equivalent to “the People’s language” (i.e., Navajo language). Related terms [ edit]Terms related to bi-See also [ edit]Navajo possessive pronounsá-ał-ahił-Norwegian Bokmål [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-by-, by, sidebi-See also [ edit]► Norwegian Bokmål words prefixed with bi-References [ edit]“bi-” in The Bokmål Dictionary. Norwegian Nynorsk [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-by-, by, sidebi-See also [ edit]► Norwegian Nynorsk words prefixed with bi-References [ edit]“bi-” in The Nynorsk Dictionary. Old English [ edit]Alternative forms [ edit]biġ-, be-Etymology [ edit]From bī ( “ by, near, around ”). Prefix [ edit]bī-prefix meaning near, around (compare Latin para- ), occurring primarily in nouns bi- + nama → bīnama ( “ pronoun ”)bi- + word → bīword ( “ proverb, byword ”)Derived terms [ edit]► Old English words prefixed with bi-bīgenga ( “ inhabitant; observer; benefactor ”)bīleofa ( “ support, sustenance, nourishment, capital ”)bīswæc ( “ treachery ”)Descendants [ edit]Middle English: bi-, by-English: by-Old Saxon [ edit]Etymology 1 [ edit]An unstressed form of bī, from Proto-Germanic *bi-. Prefix [ edit]bi-A productive prefix usually used to form verbs and adjectives, especially verbs with the sense “around, throughout” or makes transitive verbs from intransitive verbs, adjectives and nouns. bi- + brekan → bibrekan ( “ to break ”)bi- + brengian → bibrengian ( “ to accomplish ”)bi- + dēlian → bidēlian ( “ to deprive ”)bi- + delvan → bidelvan ( “ to bury ”)bi- + dempian → bidempian ( “ to suffocate ”)bi- + dernian → bidernian ( “ to conceal, to hide ”)bi- + dōdian → bidōdian ( “ to kill ”)bi- + driogan → bidriogan ( “ to deceive ”)bi- + drōragon → bidrōragon ( “ to bleed to death ”)bi- + dumbilian → bidumbilian ( “ to make a fool ”)bi- + *dwellian → bidwellian ( “ to hinder ”)bi- + fāhan → bifāhan ( “ to embrace, seize ”)bi- + fallan → bifallan ( “ to befall ”)bi- + felhan → bifelhan ( “ to recommend, give over, confide ”)bi- + fellian → bifellian ( “ to throw down ”)bi- + findan → bifindan ( “ to notice, find out ”)bi- + gangan → bigān, bigangan ( “ to celebrate ”)bi- + gehan → bigehan ( “ to dare, confess ”)Descendants [ edit]be-Derived terms [ edit]► Old Saxon words prefixed with bi-Etymology 2 [ edit]From bī ( “ by, near, around ”). Prefix [ edit]bī-prefix meaning near, around (compare Latin para- ), occurring primarily in nouns bi- + word → bīword ( “ proverb, byword ”)Derived terms [ edit]► Old English words prefixed with bi-bīgengio ( “ inhabitant ”)Portuguese [ edit]Prefix [ edit]bi-bi- ( two-)Derived terms [ edit]► Portuguese words prefixed with bi-Spanish [ edit]Alternative forms [ edit]bis-, biz-Etymology [ edit]From Latin bis ( “ twice ”). Prefix [ edit]bi-bi-Derived terms [ edit]► Spanish words prefixed with bi-Terms derived from bi-Swedish [ edit]Pronunciation [ edit]IPA ( key): /bi/, [ˈb̥i]Prefix [ edit]bi-by-, next to, near, by the side, aside; same as English by- and German bei-; see also the rare preposition bibi-, two, dual; from Latin bis ( “ twice ”)Derived terms [ edit]► Swedish words prefixed with bi-Categories: English terms derived from Latin English terms with IPA pronunciation English lemmas English prefixesen: Chemistry English disputed terms en: Two Azerbaijani terms borrowed from Persian Azerbaijani terms derived from Persian Azerbaijani terms with IPA pronunciation Azerbaijani lemmas Azerbaijani prefixes Danish terms with IPA pronunciation Danish terms derived from German Danish lemmas Danish prefixes Danish terms derived from Latin French terms derived from Latin French 1-syllable words French terms with IPA pronunciation French lemmas French prefixes Gothic non-lemma forms Gothic romanizations Ido lemmas Ido prefixes Irish lemmas Irish prefixes Italian terms derived from Latin Italian lemmas Italian prefixes Latin 1-syllable words Latin terms with IPA pronunciation Latin lemmas Latin prefixes Navajo lemmas Navajo prefixes Navajo pronouns Norwegian Bokmål lemmas Norwegian Bokmål prefixes Norwegian Nynorsk lemmas Norwegian Nynorsk prefixes Old English lemmas Old English prefixes Old Saxon terms inherited from Proto-Germanic Old Saxon terms derived from Proto-Germanic Old Saxon lemmas Old Saxon prefixes Portuguese lemmas Portuguese prefixes Spanish terms derived from Latin Spanish lemmas Spanish prefixes Swedish terms with IPA pronunciation Swedish lemmas Swedish prefixes | . 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is hematochezia in humans | Hematochezia â Symptoms, Causes, Treatment Hematochezia – Symptoms, Causes, Treatment Topics Topics What is Hematochezia? Hematochezia Symptoms Hematochezia Causes Hematochezia Treatment What is Hematochezia? Hematochezia is the medical term when there is a fresh blood found in the stool or just a passage of fresh blood in the anus. Sometimes when a person defecates, they will not notice the bloody streaks in their stool but when wiping the anus, they will see the fresh blood. This symptom is often associated with lower gastrointestinal bleeding. The usual color of feces is from light to dark brown. The feces contain decomposed foods and bilirubin. Sometimes, the color of the feces changes because of the foods eaten and the amount of fats excreted by the body. But blood coming out from the anus may signal bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract. Sometimes, the blood in the stool cannot be seen by the naked eye but through a fecal occult blood test, it can be determined. Lower gastrointestinal bleeding or abbreviated as LGIB indicates that there a bleed in the lower gastrointestinal tract. the organs of the lower GI tract involves ¼ of the duodenum, then the jejunum, ileum, large intestines or the colon, rectum and then the anus. Hospital admissions due to lower gastrointestinal bleed are less than those who are admitted for upper gastrointestinal bleed. According to statistics, there are about 100-200 cases of UGIB per 100,000 admissions compared to only 20-27 cases of LGIB per 100,000 cases. The colon appeared to be the organ that is most affected with the bleeding because it accounts for 85% and the mortality rate is at 2-4%. Other people might confuse hematochezia with melena. When a person has melena, there is still blood that comes out from the anus whether accompanies with stool or not. The only difference, the color is dark brown to maroon and sometimes black. With melena, the health care team knows that the bleeding is at the upper gastrointestinal tract. Hematochezia is not a disease itself but it is a precursor that there is a problem in the lower gastrointestinal tract. it includes diseases like hemorrhoids, diverticulitis, recent trauma, large polyps and even colon cancer. Hematochezia Symptoms Along with hematochezia, there are other symptoms in gastrointestinal bleeding. This includes: Abdominal cramping Abdominal distention Constipation or diarrhea Dizziness Fatigue Fever Body weakness In some cases, the gastrointestinal bleed can be life threatening. A person who experiences these signs and symptoms should seek medical help right away: Dizziness Difficulty breathing Severe abdominal pain Vomiting of blood Fainting or sudden changes in the level of consciousness. Since hematochezia can be a sign of colon cancer, they should also look out for the following signs and symptoms: Sudden and unexplained weight loss Abdominal distention Abdominal pain Change in the frequency of bowel movements Narrow and ribbon-like stools Sensation of incomplete bowel evacuation Rectal pain Hematochezia Causes There are a number of diseases that causes hematochezia. This includes: Hemorrhoids- this is the inflammation of the vascular area in the anal canal. Diverticulitis- this happens when there is a diveticula in the colons or the outpocketing og the mucosa in the colon that weakens the walls of the colon. Colorectal cancer Inflammatory bowel disease Anal fissures Angiodysplasia or the abnormalities in the blood vessels of the intestine There is a condition called beeturia wherein the feces turn into red after eating beets. This is due to the insufficient red pigment metabolism that can be mistaken as hematochezia. Hematochezia Treatment Hematochezia should be treated according to the underlying condition however, before the start of treatment; the disease should be diagnosed clearly. Upon admission, the physicians and other health care personnel will get a thorough medical history and physical examination should be done. Blood samples will be taken and a small piece of the stool specimen should also be submitted for evaluation. An example of stool test is the fecal occult blood. According to experts, submitting for a fecal occult blood test every 1 or 2 years should be done to decrease the incidence of colorectal cancer.other diagnostic exams would include having a digital rectal exam wherein the doctor will insert their gloved fingers in the rectum to check for abnormalities in the surrounding areas. With this exam, they will notice tumor which are large and palpable. Having a sigmoidoscopy or colonoscopy would also help them to further see abnormalities like polyps in the colon and sigmoid area which can be indicative of cancer. If the problem is diagnoses, the treatment should be done as soon as possible. If the hematochezia is caused by hemorrhoids, there are home remedies that can be done like doing a hot sitz bath and some dietary changes. Patients with hemorrhoids should increase their fluid intake and take foods high in fiber to avoid constipation and much straining which can cause pain. They should also refrain from sitting too long in the comfort room because it adds pressure on the site. Doctors would also recommend some over-the-counter creams, ointment and suppositories which will relieve the pain and discomfort caused by hemorrhoids. For patients with diverticulitis, medications to alleviate the abdominal spasm like hyoscyamine, diclomine as well as antibiotics like ciprofloxacin, metonidazole, cephalexin and others. But for furthere treatment, surgery is needed especially when medications won’t work. The bleeding diverticula will be removed to stop the bleeding. For patients diagnosed with colorectal cancer, the treatment would depend on the staging on the cancer. If the detection is early and there is no metastasis, prognosis is good. But if the condition is worse, then palliative treatment would be given. Chemotherapy is still done to reduce the likelihood of metastasis of the cancer cells. Sometimes, surgery is done but it is only for palliative treatment to remove the polyps in the colon or in the rectal area. This can be done through colonoscopy or by the abdominoperineal excision. Cancer patients would also need to modify their lifestyle. They need to modify their diet and avoid high caloric foods and meaty products. Also, they need to stop smoking, avoid alcoholic beverages and instead take the recommended amount of fiber. Leave a Reply You must be logged in to post a comment. | . Oops! 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.dog training cost | Dog Training Cost Group Classes: $40-$125 for 4-8 weeks Private Classes: $240-$600 for 6 weeks Obedience Boarding School: $950-$2,500E-mail Post Tweet Comments (13)Typical costs: Group classes at a local community center, dog daycare or pet store usually cost from $40 to $125 or more for four to eight weekly one-hour sessions. Puppy classes usually cost less than adult dog classes or classes specifically geared toward dogs with behavior issues. Private classes with a trainer, which could be at the client's home or at the trainer's place of business, usually cost from $30 to $100 per hour-long session -- so about $240 to $600 for six sessions. Dog obedience boarding schools usually cost from $950 to $2,500 or more for two to four weeks of board-and-train, where the dog lives at the trainer's home or at a boarding kennel and receives hours of one-on-one attention daily. Related articles: Dog Walker, Dog Daycare, Owning a Dog What should be included: Puppy classes, for dogs about two to five months old, focus on socialization. The classes also cover housebreaking and address chewing, biting, digging and barking. Basic obedience classes, usually for dogs older than five months, repeat training from puppy classes and also cover hand signals and commands. Dogs that graduate should be able to pass the American Kennel Club's Canine Good Citizen test [ 1] , part of a program that recognizes well-mannered dogs. The trainer might also briefly cover behavior issues, such as housebreaking or inappropriate barking and jumping. Housebreaking -- although usually covered in puppy classes -- is usually done by the owner at home, since it requires almost round-the-clock vigilance for a few weeks. Advanced obedience classes refine the skills learned in basic obedience, practice obedience in complex situations with distractions, and usually include off-leash work, such as coming from a distance when called. Specialized classes also are available for owners who want to train their dog in agility, field work, search and rescue or as a therapy dog. Pet Education.com [ 2] has a guide to the different levels of classes. The trainer should provide handouts for at-home practice. Many trainers also make themselves available to answer questions by phone or e-mail between classes. Additional costs: A trainer might require the purchase of training aids, such as dog treats, a clicker -- a small noisemaker to get the dog's attention -- a long nylon lead and a short leash, usually for less than $50 total. A dog with a serious behavior problem -- such as aggression -- should be evaluated by a veterinary behaviorist. Veterinary behaviorists usually charge $135 or more per hour, and a typical consultation runs about three hours for a total of $400 or more. The American College of Veterinary Behaviorists provides a list of board-certified veterinary behaviorists. Discounts: Training can be done at home using a book. Amazon [ 3] has a selection of dog training books starting under $10. Some shelters offer low-cost training, starting at about $35 and up for several weeks of classes. The cost is usually lower for a dog adopted from that shelter. Some boarding training programs offer a discount for a second dog from the same household. Shopping for dog training: To find a good class, obedience school or trainer, ask a veterinarian or humane organization for a referral. The Association of Pet Dog Trainers offers a search feature for local trainers. Also, Pet Smart [ 4] and PETCO [ 5] offer group classes. The American Kennel Club [ 6] offers a state-by state search for clubs that offer dog training resources or classes. Tip: Ask to sit in on a class before you sign up. A good trainer should use humane methods, explain each lesson clearly, demonstrate the desired behavior and give students time to practice. The Association of Pet Dog Trainers offers guidelines for choosing a dog trainer. E-mail Post Tweet Comments (13)Cost Helper News7 Ways to Stretch Your Reduced Food Budget End of the year budgets are tight for everyone, especially in this economy. It's especially hard for the millions of Americans who depend on government programs like food stamps to help make ends meet. || Posted November 11 20137 Lesser-Known Discounts for the 50+ Crowd As they age, members of the Baby Boomer generation don't like to admit that they're senior citizens, but they love getting discounts. It's kind of a quandary, because some of the best deals available are reduced prices for older folks.|| Posted October 21 2013‣ All Cost Helper Blog Posts What People Are Paying - Recent Comments Alaska K9 center Amount: $120.00Posted by: Dnjsmom in North pole, AK. Posted: April 22nd, 2017 08:04PMBreed: German Shepherd Type of Class: Obedience Duration: 6-1hour classes Class: Awesome trainer, great price. I was shocked when I came to the lower 48 and found out people pay $1000-3000 for 4 classes and the trainers train the dogs instead of teaching the owners how to train them. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Alaska K9 center Amount: $120.00Posted by: Dnjsmom in North pole, AK. Posted: April 22nd, 2017 08:04PMBreed: German Shepherd Type of Class: Obedience Duration: 6-1hour classes Class: Awesome trainer, great price. I was shocked when I came to the lower 48 and found out people pay $1000-3000 for 4 classes and the trainers train the dogs instead of teaching the owners how to train them. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Qouted Price from Dog Gone Happy Amount: $1,250.00Posted by: Chris Villa in Milford, PA. Posted: January 5th, 2017 08:01PMDuration: 2 weeks Class: Obedience Board & Train Leave your dog at trainer's residence for two weeks includes on-lead and off-leash training and as many free lessons as dog owner needs for maintenance. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Therapy dog training Amount: $2,100.00Posted by: a user in Orlando, FL. Posted: June 24th, 2016 07:06PMDuration: 12 weeks Class: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Private dog training Amount: $150.00Posted by: Who Rescued Who in Saint Petersburg, FL. Posted: November 20th, 2015 01:11PMDuration: 1.5 hours Class: In home private training Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Protection Canine Training Amount: $5,000.00Posted by: Ryan Warner in Havelock, NC. Posted: November 27th, 2014 06:11AMBreed: German Shepard Type of Class: Protection Duration: 3 Months Class: Protection Canine Training for Protection 9-5 Class five days a week. Thru USA Canine Handlers Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Canine STAR Academy-Nevada Assistance Dogs Amount: $300.00Posted by: Love My Dog in Las Vegas in Las Vegas, NV. Posted: May 9th, 2014 03:05PMBreed: Great Dane Type of Class: Private Duration: 3 Weeks Class: Obedience My 10 month old Great Dane puppy (HUGE!) never learned to walk on leash and his behavior was becoming worse and worse. With my first baby coming I needed help! Nancy with Canine STAR was fabulous! She had him "Heel" and stopped his jumping up on us in three weeks! He's a good boy now!He also does "Sit", "Down", "Wait", "Leave It" and "Stay" among better behavior. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Animal Behavior College Amount: $3,700.00Posted by: Trisha Cortes in Foothill Ranch, CA. Posted: June 27th, 2013 10:06AMBreed: English Black Lab Type of Class: Online Duration: 8 years Class: Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spambehavior Amount: $700.00Posted by: melissa mccutchan in wewa, FL. Posted: February 7th, 2013 12:02PMBreed: water dog Type of Class: private Duration: 4 sessions Class: trainerdid a great job Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Bell Ringing for Going Outside Amount: $10.00Posted by: Funnyface in Chicago, IL. Posted: December 27th, 2012 03:12PMBreed: Pomapoo Type of Class: Training your dog to go outside by ringing a bell tired to one of your outside doors is very easy. You only have the cost of the ribbon and bell and then you just ring the bell each time your dog wants to go outside and in less that a few days your dog will be ringing the bell when it needs to go outside. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spamdog behavorist question on line Amount: $0.00Posted by: BOOMIE2 in riverside, CA. Posted: November 5th, 2012 12:11PMBreed: schnoodle Type of Class: I was asking a question on line regarding a sudden change in behavior in my schnoodle and was wondering what the average cost might be. She wanted 38.00Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Quoted price Amount: $695.00Posted by: a user in Minneapolis, MN. Posted: June 29th, 2010 08:06AMBreed: Bichon mix Type of Class: biweekly Duration: lifespan of dog Class: obedience This trainer offers 1 initial 2-3 hour consultation, with follow-up 90 minute visits every 10 days or so as long as necessary. It's possible to pay in pay in four installments of $175. Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Quoted A Price by a trainer Amount: $550.00Posted by: Pet owner in Washington, PA. Posted: November 19th, 2009 10:11AMBreed: Lab Type of Class: weekly in home Duration: 7 weeks Class: obedience This trainer offers 1 free initial consultation and then her training consists of 1 weekly visit at your home to work together with you & your dog. 4 weeks=$350, 7 weeks=$550, 10 weeks=$850Was this post helpful to you? yes no Report prohibited or spam Comment On Your Experience With Dog Training Subject: *Amount Spent: *Breed: Type of Class: Duration: Class: Comments: Purchased: Year: City: * State: *Information about you: Email: * Email addresses are not displayed. Name: This is the name we'll display with your post. Remember me on this computer*=required field. 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what cranial nerve controls tongue movement | Chapter 7 - Lower cranial nerve function On this page Glossopharyngeal & Vagus Nerves Pharynx and palate Gag reflex Larynx Central vs. peripheral Taste Sensation Baroreceptor reflex Spinal Accessory Nerve Hypoglossal nerve References Questions Chapter 7 - Lower cranial nerve function The lower cranial nerves are involved in pharyngeal and laryngeal function as well as in movements of the neck and tongue. Damage usually manifests as problems with speech and swallowing. These nerves arise from the medulla and, in the case of the accessory nerve (CN XI), the spinal cord. These nerves are commonly affected by conditions damaging the medulla, but bilateral damage to corticobulbar connections can create motor problems that affect tongue and pharynx movement and speech. IX, X. Glossopharyngeal and Vagus Nerves These two nerves are considered together because they exit from the brain stem side by side, and have similar and frequently side-by-side and overlapping functional and anatomical distributions in the periphery. Also, these nerves connect with many of the same brain stem nuclei (dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus, nucleus ambiguus, nucleus solitarius, spinal nucleus of the trigeminal) and are often damaged together. Pharynx and palate The pharynx is innervated by nerves IX and X, with motor and sensory contributions from both. In general, the vagus nerve is motor to the palate elevators and constrictors of the pharynx (as occurs in swallowing and gagging). The glossopharyngeal contains more sensory fibers, including from the posterior part of the tongue and pharynx down to the level of the larynx (where the vagus nerve begins to take over). The entire palate, including the soft palate, has a sensory distribution from the maxillary division of the trigeminal nerve. Contraction of the paired and fused muscles of both sides of the soft palate causes superolateral movement vectors (Fig. 7-1 ). The sum vector is an upward, midline movement of the palate to seal the nasopharynx when swallowing and making certain sounds (such as "guh"). When examining palate elevation, look at the point of attachment of the uvula to see if it remains in the midline. Also, if there is deviation, inspect the palate to make sure this is not simply due to scaring of the soft palate due to prior throat surgery. If the vagus nerve of one side is damaged (e.g., by a tumor at the jugular foramen), the palate elevates asymmetrically, being pulled up toward the strong side (i.e., away from the weak side of the palate, Fig. 7-2 ). If both sides of the palate are weak, as can occur in certain muscle diseases or if the vagus is damaged bilaterally (such as from invasion by a retropharyngeal carcinoma at the base of the skull), the palate does not elevate normally during phonation and a hypernasal quality is imparted to the voice (especially noted when making a "G" sound). Air usually emanates from the nose when the patient tries to puff up the cheeks and liquid tends to regurgitate into the nose when swallowing. Rarely, a similar finding of bilateral weakness can be seen in patients with bilateral supranuclear lesions (such as by bilateral cortical damage or bilateral damage to the corticobulbar tracts). In this case, the patient will often show signs of "pseudobulbar" affect (see Chapt. 5 ). Gag reflex The gag reflex involves a brisk and brief elevation of the soft palate and bilateral contraction of pharyngeal muscles evoked by touching the posterior pharyngeal wall. It is tested on the left and the right sides and the reflex response should be consensual (i.e., the elevation of the soft palate should be symmetrical regardless of the side touched). As with all reflexes, the gag reflex has a sensory and a motor limb. The sensory limb is mediated predominantly by CN IX, the motor limb by CN X. Touching the soft palate can lead to a similar reflex response. However, in this case, the sensory limb of the reflex is the trigeminal nerve. In very sensitive individuals, much more of the brain stem may be involved; a simple gag may enlarge to retching and vomiting in some. The gag response varies greatly from individual to individual but is relatively constant in any one person. In some individuals, this reflex is under such strong voluntary control that probing causes very little or no response. This could make differentiation of normal suppression of the gag from symmetric pathologic depression of motor and/or sensory function difficult. However, actual damage can usually be determined by asking the patient to count to 10 immediately after rapidly swallowing 4 oz. of water. If there were bilateral sensory and/or motor deficit, one would anticipate that fluid would penetrate into the unprotected larynx, producing a "wet voice" often with choking and coughing. The water-swallowing test is also a useful screen in detecting which patients with neurologic deficit are likely to have trouble eating (neurologic disease is more likely to affect swallowing of thin liquids, like water, than it is to affect the swallowing of pudding consistencies, which are easiest). In glossopharyngeal nerve (sensory) involvement, there will be no response when touching the affected side. With vagal nerve damage, the soft palate will elevate and pull toward the intact side regardless of the side of the pharynx that is touched. If both CN IX and X are damaged on one side (not uncommon), stimulation of the normal side elicits only a unilateral response, with deviation of the soft palate to that side; no consensual response is seen. Touching the damaged side produces no response at all. Larynx The vagus nerve is both the sensory and motor innervation of the larynx. Sensory and motor nerve fibers reach the larynx by different courses, with the superior laryngeal nerve being sensory and the recurrent laryngeal nerve being motor. The recurrent laryngeal nerves take a long, circuitous route before reaching the larynx, with the left nerve passing all the way around the aortic arch. Mediastinal lesions (e.g., carcinoma of the esophagus, cancerous lymph nodes or aortic aneurysms) may be first evidenced by hoarseness due to paralysis of the left vocal cord. The same can be true on either side for malignancies in the neck, such as thyroid cancer, since both the left and right recurrent laryngeal nerves pass posterior to that gland to reach the larynx. Loss of function of one or both recurrent laryngeal nerves causes "hoarseness". Persistent, painless hoarseness should alert the examiner to the possibility of unilateral or bilateral vocal cord weakness or paralysis. This warrants examination of laryngeal appearance and function. This can either be done by fiberoptic laryngoscopy or by indirect laryngoscopy with a simple curved dental mirror and a light source (a bedside lamp shining over the physician's shoulder or a flashlight held by an assistant) (Fig. 7-3 ). The mirror must be warmed to prevent fogging. The tongue is held protruded with cotton gauze or is depressed with a tongue blade, and the mirror is then placed face down just below the soft palate, not touching the pharyngeal walls to avoid gagging. It is sometimes useful to spray the nasopharynx with a small amount of a weak topical anesthetic, such as 1% Xylocaine. The mirror allows a view of the superior aspect of the larynx covered by the epiglottis. The patient is asked to say "aah." The epiglottis then uncovers the vocal cords, which should be in a relatively open position. The patient then attempts to say "eee," a high pitched sound, the cords should closely appose unless they are paralyzed on one or both sides (see Fig. 7-3 ). Laryngoscopy (direct or indirect) is not part of a routine bedside examination, however. It should be done only when phonation changes are persistent. Central vs. peripheral involvement To differentiate between involvement of the peripheral portion of a cranial nerve and the brain stem portions, it is important to consider whether there is associated involvement of other cranial nerves or evidence of damage to cerebellar functions or the tracts that course through the brain stem (corticospinal or the lemniscal or spinothalamic sensory paths). It is unusual for brain stem lesions to involve one or two cranial nerves in isolation, without also affecting the contiguous long-tract and cerebellar system structures. Motor neuron disease (a degenerative condition involving upper and lower motor neurons) is an exception to this rule, as is poliomyelitis (a rare condition today). Supranuclear motor pathways to the palate, pharyngeal, and laryngeal musculature are bilateral. Therefore, unilateral lesions, even large strokes, rarely produce any persistent problem with lower cranial nerve function (there may be some transient swallowing trouble). Bilateral acute or subacute loss of hemispheric connections to the medullary nuclei causes difficulty with swallowing, phonating and, initially, a depressed gag reflex. In time, the gag reflex may become uncontrollably hyperactive (as do many other skeletal and autonomic reflexes when they are no longer under supranuclear control). Taste Both the glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves (CN IX and X) have taste and somatic sensory functions that are not routinely examined. However, the taste function in the glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX) can be examined if there is suspicion of damage to the nerve (vagus nerve taste function cannot be tested). A saturated solution of salt, a substance normally tasted best by the posterior and lateral taste buds (sweet is tasted best by the anterior and midline tastebuds), is used in the testing with the same technique described for the facial nerve (CN VII, see Chapt. 5 ). Somatic sensation The glossopharyngeal and vagus nerves (along with the facial nerve) supply tiny sensory branches to the external auditory canal. This extensive overlap (which also includes some contributions from the trigeminal nerve and the 2nd cervical nerve) precludes detecting loss of sensation caused by lesions of any one of these nerves. However, pain in the ear may be a prominent early symptom of irritation of any one of these cranial nerves. If the vagus or glossopharyngeal nerve is involved, the pain often extends into the pharyngeal region, helping to differentiate from the pain of seventh-nerve irritation (which would be confined to the ear and mastoid region). If facial weakness is present, this would be a clue to facial nerve irritation, while depression of the gag reflex would suggest vagus or glossopharyngeal nerve involvement. Trigeminal involvement is differentiated by pain in the face and deficits in sensation in the trigeminal distribution; involvement of the upper cervical nerves is indicated by hypoesthesia or pain in the scalp and upper back of the neck. Carotid sinus (baroreceptor) reflex The baroreceptor reflex is mediated by sensory fibers in the glossopharyngeal nerve and motor fibers in the vagus nerve. The normal reflex detects increased blood pressure in the carotid sinus, triggering a slowing of the heart and lowering of blood pressure. Because the receptor works as a mechanical transducer, any kind of distortion of the carotid sinus can cause slowing of the pulse and hypotension. Firm massaging of the carotid bifurcation while monitoring pulse and blood pressure is the bedside technique for testing the reflex. However, this is hazardous due to the potential for excessive slowing of the heart and for disrupting any atherosclerotic plaque that might be in the carotid sinus region (potentially producing embolic stroke). XI. Spinal Accessory Nerve Technically, the accessory nerve (CN XI) has two components: (1) a central branch arising from the medullary nuclei, and (2) a spinal accessory branch arising in the first five to six cervical spinal segments from the lateral portion of the ventral horn. The central branch joins the vagus immediately after leaving the brain stem and is involved in innervation of the laryngeal musculature. We typically consider this component with the vagus nerve and have discussed examination of the larynx and pharynx (above). The spinal accessory branch has an unusual course. It arises from motor neurons in the upper 6 cervical segments. These neurons send their nerve roots to exit the spinal cord laterally (not with the ventral motor nerve root). The nerve roots that comprise the spinal accessory nerve ascend the vertebral canal adjacent to the lateral side of the spinal cord and they enter the skull by passing upward through the foramen magnum. This nerve then turns laterally to pass through the jugular foramen along with cranial nerves IX and X. The spinal accessory nerve provides the motor innervation of the sternocleidomastoid (SCM) muscle before passing through the posterior triangle of the neck to reach the trapezius muscle (which it also innervates). Cervical nerves provide sensory innervation of these muscles. When examining the SCM muscle, the bulk and outline of the muscle should be observed. Atrophy is common in damage to the nerve and fasciculations may be seen especially if the motor neurons are diseased. The SCM muscle rotates the head away from the side of contraction. Testing entails having the subject turn their head against the examiner's hand, which is pressed against the patient's chin (Fig. 7-4 ). The bulk of the muscle is then easily seen and palpated, and its strength can be determined. Having the patient attempt to bring their chin toward their chest can test the left and right SCM as they work together in this action. Paralysis of this muscle will produce weakness, although not complete loss of ability to rotate the head away from the lesion. This is because there are other muscles that are able to partially compensate. For this same reason, the resting head position is usually not affected by isolated SCM paralysis. Rarely, the patient will hold their head turned slightly toward the side of the lesion. The two sternocleidomastoids contracting together will flex the head toward the chest. Bilateral weakness may prevent the patient from lifting their head off a pillow and the head may be inclined posteriorly for lack of flexor tone. Bilateral weakness suggests muscle or neuromuscular disease. Spasmodic torticollis is a condition that often affects the tone of the SCM muscle, although it can affect several other cervical muscles as well. In this condition, there is an excessive activity of unknown etiology in one (rarely both) of the sternocleidomastoids. This results in an obvious deviation of head position. The subject's head is spasmodically turned away from the involved muscle, which usually shows hypertrophy. One rather striking observation is that the patient can often terminate the spasm by simply touching the opposite side of the chin or cheek. The head drifts back into its dystonic position once the touch is removed. The spinal accessory nerve innervates the trapezius muscles, which elevate the shoulders and rotate the scapula upward during abduction of the arm. Denervation is evidenced by atrophy and often fasciculations. The shoulder droops on the side of the weak muscle and there is downward displacement of the scapula posteriorly. Shrugging the shoulders against resistance is the standard way of testing the upper trapezius (Fig. 7-4 ). Both the SCM and the trapezius muscles are under voluntary control, requiring some input from the corticospinal system. The projections from the cerebral cortex to the motor neurons innervating the SCM are bilateral. Therefore, even large unilateral lesions do not produce weakness of the SCM or any deficits in head turning. However, in the case of corticospinal innervation of trapezius motor neurons there is usually a contralateral predominance. This contributes to mild to moderate contralateral weakness of shoulder elevation following large, unilateral injuries of corticospinal systems. This is rarely very severe, however. XII. Hypoglossal Nerve The hypoglossal nerve (CN XII) has an entirely motor function, innervating the muscles of the tongue. It originates from the columns of motor neurons located near the midline in the dorsal aspect of the medulla. The nerve exits the ventral side of the medulla as a row of small nerve rootlets adjacent to the pyramid. After a short course through the subarachnoid space, the rootlets come together as a single nerve that passes through the hypoglossal foramen in the base of the skull. Ultimately it reaches the tongue and innervates the intrinsic and extrinsic tongue muscles. Of course, the tongue is under voluntary control. Accordingly, corticobulbar pathways activate hypoglossal motor neurons. As with most cranial nerves, these corticobulbar projections are bilateral, although there is a slight contralateral predominance. Therefore, large lesions to the corticobulbar system, such as large strokes, can produce slight weakness of the contralateral tongue. Weakness of the tongue manifests itself as a slurring of speech. The patient complains that their tongue feels "thick", "heavy", or "clumsy." Lingual sounds (i.e., l's, t's, d's, n's, r's, etc.) are slurred and this is obvious in conversation even before direct examination. Examination of the tongue first involves observation for atrophy and fasciculations. With supranuclear lesions, weakness, frequently mild, is not accompanied by loss of muscle mass or fasciculations. Lesions of the nerve (e.g., hypoglossal neurolemmoma, nasopharyngeal tumor along the base of the skull, basal skull fracture) or of the nucleus in the brain stem (e.g., medullary stroke, motor neuron disease or bulbar poliomyelitis) the tongue displays weakness, atrophy and, possibly, fasciculations on the side of the involvement (Fig. 7-5 ). Atrophy and fasciculations in combination suggest disease or damage to the motor neurons of the brain stem, but can be seen with peripheral nerve damage as well. Fasciculations are fine, random, multifocal twitches of muscle. They are evaluated by observing the tongue while it is at rest in the floor of the mouth. They are best seen along the lateral aspect of the tongue. Protrusion frequently causes a fine tremor in the normal tongue, which can obscure or mimic fasciculations. Simply having the patient protrude their tongue in the midline tests strength of the tongue. The normal vectors of protrusion are illustrated in Figure 7-5. When one side of the tongue is weak, it protrudes toward the weakened side (Fig. 7-5 ). A repetitive or complex lingual sound (e.g., "la la la la" or "Methodist artillery") often shows impediment when any part of the vocal apparatus is affected (e.g., Broca's region, motor cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brain stem, nucleus, or nerve). The most common process causing major involvement of the hypoglossal nerve is motor neuron disease (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis). This is a degenerative disease that has a predilection for early and severe involvement of the hypoglossal motor neurons. The involvement is almost always bilaterally symmetrical. Unilateral damage of the hypoglossal nerve can be produced by tumors or trauma involving the base of the skull, whereas stroke can damage corticobulbar projections and is the usual cause of unilateral supranuclear dysfunction. References Brodal, A.: Neurological Anatomy in Relation to Clinical Medicine, ed. 2. New York, Oxford University Press, 1969. Cogan, D. G.: Neurology of the Ocular Muscles, ed. 2. Springfield, IL, Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, 1956. Monrad-Krohn, G. H., Refsum, S.: The Clinical Examination of the Nervous System, ed. 12. London, H. K. Lewis & Co., 1964. Spillane, J. D.: The Atlas of Clinical Neurology, ed. 2. New York, Oxford University Press, 1975. Walsh, F. B, Hoyt, W. F.: Clinical Neuro-ophthalmology, ed. 3. Baltimore, Williams & Wilkins Co., 1969. Questions Define the following terms:dysarthria, dysphonia, dysphagia. Dysarthria is the inability to speak clearly due to problems with control of the motor apparatus of speech (generation and understanding of language should be normal and reading/writing are unaffected). Dysphonia is problems with speech due to disorders of the vocal apparatus in the larynx (laryngitis is an example). Dysphagia is difficulty with swallowing.7-1. What are the main functions of the glossopharyngeal nerve? Answer 7-1. The glossopharyngeal nerve provides sensation to the carotid baroreceptor and chemoreceptor, the pharynx and the middle ear.7-2. What would be the effect on soft palate movement of unilateral damage to the vagus nerve? Answer 7-2. The vagus nerve activates the elevator of the soft palate. The palate will elevate with deviation of base of uvula away from the side of lesion (toward the intact side).7-3. What would be the effect of unilateral damage to the vagus nerve on larynx function? Answer 7-3. The vagus (recurrent laryngeal) innervates larynx muscle. Damage would produce painless hoarseness, with weakness or paralysis of the vocal cord on that side.7-4. Describe the course of the spinal accessory nerve. Answer 7-4. The spinal accessory nerve comes from cervical spinal cord, enters the head through foramen magnum and exits through jugular foramen.7-5. What does the spinal accessory nerve innervate? Answer 7-5. CN XI innervates the SCM and trapezius muscles.7-6. What does the hypoglossal nerve innervate? Answer 7-6. The hypoglossal nerve innervates the tongue.7-7. What would be the findings in unilateral damage to the hypoglossal nerve? Answer 7-7. The tongue deviates toward the side of weakness when protruded and it will be weak when attempting to push against the cheek on the strong side of tongue. With time, there would be atrophy of the tongue on the side of the nerve damage.7-8. What would be the effect of a large stroke in the motor cortex on tongue movement? Answer 7-8. Corticobulbar damage (like a stroke) will slightly weaken the contralateral side of the tongue.7-9. What is the reflex pathway of the gag reflex? Answer 7-9. Gag reflex - afferent is glossopharyngeal, efferent is vagus. It is a consensual reflex.7-10. What is the reflex pathway of the cough reflex? Answer 7-10. The cough reflex - afferent is vagus, efferent is complex including respiration centers and vagus.7-11. What is the reflex pathway of the baroreceptor reflex? Answer 7-11. The baroreceptor reflex - afferent is glossopharyngeal, efferent is vagus. Jump to: Top of page Table of Contents | 12 cranial nerves 13 terms gmoneyuf12 cranial nerves Learn Flashcards Write Spell Test Match Gravity Advertisement Upgrade to remove ads Like this study set? Create a free account to save it. Create a free account Maybe later Sortolfactory the first cranial nerve-responsible for smelloptic the second cranial nerve-responsible for visionoculomotor 3rd cranial nerve-controls most eye movement and pupil constrictiontrochlear 4th cranial nerve-controls the down and inward movement of the eyetrigeminal 5th cranial nerve- (motor function)controls muscles of mastication-chewing,biting,swallowing, (sensory)-face and scalp,cornea,mucous membranes of mouth and nose and lateral movement of eye.abducens the 6th cranial nerve-lateral movement of eyesfacial the 7th cranial nerve-motor muscles of the face,closing eyes,labial speech,close mouth. sensory-tasting on anterior 2/3 of tongueacoustic 8th cranial nerve-hearing and equilibriumglossopharyngeal 9th cranial nerve-motor-pharynx-phonation (speech) and swalowing. sensory-taste on posterior 1/3 of tongue-pharynx-gag reflex. controls-parotid and carotid reflex.vagus 10th cranial nerve-motor-pharynx and larynx-talking and swallowing. sensory-heart and respiration-sensation from carotid body,carotid sinus,pharynx and viscera. carotid reflex. (controls parasympathetic innervation of the heart-acts to lower heart rate)spinal 11th cranial nerve-movement of trapezius and sternomastoid muscleshypoglossal 12th cranial nerve-movement of tongue On Old Olympus Towering Tops A Finn And German Viewed Some Hops what is the acronym for the 12 cranial nerves? |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.are carrots good for diarrhea | Eating When You Have Diarrhea Eating When You Have Diarrhea Save as Favorite Sign in to receive recommendations ( Learn more)Diarrhea can be a side effect of chemotherapy. If you have diarrhea that lasts for more than 24 hours, or if you have pain and cramping, call your doctor. Changes in your diet can help. Drink plenty of fluids that contain key chemicals and minerals so you don't become dehydrated. Beverages with potassium in them, such as fruit juice and sports drinks, are especially good. Your doctor can prescribe medication if your diarrhea is very bad. Learn more about the causes of diarrhea and medicines that can help. When and how to eat if you have diarrhea: Try a clear liquid diet — water, weak tea, apple juice, clear broth, frozen pops, or plain gelatin — as soon as diarrhea starts or you feel it's going to start. Clear liquids keep the bowels from working too hard and help prevent irritation. Eat small, frequent meals. Your body may find smaller amounts easier to digest. After 2 days of diarrhea, start a liquid diet and add low-fiber foods as you can tolerate them. This will help lessen bowel irritation and will give you some nutrients. Drink at least a cup of liquid after each bout of diarrhea so you don't become dehydrated. What to eat if you have diarrhea: Eat foods that are high in pectin, such as applesauce, bananas, and yogurt. Pectin, a water-soluble fiber, helps reduce diarrhea. Eat foods that have a lot of potassium, such as fruit juices, sports drinks, potatoes without the skin, and bananas. Potassium is often lost through diarrhea. Eat foods that are high in sodium, such as soups, broths, sports drinks, crackers, and pretzels. Salt helps you retain water so you don't become dehydrated. Get enough protein. Try lean baked beef, pork, turkey, or chicken, or well-cooked eggs or tofu. This can help you avoid fatigue. If you like certain fruits and vegetables, eat them cooked, not raw. Some raw fruits and vegetables can make diarrhea worse. Try soups made with cooked asparagus tips, beets, carrots, peeled zucchini, mushrooms, or celery; tomato puree; or a baked potato without the skin. Avoid caffeinated, alcoholic, or carbonated beverages and very hot or cold foods. They may irritate your digestive tract. Avoid using tobacco products. They may irritate your digestive tract. Avoid high-fat, fried, greasy, and rich foods. They can promote diarrhea. Avoid foods that cause gas, such as chewing gum and carbonated beverages. They can irritate your digestive tract. Limit milk and milk products. They may be hard to digest and promote diarrhea. Avoid nuts, raw fruits and vegetables, whole-grain breads, and bran products. They can be irritating to your digestive tract. Was this article helpful? Yes / No Last modified on May 8, 2013 at 9:53 AM | What is a good thing to eat when you're recovering from diarrhea and what should you avoid? Gaurav Dalvi, Healthcare Blogger at Mediklik - Aapka Health Buddy (2013-present)Answered Jan 20, 2017 · Author has 646 answers and 430.9k answer views These basic diet plans will help you recover your conditions and stop your diarrhea from getting worse. These are the foods to accelerate recovery.1. Drink some clear liquids first Keep in mind that it is better to eat a clear liquid diet after diarrhea, consisting of apple juice, frozen pops, weak tea, broth, and plain water jelly. Drinking clear liquids will help you prevent irritation.2. Eat small Meals It is also important to eat smaller meals more frequently in order to stop putting stress on your digestive system. You can also switch to a low-fiber diet after a few days of diarrhea. Don’t forget to drink enough water to stop you from getting dehydrated.3. Or you can follow this Dietary plan below Useful Foods to Follow Include high pectin content foods in your diet, such as bananas, apples and yogurt. Eating potassium-rich foods, such as bananas, sports drinks, fruit juices, and potatoes without the peel. This helps retain the loss of potassium through diarrhoea. Increase your protein intake to avoid tiredness. Eat more chicken, turkey, or well-cooked eggs. Eat well-cooked vegetables. You can have soups made with cooked carrots, asparagus tips, beets, zucchini, mushrooms, peeled tomato puree or celery. Damaging Foods to Avoid Do not eat the food that causes flatulence, such as carbonated beverages and chewing gum. Avoid high fibre foods with high fat. Avoid sweet foods, such as cookies and cakes, fat and fried food. Avoid alcohol, caffeine or carbonated drinks. Stop smoking in the healing process. Restrict the use of milk and dairy products that are very difficult to digest. Avoid very cold or hot foods or they will irritate your digestive system.340 Views · View Upvoters |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how many calories in wendy's baked potato | Calories in Wendy's chili and cheese baked potato Nutrition Facts Servings Per Recipe: 1Serving Size: 1 serving Amount Per Serving Calories 494.6Total Fat 24.2 g Saturated Fat 13.7 g Polyunsaturated Fat 1.0 g Monounsaturated Fat 7.5 g Cholesterol 72.5 mg Sodium 783.9 mg Potassium 939.5 mg Total Carbohydrate 45.8 g Dietary Fiber 6.2 g Sugars 2.0 g Protein 24.3 g Vitamin A 20.0 %Vitamin B-12 18.7 %Vitamin B-6 32.0 %Vitamin C 35.6 %Vitamin D 1.7 %Vitamin E 2.0 %Calcium 45.5 %Copper 31.2 %Folate 12.6 %Iron 19.7 %Magnesium 21.0 %Manganese 24.7 %Niacin 16.0 %Pantothenic Acid 12.6 %Phosphorus 46.5 %Riboflavin 20.3 %Selenium 26.5 %Thiamin 15.4 %Zinc 21.7 %*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2,000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs. Calories in Wendy's chili and cheese baked potato View the full Wendy's chili and cheese baked potato Recipe & Instructions Submitted by: EXPANSIVETAGS: Side Items |Calories per Ingredient Here are the foods from our food nutrition database that were used for the nutrition calculations of this recipe. Calories per serving of Wendy's chili and cheese baked potato 228 calories of Cheddar Cheese, (2 oz) 145 calories of Baked Potato (baked potatoes), (1 potato (2-1/3" x 4-3/4")) 121 calories of Chili Con Carne With Beans, (100 grams)No nutrition or calorie comments found. | Calories in Sweet potato - Cooked, baked in skin, without salt (Sweetpotato) Calories in Sweet potato - Cooked, baked in skin, without salt (Sweetpotato)Nutrition Facts Sweet potato - Cooked, baked in skin, without salt (Sweetpotato)Servings: Calories 580 Sodium 150 mg Total Fat 46 g Potassium 0 mg Saturated 0 g Total Carbs 0 g Polyunsaturated 0 g Dietary Fiber 0 g Monounsaturated 0 g Sugars 0 g Trans 0 g Protein 40 g Cholesterol 0 mg Vitamin A 0% Calcium 0%Vitamin C 0% Iron 0%*Percent Daily Values are based on a 2000 calorie diet. Your daily values may be higher or lower depending on your calorie needs. Search our food database by name: More from Generic Pistacios Evoo Margarine Tequila Sake Cornbeef Other Brands Ek Veggie Soup Nibblish Body Resey Diet Pan Colombia Bread samoli brown 8's Lonsdale Nutrition Size & Strengthcuchuflies Branco's Exceptional Meat Products Andreazza Loyd Grossman - Sept '15 |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.why was daylight savings started | Why We Have Daylight Saving Time NEWS VIDEOS BLOGS PERSONALITIESWhy We Have Daylight Saving Time By Samantha-Rae Tuthill, Accu Weather.com Staff Writer November 03, 2013, 11:38:16 PM ESTWinter is approaching and our days are continuing to get "shorter," as the number of hours in a day remain the same but the number of hours of daylight decrease. On Nov. 3, daylight hours for most of us will end even earlier in the evening when we move our clocks back an hour to end daylight saving time. Many people will change their clocks, but do they know why? Daylight saving time was primarily started in the United States for the sake of conserving energy. The Standard Time Act was passed in 1918, which officially established time zones and incorporated daylight saving months into federal law. This was during World War I, when national efforts were made to conserve materials for the war effort. It was believed that if daytime hours could correspond better with natural light, fewer tasks would need to be done at night. Homes would need to use less energy to stay lit. @MRCoffee Cents tweeted: "For those of us who would rather have more daylight in afternoon, here's the reason we tinker w/ clocks: http://bit.ly/1as G3ta #Time Change"Additional Relevant Tweets and Social Media Reaction After the war, daylight saving time was revoked. When food conservation became mandatory in the United Sates during World War II (rather than just being encouraged as it was in WWI), daylight saving time was once again instated. Referred to as "War Time," it spanned from early February until the end of September. After the war "Peace Time" was back in effect and the issue of daylight saving time was handled on a local level. This led to a great deal of confusion as different locations were constantly operating at different times. The Uniform Time Act was passed in 1966 to solve the problem. States were given the option to opt out of daylight saving time if they passed proper ordinances. With daylight saving no longer a federal mandate, some states have chosen not to observe it. The only states that don't currently participate in daylight saving are Arizona and Hawaii, with several U. S. territories choosing not to follow it as well. Arizona has such intense heat in daylight hours that it's not considered a benefit for its residents to be out for as much of it as possible. RELATED: Forecast High Temperatures for USAccu Weather Winter Weather Center Accu Weather Severe Weather Center As for Hawaii, its location closer to the equator gives them more consistent "days" year round. They wouldn't be gaining, or losing, many daylight hours by observing the clock change. Daylight saving time (also called "summer time") is observed in many countries all over the world, though the time frame for it varies. In the United States it ran from the last Sunday in April to the first Sunday in October until the Energy Policy Act was passed in 2005. As of 2007, daylight saving now runs from the second Sunday in March until the first Sunday in November. The argument continues over whether or not daylight saving time makes enough of an impact on energy costs to be worth observing. Report a Typo Weather News > | The 'America' filmmaker, convicted of violating election laws, promises another movie before the next presidential election The 'America' filmmaker, convicted of violating election laws, promises another movie before the next presidential election Conservative filmmaker Dinesh D'Souza, sentenced on Tuesday to eight months in a confinement center, told Megyn Kelly on the Fox News Channel that by the time he's through serving his time all of his fellow inmates will be Republicans. D'Souza, whose 2016: Obama's America, a critical look at the president, has become the second-most-popular political documentary in history, also vowed to make another movie before the next presidential election in 2016. It will be his third film, his second being America, which was released in July, and he has two more in the works after that, though he hasn't revealed details on any of them. Besides eight months in confinement, D'Souza was also ordered to pay a $30,000 fine, sentenced to five years' probation and to a day of community service for each week during his probation. His crime was telling a couple of friends that if they were to donate $10,000 apiece to a friend's senatorial campaign, he'd reimburse them. "This was really an effort to put me out of business. The government was trying to lock me up for between 10 and 16 months and a federal judge said 'no,' " D'Souza told Kelly Tuesday night in his first televised interview since his sentencing. "Today my faith in an independent judiciary is affirmed. "Read more Why Dinesh D'Souza's 'America' Features Clips of Matt Damon, Woody Harrelson From the moment D'Souza was arrested in January he and others have claimed that he was being singled out because of his criticism of President Barack Obama and other government officials. "They likened you to corrupt people who tried to curry favor with the politicians by making these donations as opposed to trying to help a friend," Kelly said on Tuesday. "There was just an all-out attempt to put me away," D'Souza said. "Meeting the burden of proving a selective prosecution is very high," he continued. "When you look around the country at other situations there seems to be a pattern of this administration using the instruments of the law, the IRS and so on, to go after its critics ... if I was locked up I would not have been able to make a film in the election year, in 2016. "D'Souza also told Kelly's audience what type of community service he'd be doing. "A good part of the sentence, and I actually thank the judge for it, is I'm going to be teaching English to new immigrants," he said. Read more Lawmaker to Push Bill Requiring Dinesh D'Souza's 'America' Be Shown in Schools"What are you going to do in a community confinement center?" Kelly asked D'Souza. "Can you imagine the other people who are in there? They'll be like, 'Isn't that the guy who made the movies?' "D'Souza answered: "Believe me, they're all going to be Republicans by the end of it. "Here's the video. Email: Paul. [email protected] |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.where is lake mcgregor montana | McGregor Lake Serving Buyers & Sellers Across Northwest Montana866.599.8160 Whitefish Office Bigfork Office Home Advanced Search About NW Montana Our Agents Sell Your Home Map My Properties Login Mc Gregor Lake Mc Gregor Lake is located between the Flathead Valley and the town of Libby along the south side of Hwy 2 deep in the mountains of Northwest Montana. Just 40 minutes to Kalispell or spend the day shopping in Spokane which is just 4 hours away. If you're looking for a great place to get away from the hustle and bustle of daily life and spend some time out on the lake then Mc Gregor Lake is the place for you. With an average depth of over 100 feet and a maximum depth over double that, Mc Gregor Lake makes a great place for fishing, boating or even scuba diving. With easy access to the boat ramp at the South end of Mc Gregor Lake and a typically smooth surface this can be an ideal place to get that true montana view that you've heard so much about!Nearest Major: Kalispell (40 minutes)Surface Area: 1522 acres Elevation: 3998 ft Mc Gregor Lake Real Estate Market: It seems like there are always a few properties on Mc Gregor Lake but they rarely stay on the market long. And although there are a wide variety of homes both in style and price don't miss out on the land that you'll find available from time to time.820 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 0.00 List Price: $329,000 MLS#: 21705637140 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 3.81 List Price: $499,000 MLS#: 21802753826 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 0.97 List Price: $359,900 MLS#: 21603871870 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.70 List Price: $1,450,000 MLS#: 335074840 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.20 List Price: $329,000 MLS#: 317606830 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.20 List Price: $369,900 MLS#: 2160386512790 Us Highway 2 West, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.20 List Price: $225,000 MLS#: 216034901020 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.12 List Price: $329,000 MLS#: 21707149970 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.19 List Price: $750,000 MLS#: 217057011026 Mcgregor Lane, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.03 List Price: $339,000 MLS#: 2160408112730 Us Hwy 2 West, Marion, MT 59925Lot Size: 1.26 List Price: $375,000 MLS#: 21704301« » | Top 10 Waterfalls in Minnesota Top 10 Waterfalls in Minnesota Posted on January 30, 2013 by Seth5544Every nature lover enjoys a good waterfall. It’s a fact. Minnesota has a nice selection of them, especially on the North Shore and the Duluth area. But there are others too. Lots of them. I could have easily went to the top 20 with this list, but for brevity’s sake, we’ll keep it short and simple. Per usual, it was a tough call, but here are the top 10 most distinct and alluring waterfalls in Minnesota.10. Winnewissa Falls, Pipestone – Located in the Pipestone National Monument in the southwest corner of Minnesota, Winnewissa Falls is a 20-ft waterfall surrounded by rock quarries and stray boulders. The Monument site is rich in geological history with a walking trail through the quartzite rock faces along the Pipestone Creek. It’s a welcome respite from the surrounding farmland of the area. 9. Vermillion Falls, Hastings – Vermillion Falls is right in town in Hastings, just off Highway 61 next to an old mill site. Just steps away from a parking area, there is paved trail right to the edge of the 50-foot falls. Limestone rock walls make up the gorge that the water flows into before it makes its way to the Mississippi downriver. Hastings also features dozens of historic homes and buildings and a mural of the gone-but-not-forgotten Spiral Bridge.8. Ramsey Falls, Redwood Falls – This 45-ft tall waterfall in the Alexander Ramsey park in Redwood Falls cascades down a picturesque granite ravine in a heavily wooded bluff area. Ramsey Park is the largest municipal park in the state and is located in the Minnesota River Valley in southwestern MN. You can basically drive right up to this site and take a quick little hike to the observation area.7. Illgen Falls, Silver Bay –The beauty of Illgen Falls is not just the fact that it’s a gorgeous little waterfall in Tettegouche State Park, it’s the fact that you can rent a cabin which is located less than 100 feet from it. The Illgen Falls Cabin is the only one of its kind; a fully-furnished A-frame that sleeps six, completely within the confines of the state park The cabin, formerly a private residence, is a drive-to, gated site which ensures the beautiful 50-ft falls is your own private little piece of paradise.6. Minnehaha Falls, Minneapolis – The 53-foot waterfall in Minneapolis is a contrast from the busy city-life surrounding it. Minnehaha Creek winds its way around the metro area and drops off a rock cliff before flowing into the Mississippi River just downstream. Expect this place to be full of visitors year-round, but there is plenty of room to explore the park. It’s incredible when it freezes.5. Wolf Creek Falls, Banning State Park – This small but secluded waterfall in Banning State Park is found deep in the woods after a bit of a hike through hardwood forests and rock outcrops. It’s a magical place, feeling more like a whimsical fairytale land than a Minnesota state park. You will rarely see others back here and the tranquility of this serene wonderland will make you never want to leave.4. Minneopa Falls, Mankato – Minneopa Falls, found in Mankato, MN, features a small waterfall followed by a 25-foot falls into a river gorge with an arch bridge as the backdrop above the waterway. Easily found on the edge of the town of Mankato, this state park also features hikes overlooking the bluffs and an old windmill from the 1800’s.3. Devil’s Kettle, Grand Marais – A real geological anomoly, the Devil’s Kettle has stumped just about everyone who has ever researched the damn thing. The Brule River makes its way through Judge C. R. Magney State Park on the North Shore of Lake Superior, and splits into two streams. The waterfall on the right drops fifty feet into a pool and makes its way out to the big lake. The falls on the left drop into a sinkhole and disappear to God knows where. Apparently geologists have dropped brightly colored dyes and other objects into it and have no idea where they end up.2. High Falls of the Pigeon River, Grand Portage, MN. The highest waterfall in the state, located in Grand Portage State Park at the far northeastern corner of the state, is a remarkable site. The Pigeon River thunders down a shale rock cliff 120 feet into a shallow pool and out to Superior. This one is way off the beaten path, but absolutely worth it. An easy 1-mile hike from the parking lot leads to an observation platform of the falls, which is also the International Border of the US and Canada.1. Gooseberry Falls, Two Harbors, MN. The crown jewel of the North Shore, Gooseberry Falls is one of the most recognizable sites in the state. Featuring 5 sets of falls through a dramatic river gorge, the Gooseberry River flows out to an agate beach into the largest lake in the world. Hiking trails wind around the falls through pine forests and rocky cliffs. This is an absolute must for any Minnesota sight-seeing enthusiast. It’s that awesome. Honorable Mentions: The Cascades at Manitou State Park, Niagara Cave Falls, Temperance River Gorge, St. Anthony Falls, Cascade Falls at Cascade State Park, and High Falls at Tettegouche State Park. This entry was posted in Highway Highlights and tagged Minnesota Geology, MN, Top 10, Waterfall by Seth5544. Bookmark the permalink . |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what did dana plato die from | Dana Plato's son, Tyler Lambert, commits suicide 11 years after 'Diff'rent Strokes' star overdosed Dana Plato's son, Tyler Lambert, commits suicide 11 years after 'Diff'rent Strokes' star overdosed BY Stephanie Gaskell DAILY NEWS STAFF WRITER Updated: Thursday, May 13, 2010, 10:05 AMfacebook Tweet email Tyler Lambert (r.), son of 'Diff'rent Strokes' star Dana Plato (l.), committed suicide on March 6, almost 11 years to the day after his mother's own death, ruled an intentional drug overdose. (Getty Images)The son of " Diff'rent Strokes " star Dana Plato committed suicide just two days before the 11th anniversary of his mother's fatal drug overdose. Tyler Lambert, 25, died May 6 from a self-inflicted shotgun wound to the head, according to the medical examiner's office in Tulsa, Okla.. Toxicology results are still pending. On May 8, 1999, the troubled 34-year-old actress overdosed on prescription pain killers after her character, Kimberly Drummond, was written off the hit show in 1984 amid rumors of a drug problem. Her death was ruled a suicide by Oklahoma authorities. Plato married rocker Lanny Lambert in 1984 and gave birth to Tyler just a year later. They divorced in 1990 and Lambert was given full custody of Tyler. Plato struggled for years, posing for Playboy in 1989, starring in B-movies before dabbling in soft porn flicks. In 1991 she was arrested attempting to rob a Las Vegas video store at gunpoint and the following year she was arrested for forging a Valium prescription. Lambert's grandmother, Joni Richardson, said he had been working behind the camera and as an amateur songwriter. "It's a shame that such a talented human being would do this with his life," his grandmother Joni Richardson told People magazine. "He had all the opportunities in the world and we just can't understand it. "[email protected] Sign up for BREAKING NEWS Emailsprivacy policy Send a Letter to the Editor Join the Conversation: facebook Tweet | . The website you were trying to reach is temporarily unavailable. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is a marital status | Marital status "Unmarried" redirects here. For the films, see Unmarried (1920 film) and Unmarried (1939 film). This article does not cite any sources. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Look up marital status in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Civil status, or marital status, is any of several distinct options that describe a person's relationship with a significant other. Married, single, divorced, and widowed are examples of civil status. Civil status and marital status are terms used in forms, vital records, and other documents to ask or indicate whether a person is married or single. In the simplest contexts, no further distinction is made. A status of married means that a person was wed in a manner legally recognized by their jurisdiction. A person's specified civil status might also be married if they are in a civil union or common-law marriage. The civil status of a person who is legally separated is married. Whether a cohabiting couple (such as in a domestic partnership) have a civil status of "married" depends on the circumstances and the jurisdiction. In addition to those who have never married, single status applies to people whose relationship with a significant other is not legally recognized. Questions about civil status appear on questionnaires for quantitative research, such as census forms and market research instruments. In a person's medical history, civil status is considered to have both quantitative and qualitative significance. A government records the civil status of its citizens by means of a civil registration system. Historically, inquiries into marital status have also appeared on applications for employment, loans, and credit. Family status indicates whether a person is the responsible caregiver for a child. See also [ edit]Visual markers of marital status Marriage gap Vital record Vital statistics (government records)Mortgage discrimination | . The website you were trying to reach is temporarily unavailable. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is the main airport in toronto canada | List of airports in the Greater Toronto Area From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search There are eight airports in the Greater Toronto Area (GTA); two of which provide scheduled passenger service. The two airports, Toronto Pearson International Airport and Billy Bishop Toronto City Airport, are located within the GTA. Two other airports, namely the Region of Waterloo International Airport and John C. Munro Hamilton International Airport, are passenger airports located in the outskirts of the metropolitan area. The four passenger service airports are included in the airport metrocode YTO, designated by the International Air Transport Association (IATA). Toronto Pearson, located in the neighbouring city of Mississauga, is the busiest airport in Canada and a major international flight hub in North America. Billy Bishop is a small international airport located on the Toronto Islands near Downtown Toronto used by regional airlines, civil aviation, and air ambulance traffic. Waterloo is a small passenger service airport, which is also used for general aviation and flight training. Hamilton is the main reliever airport to Toronto Pearson and second busiest in Southern Ontario, providing regular service to destinations in Canada and the Americas (typically seasonal or operated by ultra low-cost carriers such as Flair Airlines or Swoop ). [1]Buttonville Municipal Airport formerly had scheduled passenger service from Ottawa operated by Bearskin Airlines, but it has been discontinued. Contents [ hide ]1 Existing airports2 Water aerodromes3 Heliports4 Proposed airport5 Historical airports6 See also7 References8 External links Existing airports [ edit]Entries in bold have scheduled passenger flights. Airport name ICAO / TCLID / IATALocation Coordinates Toronto Pearson International Airport CYYZ (YYZ)Mississauga43°40′38″N079°37′50″WBilly Bishop Toronto City Airport CYTZ (YTZ)Toronto Islands, Toronto43°37′39″N079°23′46″WButtonville Municipal Airport CYKZ (YKZ)Buttonville, Markham43°51′44″N079°22′12″WMarkham Airport CNU8Markham43°56′09″N079°15′44″WDownsview Airport CYZD (YZD)Downsview, Toronto43°44′34″N079°27′56″WOshawa Executive Airport CYOO (YOO)Oshawa43°55′22″N078°53′42″WBrampton-Caledon Airport CNC3Caledon43°45′37″N079°52′30″WBurlington Executive Airport CZBABurlington43°26′30″N079°51′01″WJohn C. Munro Hamilton International Airport CYHM (YHM)Hamilton43°10′25″N079°56′06″WRegion of Waterloo International Airport CYKF (YKF) Woolwich, Regional Municipality of Waterloo 43°27′38″N080°22′42″WWater aerodromes [ edit]Airport name ICAO / TC LID / IATA Location Coordinates Billy Bishop Toronto City Water Aerodrome CPZ9 Toronto Islands, Toronto 43°37′59″N 079°23′40″WHeliports [ edit]Airport name ICAO / TC LID / IATA Location Coordinates Hospital for Sick Children CNW8 Toronto 43°39′00″N 079°23′00″WSunnybrook Health Sciences Centre CNY8 Toronto 43°43′16″N 079°22′14″WTarten Heliport CPA5 Mississauga 43°39′07″N 079°39′29″WMarkham Stouffville Hospital CPH7 Markham 43°53′00″N 079°14′00″WCredit Valley Hospital CPK6 Mississauga 43°33′41″N 079°42′09″WCardinal Couriers Heliport CPL8 Mississauga 43°37′53″N 079°39′53″WWilson's Heliport CPY5 Toronto ( Etobicoke) 43°37′04″N 079°33′49″WSt. Michael's Hospital (Toronto) CTM4 Toronto 43°39′15″N 079°22′42″WBrampton (National "D") Heliport CPC4 Brampton 43°50′00″N 079°42′03″WBrampton (National "P") Heliport CPM2 Brampton 43°48′47″N 079°41′59″WProposed airport [ edit]There is a proposal to develop a new Pickering Airport northeast of the city, to complement Pearson. [2] Versions of these tentative plans have been in existence since the early 1970s, and land for this proposed airport was expropriated by government authorities in 1972. However, continued and vociferous local opposition to the Pickering airport scheme has meant that forty years later, the airport had not moved beyond the discussion phase. In June 2013, the federal government announced the revival of the airport, but development is not expected to take place until 2027 to 2037. [3]Historical airports [ edit]The following airports once served the area but have since been closed: Airport name ICAO / TCLID / IATALocation Coordinates Current Use Armour Heights Field (Armoury Heights) Toronto43°44′27″N079°25′20″WClosed 1921 and re-developed as residential neighbourhood Barker Field ( Yorkdale)43°42′54″N079°27′22″WClosed 1953 and now commercial property ( Shell Canada gas station, Downsview Toyota dealership, Burger King, etc. )De Lesseps Field ( Mount Dennis) Weston43°41′54.6″N079°29′47.15″WOpened in 1910 as Trethewey Airfield at a canning shed; home to de Havilland Canada in 1928 until it moved to Downsview in 1929. Site now re-developed into residential neighbourhood. Downsview Airfield Downsview43°44′37″N079°27′59″WCeased as military airfield 1996 CFB Downsview and now Downsview Airport is a manufacturing facility for Bombardier Aerospace King City Airport King City43°54′21″N079°33′35″WBought by construction company for commercial use. Tower and parts of runway remain. Leaside Aerodrome East York43°42′46″N079°21′33″WClosed 1939 and later developed as commercial and industrial business park Long Branch Aerodrome Long Branch43°34′26″N079°33′16″WClosed 1919 and home to Lakeview Generating Station 1962–2007. Station demolished and being developed for homes, cultural and community use, as well as parkland along the waterfront. Maple Airport Vaughan43°50′36″N079°31′37″WClosed 1987 and re-developed as residential neighbourhood Toronto Aerodrome (Toronto Flying Club)Toronto ( Sheppard West station)43°44′56″N079°27′39″WClosed after 1939 and later became the Sheppard West subway station Willowdale Airfield Willowdale43°46′11″N079°25′36″WClosed before 1940 and now York Cemetery, Toronto See also [ edit]Toronto portal Aviation portal List of cities with more than one airport References [ edit]Map all coordinates using: Open Street Map · Google Maps Download coordinates as: KML · GPX^ Maclean's, March 19, 2012, airport taxes and fees^ Pickering Airport Draft Plan report 2004 Archived 2008-11-15 at the Wayback Machine.^ Oved, Marco Chown (2013-06-11). "Finance Minister Flaherty says Pickering airport will be operational in 15 years". Toronto Star. Canada Flight Supplement. Effective 0901 Z 29 March 2018 to 0901Z 24 May 2018. Nav Canada 's Water Aerodrome Supplement. Effective 0901 Z 7 March 2013 to 0901Z 3 April 2014External links [ edit]Toronto Historic Airfields Categories: Airports in Ontario Transport in the Greater Toronto Area Airports by city Lists of airports in Canada Toronto-related lists | . Charlotte Douglas International Airport Main Terminal Center |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.stretching esophagus cause nerve damage | Pinched Nerve in the Neck Symptoms and Treatment Pinched Nerve in the Neck Symptoms and Treatmentwritten by: Finn Orfano • edited by: Leigh A. Zaykoski • updated: 3/30/2010In this article you will learn what pinched nerve in the neck symptoms include. Also, in this article you while learn the anatomy of the neck, what a pinched nerve is, and the prevention and treatment of a pinched nerve in the neck. Anatomy of the Neck To understand how a person can get a pinched nerve in the neck, one must understand the anatomy of the neck. The neck is made up of seven cervical vertebrae that surround the spinal cord and spinal canal. In the center of these discs is a gelatinous material that cushions the vertebrae. There are nerves that surround each side of the vertebrae and discs. The neck structure is comprised of muscles, veins, arteries, glads, larynx, trachea, and esophagus. Neck pain conditions can be caused by an injury or disorder of any of these tissues in the neck. What is a Pinched Nerve? A pinched nerve is a type of injury or damage to a nerve or a group of nerves. The injury can result from compression, constriction, or stretching. A pinched nerve can lead to other conditions and cause temporary or permanent damage depending on the extent of the injury. To prevent further damage, early diagnosis is important. Healthy discs in the neck are structured with a space to allow the nerve to easily pass through. If a disc protrudes or is herniated, the disc alters the structure of the neck and cause a nerve to become pinched. If neck arthritis or bone spurs are present, the structure of the neck may be altered. This can cause a hard formation to touch the nerve and the result is a pinched nerve. Pinched Nerve in the Neck Symptoms Pinched nerve in the neck symptoms include pain that radiates outward and down from the affected nerve. A person will experience tingling, numbness, and muscle numbness in the area around the affected nerve. This tingling and numbness can be described as a feeling of pins and needles or the feeling of having a hand or foot fall asleep. The symptoms are dependent on the path that the nerve travels through. If a person experiences a strain of the muscles, more discomfort and foregoing symptoms may become worse. Prevention and Treatment of a Pinched Nerve in the Neck Maintaining a good posture is very helpful in the prevention of a pinched nerve in the neck. Working out regularly using a program that includes routines that involve strength and flexibility exercises and maintaining a healthy weight is very important in the prevention of a pinched nerve. Also, limit activities that are repetitive. Repeating the same motion over and over can lead to pinched nerves in the neck. When treating a pinched nerve in the neck, nonsurgical procedures are chosen over ones that involve actual surgery. One form of treatment is the use of a neck brace. A neck brace can help reduce inflammation around the affected nerve root. Another form of nonsurgical treatment are neck exercises to help reduce the strain caused by the pinched nerve. All nonsurgical treatments are used to lessen the pressure the nerve experiences from the surrounding structures. References Neck Solutions: Pinched Nerve in the Neck - http://www.necksolutions.com/pinched-nerve.html Mayo Clinic: Pinched Nerve - http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/pinched-nerve/DS00879 | Stretch your splits in 3 weeks â Flexibility to the Max! Stretch your splits in 3 weeks – Flexibility to the Max!September 3, 2006 Drill Obsession After reading this, here are some articles I recommend you also read: FAQs on this post - NEW!How To Become More Flexible Problem With The Splits? Ways To Improve Your Flexibility Flexi-tize and Strengthen Those Legs!I know it sounds crazy. Have your splits down in three weeks when you’re still two feet off the ground? It’s possible, but you just need the time to commit to this. Before you read this, I’ll warn you that it sounds like a TON of time, but think about it . . . you want your splits, right? Why don’t you just get them now so that you don’t waste time thinking about how far from the ground you are? How long have you been trying to get those darn splits down? A year, perhaps two? Three weeks is not bad at all. So, let’s get started (If you’re just looking for stretches, scroll down). Stretch where you feel comfortable, but not distracted. An area with a computer, for instance, might be a bad location, because you may be tempted to go on the internet and surf, which destroys your focus and stops your flexibility from improving. Focus and stretch as if you were meditating. Week #1Reserve thirty minutes a day to stretching (yes, including weekends, or else it won’t work. If you absolutely cannot stretch on one day, just make sure you get straight back to your stretching routine the next day). Warming up before you stretch is very helpful because it makes your muscles warm and easy to stretch. The warmer you are, the easier the stretch will be; thus, the more success you will have in getting those splits down. And here are your daily stretching routines: Session 1: 15 minutes I recommend that you get this over in the morning, before you go to school, work, or whatever you do during the daytime. After warming up, start your stretches. I recommend that you stretch one minute (at the very least) for each stretch. Remember: the splits are not dependent on one muscle. Helpful stretches are listed and described at the end of this post. Session 2: 15 minutes This one I’d say to do before you sleep. Do not slack off because you’re sleepy or tired. Brush your teeth, stretch, then sleep. If you absolutely cannot do session 1 in the morning and session 2 at night, then leave at least 2 hours in between sessions. You need to gain flexibility, have some time off, then work back on the flexibility to regain it and improve it. Week #2Keep up with the same thing as week one, but now stretching time is increased to 45 minutes a day. That means there is now a session in between–session 1.5 should be done after school, work, etc. And if not, leave 2 hours in between sessions. You should really start noticing that you’re getting close to the splits. Week #3Increase your stretching time to one hour. This is same as week two, with another session. This is the between dinner and before bedtime one. The free time that you have after dinner and before your last session should be used for an additional 15 minutes of stretching. After the end of this week, you should be in your splits! Yipee!If you’re having problems or not noticing any improvement, try other stretches. Again, a variety of stretches is your best bet. Remember to sit in the splits, or as close as you can go (I know it hurts, but how else can you get it?). Tip: Stretch when you’re doing an inactive activity, like the laundry, reading a book, watching TV, or talking on the phone. This should be apart from your sessions, which require 100% focus. Extra stretching is always beneficial!Precaution: It’s NOT a good thing to be feeling pain when you stretch. Pain is different from soreness. The two concepts are a bit hard to explain in writing. In general, if your legs feel painful when you stretch, it’s a good idea to ease back a little bit. If you find that you are still having problems with this, the best bet is to consult a coach or doctor since they know best. Many readers have questioned whether or not they are physically capable of doing the splits because they feel that they are making little progress; I will refer you to this splits misconceptions article for that purpose. Some helpful stretches V-sit: sit with your back flat against a wall. Bring both legs as far back to the wall as you can and keep proper posture and straight legs. While keeping your posture, bring your back down towards the floor as your arms reach out in front of you (not down) as far as possible. Feel the stretch. Do this first pointing your toes, then flexing your feet. Try moving your legs out further as you go on. Also, you can reach out towards your right and left legs. Remember to breathe!Straight leg stretch: Basically, keep your legs straight and feet together. Stand, and without bending your knees, reach down as far as possible. Put your weight on your toes (not your heels)–this feels a bit unnatural at first, but it is the proper way to stretch. You can also do this one sitting. Sit with proper posture, legs straight out in front of you and ankles together. Reach out with your arms. Do this both flexing and pointing your toes. Sideways stretch: Ok, so you’ve probably figured out that I’m making up names for the stretches as I go along. Pretty creative, eh? Anyway, the “sidways stretch” goes like this. Stand in the straight leg stretch position. Now bring your right leg out in front of you (like you’re taking a step forward) about two feet. This doesn’t have to be precise, just as long as you’re close. Stand up, keep your posture back. Now reach down to your right foot, keeping your posture back and your hips in line. Your hips shouldn’t shift to aid you in your stretch. Go down slowly, and if you hips shift, come back up and try again. Go as far down as you can without shifting hips. After doing this for a minute, bend your left leg and continue stretching to your right. Now switch legs.4 Stretch: Named because it looks like a number 4. Sit down on your butt and put both legs straight out in front of you. Bend your left leg so that your left knee is on the ground, your left foot also on the ground with the flat side touching your right knee, and your right knee is straight with toes pointed. See the 4 that your legs make? Stretch, with proper posture, to your right leg. Reach out with your arms, as far as you can. After a minute, remembering to breathe, of course, flex your right foot and continue reaching out for another minute. Switch legs, and repeat. Standing V-leg stretch: Stand up, posture back, with your legs shoulder width apart. You can go a little wider if that’s more comfortable for you, but try to keep it as close to shoulder width as possible. Bring your straight arms between and beyond your legs–reach back. Also reach to your right and left legs. Reach down the center, too. As with the straight leg stretch, keep your weight over your toes rather than your heels. Half squat: Squat. Keep your right leg where it is and place your left leg straight out your left side, toes pointed, as if you were doing the center splits with your left leg. Put your right hand on the ground to the left of your right foot. Use your right elbow to push your right knee out. You should feel stretching your inner thighs. Switch sides. The splits: Well, if you want your splits down, shouldn’t you be doing them? . Never be discouraged by how far you are from the splits. Just get as close as you can and hold it there for awhile (a minute). Relax, and repeat a few times. You can also do the splits on the wall (preferably, a doorway, so you can keep your balance). In a few days, after doing multiple stretches, you will notice that you’re getting closer. Rejoice!All of these stretches usually take about a minute. Above, I’ve given you much more than fifteen minutes of stretching, so spread these stretches out. Do some in one session, others in another session, but try to stretch as many muscles as you can each session. Don’t confine yourself to just one stretch. Do both splits in each session at least once (preferably at the end, to see your improvement). Another thing to remember is to stretch both legs. A lot of people stretch one leg, while the other leg is completely inflexible. This leads to uneven kicks. It’s a good idea to get both legs flexible so you aren’t stuck with being good with one split and not the other. You never know what split you will encounter in the future!Remember, you must focus on and want the splits, or else you’ll never get them. The wanting part is easy. Who wouldn’t want to do the splits? The focus is the hard part. Stretching in your kitchen, for instance, is a bad habit. You’ll see that bag of chips and box of cereal and be completely distracted. You’ve lost your focus. If you truly want your splits, you should be stretching like you’re meditating. Think of nothing other than those splits, breathing, and your flexibility. This is not the time to daydream. Now go stretching, and remember, think: splits, splits, splits, splits, splits, splits, flexibility, splits, breathe, splits, splits . . . *Note*–more stretches have been submitted through comments. Some of these stretches are listed below. Additional stretches and responses to comments (see also FAQ)Edit 9/6/06Thanks Hailey for the comment! Here’s another good stretch from her: “A good stretch is the frog. You lye on your stomach, and bring your feet together, with your pelvis on the ground, sort of like the butterfly in reverse, and the goal is to get your feet to touch the ground, still together, and your knee’s bent, and your pelvis on the ground. After you acheve that bring your feet closer to your body and do the same thing over again, untill you can have your knee’s bent, feet and pelvies on the ground, and your feet right against your body. It helps dancers with their turn out too.”–I have heard of this one and tried it myself; it’s a lot harder than it looks, but an excellent stretch. It’s a good before-you-sleep stretch, while you’re in bed and have nothing better to do. Now you can add it to your stretching routines. Hope those splits are coming along well. Edit 10/4/06Nina, thank you for the comment. Sorry for the confusion! I hope that this re-explanation of the frog stretch might help you see what it is. Frog stretch: Lie down belly on the floor. Bend your knees and put your the bottoms of your feet together– push them towards your pelvis, while trying to keep every part of your body flat on the ground. It’s like the “butterfly stretch” except on your stomach. I’m not sure if that’s a universal term, but the butterfly stretch is where you sit on your butt and put your feet together, knees bent. You try to push your knees to the ground and feel the stretch in your inner thigh area. This helps with your center splits because you need flexibility in that area. If you are getting little results, make sure that you are warming up before stretching (the warmer, the better) and focusing hard on flexibility and nothing else. Get “in the zone” (100% focus) when you stretch. No phone calls, TV, or music if it distracts you. Use a variety of stretches everyday. Don’t forget to breathe. Good luck!Edit 1/23/07Thanks, Evi, for suggesting the lunge as a stretch. I usually think of it more as a workout and muscle-strengthening activity, but it does work as a stretch if you let your muscles relax. Here is my explanation of it for those that want to try it: stand up, feet and heels together. Take a step forward with your right foot, keeping a large stride–this is just like the “sideways stretch” position except with a larger space between your legs (for average height, keep around 3-4 feet or whatever is comfortable for you). Now bend your right leg to make it perpendicular to the floor. This is a step before the lunge–the “runner stretch” (I just realized that I forgot to add this!). The runner stretch is helpful for your calves; hold in this position for a minute or two. Now, to get to the lunge, keep your right leg in position, and slide your left foot back as far as possible while keeping your right leg still in perpendicular position from knee down. This is the lunge position. Typically, lunges are done to strengthen your leg muscles (thighs, particularly). If you are interested in doing that, stay in position for about five seconds, then take a step with your left leg and do it again. Keep repeating (you should feel a burn in your thighs) and hold weights at your side if it gets easy for you. It might help if you squeeze your ears with your elbows or hold onto your hips to keep balance (if you are not using weights). To use the lunge as a stretch, place your hands on the floor on each side of your right foot so you can keep balance, ease the pressure off of your thighs, and focus on the stretch more instead of focusing on strengthening your leg muscles. There is a primary goal when stretching, and that is attaining flexibility. Take things one at a time–you can work on leg strength later! Anyway, the lunge is particularly helpful in stretching your inner thighs. Notice that, if you continue sliding your leg back (and let your front foot leave the perpendicular position), you will slide into a split! I found it helpful to get into the lunge position and slide back as far as I could into the splits until I finally got there. Hope that the lunge helps you!Edit 3/16/07Elphie, I am proud of you for getting those splits (almost) down! Great job with your stretching, and I hope you are happy with the results! That last inch or two will not be too difficult. The way that you get that down is by sitting in the splits for a few minutes (maybe about 2 minutes). Then, switch your splits so you can stretch the other side. Get up, walk around a little, and restretch. If you sit in your splits for just 2 minutes about 2-3 times a day, it will be there in a few days. Concentrate, warm up, and stretch. You’ll get there. Don’t worry too much about being able to pick up choreography. If you aren’t so experienced, it will just take more practice to get it down. Don’t stress if you don’t get the routine while it is being taught. Just try to remember all that you can so you can practice once you get home, and then go to your audition the next day feeling like you’ve worked hard and learned something. Best of luck at your audition. Edit 4/8/07Diana, thanks for offering great advice. Remember that flexibility is something that is developed. You may return back to normal the next day for the first few days of stretching, but do not lose motivation. Keep stretching with a strong focus. Soon enough, you will be able to see improvements. Good luck at tryouts!Edit 7/22/07Melanie, if you are scared to go into the straddle splits, just remember to slowly go into them. Keep your hands on the ground and slowly lower yourself. Once you feel tension, hold the position to feel the stretch; however, do not go so far into the splits to the point where you feel pain. Another way to practice the straddle splits is to sit on the floor in a v-sit position. Gradually pull your feet further apart. Reach forward with both arms to feel the stretch. It helps do v-sit with your feet against the wall, so that you can pull your body into the wall (or you could sit with your back against the wall, and pull your legs back towards the wall). Hope that helps! Thanks for visiting. Edit 7/29/07Charlotte, you should consider sitting in your splits for a little less than two minutes. When your knee starts to shake, try to make it stop by balancing yourself; if that doesn’t work, don’t worry! Get out of the splits, and then go back to them when you feel ready. It takes time for your body to develop the ability to do the splits. As for the grinding in your knee joints, you should definitely be careful with that. Make sure that your ankle/foot isn’t bent the wrong way because that could cause your knee to be irritated. If it is painful, you should ask a doctor about it. Melanie, this post is for all splits (right, left, and center).<Edit 8/9/07Hi Beth, you asked if there are stretches that would decrease your flexibility. Nothing that I know of will actually “decrease” your flexibility. If over time, you don’t stretch, then you become less flexible because your muscles have relaxed. If you are stretching properly, it can only increase and develop your flexibility. As for starting ballet, there is never a “latest” age. Most people start when they are very little because it is easier to develop ballet skills, such as flexibility and pointy toes, at that age; however, if you are committed, I believe that you can gain those skills. It will be much harder as you get older, but it is most likely still possible (for most people). Austin, most boys are able to do the splits as well; however, the reason it is harder for boys is because they are generally less flexible than girls. By this, I mean that a girl who never stretches tends to be more flexible than a boy who never stretches (I have no idea why this is so). Anyway, because of this, it takes guys a little bit of a longer time to get the splits because they have a longer way to go in terms of flexibility in order to achieve the splits. I did say that most boys can do the splits… please refer to this splits article to see if you’re capable. Edit 8/25/08I’ve batched up a ton of questions and addressed them in the FAQ post. From now on, I’ll be updating that page instead of this one. Check it out!Anyone else have stretches or suggestions? Any confusion on the stretches? Comment! |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what term describes all alleles of all the genes in a population? | The Collective Set of Alleles in a Population Is Its Gene Pool The Collective Set of Alleles in a Population Is Its Gene Pool The fact that genes exist in alternate forms, called alleles, forms the basis for the study of population genetics. Populations are made up of members of the same species that interbreed. Population geneticists study the variation that naturally occurs among the genes within a population. The collection of all the genes and the various alternate or allelic forms of those genes within a population is called its gene pool. What is variation in a gene pool? Genetic variation within a population is measured according to the number of different alleles of all genes and the frequency with which they appear. Variation is high when there are many different allelic forms of all genes and when there are many different combinations of those alleles. However, genetic variation is constantly changing. Different allelic forms of a single gene can appear and disappear from time to time within a single group of organisms. This means that the gene pool of a population is dynamic and can change at any moment for a variety of reasons. In addition, the rate of change within a gene pool can vary at different points in time. Figure 1: The concept of a gene pool includes multiple alleles in a group of organisms. Consider for a moment a population of the fruit fly ( Drosophila melanogaster ). The collective set of genes in the fruit fly population includes a variety of allelic forms: B and b, V and v, W and w, and more (Figure 1). Accounting for all of these alleles and their relative proportions within the population are measures of genetic variation. Scientists, however, cannot always determine which alleles are present in a population based on outward appearance (i.e. phenotypes) of the organisms that comprise it. Some phenotypes associated with certain alleles are masked or deemphasized when other alleles are present, or are less visible under certain environmental conditions. For this reason, it is important to understand a gene pool as the collective set of alleles whose phenotype may or may not be observable. Figure 2: Genetic variation within three butterfly species. Three different butterfly species (top row) show distinct wing colors and patterns. When individuals from the same three species are born in a different season, they each show different wing color and pattern phenotypes (bottom row). This is a reflection of the variation that exists in the gene pool. Figure Detail Tropical butterflies provide an excellent example of genetic variation within species. In these butterflies, temperature and light can influence gene expression. Consequently, wing color and pattern can vary depending on the season during which a butterfly is born. The top row of Figure 2 shows examples of three different butterfly species. The bottom row shows butterflies from the same three species, but these individuals were born under different temperature and light conditions than those in the top row. How can this happen? The differences in wing colors and patterns of butterflies of the same species reflect the underlying genetic variability within a population. Even though each butterfly within a species has the potential to develop the wide variety of colors and patterns shown above, its environment influences the phenotypic expression of its genetic characteristics. The gene pool of each species, therefore, contains a collection of many different alleles whose phenotype may or may not be observable. Can gene pools vary within populations? From the perspective of a geneticist, a population is a group of organisms of the same species that interbreed. This may mean that the group of organisms all live in the same area, or that they can travel over long distances to mate. Over time, a population's gene pool may change. A variety of different factors can account for these changes, including migration of new individuals into the population, death of a large number of individuals within the population, or environmental factors that favor certain traits over others. The factors that affect the composition of the gene pool are shaped both by the physical environment and by time. Consequently, the definition of populations can be refined to include groups of organisms whose genetic makeup can change over time, and groups of organisms that tend to interbreed. Further Exploration Key Questions How can mutation cause genetic variation? Key Conceptsgenetic variation | species | . Related Links Dictionaries Math Dictionary Physics Dictionary Chemistry Dictionary Biology Dictionary Math Articles |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is the period of a simple pendulum? | The Simple Pendulum Acoustics and Vibration Animations Daniel A. Russell, Ph. D. Graduate Program in Acoustics The Pennsylvania State University All text and images on this page are ©2004-2011 by Daniel A. Russell and may not used in other web pages or reports without permission. The Simple Pendulum A simple pendulum consists of a mass m hanging from a string of length L and fixed at a pivot point P. When displaced to an initial angle and released, the pendulum will swing back and forth with periodic motion. By applying Newton's secont law for rotational systems, the equation of motion for the pendulum may be obtained, and rearranged as. If the amplitude of angular displacement is small enough that the small angle approximation () holds true, then the equation of motion reduces to the equation of simple harmonic motion. The simple harmonic solution is with being the natural frequency of the motion. Small Angle Approximation and Simple Harmonic Motion With the assumption of small angles, the frequency and period of the pendulum are independent of the initial angular displacement amplitude. All simple pendulums should have the same period regardless of their initial angle (and regardless of their masses). This simple approximation is illustrated in the (48 k B) mpeg movie at left. All three pendulums cycle through one complete oscillation in the same amount of time. The period for a simple pendulum does not depend on the mass or the initial anglular displacement, but depends only on the length L of the string and the value of the gravitational field strength g, according to The mpeg movie at left (39.5 k B) shows two pendula, with different lengths. How many complete oscillations does the shorter (blue) pendulum make in the time for one complete oscillation of the longer (black) pendulum? From this information and the definition of the period for a simple pendulum, what is the ratio of lengths for the two pendula? The Real (Nonlinear) Pendulum When the angular displacement amplitude of the pendulum is large enough that the small angle approximation no longer holds, then the equation of motion must remain in its nonlinear form. This differential equation does not have a closed form solution, and must be solved numerically using a computer. Mathematica numerically solves this differential equation very easily with the built in function NDSolve [ ] . Small Initial Amplitude The small angle approximation is valid for initial angular displacements of about 20° or less. The (0.132MB) mpeg movie at left shows two pendula: the black pendulum assumes the linear small angle approximation of simple harmonic motion, the grey pendulum (hidded behind the black one) shows the numerical solution of the actual nonlinear differential equation of motion. For small initial angular displacements the error in the small angle approximation becomes evident only after several oscillations. Large Initial Amplitude When the initial angular displacement is significantly large that the small angle approximation is no longer valid, the error between the simple harmonic solution and the actual solution becomes apparent almost immediately, and grows as time progresses. In the (0.226MB) mpeg move at left, the dark blue pendulum is the simple approximation, and the light blue pendulum (initially hidden behind the dark blue one) shows the numerical solution of the nonlinear differential equation of motion. Back to the Vibrations and Waves Demo Page | . Log in User ID: Your User ID is not your 10-digit account number. It must be 8-20 characters, must contain numbers and letters and no special characters are allowed. See a Demo »Sign up for Online Banking »Quick Links: News & Security Alerts Rates Mortgage Center Dealer Net Dealers Member Discounts Verified by Visa Disclosures Electronic Payment Center1 2 3 4 5 |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how much protein is in cauliflower | Protein in Cauliflower Food database and calorie counter Protein in Cauliflower The favorite choice for the term "Cauliflower" is 1 cup of Cauliflower which has about 2 grams of protein . The amount of protein for a variety of types and serving sizes of Cauliflower is shown below. View other nutritional values (such as Calories, Carbs or Fats) using the filter below: Calories | Total Carbs | Total Fats | Protein | Sodium | Cholesterol | Vitamins Popular Serving Sizes of Cauliflower Prot (g)1 floweret 0.261 small head 5.251 medium head 11.381 large head 16.631/2 cup 0.991 cup 1.981 oz 0.56Other Popular Types of Cauliflower (1 cup serving) Prot (g)Cooked Cauliflower 2.30Cooked Frozen Cauliflower 2.89Canned Cauliflower 3.27Creamed Cauliflower 12.45Mashed Cauliflower 4.77Green Cauliflower 1.89Pickled Cauliflower 1.87Fried Batter Dipped Cauliflower 3.71Cream of Cauliflower Soup 7.54Foods related to Cauliflower: Broccoli Cabbage Carrots Potato Vegetablesview more results for cauliflower | Protein in Nuts - Are They Really A Good Protein Source? Protein in Nuts - Are They Really A Good Protein Source? One of the biggest misconceptions about a vegan diet plan is that you need to eat lots of nuts and seeds for protein. While there is protein in nuts and seeds, that's not my main reason for eating them. To calculate your protein needs as a vegan, check out my protein calculator. Since numbers are the easiest way to understand this, let's look at the breakdown of macronutrients (carbohydrates, fats and protein) in nuts and seeds. Looking at the numbers as a percentage of calories is really useful to compare different types of foods, since calorie density in a specific volume of food can very quite a bit. Nuts and Seeds Almonds - 15% carbs, 13% protein, 72% fat Cashews - 22% carbs, 11.5% protein, 66.5% fat Peanut Butter - 13% carbs, 17% protein, 70% fat Walnuts - 8.5% carbs, 8% protein, 83.5% fat Pecans - 8% carbs, 5% protein, 87% fat Flax seeds - 22% carbs, 12% protein, 66% fat Pumpkin seeds - 13% carbs, 16% protein, 71% fat Sesame seeds - 17% carbs, 11% protein, 72% fat Sunflower seeds - 17% carbs, 11.5% protein, 71.5% fat The breakdown shows that nuts and seeds are made up mainly of fat - and that's the reason I eat them. They're an excellent source of healthy, whole food fats. They do also have protein, but because you only need a couple of tablespoons of nuts or seeds to pack in a couple hundred calories, they should really be kept in moderation. Now let's compare the protein in nuts to the protein content of other plant foods. Beans and Legumes Split peas - 73% carbs, 24.5% protein, 2.5% fat Lentils - 70% carbs, 27% protein, 3% fat Aduki beans - 79% carbs, 20% protein, 1% fat Kidney beans - 73% carbs, 24% protein, 3% fat Beans and legumes easily beat the protein in nuts, and are predominantly carbs. This is a really good balance of nutrients to give you lasting energy. Grains Buckwheat - 82% carbs, 12% protein, 6% fat Millet - 82% carbs, 11% protein, 7% fat Oats - 70% carbs, 15% protein, 15% fat Quinoa - 70% carbs, 15% protein, 15% fat Whole wheat flour - 81% carbs, 14.5% protein, 4.5% fat Are you noticing that these grains are on par with the protein in nuts and seeds? Vegetables Asparagus - 68% carbs, 27% protein, 5% fat Beets - 86% carbs, 11% protein, 3% fat Mushrooms - 50% carbs, 37% protein, 13% fat Broccoli - 71% carbs, 20% protein, 9% fat Zucchini - 72% carbs, 18.5% protein, 9.5% fat Now comes the really interesting part - there's less protein in nuts than some vegetables. Now, you do have to eat a mountain of vegetables to get a lot of grams of protein since they're so low in calorie density, but they also have a ton of vitamins, minerals and other important nutrients. Fruit Watermelon - 89% carbs, 7% protein, 4% fat Orange - 92% carbs, 6.5% protein, 1.5% fat The really surprising thing is that there's more protein per calorie in watermelon and oranges than in pecans. My overall message here is not to avoid nuts and seeds. They're a great source healthy fats and important vitamins and minerals. But don't eat them just for protein, and don't eat them in mass amounts. It's easy to get carried away snacking on them, and the calories and fat will add up really quickly without you even realizing it. Where do you get your protein? You may want to check out my protein book for more info. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what are the functions of veins | Vein Function â What Are The Functions Of The Veins? Vein Function – What Are The Functions Of The Veins? Veins are the blood vessels which help in returning the blood back to the heart from the various parts of the body. In systemic circulation, the oxygenated blood is pumped into the muscles and the organs of the body through the arteries by the left ventricle. The nutrients and gases are exchanged at the capillaries. Then the blood enters the veins filled with cellular waste and carbon dioxide. This deoxygenated blood is then taken to the right atrium by the veins. The veins are blood vessels which carry the deoxygenated blood back to heart from the body tissues in our circulatory system. The word “vein” has been coined from the Latin word ‘vena’. But there are some exceptions in the functioning of some veins – the pulmonary veins and the umbilical veins. These two exceptional veins carry the oxygenated blood. Veins are different from arteries in both their structure and function. This articles also explains about the classification of veins and about venous diseases and vein function. Vein Functions: Valve Position Vein’s lumens generally collapse when they do not get completely filled with the blood. Vein’s outermost layer is very thick and is made up of connective tissues that are called tunica externa or tunica adventitia. The smooth muscle bands are deeper and thin, called the tunica media. The thin muscle bands do not interfere as the veins do not undergo contraction or relaxation very often. The inside of the vein, called tunica intima, is lined with the help of endothelial cells. The veins are mostly one-sided. They have flaps called venous valves that can prevent the back flow of the blood. These valves also restricts the pooling of the blood in the lower extremities due to the gravitational force. The in-foldings of tunica intima makes up the venous valves. The exact location of veins may vary from person to person. Cycle of Blood Circulation The right atrium transfers blood to the right ventricle. The right ventricle pumps the blood through pulmonary arteries into the lungs. In pulmonary circulation, the oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium from the lungs through pulmonary veins. Then, blood is emptied by the left atrium emptied into left ventricle. This completes one cycle of blood circulation. Veins And The Vein Systems The vein in the lower limb which is most superficially placed is the greater saphenous vein. These veins usually hide inside the thigh along its own fascial compartment leaving the compartment at the knee. This is how it named has been coined as ‘ Safina’ meaning hidden. This was described by Avicenna, the Persian physician, for the first time. Incompetence of the saphenous vein can lead to varicose veins and this usually occurs in the lower limbs. The relatively oxygenated blood is carried by the pulmonary veins to the heart from the lungs and the relatively deoxygenated blood is carried by the superior vene cava and the inferior vena cava. When a series of venules or veins connect two capillaries directly, a portal venous system is formed. Example of such a system is hypophyseal portal system and hepatic portal vein. Carrying Blood to the Heart The skeletal-muscle pump helps in maintaining the blood pressure of the venous system at a very low measure. This is how the blood is returned to the heart. If any failure occurs in the skeletal-muscular pump, it can lead to the individual becoming unconscious. Sometimes when we stand for longer periods of time, blood gets pooled in the legs. As a result, the blood pressure becomes too high to be returned to the heart. Hypovolaemic shock and neurogenic shock can also be another reason for fainting. In such cases, smooth muscles that tend to surround the veins may become extremely slack. Veins get filled with a lot of blood eventually resulting in restricting the blood from reaching the brain. This can lead to unconsciousness. Portal Veins As we know, most veins carry the blood to the heart from various other parts of the body with some exceptions like the pulmonary vein. There is another exception- the Portal veins. These play a major role in carrying blood between each capillary bed. For instance, hepatic portal vein plays a major role in carrying blood to the capillary beds that are present in the liver and from the capillary beds to the digestive tract. This blood is again drained inside gastrointestinal tract as well as inside the spleen. From here hepatic veins carry this blood back to the heart. Damage to this hepatic portal vein may result in causing serious danger especially to the mammals. If blood clotting takes place inside hepatic portal vein, then it can result in causing portal hypertension further resulting in reduced blood fluid flow to the liver. Color The color of the vein is determined by the color of the venous blood. The low oxygen content of the blood makes it appear dark red. The subcutaneous fat permits wavelengths of only highly energetic blue light to penetrate through the skin, into the dark veins and then reflect back. But it absorbs the low frequency light. This is why the veins appear blue. This phenomenon is opposite of the theory of Rayleigh scattering (the reason the sky is blue in color). Classification Of Veins Superficial Veins And Deep Veins Superficial Veins: These veins are located very close to the body surface and they are superficially placed. These veins may not have any corresponding arteries. Deep Veins: These veins are placed deep inside the body, hence the name ‘deep veins’. These deep veins also have their corresponding arteries. Systemic Veins and Pulmonary Veins Pulmonary Veins: These are set of veins that carry oxygenated blood from lungs to heart, are known as pulmonary veins. Systemic Veins: The systemic veins help in draining blood from body tissues and carrying this deoxygenated blood back to the heart. Phlebology The medical discipline involving the diagnosis and treating the disorders. This mainly involves venous origin is known as Phlebology. Physical examination and medical history and, laboratory evaluations and various imaging techniques are the basis of diagnosis. A Phlebology specialist is generally termed as a ‘Phlebologist’ and the related image is a ‘Phlebography’. Venous Diseases‘Venous insufficiency’ is a disorder that occurs in the venous system. It is found most commonly as spider veins and varicose veins. The type of treatment administered is dependent on the patterns or types of veins and the preference of the physician. Treatments include ambulatory phlebectomy, compression, foam, lasers, sclerotherapy, radiofrequency ablation or vein stripping. The postphlebitic syndrome is considered as ‘venous insufficiency’ that eventually develops into ‘deep vein thrombosis’. Read to know about them in detail. Deep vein thrombosis: This condition arises when a blood clot is formed inside a deep vein. This often leads to chronic venous insufficiency and pulmonary embolism. Thrombophlebitis: This condition is considered as an inflammatory condition and is generally caused by blood clots in the veins. Tags: most viewed← Umbilical Artery – What Is The Role Of An Umbilical Artery? Blood Tests – Why Are Blood Tests So Important? → | Science for Kids Advertisement Science >> Biology for Kids Science for Kids Bones and the Human Skeleton Skeletal System All the bones in the human body together are called the skeletal system. The skeletal system provides strength and rigidity to our body so we don't just flop around like jellyfish. We have 206 bones in our body. Each bone has a function. Some bones offer protection to softer more fragile parts of body. For example, the skull protects the brain and the rib cage protects our heart and lungs. Other bones, like bones in our legs and arms, help us to move around by providing support for our muscles. The skeletal system includes more than just bones. It also includes tendons, ligaments, and cartilage. Tendons attach our bones to muscles so we can move around. Ligaments attach bones to other bones. What are bones made of? Around 70 percent of your bones are not living tissue, but hard minerals like calcium. The outside of the bone is called the cortical bone. It's hard, smooth, and solid. Inside the cortical bone is a porous, spongy bone material called the trabecular or concellous bone. This bone is lighter allowing for the bone itself to be lighter and easier for us to move around. It also allows room for blood vessels and makes our bones slightly bendable. This way our bones won't break so easily. At the center of bones is a softer substance called marrow. Bone Marrow There are two types of bone marrow, yellow and red. Yellow bone marrow is mostly fat cells. Red marrow is important because this is where our body produces red and white blood cells. When we are born, all of our bones have red marrow. By the time we are adults about half of our bones have red marrow. Advertisement Joints Our bones come together and connect at special places called joints. Your knees and elbows are joints, for example. Many joints have a large range of movement and are called ball and socket joints. The shoulder and hip are ball and socket joints. Joints have a smooth, durable material called cartilage. Cartilage, together with fluid, allows bones to rub against each other smoothly and not wear out. How do broken bones heal? Your body can heal broken bones all on its own. Of course, a doctor will help it along, making sure that the bone heals straight and properly using a cast or sling. A broken bone will heal in stages. When it first breaks there will be blood around it and it will form a sort of scab over the broken portions. Next, tougher tissue will start to grow over the broken area called collagen. The collagen, together with cartilage, will bridge the gap between the two sides of the break. This bridge will continue to transform and harden until the bone is healed. It can often take months for bones to heal back to normal. While the bone is healing, it can't take the stress of a normal bone, which is why people use crutches and slings to take the pressure off the bone while it's healing. Fun facts about bones for kids The smallest bones are in the ear. Although your bones stop growing when you are around 20, they do constantly rebuild new bone cells. The spine is made up of 33 bones. Red bone marrow can produce around 5 billion red blood cells each day. Very few man made substances can come close to the lightness and strength of bones. If your body doesn't have enough calcium, it will take it from your bones making your bones weaker. A good reason to drink your milk!Activities Take a ten question quiz about this page. 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is the oldest spoken language in europe | What is the oldest language to be spoken in Europe? Flag What is the oldest language to be spoken in Europe? Answered by The Wiki Answers ®Community Answers.com ® is making the world better one answer at a time. Read the following answers with caution. Everyone wants their language to be the oldest, but the truth is, that written language doesn't go back very far in Human history, and without artifacts of writing, we can't tell what was going on with language, or how it evolved. We can only theorize. It is not possible to determine the oldest language of Europe or of any other area. Answer: Basque Answer: the oldest language spoken in Europe is Lithuanian Answer: Actually the oldest language still spoke in Europe is Basque. While you can hardly find written proof of this, the language is not descended from any of the indo-european invaders which clearly shows that it was spoken in Europe before any modern day language arrived. Answer: The oldest language spoken in Europe today is probably Greek. Alexander the Great standardized Greek and based it on the Ionian language. A person of that era could read the Greek used today. Answer: A lot of studies have said Albanian is the oldest living language also.7 people found this useful Was this answer useful? Yes Somewhat No | Olympic GamesSummer Olympic Games Winter Olympic Games Youth Olympic Games AllLA 2028Paris 2024Beijing 2022Tokyo 2020Pyeongchang 2018Rio 2016Sochi 2014London 2012Vancouver 2010Beijing 2008Turin 2006Athens 2004Salt Lake CIty 2002Sydney 2000Nagano 1998Atlanta 1996Lillehammer 1994Barcelona 1992Albertville 1992Seoul 1988Calgary 1988Los Angeles 1984Sarajevo 1984Moscow 1980Lake Placid 1980Montreal 1976Innsbruck 1976Munich 1972Sapporo 1972Mexico 1968Grenoble 1968Tokyo 1964Innsbruck 1964Rome 1960Squaw Valley 1960Melbourne/ Stockholm 1956Cortina d'Ampezzo 1956Helsinki 1952Oslo 1952London 1948St. Moritz 1948Berlin 1936Garmisch- Partenkirchen 1936Los Angeles 1932Lake Placid 1932Amsterdam 1928St. Moritz 1928Paris 1924Chamonix 1924Antwerp 1920Stockholm 1912London 1908St. Louis 1904Paris 1900Athens 1896More About the Olympic GamesAncient GamesMascotsTorchesMedalsFrom candidate to host cityOpening ceremoniesClosing ceremoniesSportsSummer SportsArcheryAthleticsBadmintonBasketballBeach VolleyballBoxingCanoe SlalomCanoe SprintCycling BMXCycling Mountain BikeCycling RoadCycling TrackDivingEquestrian/DressageEquestrian/EventingEquestrian/JumpingFencingFootballGolfGymnastics ArtisticGymnastics RhythmicHandballHockeyJudoModern PentathlonRowingRugbySailingShootingSwimmingSynchronized SwimmingTable TennisTaekwondoTennisTrampolineTriathlonVolleyballWater PoloWeightliftingWrestling FreestyleWrestling Greco-RomanWinter SportsAlpine SkiingBiathlonBobsleighCross Country SkiingCurlingFigure skatingFreestyle SkiingIce HockeyLugeNordic CombinedShort Track Speed SkatingSkeletonSki JumpingSnowboardSpeed skatingAthletes Countries Results Photos VideosWatch Olympic VideosRio 2016sochi 2014london 2012vancouver 2010beijing 2008turin 2006Athens 2004Salt Lake City 2002Sydney 2000Nagano 1998Atlanta 1996Lillehammer 1994IOC VideosOlympic DayThe new Olympic Channel brings you news, highlights, exclusive behind the scenes, live events and original programming, 24 hours a day, 365 days per year.Watch the Olympic Channel NowNewsOlympic Games and YOG NewsOlympic games newsbeijing 2022tokyo 2020pyeongchang 2018Rio 2016sochi 2014london 2012YOG newsLausanne 2020BUENOS AIRES 2018lillehammer 2016nanjing 2014innsbruck 2012News topicsioc newshost city electionstorch relayolympic games legacysustainabilityFight against dopingRefugee Olympic TeamInformation for the Mediamedia resourceskey events calendaraccreditationsPhotos and videospress releasesreference DocumentsLatest IOC Updates on twitterAboutWhat we doCelebrate Olympic GamesFrom Candidate to Host CitySustainabilityLegacyPromote Olympism in SocietySport and Active SocietyWomen in sportEducationSocial DevelopmentSport for HopePeace through sportCooperation United NationsOlympic Studies CentreOlympic DayLeading the Olympic MovementOlympic Agenda 2020IntegrityNational Olympic CommitteesInternational FederationsOrganising Committees for the Olympic GamesRecognised organisationsSupport and protect clean athletesOlympic SolidarityCareer ProgrammeAthletes' SpaceFight against dopingPrevention of competition manipulationHealthy Body ImageHarassement and Abuse in SportWho we areThe Olympic RingsThe organisationPresidentMembersCommissionsSessionsCongressesCareersHow we do itFundingPartnersBroadcastersTicketingLicensingSuppliersMuseumThe MuseumPractical InformationCalendarTOM CafeTOM ShopSchoolsSchool VisitsTeaching ResourcesGroupsSeminars and Corporate EventsGroup VisitsDigital ExperiencesTOM BlogSerious GameThe Olympic JourneyLive: Broadcasting the Olympic GamesTime and SportShopFrredirect Share googleplus youtube facebook twitter History Judo is derived from jujitsu, the hand-to-hand combat technique of ancient samurai warriors. It involves throwing opponents to the floor and holding them in submission. Japanese choice Judo is a traditional Japanese wrestling sport developed in the 1880s. It was Dr Jigoro Kano (1860-1938) who combined the features of the various schools of the sport and codified the rules. Kano stressed the philosophical principles of judo, adding methods of physical, intellectual and moral education, eliminating many of the dangerous parts of jujitsu, and opening his first school, or dojo, in 1882.“The way of suppleness”In Japanese the word ju-do means “the way of suppleness” referring to the story of the tree branch ‘bending’ under the weight of the snow and not breaking. However, the bouts of five minutes are hardly gentle and can be as physically demanding as boxing and wrestling. Olympic history Judo made its very first appearance at the Olympic Games in 1964 in Tokyo. However, it was not included in the Olympic programme in 1968 in Mexico City, but returned, never to leave again, at the 1972 Games in Munich. As for women’s judo, it was added to the Games in 1992 in Barcelona. Men and women now compete in seven weight categories. There was originally a men’s category open to all weights, but this event was withdrawn after the 1984 Games in Los Angeles. This discipline is, logically, dominated by the Japanese, followed by the French and then the Koreans, who win a large number of medals. The big Dutchman In the 1964 Tokyo Games in the open class, a 1.98-metre Dutchman named Anton Geesink defeated three-time Japanese national champion Kaminaga Akio before 15,000 people at Nippon Budokan Hall. It followed victories earlier in the year over other top Japanese opponents, upsetting the theory that a skilled judoka could defeat any opponent of any size. Discover the reference document for Judo. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is cervical oa | What is cervical osteoarthritis? Up Next Neck pain and stiffness is a common complaint among adults, and this common problem may actually be a sign of cervical osteoarthritis. Cervical osteoarthritis refers to inflammation and swelling of the joints in the neck. It results from years of wear and tear on the cartilage and disks in your neck. Your neck bones and cartilage deteriorate over time, leading to troubling symptoms, like unrelenting neck pain and neck stiffness. Bone deterioration can also lead to irregular bone growths, also known as bone spurs [ Mayo Clinic ]. Cervical osteoarthritis is fairly common in older age. In fact, almost everyone over the age of 60 show signs of cervical osteoarthritis on X-ray [ Pub Med Health ]. Even if you do show signs of cervical osteoarthritis on X-ray, you may not actually experience any troubling symptoms of the condition. When you do start experiencing symptoms, however, seek medical attention, as there are many different noninvasive and effective treatment options. A stiff neck coupled with numbness in your hands, arms and legs may be an indication of worsening cervical osteoarthritis. Other common symptoms include shoulder and arm pain, tingling in your arms, hands or feet, poor coordination or difficulty walking, poor reflexes and decreased bladder control [ Mayo Clinic; Pud Med Health ]. Moderate to severe cervical osteoarthritis symptoms can greatly impact your everyday functioning. Mild cervical osteoarthritis can be treated without medication. Consider physical therapy and appropriate sitting and lying positions to promote proper posture and spine pressure. Various over-the-counter and prescription medication may also prove helpful. Try nonprescription pain relievers, such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen, as a first line of treatment. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory medications, narcotic medicines and muscle relaxants may help if nonprescription pain relievers are not sufficient [ Mayo Clinic ]. In more serious cases, you may require corticosteroid steroid injections or even surgery to remove bone spurs and relieve pressure on your spinal cord. Print | Citation & Date | Reprint More to Explore Related Content Can you get arthritis from cracking your knuckles? How do you cope with multi-level degenerative osteoarthritis? Are there any nonsurgical arthritis treatments? | . Print Email Facebook Twitter Diseases & Conditions Cervical Fracture (Broken Neck)The seven bones in the neck are the cervical vertebrae. They support the head and connect it to the shoulders and body. A fracture, or break, in one of the cervical vertebrae is commonly called a broken neck. Cervical fractures usually result from high-energy trauma, such as automobile crashes or falls. Athletes are also at risk. A cervical fracture can occur if: A football player "spears" an opponent with his head. An ice hockey player is struck from behind and rams into the boards. A gymnast misses the high bar during a release move and falls. A diver strikes the bottom of a shallow pool. Any injury to the vertebrae can have serious consequences because the spinal cord, the central nervous system's connection between the brain and the body, runs through the center of the vertebrae. Damage to the spinal cord can result in paralysis or death. Injury to the spinal cord at the level of the cervical spine can lead to temporary or permanent paralysis of the entire body from the neck down. Emergency Response In a trauma situation, the neck should be immobilized until x-rays are taken and reviewed by a physician. Emergency medical personnel will assume that an unconscious individual has a neck injury and respond accordingly. The victim may experience shock and either temporary or permanent paralysis. Conscious patients with an acute neck injury may or may not have severe neck pain. They may also have pain spreading from the neck to the shoulders or arms, resulting from the vertebra compressing a nerve. There may be some bruising and swelling at the back of the neck. The physician will perform a complete neurological examination to assess nerve function and may request additional radiographic studies, such as MRI or computed tomography (CT), to determine the extent of the injuries. Related Articles Diseases & Conditions Neck Sprain Diseases & Conditions Fractures of the Thoracic and Lumbar Spine Diseases & Conditions Osteoporosis and Spinal Fractures Treatment Treatment will depend on which of the seven cervical vertebrae are damaged and the kind of fracture sustained. A minor compression fracture can be treated with a cervical brace worn for 6 to 8 weeks until the bone heals. A more complex or extensive fracture may require traction, surgery, 2 to 3 months in a rigid cast, or a combination of these treatments. Prevention Improvements in athletic equipment and rule changes have reduced the number of sports-related cervical fractures over the past 20 years. You can help protect yourself and your family if you: Always wear a seat belt when you are driving or a passenger in a car. Never dive in a shallow pool area, and be sure that young people are properly supervised when swimming and diving. Wear the proper protective equipment for your sport and follow all safety regulations, such as having a spotter and appropriate cushioning mats. To Top |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.where is watkins glen new york | Watkins Glen Watkins Glen Watkins Glen, NYFavorite Share More Nearby Directions Sponsored Topics Watkins Glen Hotels Watkins Glen Restaurants Description Watkins Glen is a village in Schuyler County, New York, United States. The population was 2,149 at the 2000 census. It is the county seat of Schuyler County. The Village of Watkins Glen lies on the border of the towns of Dix and Montour. Located on the southern tip of Seneca Lake, one of western New York's deep, glacial Finger Lakes, Watkins Glen is the site of scenic Watkins Glen State Park, but is probably best known for its role in auto racing, being the home of a street course used in road racing, a famous racetrack, Watkins Glen International, and a historic race, the Watkins Glen Grand Prix. The racetrack was also the scene of the 1973 Summer Jam at Watkins Glen rock festival attended by an estimated 600,000 people. At the time, this set the world record for the largest number of people at a pop music festival. The concert featured the bands The Grateful Dead, The Band, and The Allman Brothers Band. On July 1–3 of 2011, the band Phish hosted Superball IX, a three-day music festival on the same grounds of the Summer Jam of '73. Superball IX drew approx 30,000 people and was what track officials and local residents called a huge success | Breathing Life Into Wilson, Arkansas In 2011 when Gaylon Lawrence, Sr. purchased the holdings of Lee Wilson & Company for $150 million dollars, he acquired an entire town—the town of Wilson. In only three years, thanks to the management team he and his son Gaylon Jr. put together, exciting changes are underway. If you blink, you will certainly miss the next episode of "this is how you breathe life into a small, rural town. "Driving along the cottonwood tree lined streets of Wilson (located in Northeast Arkansas near the Mississippi River), you might think the town is part of a movie set. But it’s for real. Just take a look and you’ll see what I mean. Wilson Cafe, located in the old Tavern location, opened last December. You may have heard this buzz about this amazing restaurant. Chef Joe Cartwright, formerly of The Elegant Farmer in Memphis, serves a variety of sweet and savory food choices never before offered in Mississippi County. Be sure to save room for dessert. The historic downtown square has received a complete facelift with fresh landscaping and tree trimming. Citywide Wi-Fi has been installed. Stop and pay your respects to town founder, Robert E. Lee Wilson, who is buried in the center of town. Mr. Wilson was the original visionary who created a 65,000-acre cotton empire from Mississippi County swampland. The Delta School, a private charter school set to open in August 2015, will be located in one of the original Wilson plantation houses. What a place to attend school. Harvard educated Jenifer Fox, who served as head of the Clariden School in Southlake, Texas, will serve as the school’s founding head. Plans are underway to relocate the Hampson Museum into a new, state of the art building on the square. The Hampson Museum (currently in a cramped location near downtown) houses an impressive exhibit of nationally renowned artifacts from the 15-acre Nodena site of Late Mississippian Period Native Americans dated A. D. 1400 – 1650. The human effigy head pictured below is incredible. You Might Also Like…Photo of the Week: Arkansas Post State Parkby Tim Reilly Wilson Gardens is the newest addition to the town’s improvements. Located on the old gin lot, the gardens are open each Tuesday 4-7pm and Saturday 8-11am for purchase of locally grown produce, flowers (in season), homemade bread, etc. Leslie Wolverton, the energetic young lady from Oxford, Mississippi who was snapped up to oversee this project, knows a thing or two about gardening. She studied plant and soil science at Mississippi State University. Leslie has four acres under irrigation and the capacity to expand to seven acres. This winter, three hoop houses will be going up and the farm shop will open which will include an indoor market, packing and washing house and teaching kitchen. And next spring, there will be chickens. (Garden tours are available by appointment. )When a community comes together in this way, good things are bound to happen. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what county is arlington va | Arlington County, Virginia From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search"Arlington, Virginia" redirects here. For other uses, see Arlington (disambiguation). Arlington County, Virginia County Arlington County The skylines of Arlington's Courthouse and Rosslyn neighborhoods, with the Georgetown and Downtown neighborhoods of Washington, D. C. immediately past them. The county accounts for most of Virginia's border with the District. Flag Seal Logo Location in the U. S. state of Virginia Virginia's location in the U. S. Founded February 27, 1801Named for Arlington House Seat Arlington Area• Total 26 sq mi (67 km 2)• Land 26 sq mi (67 km 2)• Water 0.2 sq mi (1 km 2 ), 0.4%Population (est. )• ( 2015) 229,164• Density 8,814/sq mi (3,403/km 2)Congressional district 8th Time zone Eastern: UTC−5 / −4Website www .arlingtonva .us Arlington County is a county in the Commonwealth of Virginia, [1] often referred to simply as Arlington or Arlington, Virginia. In 2016, the county's population was estimated at 230,050, [2] making it the sixth-largest county in Virginia, or the fourth-largest city if it were incorporated as such. It is the 5th highest-income county in the U. S. by median family income, [3] and has the highest concentration of singles in the region. [4]The county is coterminous with the U. S. Census Bureau 's census-designated place of Arlington. Though a county, it is also treated as the second-largest principal city of the Washington metropolitan area. The county is situated in Northern Virginia on the southwestern bank of the Potomac River directly across from Washington, D. C., of which it was once a part. With a land area of 26 square miles (67 km 2 ), Arlington is the geographically smallest self-governing county in the U. S., and by reason of state law regarding population density, has no incorporated towns within its borders. Due to the county's proximity to downtown Washington, D. C., Arlington is home to many important installations for the capital region and U. S. government, including the Pentagon, Reagan National Airport, and Arlington National Cemetery. Many schools and universities have campuses in Arlington, most prominently the Antonin Scalia Law School of George Mason University. Contents [ hide ]1 History1.1 Foundation1.2 Retrocession1.3 Civil War1.4 Separation from Alexandria1.5 20th century1.6 21st century2 Geography3 Demographics4 Government and politics5 Economy5.1 Federal government5.2 Companies and organizations5.3 Largest employers6 Landmarks6.1 Arlington National Cemetery6.2 The Pentagon7 Transportation7.1 Streets and roads7.2 Public transport7.3 Other8 Education9 Climate10 Sister cities11 Notable people12 See also13 Notes14 References15 External links History [ edit]Foundation [ edit]The area that now constitutes Arlington County was originally part of Fairfax County in the Colony of Virginia. Land grants from the British monarch were awarded to prominent Englishmen in exchange for political favors and efforts at development. One of the grantees was Thomas Fairfax, 6th Lord Fairfax of Cameron, who lends his name to both Fairfax County and the City of Fairfax. The county's name "Arlington" comes via Henry Bennet, Earl of Arlington, a Plantation along the Potomac River, and Arlington House, the family residence on that property. (Ultimately, the name is a variant of Harlington, London, seat of the first Baron of Arlington; it in turn derives from Hygerǣd, an Anglo-Saxon noble's name.) George Washington Parke Custis, grandson of First Lady Martha Washington, acquired this land in 1802. The estate was eventually passed down to Mary Anna Custis Lee, wife of General Robert E. Lee. [5] The property later became Arlington National Cemetery during the American Civil War, and eventually lent its name to present-day Arlington County. The area that now contains Arlington County was ceded to the new United States federal government by Virginia. With the passage of the Residence Act in 1790, Congress approved a new permanent capital to be located on the Potomac River, the exact area to be selected by U. S. President George Washington. The Residence Act originally only allowed the President to select a location within Maryland as far east as what is now the Anacostia River. However, President Washington shifted the federal territory's borders to the southeast in order to include the pre-existing city of Alexandria at the District's southern tip. In 1791, Congress amended the Residence Act to approve the new site, including the territory ceded by Virginia. [6] However, this amendment to the Residence Act specifically prohibited the "erection of the public buildings otherwise than on the Maryland side of the River Potomac." [7] As permitted by the United States Constitution, the initial shape of the federal district was a square, measuring 10 miles (16 km) on each side, totaling 100 square miles (260 km 2 ). During 1791–92, Andrew Ellicott and several assistants placed boundary stones at every mile point. Fourteen of these markers were in Virginia and many of the stones are still standing. [8]1878 map of Alexandria County, now (with the removal of Alexandria City) Arlington County. When Congress arrived in the new capital, they passed the Organic Act of 1801 to officially organize the District of Columbia and placed the entire federal territory, including the cities of Washington, Georgetown, and Alexandria, under the exclusive control of Congress. Further, the unincorporated territory within the District was organized into two counties: the County of Washington to the east of the Potomac and the County of Alexandria to the west. It included all of the present Arlington County, plus part of what is now the independent city of Alexandria. [9] This Act formally established the borders of the area that would eventually become Arlington but the citizens located in the District were no longer considered residents of Maryland or Virginia, thus ending their representation in Congress. [10]Retrocession [ edit]Residents of Alexandria County had expected the federal capital's location to result in higher land prices and the growth of commerce. [ when?] Instead the county found itself struggling to compete with the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal at the port of Georgetown, which was farther inland and on the northern side of the Potomac River next to the City of Washington. [11] Members of Congress from other areas of Virginia also used their power to prohibit funding for projects, such as the Alexandria Canal, which would have increased competition with their home districts. In addition, Congress had prohibited the federal government from establishing any offices in Alexandria, which made the county less important to the functioning of the national government. [12]Alexandria had also been a major market in the American slave trade, and rumors circulated that abolitionists in Congress were attempting to end slavery in the District; such an action would have further depressed Alexandria's slavery-based economy. [13] At the same time, an active abolitionist movement arose in Virginia that created a division on the question of slavery in the Virginia General Assembly. Pro-slavery Virginians recognized that if Alexandria were returned to Virginia, it could provide two new representatives who favored slavery in the state legislature. During the American Civil War, this division led to the formation of the state of West Virginia, which comprised the 55 counties in the northwest that favored abolitionism. [14]Largely as a result of the economic neglect by Congress, divisions over slavery, and the lack of voting rights for the residents of the District, a movement grew to return Alexandria to Virginia from the District of Columbia. From 1840 to 1846, Alexandrians petitioned Congress and the Virginia legislature to approve this transfer known as retrocession. On February 3, 1846, the Virginia General Assembly agreed to accept the retrocession of Alexandria if Congress approved. Following additional lobbying by Alexandrians, Congress passed legislation on July 9, 1846, to return all the District's territory south of the Potomac River back to Virginia, pursuant to a referendum; President James K. Polk signed the legislation the next day. A referendum on retrocession was held on September 1–2, 1846. The residents of the City of Alexandria voted in favor of the retrocession, 734 to 116; however, the residents of Alexandria County voted against retrocession 106 to 29. Despite the objections of those living in Alexandria County, President Polk certified the referendum and issued a proclamation of transfer on September 7, 1846. However, the Virginia legislature did not immediately accept the retrocession offer. Virginia legislators were concerned that the people of Alexandria County had not been properly included in the retrocession proceedings. After months of debate, the Virginia General Assembly voted to formally accept the retrocession legislation on March 13, 1847. [12] In 1852, the Virginia legislature voted to incorporate a portion of Alexandria County to make the City of Alexandria, which until then had been considered politically as a town only. [15]Arlington National Cemetery sits on land confiscated from Confederate General Robert E. Lee Civil War [ edit]During the American Civil War, Virginia seceded from the Union as a result of a statewide referendum held on May 23, 1861; the voters from Alexandria County approved secession by a vote of 958–48. This vote indicates the degree to which its only town, Alexandria, was pro-secession and pro-Confederate. The Union loyalists who lived in rural areas outside the town of Alexandria rejected secession. [16] Although Virginia was part of the Confederacy, its control did not extend all the way through Northern Virginia. In 1862, the United States Congress passed a law that provided that those districts in which the "insurrection" persisted were to pay their real estate taxes in person. In 1864, during the war, the federal government confiscated the Abingdon estate, which was located on and near the present Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, when its owner failed to pay the estate's property tax in person because he was serving in the Confederate Army. [17] [18] The government then sold the property at auction, whereupon the purchaser leased the property to a third party. [17] [18]The façade of Arlington House appears on Arlington's seal, flag, and logo After the war ended in 1865, the Abingdon estate's heir, Alexander Hunter, started a legal action to recover the property. James A. Garfield, a Republican member of the United States House of Representatives who had been a Brigadier General in the Union Army during the Civil War and who later became the 20th President of the United States, was an attorney on Hunter's legal team. [17] [18] In 1870, the Supreme Court of the United States, in a precedential ruling, found that the government had illegally confiscated the property and ordered that it be returned to Hunter. [17] [18]The property containing the home of Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's family at and around Arlington House was subjected to an appraisal of $26,810, on which a tax of $92.07 was assessed. However, Lee's wife, Mary Anna Custis Lee, the owner of the property, did not pay this tax in person. [19] [20] [21] As a result of the 1862 law, the Federal government confiscated the property and made it into a military cemetery. [19]After the war ended and after the death of his parents, George Washington Custis Lee, the Lees' eldest son, initiated a legal action in an attempt to recover the property. [19] In December 1882, the U. S. Supreme Court found that the federal government had illegally confiscated the property without due process and returned the property to Custis Lee while citing the Court's earlier ruling in the Hunter case. [19] [20] [21] In 1883, the U. S. Congress purchased the property from Lee for its fair market value of $150,000, whereupon the property became a military reservation and eventually Arlington National Cemetery. [19] Although Arlington House is within the National Cemetery, the National Park Service presently administers the House and its grounds as a memorial to Robert E. Lee. [19]Confederate incursions from Falls Church, Minor's Hill and Upton's Hill —then securely in Confederate hands—occurred as far east as the present-day area of Ballston. On August 17, 1861 an armed force of 600 Confederate soldiers engaged the 23rd New York Infantry near that crossroads, killing one. Another large incursion on August 27 involved between 600 and 800 Confederate soldiers, which clashed with Union soldiers at Ball's Crossroads, Hall's Hill and along the modern-day border between the City of Falls Church and Arlington. A number of soldiers on both sides were killed. However, the territory in present-day Arlington was never successfully captured by Confederate forces. [22]Separation from Alexandria [ edit]In 1870, the City of Alexandria became legally separated from Alexandria County by an amendment to the Virginia Constitution that made all Virginia incorporated cities (but not incorporated towns) independent of the counties of which they had previously been a part. Because of the confusion between the city and the county having the same name, a movement started to rename Alexandria County. In 1920, the name Arlington County was adopted, after Arlington House, the home of the American Civil War general Robert E. Lee, which stands on the grounds of what is now Arlington National Cemetery. The Town of Potomac was incorporated as a town in Alexandria County in 1908. The town was annexed by the independent city of Alexandria in 1930. In 1896, an electric trolley line was built from Washington through Ballston, which led to growth in the county (see Northern Virginia trolleys ).20th century [ edit]The former Arlington County seal, used from June 1983 to May 2007In 1920, the Virginia legislature renamed the area Arlington County to avoid confusion with the City of Alexandria which had become an independent city in 1870 under the new Virginia Constitution adopted after the Civil War. In the 1930s, Hoover Field was established on the present site of the Pentagon; in that decade, Buckingham, Colonial Village, and other apartment communities also opened. World War II brought a boom to the county, but one that could not be met by new construction due to rationing imposed by the war effort. In October 1942, not a single rental unit was available in the county. [23] On October 1, 1949 the University of Virginia in Charlottesville created an extension center in the county named Northern Virginia University Center of the University of Virginia, then University College, next Northern Virginia Branch of the University of Virginia, then George Mason College of the University of Virginia, and today George Mason University. [24] The Henry G. Shirley Highway (now Interstate 395) was constructed during World War II, along with adjacent developments such as Shirlington, Fairlington, and Parkfairfax. Netherlands Carillon In February 1959, Arlington County Schools desegregated racially at Stratford Junior High School (now H-B Woodlawn) with the admission of black pupils Donald Deskins, Michael Jones, Lance Newman, and Gloria Thompson. The U. S. Supreme Court 's ruling in 1954, Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas had struck down the previous ruling on racial segregation Plessy v. Ferguson that held that facilities could be racially "separate but equal." Brown v. Board of Education ruled that "racially separate educational facilities were inherently unequal." The elected Arlington County School Board presumed that the state would defer to localities and in January 1956 announced plans to integrate Arlington schools. The state responded by suspending the county's right to an elected school board. The Arlington County Board, the ruling body for the county, appointed conservatives to the school board and blocked plans for desegregation. Lawyers for the local chapter of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) filed suit on behalf of a group of parents of both white and black students to end segregation. Black pupils were still denied admission to white schools, but the lawsuit went before the U. S. District Court, which ruled that Arlington schools were to be desegregated by the 1958–59 academic year. In January 1959 both the U. S. District Court and the Virginia Supreme Court had ruled against Virginia's massive resistance movement, which opposed racial integration. [25] The Arlington County Central Library's collections includes written materials as well as accounts in its Oral History Project of the desegregation struggle in the county. [26]The former Navy Annex and the Air Force Memorial Arlington during the 1960s was undergoing tremendous change after the huge influx of newcomers in the 1950s. M. T. Broyhill & Sons Corporation was at the forefront of building the new communities for these newcomers, which would lead to the election of Joel Broyhill as Virginia's Congressman for 11 terms. [27] The old commercial districts did not have ample off-street parking and many shoppers were taking their business to new commercial centers, such as Parkington and Seven Corners. Suburbs further out in Virginia and Maryland were expanding, and Arlington's main commercial center in Clarendon was declining, similar to what happened in other downtown centers. With the growth of these other suburbs, some planners and politicians pushed for highway expansion. The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956 would have enabled that expansion in Arlington. However, the administrator of the National Capital Transportation Agency, economist C. Darwin Stolzenbach, saw the benefits of rapid transit for the region and oversaw plans for a below ground rapid transit system, now the Washington Metro, which included two lines in Arlington. Initial plans called for what became the Orange Line to parallel I-66, which would have mainly benefited Fairfax County. Arlington County officials called for the stations in Arlington to be placed along the decaying commercial corridor between Rosslyn and Ballston that included Clarendon. A new regional transportation planning entity was formed, the Washington, Metropolitan Transit Authority. Arlington officials renewed their push for a route that benefited the commercial corridor along Wilson Boulevard, which prevailed. There were neighborhood concerns that there would be high density development along the corridor that would disrupt the character of old neighborhoods. With population in the county declining, political leaders saw economic development as a long range benefit. Citizen input and county planners came up with a workable compromise, with some limits on development. The two lines in Arlington were inaugurated in 1977. The Orange Line's creation was more problematic than the Blue Line's. The Blue Line served the Pentagon and National Airport, and boosted the commercial development of Crystal City and Pentagon City. Property values along the Metro lines increased significantly for both residential and commercial property. The transformation of Clarendon is particularly striking, with its transformation from a downtown shopping area, ensuing decay, home to a vibrant Vietnamese business community in the 1970s and 1980s known as Little Saigon, and now is a vibrant urban village. Arlington's careful planning for the Metro has transformed the county and has become a model revitalization for older suburbs. [28] [29]21st century [ edit]The Pentagon being reconstructed in February 2002, after the September 11 attacks. On September 11, 2001, five al-Qaeda hijackers deliberately crashed American Airlines Flight 77 into the Pentagon, killing 115 Pentagon employees and 10 contractors in the building, as well as all 53 passengers, six crew members, and five hijackers on board the aircraft. The Turnberry Tower, located in the Rosslyn neighborhood, was completed in 2009. At the time of completion, the Turnberry Tower was tallest residential building in the Washington metropolitan area. In 2017, Nestle USA chooses 1812 N Moore in Rosslyn as their US headquarters. Geography [ edit]Charles Prince George's Alexandria Arlington Fairfax County Falls Church Washington See also: List of neighborhoods in Arlington, Virginia Aerial view of a growth pattern in Arlington County, Virginia. High density, mixed use development is often concentrated within 1/4 to 1/2 mile from the County's Metrorail rapid transit stations, such as in Rosslyn, Courthouse, and Clarendon (shown in red from upper left to lower right). Arlington County is located in northeast Virginia and is surrounded by Fairfax County and the Falls Church to the southwest, the City of Alexandria to the southeast, and Washington, D. C. to the northeast directly across the Potomac River, which forms the county's northern border. Other landforms also form county borders, particularly Minor's Hill and Upton's Hill on the west. According to the U. S. Census Bureau, the county has a total area of 26.1 square miles (67.6 km 2 ), of which 26.0 square miles (67.3 km 2) is land and 0.1 square miles (0.3 km 2) (0.4%) is water. [30] It is the smallest county by area in Virginia and is the smallest self-governing county in the United States. [31] About 4.6 square miles (11.9 km 2) of the county is federal property. The county is roughly in the shape of a rectangle 4 miles (6.4 km) by 6 miles (9.7 km), with the small end slanting in a northwest-southeast direction. It has no incorporated areas. Its county seat is the census-designated place (CDP) of Arlington, [32] which is coterminous with the boundaries of the county; however, the county courthouse and most government offices are located in the Courthouse neighborhood. For over 30 years, the government has pursued a development strategy of concentrating much of its new development near transit facilities, such as Metrorail stations and the high-volume bus lines of Columbia Pike. [33] Within the transit areas, the government has a policy of encouraging mixed-use and pedestrian- and transit-oriented development. [34] Some of these " urban village " communities include: Ballston Clarendon Courthouse Crystal City Lyon Village Pentagon City Rosslyn Shirlington Virginia Square Westover Williamsburg Circle Palisades Aurora Highlands Penrose Barcroft Glencarlyn Broyhill Heights Greenbrier Radnor - Fort Myer Heights In 2002, Arlington received the EPA 's National Award for Smart Growth Achievement for "Overall Excellence in Smart Growth ." [35] In 2005, the County implemented an affordable housing ordinance that requires most developers to contribute significant affordable housing resources, either in units or through a cash contribution, in order to obtain the highest allowable amounts of increased building density in new development projects, most of which are planned near Metrorail station areas. [36]A number of the county's residential neighborhoods and larger garden-style apartment complexes are listed in the National Register of Historic Places and/or designated under the County government's zoning ordinance as local historic preservation districts. [37] [38] These include Arlington Village, Arlington Forest, Ashton Heights, Buckingham, Cherrydale, Claremont, Colonial Village, Fairlington, Lyon Park, Lyon Village, Maywood, Nauck, Penrose, Waverly Hills and Westover. [39] [40] Many of Arlington County's neighborhoods participate in the Arlington County government's Neighborhood Conservation Program (NCP). [41] Each of these neighborhoods has a Neighborhood Conservation Plan that describes the neighborhood's characteristics, history and recommendations for capital improvement projects that the County government funds through the NCP. [42] [ show]v t e Climate data for Washington, D. C. ( Reagan National Airport ), 1981−2010 normals, [a] extremes 1871−present [b]Demographics [ edit]Historical population Census Pop. %±1800 5,949 —1810 8,552 43.8%1820 9,703 13.5%1830 9,573 −1.3%1840 9,967 4.1%1850 10,008 0.4%1860 12,652 26.4%1870 16,755 32.4%1880 17,546 4.7%1890 18,597 6.0%1900 6,430 −65.4%1910 10,231 59.1%1920 16,040 56.8%1930 26,615 65.9%1940 57,040 114.3%1950 135,449 137.5%1960 163,401 20.6%1970 174,284 6.7%1980 152,599 −12.4%1990 170,936 12.0%2000 189,453 10.8%2010 207,627 9.6%Est. 2016 230,050 [2] 10.8%U. S. Decennial Census [48] 1790-1960 [49] 1900-1990 [50] 1990-2000 [51]As of the 2010 census, [52] there were:207,627 people98,050 households,and 41,607 families residing in Arlington. The population density was 8,309 people per square mile (2,828/km²), [53] the highest of any county in Virginia. According to the US Census, the racial makeup of the county in 2012 was:63.8% non-Hispanic White8.9% Non-Hispanic Black or African American0.8% Non-Hispanic Native American9.9% Non-Hispanic Asian (2.0% Indian, 1.7% Chinese, 1.1% Filipino, 0.9% Korean, 0.7% Vietnamese, 2.7% Other Asian)0.1% Pacific Islander0.29% Non-Hispanic other races3.0% Non-Hispanics reporting two or more race15.4% of the population was Hispanic or Latino of any race (3.4% Salvadoran, 2.0% Bolivian, 1.7% Mexican, 1.5% Guatemalan, 0.8% Puerto Rican, 0.7% Peruvian, 0.6% Colombian)28% of Arlington residents were foreign-born as of 2000. Demographics courtesy of U. S. Census Quickfacts Arlington has a high concentration of Halloween celebrators. [54]Low-rise residential structures help make up the real estate inventory in Arlington. There were 86,352 households out of which 19.30% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.30% were married couples living together, 7.00% had a female householder with no husband present, and 54.50% were non-families. 40.80% of all households were made up of individuals and 7.30% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.15 and the average family size was 2.96. Families headed by single parents was the lowest in the DC area, under 6%, as estimated by the Census Bureau for the years 2006–2008. For the same years, the percentage of people estimated to be living alone was the third highest in the DC area, at 45%. [55] In 2009, Arlington was highest in the Washington DC Metropolitan area for percentage of people who were single – 70.9%. 14.3% were married. 14.8% had families. [4] In 2014 Arlington had the 2nd highest concentration of roommates after San Francisco among the 50 largest U. S. cities. [56]According to a 2007 estimate, the median income for a household in the county was $94,876, and the median income for a family was $127,179. [57] Males had a median income of $51,011 versus $41,552 for females. The per capita income for the county was $37,706. About 5.00% of families and 7.80% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.10% of those under age 18 and 7.00% of those age 65 or over. The age distribution was 16.50% under 18, 10.40% from 18 to 24, 42.40% from 25 to 44, 21.30% from 45 to 64, and 9.40% who were 65 or older. The median age was 34 years. For every 100 females there were 101.50 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.70 males. CNN Money ranked Arlington as the most educated city in 2006 with 35.7% of residents having held graduate degrees. Along with five other counties in Northern Virginia, Arlington ranked among the twenty American counties with the highest median household income in 2006. [58] In 2009, the county was second in the nation (after nearby Loudoun County) for the percentage of people ages 25–34 earning over $100,000 annually (8.82% of the population). [4] [59] In August 2011, CNN Money ranked Arlington seventh in the country in its listing of "Best Places for the Rich and Single." [60]In 2008, 20.3% of the population did not have medical health insurance. [61] In 2010, AIDS prevalence was 341.5 per 100,000 population. This was eight times the rate of nearby Loudoun County and one-quarter the rate of the District of Columbia. [62]Crime statistics for 2009 included the report of 2 homicides, 15 forcible rapes, 149 robberies, 145 incidents of or aggravated assault, 319 burglaries, 4,140 incidents of larceny, and 297 reports of vehicle theft. This was a reduction in all categories from the previous year. [63]According to a 2016 study by Bankrate.com, Arlington is the best place to retire, with nearby Alexandria coming in at second place. Criteria of the study included cost of living, rates of violent and property crimes, walkability, health care quality, state and local tax rates, weather, local culture and well-being for senior citizens. [64]Government and politics [ edit]Senatorial election results [65]Year Democratic Republican2000 66.2% 54,651 33.8% 27,8712002 73.4% 36,5082006 72.6% 53,021 26.3% 19,2002008 76.0% 82,119 22.4% 24,2322012 71.4% 82,689 28.3% 32,8072014 70.5% 47,709 27.0% 18,239Gubernatorial election results [65]Year Democratic Republican1993 63.3% 32,736 36.2% 18,7191997 62.0% 30,736 36.8% 18,2522001 68.3% 35,990 30.8% 16,2142005 74.3% 42,319 23.9% 13,6312009 66.5% 36,949 34.3% 19,3252013 71.6% 48,346 22.2% 14,9782017 79.9% 68,093 19.0% 16,268Presidential Elections Results [66]Year Republican Democratic Third Parties2016 16.6% 20,186 75.8% 92,016 7.5% 9,1372012 29.3% 34,474 69.1% 81,269 1.6% 1,8652008 27.1% 29,876 71.7% 78,994 1.2% 1,2832004 31.3% 29,635 67.6% 63,987 1.1% 1,0282000 34.2% 28,555 60.2% 50,260 5.7% 4,7441996 34.6% 26,106 60.5% 45,573 4.9% 3,6971992 31.9% 26,376 57.8% 47,756 10.2% 8,4521988 45.4% 34,191 53.5% 40,314 1.1% 8601984 48.2% 34,848 51.3% 37,031 0.5% 3631980 46.2% 30,854 39.6% 26,502 14.2% 9,5051976 48.0% 30,972 50.4% 32,536 1.7% 1,0911972 59.4% 39,406 39.0% 25,877 1.7% 1,1001968 45.9% 28,163 42.6% 26,107 11.5% 7,0561964 37.7% 20,485 61.8% 33,567 0.6% 3111960 51.4% 23,632 48.1% 22,095 0.5% 2501956 55.1% 21,868 42.0% 16,674 3.0% 1,1831952 60.9% 22,158 38.6% 14,032 0.5% 1901948 53.6% 10,774 38.8% 7,798 7.7% 1,5391944 53.7% 8,317 46.0% 7,122 0.4% 601940 44.3% 4,365 55.2% 5,440 0.6% 571936 36.1% 2,825 63.5% 4,971 0.5% 391932 45.0% 2,806 52.7% 3,285 2.3% 1431928 74.8% 4,274 25.3% 1,4441924 44.7% 1,307 41.4% 1,209 13.9% 4051920 53.3% 997 44.7% 835 2.0% 38The county is governed by a five-person County Board; members are elected at-large on staggered four-year terms. They appoint a county manager, who is the chief executive of the County Government. Like all Virginia counties, Arlington has five elected constitutional officers: a clerk of court, a commissioner of revenue, a commonwealth's attorney, a sheriff, and a treasurer. The budget for fiscal year 2009 was $1.177 billion. [67]For the last two decades, Arlington has been a Democratic stronghold at nearly all levels of government. [68] However, during a special election in April 2014, a Republican running as an independent, John Vihstadt, captured a County Board seat, defeating Democrat Alan Howze 57% to 41%; he became the first non-Democratic board member in fifteen years. [69] This was in large part a voter response to plans to raise property taxes to fund several large projects, including a streetcar and an aquatics center. County Board Member Libby Garvey, in April 2014, resigned from the Arlington Democratic Committee after supporting Vihstadt's campaign over Howze's. [70] Eight months later, in November's general election, Vihstadt won a full term; winning by 56% to 44%. [71] This is the first time since 1983 that a non-Democrat won a County Board general election. [72]In 2009, Republican Attorney General Bob Mc Donnell won Virginia by a 59% to 41% margin, but Arlington voted 66% to 34% for Democratic State Senator Creigh Deeds. [73] Turnout was 42.78%. [74]County Board Position Name Party First Elected Chair Katie Cristol [75] Democratic 2015Vice-Chair Christian Dorsey [76] Democratic 2015Member Libby Garvey [77] Democratic 2012Member Erik Gutshall [78] Democratic 2017Member John Vihstadt [79] Independent Republican [80] 2014Constitutional Officers Position Name Party First Elected Clerk of the Circuit Court Paul Ferguson [81] Democratic 2007Commissioner of Revenue Ingrid Morroy [82] Democratic 2003Commonwealth's Attorney Theo Stamos [83] Democratic 2011Sheriff Beth Arthur [84] Democratic 2000Treasurer Carla de la Pava [85] Democratic 2014Arlington elects four members of the Virginia House of Delegates and two members of the Virginia State Senate. State Senators are elected for four-year terms, while Delegates are elected for two-year terms. In the Virginia State Senate, Arlington is split between the 30th and 31st districts, represented by Adam Ebbin and Barbara Favola , respectively. In the Virginia House of Delegates, Arlington is divided between the 45th, 47th, 48th, and 49th districts, represented by Mark Levine, Patrick Hope, Rip Sullivan, and Alfonso Lopez, respectively. All are Democrats. At the presidential level, Arlington was once a fairly reliable GOP stronghold, supporting the Republican candidate in all but two elections from 1944 to 1980. However, in 1984, Democrat Walter Mondale carried the county by a narrow margin, despite Republican Ronald Reagan 's electoral landslide nationally. It has gone Democratic in every presidential election since then. In fact, in 2016, Republican nominee Donald Trump received the fewest number of raw votes of a major-party candidate in the county since Adlai Stevenson II in 1956, in addition to receiving the lowest proportion of Arlington's vote for a Democratic or Republican candidate in the past century. Arlington is part of Virginia's 8th congressional district, represented by Democrat Don Beyer. The United States Postal Service designates zip codes starting with "222" for exclusive use in Arlington County. However, federal institutions, like Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport and The Pentagon use Washington zip codes. Economy [ edit]See also: List of federal agencies in Northern Virginia and List of companies headquartered in Northern Virginia1812 N Moore (right) and Turnberry Tower (left). Arlington has consistently had the lowest unemployment rate of any jurisdiction in Virginia. [86] The unemployment rate in Arlington was 4.2% in August 2009. [87] 60% of office space in the Rosslyn-Ballston corridor is leased to government agencies and government contractors. [88] There were an estimated 205,300 jobs in the county in 2008. About 28.7% of these were with the federal, state or local government; 19.1% technical and professional; 28.9% accommodation, food and other services. [89]In October 2008, Business Week ranked Arlington as the safest city in which to weather a recession, with a 49.4% share of jobs in "strong industries". [90] In October 2009, during the economic downturn, the unemployment in the county reached 4.2%. This was the lowest in the state, which averaged 6.6% for the same time period, and among the lowest in the nation, which averaged 9.5% for the same time. [91]In 2010, there were an estimated 90,842 residences in the county. [92] In 2000, the median single family home price was $262,400. About 123 homes were worth $1 million or more. In 2008, the median home was worth $586,200. 4,721 houses, about 10% of all stand-alone homes, were worth $1 million or more. [93]In 2010, there were 0.9 percent of the homes in foreclosure. This was the lowest rate in the DC area. [94]14% of the 146,412 people working in Arlington live in the county, while 86% commute in, with 27% commuting from Fairfax County. An additional 92,784 people commute out for work, with 42% commuting to DC, and 29% commuting to Fairfax county. [95]Federal government [ edit]A number of federal agencies are headquartered in Arlington, including the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, American Battle Monuments Commission, DARPA, Drug Enforcement Administration, Foreign Service Institute, the DHS National Protection and Programs Directorate, Office of Naval Research, Transportation Security Administration, United States Department of Defense, United States Marshals Service, and the United States Trade and Development Agency. Companies and organizations [ edit]Park Four, former US Airways headquarters in Crystal City Companies headquartered in Arlington include AES, Alcalde and Fay, Arlington Asset Investment, CACI, Corporate Executive Board, ENVIRON International Corporation, ESI International, FBR Capital Markets, Interstate Hotels & Resorts, and Rosetta Stone. Organizations located here include the American Institute in Taiwan, Army Emergency Relief, Associated General Contractors, The Conservation Fund, Conservation International, the Consumer Electronics Association, The Fellowship, the Feminist Majority Foundation, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety, the National Rural Electric Cooperative Association, The Nature Conservancy, the Navy-Marine Corps Relief Society, the Public Broadcasting Service, United Service Organizations, and the US-Taiwan Business Council. Arlington also has an annex of the South Korean embassy. [96]Largest employers [ edit]Virginia Hospital Center, the ninth largest employer in Arlington County According to the County's 2014 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report, [97] the top employers in the county are:# Employer # of Employees1 Department of Defense 24,0002 Arlington County 7,5553 Department of Homeland Security 7,3004 Deloitte 7,0005 Department of Justice 5,3006 Department of State 5,2007 Accenture 4,5008 FDIC 2,9009 Virginia Hospital Center 2,69810 Leidos 2,30011 National Science Foundation 2,20012 Lockheed Martin 2,18713 Environmental Protection Agency 2,10014 General Services Administration 1,97015 Marriott International 1,95016 Booz Allen Hamilton 1,40017 Corporate Executive Board 1,27918 Bureau of National Affairs 1,01519 CACI 81320 Marymount University 726Landmarks [ edit]Arlington Memorial Amphitheater hosts major Veterans Day and Memorial Day events. Iwo Jima Memorial Arlington National Cemetery [ edit]Main article: Arlington National Cemetery Arlington National Cemetery is an American military cemetery established during the American Civil War on the grounds of Confederate General Robert E. Lee 's home, Arlington House (also known as the Custis-Lee Mansion). It is directly across the Potomac River from Washington, D. C., north of the Pentagon. With nearly 300,000 graves, Arlington National Cemetery is the second-largest national cemetery in the United States. Arlington House was named after the Custis family's homestead on Virginia's Eastern Shore. It is associated with the families of Washington, Custis, and Lee. Begun in 1802 and completed in 1817, it was built by George Washington Parke Custis. After his father died, young Custis was raised by his grandmother and her second husband, the first US President George Washington, at Mount Vernon. Custis, a far-sighted agricultural pioneer, painter, playwright, and orator, was interested in perpetuating the memory and principles of George Washington. His house became a "treasury" of Washington heirlooms. In 1804, Custis married Mary Lee Fitzhugh. Their only child to survive infancy was Mary Anna Randolph Custis, born in 1808. Young Robert E. Lee, whose mother was a cousin of Mrs. Custis, frequently visited Arlington. Two years after graduating from West Point, Lieutenant Lee married Mary Custis at Arlington on June 30, 1831. For 30 years, Arlington House was home to the Lees. They spent much of their married life traveling between U. S. Army duty stations and Arlington, where six of their seven children were born. They shared this home with Mary's parents, the Custis family. When George Washington Parke Custis died in 1857, he left the Arlington estate to Mrs. Lee for her lifetime and afterward to the Lees' eldest son, George Washington Custis Lee. The U. S. government confiscated Arlington House and 200 acres (81 ha) of ground immediately from the wife of General Robert E. Lee during the Civil War. The government designated the grounds as a military cemetery on June 15, 1864, by Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton. In 1882, after many years in the lower courts, the matter of the ownership of Arlington National Cemetery was brought before the United States Supreme Court. The Court decided that the property rightfully belonged to the Lee family. The United States Congress then appropriated the sum of $150,000 for the purchase of the property from the Lee family. Veterans from all the nation's wars are buried in the cemetery, from the American Revolution through the military actions in Afghanistan and Iraq. Pre-Civil War dead were re-interred after 1900. The Tomb of the Unknowns, also known as the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, stands atop a hill overlooking Washington, DC. President John F. Kennedy is buried in Arlington National Cemetery with his wife Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and some of their children. His grave is marked with an "Eternal Flame." His brothers, Senators Robert F. Kennedy and Edward M. Kennedy, are also buried nearby. William Howard Taft, who was also a Chief Justice of the U. S. Supreme Court, is the only other President buried at Arlington. Other frequently visited sites near the cemetery are the U. S. Marine Corps War Memorial, commonly known as the "Iwo Jima Memorial", the U. S. Air Force Memorial, the Women in Military Service for America Memorial, the Netherlands Carillon and the U. S. Army's Fort Myer. The Pentagon [ edit]The Pentagon, looking northeast with the Potomac River and Washington Monument in the distance. Main article: The Pentagon The Pentagon in Arlington is the headquarters of the United States Department of Defense. It was dedicated on January 15, 1943 and it is the world's largest office building. Although it is located in Arlington, the United States Postal Service requires that "Washington, D. C." be used as the place name in mail addressed to the six ZIP codes assigned to The Pentagon. [98]The building is pentagon -shaped in plan and houses about 23,000 military and civilian employees and about 3,000 non-defense support personnel. It has five floors and each floor has five ring corridors. The Pentagon's principal law enforcement arm is the United States Pentagon Police, the agency that protects the Pentagon and various other Do D jurisdictions throughout the National Capital Region. Built during the early years of World War II, it is still thought of as one of the most efficient office buildings in the world. It has 17.5 miles (28 km) of corridors, yet it takes only seven minutes or so to walk between any two points in the building. It was built from 680,000 short tons (620,000 t) of sand and gravel dredged from the nearby Potomac River that were processed into 435,000 cubic yards (330,000 m³) of concrete and molded into the pentagon shape. Very little steel was used in its design due to the needs of the war effort. The open-air central plaza in the Pentagon is the world's largest "no-salute, no-cover" area (where U. S. servicemembers need not wear hats nor salute). The snack bar in the center is informally known as the Ground Zero Cafe, a nickname originating during the Cold War when the Pentagon was targeted by Soviet nuclear missiles. During World War II, the earliest portion of the Henry G. Shirley Memorial Highway was built in Arlington in conjunction with the parking and traffic plan for the Pentagon. This early freeway, opened in 1943, and completed to Woodbridge, Virginia in 1952, is now part of Interstate 395. Transportation [ edit]Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport Streets and roads [ edit]Main articles: Streets and highways of Arlington County, Virginia and Arlington County, Virginia, street-naming system Arlington forms part of the region's core transportation network. The county is traversed by two interstate highways, Interstate 66 in the northern part of the county and Interstate 395 in the eastern part, both with high-occupancy vehicle lanes or restrictions. In addition, the county is served by the George Washington Memorial Parkway. In total, Arlington County maintains 376 miles (605 km) of roads. [99]The street names in Arlington generally follow a unified countywide convention. The north-south streets are generally alphabetical, starting with one-syllable names, then two-, three- and four-syllable names. The "lowest" alphabetical street is Ball Street. The "highest" is Arizona. Many east-west streets are numbered. Route 50 divides Arlington County. Streets are generally labeled North above Route 50, and South below. Arlington has more than 100 miles (160 km) of on-street and paved off-road bicycle trails. [100] Off-road trails travel along the Potomac River or its tributaries, abandoned railroad beds, or major highways, including: Four Mile Run Trail that travels the length of the county; the Custis Trail, which runs the width of the county from Rosslyn; the Washington & Old Dominion Railroad Trail (W&OD Trail) that travels 45 miles (72 km) from the Shirlington neighborhood out to western Loudoun County; the Mount Vernon Trail that runs for 17 miles (27 km) along the Potomac, continuing through Alexandria to Mount Vernon. In Fall 2015, Arlington was awarded a Silver ranking by the League of American Bicyclists for its bike infrastructure. Public transport [ edit]Arlington is home to the first suburban Washington Metro stations40% of Virginia's transit trips begin or end in Arlington, with the vast majority originating from Washington Metro stations. [101]Arlington is served by the Orange, Blue, Yellow, and Silver lines of the Washington Metro. The Metro stations in Arlington are the only stations outside of Washington, D. C. where the system's original Brutalist architecture can be found. [102]Additionally, Arlington is served by Virginia Railway Express commuter rail, Metrobus (regional public bus), Fairfax Connector (regional public bus), Potomac and Rappahannock Transportation Commission (PRTC) (regional public bus), and a county public bus system, Arlington Transit (ART). Metroway, the first bus rapid transit (BRT) in the D. C. area, is a joint project between the City of Alexandria, Arlington County, and the Washington Metropolitan Area Transit Authority with wait times similar to those of Metro trains. Metroway began service in August 2014. [103]Other [ edit]Arlington has a bicycle sharing service provided by Capital Bikeshare. Shown is the rental site located near Pentagon City Metro station. Capital Bikeshare, a bicycle sharing system, began operations in September 2010 with 14 rental locations primarily around Washington Metro stations throughout the county. [104]Arlington County is home to Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, which provides domestic air services to the Washington, D. C. area. In 2009, Condé Nast Traveler readers voted it the country's best airport. [105] Nearby international airports are Washington Dulles International Airport, located in Fairfax and Loudoun counties in Virginia, and Baltimore-Washington International Thurgood Marshall Airport, located in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. Several hybrid taxis at Pentagon City In 2007, the county authorized Enviro CAB, a new taxi company, to operate exclusively with a hybrid-electric fleet of 50 vehicles and also issued permits for existing companies to add 35 hybrid cabs to their fleets. As operations began in 2008, Environ Cab became the first all-hybrid taxicab fleet in the United States and the company not only offset the emissions generated by its fleet of hybrids, but also the equivalent emissions of 100 non-hybrid taxis in service in the metropolitan area. [106] [107] The green taxi expansion was part of a county campaign known as Fresh AIRE, or Arlington Initiative to Reduce Emissions, that aimed to cut production of greenhouse gases from county buildings and vehicles by 10 percent by 2012. [106]Education [ edit]Arlington Public Schools operates the county's public K-12 education system of 22 elementary schools, 5 middle schools including Thomas Jefferson Middle School, Gunston Middle School, Kenmore Middle School, Swanson Middle School, and Williamsburg Middle School, and 4 public high schools in Arlington County including Wakefield High School, Washington-Lee High School, Yorktown High School and the H-B Woodlawn alternative school. Arlington County spends about half of its local revenues on education. For the FY2013 budget, 83 percent of funding was from local revenues, and 12 percent from the state. Per pupil expenditures are expected to average $18,700, well above its neighbors, Fairfax County ($13,600) and Montgomery County ($14,900). [108]Arlington has an elected five-person school board whose members are elected to four-year terms. Virginia law does not permit political parties to place school board candidates on the ballot. [109]Position Name First Election Next Election Chair Barbara Kanninen 2014 2018Vice Chair Reid Goldstein 2015 2019Member Monique O'Grady 2017 2021Member Tannia Talento 2016 2020Member Nancy Van Doren 2016 2020Through an agreement with Fairfax County Public Schools approved by the school board in 1999, up to 26 students residing in Arlington per grade level may be enrolled at the Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology in Fairfax at a cost to Arlington of approximately $8,000 per student. For the first time in 2006, more students (36) were offered admission in the selective high school than allowed by the previously established enrollment cap. [110]The Roman Catholic Diocese of Arlington helps provide Catholic education in northern Virginia, with early learning centers, elementary and middle schools at the parish level. Bishop Denis J. O'Connell High School is the diocese's Catholic high school within Arlington County. The George Mason University Antonin Scalia Law School Marymount University is the only university with its main campus located in Arlington. Founded in 1950 by the Religious of the Sacred Heart of Mary as Marymount College of Virginia, both its main campus and its Ballston Center are located on North Glebe Road, with a shuttle service connecting the two. George Mason University operates an Arlington campus in the Virginia Square area between Clarendon and Ballston. The campus houses the Antonin Scalia Law School, School of Policy, Government, and International Affairs and the School for Conflict Analysis & Resolution. In June 2011, Virginia Tech opened the Virginia Tech Research Center - Arlington in Ballston, providing a teaching and research base for graduate students in computer research and engineering to interact with organizations and research agencies in the National Capital area. [111]Rosslyn is a location for some of the University of Virginia 's business programs, including Mc Intire School of Commerce Master of Science in the Management of Information Technology, and Darden School of Business Master of Business Administration (Executive/Global Executive). Other private and technical schools maintain a campus in Arlington, including the Institute for the Psychological Sciences, the John Leland Center for Theological Studies, the University of Management and Technology, The Art Institute of Washington, De Vry University. Strayer University has a campus in Arlington as well as its corporate headquarters. In addition, Argosy University, Banner College, Everest College, George Washington University, Georgetown University, Northern Virginia Community College, Troy University, the University of New Haven, the University of Oklahoma, and Westwood College all have campuses in Arlington. Climate [ edit]The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Arlington County has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. [112]Sister cities [ edit]Arlington has five sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International: [113]Coyoacán, Mexico Aachen, Germany Reims, France San Miguel, El Salvador Ivano-Frankivsk, Ukraine [114]Notable people [ edit]Main article: List of people from Arlington, Virginia Notable individuals who were born in and/or have lived in Arlington include: The Doors frontman Jim Morrison; Former vice president Al Gore; Confederate general Robert E. Lee; U. S. Army general George S. Patton, Jr.; astronaut John Glenn; actors Warren Beatty, Sandra Bullock, and Shirley Mac Laine; journalist Katie Couric; musicians Roberta Flack and Zac Hanson; physician and social activist Patch Adams; and scientist Grace Hopper. [115]See also [ edit]USS Arlington (LPD-24) is the third US Navy ship named for Arlington. [116]Arlington Hall Arlington Independent Media List of federal agencies in Northern Virginia List of neighborhoods in Arlington, Virginia List of people from the Washington, D. C. metropolitan area National Register of Historic Places listings in Arlington County, Virginia List of tallest buildings in Arlington, Virginia Notes [ edit]^ Mean monthly maxima and minima (i.e. the expected highest and lowest temperature readings at any point during the year or given month) calculated based on data at said location from 1981 to 2010.^ Official records for Washington, D. C. were kept at 24th and M Streets NW from January 1871 to June 1945, and at Reagan National since July 1945. [43]References [ edit]^ "OMB BULLETIN NO. 13-01" (PDF). White House.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 18, 2017.^ a b "Population and Housing Unit Estimates". 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Retrieved October 3, 2014.^ "Interactive City Directory". Retrieved May 7, 2016.^ "Ivano Frankivsk: Arlington's Ukrainian Sister City". Retrieved March 21, 2012.^ Jim Morrison: Ravindranath, Mohana (July 12, 2013). "Jim Morrison's childhood home listed in Arlington". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Jones, Mark (June 10, 2013). "Jim Morrison's Not So Happy Homecoming". WETA-TV. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Al Gore: Fineman, Howard (May 31, 2010). "Al and Tipper Gore's Separation Isn't a Huge Surprise". Newsweek. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Robert E. Lee: Fellman, Michael (2000). The Making of Robert E. Lee. Random House. ISBN 0-679-45650-3.: 24–25George S. Patton, Jr.: Blumenson, Martin (1971). "The Many Faces of George S. Patton, Jr" (PDF). USAFA Harmon Memorial Lecture #14. Colorado Springs, Colorado: United States Air Force Academy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-11-15. John Glenn: Public Information Officer (2012-02-14). "John Glenn, First Arlingtonian in Orbit". Arlington County Library. Arlington County government. Archived from the original on 2013-08-22. Retrieved 2014-11-15. Warren Beatty: Taylor, Dan (October 14, 2016). "4 Famous People You Didn't Know Were From Arlington". Arlington Patch. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Sandra Bullock: Taylor, Dan (October 14, 2016). "4 Famous People You Didn't Know Were From Arlington". Arlington Patch. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Shirley Mac Laine: Taylor, Dan (October 14, 2016). "4 Famous People You Didn't Know Were From Arlington". Arlington Patch. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Katie Couric: Taylor, Dan (October 14, 2016). "4 Famous People You Didn't Know Were From Arlington". Arlington Patch. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Roberta Flack: Jessica, Goldstein (October 19, 2012). "Roberta Flack: From Arlington to stardom". Washington Post. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Zac Hanson: Wynter, Dontei (March 14, 2017). "Hanson Brothers' Net Worth: How Rich is the '90s Pop Band?". Earn The Necklace.com. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Patch Adams: Taylor, Dan (October 14, 2016). "4 Famous People You Didn't Know Were From Arlington". Arlington Patch. Retrieved 13 April 2017. Grace Hopper: Markoff, John (January 3, 1992). "Rear Adm. Grace M. Hopper Dies; Innovator in Computers Was 85". NY Times. Retrieved 13 April 2017.^ "LPD 24 Commissioning". Archived from the original on May 8, 2016. Retrieved May 28, 2016. External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Arlington County, Virginia. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Arlington (Virginia). Official website Arlington's Urban Villages Arlington County on Facebook Arlington Historical Society Why is it Named Arlington? - history of the county's name Soil survey and climate summary"Arlington County". Archived from the original on October 18, 1996. Retrieved 2016-10-18. [ show]Places adjacent to Arlington County, Virginia [ show]v t e Municipalities and communities of Arlington County, Virginia, United States [ show]v t e Washington – Arlington – Alexandria, DC – VA – MD – WV metropolitan area [ show]v t e Commonwealth of Virginia Categories: Virginia counties Arlington County, Virginia Northern Virginia counties Virginia counties on the Potomac River Washington metropolitan area History of the District of Columbia1801 establishments in Virginia Populated places established in 1801 | Burke, Virginia Add Favorite 5 Reviews | Review This Place 42,528 Down -26.3% Population64.3%Married Population3.2%Unemployment Rate23.8 minutes Average Commute Time39.4Median Age4.252%30yr fixed mortgage$481,700Median Home Price Real Estate For Sale For Rent Real Estate in Burke Rental Homes Most Expensive Listings Million Dollar Homes Median Priced Homes HOMES UNDER $250,000HOMES $250,001 to $500,000HOMES $500,001 to $750,000HOMES $750,001 to $1,000,000Find your Best Mortgage in Burke: Fixed Rate, Adjustable Rate, 30 years, 15 years . Pros-Uniquely attractive core -Arts and culture -Historic interest Cons-Growth and sprawl -Cost of living -Summer heat What Bert Has To Say About Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Area It would be an understatement to say that the nation’s capital is a unique place. The centrally located National Mall is an urban planning gem, with excellent open spaces, walking paths, and major monuments in a classic architectural style. Lining the mall is the Smithsonian museum complex, probably the best set of museums in the world in a single location. In reality, the whole mall setup is a museum in and of itself and a major destination for locals and visitors alike. Numerous government offices and first class hospitality venues surround the mall. To the northwest of the mall, but still within the city limits, lies the upscale residential and commercial enclave of Georgetown, home to Georgetown University, George Washington Hospital, and a variety of entertainment and nightlife amenities. But not all of the D. C. central city glitters; to the north and east in particular lies a considerable expanse of socioeconomically mixed neighborhoods and areas of urban decay. Read More about Burke Highlights National center - Along the Potomac River between southern Maryland and northern Virginia, inland from Chesapeake Bay See Local Real Estate Country: United States State: Virginia County: Fairfax County Metro Area: Washington-Arlington-Alexandria Metro Area Real Estate: For Sale For Rent Schools: See Local Schools City: Burke Zip Codes: 22015 Time zone: Eastern Standard Time (EST) Elevation: 26 ft above sea level Quick Facts About Burke ECONOMY The unemployment rate in Burke is 3.20 percent (U. S. avg. is 5.20%). Recent job growth is Positive. Burke jobs have Increased by 0.35 percent. Learn more... COST OF LIVING Compared to the rest of the country, Burke's cost of living is 54.30% Higher than the U. S. average. Learn more... or Compare Burke's Cost of Living POPULATION Burke's population is 42,528 people. Since 2000, it has had a population growth of -26.34 percent. Learn more... TRANSPORTATION Average Commute time is 24 minutes. The National Average is 26 minutes. Learn more... REAL ESTATE The median home cost in Burke is $481,700. Home appreciation the last 10 years has been 2.43%. Check out the homes in the area. SCHOOLS Burke public schools spend $14,978 per student. The average school expenditure in the U. S. is $12,383. There are about 12.8 students per teacher in Burke. Learn more... Burke Ranked & Rated#1Best Cities for Teleworking - Extra Large Metro Areas#1Most Secure Large Cities in the U. S.#2Healthiest Cities#2Most Difficult Cities to Navigate#3Most Irritation Prone Cities View All View More Data >Burke Housing Market It's a good time to buy in Burke. Home Appreciation is up 4.3% in the last 12 months. Browse Burke Real Estate. The median home price in Burke is $481,700. Browse Homes in this Range. Learn More Mortgage Calculator Home Equity Calculator Reviews for Burke, Virginia Unknown Burke Mouse over the stars for your rating and click to rate. Start Your Review of Burke, VAMarch Burke, VASend Message4/18/2013Family Friendly Burke, VA is a very family friendly area with top ranked schools in the local... (Read More)94 136Reply | No Replies Robert Burke, VASend Message2/19/2010Retirement cost of living. Burke is located in Fairfax County Virginia outside of Washington, D. C. Fairfax has one of the top school systems in the country. The quality of life in Fairfax is high... (Read More)114 109Reply | No Replies Rich Burke, VASend Message6/1/2007Great Place to Live and Raise a Family (but expens Burke is a great place to live in the DC suburbs. It has a small town feel and boasts top Fairfax County Schools, beautiful parks, libraries, and many commute options... (Read More)95 86Reply | No Replies Read all reviews about Burke, VAView More Data > |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what kind of paint to use on glass | What Types of Paint to Use on Glass Painting on glass can result in some beautiful and inspiring crafts, as long as you use the right paint for the job. Several options are available, depending on the look you want to achieve and the types of tools you prefer to use. Warning Non-toxic paints are not the same as food-safe. Read the manufacturer's label carefully to determine whether it's safe to use a particular paint on glassware or plates that will be used for food or beverage service. Use items painted with non food-safe paints for decorative purposes only. Enamel Glass Paint Enamel paints work on glass as well as on other smooth or shiny surfaces like metal or ceramics. Choose opaque or transparent enamels; transparent makes the piece look like solid-colored glass, but the color will change when you put different-colored liquids or items inside. Enamel paints are often meant to be air-dried for one to several days before you cure them in the oven, although heat curing is optional for some brands. Apply enamels with a small, soft brush, or sponge on the paint for a textured effect. Colors can be mixed as long as you stick with the same brand. Acrylic Glass Paint Acrylic paints that are specially formulated for glass, crystal and plastic are usually transparent and meant to mimic stained glass. Some brands need to be oven-cured for better durability. Like enamels, acrylics can be painted on with a brush that's soft and pliable, or sponged on. Colors can be mixed together if the same brand line is used, and you can also blend the paints as you work, just as if you're painting on canvas. Glass and Tile Medium Glass and tile medium is applied to your glass piece all over, like a primer. When it dries, it creates a surface with enough grip to hold any type of regular acrylic paint. The result looks like frosted glass with the colors applied over the frost, so your work will be opaque, not transparent, if you choose this method. It also can't be washed for risk of damaging the finish; wipe dust with a dry or damp cloth. Apply the medium with a large, soft brush or sponge and your design with a smaller soft brush. Oil Glass Paint Oil- or solvent-based paints are not as popular for glass as other types of paints, but if you like working in oils, you may prefer them. Colors are either transparent or opaque, and they may appear vibrant and high gloss. The finished piece can be gently hand-washed since oils don't easily come off in water. Use a soft brush for application and clean up with solvent rather than soap and water. Glass Paint Markers Glass paint markers make application easy since you can draw or write with precision, which is difficult with a brush. Some brands need to be heat cured and can only be mixed with paints that cure at the same temperature. The colors are generally transparent, and the final result is long-lasting -- sometimes even dishwasher safe. Tip Wash your glass thoroughly with soap and water, rubbing alcohol or vinegar, and dry it completely before you start painting. This will remove any dust, grease or dampness that can impede the painting process. Wear latex gloves as you paint to prevent oils from your hands getting on the glass. Place some white tissue paper or cloth inside your glass piece as you work so you can see your design more easily. | Sherwin Williams Exterior FAQ Sherwin Williams Exterior FAQ• I have heard that painting outside in the fall and spring is not a good idea because of the dampness in the air. I plan on using latex paint. How late or early in the season can I paint and still have long-lasting results? I live in the Midwest.• When painting outside, how long does the temperature need to stay in the suggested range? Some people say it’s okay to paint all day, even if the temperature is above the minimum recommendation for only an hour or so.• Is it better to brush or airless spray the exterior finish on smooth hardboard siding? What would be the longest lasting paint?• What is sweat-in or induction time?• When daytime and nighttime temperatures differ significantly, should I be concerned about when to stop painting?• What is the optimal temperature to paint outside?• What is the best method of applying an elastomeric?• What about the problem of roller-tracking when applying elastomeric coatings? How can this be avoided?• Which produces the better, longer lasting paint job on aluminum siding, spraying or brushing?• How can I avoid overlap marks when I’m painting?• What is the best method of touch-up?• When using an oil-based product, how much time is needed for the product to set up sufficiently to withstand rain or precipitation?• What happens to paint that is applied during summer, when it is really hot and humid?• What is the best time of year to stain exterior surfaces?• How long after it rains should I wait to paint?• How late into fall can I paint house exteriors with latex paint and give customers long-lasting results?• What is the advisability of mixing topcoat paint with primer in order to tint the primer?• Every fall, I switch to oil-based paint for my exterior jobs since I can use it at lower temperatures than latex. Sometimes, though, I find the oil paint hard to work with early in the morning. Why?• Is it always bad to paint in direct sunlight?• In cold weather, why will dark colors turn white or frosted looking?• Why would a popcorn texture peel and fall off in sheets after a latex paint is applied?• Mixing instructions for two-part epoxies and urethanes mention a potlife of so many hours. Does this mean the paint turns solid in that amount of time?• There seems to be a lot of discussion about the best method to paint the exterior of a house. Some say use a brush, some claim it is best to spray on the paint and then back-brush it, and others say just using an airless sprayer is best. What do you think?• What is the best way to paint the exterior of a house? Spraying would seem fastest. I have a compressor, should I buy a spray gun or airless equipment? What about back brushing or rolling, should this be done also?• What is the best tool for painting standard wood house exteriors? Should I use a brush or roller? Or perhaps a combination? Q: I have heard that painting outside in the fall and spring is not a good idea because of the dampness in the air. I plan on using latex paint. How late or early in the season can I paint and still have long-lasting results? I live in the Midwest. A: If you need to paint outside with latex paint when temperatures are moving up and down like a yo-yo, I suggest you use one of the latex like Duration, Resilience, or Super Paint. These products can be applied and will cure at lower temperatures, as low as 35° F. Traditional latex-based paints need temperatures above 60° F to cure properly. Warmer temperatures are needed to allow the latex particles to coalesce, or melt together. That is why the spring and fall can be tricky times to paint outside. A common mistake is to paint when the daytime high temperature gets above 60° F and the nighttime temperatures get much cooler because dew forms on almost everything as soon as the sun goes down. Even though the temperature was OK at the time of application, the paint can stop coalescing. This permits moisture to get into the uncured paint film allowing certain ingredients to come to the surface when the moisture evaporates, causing surface staining and possible adhesion problems. Q: When painting outside, how long does the temperature need to stay in the suggested range? Some people say it’s okay to paint all day, even if the temperature is above the minimum recommendation for only an hour or so. A: Ideally, the temperature should be in the suggested range and above the dew point for at least 48 hours after application. Colder temperatures and moisture on the surface will not allow a paint film to form properly. This will shorten the life expectancy of the paint and could cause surfactant leaching, mildew growth, frosting, and adhesion problems. When the forecasters predict changing temperatures that may drop below the normal recommendation of 50° F for latex paint, consider using a house paint that can be applied and will cure at temperatures as low as 35° F. This will give you the opportunity to extend your painting season by as much as two months in most areas of the country. Q: Is it better to brush or airless spray the exterior finish on smooth hardboard siding? What would be the longest lasting paint? A: Spraying is faster. Brushing is neater. Many painters use a combination of the two methods by spraying to quickly get paint on the surface, followed by back brushing to spread the paint out evenly, resulting in a good looking finish. It may depend on how wide the surface is that you’re painting as well. If you’re painting big surfaces, cut in with a brush and roll the rest of the panel. For most siding areas, if you can’t spray and backbrush, stick with a brush. Most siding areas are not wide enough to use a roller, so a good 4″ brush that holds a lot of paint will work much better. Q: What is sweat-in or induction time? A: These terms refer to the waiting period required between the time you mix and the time you can start applying a two-part product, such as an epoxy. This allows the necessary chemical reactions between the two parts to begin so the coating will cure and perform properly. Q: When daytime and nighttime temperatures differ significantly, should I be concerned about when to stop painting? A: Yes. You want to follow the label directions for the product you are using. Most products require at least 4 hours of dry time before moisture can settle on the surface. The cooler the temperature the sooner you should stop painting. Q: What is the optimal temperature to paint outside? A: Until a few years ago you needed to paint above 50° F. Sherwin-Williams now has products like Duration, Resilience, Super Paint and A-100 Exterior that will allow you to paint down to 35° F. Q: What is the best method of applying an elastomeric? A: Rolling is usually the best method. Consult the Product Datasheet for specifications and recommendations on this. If applying by airless, you should use .021 to .031 tips because this is a fairly heavy-bodied material. When working with a low-texture material, the spray unit must be specifically designed for aggregate coatings. Generally, you can spray on 20 to 30 wet mils by cross coating (a horizontal coating pattern followed by a vertical coating pattern). When rolling, almost invariably a minimum of two coats will be needed to achieve the acquired film thickness. When applying over flat surfaces like poured-in-place concrete, simple spraying works well. When applying over rough surfaces like stucco, spraying would have to be followed by backrolling. Backrolling involves an additional pass with a wet, but not loaded roller, that will force the material into contact with all dips and holes in the surface. Q: What about the problem of roller-tracking when applying elastomeric coatings? How can this be avoided? A: Because this material goes on with a heavy film thickness, there is a tendency to roller-track. To avoid the problem, the painter should “dress down” when rolling. In other words, before redipping, always finish rolling with a downward roll. This will give the same repeat pattern throughout the job. Q: Which produces the better, longer lasting paint job on aluminum siding, spraying or brushing? A: The key thing to consider when repainting aluminum siding is not the method of application, but the surface prep. Aluminum siding is normally painted only after it has faded and chalked. If the chalkiness is not removed, the paint will not adhere properly. Spraying will be much quicker than brushing, and as long as the proper tip size and pressure are used, it will produce excellent results. Duration, Resilience, or Super Paint Exterior Acrylic, applied to a properly prepared surface will produce a quality long lasting finish. Q: How can I avoid overlap marks when I’m painting? A: Try not to paint too large of an area at one time. Overlapping occurs when a freshly painted section begins to dry before you start painting the adjoining area. Q: What is the best method of touch-up? A: To achieve acceptable touch-up results, it’s important to apply touch-up by the same method as the original application, if possible, to avoid having any difference in sheen or texture. Be sure to use paint from the original batch, reduced 25 to 50 percent, and only apply a thin coat. It’s also best to apply the touch-up paint under similar temperature and humidity conditions as the original. Q: When using an oil-based product, how much time is needed for the product to set up sufficiently to withstand rain or precipitation? A: A minimum of eight hours is recommended when the temperature is above 70° F. The cooler the temperature the longer the wait. Q: What happens to paint that is applied during summer, when it is really hot and humid? A: Extremely high temperatures (over 100° F) could cause a paint film to dry before it has had a chance to properly adhere to the surface. This can cause it to peel in the future. Q: What is the best time of year to stain exterior surfaces? A: Whenever it’s dry and warm. Although 70° F is the ideal temperature for exterior staining, the “safe range” spans from 50° F to 90° F. Avoid staining when humidity is high or the day after a rainstorm, and never stain in direct sunlight. As always, check the label for product-specific directions. Q: How long after it rains should I wait to paint? A: That really depends on how wet the surface gets. A masonry or wood surface will absorb more moisture from a soaking rain than will aluminum or vinyl siding. I would wait a MINIMUM of one day after a heavy rain, but remember the surface must be dry before painting. Too much moisture in the substrate will prevent absorption and will most likely lead to peeling. Q: How late into fall can I paint house exteriors with latex paint and give customers long-lasting results? A: Fall can be a tricky time to paint outside. A common mistake is to paint when daytime temperatures rise above 50° F and nighttime temperatures drop below 35° F. Even though the temperature may be acceptable at the time of application, the paint can stop coalescing, or melting together, when the temperature drops. Additionally, dew will form on almost everything as soon as the sun sets, and seep into the uncured paint. When the moisture evaporates, certain ingredients rise to the surface causing surface staining and possible adhesion problems. My best advice is to use a paint made for painting at 35° F and above, like Duration, Resilience, Super Paint or A-100 Exterior products. Q: What is the advisability of mixing topcoat paint with primer in order to tint the primer? A: This technique is not recommended by paint manufacturers, and if done, can result in coating failure. We suggest the Sherwin-Williams Color-Prime System for shading primers. Q: Every fall, I switch to oil-based paint for my exterior jobs since I can use it at lower temperatures than latex. Sometimes, though, I find the oil paint hard to work with early in the morning. Why? A: There are a couple possible causes. It could simply be too cold to be painting outside in the morning. The temperature may not be high enough to allow the paint to flow and cure properly. Or, if you store the oil paint outside or in your truck, it is exposed to colder temperatures during the night that cause it to thicken, just like the motor oil in your truck. To avoid problems, be sure to follow the manufacturer’s label direction for recommended application temperatures; and remember that they refer to air, surface, and material temperatures. It’s also a good idea to store your oil-based paint inside or allow it plenty of time to warm up before you begin work in the morning. Q: Is it always bad to paint in direct sunlight? A: It’s best to avoid painting in direct sunlight, especially during the hot summer months. The heat from the sun’s rays cause the paint to dry to quickly, which can cause a number of problems – brush marks, lap marks, inadequate adhesion. Move around the house to avoid the sun as much as possible. Q: In cold weather, why will dark colors turn white or frosted looking? A: When latex paint is applied in temperatures below the manufacturer’s recommendation or when the paint is exposed to low temperatures and/or high humidity too soon in its curing process, it doesn’t form a proper film. To get rid of the “frosting,” rinse the surface thoroughly with warm water. A garden hose works best because you need a lot of water, not a lot of pressure. Q: Why would a popcorn texture peel and fall off in sheets after a latex paint is applied? A: When latex is applied over a “popcorn” ceiling, the water in the paint can break down the adhesive bond between the texture and the substrate, allowing the weight of the texture to pull the material off the ceiling. Applying an alkyd primer before repainting with latex will usually alleviate the problem. Q: Mixing instructions for two-part epoxies and urethanes mention a potlife of so many hours. Does this mean the paint turns solid in that amount of time? A: In some high-solids materials, the liquid will become solid at the end of the potlife. In most cases, though, the potlife refers to the amount of time you have to apply the coating before it gets to a critical point in the chemical reaction between the two parts. After the potlife period expires, the material will become difficult to apply and the adhesion, cure, and performance of the coating will be adversely affected. When working with these types of products, it’s best to mix only what you can use within the potlife listed by the manufacturer. Q: There seems to be a lot of discussion about the best method to paint the exterior of a house. Some say use a brush, some claim it is best to spray on the paint and then back-brush it, and others say just using an airless sprayer is best. What do you think? A: Painting with an airless will usually get more paint on the surface than with a brush. If applied properly – keeping the gun 12″ away from the surface at a 90° angle and applying the recommended mil thickness of paint – airless spraying is the most efficient way to paint most large exterior surfaces. Brushing, while you are able to work the paint into the surface, takes considerably longer. For windows and intricate trim work, you almost have to brush the paint on the surface. Q: What is the best way to paint the exterior of a house? Spraying would seem fastest. I have a compressor, should I buy a spray gun or airless equipment? What about back brushing or rolling, should this be done also? A: Spraying is faster. Brushing is neater. Many painters use a combination of the two methods by spraying to quickly get paint on the surface, followed by back brushing to spread the paint out evenly, resulting in a good looking finish. Q: What is the best tool for painting standard wood house exteriors? Should I use a brush or roller? Or perhaps a combination? A: It really depends on how wide the surface is that you’re painting. If you’re painting big surfaces like plywood siding, cut in with a brush and roll the rest of the panel. For most siding areas, if you can’t spray and backbrush, stick with a brush. Most siding areas are not wide enough to use a roller, so a good 4″ brush that holds a lot of paint will work much better. The above information was found at:http://www.sherwin-williams.com/pro/problem/faq/ext/product_app/ |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.can we overcome the fear of death? | How to Overcome the Fear of Death â Two Possibilities The fear of death always comes at or near the top of people’s worst fears. Some psychologists believe that this is such a potent fear, we push it down into the subconscious in order to avoid it. Yet from its hiding place the fear remains active, re-emerging in times like the death of a loved one, making grief even more painful and anxious. Avoiding the fear of death clearly isn’t the best tactic. One reason that Elisabeth Kubler-Ross’s famous five stages of dying became so popular is that she gave us a rational framework for handling a once-taboo subject. Rationality is one of the two ways a person can overcome their own personal fear of death. The starting point for most rationalists, particularly scientists, is to assume in the absence of data from the afterlife that our consciousness is extinguished at the moment of death. In a short video on the subject of, “What happens after we die?” physicist Brian Greene takes the position, when you’re gone, you’re gone. But this isn’t really scientific or very rational. The rational position is that in the absence of evidence on either side of the question, no conclusion can be reached. Greene offers some consolation, however, by referring to Einstein’s famous quote, “The distinction between past, present and future is only a stubbornly persistent illusion.” To a physicist, time is static and eternal, which means that the life each person is living now remains intact inside the framework of spacetime. As consolation goes, this is small potatoes, however, since the illusion of being born, living for an entire lifespan, and then dying is how the everyday world works. Socrates was condemned to commit suicide by drinking a cup of hemlock and, according to Plato, exhibited remarkable calm at the end, even refusing the escape plan to leave Athens proposed by his distraught friends. He explained his calm in rational terms, saying that if we have taken a step every day towards the destination of death, why should the last step frighten us any more than the previous ones? But this seems like cold comfort, too. If the edge of a cliff is a hundred steps away, the last one will be frightening no matter how calm the earlier 99 steps are. The rational way to approach the fear of death will never be enough, because of the emotional component. But if you can subdue and dissipate the emotional component, rational arguments do apply. Every culture has reported the kind of near-death experiences that have gained wide media coverage over the last 40 years. Hundreds of children have been studied carefully who report remembering their past lives, which supports reincarnation. If this evidence isn’t conclusive, it’s not nonsense either. Being completely skeptical about the afterlife in the absence of solid evidence isn’t rational, because as I just pointed out, the question is entirely open-ended. There is no proof of the extinction of consciousness, even though that’s the standard skeptical argument. The notion that the mind dies when the body dies is a strong materialist belief, but there’s no hard evidence to support it. The second way to overcome the fear of death, if rationality can’t do the job on its own, is psychological. Every night we go to bed and the mind is extinguished for seven or eight hours. Sleep is a non-experience. We don’t fear this non-experience. It isn’t even classified as the scary unknown, because we’ve all gone through the extinction of consciousness thousands of times. Yes, one might object, but sleep is temporary, and this knowledge reassures us. But does anyone actually refer to this knowledge when they get in bed every night? What seems more likely is something much more basic: Sleep poses no anxiety because it is a psychological area where fear never gained a toehold. If that’s true, then the key to overcoming the fear of death has nothing to do with convincing yourself that there’s nothing to be afraid of. Instead, fear of death should be approached as fear, period. The fact that death is the specific object makes no difference. This is more or less the Buddha’s answer. He teaches that a person must solve the entire issue of pain, including fear, not the specific examples of pain. The world’s wisdom traditions seem to agree that fear ends when you locate the place that is without fear, and such a place is inside everyone. So the goal isn’t to wrestle with the fear of death until you feel calm about it. The goal is to find the place where fear of death is irrelevant. As long as we identify ourselves with the cycle of birth and death, we will be gripped by fear that nothing exists beyond the grave. For most people, terms like “the cycle of birth and death” sound esoteric and alien. But there’s no need for any terminology or indeed any thinking about death. The simple fact is that when you get to the place where fear of death doesn’t exist, you notice that you no longer have the fear, just as when you find your car keys, you have no fear that you lost them anymore. Now that meditation is quite familiar to almost everyone, it should be fairly easy to accept that meditation takes you to the place you want to reach, a deep sense of self that is untouched by fear. The experience is what counts. Along with the absence of fear, meditation sharpens one’s ability to stay in the present moment. This is another great help, because what makes death so frightening is the anticipation of it. In a short space I can only sketch in the outlines of getting past this deep fear, but at least it’s worthwhile to point people in the right direction. Forget the claims that science or skepticism has proven that death brings total extinction. They haven’t, and besides, whatever the experience of dying will be like, everyone should do their best not to be afraid. A life free of fear is a desirable goal on its own. Deepak Chopra, MD is the author of more than 80 books with twenty-two New York Times bestsellers. He serves as the founder of The Chopra Foundation and co-founder of The Chopra Center for Wellbeing. His latest book is The 13th Disciple: A Spiritual Adventure. Follow Deepak Chopra on Twitter: www.twitter.com/Deepak Chopra Deepak Chopra Co Author, ‘Super Genes’; Founder, The Chopra Foundation MORE: Fear Fear Of Death Meditation Brian Greene Elisabeth Kubler Ross This Blogger’s Books and Other Items from... Spiritual Solutions: Answers to Life’s Greatest Challengesby Deepak Chopra The Seven Spiritual Laws of Success: A Practical Guide to the Fulfillment of Your Dreamsby Deepak Chopra | Oops! Oops!The page you’re looking for has either been moved or deleted. In 5 seconds, you’ll be redirected, but if you are not automatically redirected, please click here. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.when are chipmunks active | Chipmunk Facts CHIPMUNKSChipmunk Facts Chipmunks are small, ground-dwelling members of the squirrel (Sciuridae) family known for their burrowing habits and love of nuts. Despite their size, chipmunks can cause significant damage to homes, yards, and farms. Below, learn important information about chipmunks, including general facts and how to identify chipmunk damage. General Facts » Geography »Habitat » Diet »Behavior » Identify Damage »Other Photos: SHARE: SHOP CHIPMUNK SOLUTIONS »Facts General Chipmunk Facts Chipmunk Classification - Genera: Tamias (eastern chipmunk - sp. Tamias striatus)Neotamias (mostly western chipmunks - 23 existing species)Eutamias (Siberian chipmunk - sp. Eutamias sibiricus)Average Size: 2-6" long with a 3" tail; less than 1 lb. in weight Average Lifespan in the Wild: 2-3 years Identifying Features: Shades of brown/yellow/grey fur with white and black stripes down the back Chipmunk Geography All species of chipmunks are native to North America, except one - the Siberian chipmunk. As indicated by its name, the eastern chipmunk inhabits most of the eastern half of the United States and Canada. Western chipmunks inhabit the western states as well as most of Canada. The Siberian chipmunk is the only species that is found outside of North America - its range extends throughout northern Asia, from central Russia to Japan. Chipmunk Habitat Chipmunks feel most at home in areas with plenty of ground cover, including logs, trees, stumps, shrubs and rocks. While the ideal habitat for chipmunks is a deciduous forest, woodland or brushland, they’re also comfortable in other areas that provide sufficient cover such as urban parks, fence lines, hedges and houses. Chipmunks dig extensive burrow systems directly underneath or next to natural or manmade cover. They dig two types of burrows: shallow burrows in which they seek refuge while foraging during the day, and deeper, more complex burrows where they nest, store food and spend most of the winter months. Chipmunks rarely venture further than 1/3 mile from their burrows at any time. Chipmunk Diet Chipmunks are omnivores, dining on various types of foods that are found mostly on the ground. Their diets are more diverse during the warmer months, during which time they hoard nuts and seeds in their burrows to eat in the winter. Some favorite foods include: Chipmunk Behavior Activity: Chipmunks are active in the daytime during spring, summer and fall. Chipmunks remain in their deep burrow systems during the winter, where they enter patterns of torpor (deep sleep and lower body temperature) interrupted by periods of feeding. Reproduction: Breeding occurs twice per year - once in the spring and once in the summer - when chipmunks give birth to 4-5 babies at a time. Burrowing: Chipmunks dig their own pairs of burrows, excavating as deep as 3 feet underground. Burrows are typically dug directly underneath or next to cover, because a chipmunk always requires protection from predators. Oftentimes chipmunk burrows cause damage when dug next to a home foundation Hoarding: To prepare for the winter hibernation period, chipmunks begin to stockpile nuts and seeds in their burrows during late summer and early fall. Communication: Chipmunks are protective of their burrows and use a range of loud chirps as well as body language to express occupied territory, dominance, or warn their young of danger. Females also have a mating call for which they use their high-pitched, bird-like vocalizations. Identify Chipmunk Damage Though chipmunks are small, they can be quite destructive - especially when burrowing near a home's foundation. Here are some signs of chipmunk damage:structural or foundational damage from chipmunk burrowsholes in lawn or garden from digging for plant rootsseed piles underneath bird feedersuprooted bulbschipmunk tracks: tiny prints with four toes in the front and five in the back (front and hind feet are generally reversed)Fun Facts One tiny chipmunk can gather up to 165 acorns in one day. Chipmunks have pouches inside of their cheeks in which they store food when foraging. The main entrance of a chipmunk burrow can extend up to 20 feet in length. A group of chipmunks is called a scurry. How to Get Rid Of How to Trap How to Repel Baits | . Click Here for 2018 Application |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is a skin scraping | Procedures Dermatology Links: Information for Clients Immunotherapy Refill Procedures Skin Testing Allergies MRSA Dermatopathology Client FAQ The ITCH Like Us On Facebook What is skin scraping? What is cytology? What is skin biopsy? What is video otoscopy? What is skin testing? What is skin scraping? A skin scraping is a basic dermatological procedure. It is performed using a blade, a glass slide, and mineral oil. The skin is scraped either superficially or deep to search for mites (parasites) that live on the skin surface or hair follicle, respectively. This procedure is not intended to cut the skin, but rather scrape the skin. The area scraped will look like an abrasion (when you "skin" your knee) once completed. The sample is gathered on the glass slide with mineral oil and examined under a microscope. LEFT: Demodex Mites. RIGHT: Scabies Mite.↑ Back to Top What is cytology? Skin cytology is a basic dermatological procedure. It can be performed in several ways but the intent is the same, to collect a sample in search of cells and micro-organisms (bacteria and yeast) which may be contributing to the skin or ear condition. One technique is to rub a glass slide on a lesion (sore). Another way is to repeatedly press clear acetate tape on a lesion and then fixing the tape to a slide. Lastly, a cotton swab (especially for ears and body folds) or blade may be used to smear collected contents on a glass slide. Regardless of the technique, each slide is stained and examined under the microscope. LEFT: Bacteria. RIGHT: Yeast.↑ Back to Top What is skin biopsy? A skin biopsy is a procedure used by dermatologists to collect a small sample of full-thickness skin. This is usually done after other diagnostics such as skin scraping and cytology have already been performed. In many cases, several small samples (about the size of pencil eraser) are obtained using a biopsy punch. Other times, a larger skin sample may be necessary. The skin is then closed with a couple of sutures (stitches) which will need to be removed several days later. Depending on the body location being biopsied, a local anesthetic (skin numbing agent such as lidocaine), brief sedation, and/or general anesthesia is required to minimize the patient's pain and anxiety involved in sample collection. In many instances, minimal clipping of fur is necessary to assure a good biopsy sample. Once the biopsy is collected, the dermatologist sends the tissue to a dermatopathologist (pathologist who specializes in skin disease) for processing, microscopic evaluation, and interpretation. This process generally takes about one week. Skin biopsy is particularly useful for evaluating potential auto-immune skin diseases, hair follicle disorders, deep infections, and cancer. Often, the skin biopsy will allow the dermatologist to exclude several serious skin diseases if a specific cause cannot be identified. Punch biopsy taken from a miniature horse.↑ Back to Top What is video otoscopy? Video otoscopy allows the dermatologist to magnify and examine the external canal and tympanic membrane (ear drum) in a patient's ear. The video otoscope is a small, cone-shaped camera that is placed in a patient's ear canal allowing the dermatologist to visualize and assess the presence and extent of disease. Depending on the nature of the patient, sedation may be necessary during examination. Video otoscopy is frequently used to help determine what may be contributing to patient's ear disease. It can allow the dermatologist to see whether there is swelling or even if a growth is present in the ear. Likewise, the magnified field of view helps the dermatologist collect samples for culture and biopsy when necessary. Video otoscopy is also utilized during irrigation (flushing) of the external ear canal and middle ear. This allows the dermatologist to assure correct placement of cleaning tools and adequate removal of debris from the ear canal. An added feature of the video otoscope is that it has the ability to take pictures of your pet's ear canal to illustrate what the dermatologist is seeing, and document the severity of disease so treatment response can be assessed in the future. LEFT: Normal ear canal. RIGHT: Ear cleaning procedure.↑ Back to Top What is skin testing? Intradermal testing (IDT) or allergy skin testing is a tool that aids the dermatologist in the selection of environmental allergens (pollen, mold, mites, insects, dander) for subsequent immunotherapy (allergen-specific allergy shots). This test followed by tailor-made allergy shots is best performed after other possibilities for the itchy skin disease have been excluded. Veterinary IDT is similar to human allergy skin testing; however, our patients need sedation and clipping. The side of the chest will be shaved in the shape of a rectangle and small black Sharpie pen dots will be put in a linear array on the shaved skin allowing us to know where to make each injection. A panel of allergens is then injected in the skin. The size of any developing wheals is recorded. The entire procedure last approximately 30 minutes. Importantly, this test is used for environmental allergies (atopic dermatitis), not food-related allergies. Intradermal Testing↑ Back to Top | Dermatologist Salary July 24, 2014Dermatologist Salary What is a dermatologist? A dermatologist is the doctor that you would see if you needed to identify and get treatment for your hair, skin, nails, and mucous membranes that are adjacent. They can also treat cosmetic disorders of your skin that can include scars, skin changes that are associated with the process of aging, and hair loss. There are even some dermatologists who do cosmetic work like collagen injections, liposuction, Botox, and eyelid surgery. When working in the field of dermatology you would be working in a very critical specialty field that is dedicated to diagnosing and treating your body’s major organ which is your skin. Job description of a dermatologist When you choose this medical field you will be diagnosing and treating disorders that are related to the nails, skin, and hair. You will be asked to diagnosis what their problem is in order to treat it by using various diagnostic methods such as drawing blood, taking tissue and skin samples. A dermatologist will usually send you to a lab to have these tests done. They may be able to take the skin and tissue samples and look at them under the microscope or they could also send these samples to the lab to be tested. Based on what the test results tell the dermatologist will help them decide on the correct method of treatment. It could be medication, having surgery, or having radiotherapy. A dermatologist will also do aesthetic procedures for patients who want to improve the look of their skin. Being a dermatologist you would also treat complex skin diseases like skin cancer, itching, acne, eczema, and more. A dermatologist will have specialized training in how to diagnosis and treat melanomas, skin cancers, moles, and any other tumors of the skin. To sum up the job description of a dermatologist he is a doctor that will provide life-changing medical treatments to people or all ages and gender that will improve their quality of life, bring relief, and restore health. They will diagnosis and treat a variety of conditions that will often cause discomfort both physically and mentally for the patient. How to become a dermatologist? Many who choose the career of becoming a dermatologist will start in high school by taking as many science and math classes as they can but it can still take approximately thirteen years after high school to fully complete all the schooling that you need to become a dermatologist. To become a dermatologist there are steps you must follow which include: Getting an undergraduate degree is the first step. When choosing what you are going to get your undergraduate degree in you should consider one where you can get pre-medical classes such as organic chemistry, biology, chemistry, and physics. Some even take classes in biochemistry and math. In the third year of your undergraduate program if you are still planning on becoming a dermatologist you will have to take initial examinations that are used along with your transcripts to secure you a place in medical school. Getting into medical school is very competitive so you should make sure that you have a high undergraduate GPA (grade point average) along with powerful compelling letters of recommendation. You should also make sure that you score well on the Medical College Admissions Test ( MCAT ). Most of the undergraduate programs last four years but if you are only able to go part-time it could take five or six years. Once you have been accepted in to a medical school there is another four years of school and training to be done. In this part of your education you will also gain the knowledge and real skills that you will need to become a dermatologist. You want to make sure that during medical school you are maintaining a high performance. Near the end of medical school you will need to take Step 1 of the U. S. Medical Licensing Exam ( USMLE) in order to get a dermatology residency. The competition to secure a residency in dermatology is the most intense of all the medical field residencies so this is why you need to have high scores on your tests and high grades. Approximately one third of those apply for a dermatology residency fail to get it. If you are able to start your residency while you are still in medical school it is possible for you to become a dermatologist faster. When doing your residency you will have twelve months as an intern in either internal medicine or surgery and the other three years for practical residency experience. In your residency you will be trained under the supervision of established professionals and testing your skills on real cases. During this time of schooling and training you will also take Step 2 of the USMLE. When doing a dermatology residency you will learn all the aspects of being a dermatologist. You will learn how to identify and treat skin diseases and the practice of surgery to correct different skin conditions. After doing your dermatology residency you may decide to take additional fellowships to become a dermatologist in a specialty field such as removing skin cancers, pediatric dermatology, dermatopathologist, laser medicine, or cosmetic surgery. If you decided to do this it can add another one or two years before you can begin your practice as a dermatologist and can make it up to fifteen years total before you begin to work in a practice or start your own practice. Although you will have to have extra schooling and training adding a specialty fellowship makes for well-paid positions in the dermatology field. Once you have gotten through your schooling and residency you can now sit for the Dermatology Board Examination to become board certified and licensed. You can get more certifications if you have passed the general board examination and completed a specialty fellowship. In order to maintain your board certification you have to complete continuing medical education requirements throughout your career. Every ten years you will also have to re-take and pass the Dermatology Board Examination. In addition to all the schooling, training, residencies, and exams you will also have to know how to talk to your patients in order to get a complete medical history by having a good command of interpersonal and verbal skills. There are also some skin conditions that are unpleasant to look at so you will have to be able to tolerate looking at them. If you are a dermatologist that is going to do surgical procedures you will also need the ability to maintain focus and have good hand control. Work environment and schedule After being board certified and licensed many dermatologists will either join a group practice or start their own practice. Some will even work in hospitals or academic or research settings. Generally speaking being a dermatologist there is not as demanding schedule as with other medical fields. The majority of dermatologists will only work thirty to forty hours a week. Most of them are a nine to five job but some may decide to open later one or two days a week and close later for those who work other jobs. Their working conditions are more comfortable as they are not on their feet for eight hours or more a day nor are they bent over an operating table for many hours at a time. If you decide that you want to put your skills to work in research or as a teacher you may have longer hours that are variable and more responsibilities. In regards to uniforms most dermatologists do not wear uniforms except some may opt to wear a white coat over their clothes. The attire they wear is business apparel with most men wearing ties and some of the women in the field may wear low heels. What a dermatologist does during the day varies as no two patients come to the office with the same medical condition. As a dermatologist you may spend time: Performing black light exams and/or physical exams in order to diagnose various skin conditions or infections. Treating various infections and skin conditions with prescribed medications such as topical creams or antibiotics. Doing surgical procedures such as excisions of moles Taking care of cosmetic issues such as laser therapy to improve the appearance of a patient’s birthmark, doing Botox injections, etc. Providing patients with information on preventative care for health and skin related issues along with educational information and pamphlets. Taking patient’s history Making notes to go in the patient’s chart Pros and Cons of being a dermatologist A dermatologist will always help those people who suffer from skin diseases. With other words, a dermatologist’s job is in high demand, the hours of working as one are flexible, and the payment for all your work will be excellent. Don’t avoid becoming a dermatologist if this is your lifetime dream. You’ll get to have people around you, who genuinely are in great need to get better and to be able to be a part of that is surprisingly rewarding. The cons that truly appear are during the time you work with people. There will always be patients with incurable skin diseases and the news that you have to give are not pleasant at all. In some cases, you’ll have to announce them that they are not going to live for many years. A dermatologist career is based upon a long educational process where you’ll have to have high grades and a serious attitude towards studying not to mention a lot of knowledge in the field of science. The education requirements are quite expensive so you might have to work in a clinic for several years until you save the funds that are necessary for paying up your school. You’ll need as well to be a talented and skillful person to be able to communicate with people and to be able to explain in detail the treatment method, as well as their diagnostic. Another con related with a dermatologist jo b is that you will have to work a lot including weekends, nights or even holidays. You’ll tend to work between 60 and 80 hours weeks. You certainly have to be great at what you are doing to become a dermatologist eventually. The training process is hard and long. Also, not everyone that enrolled to become one managed to go that far. You will only get to pick a specialty, like dermatology, at the end of the medical school. The pro on this job is that you can have open doors to get specializations on other health care professions such as pediatric care, surgery even in the field of cosmetics where issues can appear many times. Dermatologist job growth According to the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, the job growth projection for all physician including dermatologist and surgeons has an 18% rate that is faster than all the average for all occupations. As a future career field, dermatology will always be ranking in a good position due to the number of demanding that continue to exist for all ages. The society is more and more inclined towards a healthy and attractive skin. There is also a huge need for these professionals that know how to provide the right treatment and the right therapy when it comes to severe conditions of the skin. Dermatologist salary Although there is a lot of schooling, training, and residency to get through the salary you can make as a dermatologist makes all of that worthwhile. Dermatology is considered a specialty field so most of the patients you will see will be well insured which means that you will be paid for any procedures that you do. In the middle of the pay scale a dermatologist salary in the United States is on average $300,000 a year or approximately $143 an hour. If you work in an area where you are on the lower end of the salary of a dermatologist scale you might only make $220,000 a year or approximately$106 an hour. On the higher end of the scale you can make over $400,000 a year or approximately $194 dollars an hour. Exactly how much you can earn yearly or hourly depends on a variety of things such as your geographic location. It is only natural that if you work in metropolitan areas you are going to earn more than someone who sets up practice or joins a practice in a rural area or small town. Getting a higher salary can also depend on the city where you work. If you work in Hollywood, California or New York City, New York where a woman’s or man’s job depend on them looking youthful and great looking the annual dermatologist salary can be much more than $300,000 a year. States in the western part of the United States also make a very lucrative salary because of the effect the weather has on a person’s skin. How much experience you have and if you specialize in any sub-field are also taken into consideration when figuring out a dermatologist’s salary. The salary also depends on how many hours you work a week and whether you work in a group practice or have your own private practice. When considering a dermatologist salary you also need to take in consideration their compensation package which includes paid holidays, social security, health care, pension, 401K, sick days, profit sharing, bonuses, etc. This can add up to several thousand dollars a month extra a dermatologist makes. When looking at various salaries of people who work in the medical field a dermatology salary is one of the highest paid in the healthcare field in the United States Some of the states whose dermatologist salary is in the middle of the pay scale are: Houston, Texas–$297,127Chicago, Illinois–$229,000Manhattan, New York–$274,540Phoenix, Arizona–$245,000Salary of a dermatologist in 2015There are many medical doctors that take home a great salary, and dermatologists classify in that field. Getting higher salaries is due to the number of cases, the fact that it is a job that is much required in the health care system, and the years of experience contribute a lot. The average wage for a dermatologist in the United States in 2015 was estimated to range between $130,010 and $300,010 per year. For the next ten years, (included the dermatologist salary in 2015, too) the growth is estimated in the salary of a dermatologist since there is a growing demand for these specialists. The demand increases, because dermatologists will offer you with guidance and will treat you. With the number of cases rising and with more skin, hair or even nail diseases expanding, the dermatologist career is a safe passage for anyone who wants to become one. In this case, as a dermatologist you will make a great income in 2015 and the following years. Dermatologist Salary in 2016The salary of a dermatologist, for the year 2016 in the US is mainly influenced by several factors such as the geographical location-residence and the years of experience in the field. Other factors that affect and impact the earnings of these professionals are the type of employer as well as the size of the company and the specialization. According to the Pay Scale surveys made for the year 2016, the median income of dermatologists is estimated to reach at $204,073 per year. The starting point in the salary of a professional in this field is $88,438 per year climbing up to $308,058 per year or even higher. The bonuses that are provided in this career can even reach up to $74,667 per year while the profit sharing is estimated at $15,486 or even higher. Other benefits that are taken into consideration when it comes to this group is the 401k plans, paid vacations, life insurance, liability insurance and other as well. Salary packages are influenced and vary greatly according to each employer and the size of the company in which one individual has found work. Dermatologists who found work in private practices and physicians’ offices can expect to take home incomes that range between $116,352 per year and $362,764 per year while those who found work in general hospitals can expect their earnings to be comprised between $122,831 per year and up to $406,947 per year. The incomes of dermatologist also vary according to each state due to the living expenses that differ in each area and the costs of living. For instance, those dermatologists that are located in New York can expect to take home estimated earnings that range from $177,858 per year and up to $305,210 per year. At the same time, those who found jobs in Texas and reside there can expect at incomes that vary between $209,010 per year and up to $444,010 per year. When it comes to the years of experience in the field, dermatologists who just started or have worked for up to 4 years can expect to take home salaries that range between $76,597 per year and up to $357,451 per year, while those being in this field for more than 10 years and up to 19 years can expect at earnings that are comprised between $151,223 per year and up to $352,946 per year. The salaries will continue to vary based on the early mentioned factors and other as well. Dermatology salary in Canada, Australia and UKWhen looking at a dermatologist salary outside of the United States you can see that it is not as lucrative field as it is in the United States. If you practiced in: Canada —the average yearly dermatologist salary would be ninety-eight thousand two hundred sixty-four dollars, that means CA$98,264;Australia —the average salary for a dermatologist would be between AU fifty thousand to AU two hundred thousand dollars a year (AU$50,000 to AU$200,000 a year);UK —the average salary for a dermatologist here is based on their age. If you are in your twenties you would earn approximately one hundred twenty-three thousand seven hundred fifty dollars yearly. If you are in your thirties you would earn approximately one hundred sixty-one thousand seven hundred dollars yearly. If you were in your forties and fifties you would earn approximately one hundred ninety-one thousand four hundred dollars yearly. On average a dermatologist in the United Kingdom would earl one hundred sixty-five thousand dollars yearly. Conclusion on dermatologist salary Comparing a dermatologist salary in the United States with a dermatologist salary in Canada, Australia, and the UK it seems that a dermatologist in the United States makes more money and when you add in their compensation package it raises the salary even more. Looking at the salary it shows that dermatology is a medical field where the salary is above average and you are not putting in as many hours nor are you on-call nightly. Post Revision First Published Date: 24 July, 2014Last Updated Date: 8 June, 2016 |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.how much is the nose surgery in philippines | How much does a regular plastic surgery operation cost in the Philippines? is it safe? Travel Asia Pacific Philippines How much does a regular plastic surgery operation cost in the Philippines? is it safe?1 following 27 answers Answers Relevance Rating Newest Oldest Best Answer: Cost - The primary advantage in medical tourism is cost. You can save a lot of money when you choose to have cosmetic surgery done in the Philippines. Because of the favorable exchange rate (as of March 2006, it is $1= P52), both local and foreign patients who otherwise couldn't afford cosmetic surgery can benefit from the lower overhead costs and professional fees. Procedures can be performed at a fraction of the amount you would spend on the same procedure in the US or Europe. For example, the average surgeon's fee for eyelid surgery in the U. S. is $2,500 and in the Philippines, a qualified surgeon will charge only $600 to $1,500. For liposuction, surgeon's fees in the U. S. average $2,000 per area. In the Philippines, it is around $800 for the first area and $500 for succeeding areas. Anesthesiologist's fees and facility costs are also much lower. Qualified Plastic Surgeons - Although cost savings are significant when you choose to come to the Philippines for cosmetic surgery, cost shouldn't be the only factor to consider, since it can cost more to remedy poor results done by unqualified cosmetic surgery providers. Lower cost doesn’t mean sacrificing quality of care. Whether you are having cosmetic surgery done abroad or in your home country, choosing the right doctor is the single most important decision you will make. Choosing the right surgeon will ensure the quality of care you will receive. In the Philippines, there are many well-trained and highly skilled plastic surgeons who have studied in some of Asia's best medical schools. Philippine medical and nursing curricula are more difficult than many in Southeast Asia. Many Filipino doctors go to the US and other developed countries for additional postgraduate training and experience. They can therefore provide equal or greater quality surgical care than U. S. hospitals. The Philippines has been exporting doctors and nurses to the U. S. for 50 years now and many U. S. and European hospitals are staffed by Filipino nurses and doctors. Thus, you can get quality medical care at a fraction of the price in developed countries. The Caring and Compassionate nature of the Filipinos - Besides competence, Filipino doctors and nurses are also well known for being caring and compassionate. English - It is said that the Philippines is the third largest English speaking country in the world. This greater fluency in English is an important advantage for a service industry and an essential for cosmetic surgery. Good communication between doctor and patient is very important since a patient should be able to ask questions and discuss needs and expectations to make an informed judgement. The Filipinos are well known for their hospitality and friendliness and even the local population can communicate in English with foreigners. These advantages, combined with the fact that the Philippines is a beautiful country with a variety of places to visit while on vacation, makes the Philippines a worthwhile country to consider for cosmetic surgery vacations. COMMON COSMETIC SURGERY PROCEDURES (Listed Alphabetically) COSMETIC SURGERY FEES (in US Dollars) as of Mar 2006 Abdominoplasty (Abdomen) $3300 * Abdominal Liposuction (Liposculpture) $2300 ** Acne Scar Removal Full face $1,100 Both Cheeks $750 Forehead $400 Chin $350 Alar Plasty (Nose Surgery) under local anesthesia $600 under intravenous sedation $800 Aptos® Thread Lift (Feather Lift) Brow lift $600 Cheek lift $900 Jaw lift (Jowl lift) $600 Full facelift $2,100 Arm Lifts (Brachioplasty) $2,400 * Arm Liposuction $600 Blepharoplasty (Eyelid Surgery) Upper eyelids (under local anesthesia) $600 (intravenous sedation) $800 Lower eyelids (under local anesthesia) $600 (intravenous sedation) $800 Both Upper and Lower eyelids (under local anesthesia) $1,200 (intravenous sedation) $1,600 Creation of upper eyelid fold (Westernizing Slit-eye) $800 BOTOX® Injections Treatment Crow's feet $230 Glabella frown lines $250 - 300 Forehead wrinkles $300 Masseter (jaw muscle hypertrophy):per side $350 Axillary hyperhidrosis (excessive Armpit sweating): per armpit $400 Calf muscle hypertrophy (per leg) $400 Breast Augmentation (Various Implants) ** China Implant $2,500 Eurosilicone ES 81 Implant $3,000 Mc Ghan CUI MHP Implant $3,250 Mc Ghan Style 120 Implant $3,500 Mc Ghan Style 410 Soft Touch $4,300 Mentor Cohesive I Smooth Gel $3,500 Mentor Cohesive I Siltex Gel $3,750 Mentor Cohesive II Siltex Gel $4,000 Mentor Cohesive III Contour Profile $4,350 Breast Implant Removal $1,000 Breast Implant Revision $2,500 Breast Lift Surgery (Mastopexy) $2,400 ** Breast Nipple Reduction $450 Breast Reconstruction $4,000 * Breast Reduction Surgery: Female $2,400 ** Breast Reduction Surgery: Males (Gynecomastia) $1,400 Brow Lift $1,500 Buccal Fat Extraction $750 Buttocks Augmentation (Gluteal Implants) $4,100 ** Buttocks Lift Surgery $2,400 * Calf Augmentation (Implants) $3,800 ** Cheek Augmentation (Implants) $900 Chemical Peel $600 Chin Augmentation (Implants) $600 Chin Reduction $2,500 Cleft chin Creation $450 Dermabrasion Full face $1,100 Both Cheeks $750 Forehead $400 Chin $350 Dimple Creation One side only $225 Two sides $450 Ear Surgery (Otoplasty): Both Ears Under Local Anesthesia $900 Intravenous Sedation $1,200 Eyelid Surgery, Uppper and Lower, Eyelid Fold (See Blepharoplasty) $600-$1,600 Face Lift Surgery (Rhytidectomy) Forehead Lift $1,500 ** Midface Lift $1,750 ** Neck Lift $1,500 * Midface and Neck Lift $2,900 * Face Lift and Blepharoplasty combined ** Midface and neck lift with upper AND lower blepharoplasty $3,600 * Face and neck lift with upper OR lower blepharoplasty $3,200 * Fat Injections $420/cc Forehead lift $1,500 ** Gynecomastia (Male Breast Reduction) $1,400 Injectable Fillers Aquamid $800/cc. Autologous Fat $420/cc Hydrogel $200/cc. Hylaform $360/cc. Perlane $530/cc. Restylane® $480/cc. Inverted Nipple Repair $450 Lip Augmentation Upper lips only Under Local Anesthesia $600 Under Intravenous Sedation $800 Lower lips only Under Local Anesthesia $600 Under Intravenous Sedation $800 Both Upper and Lower lips Under Local Anesthesia $1,200 Under Intravenous Sedation $1,600 Lip Reduction Upper lips only Under Local Anesthesia $600 Under Intravenous Sedation $800 Lower lips only Under Local Anesthesia $600 Under Intravenous Sedation $800 Both Upper and Lower lips Under Local Anesthesia $1,200 Under Intravenous Sedation $1,600 Lip Surgery for "gummy smile" $750 Lipo Dissolve (per session) $200 Liposuction Surgery (Lipoplasty) ** One area only $800 Each succeeding area (per area) $500 Male Pectoral Implants $4,100 Mesotherapy (per session) $200 Midface (Cheek) Lift $1,750 Mole removal $200 Nasal Bridge Augmentation / Reduction (See Rhinoplasty) Nasal Tip Augmentation / Reduction (See Rhinoplasty) Neck Lift $1,500 Nose Surgery, Nose Job (See Rhinoplasty) Obagi Blue Peels® (Obagi Skin Care) $600 Otoplasty:correction of floppy ears (See Ear Surgery) Restylane® $480/cc Rhinoplasty (Nose Surgery, Nose Job) Nasal Bridge Augmentation (Noselift) (under local anesthesia) $600 (intravenous sedation) $800 Nasal Tip Reshaping (Tip Plasty) (under local anesthesia) $600 (intravenous sedation) $800 Alar Plasty (under local anesthesia) $600 (intravenous sedation) $800 Noselift and Tip Plasty (under local anesthesia) $700 (intravenous sedation) $930 Noselift and Alar Plasty (under local anesthesia) $700 (intravenous sedation) $930 Tip Plasty and Alar Plasty (under local anesthesia) $700 (intravenous sedation) $930 Nose Reshaping (Augmentation, Tip Plasty, Alar Plasty) (under local anesthesia) $800 (intravenous sedation) $1,050 Reduction Rhinoplasty $2,200 Rhytidectomy (See Face Lift Surgery) Scalp Flaps / Scalp Lift $2,400 * Scalp Reduction $2,400 * Scar Revision / Scar Repair $100 - $250 Thigh Liposculpture $1,300 ** Thigh Lift $2,400 * Tummy Tuck (See Abdominoplasty) $3300 * * procedure to be done in hospital; hospital charges to be added to package fees **may be done either as outpatient surgery in our outpatient clinic or as an inpatient hospital procedure; hospital charges to be added to package fees if procedure done in hospital operating room Source (s):http://www.cosmeticsurgeryphil.com/c G · 1 decade ago3 0 Comment Asker's rating1Source (s): Natural Penis Enlargement Guide - http://Bigger Penis.raiwi.com/?le Rv Marjorie · 2 years ago0 0 Comment How Much Does A Regular Plastic Surgery Operation Cost In The Philippines? -- https://tr.im/Breast Growth Truth Sarah · 2 years ago1 0 Comment Plastic Surgery Philippines Source (s):https://shrinks.im/ba UJ7koning · 1 year ago0 0 Comment2Source (s): Start Look Younger http://netint.info/Steps To Looking Younger? · 1 year ago0 0 Comment This Site Might Help You. RE: How much does a regular plastic surgery operation cost in the Philippines? is it safe? Source (s):regular plastic surgery operation cost philippines safe: https://shortly.im/Not Gq Dinah · 3 years ago0 0 Comment3Source (s): Breast Augmentation Techniques http://emuy.info/Natural Breast Enlargemen...? · 1 year ago0 0 Comment The cost depends on the nature of surgery. It is hard to answer your question with monetary value because you did not include the type of surgery that you want. For example, a nose lift is about Php 30,000. Philippines is cheaper than other countries.statices · 1 decade ago0 0 Comment Hi, I am Areana from Germany and 2 years back I was hopeless as you are now. Breast is one of the most imp part of a girls's life. Few years back I was like having a flattened chest. It was always a matter of dis-appointment when I see a good looking boy dating a good figures girl. I felt jealous. After a hell lot of trying trying and trying various pills and creams I found a precisely what I was looking for years. I paid only the handling charge for the first bottle so I bought it as this was cheap as hell @ https://tr.im/4Nf LQ I almost feel like I have a new lease on life. There is nothing quite like feeling perfectly comfortable in your own skin again. Cheers! Hope you will attain your self esteemed back :)https://s.yimg.com/tr/i/17706aa16fb44f119d8950d7d1765e06_A.png Source (s):https://tr.im/4Nf LQAnonymous · 3 years ago0 0 Comment Cost - will depend on what you want to be altered. In general it is much cheaper. it's not only in plastic surgery but also in dental and eye laser proceedures. Is its safe: a big YES! majority of the noted plastic surgeons here in Manila had their training in the U. S., Europe and Japan. Many of them practiced in the U. S. before returning home.ang-pogi-ko · 1 decade ago0 0 Comment Get plastic surgery in India. Cosmetic Surgery is very cheap in India. There is one company that is very famous in India that arranges cosmetic surgery for foreigners in India. They are called the Forerunners Healthcare. I read a lot about them in the Newspapers and about their patient stories. I have also read that they arrange financing for American and Canadian patients, as cosmetic surgery is not covered by insurance. They also have photos pasted of their International patients. You can checkout their website. The cost savings are incredible. As a doctor I personally believe that your cosmetic surgery can be easily handled in India, as the quality of healthcare available here is simply best in the world. The surgeons are USA/UK trained and facilities are 5 star. My cousin got a couple of cosmetic surgery procedures in India like the breast reduction, tummy tuck and facelift through the forerunners healthcare. She is more than very happy with the results. She just paid 30% of the amount she was quoted in USA and is all praise for this forerunners healthcare company. I personally have seen the wonderful results and am particularly impressed with the kind of quality care she got from this company. I hope this helps. http://www.forerunnershealthcare.com Anonymous · 1 decade ago0 2 Comment1 2 3 next Maybe you would like to learn more about one of these? Look For an Accident Attorney Considering an online college? Need a DUI Attorney? Get an MBA while working | New .COMs just $11.99 *Reg. $14.99Search Welcome toamednews.com Learn how you can get this domain »|See more domains like this »This Web page is parked FREE, courtesy of Go Daddy. Award-winning, 24/7 support We're here to help, day or night. Call (480) 505-8877. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what genre is seether | Seether Stream or buy on: Active1990s - 2010s Formed1999 in South Africa Genre Pop/Rock Styles Alternative Metal Heavy Metal Post-Grunge Group Members Dale Stewart John Humphrey Pat Callahan Shaun Morgan Bryan Wickmann Submit Corrections Related Blog Posts Album Premiere: Red Sun Rising, 'Polyester Zeal'Seether Biography by Bradley Torreano Alternative metal quartet whose grunge influence is apparent in their keen melodic sense and Wall-of-Guitar attack. Read Full Biography Overview Biography Discography Songs Credits Related Share this pagefacebook twitter google+Artist Biography by Bradley Torreano Hailing from South Africa and comprising members Shaun Morgan (vocals, guitar), Dale Stewart (bass), and John Humphrey (drums), Seether embrace a brand of heavy metal mostly associated with the post-grunge era of alternative music, complete with crunchy distortion and brooding textures. The band emerged in 1999 as Saron Gas (a name taken from the back of a sound effects CD) and released its debut album, Fragile, the following year on Musketeer Records. In a country whose musical tastes center around pop and indigenous music, Fragile found impressive chart success. Across the Atlantic, the U. S.-based Wind Up Records caught wind of the band's growing popularity and signed the South African bandmates, who changed their name to Seether in light of Saron Gas ' similarity to the lethal nerve agent sarin gas. An EP release and a spot on the Ozzfest tour preceded the unveiling of Seether 's full-length debut in the summer of 2002. Issued that August, Disclaimer featured the modern rock single "Fine Again" and led to a year-long tour, during which singer Morgan 's relationship with Evanescence siren Amy Lee blossomed. But while the tour ensured increasing commercial status for Seether, it also delayed the band's return to the studio. In March 2004, a few tracks appeared on the Punisher soundtrack, including a duet version of Disclaimer 's "Broken" featuring vocal contributions from Lee. Disclaimer II appeared that June, pairing a handful of new tracks with remixed or re-recorded versions of the previous album's tracks. Seether viewed the album as an opportunity to re-evaluate their debut's release (whose mix was, according to the band, subpar) and give listeners new content as a holdover until the band's proper follow-up. The promised sophomore effort, Karma and Effect, was released in May 2005 and entered the Top Ten, while the acoustic CD/DVD package One Cold Night appeared in 2006. Following Morgan 's breakup with Amy Lee and a successful stint in rehab, Seether returned in 2007 with Finding Beauty in Negative Spaces, introducing the album with the snide and catchy single "Fake It." In 2009 the bandmembers took a break from touring to head into the studio with producer Brendan O'Brien to work on their fifth album. They went back out on the road for another year before eventually releasing Holding Onto Strings Better Left to Fray in 2011. Isolate and Medicate, the band's sixth studio long-player, dropped in 2014, and shot to the top of Billboard's Top Rock, Alternative, and Hard Rock charts. In February 2017 the band dropped "Let You Down," the first single from their much anticipated seventh studio long-player, Poison the Parish, which arrived later that May. | . Sorry about that... An extension caused this webpage to stop working. Please disable any extensions that might block ads to continue. ERROR_19847 |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is a controller? | controller controllercon·trol·ler Use controller in a sentencenoun The definition of a controller is a person in charge, especially the main accounting officer in a business. An example of a controller is the director of a learning center. Your Dictionary definition and usage example. Copyright © 2018 by Love To Know Corp Link/Citecontrollerthe chief accounting officer with responsibility for internal auditing, as in a business, government (usually sp. comptroller ), or institutiona person or device that controls Origin of controller Middle English countrollour from Anglo-French contrerollour from Old French contreroller: see control Webster's New World College Dictionary, Fifth Edition Copyright © 2014 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Link/Citecontrollernoun One that controls: a controller, not an observer of events. See comptroller. A mechanism or device that controls something, as in a vehicle or video game. Related Forms:con·trol′ler·ship′noun THE AMERICAN HERITAGE® DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, FIFTH EDITION by the Editors of the American Heritage Dictionaries. Copyright © 2016, 2011 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved. Link/Citecontroller Noun ( plural controllers)One who controls something. A person who audits, and manages the financial affairs of a company or government; a comptroller. A mechanism that controls or regulates the operation of a machine, especially a peripheral device in a computer. (nautical) An iron block, usually bolted to a ship 's deck, for controlling the running out of a chain cable. The links of the cable tend to drop into hollows in the block, and thus hold fast until disengaged. Origin From Middle English countreroller, from Anglo-Norman countrerolleour, from Old French contrerelleor (French contrôleur ), from Medieval Latin contrārotulātor, from * contrārotulāre (from which control ). Equivalent to control + -er. English Wiktionary. Available under CC-BY-SA license. Link/Citecontroller - Computer Definition (1) A device used to play video games. See video game controller . (2) An electronic circuit board or system. In a computer, controllers contain the circuitry to run a peripheral device and are either contained on a plug-in expansion card or on the motherboard. In larger computers, a controller may be contained on one or more boards or in an external, stand-alone cabinet. Computer Desktop Encyclopedia THIS DEFINITION IS FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY All other reproduction is strictly prohibited without permission from the publisher. © 1981-2017 The Computer Language Company Inc. All rights reserved. Link/Cite | OpenStudy is nowBrainly! Stacey Warren - Expert brainly.com Hey! We 've verified this expert answer for you, click below to unlock the details :)SOLVEDAt vero eos et accusamus et iusto odio dignissimos ducimus qui blanditiis praesentium voluptatum deleniti atque corrupti quos dolores et quas molestias excepturi sint occaecati cupiditate non provident, similique sunt in culpa qui officia deserunt mollitia animi, id est laborum et dolorum fuga. Et harum quidem rerum facilis est et expedita distinctio. Nam libero tempore, cum soluta nobis est eligendi optio cumque nihil impedit quo minus id quod maxime placeat facere possimus, omnis voluptas assumenda est, omnis dolor repellendus. Itaque earum rerum hic tenetur a sapiente delectus, ut aut reiciendis voluptatibus maiores alias consequatur aut perferendis doloribus asperiores repellat. UNLOCK FULL ANSWER |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.spongebob movie cast | List of SpongeBob SquarePants cast members From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Voice actor Tom Kenny, shown here in 2008, provides the voice of Sponge Bob Square Pants, the show's main character. Sponge Bob Square Pants is an American animated television series created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg that debuted on Nickelodeon in the United States on May 1, 1999. The regular voice cast consists of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan. Most one-off and background characters are voiced by Dee Bradley Baker, Sirena Irwin, Bob Joles, Mark Fite and Thomas F. Wilson. Throughout the show's run, it has employed numerous guest stars from many ranges of professions. Repeat guests include Ernest Borgnine, Tim Conway, Brian Doyle-Murray, Marion Ross, John O'Hurley and Michael Mc Kean. Sponge Bob Square Pants chronicles the adventures and endeavors of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom. Many of the ideas for the show originated in an unpublished, educational comic book titled The Intertidal Zone, which Hillenburg created in the mid-1980s. He began developing Sponge Bob Square Pants into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, another Nickelodeon animated series which Hillenburg directed. While creating the show, Hillenburg, with colleague Derek Drymon, was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters. He turned to Kenny, who had worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life, to voice the title character. Kenny and Catlett were the first cast members to receive award nominations for their performance on Sponge Bob Square Pants. They each received Annie Award nominations in 2001, but did not win. In 2010, Kenny won the Annie Award for Best Voice Acting in a Television Production, making it the first time a cast member had won this type of award; eight years later, Kenny won another Annie in the same category. Bumpass was the first cast member to be nominated for an Emmy Award, receiving a nomination in 2012 but losing to June Foray. Contents [ hide ]1 Regular cast1.1 Background1.2 Main cast1.3 Other regular cast2 Recurring guest voices3 Former cast members4 Awards and nominations5 Notes6 References6.1 Bibliography7 External links Regular cast [ edit]Background [ edit]Voice of Sponge Bob Square Pants Audio sample of the voice of Sponge Bob Square Pants from the episode " The Secret Box " (2001). Problems playing this file? See media help. Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown provides the voice of Mr. Krabs. Kenny's wife, Jill Talley, voices Karen. Actress Carolyn Lawrence voices Sandy Cheeks. Dee Bradley Baker has appeared in several minor roles. Actor Ernest Borgnine was a recurring guest star on the show, voicing Mermaid Man from 1999 to his death in 2012. Sponge Bob Square Pants has featured the voices of Tom Kenny, Bill Fagerbakke, Rodger Bumpass, Clancy Brown, Mr. Lawrence, Jill Talley, Carolyn Lawrence, Mary Jo Catlett and Lori Alan since it began. Stephen Hillenburg started developing the Sponge Bob concept into a television series in 1996 upon the cancellation of Rocko's Modern Life, which he directed. While creating the show and writing its pilot episode in 1997, he and the show's then- creative director Derek Drymon were also conducting auditions to find voices for the show's characters. [1]For the voice of Sponge Bob, the main character, Hillenburg approached Kenny, who previously worked with him on Rocko's Modern Life. [2] Drymon said, "Steve [Hillenburg] wanted to find an original sounding voice [for Sponge Bob]." [1] Hillenburg utilized Kenny's and other people's personalities to help create the personality of Sponge Bob. [3] The voice of Sponge Bob was originally used by Kenny for a minor character in Rocko's Modern Life. Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use. Hillenburg, however, remembered it when he was coming up with Sponge Bob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice. [3] Kenny says that Sponge Bob's high-pitched laugh was specifically created to be unique. They wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker. [4] Voice acting veteran Clancy Brown voices Mr. Krabs, Sponge Bob's boss at the Krusty Krab. For the character, Brown uses a voice that he describes as "piratey" with "a little Scottish brogue." [5] According to him, his Mr. Krabs voice was improvised during his audition and it was not challenging for him to find the correct voice. [5] Bumpass provides the voice of Squidward Tentacles, and other characters. Squidward was "a very nasally, monotone kind of guy", said Bumpass. He said that the character "became a very interesting character to do" because of "his sarcasm, and then his frustration, and then his apoplexy, and so he became a wide spectrum of emotions". [6]Mr. Lawrence had met Hillenburg previously on Rocko's Modern Life. When working on the pilot episode of Sponge Bob, Hillenburg invited him to audition for all of the characters. [7] Since other voices had been found for the main cast already, Lawrence started out by voicing a variety of minor characters. This included Plankton, who was initially only set to appear in one episode. [7] [1] Mr. Lawrence stated in an interview with Thomas F. Wilson that Nickelodeon executives told Hillenburg, "'we could stunt-cast this. You know, we could have Bruce Willis do this voice.' And Steve was just like, 'it's Doug [Lawrence], don't you hear it? This is the character! This is the guy!'" [7] Jill Talley, Tom Kenny's wife, voices Karen Plankton. Being a Chicago native, she uses a Midwestern accent for the character. [8] Electronic sound effects are underlaid by the series' audio engineers to create a robotic sound whenever she speaks. [9] Talley and Mr. Lawrence often improvise their characters' dialogue. In 2009, Lawrence called improvisation his "favorite part of the voice over." [10] He elaborated in a 2012 interview, saying, "I always enjoy the back-and-forth. [Talley and I] start to actually overlap so much talking to each other that [the voice directors] have to tell us, 'hey, stop doing that, separate what you're saying!'" [7]Fagerbakke voices Sponge Bob's best friend, a starfish named Patrick Star. He auditioned for the role after Kenny had been cast as Sponge Bob. Fagerbakke said, "Steve is such a lovely guy, and I had absolutely no feeling for the material whatsoever." He described his experience in the audition, saying "I was just going in for another audition, and I had no idea what was in store there in terms of the remarkable visual wit and really the kind of endearing child-like humanity in the show. I couldn't pick that up from the audition material at all. I was just kind of perfunctorially trying to give the guy what he wanted." [11] Carolyn Lawrence provides Sandy Cheeks ' voice. When Lawrence was on a sidewalk in Los Feliz, Los Angeles with a friend who knew Sponge Bob Square Pants casting director Donna Grillo, her friend said to the director that Lawrence had "an interesting voice". Grillo invited Lawrence to audition and she then got the role. [12] [13] Mrs. Puff's voice is provided by American actress Mary Jo Catlett, who is known for her live-action roles on television programs from the 1970s such as Diff'rent Strokes and M*A*S*H. [14] As of 2017, voicing Mrs. Puff has become her only remaining regular television role; Catlett described herself as "basically retired" in 2013, since she feels that voicing Mrs. Puff requires less preparation than her performances in person. [15] Lori Alan voices Pearl. During her audition for the role, she was shown an early drawing of Pearl and took note of how the character was much larger than the rest of the cast. She decided to reflect the character's size in her voice by making it deep and full in tone. She aimed to make Pearl's voice invoke the sound of whales’ low vocalizations while also sounding "spoiled and lovable." [16] In an interview with After Buzz TV, Alan said that she knew Pearl "had to sound somewhat like a child," but at the same time needed "an abnormally large voice." [17]Mr. Krabs' mother, Mama Krabs, who debuted in the episode " Sailor Mouth ", was voiced by staff writer Paul Tibbitt. [18] [19] [20] However, voice actress Sirena Irwin overtook Tibbitt's role as the character reappeared in the fourth season episode "Enemy In-Law" in 2005. [21] Irwin also provides the voices of other characters in the show, including Margaret Square Pants, Sponge Bob's mother. In the Christmas special "Christmas Who? ", the characters of Patchy the Pirate, the president of the fictional Sponge Bob Square Pants fan club, and his pet called Potty the Parrot debuted. The former is portrayed by Kenny in live-action, while series creator Hillenburg voiced the latter. [22] After Hillenburg's departure as the series' showrunner in 2004, Tibbitt was given the role voicing Potty the Parrot. [23]Voice recording sessions always include a full cast of actors, which Kenny describes as "getting more unusual". [24] Kenny said, "That's another thing that's given Sponge Bob its special feel. Everybody's in the same room, doing it old radio-show style. It's how the stuff we like was recorded". [24] It takes about four hours to record an 11-minute episode. [25] For the first three seasons, Hillenburg and Drymon sat in on recording sessions at Nickelodeon Studios, and they directed the actors. [26] In the fourth season, Andrea Romano took over the role as the voice director. [26] Wednesday is recording day, the same schedule followed by the crew since 1999. [26] Casting supervisor Jennie Monica Hammond said, "I loved Wednesdays". [26]The cast members get residuals every time the episodes they appeared in are aired, which Carolyn Lawrence described as "a very complicated mathematical calculation." [25] Lawrence said in 2008 that it was a "declining scale" and they were "still in negotiations... both sides are still talking." She further stated that "they're still trying to work it out." [25]Main cast [ edit]Actor Character (s)Tom Kenny [27] [24]Sponge Bob Square Pants Gary the Snail French Narrator Hans Patchy the Pirate Harold Square Pants Dirty Bubble [A] Grandpa Square Pants Other miscellaneous characters Bill Fagerbakke [27]Patrick Star Other miscellaneous characters Rodger Bumpass [27]Squidward Tentacles Other miscellaneous characters Clancy Brown [27]Mr. Krabs Other miscellaneous characters Mr. Lawrence [27]Plankton Potty the Parrot [B]Realistic Fish Head Larry the Lobster Other miscellaneous characters Jill Talley [27]Karen Other miscellaneous characters Carolyn Lawrence [27]Sandy Cheeks Other miscellaneous characters Mary Jo Catlett [27]Mrs. Puff Other miscellaneous characters Lori Alan [27]Pearl Other miscellaneous characters Other regular cast [ edit]Actor Character (s)Carlos Alazraqui Scooter Other miscellaneous characters Dee Bradley Baker [26] [28]Bubble Bass Squilliam Fancyson Old Man Jenkins Perch Perkins Other miscellaneous characters Sirena Irwin [29]Mama Krabs [B]Margaret Square Pants Other miscellaneous characters Bob Joles [30] Man Ray [C]Mark Fite [31] [32] Various characters Thomas F. Wilson [33] [34]Various characters Recurring guest voices [ edit]See also: List of Sponge Bob Square Pants guest stars Actor Character (s) Notes Tim Conway Barnacle Boy [35]Conway first appeared in 1999 with his former Mc Hale's Navy co-star Ernest Borgnine, who voiced Mermaid Man; [36] he has since appeared in over 15 episodes. Brian Doyle-Murray The Flying Dutchman [27]Doyle-Murray appeared in ten episodes throughout the first eight seasons. He returned in 2017 for a guest appearance in " The Legend of Boo-Kini Bottom " after a six-year absence. [37]Marion Ross Grandma Square Pants [38]Ross has appeared since 2001. [39]John O'Hurley King Neptune [40]O'Hurley has appeared three times as King Neptune since the character's first appearance in 2000. [41] [42]Michael Mc Kean Captain Frostymug Lonnie Mc Kean appeared twice during the show's ninth season, voicing Captain Frostymug in " License to Milkshake " and Lonnie the shark in " Sharks vs. Pods ". [43] [44]Former cast members [ edit]Actor Character (s) Notes Brad Abrell Bubble Buddy Abrell voiced Bubble Buddy and other minor characters during the show's second season. He reprised his role as Bubble Buddy for the eighth season episode " Bubble Buddy Returns " but has not made an appearance since. [45]Ernest Borgnine Mermaid Man Borgnine made the most guest appearances on the show, voicing the character since 1999 to his death in 2012. [36] [46]Stephen Hillenburg Potty the Parrot Hillenburg voiced the recurring character from 2000 to 2004. When he left the show as the showrunner, writer Tibbitt was given the role voicing the character as it reappeared in the fifth season episode " Friend or Foe ". [23]Sara Paxton Various characters Paxton voiced many minor child characters in the show's first three seasons, but has not recorded new dialogue since. [47] [48] [49] An archival recording of Paxton's voice is used in the tenth-season episode " Unreal Estate . "Paul Tibbitt Potty the Parrot Tibbitt took over the role of Potty from Stephen Hillenburg in 2005 and last voiced the character in 2012. Camryn Walling Various characters Walling voiced several child characters throughout the show's first two seasons, but has not recorded new dialogue since. [45] An archival recording of Walling's voice is used in the tenth-season episode " Unreal Estate . "Frank Welker Welker voiced several animal characters—including Clamu, Baby Oyster, Mystery the Seahorse, and the gorilla—between 2001 and 2003, but has not appeared since. [45]Awards and nominations [ edit]Year Actor Award Category Role Episode Result Ref (s).2001Mary Jo Catlett Annie Award Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Television Production Mrs. Puff "No Free Rides" Nominated [50]2001Tom Kenny Annie Award Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an Animated Television Production Sponge Bob Square Pants "Wormy" Nominated [50]2008 Tom Kenny Annie Award Best Voice Acting in an Animated Television Production Sponge Bob Square Pants "Spy Buddies" Nominated [51]2010 Tom Kenny Annie Award Best Voice Acting in a Television Production Sponge Bob Square Pants " Truth or Square " Won [52]2012Rodger Bumpass Daytime Emmy Award Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program Squidward Tentacles Nominated [53]2018 Tom Kenny Annie Award Outstanding Achievement for Voice Acting in an Animated Television / Broadcast Production Sponge Bob Square Pants Won [54]Notes [ edit]^ A. Guest star Charles Nelson Reilly originally provided the voice of the character. [55] Reilly died in 2007. [56] [57]^ B. Replaced Paul Tibbitt.^ C. Replaced John Rhys-Davies, who has voiced Man Ray in two episodes. [58] [59]References [ edit]^ a b c Drymon, Derek (2010). "The Oral History of Sponge Bob Square Pants ". Hogan's Alley #17. Bull Moose Publishing Corporation. Retrieved September 21, 2012.^ Orlando, Dana (March 17, 2003). "Sponge Bob: the excitable, absorbent star of Bikini Bottom". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2008-11-08.^ a b Farhat, Basima (Interviewer) (December 5, 2006). Tom Kenny: Voice of Sponge Bob Square Pants - Interview (Radio production). The People Speak Radio. Archived from the original (mp3) on July 24, 2011. Retrieved 2008-11-08.^ "Sponge Bob's Alter Ego". CBS News. December 30, 2002. Archived from the original on December 11, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2014.^ a b Beck 2013, p. 86, 88^ Reardon, Samantha (September 8, 2013). "Rodger Bumpass is Squidward Tentacles". The Signal. Archived from the original on March 28, 2014. Retrieved March 28, 2014.^ a b c d Lawrence, Doug (April 2012). "Big Pop Fun #22: Mr. Lawrence" (Podcast). Interview with Thomas F. Wilson. Nerdist Industries. Archived from the original (mp3) on March 29, 2014.^ Basile, Nancy (January 30, 2016). " ' Sponge Bob Square Pants' Cast: Who Does What Voice?". About.com.^ Lawrence, Doug (2002). F. U. N. backstage featurette, Nautical Nonsense (DVD). Paramount Home Entertainment.^ Lawrence, Doug (2009). "Andy interviews Mr Lawrence aka "the Slasher " ". Nick NZ (Interview). Interview with Andy Goodman. Archived from the original on 2010-06-11.^ Liu, Ed (November 11, 2013). "Being Patrick Star: Toonzone Interviews Bill Fagerbakke on Sponge Bob Square Pants ". Toon Zone. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved March 28, 2014.^ "Carolyn Lawrence Exclusive Interview". The Star Scoop. September 17, 2009. Retrieved June 14, 2013.^ "REFANB Interview: Carolyn Lawrence, A. K. A. Ashley Graham". Resident Evil Fan. Retrieved June 14, 2013.^ Basile, Nancy (January 30, 2016). " ' Sponge Bob Square Pants' Cast: Who Does What Voice?". About.com.^ Pressley, Nelson (March 8, 2013). "Remember the time when Washington saved 'Hello, Dolly!'?". The Washington Post. Jeff Bezos.^ Alan, Lori; Bumpass, Rodger (September 3, 2016), Sponge Bob panel discussion at Dragon Con 2016, part 2: Rodger Bumpass and Lori Alan^ Alan, Lori (November 2015). "Lori Alan Interview". After Buzz TV (Interview). Interview with Kaori Takee.^ Wiese, Erik (2004). Sponge Bob Square Pants season 2 DVD commentary for the episode "Sailor Mouth" (DVD). Paramount Home Entertainment.^ Dohrn, Walt (2004). Sponge Bob Square Pants season 2 DVD commentary for the episode "Sailor Mouth" (DVD). Paramount Home Entertainment.^ Overtoom, Andrew (2004). Sponge Bob Square Pants season 2 DVD commentary for the episode "Sailor Mouth" (DVD). Paramount Home Entertainment.^ Sponge Bob Square Pants: Season 4, Vol. 1 (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. September 12, 2006.^ Sponge Bob Square Pants: The Complete 2nd Season ("Christmas Who?" credits) (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. October 19, 2004.^ a b Sponge Bob Square Pants: Friend or Foe (" Friend or Foe " credits) (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. April 17, 2007.^ a b c Kenny, Tom (2010). "The Oral History of Sponge Bob Square Pants". Hogan's Alley #17. Bull Moose Publishing Corporation. Retrieved September 21, 2012.^ a b c Andelman, Bob (August 25, 2008). "Mr. Media Interview: Carolyn Lawrence, 'Sponge Bob Squarepants, Jimmy Neutron' actress". Blog Talk Radio. Archived from the original on March 29, 2014. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ a b c d e Hammond, Jennie Monica (2010). "The Oral History of Sponge Bob Square Pants". Hogan's Alley #17. Bull Moose Publishing Corporation. Retrieved September 21, 2012.^ a b c d e f g h i j Basile, Nancy. " Sponge Bob Square Pants Cast". Animated TV. About.com. Archived from the original on April 12, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Baker, Dee Bradley (Interviewee) (May 21, 2010). "Star Wars Weekends: Send In The Clones!". DISUnplugged.com. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Beck, Marilyn; Smith, Stacy Jenel. " ' I Love Lucy, Live on Stage' Star Sirena Irwin Is Latecomer to Show". Creators Syndicate. Archived from the original on March 29, 2014. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ "Bob Joles Credits". TV Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ "Peri Gilpin and French Stewart Join Matthew Modine to Save the Alpacas" (PDF). Geffen Playhouse. September 16, 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 26, 2010. Retrieved April 11, 2014.^ "Mark Fite". The New York Times. Retrieved April 11, 2014.^ Liebenson, Donald (August 2, 2007). "Tom Wilson gets that question a lot". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on March 29, 2014. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Neumerc, Chris. "Interviews: Thomas F. Wilson". Stumped Magazine. Archived from the original on February 12, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ "Tim Conway Credits". TV Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ a b "Dennis, Callahan take wheel of WEEI morning drive time". The Boston Herald. August 18, 1999. Retrieved November 4, 2013. – via High Beam (subscription required)^ Vincent Waller (May 24, 2017). "Vincent Waller on Twitter". Twitter. Retrieved June 4, 2017.^ "Marion Ross Credits". TV Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Crisp, Marty (July 7, 2002). " Happy Days are here again for TV mom Marion Ross". Sunday News Lancaster. Retrieved October 30, 2013. – via High Beam (subscription required)^ "John O'Hurley Credits". TV Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Johnson, L. A. (July 2, 2002). " Sponge Bob Square Pants is soaking up viewers". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. Archived from the original on November 9, 2013. Retrieved March 19, 2014.^ Thomas, Devon (July 17, 2010). "Victoria Beckham Lends Her Voice to "Sponge Bob " ". CBS News. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved March 20, 2014.^ Kondolojy, Amanda (August 31, 2012). "Nickelodeon Cures Back-to-School Blues With a Dose of 'Sponge Bob Square Pants ' ". TV by the Numbers. Zap2it. Retrieved November 8, 2013.^ Wolfe, Jennifer (August 31, 2012). "Michael Mc Kean Lends Voice to Sponge Bob Episode". Animation World Network. Retrieved November 8, 2013.^ a b c Sponge Bob Square Pants: The Complete 2nd Season ("The Smoking Peanut" credits) (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. October 19, 2004. Sponge Bob Square Pants: The Complete 3rd Season ("My Pretty Seahorse" and "I Had an Accident" credits) (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. September 27, 2005.^ Lloyd, Robert (July 9, 2012). "Ernest Borgnine: From Marty to Mc Hale to Mermaid Man". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved May 2, 2013.^ "Sara Paxton Credits". TV Guide. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ "Sara Paxton". Maxim. July 10, 2008. Archived from the original on January 2, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ "Sara Paxton". Ask Men. Archived from the original on July 8, 2013. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ a b "The 29th Annual Annie Awards Nominees and Winners!". Annie Award. Archived from the original on June 21, 2003. Retrieved May 21, 2013.^ "35th Annual Annie Award Nominees and Winners (2007)". Annie Award. Archived from the original on May 12, 2008. Retrieved May 21, 2013.^ "37th Annual Annie Nominations". Annie Award. Archived from the original on January 24, 2010. Retrieved May 21, 2013.^ On The Red Carpet.com Staff (June 23, 2012). "Daytime Emmys 2012: Full list of winners". On the Red Carpet. American Broadcasting Company. Archived from the original on June 27, 2012. Retrieved May 25, 2013.^ https://annieawards.org/nominees/achievement-categories/outstanding-achievement-for-voice-acting-in-an-animated-television-broadcast-production^ Gillmor, Alison (February 8, 2008). "One-man show funny, revealing". Winnipeg Free Press. Retrieved October 31, 2013. – via High Beam (subscription required)^ Harris, Will (August 4, 2011). "Tom Kenny". The A. V. Club. Archived from the original on March 29, 2014. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Mc Geehan, Patrick (May 28, 2007). "Charles Nelson Reilly, Tony-Winning Comic Actor, Dies at 76". The New York Times. Retrieved March 29, 2014.^ Jordan, Isamu (October 22, 2004). "New DVD fitting for dad, uh, son". The Spokesman-Review. Spokane, WA. Retrieved October 30, 2013. – via High Beam (subscription required)^ Sponge Bob Square Pants: The Complete 3rd Season ("Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy V" credits) (DVD). United States: Paramount Home Entertainment/Nickelodeon. September 27, 2005. Bibliography [ edit]Beck, Jerry (2013). The Sponge Bob Square Pants Experience: A Deep Dive Into the World of Bikini Bottom. Insight Editions. ISBN 978-1608871841. External links [ edit]Sponge Bob Square Pants portal Nickelodeon portal Cast list at the Internet Movie Database Cast list at TV.com [ hide]v t e Sponge Bob Square Pants Characters Sponge Bob Square Pants Patrick Star Squidward Tentacles Mr. Krabs Plankton and Karen Sandy Cheeks Mrs. Puff Pearl Krabs Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy Production Cast members Guest stars Awards and nominations Seasons1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Episodes" Help Wanted " " Pizza Delivery " " Rock Bottom " " Christmas Who? " " Band Geeks " " Graveyard Shift " " Sailor Mouth "" Chocolate with Nuts " " The Sponge Who Could Fly " " Have You Seen This Snail? " " Dunces and Dragons "" Best Day Ever " " Friend or Foe " " Atlantis Square Pantis " " Pest of the West " " What Ever Happened to Sponge Bob? "" Sponge Bob Square Pants vs. The Big One " " To Square Pants or Not to Square Pants " " Truth or Square "" The Clash of Triton " " Sponge Bob's Last Stand " " The Great Patty Caper " " It's a Sponge Bob Christmas! "" Extreme Spots " " Sponge Bob, You're Fired " " Squid Noir "Films The Sponge Bob Square Pants Movie The Sponge Bob Movie: Sponge Out of Water Untitled third Sponge Bob film (2020)Miniseries Legends of Bikini Bottom Sponge Bob's Runaway Roadtrip Locations Krusty Krab Attractions Jimmy Neutron's Nicktoon Blast Sponge Bob Square Pants 4-D Sponge Bob Square Pants Rock Bottom Plunge Sponge Bob Square Pants 4D: The Great Jelly Rescue Universal's Superstar Parade Miscellaneous Merchandise Sponge Bob Comics Sponge Bob Square Pants (musical)Related articles2015 Sponge Bob Square Pants 400 Square Roots: The Story of Sponge Bob Square Pants Spongiforma squarepantsii United Plankton Pictures Book Category Portal Categories: Lists of actors by comedy television series Lists of actors by American television series Sponge Bob Square Pants lists | Seth Curry's Best Potential Landing Spots as Undrafted Free Agent 2013 NBA Draft Seth Curry's Best Potential Landing Spots as Undrafted Free Agent Mike Chiari June 28, 2013Andy Lyons/Getty Images One of the most interesting prospects heading into Thursday's NBA draft was unquestionably Duke guard Seth Curry. The Duke standout and brother of Golden State Warriors guard Stephen Curry wasn't highly touted heading into college and he didn't receive much hype ahead of the draft. Unfortunately, that resulted in him going undrafted. Despite a productive 2012-13 season that saw him average 17.5 points per game and shoot a sparkling 44 percent from beyond the arc, it's easy to see why Curry wasn't drafted. He's quite small for a guy who plays a shooting guard game, as he is just 6'2" and 185 lbs. With that said, several players have proved that size isn't everything. Curry will almost certainly get a chance by being placed on some team's Summer League roster, so his NBA journey is far from over. Here are three teams that would make the most sense for Curry moving forward. Golden State Warriors It worked out well for his brother, so perhaps signing with the Golden State Warriors is just what the doctor ordered for Curry. While Curry would obviously play behind his brother, Golden State would be a great situation for him. Besides that, it seems like a very real possibility, as Stephen has already begun singing Seth's praises on Twitter in the aftermath of the draft. Seth will ultimately decide which team he signs with, but Stephen and the Warriors provide a safety net at the very least. Stephen is a rising star in the league and he is Golden State's face of the franchise, so the Warriors will sign Seth if Stephen pushes for it. Seth is no charity case, though, as he would be a good fit and could develop into an important player. Klay Thompson and Stephen have the starting guard positions on lockdown, but there is a need for depth behind them. Point guard Jarrett Jack is an unrestricted free agent and he could very easily sign elsewhere. Seth isn't a point guard by trade, as he averaged just 1.5 assists last season, but neither was Stephen when he came into the league. The Warriors are a team that likes to get up and down the floor and Seth is a guy who can hit open jumpers and transition, which is something that could be quite valuable to Golden State. Miami Heat With stars like Le Bron James, Dwyane Wade and Chris Bosh taking up the vast majority of the Miami Heat's cap room, the organization has to get creative when it comes to bringing in new pieces. It will be tough for Miami to do that in free agency, but a guy like Curry could make a lot of sense. The Heat have won back-to-back titles and they look for players with a winning attitude, which is precisely what Curry possesses. It's no secret that playing time would be hard to come by for Curry as a rookie. With guards like Wade, Mario Chalmers, Norris Cole and Ray Allen likely on the roster, Curry would be an afterthought at first. The Heat like to bring three-point shooters off the bench though, and Curry was one of the most proficient players in the nation in that regard last season. Even if he doesn't contribute right away, he would be a smart long-term investment. Allen can't play forever, and while Allen seems to boast a better all-around game than Curry, maybe Curry can have a similar impact off the bench at some point as a shooter. Miami would be a solid landing spot for Curry because there would be no pressure to perform right away. He can practice with some of the best players in basketball, learn and develop, however, which will make him a better player in the long run. Milwaukee Bucks Undrafted free agents don't often play much straight out of college, but Curry could potentially be a contributor for the Milwaukee Bucks next season. Nobody is quite sure what the Bucks will do, but Monta Ellis is an unrestricted free agent and Brandon Jennings is a restricted free agent, so Milwaukee could very well be without its two starting guards next season. If that is the case, Curry would be an obvious addition. J. J. Redick is almost certainly on the move as well, and he played a role that Curry could ultimately fill in due time. Redick is a couple inches taller than Curry, but they are fairly comparable players. Both hit the three with great consistency and neither is a particularly explosive athlete. Redick was able to overcome that and become a productive player as he averaged more than 14 points per game last season. Curry is hoping to follow in the footsteps of a fellow Blue Devil. If the Bucks decide to sign him, it could be a case of trial by fire for Curry. Milwaukee drafted Greek star Giannis Antetokounmpo in the first round on Thursday, but he isn't considered an NBA-ready prospect, so it's Curry that would get a chance to play bigger minutes than his more highly-touted counterpart. The Curry family has always been about proving people wrong, and Seth would have a golden opportunity to do that in Milwaukee. 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is an angle seat valve | Ares & Zeus Series Angle Seat Valves Ares & Zeus Series Angle Seat Valves High Cycle-Life Pneumatically Actuated Piston Valves; NPT or Tri-Clamp (3/8" to 2")Compact Valve Selection Guide Description The Angle Seat Valve is a 2/2-way pneumatically actuated piston valve for liquids, gases, steam and some aggressive fluids (vacuum services also.) The superior design of the piston is unique to the market, enabling the plug to retract farther from the flow path, ensuring the highest flow capacity. The dual packing design, and a large diameter self aligning stem insures the highest cycle life. A full range of accessory items are available including limit switches, solenoid valves, manual override devices, stroke limiters. Valve Configurations Spring Ret. N. C. Bi-directional Flow Spring Ret. N. C. Flow from Above Plug Spring Ret. N. O. Flow from Below Plug Double Acting Bi-directional Flow Manual Handle Bi-directional Flow Angle Valve Overview Video Angle Seat Valve Demo Buy Spare Parts and Repair Kits Documentation Angle Seat Valve Datasheet Angle Seat Valve Price List Angle Seat Valve Installation and Maintenance Angle Valve CAD Files Videos Angle Seat Valve Overview Video Related Articles Assured Automation's Automated Valve Makes Waves Batch Filling Valves Save Time and Money Angle Valve Product Training Demonstration Video Read More Articles on our Ares & Zeus Series Angle Valves Features & Benefits High Cycle-Life Integrated pneumatic actuator NAMUR solenoid mounting pad (optional)Fast valve actuation High Cv (Flow Coefficient)Compact assembly Actuator head rotates 360°Visual indicator Robust seat & stem Competitive price [ Angle Valve Cross Section]Typical Applications Steam Applications Keg Cleaners Air Drying Equipment Sterilizers Autoclaves Process Control Applications Laundry Equipment Textile Dyeing & Drying Bottling & Dispensing Equipment Ink & Paint Dispensing Industrial Compressors A-Link® Switch & Communication Module Angle Seat Valve Cross Section Specifications End Connections: NPT Threaded: 3/8" to 2"Tri-Clamp: 1/2" to 2"Butt Weld: (call for size range)ANSI Flanged: (call for size range)Metric G Threads Available Materials: Body, Plug, & Stem: Zeus - Bronze Ares - 316SSSeats & Seals: PTFETemperature Range (PTFE seals)-14 to 358°FPressure Ratings (PTFE seals)230 psig Angle Seat Valve Accessories Angle Seat Valves in Steam Applications Also Found In: Brass Valves | Steam Valves | Oxygen Valves | Nitrogen Valves | Propane Valves | . 500 ERRORSomething went wrong We had a problem processing that request. Please go back to previous page and retry. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.where did the last name faulk come from | Faulk History, Family Crest & Coats of Arms Buy JPG Image »PDF Coat of Arms + Extended History Buy PDF History »Framed Surname History and Coat of Arms - Black Buy Now »Coffee mugs (set of four)Buy Mugs »Set of 10 Keychains Buy Keychains »Find us on Facebook The old Welsh surname Faulk comes from the popular personal name Fulk. This forename of Norman origin originally came from one of a number of Germanic personal names with the first portion "folk-," which means "people. "Early Origins of the Faulk family The surname Faulk was first found in Denbighshire (Welsh: Sir Ddinbych), a historic county in Northeast Wales, created by the Laws in Wales Act 1536, where they held a family seat at "Yr Eifiad" from very ancient times, some say before the 9th century. Another source notes "the pedigree is deduced from Marchudd ap Cynan, lord of Brynffenigi, who flourished in the ninth century. The name appears to have been borrowed from Ffoulk ap Thomas, who lived early in the sixteenth century, and whose descendants have ever since borne it." [1]CITATION [CLOSE] Lowe, Mark Anthony, Patronymica Britannica, A Dictionary of Family Names of the United Kingdom. London: John Russel Smith, 1860. Print. And that "an early form of a capital F was ff." [2]CITATION [CLOSE] Smith, Eldson Coles, New Dictionary of American Family Names New York, Harper & Row, 1956. Print Sir Martin Browne ffolkes, 1st Baronet, FRS (1749-1821) was an English Baronet and Member of Parliament. Son of William Folkes, he chose to revert his name back to the ffolkes spelling to better note his heritage. The Baronetcy continues to today using the same spelling with Sir Robert Francis Alexander ffolkes, 7th Baronet (born 1943. )Early History of the Faulk family This web page shows only a small excerpt of our Faulk research. Another 216 words (15 lines of text) covering the years 1290, 1691, 1660 and 1661 are included under the topic Early Faulk History in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible. Faulk Spelling Variations Although there are comparatively few Welsh surnames, they have a great many spelling variations. Variations of Welsh names began almost immediately after their acceptance within Welsh society. In the Middle Ages, it was up to priests and the few other people that recorded names in official documents to decide how to spell the names that they heard. Variations that occurred because of improper recording increased dramatically as the names were later transliterated into English. The Brythonic Celtic language of Wales, known by natives as Cymraeg, featured many highly inflected sounds that could not be properly captured by the English language. Spelling variations were, however, also carried out according to an individual's design: a branch loyalty within the family, a religious adherence, or even patriotic affiliations were all indicated by the particular variation of one's name. The spelling variations of the name Faulk have included Foulke, Foulks, Foulkes and others. Early Notables of the Faulk family (pre 1700)Another 38 words (3 lines of text) are included under the topic Early Faulk Notables in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible. Migration of the Faulk family to Ireland Some of the Faulk family moved to Ireland, but this topic is not covered in this excerpt. Another 125 words (9 lines of text) about their life in Ireland is included in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible. Migration of the Faulk family to the New World and Oceana Many Welsh joined the great migrations to North America in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Like their Scottish and Irish neighbors, many Welsh families left their homeland hoping to find hope and prosperity in a land that the English did not exercise a tight rule over. Those Welsh immigrants that successfully traveled to North America went on to make significant contributions to the rapid development of both Canada and the United States in terms of the settling of land and the establishment of industry. They also added to the rich cultural heritage of both countries. An examination into the immigration and passenger lists has discovered a number of people bearing the name Faulk: V. Foulk who settled in Baltimore Maryland in 1823; Thomas Foulke settled in Virginia in 1623; followed by William in 1624; Thomas Foulke settled in New Castle Del. in 1677. Contemporary Notables of the name Faulk (post 1700)Mike Faulk (1953-2014), American jurist and politician who was elected to the Tennessee State Senate in 2008Andrew Jackson Faulk (1814-1898), third American Governor of Dakota Territory Treverance Donta Faulk (b. 1981), American football linebacker Mary Lena Faulk (1926-1995), American professional golfer John Henry Faulk (1913-1990), American storyteller and radio show host Marshall William Faulk (b. 1973), former American football running back Kevin Troy Faulk (b. 1976), American football running back Joe Faulk, American Democrat politician, Presidential Elector for Florida, 2012 [3]CITATION [CLOSE] The Political Graveyard: Alphabetical Name Index. (Retrieved 2016, March 10) . Retrieved from http://politicalgraveyard.com/alpha/index.html J. L. Faulk, American Democrat politician, Delegate to Democratic National Convention from Texas, 1924 [3]CITATION [CLOSE] The Political Graveyard: Alphabetical Name Index. (Retrieved 2016, March 10) . Retrieved from http://politicalgraveyard.com/alpha/index.html J. J. Faulk, American politician, Member of Texas State Senate 9th District, 1903-06 [3]CITATION [CLOSE] The Political Graveyard: Alphabetical Name Index. (Retrieved 2016, March 10) . Retrieved from http://politicalgraveyard.com/alpha/index.html... (Another 8 notables are available in all our PDF Extended History products and printed products wherever possible. )Suggested Readings for the name Faulk Faulk-Cone and Allied Families: Male and Female Lines to the Immigrant Ancestor by Eleanor Faulk Cone. The Faulk Motto The motto was originally a war cry or slogan. Mottoes first began to be shown with arms in the 14th and 15th centuries, but were not in general use until the 17th century. Thus the oldest coats of arms generally do not include a motto. Mottoes seldom form part of the grant of arms: Under most heraldic authorities, a motto is an optional component of the coat of arms, and can be added to or changed at will; many families have chosen not to display a motto. Motto: Jure, non dono Motto Translation: By right, not by gift. | Facts and Figures > About Houston > Facts and Figures About Houston Facts and Figures Houston was founded on August 30, 1836 by brothers Augustus Chapman Allen and John Kirby Allen on land near the banks of Buffalo Bayou. Houston is the fourth most populous city in the nation (trailing only New York, Los Angeles and Chicago), and is the largest in the southern U. S. and Texas. The Houston-Galveston-Brazoria Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (Houston CMSA) consists of eight counties: Brazoria, Chambers, Fort Bend, Galveston, Harris, Liberty, Montgomery and Waller The Houston CMSA covers 8,778 square miles, an area slightly smaller than Massachusetts but larger than New Jersey. See more Facts and Figures at https://www.visithoustontexas.com/about-houston/facts-and-figures/About Houston Links About Houston Home Page Airports Annual Events Arts and Museums Business Overview Calendar of Events City Govt, City Hall, City Seal Conventions Education Exploring Houston Facts and Figures Health Photo Tour of Houston Relocating to Houston Rosemont Bridge Sports and Recreation Super Neighborhoods Tourism |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.which soccer team is usain bolt going to play for | FC Yahoo Scores Posts FC Yahoo Premier League DARTS, Week 33: Why the Manchester Derby was a game of two halves FC Yahoo • 11 hours ago Chicharito comes off bench to nab West Ham a huge point at Chelsea FC Yahoo • yesterday Cristiano Ronaldo's volley, goalkeeping heroics leave Madrid Derby level FC Yahoo • yesterday Wilshere baits Southampton into red card by tearing player's shirt late in Arsenal win (video)FC Yahoo • yesterday Napoli's furious late comeback keeps Serie A title race alive FC Yahoo • yesterday Christian Pulisic accidentally scored a golazo (Video)FC Yahoo • yesterday Lionel Messi's answer to Ronaldo's bike? A hat trick, of course FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Defiant Manchester United delays City's Premier League title party FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Premier League relegation roundup: Newcastle surely safe; others squander leads FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Bayern Munich clinches Bundesliga title with 5 weeks to spare FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Bayern Munich's Niklas Sule scored an unfortunate own goal with his face (Video)FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Liverpool rested starters, and the result was the worst Merseyside Derby in a while FC Yahoo • 2 days ago Watch: Star PSG striker pointed where opponent would put penalty kick, and he was totally right FC Yahoo • 3 days ago FC Yahoo Set Piece podcast: Derbies galore in Manchester and Madrid FC Yahoo • 3 days ago The Bundesliga has a Bayern Munich problem. Can it be solved? FC Yahoo • 4 days ago Vintage Arsenal performance, Aaron Ramsey golazo have Gunners on way to Europa League semis FC Yahoo • 4 days ago9 European soccer league races to care about in an abnormally uninteresting season FC Yahoo • 4 days ago Is Mourinho worth the money for Man United? It's time to start asking the question FC Yahoo • 4 days ago Things got weird as Barcelona beat Roma on two own goals FC Yahoo • 5 days ago Liverpool rattles Man City, takes control of Champions League quarterfinal in stunning fashion FC Yahoo • 5 days ago Manchester City team bus damaged by Liverpool fans en route to Champions League game FC Yahoo • 5 days ago Real Madrid is rendering six turbulent months irrelevant in the Champions League FC Yahoo • 6 days ago Cristiano Ronaldo's bicycle kick looks identical to one from training 24 hours earlier (Photos)FC Yahoo • 6 days ago Bayern Munich scrapes by Sevilla in tougher first Champions League quarterfinal leg than expected FC Yahoo • 6 days ago Cristiano Ronaldo scores insane bicycle-kick goal in Champions League (Video)FC Yahoo • 6 days ago | Characters Characters All Images on this page are property of their respective owners. (Netflix, Lionsgates, Etc)Follow us on Instagram |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what does aq stand for in a chemical equation | . gcsescience.com 21 gcsescience.com Atomic Structure S tate Symbols used in Chemical Equations. The equations from the two previous pages (3) 2 K + Cl 2 2 K Cl (4) 4 Li + O 2 2 Li 2 O still require state symbols to be complete. The complete equations in words and symbols would be potassium + chlorine potassium chloride. 2 K (s)+ Cl 2 (g)2 K Cl (s)lith ium + oxygen lithium oxide. 4 Li (s)+ O 2 (g)2 Li 2 O (s)The state symbols in brackets show the physical state of the substance at the reaction temperature. Solid (s), liquid (l), gas (g), or dissolved in water (aq). aq is called aqueous which comes from the Latin word aqua meaning water. If you do not know the state of a substance see melting and boiling points. If the melting point is above the reaction temperature, the substance is solid (s). If the boiling point is below the reaction temperature, the substance is gas (g). If the melting point is below the reaction temperature and the boiling point is above the reaction temperature, then the substance is liquid (l). Links Revision Quizzes Revision Questionsgcsescience.com The Periodic Table Index Balancing Equations Quiz gcsescience.com Home GCSE Chemistry GCSE Physics Copyright © 2015 gcsescience.com. All Rights Reserved.gcsescience.com has updated its cookie policy. Continued use of this site indicates that you are happy with this policy. learn more close message | Caucasus Mountains From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For the lunar mountain range, see Montes Caucasus. This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2012) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Caucasus Mountains Aerial view of the Caucasus Mountains Highest point Peak Mount Elbrus Elevation 5,642 m (18,510 ft)Coordinates 43°21′18″N 42°26′31″EDimensions Length 1,100 km (680 mi)Width 160 km (99 mi)Geography Topographic map Countries Russia, Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan State/Province Eurasia Range coordinates 42°30′N 45°00′ECoordinates: 42°30′N 45°00′ESatellite image of the Caucasus Mountains The Caucasus Mountains [a] are a mountain system in West Asia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Caucasus region. The Caucasus Mountains include the Greater Caucasus in the north and Lesser Caucasus in the south. The Greater Caucasus runs west-northwest to east-southeast, from the Caucasian Natural Reserve in the vicinity of Sochi on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea nearly to Baku on the Caspian Sea. The Lesser Caucasus runs parallel to the Greater about 100 km (62 mi) south. [1] The Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges are connected by the Likhi Range, and to the west and east of the Likhi Range lie the Colchis Plain and the Kur-Araz Lowland. The Meskheti Range is a part of the Lesser Caucasus system. In the southeast the Aras River separates the Lesser Caucasus from the Talysh Mountains which straddle the border of southeastern Azerbaijan and Iran. The Lesser Caucasus and the Armenian Highland constitute the Transcaucasian Highland, which at their western end converge with the highland plateau of Eastern Anatolia in the far north east of Turkey. The highest peak in the Caucasus range is Mount Elbrus in the Greater Caucasus, which rises to a height of 5,642 metres (18,510 ft) above sea level. Mountains near Sochi hosted part of the 2014 Winter Olympics. Contents [ hide ]1 Geology2 Notable peaks3 Climate4 Landscape5 History6 Image gallery7 Notes8 References9 Further reading10 External links Geology [ edit]Geologically, the Caucasus Mountains belong to a system that extends from southeastern Europe into Asia. The Greater Caucasus Mountains are mainly composed of Cretaceous and Jurassic rocks with the Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks in the higher regions. Some volcanic formations are found throughout the range. On the other hand, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are formed predominantly of the Paleogene rocks with a much smaller portion of the Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks. The evolution of the Caucasus began from the Late Triassic to the Late Jurassic during the Cimmerian orogeny at the active margin of the Tethys Ocean while the uplift of the Greater Caucasus is dated to the Miocene during the Alpine orogeny. The Caucasus Mountains formed largely as the result of a tectonic plate collision between the Arabian plate moving northwards with respect to the Eurasian plate. As the Tethys Sea was closed and the Arabian Plate collided with the Iranian Plate and was pushed against it and with the clockwise movement of the Eurasian Plate towards the Iranian Plate and their final collision, the Iranian Plate was pressed against the Eurasian Plate. As this happened, the entire rocks that had been deposited in this basin from the Jurassic to the Miocene were folded to form the Greater Caucasus Mountains. This collision also caused the uplift and the Cenozoic volcanic activity in the Lesser Caucasus Mountains. The entire region is regularly subjected to strong earthquakes from this activity. [2] While the Greater Caucasus Mountains have a mainly folded sedimentary structure, the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely of volcanic origin. [3]The Javakheti Volcanic Plateau in Georgia and the surrounding volcanic ranges which extend well into central Armenia are some of the youngest features of the region. Only recently was the Caucasus a scene for intense volcanic activity: the Armenian highland was flooded by calc-alkaline basalts and andesites in the Pliocene and the highest summits of the Caucasus, the Elbrus, and the Kazbek, formed as Pleistocene - Pliocene volcanoes. The Kazbek is no longer active, but the Elbrus erupted in postglacial times and fumarole activity is registered near its summit. Contemporary seismic activity is a prominent feature of the region, reflecting active faulting and crustal shortening. Clusters of seismicity occur in Dagestan and in northern Armenia. Many devastating earthquakes have been documented in historical times, including the Spitak earthquake in December 1988 which destroyed the Gyumri - Vanadzor region of Armenia. Notable peaks [ edit]Europe's highest mountain is Mount Elbrus 5,642 m (18,510 ft) in the Caucasus Mountains. [4] Elbrus is 832 m (2,730 ft) higher than Mont Blanc, the highest peak in the Alps at 4,810 m (15,780 ft). The Caucasus Mountains are defined as the continental divide between Asia and Europe for the region between the Black and Caspian Seas. The table below lists some of the highest peaks of the Caucasus. With the exception of Shkhara, the heights are taken from Soviet 1:50,000 mapping. There are higher and more prominent, but nameless, peaks than some of the peaks included below. Peak name Elevation (m) Prominence (m) Country Elbrus 5,642 4,741 Russia Dykh-Tau 5,205 2,002 Russia Shkhara 5,201 1,365 Georgia / Russia Koshtan-Tau 5,152 822 Russia Janga (Jangi-Tau) 5,059 300 Georgia / Russia Ararat 5,137 3,611 Turkey Kazbek 5,047 2,353 Georgia / Russia Pushkin 5,033 110 Georgia / Russia Katyn-Tau 4,979 240 Georgia / Russia Gistola 4,860 Georgia Shota Rustaveli 4,860 c.50 Georgia / Russia Tetnuldi 4,858 672 Georgia Dzhimara 4,780 Georgia / Russia Ushba 4,710 1,143 Georgia Ailama 4,547 1,067 Georgia Tebulos 4,499 2,145 Georgia / Russia Mount Bazardüzü 4,466 2,454 Azerbaijan Tepli 4,431 Russia Diklo 4,285 843 Georgia Mount Shahdagh 4,243 Azerbaijan Gora Addala Shukgelmezr 4,152 1,792 Russia Gora Dyultydag 4,127 1,834 Russia Aragats 4,090 2,143 Armenia Climate [ edit]Aishkho Pass, Caucasus Nature Reserve The climate of the Caucasus varies both vertically (according to elevation) and horizontally (by latitude and location). Temperature generally decreases as elevation rises. Average annual temperature in Sukhumi, Abkhazia at sea level is 15 °C (59 °F) while on the slopes of Mt. Kazbek at an elevation of 3,700 metres (12,100 ft), average annual temperature falls to−6.1 °C (21.0 °F). The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range are 3 °C (5.4 °F) colder than the southern slopes. The highlands of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains in Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia are marked by sharp temperature contrasts between the summer and winter months due to a more continental climate. Precipitation increases from east to west in most areas. Elevation plays an important role in the Caucasus and mountains generally receive higher amounts of precipitation than low-lying areas. The northeastern regions ( Dagestan) and the southern portions of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are the driest. The absolute minimum annual precipitation is 250 mm (9.84 in) in the northeastern Caspian Depression. Western parts of the Caucasus Mountains are marked by high amounts of precipitation. The southern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range receive higher amounts of precipitation than the northern slopes. Annual precipitation in the Western Caucasus ranges from 1,000 to 4,000 mm (39.37–157.48 in) while in the Eastern and Northern Caucasus ( Chechnya, Ingushetia, Kabardino-Balkaria, Ossetia, Kakheti, Kartli, etc.) precipitation ranges from 600 to 1,800 mm (23.62–70.87 in ). The absolute maximum annual precipitation is 4,100 mm (161.42 in) around the Mt. Mtirala area which lies on the Meskheti Range in Ajaria. The precipitation of the Lesser Caucasus Mountain Range (Southern Georgia, Armenia, western Azerbaijan ), not including the Meskheti Range, varies from 300-800 mm (31.50 in) annually. The Caucasus Mountains are known for the high amount of snowfall, although many regions which are not located along the windward slopes do not receive nearly as much snow. This is especially true for the Lesser Caucasus Mountains which are somewhat isolated from the moist influences coming in from the Black Sea and receive considerably less precipitation (in the form of snow) than the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The average winter snow cover of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains ranges from 10 to 30 cm (3.94–11.81 in ). The Greater Caucasus Mountains (especially the southwestern slopes) are marked by heavy snowfall. Avalanches are common from November to April. Snow cover in several regions ( Svaneti and northern Abkhazia) may reach 5 metres (16 ft). The Mt. Achishkho region, which is the snowiest place in the Caucasus, often records snow depths of 7 m (23 ft). Landscape [ edit]The Caucasus Mountains have a varied landscape which mainly changes according to elevation and distance from large bodies of water. The region contains biomes ranging from subtropical lowland marshes and forests to glaciers (Western and Central Caucasus), and highland semideserts, steppes, and alpine meadows in the south (mainly in Armenia and Azerbaijan ). The northern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by oak, hornbeam, maple, and ash forests at lower elevations while birch and pine forests take over at higher elevations. Some of the lowest areas of the region are covered by steppes and grasslands. The slopes of the Northwestern Greater Caucasus ( Kabardino-Balkaria, Cherkessia, etc.) also contain spruce and fir forests. The alpine zone replaces the forest at around 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) above sea level. The permafrost/ glacier line generally starts around 2,800–3,000 metres (9,200–9,800 ft). The southeastern slopes of the Greater Caucasus Mountains are covered by beech, oak, maple, hornbeam, and ash forests. Beech forests tend to dominate in higher locations. The southwestern slopes of the Greater Caucasus are covered by Colchian forests ( oak, buxus, beech, chestnut, hornbeam, elm) at lower elevations with coniferous and mixed forests ( spruce, fir and beech) taking over at higher elevations. The alpine zone on the southern slopes may extend up to 2,800 metres (9,200 ft) above sea level while the glacier /snow line starts at 3,000–3,500 metres (9,800–11,500 ft). The northern and western slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are characterized both by Colchian and other deciduous forests at lower elevations while mixed and coniferous forests (mainly spruce and fir) dominate at higher elevations. Beech forests are also common at higher elevations. The southern slopes of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains are largely covered by grasslands and steppes up to an elevation of 2,500 metres (8,200 ft). The highest areas of the region contain alpine grasslands as well. Volcanic and other rock formations are common throughout the region. The volcanic zone extends over a large area from southern Georgia into Armenia and southwestern Azerbaijan. Some of the prominent peaks of the region include Mt. Aragats, Didi Abuli, Samsari, and others. The area is characterized by volcanic plateaus, lava flows, volcanic lakes, volcanic cones and other features. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains lack the type of glaciers and glacial features that are common on the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range. History [ edit]Further information: History of the Caucasus Crossing the Caucasus Mountain range was an important section of the northern arm of the Silk Route. There was one pass on the southeast end in Derbent (known as the Caspian Gates or Gates of Alexander ), and multiple passes throughout the range: Jvari Pass at 2379 m and above the Darial Gorge on the Georgian Military Road, Mamison Pass on the Ossetian Military Road at 2911 m, and Roki Tunnel at 2310 m. See Russian conquest of the Caucasus. Image gallery [ edit]Mount Elbrus viewed from the south in Russia Komito Mountain in Chechnya Caucasus Mountains in Svaneti, Georgia Chaukhi mountain in Khevi, Georgia A gorge in Dagestan, Russia Twin-peaked Ushba in Georgia Mount Shkhara in Georgia Mount Ararat in Turkey,Notes [ edit]^ Native names: Georgian: კავკასიონი, translit. : k'avk'asioni,pronounced [kʼɑvkʼɑsiɔni]Armenian: Կովկասյան լեռներ, Kovkasyan leṙnerpronounced [kɔvkɑsjɑn lɛrˈnɛɾ]Azerbaijani: Qafqaz dağları, pronounced [qɑfqɑz dɑʁlɑrɯ]Russian: Кавка́зские го́ры, tr. Kavkázskiye góry, IPA: [kɐfˈkasːkʲɪje ˈɡorɨ]Turkish: Kafkas Dağları, Turkish pronunciation: [kɑfkɑs dɑːɫɑrɯ]Persian: كوه هاى قفقاز References [ edit]Wikisource has the text of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Caucasus. Parts of this article are from the NASA Earth Observatory; [1]^ Stokes, Chris R (2011). Singh, Vijay P.; Haritashya, Umesh K., eds. Encyclopedia of Snow, Ice and Glaciers. Spring Science & Business Media. p. 127. ISBN 978-90-481-2641-5.^ Reilinger; Mc Clusky; Oral; King; Toksoz; Barka; Kinik; Lenk; Sanli (Jan 1997). "Global Positioning System measurements of present-day crustal movements in the Arabia-Africa-Eurasia plate collision zone". Journal of Geophysical Research. 102 (B5): 9983–9999. Bibcode: 1997JGR...102.9983R. doi: 10.1029/96JB03736.^ Philip, H.; Cisternas, A.; Gvishiani, A.; Gorshkov, A. (1 April 1989). "The Caucasus". Tectnophysics. 161 (1–2): 1–21. Bibcode: 1989Tectp.161....1P. doi: 10.1016/0040-1951 (89)90297-7.^ Mt. Elbrus : Image of the Day. Earthobservatory.nasa.gov. Retrieved on 16 February 2015Further reading [ edit]Small Nations and Great Powers: A Study of Ethnopolitical Conflict in the Caucasus, By Svante E. Cornell, Routledge. External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Caucasus mountains. Caucasus Mountains – NASA Earth Observatory"Highest Peaks of the Caucasus from peakbagger.com". Peakbagger.com. List of the most prominent mountains in the Caucasus [ show]v t e Russia articles [ show]v t e Soviet Union topics Authority control World Cat Identities VIAF: 242526666 GND: 4030090-0Categories: Caucasus Mountain ranges of the Caucasus Geography of the Caucasus Eastern Europe Western Asia Mountain ranges of Asia Mountain ranges of Europe Mountain ranges of Armenia Mountain ranges of Azerbaijan Mountain ranges of Georgia (country) Mountain ranges of Iran Mountain ranges of Russia Mountain ranges of Turkey Geology of the Caucasus Landforms of the Caucasus Physiographic provinces Landforms of Kabardino-Balkaria Landforms of Karachay-Cherkessia |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.why is due process an important civil right | What is the important of due process of law? Answers.com ® Wiki Answers ® Categories History, Politics & Society Politics and Government US Constitution What is the important of due process of law? Flag What is the important of due process of law? Answered by The Wiki Answers ®Community Answers.com ® is making the world better one answer at a time. Due Process is the right to be fairly treated by the government. The legal procedures that protects your rights as a citizen. Due Process is important because it prevents one from going to jail without a trial.11 people found this useful Was this answer useful? Yes Somewhat No Gemini1766 31 Contributions What does Due Process of Law mean? When talking about the United States of America it is the right of every person, under our jurisdiction (without regard to citizenship or crime the person is accused, from pet …What is the due process law? The word due process is best defined in one word--fairness. Rkeene10 22 Contributions What is due process of law?you get what you deserve.. Due process (more fully due process of law ) is the principle that the government must respect all of the legal rights that are owed to a person …Why due process of law is important? Due process of law is important because it protects the rights ofcitizens. The fifth and fourteenth amendments to the United States Constitution each contain a due process clau …What is due process of the law? Due process involves the four chief protections and rights of theaccused. First the accused has the right to representation and atrial by a jury. The accused has a right to co …Does Japan have due process of law? Japan's constitution was drafted by the Americans during theiroccupation in the country and it does include due processprovisions. However, Japan's Habeas Corpus rules have be …What does due process of law refer to?fair analyzing of case What does due process of law imply? According to the Fifth Amendment, the government may not deprivecitizens of â? ?life, liberty, or propertyâ?? without due process oflaw. This means that the government ha …What does due process of law ensure? The due process ensures that a person will be provided with a clearnotice as to what they are being accused of. These individuals arealso allowed the opportunity to file a gri …Important elements of due process of law? "The essential elements of due process of law are notice, an opportunity to be heard, and the right to defend in an orderly proceeding." Fiehe v. R. E. Householder Co., 125 S …Charon 9 12,752 Contributions Why is the phrase due process of law in the Fifth Amendment important? The Federalist Papers debate what the "Due Process of Law" is and what it means; by the meaning set forth by those who wrote the amendment the Due Process is an actually fair …Example of due process of law? Due process is best defined in one word--fairness. Throughout the U. S.'s history, its constitutions, statutes and case law have provided standards for fair treatment of citize …Greg Scott 108,330 Contributions Answered In Law & Legal Issues Why is it important that all people be allowed due process of law? Because once it is denied to one, no one is protected by the law. Answered In US Constitution Why is the guarantee of due process of the law so important?to protect citizens rights brought to you by $w@g Des Elms 1,261 Contributions Answered In Local Laws Why is due process of law is important? Answer 1: Feels like a homework question (which I, for one, hate being asked here), but, what the heck, I'll bite... "Due process of law" is a phrase which refers to the p …Answered In Uncategorized What does due process of the law means? All laws apply equally to all individuals Answered In Uncategorized What is an example of a due process laws? Eminent domain (apex) | . This Site Was Created Using Wix.com. Create Your Own Site for Free >> Start |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.price for brake replacement | What is the average cost to replace brakes and rotors? Glenn Harrington, Giving advice the average person can relate to Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 132 answers and 109.8k answer views Ok. I assume you are not planning on doing the job yourself. A lot of shops advertise a low price, but it’s only for pads and turning rotors. Replacing rotors is an additional expense. Sometimes, the caliper will freeze up. You can slap pads on it, but they will not last as long. If a disk ( rotor) needs replacing, they should be done in pairs. A Caliper can be done, one side at a time. However, if you only replace one, and the other one freezes up and ruins a rotor, you risk replacing both rotors, as well as new pads. The system also needs to be bled, anytime you replace a caliper. Caliper guide pins also need to be lubed properly, or they will freeze up. Sooo…. A basic brake job, just turning the roters and replacing pads, can be had at a great many different auto repair shops, from full service to speciality. And anyone with basic knowledge ( and experience) can handle a basic brake job. However, I wouldn’t want them learning, on my car.5.5k Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Related Questions More Answers Below How can you tell when its time to replace the brake rotors in a car? How often should your brake rotors be replaced? What is the typical cost to replace car brakes? What's a good price to replace rotors and brake pads for both axles? How can I tell if I have bad brake rotors? Ask New Question Steve Tamulewicz, works at e Creations Answered Jun 4, 2015 · Author has 507 answers and 380.6k answer views Originally Answered: How much do front rotors and brake pads cost? That depends on the shop. Whenever I go to Brake Masters - Auto Repair, Brake Service & More I come away feeling completely screwed because no matter what little bit I need done, they tell me that I need every last component in the brake assembly replaced. If you can find someone you trust, the pads are only $40 at most and the rotors can be around $60 a piece, then you just need to pay for labor. If they try and talk you into calipers, you need to look at the current rotors. If one side is ground down a lot more than the other side then they are probably telling you the truth. However, if they are worn evenly, you may want another opinion. Pay Per Click Management (PPC) Services35k Views · View Upvoters Your response is private. Is this answer still relevant and up to date? Matt Jones, Car snob, DIY mechanic, and all-around autophile Answered Aug 31, 2015Originally Answered: How much does it cost to replace car brakes and rotors? Depends on if you're willing to do it yourself or not. Most dealerships and shops charge "per axle" for brakes, usually around $260-$300, giving a total of $520-$600 for all 4 corners. Now, brakes are easy. They are a great introduction to working on cars and pretty foolproof. If you're willing to get your hands dirty, you'll save a lot of money. There's a good chance there's an instructional video on youtube devoted to your exact car, so you can see what you'd be getting into. If you have the tools, this is really a cheap proposition. You don't need much...really just some metric sockets and wrenches, a big C-clamp and maybe a heavy hammer to knock off rusty rotors. Even without the tools, you could probably pick up everything you need for under $50 at one of the big box stores or maybe Harbor Freight. Parts cost, including pads, rotors, brake fluid, some tubing to bleed the brakes would probably run you $140-$180. If you provide more info on your make, model, and year I'll be happy to provide more detail.78.2k Views · View Upvoters Your response is private. Is this answer still relevant and up to date? Phillip Shank, Driven over 100 models and counting. Answered Apr 19, 2016This will very greatly.................... Firstly, are you replacing them yourself or having a shop do it? Im going to speak specifically to doing the job yourself (which in my opinion is the way to go)The second factor which will greatly influence the cost is whether or not your car has disc brakes at all four corners The third factor will be your standard for the quality of your replacement parts, do you want the best of the best? Or are you ok with something less. (For reference, with the exception of certain specific situations.....the price point has very little relation to the effectiveness of the parts. )Replacing them myself, my mothers car with disc brakes in the front only costs me about $100-120 using mid range parts (not the most expensive, but not the cheapest either. I generally decide based on design of the parts). On my car with 4 point disc brakes it costs about $170-200. "Wait" you say, your car has twice the brakes...shouldnt it cost twice as much?? ?.............well......the size of brakes used in my car are more common then those used in my moms, therefor resulting in cheaper/more common parts. In case youre wondering, I am in no way saying 4 point discs work out to be cheaper (or more worth while) than front discs and rear drums. Though perhaps discs are more modern, they are IMHO not that much better then cars using rear drums. The rear drum brakes on my mothers car will last for many years (almost 9 years with much life left in them), considering how I drive, I replace discs every 1.5-2 years. So in the long term my mom's car works out to be cheaper. Despite my cars (slightly) better braking distance....... I would much prefer the cost savings.28.2k Views · View Upvoters Stephen Bogert, former hs teacher at NYC DOEAnswered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 333 answers and 92.8k answer views As Matt Jones wrote this is not a big job and many amateur mechanics can do it. The cost varies tremendously from one car brand / model to another, and also depending on the source of the parts- such as if the dealer does it, a brake specialist shop (often paired with tires), or if you purchase the parts from an auto parts source or even online. If this project is new to you, get advice to be sure you need rotors, it is common to replace the brake pads one time, and next time replace the pads and rotors-but that is not an absolute rule. Wear on both sides of the car should be similar, if it is very uneven there is likely to be other issues such as a caliper that does not release due to corrosion. Lubrication of caliper mounting parts also varies between models, look for what is appropriate on your car.1.8k Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Quora User Answered Jul 28, 2015 · Author has 3.4k answers and 3.3m answer views Originally Answered: How can I tell if the replacement job on my brake pads and rotors is a rip off? The cost is parts + labour. You should get an invoice showing parts and labour. Look up the parts price online and compare. You are looking at 1 hour of labour, what rate is fair depends on local conditions and whether it is a main dealer, independent specialist or back street garage.4.9k Views · View Upvoters Glenn Trott Answered Apr 8, 2017 · Author has 80 answers and 50.7k answer views The average brake pad replacement cost is $150 per axle, and can range from $100 per axle up to $300 per axle. There are a few other pieces of hardware that are found in the brake system which might need to be serviced as well, including calipers and rotors, but the most common service will be to replace brake pads. And the average cost for a Brake Rotor Replacement is between $406 and $559. Labor costs are estimated between $158 and $200 while parts are priced between $248 and $359. Estimate does not include taxes and fees. Audi repair13.5k Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Ryan Hoffman Quora User, I have been working on and racing cars my entire adult life. Answered Aug 20, 2015 · Author has 188 answers and 1.3m answer views You can expect most shops and dealerships to charge between 40% and 80% over retail value for the cost of the parts, plus $50-$60/hour for labor costs. This generally works out to a total cost between $300 and $400 for the replacement job. This value can be considerably higher if you are using performance rotors, or if the replacement is being done for a high-end vehicle at a dealership. Very high end carbon-ceramic rotors, for instance, can cost five-figure sums for the set and these are increasingly becoming standard (or at least optional) parts for many new six-figure cars. Repair Pal has actually calculated a (US) national average based on reported costs between all makes and models for this figure with a mean of $349, and low and high values one standard deviation from the mean of $294 and $403, respectively.53.5k Views · View Upvoters Grant Ryan Swan, live sound engineer, bicycle and classic car enthusiast, ex cylinder manager Answered Feb 4, 2018 · Author has 423 answers and 214.3k answer views This is another question without a consistant answer. The problem is that there are so many different kinds of vehicles, and qualities of parts available for them. Personally, I will gladly pay more (upwards of 50 - 100% more) for quality parts. The frustration and labor costs of doing a job over again because I tried to save a buck has taught me this the hard way. Three things first: I don’t promote businesses that I don’t like. I don’t want to be considered a shill for any business, other than my own. Your experience may vary. If I can’t fix it myself, the first place I go is Apex Muffler & Brakes. They do all kinds of work, and don’t require an appointment or charge for diagnosis. I get my parts from Owen’s Motor Supply, which was a part of Car Quest. (Now part of Hoffman Brothers, an AC/Delco dealer.) They are a major supplier to the auto shops in the area. I pay the same price for my parts that the shops they supply to do. The next time you purchase an automotive part, look at your reciept. Often there are two prices listed, one is the ‘list price’, and the other is the ‘purchaser’s price’ or ‘your price’. The list price is what you would pay for the same part if you have the auto shop obtain it for you. The list price can be quite higher than the actual purchase price. This is why I am willing to spend more for my parts. If I get a high quality part myself, it is often for the same price as if I had a shop get me a low quality part. It just so happens that around here, Apex gets the majority of their quality parts from Owen’s. My girlfriend’s brakes were shot when we met. Her GMC S-15 needed front shoes, rotors, and calipers. The total cost of parts was around $150. About double that if the shop had got them for us from the same place. The shop is about three blocks from the parts store. So, in my opinion through experience, the best things you can do is to find a shop that treats you and your vehicle right. Then find out where they would purchase the best parts for the money for your vehicle. Then have them diagnose the problem. (This is very often free. )Now go get the exact same parts right from where they get them from. Most shops don’t like this, because people are always trying to get by too cheap and bring in inferior, defective, or altogether wrong parts. So it is imperitive that you learn a bit about your vehicle, and what parts are needed for each repair. It’s not that hard, and, right after the diagnosis, most good shops are happy to show you exactly what is wrong, what needs to be replaced and why, and what they will need to do the job. Make a list, and take it with you to the parts store. If there are people buying one or two things, let them go first. You don’t want the part store folks to be in a hurry. When the phone rings, let them get it. You want undivided attention to insure that you get the right things, and all of them. You will be rewarded by happy to help you sales people, around half price parts, and an auto shop that appreciates you for always bringing the right parts.2.8k Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Ames Michael Answered Jul 20, 2017 · Author has 158 answers and 61.6k answer views Most modern passenger vehicles use disc brake systems on all four wheels. Brake rotors are the final part of the braking system and use friction created by the brake pads to slow or stop the vehicle. What will be the cost to replace brakes and rotors can vary. It will all depend upon individual on which brand he/she is using. Having a quality, well-installed and reliable brake system is absolutely vital to the safety of yourself, your passengers and other drivers on the road. If you want best price, visit brake pads and rotors9.5k Views Jeff Adamson, Mechanic for 10 years Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 84 answers and 32.5k answer views The average cost of a set of brake pads is $25–75. Where rotors are $75–150 a piece. However that’s the cost of parts. If you have a shop replace them expect $250-$500 depending on what all they do, and how much the mark up their prices. The cost of a brake job also greatly depends on the quality of parts used. Normally brake pads come in 2–3 price points. These are solely based on quality. The middle of the line are usually good enough, the higher dollar ones have things in them that keep them from making noise or having a lot of brake dust on your wheels. Where as the cheap ones won’t last as long. Rotors are usually just whatever the parts store has, in stock. As far as what a shop charges. That really depends on a lot of things. Average shop labor in my area is $75–120 an hour. With a brake job being anywhere from .8–1.5 hours depending on how they rate the job.668 Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Ed Silmon, N. V. Q. 3 Mechanical & Electronic Systems, Light Vehicle Maintenance (2002)Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 398 answers and 198.4k answer views Well…When I worked in a dealership the average job time for fitting discs & pads (on a car) was about 40 mins @ £60 / hour so about £40 for the labour only. Cost of genuine (Ford) parts i.e. front discs & pads ranged (due to size of car/van etc) from around £70 to £120 (though sometimes more for SUV’s, vans or large cars) prices vary between manufacturers also. That was 15 years ago so assume it will cost more than that for dealership service with genuine parts; a dealer may fit non-genuine parts so assume cheapest parts (if non-genuine parts are available) to be priced at the lowest somewhere around 50% of genuine parts prices. I expect an independent garage will charge around £40/hour now though maybe less and in some cases more. So for a small car with non-genuine parts at an Indy garage maybe front discs and pads for £100 and for a large car with non-genuine parts at an indy garage anything up to or more than £200. same job at a dealership add 50%ish. Same job at both places with genuine parts maybe add another 50%. In all honesty don’t really know the answer to the question. The question is somewhat similar to asking how much for a product from a supermarket. I suggest you ring a few local garages / mechanics for a price estimate for your specific car as at the very least the prices will vary somewhat for different parts of the world/country due to variable accessibility to parts required and if there’s only one garage then look for the parts online and maybe try to get them to match what you could provide yourself or even buy the parts online from a store which can check your reg or chassis number to get the exact parts for your car though the garage may buy their parts like that anyway. :-)705 Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Ted Hutch, U. S. ASE mechanic Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 2k answers and 732.9k answer views You need to provide the year, make and model of your vehicle and where you live makes a huge difference on cost. Most auto parts sales companies have web sites that allow you to put your information in and search for the replacement parts that you need. Pads and rotors are a common replacement item. By checking on several auto parts stores, you can get an idea of what the parts cost. Most shops however; charge by the hour. Each shop can have a different rate. Factory shops are usually the most expensive because they use only factory parts instead of aftermarket parts. Shops also have to charge for things like cleaners and towels. This is usually listed on the bill as “shop supplies”. You can call around to a few shops and have them quote you a price. They will also need your year, make and model or the vehicles “VIN” (vehicle identification number). For your benefit, you should check the cost of aftermarket parts. Companies like Napa, Pep boys, Orielly’s, ect. or web sites like Rock Auto.2.2k Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Brian R. Sanderson, Haynes can be your friend. Answered May 22, 2015 · Author has 1.3k answers and 2m answer views Originally Answered: How much does it take to replace car brakes? Depends on how much of the brake system you want to replace, and whether or not you wish to do it yourself, or have it done by a repair shop. The following items can be easily replaced on automobile brake systems with standard automotive tools - supplemented by a few specialty tools. Brake rotors and drums Wheel cylinders* Master cylinder * Brake hoses Brake pads and shoes E-brake cable *Additionally, the Master cylinder and Wheel cylinders can be "rebuilt" with a kit of new parts and seals. The minimal amount of maintenance would be replacing the pads and shoes. They're not very expensive either, typically under 75$ for two sets and sometimes not much more than that for four sets. It depends on the make, model, and year of the car...and whether you buy brand name, O. E. M. parts, or aftermarket parts from a "generic" parts supplier.12.1k Views John Maria, former Security Consultant at British Telecommunications Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 435 answers and 52.8k answer views The price of the brake fluid, brake pads and rotors vary by vehicle, and as is the case with a lot of things you can buy good, better, and best quality for any vehicle model. If you are taking the vehicle to a shop, you may not have much of a choice of what they use, and you have to be aware of what other items, such as calipers, brake lines and that sort of thing that can increase the cost. I would question if the rotors need to be replaced. Does your vehicle pulse or vibrate when you apply the brakes? My cars and pickups tend to make it through two or more sets of pads before the rotors are worn to the point of needing to be refinished or replaced. So, a shop will charge about $125 per wheel to replace the pads, rotors, and bleed the brakes on your typical Chevy, Ford, Toyota or Honda. That price can double for a luxury car.307 Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Ben Deneweth, All-around car nut, specializing in sports cars and grassroots racing Answered Aug 14, 2015 · Author has 4.2k answers and 2.2m answer views It depends on the car. For an economy car, it might be about $3-400 USD for a properly done job (I would question the quality of something cheaper). For exotic sports cars it can run well into the thousands.13k Views · View Upvoters David Doehm, Opinionated Car Guy Answered Jul 29, 2015 · Author has 357 answers and 667k answer views Originally Answered: What is the replacement cost of front brakes and rotors? If replacing them prevents an accident and saves your life then the answer to your question is - PRICELESS. If you are looking to get a good price on regular replacement parts and service just check around various repair shops or look for ads.12.9k Views Steven Ford Answered Apr 6, 2016Actually, the cost of brake rotor is not that expensive. If the dealer or shops import from China. The cost of each is about 5-12 USD each item. I am a sales manager of export dept. of ATS brake rotors in China . If you have interests in brake rotors. Please contact me for more [email protected] Views Quora User, Inventor / innovator at Animal Behavior Answered Feb 2, 2018 · Author has 927 answers and 197.4k answer views There is no easy way to discern an average price…I just got front brake rotors, shims, wear sensors and pads for my Mercedes W124 for $58 delivered to my door. I install these parts myself if I wish to do so. I would suggest that would be the lowest possible end of the spectrum…Want to do this on a late model Rolls Royce or an upper end Ferrari and figure it could cost you $10K and you want me to suggest an average? With labour front brakes like cost $300 or so… They don’t need to but they likely do on a normal car…85 Views · View Upvoters · Answer requested by Sky Rae Albert Powell, Director, Learning Technologies at Colorado State University (1998-present)Answered Feb 5, 2018 · Author has 585 answers and 120.9k answer views There is no average, as there are too many variables. Parts cost different amounts for different cars, and labor varies as well. Also, it’s much cheaper to do the work yourself than to hire someone else, and brakes and rotors are pretty simple to change.232 Views · Answer requested by Sky Rae1 2 Next → | What's the average cost of brakes and rotors? Vehicles Car Parts & Maintenance Brakes Q: What's the average cost of brakes and rotors? A: Quick Answer As of 2015, the nationwide average cost of replacing brake pads and rotors ranges between $296 and $404. This includes the cost of parts and labor. The actual cost varies depending on the make and model of the vehicle and the location. Continue Reading Keep Learning What factors affect brake repair costs? Why do my brakes grind when I come to a stop? Why is brake pad thickness measuring important? Full Answer In some instances, it is possible to resurface brake rotors while keeping them within the manufacturer's specifications to reduce the cost. However, some vehicles are more susceptible to brake pulsing with machined rotors. On these vehicles, the owner should consider paying for replacement parts. Many companies offer discounts on brake work, but before agreeing to such work, it is essential for the owner to know what the discount price covers. Learn more about Brakes Sources: repairpal.com Related Questions Q: What causes brake rotors to warp? A: The causes of rotor warping include manufacturing errors and improper bedding-in of rotors and brake pads. A faulty brake system impairs the functioning of... Full Answer >Filed Under: Brakes Q: How do you fix squeaky brakes? A: To fix squeaky brakes, clean the brake pads and rotors with WD-40 spray to remove dust and debris, and adjust the caliper bolts. If needed, replace the bra... Full Answer >Filed Under: Brakes Q: What causes squealing brakes? A: Brake squeal is most commonly caused by one or more of the following: worn brake pads, cheap brake pads, glazed pads and rotors or broken anti-rattle clips... Full Answer >Filed Under: Brakes Q: What are the components of a brake assembly? A: Disc brakes, which are the most common type of brake assembly, contain brake pads, a rotor, caliper and support. The master cylinder, which is located in t... Full Answer >Filed Under: Brakes You May Also Like Q: How much does a Hobie Cat cost? 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what state can mandate nurses overtime | Department of Labor Mandatory Overtime for Nurses The Restrictions on Consecutive Hours of Work for Nurses Law, Section 167 of the Labor Law, went into effect on July 1, 2009. Section 167 of the Labor Law: Prohibits health care employers from mandating overtime for nurses Stipulates the conditions for exceptions to this rule The New York State Department of Labor enforces this law. The final regulations governing mandatory nurse overtime became effective October 12, 2011. To review the regulations, please visit the Legal section of the Department's website. You can also read frequently asked questions about the law and regulations. You may file a complaint with the Department of Labor if: You are a nurse (RN/LPN) AND You believe that your employer forced you to work in violation of the law This link will open up the necessary complaint form for you to print. | . Credio Find The Company Health Grove Inside Gov Moose Roots Pet Breeds Software Insider Start Class© 2017 Graphiq LLC All Rights Reserved. Terms Privacy Ad Choices and Cookie Policy |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is the dating age limit | What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in America? Answers.com ® Wiki Answers ® Categories Health Sexual Health and Education Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in America? Flag What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in America? Answer by HP Outsiders Lover Confidence votes 451There is no law for dating. A person of any age can DATE someone older or younger that him/her without legal consequences. This "law" is a common misconception. There is no law that states an age limit for you to date someone older. However, each state has their own law on sexual consent. This law states that a relationship cannot turn sexually until both is of legal age (age of consent). If a person is an adult and have sex with someone under the age of consent, that person of age could go to jail. Most states have the age of consent set at 16. Sexual contact can be considered Statutory Rape or Sexual Misconduct depending upon the state's laws.19 people found this useful Was this answer useful? Yes Somewhat No Grevillea 143,980 Contributions What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in Queensland Australia? Answer . This may partly answer the question: the age of consent in Queensland is 16. This refers only to sexual intercourse, not specifically 'dating'. Also it may depend …B Bozidar 54,497 Contributions I am a professional musician and forum administrator. If you are dating someone younger than you what is the legal age limit? Best advice is not to date anyone under the age of 18. Maya Luna Ramses 15 Contributions Can you date someone older than you? If you want to date an older person, within legal limits, it may be wise to make sure that you are compatible with similar interests and life goals. Infatuation, be it as it m …Mark Swarthout 794,173 Contributions Contract attorney. When not working I teach karate, collect stamps, write books, and play the ukulele. What is the legal age for a minor to date someone older? It all depends on the state or country's laws where you are at. Some have a 3 year rule... if your 16 and he's 19 its ok. If you're 15 and he's 22 that's going to be statutory …B Bozidar 54,497 Contributions I am a professional musician and forum administrator. Is it legal to date someone 9 years older than me? That depends on how old "me" is in this case. If "me" is only 8 years old and wants to date someone who is 17 years old, this would be morally wrong. If "me" is 20 years old a …Bac BL3 12 Contributions Is it legal to marry someone older than you? It matters are you and the person above 18 years old?? If so then yes :) If not.. then its illegal the older person will be arrested . What is the legal age for a minor to date someone older in the state of Delaware? The age of consent in Delaware is 18 , but it is legal for teenagers aged 16 and 17 to engage in sexual intercourse as long as the older partner is younger than 30. Jponbac Gunna 300,545 Contributions Retired teacher with an advocation in history who loves to travel. What is the legal age of a minor to date someone older then 18 in Delaware?18 when you are an adultkaitlyn johnson 20 Contributions At seventeen is it legal to date someone five years older than you in MN?no it is fine so calm down Consultant9387 3 Contributions What is the legal age for a minor to date someone older in the state of Florida?age: 3867Is it legal for you to date someone 6 years older than you? You can date whoever you want as long as you're not having sex. If you intend to have sex there are all kinds of rules that apply. Such as age of concent per state which is th …What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in Canada? Look dude if u like the girl and your murture then go for it. Mark Swarthout 794,173 Contributions Contract attorney. When not working I teach karate, collect stamps, write books, and play the ukulele. Answered In Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is the legal age limit to be dating older than you in Hawaii? There is no dating law that limits age difference. If you are over the age of consent (16 in Hawaii) there is no limit to sexual activity. Eclair39 44,330 Contributions Answered In Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is the legal age for a minor to date someone older in the state of New Jersey? That is for your parents to decide since there are no laws for dating, only for sex. Answered In Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is the legal age limit to be dating someone in Ohio? I don't live there but the most appropriate age is 13. Eclair39 44,330 Contributions Answered In Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is legal age to be dating someone older than you in England? There is no such law regarding dating, this is where your parents are the law. They decide who you are allowed to see. For a sexual relationship you have to be 16 by law. Eclair39 44,330 Contributions Answered In Age of Consent & Underage Relationships What is the legal age limit to be dating someone older than you in Florida? There are no dating laws so it's up to your parents. For sex you must have reached age of consent in your state and in Florida that is 18. | . Support Center Ancestry Blog Site Map Gift Memberships Careers Visit our other sites:© 1997-2018 Ancestry Corporate Information Privacy Terms and Conditions |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.why chees does not have sugar | Why does milk have sugar and cheese doesn't?...? Health Diseases & Conditions Diabetes Why does milk have sugar and cheese doesn't?... ?1 following 5 answers Answers Relevance Rating Newest Oldest Best Answer: Actually, low fat or non fat cheeses have a lot of milk sugar in them. With cheese, the natural bacteria eats the milk sugar and converts it to lactic acid meaning that the cheese will have low milk sugar. So it's the bacteria in the cheese that makes the difference!Neuron · 10 years ago1 0 Comment1Source (s): Reverse Diabetes Without Drugs : http://Diabetes Cure.raiwi.com/? STAKPrecious · 2 years ago0 0 Comment2Source (s): Reverse Any Diabetes Easily - http://Diabetes Go Far.com/? Zm Ir Darell · 2 years ago0 0 Comment Does Cheese Have Sugar Source (s):https://shrink.im/a0g6emcduffey · 2 years ago0 0 Commentmilk contains lactose, milk sugar. the more fat, the less sugar. watch this>>>>> As a rule of thumb, the higher the fat content, the lower the lactose content. Anything below 2% lactose can be tolerated well by the majority of those with LI. As long as you don't really overdo it. Ranges are important because there are huge variations from brand to brand in products like yogurt, sour cream, and ice cream. I don't know of any way to determine the lactose content of a particular brand, sorry to say. A tenth of a percent here or there doesn't really make any difference. Don't sweat the small stuff. Aged cheeses always have lower lactose than younger cheeses. Look for the amount of aging on the label. Source (s):http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/stevecarper/percent.htmlana475 · 10 years ago0 1 Comment You can make sugar cookies. You use everything except cheese. Here is the recipe. Ingredients 2 3/4 cups all-purpose flour 1 teaspoon baking soda 1/2 teaspoon baking powder 1 cup butter, softened 1 1/2 cups white sugar 1 egg 1 teaspoon vanilla extract Directions 1. Preheat oven to 375 degrees F (190 degrees C). In a small bowl, stir together flour, baking soda, and baking powder. Set aside. 2. In a large bowl, cream together the butter and sugar until smooth. Beat in egg and vanilla. Gradually blend in the dry ingredients. Roll rounded teaspoonfuls of dough into balls, and place onto ungreased cookie sheets. 3. Bake 8 to 10 minutes in the preheated oven, or until golden. Let stand on cookie sheet two minutes before removing to cool on wire racks. BUT you don't have to use the baking soda, or vanilla extract. The cookies will be crunchy. Erika · 2 years ago0 0 Comment Maybe you would like to learn more about one of these? Want to build your own website? Masters of marketing online Curious about Victoza? Look For Franchises For Sale | How and Why to Teach Shakespeare How and Why to Teach Shakespeare By Sam Blumenfeld Printed in Practical Homeschooling #51, 2003. Tweet One of the reasons why homeschoolers have left the public schools is because the latter no longer teach the subjects that elevate the spirit and introduce students to the beauties and values of our English literary heritage. That's because the goal of Outcome Based Education, the current federally- and state-sponsored educational fad, is to produce graduates who spend their lives as efficient and low-paid factory and service workers, hopefully as good as those in China and Mexico. None of those factory workers need to know our English literary heritage in order to perform well at their jobs. So according to American curriculum developers, neither do Americans need such education. But the purpose of education is not to train your child like an animal so that he or she can respond efficiently to planned stimuli. The true purpose of education is to help an individual see his or her place in the cosmic scheme of things, in relation to God, in relation to history. Skinnerian animal training, the operant-conditioning technique used in "direct instruction" in our schools, is based on the assumption that human beings do not have souls, that they are animals and can be trained as such. This works fine for teaching automatic, quick responses to such things as hearing a bell or seeing a "Stop" sign. Kids can learn this. Even animals can learn this. That may be one reason why journalists today often confuse chimps' automatic reactions to stimuli with "learning" and "talking." But the simple fact is that animals can be trained, but they can't be educated. Human beings, on the other hand, can not only be trained, but because they have innate intelligence and souls, they can also be educated. Teaching the poems and plays of Shakespeare opens the reader to the expanse and depth of the human soul, because the characters in the plays represent a cross-section of human life and aspiration. And Shakespeare does it better than any other writer in the history of literature. Why? Because he had keener insight into human nature than any other playwright and was able to put into words of beauty and power human action in all its emotional and intellectual complexity. Think of the immortal characters Shakespeare has created: Hamlet, Julius Caesar, Falstaff, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, Romeo and Juliet, and so many others. A study of each of these characters is a study in human psychology. And the reason why we read them 400 years later is because human nature has not changed, and because Shakespeare wrote truthfully about them. So we know why we should teach Shakespeare. But how to do it is another thing. Charles Lamb and his wife Mary wrote a book in which they tell children the stories from Shakespeare's plays. The Lamb book, Famous Stories from Shakespeare Retold for Boys and Girls, is a very good way to introduce children to the great poet. As a playwright, Shakespeare was also a great story teller. Another good reason to teach Shakespeare is because he wrote in Elizabethan English, the same language used in the King James version of the Bible. Children who learn to read the King James version of the Bible will also be able to read Shakespeare and memorize some of the sonnets and at least one or two of the great soliloquies. Such memorization will enrich the soul, and expand the vocabulary and understanding of the child. Also, this can open up the entire subject of language development and why we speak so much differently than those in the days of Queen Elizabeth I. Even in modern America, language usage and meaning have changed greatly in the last one hundred years. One of the great pleasures in teaching your child Shakespeare is to give yourself the opportunity to read some of the plays you never read in school. Because the plays are meant to be read aloud, as on a stage, you and your child can have a great time taking parts in the plays and becoming the characters. And because the plays are much shorter than novels, you can complete reading a play in a relatively short period of time. By studying Shakespeare you also introduce your child to a standard of literary quality that is the highest in our language and becomes a foundation for delving further into our literary heritage. You cannot be considered truly educated unless you've read enough of Shakespeare so that you can discuss him intelligently with others. Familiarity with Shakespeare is as essential as familiarity with our historical heritage. And once you've studied Shakespeare, he becomes a permanent part of your life. Was this article helpful to you? 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.who sings big old jet airliner | Jet Airliner (Steve Miller Band song) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search"Jet Airliner"Single by Steve Miller Bandfrom the album Book of Dreams B-side "Babes in the Wood"Released April 1977Recorded May 1975 at CBS Studios in San Francisco, California Genre Blues rock, rock and roll Length 4: 25 (album version) 3:33 (single version)Label Capitol Records Songwriter (s) Paul Pena Producer (s) Steve Miller Steve Miller Band singles chronology" Fly Like an Eagle " (1976) " Jet Airliner " (1977) " Jungle Love " (1977)" Jet Airliner " is a song composed by Paul Pena and popularized by the Steve Miller Band. Pena wrote and recorded the song in 1973 for his New Train album. [1] However, due to conflicts between him and his label, New Train was not released until 2000. [2] Miller decided to record "Jet Airliner" for his band's Book of Dreams album in 1977 after hearing the unreleased album via Ben Sidran, who produced it, [3] and who was formerly in Miller's band. The Steve Miller band version has lyrics that are slightly different from the Pena original. [4] [5] It was concurrently released as a single, and reached #8 on the Billboard chart. [6] In Canada, the song spent two weeks at #3. [7]On classic rock radio, "Jet Airliner" is generally played in tandem with "Threshold", the all-synthesizer instrumental that precedes it on Book of Dreams and Miller's Greatest Hits 1974–78 compilation. Miller's performance of the main riff is in turn slightly different from Pena's original, which has a more funky edge to it. The song is also notable for an early reference to the catchphrase "keep on keepin' on," also found in John Lennon 's 1974 song " Old Dirt Road " and in the Bob Dylan songs " Tangled Up in Blue " and " You Ain't Goin' Nowhere ." [4]Contents [ hide ]1 Single edit2 Chart performance2.1 Weekly charts2.2 Year-end charts3 References Single edit [ edit]The single edit of Miller's recording features a truncated version of the guitar intro. In addition, one line of the song's lyrics was altered for radio play; instead of "that I don't want to get caught up in any of that funky shit goin' down in the city", it was changed to "funky kicks." The single edit was included on the original release of Greatest Hits 1974–78, although the full album version has been used for later reissues of the compilation. The single edit also had a slightly different mix of Miller's lead vocal on the song. On the album version, one can often hear Miller breathing into the microphone as he begins singing a line. His breathing was mixed out of the single release. [ citation needed]Chart performance [ edit]Weekly charts [ edit]Chart (1977) Peak position Australia Kent Music Report 23Canada RPM Top Singles [7] 3Netherlands 11New Zealand 12U. S. Billboard Hot 100 [8] 8U. S. Cash Box Top 100 [9] 3Year-end charts [ edit]Chart (1977) Rank Canada [10] 44U. S. Billboard Hot 100 [11] 62U. S. Cash Box [12] 44References [ edit]^ Webster, Spidra. "Paul "Earthquake" Pena - Biography". Allmusic. Retrieved May 1, 2011.^ "Press Release". Paul Pena. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ Pena, Paul. New Train (CD). New York: Hybrid Recordings, 2000.^ a b "Steve Miller Band - Jet Airliner Lyrics". Metro Lyrics. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ PAUL PENA "Jet Airliner". "PAUL PENA lyrics - Jet Airliner". Oldielyrics.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN 0-89820-089-X^ a b "Image : RPM Weekly - Library and Archives Canada". Bac-lac.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-1990 - ISBN 0-89820-089-X^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-12-28. Retrieved 2014-12-28.^ "Image : RPM Weekly - Library and Archives Canada". Bac-lac.gc.ca. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ "Top 100 Hits of 1977/Top 100 Songs of 1977". Musicoutfitters.com. Retrieved 2016-10-12.^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2016-05-04. [ hide]v t e Steve Miller Band Steve Miller Kenny Lee Lewis Gordy Knudtson Joseph Wooten Jacob Peterson Norton Buffalo Tim Davis Boz Scaggs Lonnie Turner James Cooke Lance Haas Jim Peterman Glyn Johns Ben Sidran Nicky Hopkins Bobby Winkelman Charlie Mc Coy Jack King Ross Valory Gerald Johnson Dick Thompson Jim Keltner Roger Allen Clark Gary Mallaber Nick De Caro John King David Denny Greg Douglass Byron Allred John Massaro Billy Peterson Ricky Peterson Bob Malach Leo Sidran Jay Bird Koder Joey Heinemann Sonny Charles Studio albums Children of the Future Sailor Brave New World Your Saving Grace Number 5 Rock Love Recall the Beginning... A Journey from Eden The Joker Fly Like an Eagle Book of Dreams Circle of Love Abracadabra Italian X Rays Living in the 20th Century Born 2 B Blue (Steve Miller solo album) Wide River Bingo!Let Your Hair Down Live albums Live at the Fillmore Auditorium Steve Miller Band Live!Compilations Anthology Living in the U. S. A. Greatest Hits 1974–78 The Very Best of the Steve Miller Band Young Hearts Singles" The Joker " " Take the Money and Run " " Rock'n Me " " Fly Like an Eagle " " Jet Airliner " " Jungle Love " " Swingtown "" Abracadabra " " I Want to Make the World Turn Around "Songs" Mercury Blues " " You Send Me " " Gangster of Love "Related articles Discography Book: Steve Miller Band This 1970s rock song -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it. Categories:1973 songs 1977 singles Capitol Records singles Steve Miller Band songs Songs about aviation1970s rock song stubs | . 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is therapeutic recreation | What is RT/TR? FAQ About RT/TRRecreational therapy, also known as therapeutic recreation, is a systematic process that utilizes recreation and other activity-based interventions to address the assessed needs of individuals with illnesses and/or disabling conditions, as a means to psychological and physical health, recovery and well-being. Further, "Recreational Therapy” means a treatment service designed to restore, remediate and rehabilitate a person’s level of functioning and independence in life activities, to promote health and wellness as well as reduce or eliminate the activity limitations and restrictions to participation in life situations caused by an illness or disabling condition. What is the relationship between recreational therapy and therapeutic recreation? Therapeutic Recreation is the field Recreational Therapy is the practice Recreational Therapists are the practitioners The CTRS (Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist) is the qualified provider What do Recreational Therapists do? A recreational therapist utilizes a wide range of activity and community based interventions and techniques to improve the physical, cognitive, emotional, social, and leisure needs of their clients. Recreational therapists assist clients to develop skills, knowledge, and behaviors for daily living and community involvement. The therapist works with the client and their family to incorporate specific interests and community resources into therapy to achieve optimal outcomes that transfer to their real life situation. Why is RT/TR important for your clients? Research supports the concept that people with active, satisfying lifestyles will be happier and healthier. RT/TR provides services which are based on the individuals' interests and lifestyle and allows them to better engage in therapy and apply these functional improvements to all areas of their life. Ultimately, it allows them to generalize their therapeutic outcomes to their life after the healthcare team is no longer involved resulting in greater health maintenance over time. RT/TR aims to improve an individual's functioning and keep them as active, healthy and independent as possible in their chosen life pursuits. What clients do Recreational Therapists serve? Recreational Therapists may work with a wide range of individuals requiring health services including geriatric, mental health, addictions, general medicine, physical medicine and rehabilitation, developmental disabilities and pediatric clients. Where can you find Recreational Therapists working? Most recreational therapists are employed by health care agencies and work in traditional inpatient hospitals or health facilities but an increasing number are being hired in residential facilities, community mental health centers, adult day care programs, substance abuse centers, hospice care, community centers, and in school systems. There is a growing trend for recreational therapists to work in private practice providing services in the home and community as well. Here is some information about Recreational Therapists and the different settings where you can find them working: Behavioral Health Children and Adolescents Community Based Services Management of Recreational Therapy Older Adults Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation School Systems Military Service Members and Veterans How are RT/TR services different from other therapies? RT/TR embraces a definition of "health" which includes not only the absence of "illness", but extends to enhancement of physical, cognitive, emotional, social and leisure development so individuals may participate fully and independently in chosen life pursuits. The unique feature of RT/TR that makes it different from other therapies is the use of recreational modalities in the designed intervention strategies. RT/TR is extremely individualized to each person by his or her past, present and future interests and lifestyle. The recreational therapist has a unique perspective regarding the social, cognitive, physical, and leisure needs of the patient. Incorporating client's interests, and the client's family and/or community makes the therapy process meaningful and relevant. Recreational therapists weave the concept of healthy living into treatment to ensure not only improved functioning, but also to enhance independence and successful involvement in all aspects of life. How are RT/TR services recognized? Recreational means a treatment service designed to restore, remediate and rehabilitate a person’s level of functioning and independence in life activities, to promote health and wellness as well as reduce or eliminate the activity limitations and restrictions to participation in life situations caused by an illness or disabling condition (ATRA 2009). Recreational therapists are standard treatment team members in rehabilitation services. Recreational Therapy is listed as a rehabilitation therapy service in the Joint Commission (JC) standards. In addition, recreational therapists are designated as treatment team members (based upon need) in the acute brain injury, the post-acute brain injury, and the inpatient rehabilitation standards of the Commission on Accreditation of Rehabilitation Facilities (CARF). The Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services (CMS) includes recreational therapy in the mix of treatment and rehabilitation services used to determine federal compliance in skilled nursing, rehabilitation (physical and psychiatric) and long-term care facilities. Therapeutic Recreation is specifically indicated as a Related Service under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. A few states regulate this profession through licensure, certification, registration, or regulation of titles. What are the outcomes of RT/TR? Current research indicates a significant number of positive health outcomes resulting from participation in RT/TR programs: Improvement in Physical Health Status Improvement in Psychosocial Status Improvement in Cognitive Status Improvement in Life, Recreation &Community Activities What are a Recreational Therapist's Education, Qualifications, & Credentials? A qualified recreational therapist is someone who is nationally certified as a Certified Therapeutic Recreation Specialist (CTRS), usually referred to as Recreational Therapists. Qualified professionals are certified through the National Council for Therapeutic Recreation Certification (NCTRC), which requires a bachelor’s degree or higher from an accredited university, a formal internship and the passing of a national certification examination. A CTRS must maintain their credential every five years through the NCTRC recertification process. Academic programs in Therapeutic Recreation or Recreational Therapy emphasize course work in the physical, biological, and behavioral sciences and recreation and leisure theory. How can I get RT/TR services? Many health care facilities have a therapy referral process in place, and include RT/TR as part of their standard referral process for other ordered therapies and services. Once the referral for RT/TR is made, usually by the physician or health care professional responsible for the client's care an assessment should be completed by the CTRS. On many inpatient program units a standard order is provided for each new resident "to evaluate for RT/TR services". Clients from outpatient, home health or community programs may also be appropriate for RT/TR, and the referral is done on a case-by-case basis. Where is RT/TR headed in the future? According to the US Department of Labor, "The rapidly growing number of older adults is expected to spur job growth for recreational therapy professionals and paraprofessionals in assisted-living facilities, adult daycare programs, and other social assistance agencies. Continued growth also is expected in community residential care facilities, as was daycare programs for individuals with disabilities. "About the American Therapeutic Recreation Association: The American Therapeutic Recreation Association (ATRA) is the national membership organization representing the interests and needs of recreational therapists. The association is directed by an elected board of directors with over 42 volunteer teams and committees, focused on areas such as public policy, coverage and reimbursement, diagnostic specialty groups, education and research. ATRA operations are managed by a Board of Directors elected by the Membership and Administrative functions are managed by Association Management Systems (AMS) in Hattiesburg, MS. The association provides a vast array of membership services focusing on professional practice, professional development, external affairs, advocacy, treatment networking, and educational services. Specifically, ATRA leads the profession with nationally recognized professional standards of practice, code of ethics, and competency guidelines. | . 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.when does the cleveland auto show open | Cleveland Auto Show Cleveland Auto Show Retweetedgrantchula @ grantroberts01 Mar 6i Phone shot from the Cleveland auto show0 replies 2 retweets 18 likes218 | When will the Justice League The movie come out? Karthik Manjunath, former Operations at Uber Answered Oct 26, 2017 · Author has 76 answers and 63.3k answer views The movie is set to release on the 16th of November 2017 in Denmark and then subsequently in all other countries. If upcoming movies and trailer releases are your thing, feel free to try this app called TMinus. TMinus : TMinus is a Social Countdown app to discover movies, TV shows and a bunch of other stuff that people are counting down to. This is a great app where all the countdowns are created by the community, which could also give you an inside scoop into some of the movies or TV shows releasing soon.195 Views · View Upvoters |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what does ostracized mean | Definitions &Translations Vocabulary What does ostracize mean? Definitions for ostracize ˈɒs trəˌsaɪz Here are all the possible meanings and translations of the word ostracize. Princeton's Word Net (5.00 / 2 votes)Rate this definition:banish, ban, ostracize, ostracise, shun, cast out, blackball (verb)expel from a community or groupostracize, ostracise (verb)avoid speaking to or dealing with"Ever since I spoke up, my colleagues ostracize me"GCIDE (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Ostracize (v. t.)To banish from society, by a general consent; to exclude from social, political, or private favor; to exclude from conversation or friendship; to shun; as, he was ostracized by his former friends. A person may be ostracized by a formal vote or by a widespread but informal agreement. Marvell. Origin: [Gr. 'ostraki`zein, fr. 'o`strakon a tile, a tablet used in voting, a shell; cf. 'o`streon oyster, 'oste`on bone. Cf. Osseous, Oyster. ]Wiktionary (2.00 / 1 vote)Rate this definition:ostracize (Verb)To exclude (a person) from society or from a community, by not communicating with them or by refusing to acknowledge their presence; to refuse to talk to or associate with; to shun. Origin: From ὀστρακίζω, from ὄστρακον. Numerology Chaldean Numerology The numerical value of ostracize in Chaldean Numerology is: 6Pythagorean Numerology The numerical value of ostracize in Pythagorean Numerology is: 8Sample Sentences & Example Usage Actress Chloe Grace Moretz: I’ve had a younger male lead ostracize me and bring up fake issues just to try and put me in my place, and make things up to the director … things that are crazy, things that I would never do, unprofessional things that would make no sense. Images & Illustrations of ostracize Translations for ostracize From our Multilingual Translation Dictionaryostracize Czechboykotte Danishächten, verbannen Germanexcluir, aislar, condenar al ostracismo Spanishاذیت کردن Persianeristää, hyljeksiä Finnishostraciser Frenchसमाज से बाहर निकालना Hindimemboikot dr masyarakat Indonesiandare l'ostracismo Italian追放する Japaneseಬಹಿಷ್ಕರಿಸು Kannada배척하다 Koreanuitstoten, mijden, Verbannen Dutchostracize Norwegianwykluczać z towarzystwa Polishostraciza Romanianprognati, izopćiti, ekskomunicirati Serbo-Croatianfrysa ut, sky Swedishஊரைவிட்டே ஒதுக்கி Tamilబహిష్కరించబడిన వాడు Teluguริดรอนสิทธิ Thaisürgün etmek Turkishостракізувати Ukrainianتجزیہ کرنا Urdutẩy chay Vietnameseostracize Yiddish放逐 Chinese Get even more translations for ostracize »Translation Find a translation for the ostracize definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these ostracize definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Please enter your email address: Subscribe Citation Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: Style: MLA Chicago APA"ostracize." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2018. Web. 8 Apr. 2018. < https://www.definitions.net/definition/ostracize >. Are we missing a good definition for ostracize? Don't keep it to yourself... Submit Definition | Oh No! Oh No!The file you are looking for was not found. This can be caused by the page being deleted, renamed, or moved to a new url. Use the search box above to search this site for the content you are looking for. If you still can't find it please contact the webmaster for better assistance. Sorry for the inconvenience.404file not found Helpful Hints Search for your missing item The web is constantly being updated so as things change we are indexing them. If the link has moved it may not be updated in all places. Use the search box above to find out if the Google search has found it. Are you on the right site? Many sites may have alternate sites for special events, projects, or training resources. Check to see that the content you're looking for is found on this site. Check your URLA typo is an easy thing to do especially in long URL. If all else fails see if the keyboard entered what you expected. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is creativity in science | Creativity in Science and Engineering Creativity in Science and Engineering Copyright 1998 by Ronald B. Standler Table of Contents Introduction Definitionspersonality traits associated with creativityhow creativity occurssolitary activitymanagement of creativityissues in education of creative studentsindustrial management of researchinteresting books on creativity Sternberg's theory of creativity1. Introduction My interest in studying creativity was inspired by the frustrations that I felt as a student, then as a professor. I wanted to know how I could encourage creativity in myself, my students, and my colleagues. Politicians, industrial managers, academic administrators, and other leaders often say that innovation is critical to the future of civilization, our country, their company, etc. But in practice, these same people often act as if innovation is an evil that must be suppressed, or at least tightly controlled. The purposes of this essay are to (1) quickly examine some of the personality traits that are associated with unusual creativity and innovation and (2) to criticize management and educational techniques that penalize or discourage creativity. The way to increase the productivity of creative people is simple: give them resources (time, equipment, money) and stand out of their way!2. Definitions First, consider a definition of creativity . A creative person does things that have never been done before. Particularly important instances of creativity include discoveries of new knowledge in science and medicine, invention of new technology, composing beautiful music, or analyzing a situation (e.g., in law, philosophy, or history) in a new way. It is important to distinguish among three different characteristics: intelligence, creativity, and academic degrees. Intelligence is the ability to learn and the ability to think. Creativity was defined in the previous paragraph, as the ability to produce new things or new knowledge. Academic degrees are what one gets after one has sat through years of classes, passed the examinations, and completed all of the other requirements (e.g., senior thesis, doctoral dissertation, etc.). In comparing and contrasting these three traits, I note that: Most people who create significant things are intelligent. There are many people with an earned doctoral degree who do not have a single creative idea in their head. They are intelligent and highly skilled problem solvers, but someone else must formulate the problem for them (e.g., give them an equation to solve). Thus intelligence and academic degrees are not evidence of creativity. Students who are both intelligent and highly creative often make mediocre grades in school. Genius is a vague term: sometimes it indicates a person with an unusually high score on an IQ test, other times it indicates an extraordinarily creative person (e.g., Mozart or Einstein). I don't like the word genius, not only because of this vagueness, but also because it often has the connotation in colloquial American language of indicating a freak, weird, or abnormal person. I am interested in understanding and encouraging creativity, not pasting pejorative labels on creative people. Further, someone who is not a genius can still make a valuable contribution to progress.theory of creativity Readers who have not previously considered the psychology of creativity might first wish to read my summary of Sternberg's theory of creativity at the end of this document. In short, the ability to be creative is the amalgamation of several different kinds of intelligence and personality traits. Creativity is an amazingly complex subject. There are many books about the psychology of creativity in artists, but relatively little about creativity in scientists and engineers. However, there are (1) a number of biographies of scientists, which give some light on creativity in scientists, and (2) some books on creativity in mathematicians. The following are my own conclusions and comments about creativity, based on:my observations of colleagues and students, some of whom were highly creative, but others were not creative, and asking myself why the differences in creative output,my personal experiences,my reading biographies of scientists, mathematicians, and composers of music, andmy reading psychology books on creativity. It is obvious that before one can do creative science and engineering, one must have some technical knowledge of facts, laws, and methods (e.g., study of physics, chemistry, calculus, differential equations, statistics, computer programming, etc.). If one compares highly creative scientists and engineers with their plodding, ordinary colleagues, one finds essentially the same kinds of intelligence and knowledge in both groups. Therefore, I conclude that it must be the personality traits that distinguish creative from noncreative people.3. personality traits associated with creativity A. diligence Many people who are famous for their creative output are highly diligent, often bordering on the obsessive. It is common to see creative professors working 60 to 80 hours/week for the sheer joy of the effort. Creative people have an inner need to express their creativity. They can not keep their new idea inside their head forever, the idea needs to be born. In fact, many creative people would be creative, even if they were not paid for their effort or output, a situation that has lead society and managers to a frankly shameful exploitation of many of the greatest innovators in the history of mankind. Not all creative people work long hours. I get the impression that mathematicians and theoretical physicists are often exhausted after 20 to 40 hours/week of intense thought. In discussing the amount of time a creative person spends on work, it is important to reward productivity, not number of hours worked. Many times, a creative person will work a few hours and encounter an obstacle. Continuing to stare at the work is unlikely to produce a breakthrough. Experience shows that novel insights often come at unexpected times (e.g., while doing some mundane task, such as walking or in the shower). In industry, it is common to see creative engineers working in their spare time, or working during evenings and weekends, on their "secret" project. If they asked their manager for authorization, the manager would likely say " No! ", so the creative people keep their project secret until it is completed or it becomes clear that their concept will not work. Nights, weekends, and holidays are good times to accomplish creative work, because there are fewer interruptions (e.g., from telephone calls, unexpected visitors) to break one's concentration. I can not emphasize too strongly that a diagnostic sign of a creative person is that he/she finds their own work to do, rather than sit idly until someone else gives them an assignment. Creative people need to express themselves through creative projects. However, one should distinguish between a workaholic who puts in 80 hours/week doing routine work and a creative person who works long hours doing new things, often things that no one else thought could be accomplished. Many people with unusually great creativity are ambitious, concerned with their reputation, and apparently need to prove themselves worthy. I suspect that these characteristics formed the motivation for their diligence, which is necessary for success. Their need to prove themselves worthy may come from experiences early in life in which other children, other students, etc. ridiculed or taunted them. Reading biographies of famous scientists and inventors shows that many of these men had an intense focus on their work. One could describe this intensity with pejorative terms: obsession, monomania, idée fixe. Or one could recognize that the intense concentration was necessary to take them beyond the reach of ordinary men. B. stubborn In trying to do innovative work, I have often noticed the following problems ( in addition to my ignorance and mistakes! ): My colleagues tell me it is "impossible", "you are crazy to try this", "it will never work", "it has been tried before", etc. Of course, when I accomplish my goal, they forget their earlier prediction. There is nearly always inadequate funding and inadequate laboratory resources, which makes the experiment take longer than it would with appropriate equipment. There is always inadequate time, because the project is in addition to one's regular activities (e.g., sponsored research, teaching, earning money, family and personal life)Being creative is extraordinarily difficult work that is essential to progress! And society seems to delight in making it more difficult by denying resources to creative people who need them. The way to succeed in spite of these artificially created burdens is to have some combination of the following character traits:persistenttenaciousuncompromisingstubbornarrogant Most people would characterize these traits as negative or undesirable qualities, yet I believe they are essential to innovation. By arrogant, I mean trusting one's own judgment and ignoring other people's adverse opinion (e.g., "you're crazy to try that", etc.). It is ok to be arrogant in selecting projects and goals for one's self and allocating one's personal time. C. gender It is well known that, as a general rule, men are more aggressive than women, owing to testosterone. For example, nearly all violent criminals are male. It may be that testosterone gives men an advantage over women in persisting, despite the disappointments and frustrations that are inherent in research. ( Having said something that might be provocative, please do not misunderstand me! I believe in equal opportunity and removing gender barriers in life, including professions. I simply observe that there are differences in genders beyond sexual anatomy. For these reasons, providing equality of opportunity does not assure equal outcomes. ) The subject of gender differences is complex. For example, one can observe that an appreciable fraction of undergraduate students majoring in biology or chemistry are women, while only a few percent of undergraduate students majoring in mathematics or physics are women. When I have discussed the issue with women, they have often told me that guidance counselors in high school and college told them that "women are not able to do physics or mathematics", advice that is surely not correct. Surprisingly, women seem to accept such bad advice in a passive way. In contrast, telling a man that he is not able to do something often serves as a challenge to prove the advisor wrong. This trait of perversity in men could be valuable in persisting in the face of inevitable disappointments and frustrations in creative work. I am intrigued by the observation that women are much more common in the police and military, occupations that involve violence and physical courage (i.e., traditional male attributes), than in physics or mathematics, which are safe, clean, indoor occupations. Similarly, many attorneys who successfully litigate cases are female, more proof that women can succeed in a profession that requires aggression and stamina. So I am baffled by the absence of women from science and mathematics, particularly when one considers the success of women in police, military, and litigation. I have the impression, from my experience teaching electrical engineering for ten years, that women tend to approach problems in a formal mathematical way. This earns them good grades in school on textbook exercises, but is not necessarily the best way to approach practical problems. Many of my male colleagues are intuitive when approaching problems, the mathematical analysis comes later as one works out the details. My guess is that men develop this intuition by building things during childhood and tinkering with automobiles and computers during adolescence. In contrast, conventional culture denies these experiences to women, by insisting that girls play with dolls, sew, cook, etc. In the USA, there is a toy called an "Erector Set" that consists of a collection of metal beams, brackets, machine screws and nuts, etc. for children to build their own toys. During the late 1950's, the Erector Set was a common Christmas gift for boys, but was conventionally considered not suitable for girls. I wonder if this gender stereotyping during childhood translates ten or fifteen years later into a denial of opportunity for women to compete with men in physics, mechanical engineering, etc. D. eccentric From reading biographies of famous scientists and musical composers, one common personality trait becomes clear: many of them are eccentric. Being eccentric does not imply that one is creative. Conversely, not all creative people are eccentric: some creative people have normal family lives and conventional values. ( Normally, I write about people in a gender neutral way, but most famous scientists, and all major composers of music, are male. While there are a few examples of famous women scientists, there are not enough to make any generalizations about their character traits. So the following paragraphs are limited to men. )D.1. reclusive Many creative men were a hermit, recluse, or loner. Only a few sought publicity (extroversion), which is contrary to what one would expect from ambitious men. The percentage of men who never married, or never had children, is greater among creative scientists than in the general population. I see three reasons for this result: These men rarely met women, since women are rare in physics, mathematics, and engineering. Many creative scientists are reclusive. They have difficulty relating to people, either male or female. This difficulty might be expressed as shyness. It may also be that romance, erotic play, etc. were seen as ephemeral activities and a distraction from their real work. It is not clear to me if the creative trait of being a recluse is either:something essential to creativity, because creativity is inherently solitary work, orsomething creative people learn, in order to avoid criticism, taunting, ridicule, and other abuse. During childhood, such abuse comes from teachers and school children. These early experiences are reinforced later in life by abuse from managers and "normal" (i.e., noncreative) colleagues. Alternatively, it may be less painful to be lonely, than to be among "normal" people who do not understand what it is like to be creative. D.2. not religious Returning to the discussion of eccentric traits in creative scientists, a larger percentage of scientists were either atheists or agnostics, compared to the general population. I suspect that these men simply applied the same objective standards of science to religion, and refused to believe dogma on faith alone. Further, a person who accepts dogma has the security of knowing that millions of other people believe the same dogma, which is something that gives comfort and assurance to many people. In contrast to the majority of the population, creative scientists are often skeptics, for whom belief is always tentative and subject to continuing inquiry and testing. Note that I did not say that religious beliefs are in compatible with being a good scientist. I only note that religious beliefs are less common among scientists than in many other groups of people. D.3. monotonous routine life Highly creative men often had a monotonous diet or wore the same kind of clothes every day. I suspect that these men saw routine details of life, such as eating and clothing, as unimportant and not worthy of thought. It may be that these men were unconsciously rebelling against conventional values and concerns that impeded them in their creative pursuits. In some extreme cases, creative men lived in cluttered, messy environments, because they did not take the time to clean house. D.4. bipolar disorder There seems to be a higher incidence of bipolar disorder (i.e., manic-depressive disease) in highly creative people than in the entire population. This disorder causes neither creativity nor intelligence, but it seems to enhance creativity, perhaps by removing inhibitions and barriers to radical or complex thoughts. D.5. enjoy their work Another reason that creative people are sometimes seen as eccentric is that creative people genuinely enjoy their work, instead of working only because they need an income. But creative people should enjoy their work, because it is significant and original. E. conclusion On reflection, one would expect innovative people to be unusual, even eccentric, when viewed by normal society. If innovative people were ordinary, they would work like ordinary people and achieve little of historical significance, because they are only executing routine assignments. Creative intellectuals are normal when compared to the population in which they belong. Conventional people often put pejorative labels on creative people, to characterize their nonconventional (hence, different) personality traits. In addition to the "eccentric" label, which was discussed above, there are labels like "geek" and "nerd". Ordinary people often apply pejorative labels to intellectuals, who often do creative research, for example: "pointy headed intellectuals who can't park their bicycles straight" or "eggheads". Such pejorative labels may serve to identify individuals with unusually high intelligence or unusually great creativity, in effect making them an anomalous person, so that ordinary people have an excuse for not being able to compete with these anomalies. Further, this use of pejorative labels is a marginalization of creative people, by alleging that creative people are either defective or have a personality disorder. One of the principal ways to be creative is to look for alternative ways to view a phenomena or for alternative ways to ask a question. Conventional society heaps pejorative terms on creative people (e.g., obsessive, monomania, stubborn, uncompromising, eccentric). It would be better to see the behavior that is identified by these pejorative labels in a positive light: these characteristics are common among creative people, and may be essential to creative success. During the 1980's, Senator Proxmire in the USA held regular press conferences and identified a specific scientific research project as an example of government waste (i.e., his "Golden Fleece" award). Of course, the senator, the journalists, and most of the people reading the journalist's report would be unable to understand and fairly evaluate an esoteric research project. The Senator simply denigrated scientific research as a way of boosting his own public esteem. A rational society should encourage creativity, not denigrate it with pejorative labels, because creativity is valuable to society.4. how creativity occurs Conception of a new idea often occurs in an intuitive flash of insight, in which the more or less complete idea is revealed. Equations and logical analysis come later. Someone who is reading scholarly publications in a library sees the final result in a format that is quite different from its initial conception. The fact that the public presentation is different from the way the idea initially occurred can lead to misunderstandings about how science is actually accomplished. One of the principal ways to be creative is to look for alternative ways to view a phenomena or for alternative ways to ask a question. It is easy to ask questions that are trivial to solve. It is easy to ask questions that require extraordinary effort (e.g., 50 man-years of effort and millions of dollars in expenses) to solve. It is surprisingly difficult to find questions that lie in between these two extremes, and also have a result that is worth knowing. One often-cited example of creativity is George de Mestral's observation of how cockleburs attach to clothing, which led him to invent the hook-and-loop fastener known as Velcro®. He transformed a common nuisance to a useful product. When one looks backward in time to analyze how a creative act was made, one often finds that creators made a novel interpretation of a well-known fact or occurrence. Often the interpretation converted a disadvantage into an advantage. Another commonly cited example of creativity is Art Fry's development of Post-It® removable notes at 3M Corporation in 1974. Dr. Spencer Silver, another 3M scientist, had developed a polymer adhesive that formed microscopic spheres instead of a uniform coating, and thus was a poor adhesive that took year s to set. Fry wanted a better bookmark for his church hymnal, so he used Silver's adhesive. The conventional wisdom is that every adhesive must be strong. By ignoring the conventional wisdom, Fry developed a highly successful office product. However, not only did he need to develop the idea, but he also had to sell the idea to his management and marketing departments, which were resistant to his new idea. A creative manager, if there be such a person, would have redefined the problem to find a use for a weak adhesive, but the conventional wisdom that all adhesives must be strong is apparently overpowering. There is a second exception to the "all adhesives must be strong" rule: thread locking compounds that prevent machine screws and bolts from loosening during vibration must be weak enough to allow removal of the screw or bolt during repair. Prof. David Swenson has posted a web page with a rich collection of examples of innovation.creativity is solitary work Creativity is essentially a solitary enterprise. Most landmark discoveries in science and all major musical compositions are the work of one person. New ideas are often tentative, half-baked, and difficult to communicate in a persuasive way. On the receiving side, most scientists and engineers generally react to someone else's new idea by discouraging it: "It won't work. ", "It's a waste of your time. ", etc. Colleagues tend to reject unorthodox views, at least until those views are convincingly presented, in a complete form. But such a completed form occurs at the end of a research project, not at the beginning or middle. So, as a defensive measure, it is best to keep new ideas to one's self, until one reaches an unresolvable problem that requires someone else's assistance. Further, creative work is inherently personal. Involvement of other people diverts the creator's unique vision of the final product and how to create it. When multiple people are involved, there are inevitably compromises and the final product is mostly a consensus view. As an aside, French law recognizes that the creator of a work expresses his/her personality in the work, so – while the creator may sell the copyright or object – the creator always retains the "droit moral" in his/her work. See my separate essay at my professional web site on moral rights of authors , which are not recognized in law in the USA. Still further, the personality trait of stubborn and uncompromising makes it difficult for many creative people to work in groups, where compromises are routine practice. There are certainly large projects that require too many man-hours and too many different technical skills for one person to do all the work. Examples of such projects are particle accelerators used by nuclear physicists, optical and radio telescopes, design of aircraft, etc. However, in practice, these large projects are broken down into many small tasks, with a few people (perhaps only one person) having the responsibility for each task. If multiple people work together on one task, or different people supervise and approve the work on one task, the approach will tend away from innovation and tend toward a consensus view that uses proven ideas. While this approach may increase reliability, it also thwarts creativity. Sometimes a scientist working on a problem is frustrated and discusses the problem with a colleague, who suggests a way of solving the difficulty. In this way, the final work may be published as a multiple-author paper, but each part of the solution was the responsibility of one person. The colleague may contribute a mathematical or experimental technique, or knowledge of some fact, that was not known to the first scientist. Another way to get multiple-author papers on innovative topics is for a professor to have more good ideas than the professor can personally develop. So the professor gives good idea (s) to a graduate student, and the student does the work to develop the idea into a publishable paper. It is traditional for both the student's and professor's name to appear on the final paper: the student did nearly all of the work, the professor contributed the initial idea, equipment and resources, and helped the student with difficulties along the way. This process is more than merely preparing the student's doctoral dissertation: it is teaching in a Master-Apprentice style. Besides benefits to the student, it also increases the productivity of the professor and, by increasing the professor's reputation, makes it easier for the professor to obtain future financial support. Carried to an extreme, the professor will become a manager who writes proposals for financial support, generates new ideas, and allocates resources, but is no longer personally involved in scientific research. In the long-run, removing the professor from personal involvement in doing experimental or theoretical work could decrease the rate at which the professor generates significant new ideas, and make the professor less familiar with techniques for solving problems.5. management of creativity In a later section of this essay, I discuss management of creative employees. Here I want to make a critical point: one of the worst things a manager can do to creative employees is have the employees adhere to a rigid schedule of delivery dates for assignments. Naturally, the manager will, in addition to the rigid schedule, insist that all of the employee's time be spent on projects that the manager has approved. Such a rigid policy of assignments and schedules kills creativity. History teaches that many important discoveries were made accidentally. If the discoverer had some "spare time", he could investigate this unexpected curiosity. But if the discoverer was working diligently on a tight schedule, then there was no time to follow this detail that was not essential to the completion of the assigned project, and the discovery was forgotten. People who are highly organized express their love of schedules with various clichés, such as: "If you do not know where you are going, you will not know when you arrive. "or"If you do not know where you are going, you will be lost when you get there." There is much truth in these clichés. Little good can come from truly aimless work. My point is that when something unexpected and interesting happens, there should be some time available to explore this serendipity. People who are intelligent and creative, and who are familiar with the subject matter, generally have good intuition for when some unexpected occurrence is worth exploring further. Making them ask for permission only slows the discovery process, it does not produce better results. If the unexpected result is, with hindsight, seen to be a mistake, at least it was an interesting mistake from which one learned something. There is another cliché that is popular amongst some scientists who I have known: "If I knew what I was doing, it would not be research." For the kind of research that involves discovery of facts that were previously unknown, this cliché is correct: the results are unpredictable and many of the methods will fail, before there is any success. The kind of research done by physicists and chemists in universities often falls in this category. For lack of a better name, this is conventionally called "pure research". However, there is another kind of research – called applied research – in which the goal might be (1) to design a new product to meet certain specifications or (2) evaluate a product, perhaps a drug, for safety and efficacy. Applied research can be managed successfully. The scientists and engineers who work in applied research definitely know what they are doing and they frequently almost meet their deadlines. < grin > I discuss applied research more in the section on industrial management, later in this essay. The point to be made here is that scientists and engineers who are doing applied research also can have unexpected results, in addition to simply doing their assignment. If they have some spare time, the unexpected results can be investigated and might become more significant than the original assignment. Commonly there is no time and the unexpected results are forgotten. I have come to believe that it is not rational to attempt to manage pure scientific research. True research involves a quest for the unknown that is inherently un predictable. Even the people doing the research, who are experts in their field, have difficulty predicting the applications and consequences of their discoveries. If the experts can not see the consequences, there is no reasonable hope that a manager without technical expertise can see the consequences. Some "insignificant" projects might become significant many years after they are published, when someone else recognizes a use for the result of the old work. The most famous example of this was Einstein's use of non-Euclidian geometry in his gravitational theory – before Einstein, non-Euclidian geometry had been pure mathematics without any practical application. Research is often highly personal. Researchers do not like to ask permission to explore ideas that may be tentative, intuitive, and difficult to communicate. Many good ideas begin as a mistake or error, which produced an unexpected result, and few people like to mention their mistakes or errors to their supervisor! Finally, I observe that pure research is inherently wasteful: one often spends money on projects that fails to give any really useful information. One must simply accept such dross as part of the price of progress. If the results were predictable, then it wouldn't be pure research. Diamond mines also produce lots of worthless rock, but are still profitable enterprises. When we look back on the history of the Bell Telephone Laboratories in the USA, we remember the invention of the transistor, the invention of the laser, the discovery of cosmic background noise remaining from the Big Bang, not to mention the development of a highly reliable telephone network. Who cares about the dross that was produced in that Laboratory? Research should be supported because it is the engine that fuels modern economies (by creating new products and new ways of working), as well as improving the quality of life, and because men's spirits are lifted by discovery of knowledge, just as putting a man on the moon made everyone in the USA proud. Many people whose familiarity with science comes from reading a book will wonder why scientists do not go into a laboratory and emerge with an important results, such as a cure (or vaccine) for some dreadful disease. Progress in science is generally slow. Each scientists makes small incremental steps of progress, building on the published results of others, as well as their own experience. Rarely – and only rarely – will a scientist have an inspired, novel thought that is truly revolutionary. These people often get a Nobel prize for their achievement. In looking at biographies of Nobel-prizewinners and other famous scientists, I see two classes of innovation:competent scientists who were in the right place at the right time. Some of these people apparently do not make any other truly great achievement during the remainder of their career. Perhaps this kind of significant innovation is a random event.true genius, who is able to repeatedly develop significant innovative ideas (e.g. Einstein)It appears that very few scientists are blessed with one great moment, even fewer are blessed with several great moments. It is the same in music: some composers (J. S. Bach, F. J. Haydn, W. A. Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert) wrote large quantities of outstanding music at a frantic pace, while other composers produced only a few outstanding compositions during their lifetime. How can we, as professors, leaders, managers, encourage great discoveries to occur more frequently? History shows us that many important discoveries are made by young scientists, during their time in graduate school or in the few years after they receive their doctoral degree. The conventional interpretation is that the time between ages 20 and 30 years are the "best" years of a scientist's life. The reason for this phenomena seems to be that young scientist have learned the basic skills (e.g., calculus, differential equations, statistics, computer programming, scientific theories) but are inexperienced. In this way they are like a child in a new environment: the child is naturally curious and almost everything is unfamiliar. But, unlike a child, a young scientist is articulate, knows how to observe and record facts, and knows how to interpret the facts. When someone has worked or lived in an environment for more than about ten years, they tend to be less observant and less curious, because they are familiar with the environment. With this interpretation, the solution to increasing creativity is clear: scientists should change fields approximately every ten years, so they continue to seek big, new challenges, instead of becoming comfortable experts. I do not necessarily mean radical changes, such as from nuclear physics to collecting butterflies in a rain forest, although a nuclear physicist would bring a rich collection of new techniques to taxonomy. < grin > Linus Pauling is an outstanding example of a person who changed fields and was productive in each field where he worked. Of course, changing fields periodically will stop the production of wise, old men who have 40 years of experience in a field. Exactly! Many of these "wise" old men know that something can not be done, whereas an inexperienced person simply does it and is rewarded. Many of these "wise" old men know that something is not worth doing, whereas a less experienced person puts facts together in a new way and makes an important discovery. I am not against the wisdom that comes with experience, but I would prefer to see experience in many different areas instead of 40 years of experience in one narrow area. There is also a valuable cross-fertilization between areas: techniques that are well-known in one field can enrich another field. We can also encourage creativity by changing the way that schools are operated, which I discuss in the next session of this essay. If schools produce more creative people, our government must give financial support for creative activities, not just scientific research, but composition of music, and other forms of creativity.6. issues in education of creative students My observation is that many instructors, from elementary school through undergraduate college courses, have a standard, orthodox, only "one right way" approach to the material. A student who does it differently from the instructor is labeled "wrong". I believe that such an approach is often the result of the limited intellectual ability of the instructor, who only knows one reliable technique. Conventional instructors ask students to recite on an examination information from lectures or the textbook. This is a difficult task for creative students, because creative people naturally add something new to what ordinary people consider a straightforward problem. As a simple example of rigidity, when I was a pupil in elementary school, the textbook and instructor taught that the definition of a noun was "the name of a person, place, or thing." But I had read my mother's old college grammar book, which said that a noun was "the name of anything". I liked the latter definition better, because it was logically simpler: any name is a noun. But I was marked wrong for not using the official definition, although the definition I gave on the examination was equivalent. A more serious example of rigidity in education was given in a letter to the New England Journal of Medicine. The author had attended medical school in the late 1800's, when patients with bacterial infections often died. During bacteriology class, he had carelessly allowed his culture dish to become contaminated with mold, which killed the bacteria. His professor berated him for his sloppiness in allowing the contamination. Looking backwards from the antibiotic era, this example of education seems stubbornly rigid. Because of the focus was on obtaining the "correct" result, neither the professor nor the student asked the proper question, namely "Can the property of molds to kill bacteria in vitro be used to cure bacterial infections in vivo?" In 1928, Alexander Fleming isolated penicillin, the first of the antibiotics, from the common mold Penicillium, an achievement for which he received the Nobel prize in medicine in 1945. Fleming's discovery of penicillin came from asking the proper question, which instructors of bacteriology in medical school could have (but did not) asked fifty years earlier. I remember a test question from my wife's medical journal in the early 1980s, along the following lines. You are a physician in an emergency room. Joan, who is known to you as a diabetic who uses insulin, arrives by ambulance and is comatose. Her husband says she was vomiting earlier in the evening. What do you do immediately? Administer glucose intravenously. Administer insulin intravenously. Draw blood and measure serum glucose level. Check airway, breathing, and heart rate. The correct answer, according to the medical journal, is D, because the physician must always check airway, breathing, and circulation when initially examining a patient under emergency circumstances. When my wife gave me the question and I chose B, her comment was that I knew too much about biochemistry. Medicine, or at least medical education, is about following rules, not about thinking. My reaction is that a paramedic with no knowledge of physiology or endocrinology would do better than a scientist on this examination. When I was a law student during 1995-98, I saw the same rule-following behavior that rewarded memorization and penalized creative thinking. In my view, law and medical schools should post yellow warning signs at every entrance, marked NO THINKING ZONE . Students who are both intelligent and highly creative often make mediocre grades in school, because these creative students see issues and ambiguity in examination problems that the instructor did not intend. Creative students "misread the question", according to the view of the conventional instructor. This problem is particularly severe on multiple choice examinations where a creative student can quickly find situations in which either all or none of the answers are correct, whereas a noncreative student who knows the material in a conventional way simply selects the best answer and gets marked correct. On an essay or problem-solving examination where the student is expected to explain the student's answer, the student has an opportunity to show the instructor other ways to interpret the problem. However, conventional instructors are often intolerant of such creative interpretations. Moreover, many creative students are bored by pedestrian classes that are pitched at the intellectual level of the middle of the class (or, worse, pitched at a low level so that everyone passes), so the creative students devote more of their time to their personal creative projects and neglect their regular classes, which often leads to a grade average between C and B. I am concerned that many intelligent and creative students may prematurely abandon their education, because of boredom with the curriculum and teaching methods. Around 1960, it was the custom in the USA for elementary schools to spend the first half of each school year repeating material that had been taught during the previous year. This repetition is not only a waste of time for pupils who learned it the first time, but those pupils become bored with school. Many graduate students with high grades (i.e., nearly all A grades) are un able to do research, in which their assigned problem had no known solution. I saw this phenomenon when I was in graduate school during the 1970's and many of my fellow students dropped out of school. I saw this phenomena again during the 1980's when I was supervising graduate students' research work. On the other hand, I could find students with B grades in regular classes, and even C grades, who not only could do research work, but also seemed to enjoy the challenges of doing research work. Classes prepared students to take more classes, not to do original thinking, a conclusion that shows that schools and universities are failing in their basic mission. I think the concept of grades is sound, because grades provide a short-term motivation to study diligently. The real problem is not grades, but curricula and examinations that are filled with arbitrary textbook problems with little relevance to success in the actual practice of science or engineering, such as research or design of a new product. In teaching electrical engineering to undergraduate students, it is conventional to give them a circuit diagram with the values of all of the components (e.g., resistance, capacitance, inductance, independent voltage source, etc.) and ask the students to calculate either the output voltage or the current in some branch of the circuit. Engineering textbooks are filled with such problems, but (1) the circuits are arbitrary and without practical utility and (2) learning how to solve such problems does not produce better engineers. However, it is relatively easy to teach students to solve these problems and it is easy for the instructor to grade their work, since there is only one correct answer. In contrast, I invented my own homework problems that asked a student to design a circuit having certain properties (e.g., input impedance, specified relationship between input voltage and output voltage, etc.). To make the exercise more realistic, I penalized the students slightly for using more components than my design: this emphasized that simple designs were better. The amount of my grade penalty was proportional to the cost of the extra component (s), but I would waive the penalty if the student's circuit had some feature that was better than my straightforward solution. The reaction of the students to these problems was interesting to me. Most of the students found my homework frustratingly difficult, because they had never done such problems before, although they had attended 12 years of education in public schools plus at least 2 years of college before I taught them. Many of the students who had received A grades in most of their previous science, mathematics, and engineering classes were struggling hard to earn a C grade in my class. More surprisingly, some of the nominal C students were earning an A grade in my class, and they suddenly came alive for the first time in many years of school. Among physics teachers, there is a famous story of a student who does not give the expected answer to a straightforward examination question. If you have not already read this story about determining the height of a building with a barometer, now you have the opportunity. < grin > Many physics professors see this story as illustrating adolescent rebellion or mere scholasticism. However, I am very sympathetic to the student's boredom and defiance: physics is about more than pendula, balls rolling down inclined planes, and measurements of mass and distance. Physics is about understanding the universe – space, time, energy, symmetry – and discovering new knowledge. Learning to solve boring textbook problems is a poor preparation for a career in scientific research. Students need to see more homework problems in school that require creative solutions: Instead of asking for one solution, require the A students to give two different methods of solving one problem. Encourage students to find creative solutions instead of prosaic solutions. Give problems that are unreasonably difficult to answer correctly, and have the students find a rough approximation. Give students problems without adequate information; let them go to the library and find the information that they need. Give more problems that ask the student to design a circuit, interpret data, design a method of doing an experiment, .... Assign term papers that require reading from multiple sources, making a creative synthesis of the information, and finding contradictions or inconsistencies in authoritative, published works. Occasionally assign exercises that show an in correct solution to a problem (e.g., computer program that contains at least one bug, electronic circuit that will not function properly) and have the students find the defect and suggest a correction. Assign laboratory experiments that allow students freedom to choose technique (s) and topics. Arrange or compose music, not merely playing music. I have posted some comments on the value of attending a small liberal arts college for the bachelor's degree, then a large research-oriented university for a doctoral degree. That essay also has some comments on the value of colleges for women only. Children seem to have an innate sense of curiosity, enthusiasm, and imagination. Mature adults generally lack these qualities. Where did these qualities get lost? I believe that teachers and industrial managers beat these qualities out of people, in order to make them easier to control and manage. In my experience, both as a student and professor, organized education – as a bureaucracy – actively discourages creativity. I believe that creativity can be taught and encouraged in a master-apprentice setting, such as a student working in a research laboratory. It is much more difficult to teach and encourage creativity in a classroom with more than twenty students, but I believe it can be done in a small way, if the instructor makes a great effort. Of course, there is no reward for the instructor who makes that effort, and with the many other demands on the instructor's time in American universities, it is unlikely that the instructor will make the effort. A related problem is the intellectual egalitarianism in the USA: it is ok to select athletes with unusual abilities and train them hard, but the same process with intellect is seen as snobbish. That is a recipe for disaster in an economy that depends on technological innovation. And yet that is exactly the route taken by public elementary schools and high schools in the USA, as well as by most state colleges and universities in the USA.television Aside from the insidious effects of formal education on creativity, I am concerned with the effect of television. When one reads a book, one forms a mental image of what is happening. When one listens to the radio (e.g., a baseball game), one also forms a mental image of what is happening (i.e., remember the positions of the players and imagine how they are moving). But television explicitly shows the correct image, so there is nothing left to the imagination. I believe that reading books, and listening to the radio, stimulate the imagination, which is a very valuable skill for creative people. The ubiquitousness of television after the mid-1950's may be depriving children, and adults too, of opportunities to expand their ability to imagine. The insipid content of television programs in the USA is a separate problem that is not relevant here.7. industrial management of research If an industrial manager finds out about an unauthorized project by a creative engineer, the engineer will generally be ordered not to do it. There are a variety of reasons for this heavy-handed control of creative engineers by management. First, managers believe "good ideas" come from the top manager down to the workers, "good ideas" can not possibly originate from mere workers. Second, "it's not in the budget." – it would be horrible if an industrial group did more than it was assigned and paid to do! Third, people in positions of power and authority see creative people who are enthusiastic about their new ideas as loose cannons, who are dangerous and need to be controlled. Creative people often have their own vision of the future, which disagrees with the manager's direction. Managers want everything under control and on schedule, creative people are generally disorganized and unpredictable. One can neither schedule nor predict a brilliant idea. My cynicism in the previous paragraph is based on my personal experience working in a major American corporation (Xerox), augmented by tales from many of my associates who continue to work in industry, despite their frustrations. The popularity of the Dilbert comic strip is testimony to how common nonsensical management is in the USA. The fundamental organization of a business day into work from 8 AM to 5 PM, Monday through Friday, disrupts the way many creative people work. For example, when I program computers, I tend to work continuously for about 14 hours, then collapse in bed and sleep for 8 hours, then go back to work on my program. I repeat this cycle until the program is finished, even if it means working on Saturday and Sunday. If I were to break up my work into shorter blocks of time, I would be much less productive, because I would need to spend more time picking up the thread of my previous thoughts. When I talk to other programmers among university faculty, I find that my binge behavior is typical. Similarly, some composers retreated from society and worked continuously until their musical composition was completed. As effort becomes more routine, it also become less creative. For example, a bank manager would not want a creative bank teller, instead, a manager would want to treat tellers as generic, interchangeable commodities, who do their work in the same way. Indeed, "creative bank teller" or "creative accountant" sounds like a euphemism for fraud! < grin > Creativity is essentially a solitary enterprise. Most landmark discoveries in science and all major musical compositions are the work of one person. However, teamwork, not individualism, is the standard pattern in industry. There is a funny experiment of mine that you can reproduce. Engage a businessman or industrial manager in a discussion about creativity. Then ask: "Would Beethoven have been more productive if he had been working in a team?" The question is absolutely ludicrous to anyone who understands either the art of musical composition or Beethoven's personality. I have difficulty asking this question without giggling, because it is such an outrageous suggestion! But, astoundingly, industrial managers tend to say: "Yes, I would have put Beethoven in a team and increased his productivity." My conclusion is that such industrial managers do not understand the first thing about either creativity or development of art. I see close parallels in composing music and making scientific discoveries, and the personality of Beethoven is close to the personality of many creative professors of science, despite the differences in subject matter and methods. Aside from issues of management of creative people, I think attempting to increase Beethoven's productivity by putting him in a team is akin to killing the Goose that laid the golden egg. Beethoven was incredibly productive without any management or teamwork: during 33 years of work, he composed more than 50 major works that bridged the Classical and Romantic periods, and introduced numerous innovations. All this without a consistent patron or employer, and with deafness during the last years of his life, particularly when he composed the Ninth Symphony.8. bibliographybooks Teresa M. Amabile, Creativity in Context , Westview Press, 1996. This book is an update of her classic work, The Social Psychology of Creativity that was published in 1983. Frederick P. Brooks, The Mythical Man-Month , Addison Wesley, 1975. Brooks was the manager for the development of the IBM System 360, the operating system for the most common mainframe computers in the USA during the 1970's. Jacques Hadamard, The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field, Princeton University Press, 1945. Reprinted by Dover Press. Hadamard was a professor of mathematics. G. H. Hardy, A Mathematician's Apology , Cambridge University Press, 1940. The classic book on what it means to do pure mathematical research. The editions in 1967 and thereafter have an interesting forward by C. P. Snow. Clifford A. Pickover, Strange Brains and Genius, Plenum, 1998. The book is not a technical work for professionals, but was written for a popular audience. In places, it barely rises above an exhibition of freaks and eccentric behaviors. Nonetheless, there are some interesting insights in this book. George Polya, How to Solve It, Princeton University Press, 1946. A professor of mathematics gives some hints about the creative process. This book is written at the popular level. Robert J. Sternberg and Todd I. Lubart, Defying the Crowd: Cultivating Creativity in a Culture of Conformity , The Free Press, 1995. This book was written by two psychologists and is intended for an audience of laymen, but does have some references to technical literature. The authors believe that everyone has some creativity, but that society and managers discourage creativity. The authors consistently use financial analogies in their book: "buy low, sell high" is particularly prevalent. Many of the examples are taken from observations of pupils or students in schools, not from professional scientists or engineers. The book contains some errors in science and technology, none of which detract from the underlying message. Gerald M. Weinberg, The Psychology of Computer Programming . The author is a professor of computer science who advocates "ego-less" programming.journal articles Kenneth R. Hardy, "Social Origins of American Scientists and Scholars," Science, Vol. 185, pp. 497-506, 9 Aug 1974. Reports that membership in Unitarian church, Society of Friends (Quaker), or secularized Jewish religions were highly overrepresented among scholars when compared to the entire U. S. population. Sternberg's Theory of Creativity In my reading of psychological literature, there are numerous hypotheses and theories of creativity that conflict with what I have observed in creative colleagues and what I have read in biographies of creative scientists and composers of music. However, the following theory of creativity, put forth by Prof. Sternberg at Yale University, makes sense to me. Sternberg says that all of the following are essential: a lack of any one item in the list precludes creativity. I think he is correct, except for the last item: it is not necessary to have a favorable environment, although such an environment certainly makes life easier for creative people. Intelligencesynthetic intelligence. The ability to combine existing information in a new way.analytic intelligence. The ability to distinguish between new ideas that have potential, and new ideas that are not worth further work. This ability is essential to an effective allocation of resources, by evaluating the quality of new ideas.practical intelligence. The ability to sell one's ideas to funding agencies, managers, editors, reviewers, etc. Without "practical intelligence" the creative person will not be allocated resources to develop their ideas, and the creative person may achieve recognition only posthumously. Knowledge gives the ability to recognize what is genuinely new. The history of science shows that many good ideas are discovered independently by more than one person. Scientists and engineers must be familiar with the technical literature, in order to avoid "reinventing the wheel". On the other hand, too much knowledge might block creativity, by immediately providing reasons why a new idea is not worth pursuing and by encouraging a person to be rigid in their thinking. Knowledge is also important to provide skills necessary to design experiments, to design new products, to analyze the results of experiments, do computations, etc. Thinking Styles. Creative people question conventional wisdom, instead of passively accepting that wisdom. Creative people question common assumptions and rules, instead of mindlessly follow them. This style brings creative people into conflict with society around them, so it is also essential to have a personality that tolerates this conflict, as explained in the next item in this list. Personality. Creative people take the risk to defy conventional wisdom and to be a nonconformist. Creative people have the courage to persist, even when the people around them provide objections, criticism, ridicule, and other obstacles. Most people are too timid to be really creative. Motivationintrinsic or personal. Creative people genuinely enjoy their work and set their own goals.extrinsic. There are a number of extrinsic motivators: money, promotions, prizes, praise, fame, etc. Extrinsic motivators mostly focus on an end result, not the process of discovery or creativity. In highly creative people, extrinsic motivators appear to be less important than intrinsic motivators. Environmental Context. Many environments (particularly managers and bureaucracy) discourage creativity. A creative individual who could flourish in one environment can become a routine, ordinary worker in another environment. The optimum environment for creative people is where they can be paid to do their creative work, so creativity is a full-time job, not a spare-time hobby. Permit me to explain my disagreement with Prof. Sternberg on the last item: a favorable environment. Many types of creative work (e.g., research in theoretical physics, writing books, composing music, etc.) require minimal physical resources, so such creative activities can be accomplished in one's personal time at nights, weekends, and holidays. If one is employed in an environment that discourages creativity, one can still be creative on one's personal time. In this sense, a favorable environment is not necessary for creativity. On the other hand, other types of creative work (e.g., experiments in physics, chemistry, engineering, etc.) can require expensive laboratory apparatus. A scientist without access to such laboratory facilities is prohibited from doing creative work in experimental science. So, in this sense, I agree with Prof. Sternberg that a favorable environment can be necessary for creative work. this document is at http://www.rbs0.com/create.htm begun 25 May 1997, revised 25 Dec 2002 return to my homepage | . The website you were trying to reach is temporarily unavailable. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.marine corps number enlisted | Service number (United States Marine Corps) Service number (United States Marine Corps)From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other versions of United States military service numbers, see " Service number (United States armed forces) "United States Marine Corps service numbers were created in 1920, the same year as Navy service numbers, and were modeled after the same design. Contents [ hide ]1 Marine Corps officer numbers2 Marine Corps enlisted numbers3 Notable service numbers4 Sources5 References Marine Corps officer numbers [ edit]The first one hundred Marine Corps officer service numbers were intended for retroactive presentation to World War I veterans; the Marine Corps issued these early numbers alphabetically and the first Marine Corps officer number was issued to retired Major James Ackerman. Ackerman was issued the service number "01" with the policy established that all Marine Corps officer numbers would begin with a zero. The Marine Corps officer corps in the 1920s was relatively small and, by the start of the 1930s, the Marine Corps had yet to issue more than one thousand officer service numbers. In 1931, the number of possible officer numbers was increased to two thousand with this number not yet reached upon the outbreak of World War II in 1941. During World War II, the officer service number range was extended to 50,000 and, during Korea, extended again to 100,000; this number was not reached by the officer corps until 1966. At that time, the Marine Corps extended the officer service numbers a final time to 125,000. Officer service numbers were then discontinued in 1972. Final distribution of Marine Corps officer service numbers Marine Corps enlisted numbers [ edit]Marine Corps enlisted service numbers were also issued retroactively; however, numbers 1 through 20,000 were never assigned. Thus, the first Marine Corps enlisted service number was 20,001 and was assigned to a Marine named Alexander Schott. Service numbers upwards to 49,999 were also retroactive and assigned to discharged or retired Marines who had served between 1905 and 1917. The enlisted service numbers between 50,000 and 60,000 were never assigned by the Marine Corps for reasons which are unclear. The next range of numbers, 60,001 to 99,999, were used for retroactive presentation from 1905 to 1919. The first active Marines who were assigned service numbers fell into the range of 100,000 to 199,999 as it was these numbers which were assigned in the 1920s to the enlisted force of the Marine Corps. In 1935, with the service number cap of 200,000 almost reached, the Marine Corps extended enlisted numbers to a new cap of 350,000. It was in this range that service numbers were being issued upon the outbreak of World War II. During the early part Second World War, the Marine Corps extended their enlisted service numbers to the number one million with numbers broken down into sub-sections reserved for particular groups enlisting during World War II. The first group, ranging numbers 350,000 to 670,899, were standard Marine Corps enlistees joining for wartime service. Numbers 670,900 to 699,999 were never issued and 700,000 to 799,999 were reserved for female enlisted personnel. The female enlisted service numbers were also the only numbers assigned a prefix code, as the letter W was used to denote female Marine Corps enlisted. Until the middle of World War II, the remaining service number range of 800,000 to 999,999 was used by regular Marine enlistees. In 1943, the Marine Corps extended enlisted service numbers to 1,699,999 even though the original one million service number cap had not yet been reached. Marine enlisted service number 1,000,000 was issued in 1944 and the cap of 1,700,000 was reached nine years later. Service numbers 1,700,000 to 1,799,999 were set aside for female enlisted personnel of the 1960s and 1970s while 1,800,000 to 2,000,000 was used by male enlistees. In 1965, with male service numbers running out due to a rise of enlistments during the Vietnam War, the Marine Corps extended enlisted service numbers a final time to 2,800,000. The highest Marine Corps service number reached was slightly above 2,699,000 before the numbers were discontinued in 1971. After this point, all Marine Corps service records converted to Social Security numbers as the primary identification means for service members. Final distribution of Marine Corps enlisted service numbers Notable service numbers [ edit]Significant Marine Corps service numbers include: [1]Officer01: James Ackerman032112: James Whitmore096702: Wesley Fox05254: Gregory Boyington05477: James Roosevelt03613: Evans F. Carlson0257: Merritt A. Edson06774: Joseph J. Foss0332: Roy Stanley Geiger04436: Samuel B. Griffith0920: Oliver P. Smith0863: Christian F. Schilt01034: Littleton W. T. Waller, Jr. Enlisted20001: Alexander Schott98912: Lou Diamond275228: Michael Strank287506: John Basilone337948: Byron De La Beckwith351391: Robert Leckie385253: Brian Keith439673: Lee Marvin572744: George C. Scott643310: Gene Hackman1000000: Jack W. Hill1060247: Lawrence Montaigne1522597: Donald P. Bellisario1956039: R. Lee Ermey2080594: Leonard Lake942989: Harry Kizirian251055: Victor Maghakian2119979: Richard A. Pittman Sources [ edit]National Personnel Records Center, Instruction Memo 1865.20E, "Service Number Information", 14 April 1988Military Personnel Records Center, "Training Guide Concerning Military Service Numbers", 28 June 2009References [ edit]^ National Personnel Records Center, Military Operations Branch, "Service number index and registry of retired, deceased, and discharged military personnel" (2007) [ hide]v t e United States Marine Corps Leadership Secretary of the Navy Under Secretary of the Navy Commandant of the Marine Corps Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps Marine Corps generals United States Congress House Subcommittee on Seapower and Expeditionary Forces Senate Subcommittee on Seapower Major commands Organization of the Marine Corps Headquarters Marine Corps Marine Forces Command II Marine Expeditionary Force Marine Forces Pacific I Marine Expeditionary Force III Marine Expeditionary Force Marine Forces Reserve Fleet Marine Force Atlantic Pacific Marine Corps Combat Development Command Small Wars Center and Irregular Warfare Integration Division (SWC/IWID)Operations Analysis Directorate (OAD) Training & Education Command (TECOM)United States Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory Structure Marine Air-Ground Task Force Bases Battalions Regiments Brigades Divisions MEF/Corps Marine aviation Marine expeditionary unit Special Operations Marine Raiders Marine Raider Regiment Recon Force Division Personnel and training Personnel Personnel Rank insignia MOS Notable Marines Historical Marines Marine Astronauts Criminal Investigation Division Judge Advocate Division Chaplain of the Marine Corps Associated organizations Training Training Recruit Training School of Infantry Officer Candidates School The Basic School Martial Arts Program Uniforms and equipment Uniforms Awards Badges Weapons Vehicles and aircraft Individual equipment History and traditions History Culture Acronyms and terms Birthday Ball Eagle, Globe, and Anchor Flag Marine Band Drum and Bugle Corps Marine One Silent Drill Platoon White House Sentries Service Numbers Marine Corps War Memorial Marines' Hymn National Museum Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima Rifleman's Creed Semper Fidelis History of Hispanics in the USMC History of women in the USMCWomen's Reserve Honorary Marine Toys for Tots Portal Category Categories: Military life Identifiers United States Marine Corps personnel | Enlisting in the Military Enlisting in the Military There are two main ways to join today’s volunteer Military: enlisting directly after high school or finishing college and joining as a commissioned officer. Enlistment is the most common way to join. Familiarizing yourself with the enlistment process can be helpful, as there are a few things that you’ll likely go through no matter which course you choose. Enlisted vs. Officer? Doing the Research Visiting a Recruiter MEPSAfter the MEPSBasic Training Advancement Opportunities Enlisted vs. Officer? In all military branches, servicemembers are divided into two categories: enlisted or officer. Both types of servicemembers are crucial to successful missions. Enlisted members are employed in almost every type of military career, often in hands-on roles. They make up approximately 83 percent of the overall active-duty military workforce (This figure includes noncommissioned officers (NCOs), who, despite the title, are higher-ranking enlisted personnel). Officers are generally employed in management roles or highly specialized fields that require more training (e.g., doctors, lawyers and chaplains). Commissioned officers account for approximately 18 percent of all active-duty servicemembers. Doing the Research Before you do anything else, do a little research. If you know a friend or family member who has spent time in the Military, now is the time to sit down and hear what he or she has to say. The Internet is also a good place to conduct research, but take what you read with a grain of salt. It is sometimes hard to tell which sources are official. These sites below are good starting points.www.todaysmilitary.com Army Army Reserve Army National Guard Marine Corps Marine Corps Reserve Navy Navy Reserve Air Force Air Force Reserve Air National Guard Coast Guard Coast Guard Reserve Medicine + the Military Visiting a Recruiter Once you’ve done your research and have a sense of which Service branches and opportunities are right for you, it’s time to talk to a recruiter. A recruiter can give you detailed information about the Service he or she represents (such as enlistment bonuses, service lifestyle and potential careers) and can answer any questions about your specific situation (for example, if you need a waiver, have dependent children or a physical condition that may or may not affect your eligibility). Recruiters serve for one specific branch; however, there are joint recruiting centers that have multiple branches and corresponding recruiters represented. While no single recruiter can answer every question off the top of his or her head, recruiters will know where to find the answers. It’s fine to bring a friend or parent to the recruiter with you for support. It’s also a good idea to make a list of questions beforehand so you don’t forget anything. You’ll probably talk to your recruiter multiple times before making a decision, so don’t worry if you do forget something. Military Entrance Processing Station ( MEPS)Once you make the decision to enlist, the Military Entrance Processing Station ( MEPS) is the place where recruits go to finish the enlistment process. There are MEPS locations all over the country. Candidates officially complete the process of joining the Military once they meet all of the requirements at the MEPS. This process may take a few days. Potential recruits must do the following at the MEPS: Pass the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery ( ASVAB)The ASVAB is a multiple-choice exam that helps determine which kinds of careers an individual is best suited for. There are questions about math, language, science, mechanical and electronic knowledge and more. The test lasts about three hours and is one of the factors used to determine which military specialties you’d be good at. Pass the Physical Examination Your recruiter will discuss physical requirements with you beforehand. While the physical examination varies from branch to branch, it typically includes completing a medical history questionnaire, taking basic blood, urine and flexibility tests, as well as hearing and vision exams. Meet With a MEPS Career Counselor and Determine a Career Along with your ASVAB results, a MEPS career counselor will take Service needs, any prior experience and your wishes into account when helping you find a career. Take the Oath of Enlistment (swearing in)Led by a commissioned officer and always performed in front of a United States flag, the Oath of Enlistment is when you raise your right hand, repeat the oath and become a full-fledged member of the U. S. Military. During the Oath every servicemember vows to support and defend the Constitution of the United States. What Happens After the MEPSAfter finishing at the MEPS, candidates follow one of two options:“Direct Ship” – This means that a candidate will leave for Basic Training in a matter of days versus months. Delayed Entry Program ( DEP) – This means that a recruit is committing to Basic Training at a time in the future, generally within one year. Candidates entering the DEP will be given further instruction, to be followed at a later time. It’s important to note that, depending on which option you choose, the time between being “sworn in” and Basic Training could be as short as two days or as long as a year. It also varies based on job assignment and branch of Service. Learn more about MEPS and DEPBasic Training (Boot Camp)Advanced preparation is the foundation for a successful Basic Training experience. Recruits should do everything they can to make the transition from civilian life to military life as seamless as possible. Starting or increasing the intensity of an exercise regimen will get your body in shape. Reading about your chosen Service is also helpful and can help you know what to expect in the weeks ahead. This checklist can help you prepare what you’ll need to bring. Checklist: Basic Training The first few days at Basic Training are known as orientation (also referred to as “Processing Week,” “Reception” or “00 Week”). This is where new recruits adjust to their new surroundings and learn the dos and don’ts of their respective branches. Also during orientation, new recruits might: Turn in enlistment packages (paperwork from the MEPS)Receive dental and medical exams Get immunizations Receive uniforms and training gear (shorts/sweats, t-shirts, etc. )Receive required haircuts (women can keep their hair long provided it can be worn within regulation and put up in a timely manner; it must be neatly tied back and be kept above the collar)Create direct-deposit accounts for paychecks Starting at orientation, the actual training begins. This varies from Service to Service and lasts between eight and 12 weeks. When recruits successfully complete Basic Training, they are prepared for all elements of service: physical, mental and emotional. As military personnel, they will go on to receive additional training, such as Advanced Individual Training or Technical Training, to develop the skills needed to do their specific jobs. Once finished, they transfer to their next duty stations. This is where members of the Services put all their training to use by carrying out their assignments, performing their jobs and serving our country. More on Boot Camp Advancement Opportunities for Enlisted Personnel There are several ways an enlisted servicemember can advance up the ranks. Two possible routes are becoming a noncommissioned officer or transitioning from enlisted to commissioned officer: Becoming a Noncommissioned Officer Noncommissioned officers (NCOs) are higher-ranking enlisted personnel who play a crucial role in day-to-day military operations and are often referred to as the “backbone” of the Armed Forces. Serving as the liaison between commissioned officers and lower-ranking enlisted personnel, they are responsible for providing advice and guidance to officers as well as leadership and training to lower-ranking enlisted personnel. To become a noncommissioned officer a servicemember must rise up through the enlisted ranks. A servicemember can only be appointed to noncommissioned officer if he or she is promoted by a higher-ranking officer. Transitioning from Enlisted to Officer Some enlisted service members make the transition into officer roles. Enlisted service members with the right qualifications may be recommended by their commanding officers for OCS/ OTS or ROTC (if they plan to go back to school). Most Services also have transitional programs that help service members make the leap. Learn more about becoming a commissioned officer Related Resources Locate a Recruiter Types of Military Service Skills and Opportunities |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is the biggest carnivore of the dinosaurs? | Spinosaurus From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Spinosaurus Temporal range: Early – Late Cretaceous, 112–93.5 Ma PreЄ Є O S D C P T J K Pg NReconstructed Spinosaurus skeleton in swimming posture Scientific classification Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Clade: Dinosauria Order: Saurischia Suborder: Theropoda Family: † Spinosauridae Subfamily: † Spinosaurinae Genus: † Spinosaurus Stromer, 1915Type species Spinosaurus aegyptiacus Stromer, 1915Synonyms? Spinosaurus maroccanus Russell, 1996? Sigilmassasaurus brevicollis Russell, 1996? Oxalaia Kellner et al., 2011Spinosaurus (meaning "spine lizard") is a genus of theropod dinosaur that lived in what now is North Africa, during the upper Albian to upper Turonian stages of the Cretaceous period, about 112 to 93.5 million years ago. This genus was known first from Egyptian remains discovered in 1912 and described by Germanpaleontologist Ernst Stromer in 1915. The original remains were destroyed in World War II, but additional material has come to light in recent years. It is unclear whether one or two species are represented in the fossils reported in the scientific literature. The best known species is S. aegyptiacus from Egypt, although a potential second species, S. maroccanus, has been recovered from Morocco. Spinosaurus was among the largest of all known carnivorous dinosaurs, nearly as large as or even larger than Tyrannosaurus, Giganotosaurus and Carcharodontosaurus. Estimates published in 2005, 2007, and 2008 suggested that it was between 12.6–18 metres (41–59 ft) in length and 7 to 20.9 tonnes (7.7 to 23.0 short tons) in weight. [1] [2] [3] A new estimate published in 2014 and based on a more complete specimen, supported the earlier research, finding that Spinosaurus could reach lengths of over 15 m (49 ft). [4] The skull of Spinosaurus was long and narrow, similar to that of a modern crocodilian. Spinosaurus is known to have eaten fish, and most scientists believe that it hunted both terrestrial and aquatic prey; evidence suggests that it lived both on land and in water as a modern crocodilian does. The distinctive spines of Spinosaurus, which were long extensions of the vertebrae, grew to at least 1.65 meters (5.4 ft) long and were likely to have had skin connecting them, forming a sail-like structure, although some authors have suggested that the spines were covered in fat and formed a hump. Multiple functions have been put forward for this structure, including thermoregulation and display. Contents [ hide ]1 Description1.1 Neural spines1.2 Skull2 Discovery and naming2.1 Naming of species2.2 Specimens2.2.1 Possible specimens3 Classification4 Paleobiology4.1 Function of neural spines4.2 Diet4.3 Posture5 Paleoecology6 In popular culture7 References8 Further reading9 External links Description Size comparison of selected giant theropod dinosaurs, S. aegyptiacus in red Since its discovery, Spinosaurus has been a contender for the longest and largest theropod dinosaur. [5] Both Friedrich von Huene in 1926 [6] and Donald F. Glut in 1982 listed it as among the most massive theropods in their surveys, at 15 meters (49 ft) in length and upwards of 6 t (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons) in weight. [7] In 1988, Gregory Paul also listed it as the longest theropod at 15 meters (49 ft), but gave a lower mass estimate of 4 tonnes (3.9 long tons; 4.4 short tons). [8]Dal Sasso et al. (2005) assumed that Spinosaurus and Suchomimus had the same body proportions in relation to their skull lengths, and thereby calculated that Spinosaurus was 16 to 18 meters (52 to 59 ft) in length and 7 to 9 tonnes (6.9 to 8.9 long tons; 7.7 to 9.9 short tons) in weight. [3] The Dal Sasso et al. estimates were criticized because the skull length estimate was uncertain, and (assuming that body mass increases as the cube of body length) scaling Suchomimus which was 11 meters (36 ft) long and 3.8 tonnes (4.2 short tons) in mass to the range of estimated lengths of Spinosaurus would produce an estimated body mass of 11.7 to 16.7 tonnes (12.9 to 18.4 short tons). [2]S. aegyptiacus head based on the 2005 Dal Sasso reconstruction François Therrien and Donald Henderson, in a 2007 paper using scaling based on skull length, challenged previous estimates of the size of Spinosaurus, finding the length too great and the weight too small. [2] Based on estimated skull lengths of 1.5 to 1.75 meters (4.9 to 5.7 ft), their estimates include a body length of 12.6 to 14.3 meters (41 to 47 ft) and a body mass of 12 to 20.9 tonnes (11.8 to 20.6 long tons; 13.2 to 23.0 short tons). [2] The lower estimates for Spinosaurus would imply that the animal was shorter and lighter than Carcharodontosaurus and Giganotosaurus. [2] The Therrien and Henderson study has been criticized for the choice of theropods used for comparison (e.g., most of the theropods used to set the initial equations were tyrannosaurids and carnosaurs, which have a different build than spinosaurids), and for the assumption that the Spinosaurus skull could be as little as 1.5 meters (4.9 ft) in length. [9] [10] Improvement of the precision of size estimates for Spinosaurus requires the discovery of more complete remains as available for some other dinosaurs, [11] especially the limb bones of Spinosaurus which are "hitherto unknown". [3]Neural spines Reconstruction of the holotype fossils Very tall neural spines growing on the back vertebrae of Spinosaurus formed the basis of what is usually called the animal's "sail". The lengths of the neural spines reached over 10 times the diameters of the vertebral bodies from which they extended. [12] The neural spines were slightly longer front to back at the base than higher up, and were unlike the thin rods seen in the pelycosaur finbacks Edaphosaurus and Dimetrodon, contrasting also with the thicker spines in the iguanodontian Ouranosaurus. [12]Spinosaurus sails were unusual, although other dinosaurs, namely the ornithopod Ouranosaurus, which lived a few million years earlier in the same general region as Spinosaurus, and the South American sauropod Amargasaurus, might have developed similar structural adaptations of their vertebrae. The sail may be an analog of the sail of the Permian synapsid Dimetrodon, which lived before the dinosaurs even appeared, produced by convergent evolution. [12]The structure may also have been more hump-like than sail-like, as noted by Stromer in 1915 ("one might rather think of the existence of a large hump of fat [ German: Fettbuckel ], to which the [neural spines] gave internal support") [13] and by Jack Bowman Bailey in 1997. [12] In support of his "buffalo-back" hypothesis, Bailey argued that in Spinosaurus, Ouranosaurus, and other dinosaurs with long neural spines, the spines were relatively shorter and thicker than the spines of pelycosaurs (which were known to have sails); instead, the dinosaurs' neural spines were similar to the neural spines of extinct hump-backed mammals such as Megacerops and Bison latifrons. [12]Skull Annotated skull diagram The skull had a narrow snout filled with straight conical teeth that lacked serrations. There were six or seven teeth on each side of the very front of the upper jaw, in the premaxillae, and another twelve in both maxillae behind them. The second and third teeth on each side were noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth in the premaxilla, creating a space between them and the large teeth in the anterior maxilla; large teeth in the lower jaw faced this space. The very tip of the snout holding those few large anterior teeth was expanded, and a small crest was present in front of the eyes. [3] Using the dimensions of three specimens known as MSNM V4047, UCPC-2, and BSP 1912 VIII 19, and assuming that the postorbital part of the skull of MSNM V4047 had a shape similar to the postorbital part of the skull of Irritator, Dal Sasso et al. (2005) estimated that the skull of Spinosaurus was 1.75 meters (5.7 ft) long. [3] The Dal Sasso et al. skull length estimate was questioned because skull shapes can vary across spinosaurid species. [2]A 2013 made study performed by scientists Andrew R. Cuff and Emily Rayfield showed that Spinosaurids like Spinosaurus had relatively poor resistance in their skulls for torsion compared to other members of this group ( Baryonyx) and modern alligators, thus showing Spinosaurus preyed more regularly on fish than it did on land animals, although considered predators of the former too. [14]Discovery and naming Naming of species Skeletal restoration showing the holotype elements Two species of Spinosaurus have been named: Spinosaurus aegyptiacus (meaning "Egyptian spine lizard") and Spinosaurus maroccanus (meaning "Moroccan spine lizard"). [15] [16] [17]The first described remains of Spinosaurus were found and described in the early 20th century. In 1912, Richard Markgraf discovered a partial skeleton of a dinosaur in the Bahariya Formation of western Egypt. In 1915, German paleontologist Ernst Stromer published an article assigning the specimen to a new genus and species Spinosaurus aegyptiacus. [13] [15]Fragmentary additional remains from Bahariya, including vertebrae and hindlimb bones, were designated by Stromer as " Spinosaurus B " in 1934. [18] Stromer considered them different enough to belong to another species, and this has been borne out. With the advantage of more expeditions and material, it appears that they pertain either to Carcharodontosaurus [19] or to Sigilmassasaurus. [16]S. maroccanus was originally described by Dale Russell in 1996 as a new species based on the length of its neck vertebrae. [16] Specifically, Russell claimed that the ratio of the length of the centrum ( body of vertebra) to the height of the posterior articular facet was 1.1 in S. aegyptiacus and 1.5 in S. maroccanus. [16] Later authors have been split on this topic. Some authors note that the length of the vertebrae can vary from individual to individual, that the holotype specimen was destroyed and thus cannot be compared directly with the S. maroccanus specimen, and that it is unknown which cervical vertebrae the S. maroccanus specimens represent. Therefore, though some have retained the species as valid without much comment, [20] [21] [22] most researchers regard S. maroccanus as a nomen dubium [3] [23] [24] or as a junior synonym of S. aegyptiacus. [19]Specimens Six main partial specimens of Spinosaurus have been described. Plate I in Stromer (1915) showing S. aegyptiacus holotype elements BSP 1912 VIII 19, described by Stromer in 1915 from the Bahariya Formation, was the holotype. [13] [15] The material consisted of the following items, most of which were incomplete: right and left dentaries and splenials from the lower jaw measuring 75 centimeters (30 in) long; a straight piece of the left maxilla that was described but not drawn; 20 teeth; 2 cervical vertebrae; 7 dorsal (trunk) vertebrae; 3 sacral vertebrae; 1 caudal vertebra; 4 thoracic ribs; and gastralia. [13] Of the nine neural spines whose heights are given, the longest ("i," associated with a dorsal vertebra) was 1.65 meters (5.4 ft) in length. [13] Stromer claimed that the specimen was from the early Cenomanian, about 97 million years ago. [13] [15]This specimen was destroyed in World War II, specifically "during the night of 24/25 April 1944 in a British bombing raid of Munich" that severely damaged the building housing the Paläontologisches Museum München (Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology). [15] However, detailed drawings and descriptions of the specimen remain. Stromer's son donated Stromer's archives to the Paläontologische Staatssammlung München in 1995, and Smith et al. analyzed two photographs of the Spinosaurus holotype specimen BSP 1912 VIII 19 discovered in the archives in 2000. [15] On the basis of a photograph of the lower jaw and a photograph of the entire specimen as mounted, Smith concluded that Stromer's original 1915 drawings were slightly inaccurate. [15] In 2003, Oliver Rauhut suggested that Stromer's Spinosaurusholotype was a chimera, composed of vertebrae and neural spines from a carcharodontosaurid similar to Acrocanthosaurus and a dentary from Baryonyx or Suchomimus. [24] This analysis was rejected in at least one subsequent paper. [3]NMC 50791, held by the Canadian Museum of Nature, is a mid-cervical vertebra which is 19.5 centimeters (7.7 in) long from the Kem Kem Beds of Morocco. [16] It is the holotype of Spinosaurus maroccanus as described by Russell in 1996. [16] Other specimens referred to S. maroccanus in the same paper were two other mid-cervical vertebrae (NMC 41768 and NMC 50790), an anterior dentary fragment (NMC 50832), a mid-dentary fragment (NMC 50833), and an anterior dorsal neural arch (NMC 50813). [16] Russell stated that "only general locality information could be provided" for the specimen, and therefore it could be dated only "possibly" to the Albian. [16]Specimen MNHN SAM 124 of S. maroccanus, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris MNHN SAM 124, housed at the Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, is a snout (consisting of partial premaxillae, partial maxillae, vomers, and a dentary fragment). [25] Described by Taquet and Russell in 1998, the specimen is 13.4 to 13.6 centimeters (5.3–5.4 in) in width; no length was stated. [25] The specimen was located in Algeria, and "is of Albian age." [25] Taquet and Russell believed that this specimen along with a premaxilla fragment (SAM 125), two cervical vertebrae (SAM 126-127), and a dorsal neural arch (SAM 128), belonged to S. maroccanus. [25]BM231 (in the collection of the Office National des Mines, Tunis) was described by Buffetaut and Ouaja in 2002. [23] It consists of a partial anterior dentary 11.5 centimetres (4.53 in) in length from an early Albian stratum of the Chenini Formation of Tunisia. [23] The dentary fragment, which included four alveoli and two partial teeth, was "extremely similar" to existing material of S. aegyptiacus. [23]UCPC-2 in the University of Chicago Paleontological Collection consists mainly of two narrow connected nasals with a "fluted crest" from the region between the eyes. [3] The specimen, which is 18.0 centimetres (7.09 in) long, was located in an early Cenomanian part of the Moroccan Kem Kem Beds in 1996 and described in the scientific literature in 2005 by Cristiano Dal Sasso of the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan and colleagues. [3]Specimen MSNM V4047 of S. aegyptiacus in the Civic Natural History Museum in Milan MSNM V4047 (in the Museo di Storia Naturale di Milano ), described by Dal Sasso et al. in 2005, consists of a snout (premaxillae, partial maxillae, and partial nasals) 98.8 centimetres (38.9 in) long from the Kem Kem Beds. [3] Like UCPC-2, it is thought to have come from the early Cenomanian. FSAC-KK 11888 is a partial subadult skeleton recovered from the Kem Kem beds of North Africa. Described by Ibrahim et al. (2014) and designated as the neotype specimen (although Evers et al. 2015 reject the neotype designation for FSAC-KK-11888). [26] It includes cervical vertebrae, dorsal vertebrae, neural spines, a complete sacrum, femora, tibiae, pedal phalanges, caudal vertebra, several dorsal ribs, and fragments of the skull. [27] The body proportions of this specimen have been debated as the hind limbs are disproportionately shorter in the specimen than in previous reconstructions. However, it has been demonstrated by multiple paleontologists that the specimen is not a chimaera, and is indeed a specimen of Spinosaurus that suggests that the animal had much smaller hind limbs than previously thought [28] [29] [30] Other known specimens consist mainly of very fragmentary remains and scattered teeth. These include: A 1986 paper described prismatic structures in tooth enamel from two Spinosaurus teeth from Tunisia. [31]Buffetaut (1989, 1992) referred three specimens from the Institut und Museum für Geologie und Paläontologie of the University of Göttingen in Germany to Spinosaurus: a right maxilla fragment IMGP 969-1, a jaw fragment IMGP 969-2, and a tooth IMGP 969-3. [32] [33] These had been found in a Lower Cenomanian or Upper Albian deposit in southeastern Morocco in 1971. [32]Reconstructed subadult skeleton from a private collection Kellner and Mader (1997) described two unserrated spinosaurid teeth from Morocco (LINHM 001 and 002) that were "highly similar" to the teeth of the S. aegyptiacus holotype. [34]Teeth from the Chenini Formation in Tunisia which are "narrow, somewhat rounded in cross-section, and lack the anterior and posterior serrated edges characteristic of theropods and basal archosaurs " were assigned to Spinosaurus in 2000. [35]Teeth from the Echkar Formation of Niger were "tentatively" referred to Spinosaurus in 2007. [36]A partial tooth 8 cm long purchased at a fossil trade show, reportedly from the Kem Kem Bed of Morocco and attributed to Spinosaurus maroccanus, showed 1–5 mm wide longitudinal striations and micro-structures (irregular ridges) among the striations in a 2010 paper. [22]MHNM. KK374 to. KK378 are five isolated quadrates (skull bones) of different sizes were collected by locals and acquired commercially in the Kem Kem region of southeastern Morocco, provided by François Escuillié and are deposited in the collections of the Muséum d’Histoire Naturelle of Marrakech. The quadrates show two different morphologies suggesting the existence of two spinosaurines in Morocco. [37]Possible specimens Possible material belonging to Spinosaurus has been reported from the Turkana Grits of Kenya. [38]Some scientists have considered the genus Sigilmassasaurus a junior synonym of Spinosaurus. In Ibrahim et al. (2014), the specimens of Sigilmassasaurus was referred to Spinosaurus aegyptiacus together with "Spinosaurus B" as the neotype and Spinosaurus maroccanus was considered as a nomen dubium following the conclusions of the other papers. [3] [4] [19] A 2015 re-description of Sigilmassasaurus disputed these conclusions, and considered the genus valid. [26]Classification Restoration based on the 2014 description Tooth from Morocco Spinosaurus gives its name to the Spinosauridae family of dinosaurs, which includes two subfamilies: Baryonychinae and Spinosaurinae. The Baryonychinae include Baryonyx from southern England and Suchomimus from Niger in central Africa. The Spinosaurinae include Spinosaurus, Irritator from Brazil, and Angaturama (which is probably synonymous with Irritator) from Brazil. [3] The Spinosaurinae share unserrated straight teeth that are widely spaced (e.g., 12 on one side of the maxilla), as opposed to the Baryonychinae which have serrated curved teeth that are numerous (e.g., 30 on one side of the maxilla). [3] [20]The following cladogram shows an analysis of Tetanurae simplified to show only Spinosauridae from Allain et al. (2012): [39]Spinosauridae Spinosaurinae Irritator Spinosaurus Baryonychinae Ichthyovenator Suchomimus Baryonyx Paleobiology Function of neural spines1915 illustration of S. aegyptiacus dorsal vertebrae The function of the dinosaur's sail or hump is uncertain; scientists have proposed several hypotheses including heat regulation and display. In addition, such a prominent feature on its back could make it appear even larger than it was, intimidating other animals. [12]The structure may have been used for thermoregulation. If the structure contained abundant blood vessels, the animal could have used the sail's large surface area to absorb heat. This would imply that the animal was only partly warm-blooded at best and lived in climates where nighttime temperatures were cool or low and the sky usually not cloudy. It is also possible that the structure was used to radiate excess heat from the body, rather than to collect it. Large animals, due to the relatively small ratio of surface area of their body compared to the overall volume ( Haldane's principle ), face far greater problems of dissipating excess heat at higher temperatures than gaining it at lower. Sails of large dinosaurs added considerably to the skin area of their bodies, with minimum increase of volume. Furthermore, if the sail was turned away from the sun, or positioned at a 90 degree angle towards a cooling wind, the animal would quite effectively cool itself in the warm climate of Cretaceous Africa. [40] However, Bailey (1997) was of the opinion that a sail could have absorbed more heat than it radiated. [12] Bailey proposed instead that Spinosaurus and other dinosaurs with long neural spines had fatty humps on their backs for energy storage, insulation, and shielding from heat. [12]Elaborate body structures of many modern-day animals usually serve to attract members of the opposite sex during mating. It is quite possible that the sails or humps of these dinosaurs were used for courtship, in a way similar to a peacock 's tail. Stromer speculated that males and females may have differed in the size of the neural spine. [13]Gimsa et al. (2015) suggest that the dorsal sail of Spinosaurus was homologous to the dorsal fins of sailfish and served a hydrodynamic purpose. [41] Gimsa and others point out that more basal, long-legged spinosaurids have otherwise round or crescent-shaped dorsal sails, whereas in Spinosaurus, the dorsal neural spines form a shape that is roughly rectangular and similar in shape to the dorsal fins of sailfish. They therefore argue that Spinosaurus used its dorsal neural sail in the same manner as sailfish, and that it also employed its long narrow tail to stun prey like a modern thresher shark. Sailfish employ their dorsal fins for herding schools of fish into a " bait ball " where they cooperate to trap the fish into a certain area where the sailfish can snatch the fish with their bills. The sail could have possibly reduced yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash as suggested by Gimsa et al ., (2015). Gimsa and colleagues specifically wrote : Restoration Spinosaurus anatomy exhibits another feature that may have a modern homology: its long tail resembled that of the thresher shark, employed to slap the water to herd and stun shoals of fish before devouring them (Oliver et al ., 2013). The strategies that sailfish and thresher sharks employ against shoaling fish are more effective when the shoal is first concentrated into a ‘bait ball’ (Helfman, Collette & Facey, 1997; Oliver et al ., 2013; Domenici et al ., 2014). Since this is difficult for individual predators to achieve, they cooperate in this effort. When herding a shoal of fish or squid, sailfish also raise their sails to make themselves appear larger. When they slash or wipe their bills through shoaling fish by turning their heads, their dorsal sail and fins are outstretched to stabilize their bodies hydrodynamically (Lauder & Drucker, 2004). Domenici et al. (2014) postulate that these fin extensions enhance the accuracy of tapping and slashing. The sail can reduce yaw rotation by counteracting the lateral force in the direction opposite to the slash. This means that prey is less likely to recognize the massive trunk as being part of an approaching predator (Marras et al ., 2015; Webb & Weihs 2015). Film footage available online impressively demonstrates the hunting strategies of sailfish and thresher sharks. Interestingly, Spinosaurus exhibited the anatomical features required to combine all three hunting strategies: a sail for herding prey more efficiently, as well as flexible tail and neck to slap the water for stunning, injuring or killing prey. The submerged dorsal sail would have provided a strong centreboard-like counterforce for powerful sidewards movements of the strong neck and long tail, as performed by sailfish (Domenici et al ., 2014) or thresher sharks (Oliver et al ., 2013). While smaller dorsal sails or fins make the dorsal water volume better accessible for slashing, it can be speculated that their smaller stabilization effect makes lateral slashing less efficient (e.g. for thresher sharks). Forming a hydrodynamic fulcrum and hydrodynamically stabilizing the trunk along the dorsoventral axis, Spinosaurus ’ sail would also have compensated for the inertia of the lateral neck by tail movements and vice versa not only for predation but also for accelerated swimming. This behaviour might also have been one reason for Spinosaurus ’ muscular chest and neck reported by Ibrahim et al. (2014). " Finally, it is quite possible that the sail or hump combined these functions, acting normally as a heat regulator, becoming a courting aid during the mating season, being used to cool itself and, on occasions, turning into an intimidating device when an animal was feeling threatened. [12]Diet Reconstructed skull and neck It is unclear whether Spinosaurus was primarily a terrestrial predator or a piscivore, as indicated by its elongated jaws, conical teeth and raised nostrils. The hypothesis of spinosaurs as specialized fish eaters has been suggested before by A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner for Baryonyx. They base this on the anatomical similarity with crocodilians and the presence of digestive acid-etched fish scales in the rib cage of the type specimen. [42] Large fish are known from the faunas containing other spinosaurids, including the Mawsonia, in the mid-Cretaceous of northern Africa and Brazil. Direct evidence for spinosaur diet comes from related European and South American taxa. Baryonyx was found with fish scales and bones from juvenile Iguanodon in its stomach, while a tooth embedded in a South American pterosaur bone suggests that spinosaurs occasionally preyed on pterosaurs, [43] but Spinosaurus was likely to have been a generalized and opportunistic predator, possibly a Cretaceous equivalent of large grizzly bears, being biased toward fishing, though it undoubtedly scavenged and took many kinds of small or medium-sized prey. [8] A study by Cuff and Rayfield (2013) concluded that bio-mechanical data suggests that Spinosaurus was not an obligate piscivore and that its diet was more closely associated with each individual's size. [14] The characteristic rostral morphology of Spinosaurus allowed its jaws to resist bending in the vertical direction, however its jaws were poorly adapted with respect to resisting lateral bending. [14]CT scan of partial snout NHMUK 16665, used in a biomechanical study In 2009, Dal Sasso et al.. reported the results of X-ray computed tomography of the MSNM V4047 snout. [44] As the foramina on the outside all communicated with a space on the inside of the snout, the authors speculated that Spinosaurus had pressure receptors inside the space that allowed it to hold its snout at the surface of the water to detect swimming prey species without seeing them. [44]A 2010 isotope analysis by Romain Amiot and colleagues found that oxygen isotope ratios of spinosaurid teeth, including teeth of Spinosaurus, indicate semiaquatic lifestyles. [45] Isotope ratios from tooth enamel and from other parts of Spinosaurus (found in Morocco and Tunisia) and of other predators from the same area such as Carcharodontosaurus were compared with isotopic compositions from contemporaneous theropods, turtles, and crocodilians. [45] The study found that Spinosaurus teeth from five of six sampled localities had oxygen isotope ratios closer to those of turtles and crocodilians when compared with other theropod teeth from the same localities. [45] The authors postulated that Spinosaurus switched between terrestrial and aquatic habitats to compete for food with large crocodilians and other large theropods respectively. [45]Posture Hip region of an older reconstruction Hip region of the new reconstruction Although traditionally depicted as a biped, it has been suggested since the mid-1970s that Spinosaurus was at least an occasional quadruped. [7] [40] This has been bolstered by the discovery of Baryonyx, a relative with robust arms. [46] Because of the mass of the hypothesized fatty dorsal humps of Spinosaurus, Bailey (1997) was open to the possibility of a quadrupedal posture, [12] leading to new restorations of it as such. [46] The hypothesis that Spinosaurus had a typical quadrupedal gait has fallen out of favor, though spinosaurids may have crouched in a quadrupedal posture, because of biological and physiological constraints. [42] [47] [48]Theropods, including spinosaurids, could not pronate their hands (rotate the forearm so the palm faced the ground), [47] but a resting position on the side of the hand was possible, as shown by fossil prints from an Early Jurassic theropod. [49] A 2014 paper describing new material of Spinosaurus, proposed that its legs were too short for it to move effectively on land. The reconstruction used in the study was an extrapolation based on different sized individuals, scaled to what was assumed to be the correct proportions. [50] Palaeontologist John Hutchinson of the Royal Veterinary College of the University of London has expressed scepticism to the new reconstruction, and cautioned that using different specimens can result in inaccurate chimaeras. [51] Scott Hartman also expressed criticism because he believed the legs and the pelvis were inaccurately scaled (27% too short) and didn't match the published lengths. [48] However, responses from Ibrahim et al. to Mark Witton have been positively received as reliable. [52] The 2015 re-description of Sigilmassasaurus [26] Evers et al. 2015 argued that Sigilmassosaurus was a distinct genus, and therefore doubted whether the material assigned to Spinosaurus by Ibrahim et. al. belonged to it. [26]Paleoecology Spinosaurus with contemporaneous aquatic animals The environment inhabited by Spinosaurus is only partially understood, and covers a great deal of what is now northern Africa. The region of Africa Spinosaurus is preserved in dates from 112 to 93.5 million years ago. [53] [15] [1] A 1996 study concluded from Moroccan fossils that Spinosaurus, Carcharodontosaurus, and Deltadromeus "ranged across north Africa during the late Cretaceous (Cenomanian)." [54] Those Spinosaurus that lived in the Bahariya Formation of what is now Egypt may have contended with shoreline conditions on tidal flats and channels, living in mangrove forests alongside similarly large dinosaurian predators Bahariasaurus and Carcharodontosaurus, the titanosaur sauropods Paralititan and Aegyptosaurus, crocodylomorphs, bony and cartilaginous fish, turtles, lizards, and plesiosaurs. [55] In the dry season it might have resorted to preying on pterosaurs. [56] This situation resembles that in the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation of North America, which boasts up to five theropod genera over one tonne in weight, as well as several smaller genera (Henderson, 1998; Holtz et al., 2004). Differences in head shape and body size among the large North African theropods may have been enough to allow niche partitioning as seen among the many different predator species found today in the African savanna (Farlow & Pianka, 2002). In popular culture Sculpture based on the 2014 reconstruction, Museu Blau, Barcelona Spinosaurus appeared in the 2001 film Jurassic Park III, replacing Tyrannosaurus as the main antagonist. [57] The film's consulting paleontologist John R. Horner was quoted as saying: "If we base the ferocious factor on the length of the animal, there was nothing that ever lived on this planet that could match this creature [ Spinosaurus ]. Also my hypothesis is that T-rex was actually a scavenger rather than a killer. Spinosaurus was really the predatory animal." [58] (He has since retracted the statement about T. Rex being a scavenger.) In the film, Spinosaurus was portrayed as larger and more powerful than Tyrannosaurus: in a scene depicting a battle between the two resurrected predators, Spinosaurus emerges victorious by biting the tyrannosaur's neck. [59] In the fourth film Jurassic World, there is a nod to this fight where the T-Rex smashes through the skeleton of a Spinosaurus in the climatic fight near the end of the film. [60]Spinosaurus has long been depicted in popular books about dinosaurs, although only recently has there been enough information about spinosaurids for an accurate depiction. After an influential 1955 skeletal reconstruction by Lapparent and Lavocat [61] based on a 1936 diagram by Stromer, [62] it has been treated as a generalized upright theropod, with a skull similar to that of other large theropods and a sail on its back, even having four-fingered hands. [46]In addition to films, action figures, video games, and books, Spinosaurus has been depicted on postage stamps such as ones from Angola, The Gambia, and Tanzania. [63] [64]References^ a b Holtz, Thomas R. 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Science. 292 (5522): 1704–1706. Bibcode: 2001Sci...292.1704S. doi: 10.1126/science.1060561. PMID 11387472.^ Naish, Darren (2012). Planet Dinosaur : The Next Generation of Killer Giants. Firefly Books. pp. 80–85. ISBN 978-1-77085-049-1.^ Elley, Derek (July 17, 2001). "Jurassic Park III". Variety. Retrieved July 9, 2007.^ Portman, J. (11 July 2001). "Spinosaurus makes T. Rex look like a pussycat: When it comes to Jurassic Park III, size does matter". Ottawa Citizen.^ Chandler, G. (August 2001). "A bite-size guide to the dinosaurs of the new movie Jurassic Park III". National Geographic World.^ Romano, Nick (June 2015). "Jurassic World Snuck in A Sweet Nod to Jurassic Park 3". Cinema Blend.^ Lapparent, A. F. de; and Lavocat, R. (1955). "Dinosauriens." In: Piveteau, J., editor. Traité de Paléontologie. Tome V. La Sortie des Eaux. Naissance de la Tétrapodie. L'Exubérance de la Vie Végétative. La Conquête de l'Air. Amphibiens. Reptiles. Oiseaux. Paris: Masson et Cie, pp. 785-962.^ Stromer, E. (1936). "Ergebnisse der Forschungsreisen Prof. E. Stromers in den Wüsten Ägyptens. VII. Baharije-Kessel und -Stufe mit deren Fauna und Flora. Eine ergänzende Zusammenfassung". Abhandlungen der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, Mathematisch-naturwissenschaftliche Abteilung, Neue Folge (in German). 33: 1–102.^ Khatri, V. S. (9 June 2006). "From the past". The Hindu. Retrieved 12 September 2010.^ Glut, D. F.; and Brett-Surman, M. K. (2000). "Dinosaurs and the media" (PDF). In Farlow, J. O.; and Walters, R. H. The Complete Dinosaur. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. pp. 673–706. ISBN 0-253-21313-4. Retrieved 12 September 2010. Further reading Glut, D. F. "In search of Spinosaurus ." In: Jurassic classics: a collection of saurian essays and Mesozoic musings, pp. 77–85. Jefferson, NC: Mc Farland, 2001. ISBN 0-7864-0961-4. Nothdurft, W.; and Smith, J. The Lost Dinosaurs of Egypt. New York: Random House, 2002. ISBN 0-375-50795-7. A Tribute to Ernst Stromer: Hundred Years of the Discovery of Spinosaurus aegypticus: Saubhik Ghosh External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Spinosaurus. Look up spinosaurus in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to: Spinosaurus Wikispecies has information related to Spinosaurus Dinosaurs portal Hartman, Scott. Spinosaur Comparison. Skeletal Drawing.com, 2006. Lloyd, Robin. The Biggest Carnivore: Dinosaur History Rewritten. Live Science, 1 March 2006. Mortimer, Mickey. Spinosaurus Stromer, 1915. (List of specimens from The Theropod Database. )Natural History Museum. Dino Directory: Spinosaurus. Prendergast, John. Dinosaurs Lost and Found. The Pennsylvania Gazette, the Alumni Magazine of the University of Pennsylvania, July/Aug 2001. The Top 8 Paleontology Stories of 2006: 40 New Dinosaur King Rears Its Head. Discover Magazine, 29 December 2006. [ hide]v t e Megalosauroidea Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Clade: Dinosauria Order: Saurischia Suborder: Theropoda Piatnitzkysauridae Condorraptor Marshosaurus Piatnitzkysaurus Megalosauria Streptospondylus Spinosauridae Ostafrikasaurus Siamosaurus Baryonychinae Baryonyx Cristatusaurus Ichthyovenator Suchomimus Suchosaurus Spinosaurinae Irritator Oxalaia Sigilmassasaurus Spinosaurus Megalosauridae Eustreptospondylinae Eustreptospondylus Megalosaurinae Duriavenator Megalosaurus Torvosaurus Wiehenvenator Afrovenatorinae Afrovenator Dubreuillosaurus Leshansaurus Magnosaurus Piveteausaurus Poekilopleuron Taxon identifiers Wd: Q130966 Eo L: 4531253 Fossilworks: 38598 GBIF: 4822933Categories: Early Cretaceous dinosaurs of Africa Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Africa Spinosaurids Fossil taxa described in 1915 Albian genus first appearances Cenomanian genus extinctions Taxa named by Ernst Stromer Paleontology in Egypt Paleontology in Morocco Lost fossils | 82 Interesting Facts about Dinosaurs 82 Interesting Facts about Dinosaurs By Karin Lehnardt, Senior Writer Published March 13, 201710 Interesting Facts about Dinosaurs Your browser does not currently recognize any of the video formats available. Click here to visit our frequently asked questions about HTML5 video.0:00 / 2:22Dinosaurs were reptiles that lived on Earth from about 230 million years ago to about 65 million years ago. [2]Dinosaurs lived during a period of Earth’s history called the Mesozoic (“middle life”) Era. They lived during all three periods of this era: the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. [1]Meat-eating dinosaurs are known as theropods, which means “beast-footed,” because they had sharp, hooked claws on their toes. In contrast, plant-eating dinosaurs tended to have blunt hooves or toenails. [3]Dinosaur skulls had large holes or “windows” that made their skulls lighter. Some of the largest skulls were as long as a car. [3]Scientists estimate that there were over 1,000 different species of non-avian dinosaurs and over 500 distinct genera. They speculate there are many still undiscovered dinosaurs and that there may be as many as 1,850 genera. [2]Dinosaurs lived on all the continents, including Antarctica. [1]Colorado’s nickname is the Stegosaurus State. The first ever Stegosaurus skeleton was found near Morrison, Colorado. [5]The biggest plant eaters weighed over 100 tons Some of the biggest plant eaters had to eat as much as a ton of food a day. This is similar to eating a bus-sized pile of vegetation every day. [6]Though mosasaurs, ichthyosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, and Dimetrodon are commonly believed to be dinosaurs, they are not technically dinosaurs. The term “dinosaur” refers to just land-dwelling reptiles that have a specific hip structure, among other traits. [8]While many people think dinosaurs were massive, dinosaurs were usually human sized or smaller. Scientists believe that the larger bones were just easier to be fossilized. [7]Some dinosaurs’ tails were over 45 feet long. Most dinosaurs had long tails that helped them to keep their balance when running. [1]The earliest named dinosaur found so far is the Eoraptor (“dawn stealer”). It was so named because it lived at the dawn of the Dinosaur Age. It was a meat eater about the size of a German shepherd. The first Eoraptor skeleton was discovered in Argentina in 1991. However, another dinosaur has recently been found in Madagascar that dates as being 230 million years old. It has not been named yet. [6]Dinosaurs are divided into two groups by the structure of their hipbones. In the hips of saurischian, or lizard hipped, dinosaurs, one of the bones pointed forward. In the hips of ornithischian, or bird-hipped, dinosaurs, all the bones pointed backward. Ironically, scientists believe that birds evolved from lizard-hipped dinosaurs, not bird-hipped dinosaurs. [6]The word “dinosaur” was coined by British paleontologist Richard Owen in 1842. It is Greek, meaning “terrible lizard.” Rather than implying that dinosaurs were fearsome, Owen used the term to refer to their majesty and size. [2]We all have a dinosaur deep within us just trying to get out.- Colin Mochrie The first dinosaurs that appeared during the Triassic Period 230 million years ago were small and lightweight. Bigger dinosaurs such as Brachiosaurus and Triceratops appeared during the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. [6]The dinosaur with the longest name is Micropachycephalosaurus (“small thick-headed lizard”). Its fossils are usually found in China. [6]Dinosaurs dominated Earth for over 165 million years. Humans have been around for only 2 million years. [8]Many scientists believe that a massive meteorite hit the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico 65.5 million years ago and caused the extinction of the dinosaurs as well as the pterosaurs and plesiosaurs. The 112-mile-wide crater was caused by a rock 6 miles in diameter. It would have hit Earth’s crust with immense force, sending shockwaves around the world. No land animal heavier than a large dog survived. However, animals such as sharks, jellyfish, fish, scorpions, birds, insects, snakes, turtles, lizards, and crocodiles survived. [8]No one knows exactly how long a dinosaur’s lifespan was. Some scientists speculate some dinosaurs lived for as long as 200 years. [6]Over 500 dinosaur genera have been scientifically accepted The mass extinction of the dinosaurs and other animals that took place 65.5 million years ago is known as the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction event, or the K-T event. Scientists have several theories for this extensive die-off. One theory proposes that small mammals ate dinosaur eggs until the population became unsustainable. Other scientists believe the cause was dinosaurs’ bodies becoming too big for their small brains, a great plaque decimating the population, starvation, or climate change. [8]Mary Anning (1799-1847) was one of the most famous of all fossil hunters. However, she was never taken as seriously as she should have been because she was a woman from a poor background whereas most scientists were men from wealthy families. [1]Scientists believe that some dinosaurs were cold blooded, others warm blooded, and still others not fully one or the other. Small meat eaters may have been warm blooded. Plant eaters who were not as active were probably cold blooded. A warm-blooded animal needs about 10 times more food than a cold-blooded animal the same size. [8]Explorer Roy Chapman Andrews found the first dinosaur nest known to science in 1923 in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia. Before he found the nest, scientists were unsure how dinosaur babies were born. [7]The largest dinosaur eggs were as large as basketballs. The bigger the egg, the thicker the shell. So if the eggs had been larger, dinosaur babies probably would not have been able to get out. [6]The first dinosaurs were carnivores, or meat eaters. Later herbivores (plant eaters) and omnivores (both meat and plant eaters) appeared. [1]The name Triceratops comes from the Greek language, with tri meaning three and keratops meaning horned face Triceratops had the biggest skull with a solid shield than any other dinosaur. It was up to 6½ feet (2 m) long, with a bony shield over its neck. [3]Most dinosaurs were vegetarians. [2]The Stegosaurus has the smallest brain for its body size of any known dinosaur. Its body was the size of a van, but its brain was the size of a walnut. [6]One tribe of Native Americans—the Peigan people of Alberta, Canada—thought dinosaur skeletons belonged to “the fathers of buffaloes.” Englishmen 300 hundred years ago believed dinosaur bones came from an elephant or even giant humans. [3]The first recorded description of a possible dinosaur bone discovery dates back to 3,500 years ago in China. At the time, people did not know about dinosaurs, so they thought their discovery, which was some dinosaur teeth, belonged to dragons. [3]Measuring 50 feet, Liopleurodon was the biggest aquatic reptile, half the size of the blue whale. [3]The blue whale is bigger than any dinosaur at 108 feet (33 m). [6]Most meat-eating dinosaurs had bones filled with air. Though their bones were huge, they weren’t as heavy as they looked. Birds have the same kind of hollow bones. [7]Baby Mussaurus (“mouse lizard”) are the smallest dinosaur skeletons ever found. They would fit inside a shopping bag. [6]Small meat eaters were most likely the smartest type of dinosaurs. [6]Humans’ eyes face forward so that they can see in 3D. Plant-eating dinosaurs, like the Triceratops, had eyes looking out to each side, so they could watch for danger while they fed. [7]A newborn human baby has a bigger brain than most adult dinosaurs had. Whales and dolphins have the biggest brains of all living animals. [6]Most meat eaters walked on two feet. This made them faster and left their hands free to grab their prey. Most plant eaters walked on four feet to better carry their heavy bodies. Some plant eaters could balance on two feet for a short time. [8]Most meat eaters walked on two feet Snakes and lizards shed their skin when they grow. Researchers believe that dinosaurs may have done the same. [6]Some dinosaurs may have had colorful skin, but scientists don’t know for sure. It’s likely that most dinosaurs had green and brown scales to help them hide among trees and plants. [6]Tyrannosaurus rex had huge back legs, but its tiny front legs were not much longer than human arms. [6]While dinosaurs had the same set of leg bones, some had feet like a rhinoceros, elephant, bird, or a pig. The biggest footprints ever found were 3 feet (1 m) across and 4 feet long. Millipedes have more legs than any other animal—up to 750. [6]Dinosaurs often swallowed large rocks. These rocks stayed in the stomach and helped them grind up food. [3]Tyrannosaurus rex ate up to 22 tons of meat a year. It had jagged teeth 6 inches (15 cm) long. It couldn’t chew, so it swallowed its food in large chunks. [1]Deinosuchus was a huge prehistoric crocodile. It most likely had the strongest bite out of any dinosaur, including Tyrannosaurus rex. It weighed eight times as much as today’s crocodile. [6]Corythosaurus had a big, hollow crest connected to its nose. The crest worked like an echo chamber, letting it make a loud blast of noise. [7]Plant-eating dinosaurs may have contributed to global warming by passing gas Sauropods were the tallest animals that ever lived. Some were more than twice the height of a giraffe. [3]Struthiomimus (“ostrich mimic”), as well as other small hunters, made high-pitched, screechy noises similar to an ostrich. [6]Parasaurolophus had a crest that looked like half of a trombone. The male’s crest was up to 6 feet (1.8 m) long, which was the biggest out of all the dinosaurs. [6]Some scientists believe that Tyrannosaurus rex may have been able to run as fast as 18 mph (28 km/h). Other scientists believe it could not run at all because it was so big. [7]Slim dinosaurs such as Compsognathus and Ornithomimus were among the fastest dinosaurs. However, the cheetah can run faster than any dinosaur that existed. [1]Dinosaurs that could run on two legs were called bipeds. [1]Dinosaurs had different self-defense mechanisms. Some, like meat eaters, had sharp teeth. Plant eaters had long horns or sharp spikes. Other dinosaurs were covered in bony plates. [7]It is estimated that trillions of dinosaur eggs were laid during the Mesozoic era, though fossilized eggs containing embryos are rare. [7]All dinosaurs laid eggs. About 40 kinds of dinosaur eggs have been discovered. [8]All dinosaurs laid eggs Modern birds and reptiles have a single body opening for urination, defecation, and reproduction: a cloaca (Latin for “sewer”). Paleontologists believe that dinosaurs were similarly designed and reproduced by pressing their cloacas together in a “cloacal kiss.” Additionally, some dinosaurs may have had a penis like some birds do or other “intromittent organs” like crocodiles. Paleontologists believe a Tyrannosaurus rex male reproductive organ might have been up to 12 feet in length. [4]Like birds and reptiles today, dinosaurs built nests and laid eggs. Some even fed and protected their babies. [7]Plant-eating dinosaurs often lived together for protection, like herding animals today do. The herds ranged from just a few adults and their young to thousands of animals. [2]Sauropods (“Lizard-Footed”) could travel many miles a day on their huge legs. Their fossilized “trackways” or “superhighways” can still be seen today. [3]The Megalodon was the biggest prehistoric fish. It looked like a shark, though it was three times bigger. [3]Dinosaurs that lived near water often left the best fossils. [7]Dinosaurs may not be extinct Many scientists believe that birds are dinosaurs and, therefore, dinosaurs are not actually extinct. [7]The biggest hunter was the Spinosaurus (“spine lizard”). It was up to 49 feet (15 m) long. [7]The biggest plant eater was the Argentinosaurus. It was up to 98 feet (30 m) long. [7]The tallest plant eater was the Brachiosaurus (Giraffatitan brancai). Its head was up to 39 feet (12 m) off the ground. [7]The dinosaur with the thickest skull was the Pachycephalosaurus. Its skull grew up to 8 inches (20 cm) thick. [7]The Pentaceratops had the biggest skull at 10 feet (3 m) long. [7]The toothiest dinosaur was the hadrosaurs. It could have over 1,000 teeth and it continually grew new ones. [7]The biggest flying reptile was the Quetzalcoatlus. It had a wingspan up to 39 feet (12 m). [7]The dinosaur with the longest claws was the Therizinosaurus (“reaping lizard”). Its claws were up to 3 feet (1 m) long. [7]The tallest hunter was the Deinocheirus (“horrible hand”). Its head was up to 20 feet (6 m) off the ground. [7]The fastest dinosaur was the Ornithomimus. It could run up to 43½ mph (70 km/h). [7]The largest mounted dinosaur skeleton to be exhibited in a museum is a Brachiosaurus. [7]No one knows why Stegosaurus had plates on its back Stegosaurus had huge upright plates on its back that could grow as large as 30 inches. While scientists do not fully understand the function of these massive plates, they speculate that the stegosaurus could control its body temperature by regulating blood flow through them. A stegosaurus may have also been able to control its skin color this way, to either attract a mate or scare predators. Scientists call this color change “blushing.” [7]The smallest fully grown dinosaur fossil is Lesothosaurus (“Lizard from Lesotho”). It is only the size of chicken. Smaller fossils have been found, but they are of baby dinosaurs. [7]The smallest dinosaur egg ever found was only 3 centimeters long and weighed 75 grams. It is not known what kind of species it came from. The largest dinosaur eggs ever found belong to a meat eater in Asia called segnosaurus (“slow lizard”). The eggs are around 19 inches long. [8]The smartest dinosaur was probably the Troodon (“tooth that wounds”). It had a brain the size of a mammal or bird today. It also had grasping hands and stereoscopic vision. [8]The first known American dinosaur was discovered in 1858 in the marl pits in Haddonfield, New Jersey. Although other fossils were previously found, they were not correctly identified as dinosaur fossils. [8]There was such fierce rivalry between paleontologists Edward Cope and Othniel Marsh to find new dinosaurs fossils that they spawned what became known as the Bone Wars. The fight lasted for over 30 years. Marsh is said to have “won” the wars, in part because he found more fossils and he was better funded. [7]Gideon Mantell (1790-1852) put Iguanodon's thumb claw on top of its nose Paleontologists are not perfect. For example, Gideon Mantell (1790-1852) put Iguanodon’s thumb claw on top of its nose. It stayed that way for 40 years. Edward Cope (1840-1897) reconstructed Elasmosaurus (“thin plate”) with its head on the end of its tail. Until recently, Apatosaurus (or Brontosaurus) appeared in museums with the head of Camarasaurus (“chambered lizard”). [7]Current dinosaur fossil “hot spots” include South America (particularly Argentina) and China, where several feathered dinosaurs have been found. [8]Dinosaur names are not always static. For example, when paleontologist Othniel C. Marsh first discovered the bones of a giant sauropod, he named it Apatosaurus. When he discovered similar but larger bones a little later, he named it Brontosaurus. However, what Marsh thought were Brontosaurus bones were actually adult Apatosaurus bones, so later scientists decided to change “Brontosaurus” back to “Apatosaurus.” [8]General Timeline [7] [8]Date Event4.6 Billion Years Ago Earth, its moon, and the solar system form.3.8 Billion Years Ago One-celled life forms develop.570 Million Years Ago First fish appear.400-350 Million Years Ago Plants thrive.350 Million Years Ago Amphibians (cold-blooded animals that live on water and land) appear on land.330 Million Years Ago Primitive reptiles, the first beings to live completely on land, appear. These would evolve into dinosaurs.230 Million Years Ago First dinosaurs appear.220 Million Years Ago Pangaea breaks up; continents first appear.200-140 Million Years Ago First birds and mammals appear.125-100 Million Years Ago First flowering plants grow.110 Million Years Ago Present continents form.65 Million Years Ago Dinosaurs mysteriously die out. Some mammals, insects, and others survive.2 million Years Ago First humans appear. They make tools, use fire, and eventually learn to communicate.30,000 Years Ago Modern humans appear. Dinosaur Firsts [7] [8]Date Event1824 William Buckland describes Megalosaurus fossil.1825 Gideon Mantell describes Iguanodon fossil.1842 Richard Owen coins the word "Dinosauria. "1858 American paleontologist Joseph Leidy describes the first reasonably complete dinosaur skeleton, near Haddonfield, New Jersey.1868 English scientist Thomas Huxley first proposed that dinosaurs and birds are related.1902 Barnum Brown discovers the first fossils of Tyrannosaurus rex at Hell Creek, Montana.1908 George and Levi Sternberg find the first impression of dinosaur skin, belonging to an Edmontosaurus, in Wyoming.1923 Roy Chapman Andrews and his crew discover the first dinosaur nest in the Gobi Desert in Mongolia.1978 Jack Horner finds a Maiasaura “nursery,” the first dinosaur eggs and nests in North America, at Egg Mountain, Montana.1987 Argentinosaurus, the heaviest known dinosaur, is discovered in Patagonia, Argentina.1990 Sue, the largest, most complete, and best preserved Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton ever discovered, is found in South Dakota.1991 Eoraptor, the earliest known named dinosaur, is found in the Valley of the Moon, Argentina.1993 Giganotosaurus, one of the biggest meat eaters, is discovered in Argentina.1998 Sinosauropteryx, the first dinosaur found with primitive feathers, is found in China.1999 Sauroposeidon, the tallest known dinosaur, is found in Oklahoma.2001 A dinosaur superhighway in China is found containing over 100 footprints. Paleontologists find a fossil of a nonflying dinosaur that had feathers on its body. Keyword Tags#Amazing #Educational #Fact Of The Day #Fun #Important #Interesting #Little Known#Mind Blowing #Random #Serious #Kid Friendly #School Project #Animals #Birds #Reptiles#May15 #National Dinosaur Day #Dinosaurs #Amazing Statistics #Biology #Carnivores #DNA#Earth #Etymology #Evolution #Extinction #Fossil #Herbivore #Omnivores #Palentologist#Index References |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is povidone iodine | Povidone-iodine Povidone-iodine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search Povidone-iodine Povidone-iodine applied to an abrasion using a cotton swab. Clinical data Trade names Wokadine, Pyodine, Betadine, others Synonyms polyvidone iodine, iodopovidone AHFS / Drugs.com International Drug Names Routes of administration Topical ATC code D08AG02 ( WHO )D09AA09 ( WHO) (dressing)D11AC06 ( WHO)G01AX11 ( WHO)R02AA15 ( WHO)S01AX18 ( WHO)QG51AD01 ( WHO)Legal status Legal status US: OTCIdentifiers IUPAC name [show]CAS Number25655-41-8Pub Chem CID410087Chem Spidernone UNII85H0HZU99MCh EMBLCHEMBL1201724ECHA Info Card 100.110.412Chemical and physical data Formula (C 6 H 9 NO) n · x IMolar mass variable (what is this?) (verify)Povidone-iodine ( PVP-I ), also known as iodopovidone, is an antiseptic used for skin disinfection before and after surgery. [1] [2] It may be used both to disinfect the skin of the patient and the hands of the healthcare providers. [2] It may also be used for minor wounds. [2] It may be applied to the skin as a liquid or a powder. [2]Side effects include skin irritation. [1] If used on large wounds kidney problems, high blood sodium, and metabolic acidosis may occur. [1] It is not recommended in people who are less than 32 weeks pregnant or are taking lithium. [2] Frequent use is not recommended in people with thyroid problems. [2] Povidone-iodine is a chemical complex of povidone, hydrogen iodide, and elemental iodine. [3] It contains from 9% to 12% available iodine. [3] It works by releasing iodine which results in the death of a range of microorganisms. [1]Povidone-iodine came into commercial use in 1955. [4] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines, the most effective and safe medicines needed in a health system. [5] Povidone-iodine is available over the counter. [6] The wholesale cost in the developing world is about US$ 3.30 to US$ 11.40 per liter of 10% solution. [7] This amount in the United Kingdom cost the NHS about £10.86. [2] It is sold under a number of brand names including Betadine. [2]Contents [ hide ]1 Medical uses1.1 Eyes1.2 Pleurodesis1.3 Alternatives2 Contraindications3 Side effects4 Interactions5 Chemistry6 History7 Research8 See also9 References10 Further reading Medical uses [ edit]Wound area covered in povidone-iodine. Gauze has also been applied. Povidone-iodine is a broad spectrum antiseptic for topical application in the treatment and prevention of wound infection. It may be used in first aid for minor cuts, grazes, burns, abrasions and blisters. Povidone-iodine exhibits longer lasting antiseptic effects than tincture of iodine, due to its slow absorption via soft tissue, making it the choice for longer surgeries. Chlorhexidine provides similar results, but with equal toxicity concerns. Bacteria do not develop resistance to PVP-I. [8]Consequently, PVP-I has found broad application in medicine as a surgical scrub; for pre- and post-operative skin cleansing; for the treatment and prevention of infections in wounds, ulcers, cuts and burns; for the treatment of infections in decubitus ulcers and stasis ulcers; in gynecology for vaginitis associated with candidal, trichomonal or mixed infections. For these purposes PVP-I has been formulated at concentrations of 7.5–10.0% in solution, spray, surgical scrub, ointment, and swab dosage forms. Because of these critical indications, only sterile povidone-iodine should be used in most cases. Non-sterile product can be appropriate in limited circumstances in which patients have intact, healthy skin that will not be compromised or cut. It should be noted that the non-sterile form of Povidone iodine has a long history of intrinsic contamination with B. cepacia, and other opportunistic pathogens. Its ability to harbor such microbes further underscores the importance of using sterile products in any clinical setting. Eyes [ edit]A buffered PVP-I solution of 2.5% concentration can be used for prevention of neonatal conjunctivitis, especially if it is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae, or Chlamydia trachomatis. It is currently unclear whether PVP-I is more effective in reducing the incidence of conjunctivitis in neonates over other methods. [9] PVP-I appears to be very suitable for this purpose because, unlike other substances, it is also efficient against fungi and viruses (including HIV and Herpes simplex ). [10]Pleurodesis [ edit]It is used in pleurodesis (fusion of the pleura because of incessant pleural effusions). For this purpose, povidone-iodine is equally effective and safe as talc, and may be preferred because of easy availability and low cost. [11]Alternatives [ edit]There is tentative evidence that chlorhexidine and denatured alcohol used to clean skin prior to surgery is better than povidone-iodine with alcohol; however, the evidence is not strong enough as of 2015 to determine routine practice. [12]Contraindications [ edit]PVP-I is contraindicated in patients with hyperthyroidism (overactive thyroid gland) and other diseases of the thyroid, after treatment with radioiodine, and in patients with dermatitis herpetiformis [ why?] (Duhring's disease). [13]Side effects [ edit]The sensitization rate to the product is 0.7%. [14]Interactions [ edit]The iodine in PVP-I reacts with hydrogen peroxide, silver, taurolidine and proteins such as enzymes, rendering them (and itself) ineffective. It also reacts with many mercury compounds, giving the corrosive compound mercury iodide, as well as with many metals, making it unsuitable for disinfecting metal piercings. [13]Iodine is absorbed into the body to various degrees, depending on application area and condition of the skin. As such, it interacts with diagnostic tests of the thyroid gland such as radioiodine diagnostics, as well as with various diagnostic agents used on the urine and stool, for example Guaiacum resin. [13]Chemistry [ edit]Chemical model Povidone-iodine is a chemical complex of povidone, hydrogen iodide, and elemental iodine. It is completely soluble in cold and mild-warm water, ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, polyethylene glycol, and glycerol. Its stability in solution is much greater than that of tincture of iodine or Lugol's solution. Free iodine, slowly liberated from the povidone-iodine (PVP-I) complex in solution, kills eukaryotic or prokaryotic cells through iodination of lipids and oxidation of cytoplasmic and membrane compounds. This agent exhibits a broad range of microbicidal activity against bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and viruses. Slow release of iodine from the PVP-I complex in solution minimizes iodine toxicity towards mammalian cells. PVP-I can be loaded into hydrogels, which can be based on carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC), poly (vinyl alcohol) (PVA), and gelatin, or on crosslinked polyacrylamide. These hydrogels can be used for wound dressing. The rate of release of the iodine in the PVP-I is heavily dependent on the hydrogel composition: it increases with more CMC/PVA and decreases with more gelatin. History [ edit]It was discovered in 1955 at the Industrial Toxicology Laboratories in Philadelphia by H. A. Shelanski and M. V. Shelanski. [15] They carried out tests in vitro to demonstrate anti-bacterial activity, and found that the complex was less toxic in mice than tincture of iodine. Human clinical trials showed the product to be superior to other iodine formulations. [16]Following the discovery of iodine by Bernard Courtois in 1811, it has been broadly used for the prevention and treatment of skin infections, as well as the treatment of wounds. Iodine has been recognized as an effective broad-spectrum bactericide, and is also effective against yeasts, molds, fungi, viruses, and protozoans. Drawbacks to its use in the form of aqueous solutions include irritation at the site of application, toxicity, and the staining of surrounding tissues. These deficiencies were overcome by the discovery and use of PVP-I, in which the iodine is carried in a complexed form and the concentration of free iodine is very low. The product thus serves as an iodophor. Research [ edit]Schematic of povidone-iodine complex wrapping a single wall carbon nanotube (black). [17]Povidone-iodine has found application in the field of nanomaterials. A wound-healing application has been developed which employs a mat of single wall carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) coated in a monolayer of povidone-iodine. [17]Research has previously found that the polymer polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP, povidone) can coil around individual carbon nanotubes to make them water-soluble. [18]See also [ edit]Cadexomer iodine Iodophor Inadine Lugol's iodine Tincture of iodine References [ edit]^ a b c d WHO Model Formulary 2008 (PDF). World Health Organization. 2009. pp. 321–323. ISBN 9789241547659. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 January 2017.^ a b c d e f g h British national formulary : BNF 69 (69 ed.). British Medical Association. 2015. p. 840. ISBN 9780857111562.^ a b Encyclopedia of polymer science and technology (3 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. 2013. p. 728. ISBN 9780470073698. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13.^ Sneader, Walter (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. John Wiley & Sons. p. 68. ISBN 9780470015520. Archived from the original on 2017-01-13.^ "WHO Model List of Essential Medicines (19th List)" (PDF). World Health Organization. April 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 December 2016. Retrieved 8 December 2016.^ "Povidone/iodine solution: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings - Drugs.com". www.drugs.com. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 11 January 2017.^ "Povidone iodine". International Drug Price Indicator Guide. Retrieved 8 December 2016.^ Fleischer, W.; Reimer, K. (1997). "Povidone-iodine in antisepsis – State of the art". Dermatology. 195 (Suppl 2): 3–9. doi: 10.1159/000246022.^ Kapoor VS, Whyte R, Vedula SS (2016). "Interventions for preventing ophthalmia neonatorum". Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 9: CD001862. doi: 10.1002/14651858. CD001862.pub3. Archived from the original on 2016-11-20.^ Najafi Bi, R.; Samani, S. M.; Pishva, N.; Moheimani, F. (2003). "Formulation and Clinical Evaluation of Povidone-Iodine Ophthalmic Drop". Iranian Journal of Pharmaceuticical Research. 2 (3): 157–160.^ Agarwal, R; Khan, A; Aggarwal, AN; Gupta, D (March 2012). "Efficacy & safety of iodopovidone pleurodesis: a systematic review & meta-analysis". The Indian journal of medical research. 135: 297–304. PMC 3361864. PMID 22561614.^ Dumville, JC; Mc Farlane, E; Edwards, P; Lipp, A; Holmes, A; Liu, Z (21 April 2015). "Preoperative skin antiseptics for preventing surgical wound infections after clean surgery". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD003949. doi: 10.1002/14651858. CD003949.pub4. PMID 25897764.^ a b c Jasek, W, ed. (2007). Austria-Codex (in German) (62nd ed.). Vienna: Österreichischer Apothekerverlag. pp. 983–5. ISBN 978-3-85200-181-4.^ Niedner, R. (1997). "Cytotoxicity and sensitization of povidone-iodine and other frequently used anti-infective agents". Dermatology. 195 (Suppl 2): 89–92. doi: 10.1159/000246038.^ U. S. Patent 2,739,922^ Sneader, Walter (2005). Drug Discovery: A History. New York: John Wiley & Sons. p. 68. ISBN 0-471-89979-8.^ a b Simmons, Trevor; Lee, S.-H.; Park, T.-J. ; Hashim, D. P.; Ajayan, P. M.; Linhardt, R. J. (2009). "Antiseptic Single Wall Carbon Nanotube Bandages" (PDF). Carbon. 47 (6): 1561–1564. doi: 10.1016/j.carbon.2009.02.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-06-21.^ Simmons, Trevor; Hashim, D; Vajtai, R; Ajayan, PM (2007). "Large Area-Aligned Arrays from Direct Deposition of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes". J. Am. Chem. Soc. 129 (33): 10088–10089. doi: 10.1021/ja073745e. PMID 17663555. Further reading [ edit]Randolph H. L. Wong; Emily C. W. Hung; Vivien W. Y. Wong; Innes Y. P. Wan; Calvin S. H. Ng; Song Wan; Malcolm J. Underwood (2009). "Povidone-iodine wound irrigation: A word of caution". Surgical Practice. 13 (4): 123–4. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-1633.2009.00461.x. Randolph H. L. Wong; Vivien W. Y. Wong; Emily C. W. Hung; Ping Yin Lee; Calvin S. H. Ng; Innes Y. P. Wan; Song Wan; Malcolm J. Underwood (2011). "Topical application of povidone-iodine before wound closure is associated with significant increase in serum iodine level". Surgical Practice. 19: 79–82. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-1633.2011.00547.x. Randolph H. L. Wong; Calvin S. H. Ng; Malcolm J. Underwood (2011). "Iodine pleurodesis – a word of caution". European Journal of Cardio-Thoracic Surgery. 41 (5): 1209. doi: 10.1093/ejcts/ezr137. [ show]v t e Antiseptics and disinfectants ( D08) [ show]v t e Medicated dressings ( D09) [ show]v t e Other dermatological preparations ( D11) [ show]v t e Gynecological anti-infectives and antiseptics ( G01) [ show]v t e Throat preparations ( R02)Pharmacy and pharmacology portal Medicine portal Categories: Antiseptics Disinfectants Iodine World Health Organization essential medicines | . Community content for this product may not be appropriate for all ages, or may not be appropriate for viewing at work. Continue Cancel |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.cost of minor brow lift | Brow Lift Cost and Financing updated September 6, 2017The cost of a brow lift (forehead lift) depends on many things, including who your doctor is and where his or her practice is. On average, brow lift surgery costs range from $2,000 to $8,000. To determine your brow lift cost, you have to take the following factors into account. Average Costs vs. Lowered Costs The average cost of a brow lift is about $3,000, but can go as low as $2,000 and as high as $8,000. Less experienced doctors may charge less for a brow lift, so ask your surgeon how many he or she has performed to get a proper estimate. Remember to not let your worry over cost hurt your safety, if you feel uncomfortable with an inexperienced surgeon then find one you are more comfortable with. RELATED: Find a qualified plastic surgeon in your area If you're looking at a reduced brow lift cost, ensure that your surgeon is properly credentialed and certified to perform the surgery. If the cost of the surgery seems too good to be true, then look for anything you might have missed. Check and double check to make sure you fully understand how your surgeon's pricing structure works, and find out if the surgeon's experience is the reason for the lower cost. Other procedures being performed at the same time may impact the brow lift cost as well, so be aware of the miscellaneous fees and charges that your surgeon will add onto the bill before you sign off on the surgery. Don’t let your credit history stop you from looking and feeling your best. You can afford the procedure you want with low-interest, no-hassle financing through Compassionate Finance. Endoscopic Brow Lift Cost An endoscopic brow lift costs almost the same as a traditional brow lift but has a shorter recovery time. This helps with the overall amount of money spent on the brow lift procedure, since time taken off from work can sometimes mean less money for some patients. If lost work time is a big concern for you, strongly consider the endoscopic brow lift instead of the traditional lift. The endoscopic technique also needs less post-surgical care than a traditional lift, as well as less medication for discomfort following the procedure. These factors contribute to the overall brow lift cost, and should be taken into consideration. Still, the endoscopic technique is newer, and experience among surgeons will vary more than with the more traditional brow lift. Make sure to ask your surgeon about their experience if this technique appeals to you. Visit the Doc Shop gallery to view brow lift before and after photos. Photo credit: The Clinic of Facial Plastic Surgery Financing the Cost of a Brow Lift Brow lift cost can be financed through either the surgeon's personal office, or an independent medical financing company. If your surgeon offers in-house financing, discuss your options with the office manager at least once prior to surgery. Any information regarding interest rates and payment obligations can be discussed at this time. Make easy, affordable payments for your procedure with Compassionate Finance If your surgeon does not offer in-house financing, they should be able to help guide you through the process with an independent financing company. Don't hesitate to ask any time you have questions about the brow lift cost or the financial plan. Your surgeon's practice is there to help you with the process, and you should not feel uneasy when undergoing this significant procedure. Contact a Surgeon about Brow Lift Cost To start looking for a surgeon that offers a fair brow lift cost with excellent experience, use the Doc Shop listings of facial plastic surgeons in your area. With Doc Shop, an online stable of skilled doctors and a wealth of medical information are at your fingertips. Take advantage of it today. | . Error. Page cannot be displayed. Please contact your service provider for more details. (10) |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.does the lymphatic system produce white blood cells | Do white blood cells have the ability to migrate from blood stream and lymphatic system into other tissues? Photo Image Stock.com 696 Contributions Do white blood cells have the ability to migrate from blood stream and lymphatic system into other tissues? Answer . Yes they do. Finnikin luvr 1,284 Contributions Where are white blood cells produced?in the bone marrow. Valentin Popov 21,056 Contributions I am an integrative healthcare professional, massage therapist, and health sciences educator. What are white blood cells produced by? Red bone marrow that is found in spongy bone. White blood cell carried in the lymphatic system? Lymphocyte... Peanut30 1,125 Contributions What gland pumps white blood cells into the lymphatic system until puberty then shrivels away? Thymus Where is white blood cells produced? White blood cells, like all blood cells are created in the bone marrow from certain stem cells. However, some lymphocytes are created but undeveloped or immature. T-cells for …Lottytaylor 67 Contributions What are the white blood cells carried in the lymphatic system called? The white blood cells in the lymphatic system are known aslymphocytes. They are essentially just a small leucocyte (a whiteblood cell). What body system produces white blood cells? The Immune System What part of the lymphatic system produces t cells?bone marrow White and red blood cells are produced by which system?blood What is the white blood cells in the lymphatic system?lymphocyte What are white blood cells carried in the lymphatic system?lymphocyte | Lymphatic System Lymphatic System The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body. Pub Med Health Glossary (Source: NIH - National Cancer Institute)Related terms: Lymph system Part of: Immune System Click to enlarge The major parts of the lymphatic system Institute for Quality and Efficiency in Health Care (IQWi G)About the Lymphatic System Lymph travels around the body through a network of vessels in much the same way that blood travels around the body through the blood vessels. Whereas the blood carries nutrients and other substances into our tissues, the lymph vessels drain fluid from the tissues and transport it to the lymph nodes. These small gland -like masses of tissue filter out and destroy bacteria and other harmful substances. The bigger lymph vessels then carry the cleaned fluid back to the vein called the superior vena cava, where it enters the blood stream. The lymph or lymphatic system is an important part of our body's system to defend us against infections... Read more about the Lymphatic System Terms to know Bone Marrow The soft, sponge-like tissue in the center of most bones. It produces white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets. Lymph The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid. Lymph Nodes A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland. Lymphatic Vessels A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymph vessel. Veins Blood vessels that carry blood to the heart. Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Share on Google+ |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.ad time definition | Anno Domini From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search"AD" and "Before Christ" redirect here. For other uses, see Anno Domini (disambiguation) and AD (disambiguation). Anno Domini inscription at a cathedral in Carinthia, Austria. The terms anno Domini [a] [1] [2] ( AD) and before Christ [b] [3] [4] [5] ( BC) are used to label or number years in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. The term anno Domini is Medieval Latin and means "in the year of the Lord", [6] but is often presented using "our Lord" instead of "the Lord", [7] [8] taken from the full original phrase " anno Domini nostri Jesu Christi ", which translates to " in the year of our Lord Jesus Christ". This calendar era is based on the traditionally reckoned year of the conception or birth of Jesus of Nazareth, with AD counting years from the start of this epoch, and BC denoting years before the start of the era. There is no year zero in this scheme, so the year AD 1 immediately follows the year 1 BC. This dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus of Scythia Minor, but was not widely used until after 800. [9] [10]The Gregorian calendar is the most widely used calendar in the world today. For decades, it has been the unofficial global standard, adopted in the pragmatic interests of international communication, transportation, and commercial integration, and recognized by international institutions such as the United Nations. [11]Traditionally, English followed Latin usage by placing the "AD" abbreviation before the year number. [c] However, BC is placed after the year number (for example: AD 2018, but 68 BC), which also preserves syntactic order. The abbreviation is also widely used after the number of a century or millennium, as in "fourth century AD" or "second millennium AD" (although conservative usage formerly rejected such expressions). [13] Because BC is the English abbreviation for Before Christ, it is sometimes incorrectly concluded that AD means After Death, i.e., after the death of Jesus. However, this would mean that the approximate 33 years commonly associated with the life of Jesus would neither be included in the BC nor the AD time scales. [14]Terminology that is viewed by some as being more neutral and inclusive of non-Christian people is to call this the Current or Common Era (abbreviated as CE), with the preceding years referred to as Before the Common or Current Era (BCE). Astronomical year numbering and ISO 8601 avoid words or abbreviations related to Christianity, but use the same numbers for AD years. Contents [ hide ]1 History1.1 Popularization1.2 Change of year2 Historical birth date of Jesus3 Other eras4 CE and BCE5 No year zero / Start and end of a century6 See also7 Notes8 References8.1 Citations8.2 Sources9 External links History [ edit]The Anno Domini dating system was devised in 525 by Dionysius Exiguus to enumerate the years in his Easter table. His system was to replace the Diocletian era that had been used in an old Easter table because he did not wish to continue the memory of a tyrant who persecuted Christians. [15] The last year of the old table, Diocletian 247, was immediately followed by the first year of his table, AD 532. When he devised his table, Julian calendar years were identified by naming the consuls who held office that year—he himself stated that the "present year" was "the consulship of Probus Junior ", which was 525 years "since the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ". [16] Thus Dionysius implied that Jesus' Incarnation occurred 525 years earlier, without stating the specific year during which his birth or conception occurred. "However, nowhere in his exposition of his table does Dionysius relate his epoch to any other dating system, whether consulate, Olympiad, year of the world, or regnal year of Augustus; much less does he explain or justify the underlying date." [17]Bonnie J. Blackburn and Leofranc Holford-Strevens briefly present arguments for 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1 as the year Dionysius intended for the Nativity or Incarnation. Among the sources of confusion are: [10]In modern times, Incarnation is synonymous with the conception, but some ancient writers, such as Bede, considered Incarnation to be synonymous with the Nativity. The civil or consular year began on 1 January but the Diocletian year began on 29 August (30 August in the year before a Julian leap year). There were inaccuracies in the lists of consuls. There were confused summations of emperors' regnal years. It is not known how Dionysius established the year of Jesus's birth. Two major theories are that Dionysius based his calculation on the Gospel of Luke, which states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" shortly after "the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar", and hence subtracted thirty years from that date, or that Dionysius counted back 532 years from the first year of his new table. [18] [19] It is convenient to initiate a calendar not from the very day of an event but from the beginning of a cycle which occurs in close proximity. For example, the Islamic calendar begins not from the date of the Hijra, but rather weeks prior, on the first occurrence of the month of Muharram (corresponding to 16 July 622). [20]It has also been speculated by Georges Declercq [21] that Dionysius' desire to replace Diocletian years with a calendar based on the incarnation of Christ was intended to prevent people from believing the imminent end of the world. At the time, it was believed by some that the Resurrection and end of the world would occur 500 years after the birth of Jesus. The old Anno Mundi calendar theoretically commenced with the creation of the world based on information in the Old Testament. It was believed that, based on the Anno Mundi calendar, Jesus was born in the year 5500 (or 5500 years after the world was created) with the year 6000 of the Anno Mundi calendar marking the end of the world. [22] [23] Anno Mundi 6000 (approximately AD 500) was thus equated with the resurrection and the end of the world [24] but this date had already passed in the time of Dionysius. Popularization [ edit]The Anglo-Saxon historian the Venerable Bede, who was familiar with the work of Dionysius Exiguus, used Anno Domini dating in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People, completed in 731. In this same history, he also used another Latin term, ante vero incarnationis dominicae tempus anno sexagesimo ("in fact in the 60th year before the time of the Lord's incarnation"), equivalent to the English "before Christ", to identify years before the first year of this era. [25] Both Dionysius and Bede regarded Anno Domini as beginning at the incarnation of Jesus, but "the distinction between Incarnation and Nativity was not drawn until the late 9th century, when in some places the Incarnation epoch was identified with Christ's conception, i.e., the Annunciation on March 25" ( Annunciation style ). [26]Statue of Charlemagne by Agostino Cornacchini (1725), at St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City. Charlemagne promoted the usage of the Anno Domini epoch throughout the Carolingian Empire. On the continent of Europe, Anno Domini was introduced as the era of choice of the Carolingian Renaissance by the English cleric and scholar Alcuin in the late eighth century. Its endorsement by Emperor Charlemagne and his successors popularizing the use of the epoch and spreading it throughout the Carolingian Empire ultimately lies at the core of the system's prevalence. According to the Catholic Encyclopedia, popes continued to date documents according to regnal years for some time, but usage of AD gradually became more common in Roman Catholic countries from the 11th to the 14th centuries. [27] In 1422, Portugal became the last Western European country to switch to the system begun by Dionysius. [28] Eastern Orthodox countries only began to adopt AD instead of the Byzantine calendar in 1700 when Russia did so, with others adopting it in the 19th and 20th centuries. Although Anno Domini was in widespread use by the 9th century, the term "Before Christ" (or its equivalent) did not become common until much later. Bede the Venerable used the expression "anno igitur ante incarnationem Dominicam" (so in the year before the Incarnation of the Lord) twice. "Anno an xpi nativitate" (in the year before the birth of Christ) is found in 1474 in a work by a German monk. [29] In 1627, the French Jesuit theologian Denis Pétau (Dionysius Petavius in Latin), with his work De doctrina temporum, popularized the usage ante Christum (Latin for "Before Christ") to mark years prior to AD. [30] [31] [32]Change of year [ edit]When the reckoning from Jesus' incarnation began replacing the previous dating systems in western Europe, various people chose different Christian feast days to begin the year: Christmas, Annunciation, or Easter. Thus, depending on the time and place, the year number changed on different days in the year, which created slightly different styles in chronology: [33]From 25 March 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the incarnation of Jesus. That first "Annunciation style" appeared in Arles at the end of the 9th century, then spread to Burgundy and northern Italy. It was not commonly used and was called calculus pisanus since it was adopted in Pisa and survived there till 1750. From 25 December 753 AUC (today in 1 BC), i.e., notionally from the birth of Jesus. It was called "Nativity style" and had been spread by the Venerable Bede together with the Anno Domini in the early Middle Ages. That reckoning of the Year of Grace from Christmas was used in France, England and most of western Europe (except Spain) until the 12th century (when it was replaced by Annunciation style), and in Germany until the second quarter of the 13th century. From 25 March 754 AUC (today in AD 1). That second "Annunciation style" may have originated in Fleury Abbey in the early 11th century, but it was spread by the Cistercians. Florence adopted that style in opposition to that of Pisa, so it got the name of calculus florentinus. It soon spread in France and also in England where it became common in the late 12th century and lasted until 1752. From Easter, starting in 754 AUC (AD 1). That mos gallicanus (French custom) bound to a moveable feast was introduced in France by king Philip Augustus (r. 1180–1223), maybe to establish a new style in the provinces reconquered from England. However, it never spread beyond the ruling élite. With these various styles, the same day could, in some cases, be dated in 1099, 1100 or 1101. Historical birth date of Jesus [ edit]See also: Date of birth of Jesus, Nativity of Jesus § Date of birth, and Chronology of Jesus § Historical birth date of Jesus The date of birth of Jesus of Nazareth is not stated in the gospels or in any secular text, but most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 BC and 4 BC. [34] The historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating, [35] but the date is estimated through two different approaches - one by analyzing references to known historical events mentioned in the Nativity accounts in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew, and the second by working backwards from the estimation of the start of the ministry of Jesus. [36] [37]Other eras [ edit]Further information: Calendar era During the first six centuries of what would come to be known as the Christian era, European countries used various systems to count years. Systems in use included consular dating, imperial regnal year dating, and Creation dating. Although the last non-imperial consul, Basilius, was appointed in 541 by Emperor Justinian I, later emperors through Constans II (641–668) were appointed consuls on the first 1 January after their accession. All of these emperors, except Justinian, used imperial post-consular years for the years of their reign, along with their regnal years. [38] Long unused, this practice was not formally abolished until Novell XCIV of the law code of Leo VI did so in 888. Another calculation had been developed by the Alexandrian monk Annianus around the year AD 400, placing the Annunciation on 25 March AD 9 (Julian)—eight to ten years after the date that Dionysius was to imply. Although this incarnation was popular during the early centuries of the Byzantine Empire, years numbered from it, an Era of Incarnation, were exclusively used and are yet used, in Ethiopia. This accounts for the seven- or eight-year discrepancy between the Gregorian and Ethiopian calendars. Byzantine chroniclers like Maximus the Confessor, George Syncellus, and Theophanes dated their years from Annianus' creation of the world. This era, called Anno Mundi, "year of the world" (abbreviated AM), by modern scholars, began its first year on 25 March 5492 BC. Later Byzantine chroniclers used Anno Mundi years from 1 September 5509 BC, the Byzantine Era. No single Anno Mundi epoch was dominant throughout the Christian world. Eusebius of Caesarea in his Chronicle used an era beginning with the birth of Abraham, dated in 2016 BC (AD 1 = 2017 Anno Abrahami). [39]Spain and Portugal continued to date by the Era of the Caesars or Spanish Era, which began counting from 38 BC, well into the Middle Ages. In 1422, Portugal became the last Catholic country to adopt the Anno Domini system. [27]The Era of Martyrs, which numbered years from the accession of Diocletian in 284, who launched the last yet most severe persecution of Christians, was used by the Church of Alexandria and is still used, officially, by the Coptic Orthodox and Coptic Catholic churches. It was also used by the Ethiopian church. Another system was to date from the crucifixion of Jesus Christ, which as early as Hippolytus and Tertullian was believed to have occurred in the consulate of the Gemini (AD 29), which appears in some medieval manuscripts. CE and BCE [ edit]Main article: Common Era Alternative names for the Anno Domini era include vulgaris aerae (found 1615 in Latin), [40] "Vulgar Era" (in English, as early as 1635), [41] "Christian Era" (in English, in 1652), [42] " Common Era " (in English, 1708), [43] and "Current Era". [44] Since 1856, [45] the alternative abbreviations CE and BCE, (sometimes written C. E. and B. C. E.) are sometimes used in place of AD and BC. The "Common/Current Era" ("CE") terminology is often preferred by those who desire a term that does not explicitly make religious references. [46] [47] For example, Cunningham and Starr (1998) write that "B. C. E./C. E. …do not presuppose faith in Christ and hence are more appropriate for interfaith dialog than the conventional B. C./A. D." [48] Upon its foundation, the Republic of China adopted the Minguo Era, but used the Western calendar for international purposes. The translated term was 西元 ("xī yuán", "Western Era"). Later, in 1949, the People's Republic of China adopted 公元 ( gōngyuán, "Common Era") for all purposes domestic and foreign. No year zero / Start and end of a century [ edit]Further information: 0 (year), Astronomical year numbering, Millennium, and Century In the AD year numbering system, whether applied to the Julian or Gregorian calendars, AD 1 is preceded by 1 BC. There is no year "0" between them, so a new century begins in a year which has "01" as the final digits (e.g., 1801, 1901, 2001). New millennia likewise are considered to have begun in 1001 and 2001. This is at odds with the much more common conception that centuries and millennia begin when the trailing digits are zeroes (1800, 1900, 2000, etc. ); for example, the worldwide celebration of the new millennium took place on New Year's Eve 1999, when the year number ticked over to 2000. [9]For computational reasons, astronomical year numbering and the ISO 8601 standard designate years so that AD 1 = year 1, 1 BC = year 0, 2 BC = year −1, etc. [d] In common usage, ancient dates are expressed in the Julian calendar, but ISO 8601 uses the Gregorian calendar and astronomers may use a variety of time scales depending on the application. Thus dates using the year 0 or negative years may require further investigation before being converted to BC or AD. See also [ edit]Ante Christum natum Calendar Common Era Holocene calendar Notes [ edit]^ The word "anno" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.^ The word "before" is often capitalized, but this is considered incorrect by many authorities and either not mentioned in major dictionaries or only listed as an alternative. Wikipedia's manual of style also prescribes lowercase.^ This convention comes from grammatical usage. Anno 500 means "in the year 500"; anno domini 500 means "in the year 500 of Our Lord". Just as "500 in the year" is not good English syntax, neither is 500 AD; whereas "AD 500" preserves syntactic order when translated. [12]^ To convert from a year BC to astronomical year numbering, reduce the absolute value of the year by 1, and prefix it with a negative sign (unless the result is zero). For years AD, omit the AD and prefix the number with a plus sign (plus sign is optional if it is clear from the context that the year is after the year 0). [49]References [ edit]Citations [ edit]^ "anno Domini". Collins English Dictionary.^ "anno Domini". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.^ "BC". Collins English Dictionary.^ "before Christ". American Heritage Dictionary. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.^ "BC". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary.^ "Anno Domini". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. 2003. Retrieved 2011-10-04. Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of the Lord^ "Online Etymology Dictionary". Retrieved 2011-10-04.^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 782 "since AD stands for anno Domini, 'in the year of (Our) Lord'"^ a b Teresi, Dick (July 1997). "Zero". The Atlantic.^ a b Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, pp. 778–9.^ Eastman, Allan. "A Month of Sundays". Date and Time. Archived from the original on 2010-05-06. Retrieved 2010-05-04.^ Chicago Manual of Style 2010, pp. 476–7; Goldstein 2007, p. 6.^ Chicago Manual of Style, 1993, p. 304.^ Donald P. Ryan, (2000), 15.^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 767.^ Nineteen year cycle of Dionysius Introduction and First Argumentum.^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 778.^ Tøndering, Claus, The Calendar FAQ: Counting years^ Mosshammer, Alden A (2009). The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford. p. 347.^ F. A. Shamsi, "The Date of Hijrah", Islamic Studies 23 (1984): 189-224, 289-323 ( JSTOR link 1 + JSTOR link 2 ).^ Declercq, Georges, "Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era" Turnhout, Belgium, 2000^ Wallraff, Martin: Julius Africanus und die Christliche Weltchronik. Walter de Gruyter, 2006^ Mosshammer, Alden A.: The Easter Computus and the Origins of the Christian Era. Oxford University Press, 2009, p. 254, p. 270, p. 328^ Declercq, Georges: Anno Domini. The Origins of the Christian Era. Turnhout Belgium. 2000^ Bede 731, Book 1, Chapter 2, first sentence.^ Blackburn & Holford-Strevens 2003, p. 881.^ a b Patrick, 1908^ "General Chronology". New Advent Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol III. New York: Robert Appleton Company. 1908. Retrieved 2011-10-25.^ Werner Rolevinck in Fasciculus temporum (1474) used Anno an xpi nativitatem (in the ... (th) year before the birth of Christ) for all years between creation and Jesus. "xpi" is the Greek χρι in Latin letters, which is an abbreviation for Christi. This phrase appears upside down in the centre of recto folios (right hand pages). From Jesus to Pope Sixtus IV he usually used Anno Christi or its abbreviated form Anno xpi (on verso folios—left hand pages). He used Anno mundi alongside all of these terms for all years.^ Steel, Duncan (2000). Marking time: the epic quest to invent the perfect calendar. p. 114. ISBN 978-0-471-29827-4. Retrieved 2010-06-01.^ Hunt, Lynn Avery (2008). Measuring time, making history. p. 33. ISBN 978-963-9776-14-2. Retrieved 2010-06-01.^ Petau, Denis (1758). search for "ante Christum" in a 1748 reprint of a 1633 abridgement entitled Rationarium temporum by Denis Petau. Retrieved 2010-06-01.^ C. R. Cheney, A Handbook of Dates, for students of British history, Cambridge University Press, 1945–2000, pp. 8–14.^ Dunn, James DG (2003). "Jesus Remembered". Eerdmans Publishing: 324.^ Doggett 1992, p579: "Although scholars generally believe that Christ was born some years before AD 1, the historical evidence is too sketchy to allow a definitive dating".^ Paul L. Maier "The Date of the Nativity and Chronology of Jesus" in Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity and chronological studies by Jerry Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi 1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pp. 113–129^ New Testament History by Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN 0-310-31201-9 pp. 121–124^ Roger S. Bagnall and Klaas A. Worp, Chronological Systems of Byzantine Egypt, Leiden, Brill, 2004.^ Alfred von Gutschmid, Kleine Schriften, F. Ruehl, Leipzig, 1889, p.433.^ Johannes Kepler (1615). Joannis Keppleri Eclogae chronicae: ex epistolis doctissimorum aliquot virorum & suis mutuis, quibus examinantur tempora nobilissima: 1. Herodis Herodiadumque, 2. baptismi & ministerii Christi annorum non plus 2 1/4, 3. passionis, mortis et resurrectionis Dn. N. Iesu Christi, anno aerae nostrae vulgaris 31. non, ut vulgo 33., 4. belli Iudaici, quo funerata fuit cum Ierosolymis & Templo Synagoga Iudaica, sublatumque Vetus Testamentum. Inter alia & commentarius in locum Epiphanii obscurissimum de cyclo veteri Iudaeorum. (in Latin). Francofurti : Tampach. Retrieved 2011-05-18. anno aerae nostrae vulgaris^ Kepler, Johann; Vlacq, Adriaan (1635). Ephemerides of the Celestiall Motions, for the Yeers of the Vulgar Era 1633... Retrieved 2011-05-18.^ Sliter, Robert (1652). A celestiall glasse, or, Ephemeris for the year of the Christian era 1652 being the bissextile or leap-year: contayning the lunations, planetary motions, configurations & ecclipses for this present year ... : with many other things very delightfull and necessary for most sorts of men: calculated exactly and composed for ... Rochester. London: Printed for the Company of Stationers.^ The History of the Works of the Learned. 10. London: Printed for H. Rhodes. January 1708. p. 513. Retrieved 2011-05-18.^ BBC Team (8 February 2005). "History of Judaism 63BCE–1086CE". BBC Religion & Ethics. British Broadcasting Corporation. Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-05-18. Year 1: CE – What is nowadays called the 'Current Era' traditionally begins with the birth of a Jewish teacher called Jesus. His followers came to believe he was the promised Messiah and later split away from Judaism to found Christianity^ Raphall, Morris Jacob (1856). Post-Biblical History of The Jews. Moss & Brother. Archived from the original on 11 May 2011. Retrieved 2011-05-18. The term common era does not appear in this book; the term Christian era [lowercase] does appear a number of times. Nowhere in the book is the abbreviation explained or expanded directly.^ Robinson, B. A. (20 April 2009). "Justification of the use of "CE" & "BCE" to identify dates. Trends". Religious Tolerance.org.^ William Safire (17 August 1997). "On Language: B. C./A. D. or B. C. E./C. E.?". The New York Times Magazine.^ Cunningham, ed. by Philip A. (2004). Pondering the Passion : what's at stake for Christians and Jews?. Lanham, Md. [u.a. ]: Rowman & Littlefield. p. 193. ISBN 978-0742532182.^ Doggett, 1992, p. 579Sources [ edit]Abate, Frank R. (ed.) (1997). Oxford Pocket Dictionary and Thesaurus (American ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513097-9. Goldstein, Norm, ed. (2007). Associated Press Style Book. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00489-X. Bede. (731). Historiam ecclesiasticam gentis Anglorum. Accessed 2007-12-07. Chicago Manual of Style (2nd ed.). University of Chicago. 1993. ISBN 0-226-10389-7. Chicago Manual of Style (16th ed.). University of Chicago. 2010. ISBN 0-226-10420-6. Blackburn, Bonnie; Holford-Strevens, Leofranc (2003). The Oxford companion to the Year: An exploration of calendar customs and time-reckoning. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-214231-3. Corrected reprinting of original 1999 edition. Cunningham, Philip A; Starr, Arthur F (1998). Sharing Shalom: A Process for Local Interfaith Dialogue Between Christians and Jews. Paulist Press. ISBN 0-8091-3835-2. Declercq, Georges (2000). Anno Domini: The origins of the Christian era. Turnhout: Brepols. ISBN 2-503-51050-7. (despite beginning with 2, it is English)Declercq, G. "Dionysius Exiguus and the Introduction of the Christian Era". Sacris Erudiri 41 (2002): 165–246. An annotated version of part of Anno Domini. Doggett. (1992). "Calendars" (Ch. 12), in P. Kenneth Seidelmann (Ed.) Explanatory supplement to the astronomical almanac. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. ISBN 0-935702-68-7. Patrick, J. (1908). "General Chronology". In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2008-07-16 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03738a.htm Richards, E. G. (2000). Mapping Time. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286205-7. Riggs, John (January 2003). "Whatever happened to B. C. and A. D., and why?". United Church News. Retrieved 2005-12-19. Ryan, Donald P. (2000). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Biblical Mysteries. Alpha Books. p. 15. ISBN 0-02-863831-X. External links [ edit]Look up AD or Anno Domini in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Calendar Converter [ show]v t e Chronology Categories:6th-century Christianity Calendar eras Christian terminology Chronology Latin religious phrases Timelines of Christian history | . The website you were trying to reach is temporarily unavailable. |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.female definition | Female From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Female (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. ( Learn how and when to remove these template messages)This article needs additional citations for verification. (December 2008)This article's lead section does not adequately summarize key points of its contents. (December 2015)The symbol of the Roman goddess Venus is commonly used to represent the female sex and is the alchemical symbol for copper. Female (♀) is the sex of an organism, or a part of an organism, that produces non-mobile ova (egg cells). Barring rare medical conditions, most female mammals, including female humans, have two X chromosomes. Female characteristics vary between different species with some species containing more well defined female characteristics. Both genetics and environment shape the prenatal development of a female. Contents1 Defining characteristics2 Etymology and usage3 Mammalian female4 Symbol5 Sex determination5.1 Genetic determination5.2 Environmental determination6 See also7 Sources8 References Defining characteristics [ edit]The ova are defined as the larger gametes in a heterogamous reproduction system, while the smaller, usually motile gamete, the spermatozoon, is produced by the male. A female individual cannot reproduce sexually without access to the gametes of a male, or vice versa (an exception is parthenogenesis ). Some organisms that reproduce sexually can also reproduce asexually. There is no single genetic mechanism behind sex differences in different species and the existence of two sexes seems to have evolved multiple times independently in different evolutionary lineages. [1] Patterns of sexual reproduction include Isogamous species with two or more mating types with gametes of identical form and behavior (but different at the molecular level),Anisogamous species with gametes of male and female types,Oogamous species, which include humans in which the female gamete is very much larger than the male and has no ability to move. Oogamy is a form of anisogamy. There is an argument that this pattern was driven by the physical constraints on the mechanisms by which two gametes get together as required for sexual reproduction. [2]Other than the defining difference in the type of gamete produced, differences between males and females in one lineage cannot always be predicted by differences in another. The concept is not limited to animals; egg cells are produced by chytrids, diatoms, water moulds and land plants, among others. In land plants, female and male designate not only the egg- and sperm-producing organisms and structures, but also the structures of the sporophytes that give rise to male and female plants. [ citation needed]Etymology and usage [ edit]The word female comes from the Latin femella, the diminutive form of femina, meaning " woman ". It is not etymologically related to the word male, but in the late 14th century the spelling was altered in English to parallel the spelling of male. [3]Mammalian female [ edit]Adult female and male with clean-shaven pubic regions. A distinguishing characteristic of the class Mammalia is the presence of mammary glands. The mammary glands are modified sweat glands that produce milk, which is used to feed the young for some time after birth. Only mammals produce milk. Mammary glands are most obvious in humans, as the female human body stores large amounts of fatty tissue near the nipples, resulting in prominent breasts. Mammary glands are present in all mammals, although they are seldom used by the males of the species. [4]Most mammalian females have two copies of the X chromosome as opposed to the male which carries only one X and one smaller Y chromosome (but some mammals, such as the platypus, have different combinations). To compensate for the difference in size, one of the female's X chromosomes is randomly inactivated in each cell of placental mammals while the paternally derived X is inactivated in marsupials. In birds and some reptiles, by contrast, it is the female which is heterozygous and carries a Z and a W chromosome whilst the male carries two Z chromosomes. Intersex conditions can also give rise to other combinations, such as XO or XXX in mammals, which are still considered as female so long as they do not contain a Y chromosome, except for specific cases of testosterone deficiency/insensitivity in XY individuals while in the womb. However, these conditions frequently result in sterility. [ citation needed]Mammalian females bear live young (with the rare exception of monotremes, which lay eggs). Some non-mammalian species, such as guppies, have analogous reproductive structures; and some other non-mammals, such as sharks, whose eggs hatch inside their bodies, also have the appearance of bearing live young. [ citation needed]Symbol [ edit]A common symbol used to represent the female sex is ♀ ( Unicode: U+2640 Alt codes: Alt+12), a circle with a small cross underneath. According to Schott, [5] the most established view is that the male and female symbols "are derived from contractions in Greek script of the Greek names of these planets, namely Thouros (Mars) and Phosphoros (Venus). These derivations have been traced by Renkama [6] who illustrated how Greek letters can be transformed into the graphic male and female symbols still recognised today." Thouros was abbreviated by θρ, and Phosphoros by Φ, both in the handwriting of alchemists so somewhat different from the Greek symbols we know. These abbreviations were contracted into the modern symbols. [ citation needed]Sex determination [ edit]Main article: Sex-determination system The sex of a particular organism may be determined by a number of factors. These may be genetic or environmental, or may naturally change during the course of an organism's life. Although most species with male and female sexes have individuals that are either male or female, hermaphroditic animals have both male and female reproductive organs. [ citation needed]Genetic determination [ edit]The sex of most mammals, including humans, is genetically determined by the XY sex-determination system where males have X and Y (as opposed to X and X) sex chromosomes. During reproduction, the male contributes either an X sperm or a Y sperm, while the female always contributes an X egg. A Y sperm and an X egg produce a male, while an X sperm and an X egg produce a female. The ZW sex-determination system, where males have ZZ (as opposed to ZW) sex chromosomes, is found in birds, reptiles and some insects and other organisms. Members of Hymenoptera, such as ants and bees, are determined by haplodiploidy, where most males are haploid and females and some sterile males are diploid. [ citation needed]Environmental determination [ edit]The young of some species develop into one sex or the other depending on local environmental conditions, e.g. many crocodilians' sex is influenced by the temperature of their eggs. Other species (such as the goby) can transform, as adults, from one sex to the other in response to local reproductive conditions (such as a brief shortage of males). [ citation needed]See also [ edit]Look up female in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Females. Male Dakini Feminine side Femininity Gestation Gender Woman Girl Lady Lactation Womyn Sources [ edit]Ayers, Donald M. English Words from Latin and Greek Elements. Second Edition. 1986. University of Arizona Press. United States. References [ edit]^ Christopher Alan Anderson. "The Metaphysics of Sex ...in a Changing World!". Retrieved June 13, 2015.^ Dusenbery, David B. (2009). Living at Micro Scale, Chapter 20. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.^ Online Etymology Dictionary - Female (n.) Retrieved 2010-11-21^ Swaminathan, Nikhil. "Strange but True: Males Can Lactate". Scientific American.^ Schott GD. Sex, drugs, and rock and roll: Sex symbols ancient and modern: their origins and iconography on the pedigree. BMJ 2005;331:1509-1510 (24 December), doi: 10.1136/bmj.331.7531.1509^ Renkema HW. Oorsprong, beteekenis en toepassing van de in de botanie gebuikelijke teekens ter aanduiding van het geslacht en den levensduur. In: Jeswiet J, ed. Gedenkboek J Valckenier Suringar. Wageningen: Nederlandsche Dendrologische Vereeniging, 1942: 96-108.v t e Sex Biological terms Sexual dimorphism Male Female Sexual differentiation Feminization Virilization Sex-determination system XY ZW XO Temperature-dependent Haplodiploidy Heterogametic sex Homogametic sex Sex chromosome X chromosome Y chromosome Testis-determining factor Hermaphrodite Sequential hermaphroditism Intersex parasexuality Sexual reproduction Evolution of sexual reproduction Anisogamy Isogamy Germ cell Reproductive system Sex organ Meiosis Gametogenesis Spermatogenesis Oogenesis Gametespermatozoon ovum Fertilization External Internal Sexual selection Plant reproduction Fungal reproduction Sexual reproduction in animals Sexual intercourse Copulation Human reproduction Sexuality Plant sexuality Animal sexuality Human sexuality Mechanics Differentiation Activity Sex portal Biology portalv t e Gender and sexual identities Gender identities Gender Man Woman Male Female Androgyne Bigender Boi Cisgender Cross-dresser Gender bender Genderqueer Gender neutrality Postgenderism Gender variance Pangender Transgender Trans man Trans woman Transmasculine Transfeminine Transsexual Trigender Third gender, third sex Akava'ine Bakla Bissu Calabai Eunuch Fa'afafine Fakaleiti Femminiello Galli Hijra Kathoey Khanith Köçek Koekchuch Māhū Maknyah Mukhannathun Muxe Nullo Sworn virgin Takatāpui Third gender Travesti Tumtum Two-Spirit Winkte Other Skoptsy Sexual orientation, identities Gender binary Asexual Bisexual Heterosexual Homosexual Non-binary Ambiphilia, Androphilia, Gynephilia Monosexuality Pansexuality Polysexuality Third gender Two-Spirit Social Antisexuality Monogamous Polyamorous Other Attraction to transgender people Banjee Bi-curious Ex-gay Ex-ex-gay Gay Gray asexuality Heteroflexible Enbian Lesbian Kinsey scale Non-heterosexual Queer Questioning Romantic orientation Same gender loving See also Disorders of sex development Ego-dystonic sexual orientation Erotic target location error Gender roles Hermaphrodite Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Intersex Sex and gender distinction Sex assignment Sex change Sex reassignment surgery Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Social construction of gender The Neuro Genderings Network Violence against women and men ( gendercide)Gender studies portal Sexuality portal LGBT portal Categories: Females Gender Sex Women | nan Find someone new!Meet and chat to people near you Sign in via Facebook We never post on your behalf. 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what was manhattan project | Manhattan Project From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search This article is about the atomic bomb project. For other uses, see Manhattan Project (disambiguation). Manhattan District The Trinity test of the Manhattan Project was the first detonation of a nuclear weapon. Active 1942–1946Disbanded 15 August 1947Country United States United Kingdom Canada Branch U. S. Army Corps of Engineers Garrison/HQ Oak Ridge, Tennessee, U. S. Anniversaries 13 August 1942Engagements Allied invasion of Italy Allied invasion of France Allied invasion of Germany Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Allied occupation of Japan Commanders Notable commanders James C. Marshall Kenneth Nichols Insignia Shoulder patch that was adopted in 1945 for the Manhattan District Manhattan Project emblem (unofficial)The Manhattan Project was a research and development undertaking during World War II that produced the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the actual bombs. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan" gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys. The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US $2 billion (about $22 billion in 2016 [1] dollars). Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and to produce fissile material, with less than 10% for development and production of the weapons. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the United States, the United Kingdom, and Canada. Two types of atomic bombs were developed concurrently during the war: a relatively simple gun-type fission weapon and a more complex implosion-type nuclear weapon. The Thin Man gun-type design proved impractical to use with plutonium, and therefore a simpler gun-type called Little Boy was developed that used uranium-235, an isotope that makes up only 0.7 percent of natural uranium. Chemically identical to the most common isotope, uranium-238, and with almost the same mass, it proved difficult to separate the two. Three methods were employed for uranium enrichment: electromagnetic, gaseous and thermal. Most of this work was performed at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. In parallel with the work on uranium was an effort to produce plutonium. After the feasibility of the world's first artificial nuclear reactor was demonstrated in Chicago at the Metallurgical Laboratory, it designed the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge and the production reactors in Hanford, Washington, in which uranium was irradiated and transmuted into plutonium. The plutonium was then chemically separated from the uranium. The Fat Man implosion-type weapon was developed in a concerted design and development effort by the Los Alamos Laboratory. The project was also charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear weapon project. Through Operation Alsos, Manhattan Project personnel served in Europe, sometimes behind enemy lines, where they gathered nuclear materials and documents, and rounded up German scientists. Despite the Manhattan Project's tight security, Soviet atomic spies successfully penetrated the program. The first nuclear device ever detonated was an implosion-type bomb at the Trinity test, conducted at New Mexico's Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range on 16 July 1945. Little Boy and Fat Man bombs were used a month later in the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, respectively. In the immediate postwar years, the Manhattan Project conducted weapons testing at Bikini Atoll as part of Operation Crossroads, developed new weapons, promoted the development of the network of national laboratories, supported medical research into radiology and laid the foundations for the nuclear navy. It maintained control over American atomic weapons research and production until the formation of the United States Atomic Energy Commission in January 1947. Contents1 Origins2 Feasibility2.1 Proposals2.2 Bomb design concepts3 Organization3.1 Manhattan District3.2 Military Policy Committee3.3 Collaboration with the United Kingdom4 Project sites4.1 Oak Ridge4.2 Los Alamos4.3 Chicago4.4 Hanford4.5 Canadian sites4.5.1 British Columbia4.5.2 Ontario4.5.3 Northwest Territories4.6 Heavy water sites5 Uranium5.1 Ore5.2 Isotope separation5.2.1 Centrifuges5.2.2 Electromagnetic separation5.2.3 Gaseous diffusion5.2.4 Thermal diffusion5.3 Aggregate U-235 production6 Plutonium6.1 X-10 Graphite Reactor6.2 Hanford reactors6.3 Separation process6.4 Weapon design6.5 Trinity7 Personnel8 Secrecy8.1 Censorship8.2 Soviet spies9 Foreign intelligence10 Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki10.1 Preparations10.2 Bombings11 After the war12 Cost13 Legacy14 Notes15 References15.1 General, administrative, and diplomatic histories15.2 Technical histories15.3 Participant accounts16 External links Origins The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. There were fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop one first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries. [2] In August 1939, Hungarian-born physicists Leó Szilárd and Eugene Wigner drafted the Einstein–Szilárd letter, which warned of the potential development of "extremely powerful bombs of a new type". It urged the United States to take steps to acquire stockpiles of uranium ore and accelerate the research of Enrico Fermi and others into nuclear chain reactions. They had it signed by Albert Einstein and delivered to President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Roosevelt called on Lyman Briggs of the National Bureau of Standards to head the Advisory Committee on Uranium to investigate the issues raised by the letter. Briggs held a meeting on 21 October 1939, which was attended by Szilárd, Wigner and Edward Teller. The committee reported back to Roosevelt in November that uranium "would provide a possible source of bombs with a destructiveness vastly greater than anything now known." [3]The Advisory Committee on Uranium became the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC) Committee on Uranium when that organization was formed on 27 June 1940. [4] Briggs proposed spending $167,000 on research into uranium, particularly the uranium-235 isotope, and the recently discovered plutonium. [5] On 28 June 1941, Roosevelt signed Executive Order 8807, which created the Office of Scientific Research and Development (OSRD), [6] with Vannevar Bush as its director. The office was empowered to engage in large engineering projects in addition to research. [5] The NDRC Committee on Uranium became the S-1 Section of the OSRD; the word "uranium" was dropped for security reasons. [7]In Britain, Frisch and Rudolf Peierls at the University of Birmingham had made a breakthrough investigating the critical mass of uranium-235 in June 1939. [8] Their calculations indicated that it was within an order of magnitude of 10 kilograms (22 lb), which was small enough to be carried by a bomber of the day. [9] Their March 1940 Frisch–Peierls memorandum initiated the British atomic bomb project and its Maud Committee, [10] which unanimously recommended pursuing the development of an atomic bomb. [9] In July 1940, Britain had offered to give the United States access to its scientific research, [11] and the Tizard Mission 's John Cockcroft briefed American scientists on British developments. He discovered that the American project was smaller than the British, and not as far advanced. [12]As part of the scientific exchange, the Maud Committee's findings were conveyed to the United States. One of its members, the Australian physicist Mark Oliphant, flew to the United States in late August 1941 and discovered that data provided by the Maud Committee had not reached key American physicists. Oliphant then set out to find out why the committee's findings were apparently being ignored. He met with the Uranium Committee and visited Berkeley, California, where he spoke persuasively to Ernest O. Lawrence. Lawrence was sufficiently impressed to commence his own research into uranium. He in turn spoke to James B. Conant, Arthur H. Compton and George B. Pegram. Oliphant's mission was therefore a success; key American physicists were now aware of the potential power of an atomic bomb. [13] [14]On 9 October 1941, President Roosevelt approved the atomic program after he convened a meeting with Vannevar Bush and Vice President Henry A. Wallace. To control the program, he created a Top Policy Group consisting of himself—although he never attended a meeting—Wallace, Bush, Conant, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson, and the Chief of Staff of the Army, General George C. Marshall. Roosevelt chose the Army to run the project rather than the Navy, because the Army had more experience with management of large-scale construction projects. He also agreed to coordinate the effort with that of the British, and on 11 October he sent a message to Prime Minister Winston Churchill, suggesting that they correspond on atomic matters. [15]Feasibility Proposals A 1940 meeting at Berkeley: Ernest O. Lawrence, Arthur H. Compton, Vannevar Bush, James B. Conant, Karl T. Compton, and Alfred L. Loomis The S-1 Committee held its meeting on 18 December 1941 "pervaded by an atmosphere of enthusiasm and urgency" [16] in the wake of the attack on Pearl Harbor and the subsequent United States declaration of war upon Japan and then on Germany. [17] Work was proceeding on three different techniques for isotope separation to separate uranium-235 from the more abundant uranium-238. Lawrence and his team at the University of California, Berkeley, investigated electromagnetic separation, while Eger Murphree and Jesse Wakefield Beams 's team looked into gaseous diffusion at Columbia University, and Philip Abelson directed research into thermal diffusion at the Carnegie Institution of Washington and later the Naval Research Laboratory. [18] Murphree was also the head of an unsuccessful separation project using gas centrifuges. [19]Meanwhile, there were two lines of research into nuclear reactor technology, with Harold Urey continuing research into heavy water at Columbia, while Arthur Compton brought the scientists working under his supervision from Columbia, California and Princeton University to join his team at the University of Chicago, where he organized the Metallurgical Laboratory in early 1942 to study plutonium and reactors using graphite as a neutron moderator. [20] Briggs, Compton, Lawrence, Murphree, and Urey met on 23 May 1942 to finalize the S-1 Committee recommendations, which called for all five technologies to be pursued. This was approved by Bush, Conant, and Brigadier General Wilhelm D. Styer, the chief of staff of Major General Brehon B. Somervell 's Services of Supply, who had been designated the Army's representative on nuclear matters. [18] Bush and Conant then took the recommendation to the Top Policy Group with a budget proposal for $54 million for construction by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, $31 million for research and development by OSRD and $5 million for contingencies in fiscal year 1943. The Top Policy Group in turn sent it to the President on 17 June 1942 and he approved it by writing "OK FDR" on the document. [18]Bomb design concepts Different fission bomb assembly methods explored during the July 1942 conference Compton asked theoretical physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer of the University of California, Berkeley, to take over research into fast neutron calculations —the key to calculations of critical mass and weapon detonation—from Gregory Breit, who had quit on 18 May 1942 because of concerns over lax operational security. [21]John H. Manley, a physicist at the Metallurgical Laboratory, was assigned to assist Oppenheimer by contacting and coordinating experimental physics groups scattered across the country. [22] Oppenheimer and Robert Serber of the University of Illinois examined the problems of neutron diffusion—how neutrons moved in a nuclear chain reaction—and hydrodynamics —how the explosion produced by a chain reaction might behave. To review this work and the general theory of fission reactions, Oppenheimer and Fermi convened meetings at the University of Chicago in June and at the University of California, Berkeley, in July 1942 with theoretical physicists Hans Bethe, John Van Vleck, Edward Teller, Emil Konopinski, Robert Serber, Stan Frankel, and Eldred C. Nelson, the latter three former students of Oppenheimer, and experimental physicists Emilio Segrè, Felix Bloch, Franco Rasetti, John Henry Manley, and Edwin Mc Millan. They tentatively confirmed that a fission bomb was theoretically possible. [23]There were still many unknown factors. The properties of pure uranium-235 were relatively unknown, as were those of plutonium, an element that had only been discovered in February 1941 by Glenn Seaborg and his team. The scientists at the Berkeley conference envisioned creating plutonium in nuclear reactors where uranium-238 atoms absorbed neutrons that had been emitted from fissioning uranium-235 atoms. At this point no reactor had been built, and only tiny quantities of plutonium were available from cyclotrons. [24] Even by December 1943, only two milligrams had been produced. [25] There were many ways of arranging the fissile material into a critical mass. The simplest was shooting a "cylindrical plug" into a sphere of "active material" with a "tamper"—dense material that would focus neutrons inward and keep the reacting mass together to increase its efficiency. [26] They also explored designs involving spheroids, a primitive form of " implosion " suggested by Richard C. Tolman, and the possibility of autocatalytic methods, which would increase the efficiency of the bomb as it exploded. [27]Considering the idea of the fission bomb theoretically settled—at least until more experimental data was available—the Berkeley conference then turned in a different direction. Edward Teller pushed for discussion of a more powerful bomb: the "super", now usually referred to as a " hydrogen bomb ", which would use the explosive force of a detonating fission bomb to ignite a nuclear fusion reaction in deuterium and tritium. [28] Teller proposed scheme after scheme, but Bethe refused each one. The fusion idea was put aside to concentrate on producing fission bombs. [29] Teller also raised the speculative possibility that an atomic bomb might "ignite" the atmosphere because of a hypothetical fusion reaction of nitrogen nuclei. [note 1] Bethe calculated that it could not happen, [31] and a report co-authored by Teller showed that "no self-propagating chain of nuclear reactions is likely to be started." [32] In Serber's account, Oppenheimer mentioned it to Arthur Compton, who "didn't have enough sense to shut up about it. It somehow got into a document that went to Washington" and was "never laid to rest". [note 2]Organization Manhattan District The Chief of Engineers, Major General Eugene Reybold, selected Colonel James C. Marshall to head the Army's part of the project in June 1942. Marshall created a liaison office in Washington, D. C., but established his temporary headquarters on the 18th floor of 270 Broadway in New York, where he could draw on administrative support from the Corps of Engineers' North Atlantic Division. It was close to the Manhattan office of Stone & Webster, the principal project contractor, and to Columbia University. He had permission to draw on his former command, the Syracuse District, for staff, and he started with Lieutenant Colonel Kenneth Nichols, who became his deputy. [34] [35]Manhattan Project Organization Chart, 1 May 1946Because most of his task involved construction, Marshall worked in cooperation with the head of the Corps of Engineers Construction Division, Major General Thomas M. Robbins, and his deputy, Colonel Leslie Groves. Reybold, Somervell, and Styer decided to call the project "Development of Substitute Materials", but Groves felt that this would draw attention. Since engineer districts normally carried the name of the city where they were located, Marshall and Groves agreed to name the Army's component of the project the Manhattan District. This became official on 13 August, when Reybold issued the order creating the new district. Informally, it was known as the Manhattan Engineer District, or MED. Unlike other districts, it had no geographic boundaries, and Marshall had the authority of a division engineer. Development of Substitute Materials remained as the official codename of the project as a whole, but was supplanted over time by "Manhattan". [35]Marshall later conceded that, "I had never heard of atomic fission but I did know that you could not build much of a plant, much less four of them for $90 million." [36] A single TNT plant that Nichols had recently built in Pennsylvania had cost $128 million. [37] Nor were they impressed with estimates to the nearest order of magnitude, which Groves compared with telling a caterer to prepare for between ten and a thousand guests. [38] A survey team from Stone & Webster had already scouted a site for the production plants. The War Production Board recommended sites around Knoxville, Tennessee, an isolated area where the Tennessee Valley Authority could supply ample electric power and the rivers could provide cooling water for the reactors. After examining several sites, the survey team selected one near Elza, Tennessee. Conant advised that it be acquired at once and Styer agreed but Marshall temporized, awaiting the results of Conant's reactor experiments before taking action. [39] Of the prospective processes, only Lawrence's electromagnetic separation appeared sufficiently advanced for construction to commence. [40]Marshall and Nichols began assembling the resources they would need. The first step was to obtain a high priority rating for the project. The top ratings were AA-1 through AA-4 in descending order, although there was also a special AAA rating reserved for emergencies. Ratings AA-1 and AA-2 were for essential weapons and equipment, so Colonel Lucius D. Clay, the deputy chief of staff at Services and Supply for requirements and resources, felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA-3, although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose. [41] Nichols and Marshall were disappointed; AA-3 was the same priority as Nichols' TNT plant in Pennsylvania. [42]Military Policy Committee Oppenheimer and Groves at the remains of the Trinity test in September 1945, two months after the test blast and just after the end of World War II. The white overshoes prevented fallout from sticking to the soles of their shoes. [43]Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously, specifically the failure to acquire the Tennessee site, the low priority allocated to the project by the Army and the location of his headquarters in New York City. [44] Bush felt that more aggressive leadership was required, and spoke to Harvey Bundy and Generals Marshall, Somervell, and Styer about his concerns. He wanted the project placed under a senior policy committee, with a prestigious officer, preferably Styer, as overall director. [42]Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post, informing him on 17 September of this decision, and that General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general, [45] as it was felt that the title "general" would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project. [46] Groves' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold, with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves. [47] Groves established his headquarters in Washington, D. C., on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building, where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office. [48] He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September. Later that day, he attended a meeting called by Stimson, which established a Military Policy Committee, responsible to the Top Policy Group, consisting of Bush (with Conant as an alternate), Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell. [45] Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves' scientific advisers. [49]On 19 September, Groves went to Donald Nelson, the chairman of the War Production Board, and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required. Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President. [50] Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary. It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA-3 rating was too low. After a long campaign, Groves finally received AA-1 authority on 1 July 1944. [51] According to Groves, "In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority. Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority. That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority". [52]One of Groves' early problems was to find a director for Project Y, the group that would design and build the bomb. The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads, Urey, Lawrence, or Compton, but they could not be spared. Compton recommended Oppenheimer, who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts. However, Oppenheimer had little administrative experience, and, unlike Urey, Lawrence, and Compton, had not won a Nobel Prize, which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have. There were also concerns about Oppenheimer's security status, as many of his associates were Communists, including his brother, Frank Oppenheimer; his wife, Kitty; and his girlfriend, Jean Tatlock. A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director. Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943. [53] [54]Collaboration with the United Kingdom Main article: British contribution to the Manhattan Project The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts. Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in 1941 to strengthen cooperation with its own project, codenamed Tube Alloys, because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb. [55] An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo-American project was poorly treated, and Churchill did not reply to the letter. The United States as a result decided as early as April 1942 that if its offer was rejected, they should proceed alone. [56] The British, who had made significant contributions early in the war, did not have the resources to carry through such a research program while fighting for their survival. As a result, Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. [57] and on 30 July 1942, Sir John Anderson, the minister responsible for Tube Alloys, advised Churchill that: "We must face the fact that ... [our] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that, unless we capitalise it quickly, we shall be outstripped. We now have a real contribution to make to a 'merger.' Soon we shall have little or none." [58] That month Churchill and Roosevelt made an informal, unwritten agreement for atomic collaboration. [59]Groves confers with James Chadwick, the head of the British Mission The opportunity for an equal partnership no longer existed, however, as shown in August 1942 when the British unsuccessfully demanded substantial control over the project while paying none of the costs. By 1943 the roles of the two countries had reversed from late 1941; [56] in January Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas. While the British were shocked by the abrogation of the Churchill-Roosevelt agreement, head of the Canadian National Research Council C. J. Mackenzie was less surprised, writing "I can't help feeling that the United Kingdom group [over] emphasizes the importance of their contribution as compared with the Americans." [59] As Conant and Bush told the British, the order came "from the top". [60]The British bargaining position had worsened; the American scientists had decided that the United States no longer needed outside help, and they wanted to prevent Britain exploiting post-war commercial applications of atomic energy. The committee supported, and Roosevelt agreed to, restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war—especially not bomb design—even if doing so slowed down the American project. By early 1943 the British stopped sending research and scientists to America, and as a result the Americans stopped all information sharing. The British considered ending the supply of Canadian uranium and heavy water to force the Americans to again share, but Canada needed American supplies to produce them. [61] They investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program, but determined that it could not be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe. [62]By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project. James Chadwick and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them, despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets. [63] In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement, which resulted in a resumption of cooperation [64] between scientists working on the same problem. Britain, however, agreed to restrictions on data on the building of large-scale production plants necessary for the bomb. [65] The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement in September 1944 extended this cooperation to the postwar period. [66] The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States, United Kingdom and Canada. Stimson, Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee, Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members, and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member. [67] Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell, who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States, Lord Halifax, in early 1945. Sir John Dill died in Washington, D. C., in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. [68]When cooperation resumed after the Quebec agreement, the Americans' progress and expenditures amazed the British. The United States had already spent more than $1 billion ($11,400,000,000 today [1] ), while in 1943, the United Kingdom had spent about £0.5 million. Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandon any hopes of a British project during the war. [62] With Churchill's backing, he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored. [69] The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Klaus Fuchs, Rudolf Peierls, and Ernest Titterton. [70] More scientists arrived in early 1944. While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944, the 35 working with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and stayed until the end of the war. The 19 sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups, primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly, but not the plutonium-related ones. [62] Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. In June 1945, Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. [71]The Combined Policy Committee created the Combined Development Trust in June 1944, with Groves as its chairman, to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets. The Belgian Congo and Canada held much of the world's uranium outside Eastern Europe, and the Belgian government in exile was in London. Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore, as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research. [72] In 1944, the Trust purchased 3,440,000 pounds (1,560,000 kg) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo. In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project, a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies. Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947, Groves deposited a total of $37.5 million into the Trust's account. [73]Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists' contributions to the Manhattan Project, but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them. [62] He also said that Churchill was "the best friend the atomic bomb project had [as] he kept Roosevelt's interest up ... He just stirred him up all the time by telling him how important he thought the project was." [52]The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom's independent nuclear weapons program after the war when the Mc Mahon Act of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation. [62]Project sites A selection of US and Canadian sites important to the Manhattan Project. Click on the location for more information. Oak Ridge Main article: Clinton Engineer Works Shift change at the Y-12 uranium enrichment facility at the Clinton Engineer Works in Oak Ridge, Tennessee on 11 August 1945. By May 1945, 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works. [74] Photograph by the Manhattan District photographer Ed Westcott. The day after he took over the project, Groves took a train to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there, and Groves was impressed. [75] [76] On 29 September 1942, United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56,000 acres (23,000 ha) of land by eminent domain at a cost of $3.5 million. An additional 3,000 acres (1,200 ha) was subsequently acquired. About 1,000 families were affected by the condemnation order, which came into effect on 7 October. [77] Protests, legal appeals, and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail. [78] By mid-November U. S. Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors, and construction contractors were moving in. [79] Some families were given two weeks' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations; [80] others had settled there after being evicted to make way for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s or the Norris Dam in the 1930s. [78] The ultimate cost of land acquisition in the area, which was not completed until March 1945, was only about $2.6 million, which worked out to around $47 an acre. [81] When presented with Public Proclamation Number Two, which declared Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission, the Governor of Tennessee, Prentice Cooper, angrily tore it up. [82]Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range, the site was officially renamed the Clinton Engineer Works (CEW) in early 1943. [83] While Stone & Webster concentrated on the production facilities, the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore, Owings & Merrill designed and built a residential community for 13,000. The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge, from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name. [84] The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District. One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change. [85] In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary, the Roane-Anderson Company (for Roane and Anderson Counties, in which Oak Ridge was located). [86] Chemical engineers, including William J. Wilcox Jr. and Warren Fuchs, were part of "frantic efforts" to make 10% to 12% enriched uranium 235, known as the code name "tuballoy tetroxide", with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials. [87] The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans, and peaked at 75,000 in May 1945, by which time 82,000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works, [74] and 10,000 by Roane-Anderson. [86]Fine-arts photographer, Josephine Herrick, and her colleague, Mary Steers, helped document the work at Oak Ridge. [88]Los Alamos Main article: Project YWikisource has original text related to this article: Los Alamos Ranch School Seizure Letter The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered, but in the end it was decided that it should be in a remote location. On Oppenheimer's recommendation, the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque, New Mexico, where Oppenheimer owned a ranch. In October 1942, Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan Project was sent to survey the area, and he recommended a site near Jemez Springs, New Mexico. [89] On 16 November, Oppenheimer, Groves, Dudley and others toured the site. Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic, while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding. The party then moved on to the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School. Oppenheimer was impressed and expressed a strong preference for the site, citing its natural beauty and views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains, which, it was hoped, would inspire those who would work on the project. [90] [91] The engineers were concerned about the poor access road, and whether the water supply would be adequate, but otherwise felt that it was ideal. [92]Physicists at a Manhattan District-sponsored colloquium at the Los Alamos Laboratory on the Super in April 1946. In the front row are Norris Bradbury, John Manley, Enrico Fermi and J. M. B. Kellogg. Robert Oppenheimer, in dark coat, is behind Manley; to Oppenheimer's left is Richard Feynman. The Army officer on the left is Colonel Oliver Haywood. Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942, authorizing $440,000 for the purchase of the site of 54,000 acres (22,000 ha), all but 8,900 acres (3,600 ha) of which were already owned by the Federal Government. [93] Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted use of some 45,100 acres (18,300 ha) of United States Forest Service land to the War Department "for so long as the military necessity continues". [94] The need for land, for a new road, and later for a right of way for a 25-mile (40 km) power line, eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45,737 acres (18,509.1 ha), but only $414,971 was spent. [93] Construction was contracted to the M. M. Sundt Company of Tucson, Arizona, with Willard C. Kruger and Associates of Santa Fe, New Mexico, as architect and engineer. Work commenced in December 1942. Groves initially allocated $300,000 for construction, three times Oppenheimer's estimate, with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943. It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was greater than expected, and by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943, over $7 million had been spent. [95]Map of Los Alamos site, New Mexico, 1943–45Because it was secret, Los Alamos was referred to as "Site Y" or "the Hill". [96] Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe. [97] Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army. Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel's uniform, but two key physicists, Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi, balked at the idea. Conant, Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department. [98]Chicago Main article: Metallurgical Laboratory An Army-OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a pilot plant for plutonium production in Red Gate Woods southwest of Chicago. In July, Nichols arranged for a lease of 1,025 acres (415 ha) from the Cook County Forest Preserve District, and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer. It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area, and it was decided to build the plant at Oak Ridge, and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago. [99] [100]Delays in establishing the plant in Red Gate Woods led Compton to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago. The reactor required an enormous amount of graphite blocks and uranium pellets. At the time, there was a limited source of pure uranium. Frank Spedding of Iowa State University were able to produce only two short tons of pure uranium. Additional three short tons of uranium metal was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant which was produced in a rush with makeshift process. A large square balloon was constructed by Goodyear Tire to encase the reactor. [101] [102] On 2 December 1942, a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial [note 3] self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as Chicago Pile-1. [104] The point at which a reaction becomes self-sustaining became known as "going critical". Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington, D. C., by a coded phone call, saying, "The Italian navigator [Fermi] has just landed in the new world." [105] [note 4]In January 1943, Grafton's successor, Major Arthur V. Peterson, ordered Chicago Pile-1 dismantled and reassembled at Red Gate Woods, as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area. [106] At the Argonne site, Chicago Pile-3, the first heavy water reactor, went critical on 15 May 1944. [107] [108] After the war, the operations that remained at Red Gate moved to the new site of the Argonne National Laboratory about 6 miles (9.7 km) away. [100]Hanford Main article: Hanford Site By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center (Knoxville) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident. Groves recruited Du Pont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex. Du Pont was offered a standard cost plus fixed-fee contract, but the President of the company, Walter S. Carpenter, Jr., wanted no profit of any kind, and asked for the proposed contract to be amended to explicitly exclude the company from acquiring any patent rights. This was accepted, but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon. After the war, Du Pont asked to be released from the contract early, and had to return 33 cents. [109]Hanford workers collect their paychecks at the Western Union office. Du Pont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge. [110] In December 1942, Groves dispatched Colonel Franklin Matthias and Du Pont engineers to scout potential sites. Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland, Washington, was "ideal in virtually all respects". It was isolated and near the Columbia River, which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors that would produce the plutonium. Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works (HEW), codenamed "Site W". [111]Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February, allocating $5 million for the acquisition of 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) of land in the area. The federal government relocated some 1,500 residents of White Bluffs and Hanford, and nearby settlements, as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area. A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops, which had already been planted before the land was acquired. Where schedules allowed, the Army allowed the crops to be harvested, but this was not always possible. [111] The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946. [112]The dispute did not delay work. Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and Du Pont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project, a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25,000 workers, half of whom were expected to live on-site. By July 1944, some 1,200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51,000 people were living in the construction camp. As area engineer, Matthias exercised overall control of the site. [113] At its peak, the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state. [114] Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses, more than the city of Chicago. [115] Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge, Richland was a gated community with restricted access, but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown: the military profile was lower, and physical security elements like high fences, towers, and guard dogs were less evident. [116]Canadian sites Main article: Montreal Laboratory British Columbia Cominco had produced electrolytic hydrogen at Trail, British Columbia, since 1930. Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water. To the existing $10 million plant consisting of 3,215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power, secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2.3% to 99.8%. For this process, Hugh Taylor of Princeton developed a platinum-on-carbon catalyst for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel- chromia one for the fourth stage tower. The final cost was $2.8 million. The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942. Trail's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956. Heavy water from Trail was used for Chicago Pile 3, the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium, which went critical on 15 May 1944. [117]Ontario The Chalk River, Ontario, site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area. A new community was built at Deep River, Ontario, to provide residences and facilities for the team members. The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec, and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base, Camp Petawawa. Located on the Ottawa River, it had access to abundant water. The first director of the new laboratory was Hans von Halban. He was replaced by John Cockcroft in May 1944, who in turn was succeeded by Bennett Lewis in September 1946. A pilot reactor known as ZEEP (zero-energy experimental pile) became the first Canadian reactor, and the first to be completed outside the United States, when it went critical in September 1945, ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970. [118] A larger 10 MW NRX reactor, which was designed during the war, was completed and went critical in July 1947. [117]Northwest Territories The Eldorado Mine at Port Radium was a source of uranium ore. [119]Heavy water sites Main article: P-9 Project Although Du Pont's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator, Du Pont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup, in case the graphite reactor design proved infeasible for some reason. For this purpose, it was estimated that 3 long tons (3.0 t) of heavy water would be required per month. The P-9 Project was the government's code name for the heavy water production program. As the plant at Trail, which was then under construction, could produce 0.5 long tons (0.51 t) per month, additional capacity was required. Groves therefore authorized Du Pont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works, near Morgantown, West Virginia; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works, near Dana and Newport, Indiana; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works, near Childersburg and Sylacauga, Alabama. Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under Ordnance Department contracts, they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers. The American plants used a process different from Trail's; heavy water was extracted by distillation, taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water. [120] [121]Uranium Ore The key raw material for the project was uranium, which was used as fuel for the reactors, as feed that was transformed into plutonium, and, in its enriched form, in the atomic bomb itself. There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940: in Colorado, in northern Canada, in Joachimsthal in Czechoslovakia, and in the Belgian Congo. [122] All but Joachimstal were in allied hands. A November 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project's requirements. [123] Nichols arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated for the purchase of 1,200 long tons (1,200 t) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo. He negotiated with Eldorado Gold Mines for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope, Ontario, and its shipment in 100-ton lots. The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company's stock until it acquired a controlling interest. [124]While these purchases assured a sufficient supply to meet wartime needs, the American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries' interest to gain control of as much of the world's uranium deposits as possible. The richest source of ore was the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo, but it was flooded and closed. Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with Edgar Sengier, the director of the company that owned the mine, Union Minière du Haut Katanga. [125] The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee. As 30 percent of Union Minière's stock was controlled by British interests, the British took the lead in negotiations. Sir John Anderson and Ambassador John Winant hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1,720 long tons (1,750 t) of ore to be purchased at $1.45 a pound. [126] To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore, Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation's stockpile in Uravan, Colorado. Uranium mining in Colorado yielded about 800 long tons (810 t) of ore. [127]Mallinckrodt Incorporated in St. Louis, Missouri, took the raw ore and dissolved it in nitric acid to produce uranyl nitrate. Ether was then added in a liquid–liquid extraction process to separate the impurities from the uranyl nitrate. This was then heated to form uranium trioxide, which was reduced to highly pure uranium dioxide. [128] By July 1942, Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day, but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult for contractors Westinghouse and Metal Hydrides. [129] Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low. A special branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa, under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives. This became known as the Ames Project, and its Ames process became available in 1943. [130]Uranium refining at Ames A "bomb" ( pressure vessel) containing uranium halide and sacrificial metal, probably magnesium, being lowered into a furnace After the reaction, the interior of a bomb coated with remnant slag A uranium metal "biscuit" from the reduction reaction Isotope separation Natural uranium consists of 99.3% uranium-238 and 0.7% uranium-235, but only the latter is fissile. The chemically identical uranium-235 has to be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope. Various methods were considered for uranium enrichment, most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge. [131]The most obvious technology, the centrifuge, failed, but electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project. In February 1943, Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others. [132]Oak Ridge hosted several uranium separation technologies. The Y-12 electromagnetic separation plant is in the upper right. The K-25 and K-27 gaseous diffusion plants are in the lower left, near the S-50 thermal diffusion plant. (The X-10 was for plutonium production. )Centrifuges The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942. [133] Jesse Beams had developed such a process at the University of Virginia during the 1930s, but had encountered technical difficulties. The process required high rotational speeds, but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart. It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds. In 1941 he began working with uranium hexafluoride, the only known gaseous compound of uranium, and was able to separate uranium-235. At Columbia, Urey had Karl Cohen investigate the process, and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit, which Westinghouse undertook to construct. [134]Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge. Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram (2.2 lb) of uranium-235 per day would require up to 50,000 centrifuges with 1-meter (3 ft 3 in) rotors, or 10,000 centrifuges with 4-meter (13 ft) rotors, assuming that 4-meter rotors could be built. The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting, [135] and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus, he obtained only 60% of the predicted yield, indicating that more centrifuges would be required. Beams, Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase the efficiency of the process. However, frequent failures of motors, shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant. [136] In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee following a recommendation by Conant, Nichols and August C. Klein of Stone & Webster. [137]Electromagnetic separation Main article: Y-12 Project Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory. This method employed devices known as calutrons, a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron. The name was derived from the words California, university and cyclotron. [138] In the electromagnetic process, a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass. [139] The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient. [140] Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor, an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials, require more manpower to operate, and cost more to build. Nonetheless, the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk. Moreover, it could be built in stages, and rapidly reach industrial capacity. [138]Giant Alpha I racetrack at Y-12Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5,000 short tons (4,500 tonnes) of copper, which was in desperately short supply. However, silver could be substituted, in an 11:10 ratio. On 3 August 1942, Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6,000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository. "Young man," Bell told him, "you may think of silver in tons but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces !" [141] Eventually, 14,700 short tons (13,300 tonnes; 430,000,000 troy ounces) were used. [142]The 1,000-troy-ounce (31 kg) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets and taken to Phelps Dodge in Bayway, New Jersey, where they were extruded into strips 0.625 inches (15.9 mm) thick, 3 inches (76 mm) wide and 40 feet (12 m) long. These were wound onto magnetic coils by Allis-Chalmers in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. After the war, all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver. In the end, only 1/3,600,000th was lost. [142] [143] The last silver was returned in May 1970. [144]Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant, which came to be called Y-12, was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S-1 Committee in June 1942. The design called for five first-stage processing units, known as Alpha racetracks, and two units for final processing, known as Beta racetracks. In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks, known as Alpha II. Construction began in February 1943. [145]When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in October, the 14-ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets, and had to be fastened more securely. A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out. In December Groves ordered a magnet to be broken open, and handfuls of rust were found inside. Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned. A pickling plant was established on-site to clean the pipes and fittings. [140] The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944, the first Beta and first and third Alpha I's came online in March, and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April. The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944. [146]Operators, so-called Calutron Girls, photographed by Ed Westcott, at their calutron control panels at Y-12. Gladys Owens, the woman seated in the foreground, did not know what she had been involved with until seeing this photo in a public tour of the facility fifty years later. [147]Tennessee Eastman was contracted to manage Y-12 on the usual cost plus fixed-fee basis, with a fee of $22,500 per month plus $7,500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $4,000 per additional racetrack. [148] The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate. They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education. Nichols compared unit production data, and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his Ph Ds. They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost, a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors. The girls were "trained like soldiers not to reason why", while "the scientists could not refrain from time-consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials." [149]Y-12 initially enriched the uranium-235 content to between 13% and 15%, and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944. Only 1 part in 5,825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product. Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process. Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10% of the uranium-235 feed by January 1945. In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched (1.4%) feed from the new S-50 thermal diffusion plant. The next month it received enhanced (5%) feed from the K-25 gaseous diffusion plant. By August K-25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks. [150]Gaseous diffusion Main article: K-25The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion. Graham's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass, so in a box containing a semi-permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases, the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules. The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules, while the residual gas is somewhat depleted. The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes, with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture. Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey, Karl P. Cohen, and John R. Dunning. [151]Oak Ridge K-25 plant In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600-stage gaseous diffusion plant. [152] On 14 December, M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant, which was codenamed K-25. A cost plus fixed-fee contract was negotiated, eventually totaling $2.5 million. A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project, headed by Percival C. Keith, one of Kellogg's vice presidents. [153] The process faced formidable technical difficulties. The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride would have to be used, as no substitute could be found, and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas. The biggest problem was the design of the barrier, which would have to be strong, porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride. The best choice for this seemed to be nickel. Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel. A six-stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process, but the Norris-Adler prototype proved to be too brittle. A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex, the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation. In January 1944, Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production. [154] [155]Kellex's design for K-25 called for a four-story 0.5-mile (0.80 km) long U-shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings. These were divided into nine sections. Within these were cells of six stages. The cells could be operated independently, or consecutively within a section. Similarly, the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade. A survey party began construction by marking out the 500-acre (2.0 km 2) site in May 1943. Work on the main building began in October 1943, and the six-stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944. In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant, directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540-stage side feed unit, which became known as K-27. Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor, Union Carbide and Carbon, on 11 September 1945. The total cost, including the K-27 plant completed after the war, came to $480 million. [156]The production plant commenced operation in February 1945, and as cascade after cascade came online, the quality of the product increased. By April 1945, K-25 had attained a 1.1% enrichment and the output of the S-50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed. Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7% enrichment. In August, the last of the 2,892 stages commenced operation. K-25 and K-27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period, when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants. [157]Thermal diffusion Main article: S-50 Project The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory, which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient, the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end. Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall, this can be used as a means of isotope separation. This process was first demonstrated by Klaus Clusius and Gerhard Dickel in Germany in 1938. [158] It was developed by US Navy scientists, but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project. This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility, but the inter-service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part. [159]The S-50 plant is the dark building to the upper left behind the Oak Ridge powerhouse (with smoke stacks). The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson's direction, but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944, when Captain William S. Parsons, the naval officer in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos, brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress in the Navy's experiments on thermal diffusion. Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y-12. Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis, Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea, and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $3.5 million could enrich 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium per week to nearly 0.9% uranium-235. Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944. [160]Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland, Ohio, to build the thermal diffusion plant, which was designated S-50. Groves's advisers, Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil, [161] estimated that it would take six months to build. Groves gave Ferguson just four. Plans called for the installation of 2,142 48-foot-tall (15 m) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks. Inside each column were three concentric tubes. Steam, obtained from the nearby K-25 powerhouse at a pressure of 1,000 pounds per square inch (6,900 k Pa) and temperature of 545 °F (285 °C), flowed downward through the innermost 1.25-inch (32 mm) nickel pipe, while water at 155 °F (68 °C) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe. Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes. [162]Work commenced on 9 July 1944, and S-50 began partial operation in September. Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve. The plant produced just 10.5 pounds (4.8 kg) of 0.852% uranium-235 in October. Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months, but in June 1945 it produced 12,730 pounds (5,770 kg). [163] By March 1945, all 21 production racks were operating. Initially the output of S-50 was fed into Y-12, but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series. S-50 became the first stage, enriching from 0.71% to 0.89%. This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K-25 plant, which produced a product enriched to about 23%. This was, in turn, fed into Y-12, [164] which boosted it to about 89%, sufficient for nuclear weapons. [165]Aggregate U-235 production About 50 kilograms (110 lb) of uranium enriched to 89% uranium-235 was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945. [165] The entire 50 kg, along with some 50%-enriched, averaging out to about 85% enriched, were used in Little Boy. [165]Plutonium The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used the fissile element plutonium. Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature, the best way to obtain large quantities of the element is in a nuclear reactor, in which natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons. The uranium-238 is transmuted into uranium-239, which rapidly decays, first into neptunium-239 and then into plutonium-239. [166] Only a small amount of the uranium-238 will be transformed, so the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium, from any initial impurities, and from fission products. [166]X-10 Graphite Reactor Main article: X-10 Graphite Reactor Workers load uranium slugs into the X-10 Graphite Reactor. In March 1943, Du Pont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112-acre (0.5 km 2) site at Oak Ridge. Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford, it included the air-cooled X-10 Graphite Reactor, a chemical separation plant, and support facilities. Because of the subsequent decision to construct water-cooled reactors at Hanford, only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot. [167] The X-10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite, 24 feet (7.3 m) long on each side, weighing around 1,500 long tons (1,500 t), surrounded by 7 feet (2.1 m) of high-density concrete as a radiation shield. [167]The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides. These somehow had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system. The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a hot dipping process without success. Meanwhile, Alcoa tried canning. A new process for flux-less welding was developed, and 97% of the cans passed a standard vacuum test, but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50%. Nonetheless, production began in June 1943. The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of General Electric, which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943. [168]Watched by Fermi and Compton, the X-10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 long tons (30 t) of uranium. A week later the load was increased to 36 long tons (37 t), raising its power generation to 500 k W, and by the end of the month the first 500 milligrams (0.018 oz) of plutonium was created. [169] Modifications over time raised the power to 4,000 k W in July 1944. X-10 operated as a production plant until January 1945, when it was turned over to research activities. [170]Hanford reactors Main article: Hanford Site Although an air-cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction, it was recognized that this would be impractical for the much larger production reactors. Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and Du Pont used helium for cooling, before they determined that a water-cooled reactor would be simpler, cheaper and quicker to build. [171] The design did not become available until 4 October 1943; in the meantime, Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford Site by erecting accommodations, improving the roads, building a railway switch line, and upgrading the electricity, water and telephone lines. [172]Aerial view of Hanford B-Reactor site, June 1944As at Oak Ridge, the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs, which commenced at Hanford in March 1944. They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities, dipped in molten bronze, tin, and aluminum-silicon alloy, canned using hydraulic presses, and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere. Finally, they were subjected to a series of tests to detect holes or faulty welds. Disappointingly, most canned slugs initially failed the tests, resulting in an output of only a handful of canned slugs per day. But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs would be available to start Reactor B on schedule in August 1944. [173]Work began on Reactor B, the first of six planned 250 MW reactors, on 10 October 1943. [174] The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F, with B, D and F sites chosen to be developed first, as this maximised the distance between the reactors. They would be the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project. [175] Some 390 long tons (400 t) of steel, 17,400 cubic yards (13,300 m 3) of concrete, 50,000 concrete blocks and 71,000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120-foot (37 m) high building. Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944. [176] Watched by Compton, Matthias, Du Pont's Crawford Greenewalt, Leona Woods and Fermi, who inserted the first slug, the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944. Over the next few days, 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical. Shortly after midnight on 27 September, the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production. At first all appeared well but around 03:00 the power level started to drop and by 06:30 the reactor had shut down completely. The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination. The next day the reactor started up again, only to shut down once more. [177] [178]Fermi contacted Chien-Shiung Wu, who identified the cause of the problem as neutron poisoning from xenon-135, which has a half-life of 9.2 hours. [179] Fermi, Woods, Donald J. Hughes and John Archibald Wheeler then calculated the nuclear cross section of xenon-135, which turned out to be 30,000 times that of uranium. [180] Fortunately, Du Pont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory's original design in which the reactor had 1,500 tubes arranged in a circle, and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners. The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money, but Fermi realized that by loading all 2,004 tubes, the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium. [181] Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945. [182]Separation process Map of the Hanford Site. Railroads flank the plants to the north and south. Reactors are the three northernmost red squares, along the Columbia River. The separation plants are the lower two red squares from the grouping south of the reactors. The bottom red square is the 300 area. Meanwhile, the chemists considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known. Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942, a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a lanthanum fluoride process for separating uranium and plutonium, which was chosen for the pilot separation plant. A second separation process, the bismuth phosphate process, was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson. [183] This process worked by toggling plutonium between its +4 and +6 oxidation states in solutions of bismuth phosphate. In the former state, the plutonium was precipitated; in the latter, it stayed in solution and the other products were precipitated. [184]Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride, and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants. [185] Once X-10 began producing plutonium, the pilot separation plant was put to the test. The first batch was processed at 40% efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90%. [170]At Hanford, top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area. This contained buildings for testing materials, preparing uranium, and assembling and calibrating instrumentation. One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs, while another contained a small test reactor. Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it, work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities, and wartime shortages of labor and materials. [186]Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200-West and 200-East. This was subsequently reduced to two, the T and U plants, in 200-West and one, the B plant, at 200-East. [187] Each separation plant consisted of four buildings: a process cell building or "canyon" (known as 221), a concentration building (224), a purification building (231) and a magazine store (213). The canyons were each 800 feet (240 m) long and 65 feet (20 m) wide. Each consisted of forty 17.7-by-13-by-20-foot (5.4 by 4.0 by 6.1 m) cells. [188]Work began on 221-T and 221-U in January 1944, with the former completed in September and the latter in December. The 221-B building followed in March 1945. Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved, all work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed-circuit television, something unheard of in 1943. Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools. The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process, and it was less radioactive. The 224-T and 224-U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944, and 224-B followed on 10 February 1945. The purification methods that were eventually used in 231-W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944, but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year. [189] On 5 February 1945, Matthias hand-delivered the first shipment of 80 grams (2.6 ozt) of 95%-pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles. [182]Weapon design Main article: Project YA row of Thin Man casings. Fat Man casings are visible in the background. In 1943, development efforts were directed to a gun-type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man. Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron-generated plutonium-239, which was extremely pure, but could only be created in very small amounts. Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X-10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem: the reactor-bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium-240, resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium. [190] Seaborg had correctly predicted in March 1943 that some of the plutonium-239 would absorb a neutron and become plutonium-240. [191]This made reactor plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun-type weapon. The plutonium-240 would start the chain reaction too quickly, causing a predetonation that would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with a minimal amount of plutonium reacted (a fizzle ). A faster gun was suggested but found to be impractical. The possibility of separating the isotopes was considered and rejected, as plutonium-240 is even harder to separate from plutonium-239 than uranium-235 from uranium-238. [192]Work on an alternative method of bomb design, known as implosion, had begun earlier under the direction of the physicist Seth Neddermeyer. Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form. When the fissile atoms are packed closer together, the rate of neutron capture increases, and the mass becomes a critical mass. The metal needs to travel only a very short distance, so the critical mass is assembled in much less time than it would take with the gun method. [193] Neddermeyer's 1943 and early 1944 investigations into implosion showed promise, but also made it clear that the problem would be much more difficult from a theoretical and engineering perspective than the gun design. [194] In September 1943, John von Neumann, who had experience with shaped charges used in armor-piercing shells, argued that not only would implosion reduce the danger of predetonation and fizzle, but would make more efficient use of the fissionable material. [195] He proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on. [196]An implosion-type nuclear bomb By July 1944, Oppenheimer had concluded plutonium could not be used in a gun design, and opted for implosion. The accelerated effort on an implosion design, codenamed Fat Man, began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion. [197] Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon, X (for explosives) Division headed by explosives expert George Kistiakowsky and G (for gadget) Division under Robert Bacher. [198] [199] The new design that von Neumann and T (for theoretical) Division, most notably Rudolf Peierls, had devised used explosive lenses to focus the explosion onto a spherical shape using a combination of both slow and fast high explosives. [200]The design of lenses that detonated with the proper shape and velocity turned out to be slow, difficult and frustrating. [200] Various explosives were tested before settling on composition B as the fast explosive and baratol as the slow explosive. [201] The final design resembled a soccer ball, with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses, each weighing about 80 pounds (36 kg). Getting the detonation just right required fast, reliable and safe electrical detonators, of which there were two for each lens for reliability. [202] It was therefore decided to use exploding-bridgewire detonators, a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by Luis Alvarez. A contract for their manufacture was given to Raytheon. [203]To study the behavior of converging shock waves, Robert Serber devised the Ra La Experiment, which used the short-lived radioisotope lanthanum-140, a potent source of gamma radiation. The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses, which in turn were inside in an ionization chamber. This allowed the taking of an X-ray movie of the implosion. The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests. [204] In his history of the Los Alamos project, David Hawkins wrote: "Ra La became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design". [205]Within the explosives was the 4.5-inch (110 mm) thick aluminum pusher, which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer, the 3-inch (76 mm) thick tamper of natural uranium. Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible, but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core. Some part of it might fission as well. To prevent predetonation by an external neutron, the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron. [202] A polonium-beryllium modulated neutron initiator, known as an "urchin" because its shape resembled a sea urchin, [206] was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment. [207] This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project. [208] Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium, which Monsanto was able to deliver. [209] The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak. [202]Remote handling of a kilocurie source of radiolanthanum for a Ra La Experiment at Los Alamos The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere. The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results. At first contamination was believed to be the cause, but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium. [210] The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures. Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 °C to 450 °C range. It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum, but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles, which would exacerbate the pre-ignition problem. The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium-gallium alloy, which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape. As plutonium was found to corrode readily, the sphere was coated with nickel. [211]The work proved dangerous. By the end of the war, half the experienced chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element appeared in their urine. [212] A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town, and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy, which became known as the DP-site. [213] The hemispheres for the first plutonium pit (or core) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945. Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later. [214]Trinity Main article: Trinity (nuclear test)Because of the complexity of an implosion-style weapon, it was decided that, despite the waste of fissile material, an initial test would be required. Groves approved the test, subject to the active material being recovered. Consideration was therefore given to a controlled fizzle, but Oppenheimer opted instead for a full-scale nuclear test, codenamed "Trinity". [215]The explosives of "the gadget" were raised to the top of the tower for the final assembly. In March 1944, planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge, a professor of physics at Harvard, working under Kistiakowsky. Bainbridge selected the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield as the site for the test. [216] Bainbridge worked with Captain Samuel P. Davalos on the construction of the Trinity Base Camp and its facilities, which included barracks, warehouses, workshops, an explosive magazine and a commissary. [217]Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate committee, so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed "Jumbo" was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure. Measuring 25 feet (7.6 m) long and 12 feet (3.7 m) wide, it was fabricated at great expense from 214 long tons (217 t) of iron and steel by Babcock & Wilcox in Barberton, Ohio. Brought in a special railroad car to a siding in Pope, New Mexico, it was transported the last 25 miles (40 km) to the test site on a trailer pulled by two tractors. [218] By the time it arrived, however, confidence in the implosion method was high enough, and the availability of plutonium was sufficient, that Oppenheimer decided not to use it. Instead, it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards (730 m) from the weapon as a rough measure of how powerful the explosion would be. In the end, Jumbo survived, although its tower did not, adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion. [219] [220]A pre-test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments. A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards (730 m) from Ground Zero and piled with 100 long tons (100 t) of TNT spiked with nuclear fission products in the form of an irradiated uranium slug from Hanford, which was dissolved and poured into tubing inside the explosive. This explosion was observed by Oppenheimer and Groves's new deputy commander, Brigadier General Thomas Farrell. The pre-test produced data that proved vital for the Trinity test. [220] [221]For the actual test, the weapon, nicknamed "the gadget", was hoisted to the top of a 100-foot (30 m) steel tower, as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber. Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target, and generated less nuclear fallout. The gadget was assembled under the supervision of Norris Bradbury at the nearby Mc Donald Ranch House on 13 July, and precariously winched up the tower the following day. [222] Observers included Bush, Chadwick, Conant, Farrell, Fermi, Groves, Lawrence, Oppenheimer and Tolman. At 05:30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT, leaving a crater of Trinitite (radioactive glass) in the desert 250 feet (76 m) wide. The shock wave was felt over 100 miles (160 km) away, and the mushroom cloud reached 7.5 miles (12.1 km) in height. It was heard as far away as El Paso, Texas, so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field. [223] [224]Personnel In June 1944, the Manhattan Project employed some 129,000 workers, of whom 84,500 were construction workers, 40,500 were plant operators and 1,800 were military personnel. As construction activity fell off, the workforce declined to 100,000 a year later, but the number of military personnel increased to 5,600. Procuring the required numbers of workers, especially highly skilled workers, in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult. [225] In 1943, Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the War Manpower Commission. In March 1944, both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority. [226]Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., speaks to service personnel Oak Ridge Tennessee in August 1945Tolman and Conant, in their role as the project's scientific advisers, drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project. Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work. [227] At the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Stanislaw Ulam gave one of his students, Joan Hinton, an exam early, so she could leave to do war work. A few weeks later, Ulam received a letter from Hans Bethe, inviting him to join the project. [228] Conant personally persuaded Kistiakowsky to join the project. [229]One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself, particularly the Army Specialized Training Program. In 1943, the MED created the Special Engineer Detachment (SED), with an authorized strength of 675. Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED. Another source was the Women's Army Corps (WAC). Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material, the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well. [230] On 1 February 1945, all military personnel assigned to the MED, including all SED detachments, were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit, except at Los Alamos, where military personnel other than SED, including the WACs and Military Police, were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit. [231]An Associate Professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine, Stafford L. Warren, was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps, and appointed as chief of the MED's Medical Section and Groves' medical advisor. Warren's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge, Richland and Los Alamos. [232] The Medical Section was responsible for medical research, but also for the MED's health and safety programs. This presented an enormous challenge, because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals, using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures, working with high voltages, and performing experiments involving explosives, not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials. [233] Yet in December 1945, the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record. Between January 1943 and June 1945, there were 62 fatalities and 3,879 disabling injuries, which was about 62 percent below the rate of private industry. [234]Secrecy A 1945 Life article estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings "probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project, and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved." The magazine wrote that the more than 100,000 others employed with the project "worked like moles in the dark". Warned that disclosing the project's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a $10,000 ($108,000 today [1]) fine, they saw enormous quantities of raw materials enter factories with nothing coming out, and monitored "dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place" without knowing the purpose of their jobs. [235] [236] [237] [238] [239]A billboard encouraging secrecy among Oak Ridge workers Oak Ridge security personnel considered any private party with more than seven people as suspicious, and residents—who believed that US government agents were secretly among them—avoided repeatedly inviting the same guests. Although original residents of the area could be buried in existing cemeteries, every coffin was reportedly opened for inspection. [239] Everyone, including top military officials, and their automobiles were searched when entering and exiting project facilities. One Oak Ridge worker stated that "if you got inquisitive, you were called on the carpet within two hours by government secret agents. Usually those summoned to explain were then escorted bag and baggage to the gate and ordered to keep going." Nonetheless, despite being told that their work would help end the war and perhaps all future wars, [240] not seeing or understanding the results of their often tedious duties—or even typical side effects of factory work such as smoke from smokestacks—and the war in Europe ending without the use of their work, caused serious morale problems among workers and caused many rumors to spread. One manager stated after the war: Well it wasn't that the job was tough ... it was confusing. You see, no one knew what was being made in Oak Ridge, not even me, and a lot of the people thought they were wasting their time here. It was up to me to explain to the dissatisfied workers that they were doing a very important job. When they asked me what, I'd have to tell them it was a secret. But I almost went crazy myself trying to figure out what was going on. [238]Another worker told of how, working in a laundry, she every day held "a special instrument" to uniforms and listened for "a clicking noise". She learned only after the war that she had been performing the important task of checking for radiation with a geiger counter. To improve morale among such workers Oak Ridge created an extensive system of intramural sports leagues, including 10 baseball teams, 81 softball teams, and 26 football teams. [238]Censorship Security poster, warning office workers to close drawers and put documents in safes when not being used Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project. After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military-related research, and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles. William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who wrote an article on atomic fission in The Saturday Evening Post of 7 September 1940, later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue. [241] The Soviets noticed the silence, however. In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project. [242]The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers, especially Germany, to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project. [243] The government's Office of Censorship, by contrast, relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published, and the project at first avoided notifying the office. By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington based on public records, and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy. In June the Office of Censorship asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing "atom smashing, atomic energy, atomic fission, atomic splitting, or any of their equivalents. The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials, heavy water, high voltage discharge equipment, cyclotrons." The office also asked to avoid discussion of "polonium, uranium, ytterbium, hafnium, protactinium, radium, rhenium, thorium, deuterium"; only uranium was sensitive, but was listed with other elements to hide its importance. [244] [245]Soviet spies Main article: Atomic spies The prospect of sabotage was always present, and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures. While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees, there were no confirmed instances of Axis-instigated sabotage. [246] However, on 10 March 1945, a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line, and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down. [247] With so many people involved, security was a difficult task. A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project's security issues. [248] By 1943, it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project. Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash, the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command, investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley. Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley, Haakon Chevalier, about passing information to the Soviet Union. [249]The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs, a member of the British Mission who played an important part at Los Alamos. [250] The 1950 revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada. [251] Subsequently, other instances of espionage were uncovered, leading to the arrest of Harry Gold, David Greenglass, and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. [252] Other spies like George Koval and Theodore Hall remained unknown for decades. [253] The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify, as the principal constraint on the Soviet atomic bomb project was a shortage of uranium ore. The consensus is that espionage saved the Soviets one or two years of effort. [254]Foreign intelligence Main article: Alsos Mission In addition to developing the atomic bomb, the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project. It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore, but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons. At the instigation of the Manhattan Project, a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German-occupied Norway. [255] A small mission was created, jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence, OSRD, the Manhattan Project, and Army Intelligence (G-2), to investigate enemy scientific developments. It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons. [256] The Chief of Army Intelligence, Major General George V. Strong, appointed Boris Pash to command the unit, [257] which was codenamed "Alsos", a Greek word meaning "grove". [258]Allied soldiers dismantle the German experimental nuclear reactor at Haigerloch. The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned staff of the physics laboratory at the University of Rome following the capture of the city in June 1944. [259] Meanwhile, Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in Operation Overlord. [260] Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General Dwight D. Eisenhower and send an officer to brief his chief of staff, Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith. [261] Under the codename Operation Peppermint, special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use. [262]Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies, Pash and Calvert interviewed Frédéric Joliot-Curie about the activities of German scientists. They spoke to officials at Union Minière du Haut Katanga about uranium shipments to Germany. They tracked down 68 tons of ore in Belgium and 30 tons in France. The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Oranienburg, 20 miles north of Berlin, so Groves arranged for it to be bombed on 15 March 1945. [263]An Alsos team went to Stassfurt in the Soviet Occupation Zone and retrieved 11 tons of ore from WIFO. [264] In April 1945, Pash, in command of a composite force known as T-Force, conducted Operation Harborage, a sweep behind enemy lines of the cities of Hechingen, Bisingen, and Haigerloch that were the heart of the German nuclear effort. T-Force captured the nuclear laboratories, documents, equipment and supplies, including heavy water and 1.5 tons of metallic uranium. [265] [266]Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including Kurt Diebner, Otto Hahn, Walther Gerlach, Werner Heisenberg, and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker, who were taken to England where they were interned at Farm Hall, a bugged house in Godmanchester. After the bombs were detonated in Japan, the Germans were forced to confront the fact that the Allies had done what they could not. [267]Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Main article: Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Preparations Starting in November 1943, the Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field, Ohio, began Silverplate, the codename modification of B-29s to carry the bombs. Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field, California, and the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern, California. [268] Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces (USAAF), General Henry H. Arnold, in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets. [269] The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17-foot (5.2 m) long Thin Man or the 59-inch (150 cm) wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster, but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance. Groves hoped that the American Boeing B-29 Superfortress could be modified to carry Thin Man by joining its two bomb bays together. [270] Arnold promised that no effort would be spared to modify B-29s to do the job, and designated Major General Oliver P. Echols as the USAAF liaison to the Manhattan Project. In turn, Echols named Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson as his alternate, and Wilson became Manhattan Project's main USAAF contact. [269] President Roosevelt instructed Groves that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended, he should be ready to drop them on Germany. [271]Silverplate B-29 Straight Flush. The tail code of the 444th Bombardment Group is painted on for security reasons. The 509th Composite Group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets. This base, close to the border with Nevada, was codenamed "Kingman" or "W-47". Training was conducted at Wendover and at Batista Army Airfield, Cuba, where the 393d Bombardment Squadron practiced long-distance flights over water, and dropping dummy pumpkin bombs. A special unit known as Project Alberta was formed at Los Alamos under Navy Captain William S. Parsons from Project Y as part of the Manhattan Project to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs. [272] Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Alberta met with Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on Guam in February 1945 to inform him of the project. While he was there, Ashworth selected North Field on the Pacific Island Tinian as a base for the 509th Composite Group, and reserved space for the group and its buildings. The group deployed there in July 1945. [273] Farrell arrived at Tinian on 30 July as the Manhattan Project representative. [274]Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USS Indianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine. The remaining components, which included six uranium-235 rings, were delivered by three C-54 Skymasters of the 509th Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron. [275] Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B-29s. The first plutonium core went in a special C-54. [276] A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets, and recommended Kokura, Hiroshima, Niigata, and Kyoto. At this point, Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened, announcing that he would be making the targeting decision, and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance. Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets, but from targets for conventional bombing as well. [277] One of Kyoto's substitutes was Nagasaki. [278]Bombings In May 1945, the Interim Committee was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy. The committee was chaired by Stimson, with James F. Byrnes, a former US Senator soon to be Secretary of State, as President Harry S. Truman 's personal representative; Ralph A. Bard, the Under Secretary of the Navy; William L. Clayton, the Assistant Secretary of State; Vannevar Bush; Karl T. Compton; James B. Conant; and George L. Harrison, an assistant to Stimson and president of New York Life Insurance Company. The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton, Fermi, Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues. In its presentation to the Interim Committee, the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb, but on its probable military and political impact. [279]At the Potsdam Conference in Germany, Truman was informed that the Trinity test had been successful. He told Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, that the US had a new superweapon, without giving any details. This was the first official communication to the Soviet Union about the bomb, but Stalin already knew about it from spies. [280] With the authorization to use the bomb against Japan already given, no alternatives were considered after the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration. [281]Little Boy explodes over Hiroshima, Japan, 6 August 1945 (left); Fat Man explodes over Nagasaki, Japan, 9 August 1945 (right). On 6 August 1945, a Boeing B-29 Superfortress ( Enola Gay) of the 393d Bombardment Squadron, piloted by Tibbets, lifted off from North Field, and Little Boy in its bomb bay. Hiroshima, the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division and a port of embarkation, was the primary target of the mission, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives. With Farrell's permission, Parsons, the weaponeer in charge of the mission, completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks during takeoff. [282] The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1,750 feet (530 m) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT. [283] An area of approximately 4.7 square miles (12 km 2) was destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. About 70,000 to 80,000 people, of whom 20,000 were Japanese combatants and 20,000 were Korean slave laborers, or some 30% of the population of Hiroshima, were killed immediately, and another 70,000 injured. [284] [285] [286]On the morning of 9 August 1945, a second B-29 ( Bockscar ), piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron's commander, Major Charles W. Sweeney, lifted off with Fat Man on board. This time, Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target. Sweeney took off with the weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged. When they reached Kokura, they found cloud cover had obscured the city, prohibiting the visual attack required by orders. After three runs over the city, and with fuel running low, they headed for the secondary target, Nagasaki. Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured, but a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered. The Fat Man was dropped over the city's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi-Urakami Ordnance Works in the north. The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT, roughly the same as the Trinity blast, but was confined to the Urakami Valley, and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills, resulting in the destruction of about 44% of the city. The bombing also crippled the city's industrial production extensively and killed 23,200–28,200 Japanese industrial workers and 150 Japanese soldiers. [287] Overall, an estimated 35,000–40,000 people were killed and 60,000 injured. [288] [289]Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October. [290] Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August. [289] At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. [291] Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August. [292] It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August. On 10 August, Truman secretly requested that additional atomic bombs not be dropped on Japan without his express authority. [293] Groves suspended the third core's shipment on his own authority on 13 August. [293]On 11 August, Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren, with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki, who acted as a translator. They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October. [294] This and other scientific missions to Japan would provide valuable scientific and historical data. [295]The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians. Some questioned whether an "atomic diplomacy" would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive. [290] The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee's scientific panel. [296] The Szilárd petition, drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project, was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons. [297] [298]After the war Presentation of the Army–Navy "E" Award at Los Alamos on 16 October 1945. Standing, left to right: J. Robert Oppenheimer, unidentified, unidentified, Kenneth Nichols, Leslie Groves, Robert Gordon Sproul, William Sterling Parsons. Seeing the work they had not understood produce the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs amazed the workers of the Manhattan Project as much as the rest of the world; newspapers in Oak Ridge announcing the Hiroshima bomb sold for $1 ($11 today [1] ). [236] [245] Although the bombs' existence was public, secrecy continued, and many workers remained ignorant of their jobs; one stated in 1946, "I don't know what the hell I'm doing besides looking into a ——— and turning a ——— alongside a ———. I don't know anything about it, and there's nothing to say". Many residents continued to avoid discussion of "the stuff" in ordinary conversation despite it being the reason for their town's existence. [239]In anticipation of the bombings, Groves had Henry De Wolf Smyth prepare a history for public consumption. Atomic Energy for Military Purposes, better known as the "Smyth Report", was released to the public on 12 August 1945. [299] Groves and Nichols presented Army–Navy "E" Awards to key contractors, whose involvement had hitherto been secret. Over 20 awards of the Presidential Medal for Merit were made to key contractors and scientists, including Bush and Oppenheimer. Military personnel received the Legion of Merit, including the commander of the Women's Army Corps detachment, Captain Arlene G. Scheidenhelm. [300]At Hanford, plutonium production fell off as Reactors B, D and F wore out, poisoned by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the Wigner effect. The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium, rendering them unusable. In order to maintain the supply of polonium for the urchin initiators, production was curtailed and the oldest unit, B pile, was closed down so at least one reactor would be available in the future. Research continued, with Du Pont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a redox solvent extraction process as an alternative plutonium extraction technique to the bismuth phosphate process, which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered. [301]Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division, named for its director, Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias from Los Alamos. Z Division was initially located at Wendover Field but moved to Oxnard Field, New Mexico, in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos. This marked the beginning of Sandia Base. Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B-29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests. [302] By October, all the staff and facilities at Wendover had been transferred to Sandia. [303] As reservist officers were demobilized, they were replaced by about fifty hand-picked regular officers. [304]Nichols recommended that S-50 and the Alpha tracks at Y-12 be closed down. This was done in September. [305] Although performing better than ever, [306] the Alpha tracks could not compete with K-25 and the new K-27, which had commenced operation in January 1946. In December, the Y-12 plant was closed, thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8,600 to 1,500 and saving $2 million a month. [307]President Harry S. Truman signs the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, establishing the United States Atomic Energy Commission. Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos, where there was an exodus of talent. Much remained to be done. The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were like laboratory pieces; work would be required to make them simpler, safer and more reliable. Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method, and composite uranium-plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply because of the problems with the reactors. However, uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay. Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement. In fact, Bradbury would remain in the post for the next 25 years. [303] Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply, three hundred houses, and recreation facilities. [301]Two Fat Man–type detonations were conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships. [308] Able was detonated on 1 July 1946. The more spectacular Baker was detonated underwater on 25 July 1946. [309]After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons. [310] In the face of the destructiveness of the new weapons and in anticipation of the nuclear arms race several project members including Bohr, Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons. The Baruch Plan, unveiled in a speech to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission (UNAEC) in June 1946, proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority, but was not adopted. [311]Following a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program, the United States Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project. It established civilian control over atomic development, and separated the development, production and control of atomic weapons from the military. Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project (AFSWP). [312] Although the Manhattan Project ceased to exist on 31 December 1946, the Manhattan District was not abolished until 15 August 1947. [313]Cost Manhattan Project costs through 31 December 1945 [314]Site Cost (1945 USD) Cost (2017 USD) % of total Oak Ridge $1.19 billion $12.9 billion 62.9%Hanford $390 million $4.22 billion 20.6%Special operating materials $103 million $1.12 billion 5.5%Los Alamos $74.1 million $802 million 3.9%Research and development $69.7 million $755 million 3.7%Government overhead $37.3 million $403 million 2.0%Heavy water plants $26.8 million $290 million 1.4%Total $1.89 billion $20.5 billion The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $1.845 billion, equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending, and was $2.191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947. Total allocation was $2.4 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials, and less than 10% for development and production of the weapons. [315] [316]A total of four weapons (the Trinity gadget, Little Boy, Fat Man, and an unused bomb) were produced by the end of 1945, making the average cost per bomb around $500 million in 1945 dollars. By comparison, the project's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90% of the total spent on the production of US small arms (not including ammunition) and 34% of the total spent on US tanks during the same period. [314] Overall, it was the second most expensive weapons project undertaken by the United States in World War II, behind only the design and production of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress. [317]Legacy See also: Nuclear weapons in popular culture The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound and far-reaching. William Laurence of the New York Times, the first to use the phrase " Atomic Age ", [318] became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945. In 1943 and 1944 he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Office of Censorship to permit writing about the explosive potential of uranium, and government officials felt that he had earned the right to report on the biggest secret of the war. Laurence witnessed both the Trinity test [319] and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases prepared for them. He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon. His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and the Soviet Union. [320]The Lake Ontario Ordnance Works (LOOW) near Niagara Falls became a principal repository for Manhattan Project waste for the Eastern United States. [321] All of the radioactive materials stored at the LOOW site—including thorium, uranium, and the world's largest concentration of radium -226—were buried in an "Interim Waste Containment Structure" (in the foreground) in 1991. [322] [323] [324]The wartime Manhattan Project left a legacy in the form of the network of national laboratories: the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, and Ames Laboratory. Two more were established by Groves soon after the war, the Brookhaven National Laboratory at Upton, New York, and the Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque, New Mexico. Groves allocated $72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946–1947. [325] They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large-scale research that Alvin Weinberg, the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory, would call Big Science. [326]The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion, and sought to create its own nuclear project. In May 1946, Nimitz, now Chief of Naval Operations, decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project. A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge, the most senior of whom was Captain Hyman G. Rickover, who became assistant director there. They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy, laying the foundations for a nuclear-powered navy. [327] A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing nuclear aircraft. [328] Their Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft (NEPA) project ran into formidable technical difficulties, and was ultimately cancelled. [329]The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard-of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine in the immediate postwar years. Starting in mid-1946, Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities. Most of the orders were for iodine-131 and phosphorus-32, which were used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. In addition to medicine, isotopes were also used in biological, industrial and agricultural research. [330]On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission, Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project: Five years ago, the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream. You have made that dream a reality. You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities. You have built cities where none were known before. You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a precision heretofore deemed impossible. You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives. With regard to peacetime applications, you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world. 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S. Department of Energy, OSTI, R&D Accomplishments: The Manhattan Project—Its Story: Background, Establishment, Operations, Immediate Influences, and Long-term Influences". Retrieved 8 May 2013. "Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues". Washington and Lee University. Retrieved 10 August 2011. "The Atomic Bomb and the End of World War II, A Collection of Primary Sources". George Washington University. Retrieved 27 July 2011. "Atomic Heritage Foundation". Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 27 July 2011. "Voices of the Manhattan Project". Atomic Heritage Foundation. Retrieved 10 February 2015. Features hundreds of audio/visual interviews with Manhattan Project veterans. "History Center: Los Alamos National Laboratory". Los Alamos National Laboratory. Retrieved 27 July 2011. "ORNL: The first 50 Years: History of ORNL". ORNL Review. 25 (3). Archived from the original on 2 June 2016. Retrieved 13 October 2015.v t e Manhattan Project Timeline Sites Ames Berkeley Chicago Dayton Hanford Inyokern Los Alamos Montreal New York Oak Ridge Trinity Wendover Heavy water sites Administrators Vannevar Bush Arthur Compton James Conant Priscilla Duffield Thomas Farrell Leslie Groves John Lansdale Ernest Lawrence James Marshall Franklin Matthias Dorothy Mc Kibbin Kenneth Nichols Robert Oppenheimer Deak Parsons William Purnell Frank Spedding Charles Thomas Paul Tibbets Bud Uanna Harold Urey Stafford Warren Ed Westcott Roscoe Wilson Scientists Luis Alvarez Robert Bacher Hans Bethe Aage Bohr Niels Bohr Norris Bradbury James Chadwick John Cockcroft Harry Daghlian Enrico Fermi Richard Feynman Val Fitch James Franck Klaus Fuchs Maria Goeppert-Mayer George Kistiakowsky George Koval Willard Libby Edwin Mc Millan Mark Oliphant Norman Ramsey Isidor Isaac Rabi James Rainwater Bruno Rossi Glenn Seaborg Emilio Segrè Louis Slotin Henry De Wolf Smyth Leo Szilard Edward Teller Stanisław Ulam John von Neumann John Wheeler Eugene Wigner Robert Wilson Leona Woods Operations Alsos Mission Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Operation Crossroads Operation Peppermint Project Alberta Silverplate 509th Composite Group Enola Gay Bockscar The Great Artiste Weapons Fat Man Little Boy Pumpkin bomb Thin Man Related topics Atomic Energy Act of 1946 British contribution Chicago Pile-1 Demon core Einstein–Szilárd letter Interim Committee Oppenheimer security hearing Plutonium Quebec Agreement Ra La Experiment S-1 Executive Committee S-50 Project Smyth Report Uranium X-10 Graphite Reactor Manhattan Projectv t e World War IIv t e New Mexico during World War IIPortals Access related topics World War II portal Nuclear technology portal Chemistry portal Physics portal History of science portal Intelligence portal International relations portal United States Army portal Weapons of mass destruction portal Canada portal New Mexico portal Tennessee portal Washington portal United Kingdom portal Find out more on Wikipedia's Sister projects Media from Commons Textbooks from Wikibooks Quotations from Wikiquote Authority control World Cat Identities VIAF: 124438256 LCCN: n88074979 ISNI: 0000 0001 2242 7230 GND: 4278070-6NLA: 35354474Categories: Manhattan Project Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Code names Explosives engineering History of the Manhattan Project Military history of Canada during World War IIMilitary history of the United Kingdom during World War II Military history of the United States during World War IIMilitary projects Nuclear history of the United States Nuclear weapons of the United States Nuclear weapons program of the United States Secret military programs 1942 establishments in the United States1946 disestablishments in the United States Projects established in 1942 | . 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Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what is a hemolymph | Definitions &Translations Wiktionary (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition:hemolymph (Noun)A circulating fluid in the bodies of some invertebrates that is the equivalent of blood. Freebase (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Hemolymph Hemolymph, or haemolymph, is a fluid in the circulatory system of arthropods and is analogous to the fluids and cells making up both blood and interstitial fluid in vertebrates such as birds and mammals. In addition, some non-arthropods such as molluscs possess a hemolymphatic circulatory system. Hemolymph fills all of the interior of the animal's body and surrounds all cells. It contains hemocyanin, a copper-based protein that turns blue in color when oxygenated, instead of the iron-based hemoglobin in red blood cells found in vertebrates, thus giving hemolymph a blue-green color rather than the red color of vertebrate blood. When not oxygenated, hemolymph quickly loses its color and appears grey. The hemolymph of lower arthropods, including most insects, is not used for oxygen transport because these animals respirate directly from their body surfaces to air, but it does contain nutrients such as proteins and sugars. Hemolymph can contain nucleating agents that confer extra cellular freezing protection. Such nucleating agents have been found in the hemolymph of insects of several orders, i.e., Coleoptera, Diptera, and Hymenoptera.+-+2+2+U. S. National Library of Medicine (0.00 / 0 votes)Rate this definition: Hemolymph The blood/lymphlike nutrient fluid of some invertebrates. Numerology Chaldean Numerology The numerical value of hemolymph in Chaldean Numerology is: 6Pythagorean Numerology The numerical value of hemolymph in Pythagorean Numerology is: 7Images & Illustrations of hemolymph Translations for hemolymph From our Multilingual Translation Dictionaryhemolymph Hindiಹೆಮೊಲಿಮ್ಫ್ Kannadahemolymph Urdu Get even more translations for hemolymph »Translation Find a translation for the hemolymph definition in other languages: Select another language: Discuss these hemolymph definitions with the community: Word of the Day Would you like us to send you a FREE new word definition delivered to your inbox daily? Please enter your email address: Subscribe Citation Use the citation below to add this definition to your bibliography: Style: MLA Chicago APA"hemolymph." Definitions.net. STANDS4 LLC, 2018. Web. 7 Apr. 2018. < https://www.definitions.net/definition/hemolymph >. Are we missing a good definition for hemolymph? Don't keep it to yourself... Submit Definition | Hemodialysis From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Haemodialysis)navigation search Hemodialysis in progress Hemodialysis machine Hemodialysis, also spelled haemodialysis, commonly called kidney dialysis or simply dialysis, is a process of purifying the blood of a person whose kidneys are not working normally. This type of dialysis achieves the extracorporeal removal of waste products such as creatinine and urea and free water from the blood when the kidneys are in a state of kidney failure. Hemodialysis is one of three renal replacement therapies (the other two being kidney transplant and peritoneal dialysis ). An alternative method for extracorporeal separation of blood components such as plasma or cells is apheresis. Hemodialysis can be an outpatient or inpatient therapy. Routine hemodialysis is conducted in a dialysis outpatient facility, either a purpose built room in a hospital or a dedicated, stand-alone clinic. Less frequently hemodialysis is done at home. Dialysis treatments in a clinic are initiated and managed by specialized staff made up of nurses and technicians; dialysis treatments at home can be self-initiated and managed or done jointly with the assistance of a trained helper who is usually a family member. [1]Contents [ hide ]1 Medical uses2 Adverse effects2.1 Disadvantages2.2 Complications2.2.1 Fluid shifts2.2.2 Access-related2.2.3 Anticoagulation-related2.2.4 First-use syndrome2.2.5 Cardiovascular2.2.6 Vitamin Deficiency3 Mechanism and technique3.1 Access4 Types4.1 Conventional hemodialysis4.2 Daily hemodialysis4.3 Nocturnal hemodialysis5 Equipment5.1 Water system5.2 Dialyzer6 Membrane and flux6.1 Membrane flux and outcome6.2 Membrane flux and beta-2-microglobulin amyloidosis6.3 Dialyzer size and efficiency6.4 Reuse of dialyzers7 Nursing care for hemodialysis patients8 Epidemiology9 History10 See also11 References12 External links Medical uses [ edit]Hemodialysis is the choice of renal replacement therapy for patients who need dialysis acutely, and for many patients as maintenance therapy. It provides excellent, rapid clearance of solutes. [2]A nephrologist (a medical kidney specialist) decides when hemodialysis is needed and the various parameters for a dialysis treatment. These include frequency (how many treatments per week), length of each treatment, and the blood and dialysis solution flow rates, as well as the size of the dialyzer. The composition of the dialysis solution is also sometimes adjusted in terms of its sodium and potassium and bicarbonate levels. In general, the larger the body size of an individual, the more dialysis he/she will need. In North America and the UK, 3–4 hour treatments (sometimes up to 5 hours for larger patients) given 3 times a week are typical. Twice-a-week sessions are limited to patients who have a substantial residual kidney function. Four sessions per week are often prescribed for larger patients, as well as patients who have trouble with fluid overload. Finally, there is growing interest in short daily home hemodialysis, which is 1.5 – 4 hr sessions given 5–7 times per week, usually at home. There is also interest in nocturnal dialysis, which involves dialyzing a patient, usually at home, for 8–10 hours per night, 3–6 nights per week. Nocturnal in-center dialysis, 3–4 times per week, is also offered at a handful of dialysis units in the United States. Adverse effects [ edit]Disadvantages [ edit]Restricts independence, as people undergoing this procedure cannot travel around because of supplies' availability Requires more supplies such as high water quality and electricity Requires reliable technology like dialysis machines The procedure is complicated and requires that care givers have more knowledge Requires time to set up and clean dialysis machines, and expense with machines and associated staff [2]Complications [ edit]Fluid shifts [ edit]Hemodialysis often involves fluid removal (through ultrafiltration ), because most patients with renal failure pass little or no urine. Side effects caused by removing too much fluid and/or removing fluid too rapidly include low blood pressure, fatigue, chest pains, leg-cramps, nausea and headaches. These symptoms can occur during the treatment and can persist post treatment; they are sometimes collectively referred to as the dialysis hangover or dialysis washout. The severity of these symptoms is usually proportionate to the amount and speed of fluid removal. However, the impact of a given amount or rate of fluid removal can vary greatly from person to person and day to day. These side effects can be avoided and/or their severity lessened by limiting fluid intake between treatments or increasing the dose of dialysis e.g. dialyzing more often or longer per treatment than the standard three times a week, 3–4 hours per treatment schedule. Access-related [ edit]Since hemodialysis requires access to the circulatory system, patients undergoing hemodialysis may expose their circulatory system to microbes, which can lead to bacteremia, an infection affecting the heart valves ( endocarditis) or an infection affecting the bones ( osteomyelitis ). The risk of infection varies depending on the type of access used (see below). Bleeding may also occur, again the risk varies depending on the type of access used. Infections can be minimized by strictly adhering to infection control best practices. Anticoagulation-related [ edit]Heparin is the most commonly used anticoagulant in hemodialysis, as it is generally well tolerated and can be quickly reversed with protamine sulfate. Heparin allergy can infrequently be a problem and can cause a low platelet count. In such patients, alternative anticoagulants can be used. In patients at high risk of bleeding, dialysis can be done without anticoagulation. First-use syndrome [ edit]First-use syndrome is a rare but severe anaphylactic reaction to the artificial kidney. Its symptoms include sneezing, wheezing, shortness of breath, back pain, chest pain, or sudden death. It can be caused by residual sterilant in the artificial kidney or the material of the membrane itself. In recent years, the incidence of first-use Syndrome has decreased, due to an increased use of gamma irradiation, steam sterilization, or electron-beam radiation instead of chemical sterilants, and the development of new semipermeable membranes of higher biocompatibility. New methods of processing previously acceptable components of dialysis must always be considered. For example, in 2008, a series of first-use type of reactions, including deaths, occurred due to heparin contaminated during the manufacturing process with oversulfated chondroitin sulfate. [3]Cardiovascular [ edit]Longterm complications of hemodialysis include hemodialysis-associated amyloidosis, neuropathy and various forms of heart disease. Increasing the frequency and length of treatments have been shown to improve fluid overload and enlargement of the heart that is commonly seen in such patients. [4] [5] Due to these complications, the prevalence of complementary and alternative medicine use is high among patients undergoing hemodialysis. [6] [7]Vitamin Deficiency [ edit]Folate deficiency can occur in some patients having hemodialysis. [8]Mechanism and technique [ edit]Semipermeable membrane The principle of hemodialysis is the same as other methods of dialysis; it involves diffusion of solutes across a semipermeable membrane. Hemodialysis utilizes counter current flow, where the dialysate is flowing in the opposite direction to blood flow in the extracorporeal circuit. Counter-current flow maintains the concentration gradient across the membrane at a maximum and increases the efficiency of the dialysis. Fluid removal ( ultrafiltration) is achieved by altering the hydrostatic pressure of the dialysate compartment, causing free water and some dissolved solutes to move across the membrane along a created pressure gradient. The dialysis solution that is used may be a sterilized solution of mineral ions. Urea and other waste products, potassium, and phosphate diffuse into the dialysis solution. However, concentrations of sodium and chloride are similar to those of normal plasma to prevent loss. Sodium bicarbonate is added in a higher concentration than plasma to correct blood acidity. A small amount of glucose is also commonly used. Note that this is a different process to the related technique of hemofiltration. Access [ edit]Main article: Vascular access Three primary methods are used to gain access to the blood for hemodialysis: an intravenous catheter, an arteriovenous fistula (AV) and a synthetic graft. The type of access is influenced by factors such as the expected time course of a patient's renal failure and the condition of his or her vasculature. Patients may have multiple access procedures, usually because an AV fistula or graft is maturing and a catheter is still being used. The placement of a catheter is usually done under light sedation, while fistulas and grafts require an operation. Types [ edit]There are three types of hemodialysis: conventional hemodialysis, daily hemodialysis, and nocturnal hemodialysis. Below is an adaptation and summary from a brochure of The Ottawa Hospital. Conventional hemodialysis [ edit]Conventional hemodialysis is usually done three times per week, for about 3–4 hours for each treatment, during which the patient's blood is drawn out through a tube at a rate of 200–400 m L/min. The tube is connected to a 15, 16, or 17 gauge needle inserted in the dialysis fistula or graft, or connected to one port of a dialysis catheter. The blood is then pumped through the dialyzer, and then the processed blood is pumped back into the patient's bloodstream through another tube (connected to a second needle or port). During the procedure, the patient's blood pressure is closely monitored, and if it becomes low, or the patient develops any other signs of low blood volume such as nausea, the dialysis attendant can administer extra fluid through the machine. During the treatment, the patient's entire blood volume (about 5000 cc) circulates through the machine every 15 minutes. During this process, the dialysis patient is exposed to a week's worth of water for the average person. Daily hemodialysis [ edit]Daily hemodialysis is typically used by those patients who do their own dialysis at home. It is less stressful (more gentle) but does require more frequent access. This is simple with catheters, but more problematic with fistulas or grafts. The "buttonhole technique" can be used for fistulas requiring frequent access. Daily hemodialysis is usually done for 2 hours six days a week. Nocturnal hemodialysis [ edit]The procedure of nocturnal hemodialysis is similar to conventional hemodialysis except it is performed three to six nights a week and between six and ten hours per session while the patient sleeps. [9]Equipment [ edit]This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2014) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Schematic of a hemodialysis circuit The hemodialysis machine pumps the patient's blood and the dialysate through the dialyzer. The newest dialysis machines on the market are highly computerized and continuously monitor an array of safety-critical parameters, including blood and dialysate flow rates; dialysis solution conductivity, temperature, and p H; and analysis of the dialysate for evidence of blood leakage or presence of air. Any reading that is out of normal range triggers an audible alarm to alert the patient-care technician who is monitoring the patient. Manufacturers of dialysis machines include companies such as Nipro, Fresenius, Gambro, Baxter, B. Braun, Nx Stage and Bellco. Water system [ edit]A hemodialysis unit's dialysate solution tanks An extensive water purification system is absolutely critical for hemodialysis. Since dialysis patients are exposed to vast quantities of water, which is mixed with dialysate concentrate to form the dialysate, even trace mineral contaminants or bacterial endotoxins can filter into the patient's blood. Because the damaged kidneys cannot perform their intended function of removing impurities, ions introduced into the bloodstream via water can build up to hazardous levels, causing numerous symptoms or death. Aluminum, chloramine, fluoride, copper, and zinc, as well as bacterial fragments and endotoxins, have all caused problems in this regard. For this reason, water used in hemodialysis is carefully purified before use. Initially it is filtered and temperature-adjusted and its p H is corrected by adding an acid or base. Then it is softened. Next the water is run through a tank containing activated charcoal to adsorb organic contaminants. Primary purification is then done by forcing water through a membrane with very tiny pores, a so-called reverse osmosis membrane. This lets the water pass, but holds back even very small solutes such as electrolytes. Final removal of leftover electrolytes is done by passing the water through a tank with ion-exchange resins, which remove any leftover anions or cations and replace them with hydroxyl and hydrogen ions, respectively, leaving ultrapure water. Even this degree of water purification may be insufficient. The trend lately is to pass this final purified water (after mixing with dialysate concentrate) through a dialyzer membrane. This provides another layer of protection by removing impurities, especially those of bacterial origin, that may have accumulated in the water after its passage through the original water purification system. Once purified water is mixed with dialysate concentrate, its conductivity increases, since water that contains charged ions conducts electricity. During dialysis, the conductivity of dialysis solution is continuously monitored to ensure that the water and dialysate concentrate are being mixed in the proper proportions. Both excessively concentrated dialysis solution and excessively dilute solution can cause severe clinical problems. Dialyzer [ edit]The dialyzer is the piece of equipment that actually filters the blood. Almost all dialyzers in use today are of the hollow-fiber variety. A cylindrical bundle of hollow fibers, whose walls are composed of semi-permeable membrane, is anchored at each end into potting compound (a sort of glue). This assembly is then put into a clear plastic cylindrical shell with four openings. One opening or blood port at each end of the cylinder communicates with each end of the bundle of hollow fibers. This forms the "blood compartment" of the dialyzer. Two other ports are cut into the side of the cylinder. These communicate with the space around the hollow fibers, the "dialysate compartment." Blood is pumped via the blood ports through this bundle of very thin capillary -like tubes, and the dialysate is pumped through the space surrounding the fibers. Pressure gradients are applied when necessary to move fluid from the blood to the dialysate compartment. Membrane and flux [ edit]Dialyzer membranes come with different pore sizes. Those with smaller pore size are called "low-flux" and those with larger pore sizes are called "high-flux." Some larger molecules, such as beta-2-microglobulin, are not removed at all with low-flux dialyzers; lately, the trend has been to use high-flux dialyzers. However, such dialyzers require newer dialysis machines and high-quality dialysis solution to control the rate of fluid removal properly and to prevent backflow of dialysis solution impurities into the patient through the membrane. Dialyzer membranes used to be made primarily of cellulose (derived from cotton linter). The surface of such membranes was not very biocompatible, because exposed hydroxyl groups would activate complement in the blood passing by the membrane. Therefore, the basic, "unsubstituted" cellulose membrane was modified. One change was to cover these hydroxyl groups with acetate groups (cellulose acetate); another was to mix in some compounds that would inhibit complement activation at the membrane surface (modified cellulose). The original "unsubstituted cellulose" membranes are no longer in wide use, whereas cellulose acetate and modified cellulose dialyzers are still used. Cellulosic membranes can be made in either low-flux or high-flux configuration, depending on their pore size. Another group of membranes is made from synthetic materials, using polymers such as polyarylethersulfone, polyamide, polyvinylpyrrolidone, polycarbonate, and polyacrylonitrile. These synthetic membranes activate complement to a lesser degree than unsubstituted cellulose membranes. Synthetic membranes can be made in either low- or high-flux configuration, but most are high-flux. Nanotechnology is being used in some of the most recent high-flux membranes to create a uniform pore size. The goal of high-flux membranes is to pass relatively large molecules such as beta-2-microglobulin (MW 11,600 daltons), but not to pass albumin (MW ~66,400 daltons). Every membrane has pores in a range of sizes. As pore size increases, some high-flux dialyzers begin to let albumin pass out of the blood into the dialysate. This is thought to be undesirable, although one school of thought holds that removing some albumin may be beneficial in terms of removing protein-bound uremic toxins. Membrane flux and outcome [ edit]Whether using a high-flux dialyzer improves patient outcomes is somewhat controversial, but several important studies have suggested that it has clinical benefits. The NIH-funded HEMO trial compared survival and hospitalizations in patients randomized to dialysis with either low-flux or high-flux membranes. Although the primary outcome (all-cause mortality) did not reach statistical significance in the group randomized to use high-flux membranes, several secondary outcomes were better in the high-flux group. [10] [11] A recent Cochrane analysis concluded that benefit of membrane choice on outcomes has not yet been demonstrated. [12] A collaborative randomized trial from Europe, the MPO (Membrane Permeabilities Outcomes) study, [13] comparing mortality in patients just starting dialysis using either high-flux or low-flux membranes, found a nonsignificant trend to improved survival in those using high-flux membranes, and a survival benefit in patients with lower serum albumin levels or in diabetics. Membrane flux and beta-2-microglobulin amyloidosis [ edit]Main article: Hemodialysis-associated amyloidosis High-flux dialysis membranes and/or intermittent on-line hemodiafiltration (IHDF) may also be beneficial in reducing complications of beta-2-microglobulin accumulation. Because beta-2-microglobulin is a large molecule, with a molecular weight of about 11,600 daltons, it does not pass at all through low-flux dialysis membranes. Beta-2-M is removed with high-flux dialysis, but is removed even more efficiently with IHDF. After several years (usually at least 5–7), patients on hemodialysis begin to develop complications from beta-2-M accumulation, including carpal tunnel syndrome, bone cysts, and deposits of this amyloid in joints and other tissues. Beta-2-M amyloidosis can cause very serious complications, including spondyloarthropathy, and often is associated with shoulder joint problems. Observational studies from Europe and Japan have suggested that using high-flux membranes in dialysis mode, or IHDF, reduces beta-2-M complications in comparison to regular dialysis using a low-flux membrane. [14] [15] [16] [17] [18]Dialyzer size and efficiency [ edit]Dialyzers come in many different sizes. A larger dialyzer with a larger membrane area (A) will usually remove more solutes than a smaller dialyzer, especially at high blood flow rates. This also depends on the membrane permeability coefficient K 0 for the solute in question. So dialyzer efficiency is usually expressed as the K 0A – the product of permeability coefficient and area. Most dialyzers have membrane surface areas of 0.8 to 2.2 square meters, and values of K 0A ranging from about 500 to 1500 m L/min. K 0A, expressed in m L/min, can be thought of as the maximum clearance of a dialyzer at very high blood and dialysate flow rates. Reuse of dialyzers [ edit]The dialyzer may either be discarded after each treatment or be reused. Reuse requires an extensive procedure of high-level disinfection. Reused dialyzers are not shared between patients. There was an initial controversy about whether reusing dialyzers worsened patient outcomes. The consensus today is that reuse of dialyzers, if done carefully and properly, produces similar outcomes to single use of dialyzers. [19]Dialyzer Reuse is a practice that has been around since the invention of the product. This practice includes the cleaning of a used dialyzer to be reused multiple times for the same patient. Dialysis clinics reuse dialyzers to become more economical and reduce the high costs of “single-use” dialysis which can be extremely expensive and wasteful. Single used dialyzers are initiated just once and then thrown out creating a large amount of bio- medical waste with no mercy for cost savings. If done right, dialyzer reuse can be very safe for dialysis patients. There are two ways of reusing dialyzers, manual and automated. Manual reuse involves the cleaning of a dialyzer by hand. The dialyzer is semi-disassembled then flushed repeatedly before being rinsed with water. It is then stored with a liquid disinfectant (PAA) for 18+ hours until its next use. Although many clinics outside the USA use this method, some clinics are switching toward a more automated/streamlined process as the dialysis practice advances. The newer method of automated reuse is achieved by means of a medical device which began in the early 1980s. These devices are beneficial to dialysis clinics that practice reuse – especially for large dialysis clinical entities – because they allow for several back to back cycles per day. The dialyzer is first pre-cleaned by a technician, then automatically cleaned by machine through a step-cycles process until it is eventually filled with liquid disinfectant for storage. Although automated reuse is more effective than manual reuse, newer technology has sparked even more advancement in the process of reuse. When reused over 15 times with current methodology, the dialyzer can lose B2m, middle molecule clearance and fiber pore structure integrity, which has the potential to reduce the effectiveness of the patient's dialysis session. Currently, as of 2010, newer, more advanced reprocessing technology has proven the ability to completely eliminate the manual pre-cleaning process altogether and has also proven the potential to regenerate (fully restore) all functions of a dialyzer to levels that are approximately equivalent to single-use for more than 40 cycles. [20] As medical reimbursement rates begin to fall even more, many dialysis clinics are continuing to operate effectively with reuse programs especially since the process is easier and more streamlined than before. Nursing care for hemodialysis patients [ edit]Hemodialysis in Germany, 1972Adapt from nephrology nursing practice recommendations developed by Canadian Association of Nephrology and Technology (CANNT) based on best available evidence and clinical practice guidelines, a nephrology nurse should perform: [21]Hemodialysis Vascular Access: Assess the fistula/graft and arm before, after each dialysis or every shift: the access flow, complications Assess the complication of central venous catheter: the tip placement, exit site, complications document and notify appropriate health care provider regarding any concerns. educates the patient with appropriate cleaning of fistula/graft and exit site; with recognizing and reporting signs and symptoms of infection and complication. Hemodialysis adequacy: Assesses patient constantly for signs and symptoms of inadequate dialysis. Assesses possible causes of inadequate dialysis. Educates the patient on the importance of receiving adequate dialysis. Hemodialysis treatment and complications: Performs head to toe physical assessment before, during and after hemodialysis regarding complications and access's security. Confirm and deliver dialysis prescription after review most update lab results. Address any concerns of the patient and educate patient when recognizing the learning gap. Medication management and infection control practice: Collaborate with the patient to develop a medication regimen. Follow infection control guidelines as per unit protocol. Epidemiology [ edit]Hemodialysis was one of the most common procedures performed in U. S. hospitals in 2011, occurring in 909,000 stays (a rate of 29 stays per 10,000 population). This was an increase of 68 percent from 1997, when there were 473,000 stays. It was the fifth most common procedure for patients aged 45–64 years. [22]History [ edit]Many have played a role in developing dialysis as a practical treatment for renal failure, starting with Thomas Graham of Glasgow, who first presented the principles of solute transport across a semipermeable membrane in 1854. [23] The artificial kidney was first developed by Abel, Rountree, and Turner in 1913, [24] the first hemodialysis in a human being was by Hass (February 28, 1924) [25] and the artificial kidney was developed into a clinically useful apparatus by Kolff in 1943 – 1945. [26] This research showed that life could be prolonged in patients dying of kidney failure. Willem Kolff was the first to construct a working dialyzer in 1943. The first successfully treated patient was a 67-year-old woman in uremic coma who regained consciousness after 11 hours of hemodialysis with Kolff's dialyzer in 1945. At the time of its creation, Kolff's goal was to provide life support during recovery from acute renal failure. After World War II ended, Kolff donated the five dialyzers he had made to hospitals around the world, including Mount Sinai Hospital, New York. Kolff gave a set of blueprints for his hemodialysis machine to George Thorn at the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston. This led to the manufacture of the next generation of Kolff's dialyzer, a stainless steel Kolff-Brigham dialysis machine. According to Mc Kellar (1999), a significant contribution to renal therapies was made by Canadian surgeon Gordon Murray with the assistance of two doctors, an undergraduate chemistry student, and research staff. Murray's work was conducted simultaneously and independently from that of Kolff. Murray's work led to the first successful artificial kidney built in North America in 1945–46, which was successfully used to treat a 26-year-old woman out of a uraemic coma in Toronto. The less-crude, more compact, second-generation "Murray-Roschlau" dialyser was invented in 1952–53, whose designs were stolen by German immigrant Erwin Halstrup, and passed off as his own (the "Halstrup–Baumann artificial kidney"). [27]By the 1950s, Willem Kolff's invention of the dialyzer was used for acute renal failure, but it was not seen as a viable treatment for patients with stage 5 chronic kidney disease (CKD). At the time, doctors believed it was impossible for patients to have dialysis indefinitely for two reasons. First, they thought no man-made device could replace the function of kidneys over the long term. In addition, a patient undergoing dialysis suffered from damaged veins and arteries, so that after several treatments, it became difficult to find a vessel to access the patient's blood. The original Kolff kidney was not very useful clinically, because it did not allow for removal of excess fluid. Swedish professor Nils Alwall [28] encased a modified version of this kidney inside a stainless steel canister, to which a negative pressure could be applied, in this way effecting the first truly practical application of hemodialysis, which was done in 1946 at the University of Lund. Alwall also was arguably the inventor of the arteriovenous shunt for dialysis. He reported this first in 1948 where he used such an arteriovenous shunt in rabbits. Subsequently, he used such shunts, made of glass, as well as his canister-enclosed dialyzer, to treat 1500 patients in renal failure between 1946 and 1960, as reported to the First International Congress of Nephrology held in Evian in September 1960. Alwall was appointed to a newly created Chair of Nephrology at the University of Lund in 1957. Subsequently, he collaborated with Swedish businessman Holger Crafoord to found one of the key companies that would manufacture dialysis equipment in the past 50 years, Gambro. The early history of dialysis has been reviewed by Stanley Shaldon. [29]Belding H. Scribner, working with the surgeon Wayne Quinton, modified the glass shunts used by Alwall by making them from Teflon. Another key improvement was to connect them to a short piece of silicone elastomer tubing. This formed the basis of the so-called Scribner shunt, perhaps more properly called the Quinton-Scribner shunt. After treatment, the circulatory access would be kept open by connecting the two tubes outside the body using a small U-shaped Teflon tube, which would shunt the blood from the tube in the artery back to the tube in the vein. [30]In 1962, Scribner started the world's first outpatient dialysis facility, the Seattle Artificial Kidney Center, later renamed the Northwest Kidney Centers. Immediately the problem arose of who should be given dialysis, since demand far exceeded the capacity of the six dialysis machines at the center. Scribner decided that he would not make the decision about who would receive dialysis and who would not. Instead, the choices would be made by an anonymous committee, which could be viewed as one of the first bioethics committees. For a detailed history of successful and unsuccessful attempts at dialysis, including pioneers such as Abel and Roundtree, Haas, and Necheles, see this review by Kjellstrand. [31]See also [ edit]Dialysis Dialysis disequilibrium syndrome Home hemodialysis Peritoneal dialysis Hemofiltration Extracorporeal therapies Renal replacement therapy Step-by-step description of hemodialysis Aluminium toxicity in dialysis patients Dialytrauma References [ edit]^ National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse guidance Kidney Failure: Choosing a Treatment That's Right for You^ a b Daugirdas J. T., Black P. G., Ing T. S. In "Handbook of Dialysis". 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, a Wolters Kluwer Business; 2007.^ Kishimoto TK, Viswanathan K, Ganguly T, et al. (2008). "Contaminated heparin associated with adverse clinical events and activation of the contact system". N Engl J Med. 358 (23): 2457–67. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa0803200. PMC 3778681. PMID 18434646.^ Effects of short daily versus conventional hemodialysis on left ventricular hypertrophy and inflammatory markers: a prospective, controlled study Archived 2008-01-02 at the Wayback Machine.^ Weinreich T, De los Ríos T, Gauly A, Passlick-Deetjen J (2006). "Effects of an increase in time vs. frequency on cardiovascular parameters in chronic hemodialysis patients". Clin. Nephrol. 66 (6): 433–9. PMID 17176915.^ Heydari M, Hashempur MH, Zargaran A (2013). "Use of herbal remedies among patients undergoing hemodialysis". Iran J Kidney Dis. 11: 101–12. PMID 23883087.^ Birdee GS, Phillips RS, Brown RS (2013). "Use of Complementary and Alternative Medicine among Patients with End-Stage Renal Disease". Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine. 2013: 654109. doi: 10.1155/2013/654109. PMC 3655568. PMID 23710227.^ Vitamin Deficiency Anemia, Mayo Clinic^ The Ottawa Hospital (TOH). Guide: Treatment options for chronic kidney disease. Ottawa, Ontario: The Ottawa Hospital Riverside Campus;2008^ Eknoyan G, Beck GJ, Cheung AK, et al. (2002). "Effect of dialysis dose and membrane flux in maintenance hemodialysis". N. Engl. J. Med. 347 (25): 2010–9. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa021583. PMID 12490682.^ Cheung AK, Levin NW, Greene T, et al. (2003). "Effects of high-flux hemodialysis on clinical outcomes: results of the HEMO study". J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 14 (12): 3251–63. doi: 10.1097/01. ASN.0000096373.13406.94. PMID 14638924.^ Macleod AM, Campbell M, Cody JD, et al. (2005). Mac Leod AM, ed. "Cellulose, modified cellulose and synthetic membranes in the haemodialysis of patients with end-stage renal disease". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD003234. doi: 10.1002/14651858. CD003234.pub2. PMID 16034894.^ Locatelli F, Martin-Malo A, Hannedouche T, et al. (2009). "Effect of Membrane Permeability on Survival of Hemodialysis Patients". J Am Soc Nephrol. 20 (3): 645–54. doi: 10.1681/ASN.2008060590. PMC 2653681. PMID 19092122.^ van Ypersele de Strihou C, Jadoul M, Malghem J, Maldague B, Jamart J (1991). "Effect of dialysis membrane and patient's age on signs of dialysis-related amyloidosis. The Working Party on Dialysis Amyloidosis". Kidney Int. 39 (5): 1012–9. doi: 10.1038/ki.1991.128. PMID 2067196.^ KDOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Hemodialysis Adequacy, 2006 Updates. CPR 5. Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine.^ Küchle C, Fricke H, Held E, Schiffl H (1996). "High-flux hemodialysis postpones clinical manifestation of dialysis-related amyloidosis". Am. J. Nephrol. 16 (6): 484–8. doi: 10.1159/000169048. PMID 8955759.^ Koda Y, Nishi S, Miyazaki S, et al. (1997). "Switch from conventional to high-flux membrane reduces the risk of carpal tunnel syndrome and mortality of hemodialysis patients". Kidney Int. 52 (4): 1096–101. doi: 10.1038/ki.1997.434. PMID 9328951.^ Locatelli F, Mastrangelo F, Redaelli B, et al. (1996). "Effects of different membranes and dialysis technologies on patient treatment tolerance and nutritional parameters. The Italian Cooperative Dialysis Study Group". Kidney Int. 50 (4): 1293–302. doi: 10.1038/ki.1996.441. PMID 8887291.^ KDOQI Clinical Practice Guidelines for Hemodialysis Adequacy, 2006 Updates Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine .. CPR 5.^ Strain, Nick. "Dialysis Tech". Dialysis Clinic.^ Canadian Association of Nephrology Nurses and Technologists. (2008). Canadian Association of Nephrology Nurses and Technologist Nephrology Nursing Standards and Practice Recommendations. Retrieved from http://www.cannt.ca/en//files/CANNT_Nursing_Standards_2008.pdf.^ Pfuntner A., Wier L. M., Stocks C. Most Frequent Procedures Performed in U. S. Hospitals, 2011. HCUP Statistical Brief #165. October 2013. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, MD. [1].^ Graham T. The Bakerian lecture: on osmotic force. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society in London. 1854;144:177–228.^ Abel, J. J., Rountree, L. G., and Turner, B. B. The removal of diffusible substances from the circulating blood by means of dialysis. Tn. Assoc. Am. Phys., 28:51, 1913.^ Georg Haas (1886–1971): The Forgotten Hemodialysis Pioneer (PDF) Archived 2007-12-02 at the Wayback Machine.^ Kolff, W. J., and Berk, H. T. J. Artificial kidney, dialyzer with great area. Geneesk. gids., 21:1944.^ Mc Kellar, S (1999). "Gordon Murray and the artificial kidney in Canada". Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation. 14 (11): 2766–70. doi: 10.1093/ndt/14.11.2766. PMID 10534530.^ University of Lund website: Nils Alwall. Archived 2007-10-01 at the Wayback Machine.^ Shaldon S. Development of Hemodialysis, From Access to Machine (presentation given during a symposium entitled: Excellence in Dialysis: Update in Nephrology; Karachi, Pakistan. October, 2002, as archived on HDCN^ NIDDK Contributions to Dialysis^ Kjellstrand CM. History of Dialysis, Men and Ideas. Talk given to the Nordic Nephrology Days Symposium, Lund, 1997, as archived on HDCN. External links [ edit]Wikimedia Commons has media related to Hemodialysis. Your Kidneys and How They Work – (American) National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH. Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure – (American) National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (NIDDK), NIH. Treatment Methods for Kidney Failure: Hemodialysis – (American) National Kidney and Urologic Diseases Information Clearinghouse, NIH. Online Community for Dialysis Patients by Dialysis Patients What is dialysis? – Kidney Foundation of Canada European Kidney Patients' Federation (CEAPIR)ARCH Project – European research project for development of a model to simulate hemodynamic changes induced by AVF surgery and long-term adaptation. [ show]v t e Vascular surgery ICD-9-CM V3 38–39, ICD-10-PCS 03–6 [ show]v t e Toxicology Categories: Renal dialysis Toxicology treatments Membrane technology |
Given a web search query, retrieve relevant documents that answer the query.what does the muscle do in the body | Muscle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedianavigation search For other uses, see Muscle (disambiguation). Muscle A top-down view of skeletal muscle Details Precursor Mesoderm System Musculoskeletal system Identifiers Latin musculus Me SH D009132TA A04.0.00.000FMA 32558Anatomical terminology [ edit on Wikidata]Muscle is a soft tissue found in most animals. Muscle cells contain protein filaments of actin and myosin that slide past one another, producing a contraction that changes both the length and the shape of the cell. Muscles function to produce force and motion. They are primarily responsible for maintaining and changing posture, locomotion, as well as movement of internal organs, such as the contraction of the heart and the movement of food through the digestive system via peristalsis. Muscle tissues are derived from the mesodermal layer of embryonic germ cells in a process known as myogenesis. There are three types of muscle, skeletal or striated, cardiac, and smooth. Muscle action can be classified as being either voluntary or involuntary. Cardiac and smooth muscles contract without conscious thought and are termed involuntary, whereas the skeletal muscles contract upon command. [1] Skeletal muscles in turn can be divided into fast and slow twitch fibers. Muscles are predominantly powered by the oxidation of fats and carbohydrates, but anaerobic chemical reactions are also used, particularly by fast twitch fibers. These chemical reactions produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules that are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. [2]The term muscle is derived from the Latin musculus meaning "little mouse" perhaps because of the shape of certain muscles or because contracting muscles look like mice moving under the skin. [3] [4]Contents [ hide ]1 Structure1.1 Types1.2 Microanatomy1.3 Gross anatomy1.4 Muscular system1.5 Development2 Physiology2.1 Contraction2.2 Nervous control2.3 Energy consumption2.4 Strength3 Exercise3.1 Health4 Clinical significance4.1 Hypertrophy4.2 Atrophy4.3 Disease5 Evolution6 See also7 References8 External links Structure The anatomy of muscles includes gross anatomy, which comprises all the muscles of an organism, and microanatomy, which comprises the structures of a single muscle. Types Main article: Muscle tissue The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle. (Same magnification)Muscle tissue is a soft tissue, and is one of the four fundamental types of tissue present in animals. There are three types of muscle tissue recognized in vertebrates: Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" is anchored by tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture. Though this postural control is generally maintained as an unconscious reflex, the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-postural muscles. An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal muscle and an average adult female is made up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass). [5]Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" is found within the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines, bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin (in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth muscle is not under conscious control. Cardiac muscle (myocardium), is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more akin in structure to skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart. Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres that are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; the myofibrils of smooth muscle cells are not arranged in sarcomeres and so are not striated. While the sarcomeres in skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiac muscle sarcomeres connect at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs). Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions. Skeletal (voluntary) muscle is further divided into two broad types: slow twitch and fast twitch: Type I, slow twitch, or "red" muscle, is dense with capillaries and is rich in mitochondria and myoglobin, giving the muscle tissue its characteristic red color. It can carry more oxygen and sustain aerobic activity using fats or carbohydrates as fuel. [6] Slow twitch fibers contract for long periods of time but with little force. Type II, fast twitch muscle, has three major subtypes (IIa, IIx, and IIb) that vary in both contractile speed [7] and force generated. [6] Fast twitch fibers contract quickly and powerfully but fatigue very rapidly, sustaining only short, anaerobic bursts of activity before muscle contraction becomes painful. They contribute most to muscle strength and have greater potential for increase in mass. Type IIb is anaerobic, glycolytic, "white" muscle that is least dense in mitochondria and myoglobin. In small animals (e.g., rodents) this is the major fast muscle type, explaining the pale color of their flesh. The density of mammalian skeletal muscle tissue is about 1.06 kg/liter. [8] This can be contrasted with the density of adipose tissue (fat), which is 0.9196 kg/liter. [9] This makes muscle tissue approximately 15% denser than fat tissue. Microanatomy Main articles: Myocyte and Sarcomere A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many fibrils, which give the cell its striated appearance. Skeletal muscles are sheathed by a tough layer of connective tissue called the epimysium. The epimysium anchors muscle tissue to tendons at each end, where the epimysium becomes thicker and collagenous. It also protects muscles from friction against other muscles and bones. Within the epimysium are multiple bundles called fascicles, each of which contains 10 to 100 or more muscle fibers collectively sheathed by a perimysium. Besides surrounding each fascicle, the perimysium is a pathway for nerves and the flow of blood within the muscle. The threadlike muscle fibers are the individual muscle cells ( myocytes ), and each cell is encased within its own endomysium of collagen fibers. Thus, the overall muscle consists of fibers (cells) that are bundled into fascicles, which are themselves grouped together to form muscles. At each level of bundling, a collagenous membrane surrounds the bundle, and these membranes support muscle function both by resisting passive stretching of the tissue and by distributing forces applied to the muscle. [10] Scattered throughout the muscles are muscle spindles that provide sensory feedback information to the central nervous system. (This grouping structure is analogous to the organization of nerves which uses epineurium, perineurium, and endoneurium ). This same bundles-within-bundles structure is replicated within the muscle cells. Within the cells of the muscle are myofibrils, which themselves are bundles of protein filaments. The term "myofibril" should not be confused with "myofiber", which is a simply another name for a muscle cell. Myofibrils are complex strands of several kinds of protein filaments organized together into repeating units called sarcomeres. The striated appearance of both skeletal and cardiac muscle results from the regular pattern of sarcomeres within their cells. Although both of these types of muscle contain sarcomeres, the fibers in cardiac muscle are typically branched to form a network. Cardiac muscle fibers are interconnected by intercalated discs, [11] giving that tissue the appearance of a syncytium. The filaments in a sarcomere are composed of actin and myosin. Gross anatomy See also: List of muscles of the human body Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium. The gross anatomy of a muscle is the most important indicator of its role in the body. There is an important distinction seen between pennate muscles and other muscles. In most muscles, all the fibers are oriented in the same direction, running in a line from the origin to the insertion. However, In pennate muscles, the individual fibers are oriented at an angle relative to the line of action, attaching to the origin and insertion tendons at each end. Because the contracting fibers are pulling at an angle to the overall action of the muscle, the change in length is smaller, but this same orientation allows for more fibers (thus more force) in a muscle of a given size. Pennate muscles are usually found where their length change is less important than maximum force, such as the rectus femoris. Skeletal muscle is arranged in discrete muscles, an example of which is the biceps brachii (biceps). The tough, fibrous epimysium of skeletal muscle is both connected to and continuous with the tendons. In turn, the tendons connect to the periosteum layer surrounding the bones, permitting the transfer of force from the muscles to the skeleton. Together, these fibrous layers, along with tendons and ligaments, constitute the deep fascia of the body. Muscular system Main article: Muscular system On the anterior and posterior views of the muscular system above, superficial muscles (those at the surface) are shown on the right side of the body while deep muscles (those underneath the superficial muscles) are shown on the left half of the body. For the legs, superficial muscles are shown in the anterior view while the posterior view shows both superficial and deep muscles. The muscular system consists of all the muscles present in a single body. There are approximately 650 skeletal muscles in the human body, [12] but an exact number is difficult to define. The difficulty lies partly in the fact that different sources group the muscles differently and partly in that some muscles, such as palmaris longus, are not always present. A muscular slip is a narrow length of muscle that acts to augment a larger muscle or muscles. The muscular system is one component of the musculoskeletal system, which includes not only the muscles but also the bones, joints, tendons, and other structures that permit movement. Development Main article: Myogenesis A chicken embryo, showing the paraxial mesoderm on both sides of the neural fold. The anterior (forward) portion has begun to form somites (labeled "primitive segments"). All muscles are derived from paraxial mesoderm. The paraxial mesoderm is divided along the embryo 's length into somites, corresponding to the segmentation of the body (most obviously seen in the vertebral column. [13] Each somite has 3 divisions, sclerotome (which forms vertebrae ), dermatome (which forms skin), and myotome (which forms muscle). The myotome is divided into two sections, the epimere and hypomere, which form epaxial and hypaxial muscles, respectively. The only epaxial muscles in humans are the erector spinae and small intervertebral muscles, and are innervated by the dorsal rami of the spinal nerves. All other muscles, including those of the limbs are hypaxial, and inervated by the ventral rami of the spinal nerves. [13]During development, myoblasts (muscle progenitor cells) either remain in the somite to form muscles associated with the vertebral column or migrate out into the body to form all other muscles. Myoblast migration is preceded by the formation of connective tissue frameworks, usually formed from the somatic lateral plate mesoderm. Myoblasts follow chemical signals to the appropriate locations, where they fuse into elongate skeletal muscle cells. [13]Physiology Contraction Main article: muscle contraction The three types of muscle (skeletal, cardiac and smooth) have significant differences. However, all three use the movement of actin against myosin to create contraction. In skeletal muscle, contraction is stimulated by electrical impulses transmitted by the nerves, the motoneurons (motor nerves) in particular. Cardiac and smooth muscle contractions are stimulated by internal pacemaker cells which regularly contract, and propagate contractions to other muscle cells they are in contact with. All skeletal muscle and many smooth muscle contractions are facilitated by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. When a sarcomere contracts, the Z lines move closer together, and the I band becomes smaller. The A band stays the same width. At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments overlap. The action a muscle generates is determined by the origin and insertion locations. The cross-sectional area of a muscle (rather than volume or length) determines the amount of force it can generate by defining the number of "sarcomeres" which can operate in parallel. Each skeletal muscle contains long units called myofibrils, and each myofibril is a chain of sarcomeres. Since contraction occurs at the same time for all connected sarcomeres in a muscles cell, these chains of sarcomeres shorten together, thus shortening the muscle fiber, resulting in overall length change. [14] The amount of force applied to the external environment is determined by lever mechanics, specifically the ratio of in-lever to out-lever. For example, moving the insertion point of the biceps more distally on the radius (farther from the joint of rotation) would increase the force generated during flexion (and, as a result, the maximum weight lifted in this movement), but decrease the maximum speed of flexion. Moving the insertion point proximally (closer to the joint of rotation) would result in decreased force but increased velocity. This can be most easily seen by comparing the limb of a mole to a horse - in the former, the insertion point is positioned to maximize force (for digging), while in the latter, the insertion point is positioned to maximize speed (for running). Nervous control Simplified schema of basic nervous system function. Signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain via the afferent leg of the peripheral nervous system, whereupon processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor neurons via the efferent leg. Muscle movement The efferent leg of the peripheral nervous system is responsible for conveying commands to the muscles and glands, and is ultimately responsible for voluntary movement. Nerves move muscles in response to voluntary and autonomic (involuntary) signals from the brain. Deep muscles, superficial muscles, muscles of the face and internal muscles all correspond with dedicated regions in the primary motor cortex of the brain, directly anterior to the central sulcus that divides the frontal and parietal lobes. In addition, muscles react to reflexive nerve stimuli that do not always send signals all the way to the brain. In this case, the signal from the afferent fiber does not reach the brain, but produces the reflexive movement by direct connections with the efferent nerves in the spine. However, the majority of muscle activity is volitional, and the result of complex interactions between various areas of the brain. Nerves that control skeletal muscles in mammals correspond with neuron groups along the primary motor cortex of the brain's cerebral cortex. Commands are routed though the basal ganglia and are modified by input from the cerebellum before being relayed through the pyramidal tract to the spinal cord and from there to the motor end plate at the muscles. Along the way, feedback, such as that of the extrapyramidal system contribute signals to influence muscle tone and response. Deeper muscles such as those involved in posture often are controlled from nuclei in the brain stem and basal ganglia. Proprioception Main article: Proprioception In skeletal muscles, muscle spindles convey information about the degree of muscle length and stretch to the central nervous system to assist in maintaining posture and joint position. The sense of where our bodies are in space is called proprioception, the perception of body awareness, the "unconscious" awareness of where the various regions of the body are located at any one time. Several areas in the brain coordinate movement and position with the feedback information gained from proprioception. The cerebellum and red nucleus in particular continuously sample position against movement and make minor corrections to assure smooth motion. [ citation needed]Energy consumption Main article: Bioenergetic systems (a) Some ATP is stored in a resting muscle. As contraction starts, it is used up in seconds. More ATP is generated from creatine phosphate for about 15 seconds. (b) Each glucose molecule produces two ATP and two molecules of pyruvic acid, which can be used in aerobic respiration or converted to lactic acid. If oxygen is not available, pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which may contribute to muscle fatigue. This occurs during strenuous exercise when high amounts of energy are needed but oxygen cannot be sufficiently delivered to muscle. (c) Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of glucose in the presence of oxygen (O2) to produce carbon dioxide, water, and ATP. Approximately 95 percent of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles is provided by aerobic respiration, which takes place in mitochondria. Muscular activity accounts for much of the body's energy consumption. All muscle cells produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules which are used to power the movement of the myosin heads. Muscles have a short-term store of energy in the form of creatine phosphate which is generated from ATP and can regenerate ATP when needed with creatine kinase. Muscles also keep a storage form of glucose in the form of glycogen. Glycogen can be rapidly converted to glucose when energy is required for sustained, powerful contractions. Within the voluntary skeletal muscles, the glucose molecule can be metabolized anaerobically in a process called glycolysis which produces two ATP and two lactic acid molecules in the process (note that in aerobic conditions, lactate is not formed; instead pyruvate is formed and transmitted through the citric acid cycle ). Muscle cells also contain globules of fat, which are used for energy during aerobic exercise. The aerobic energy systems take longer to produce the ATP and reach peak efficiency, and requires many more biochemical steps, but produces significantly more ATP than anaerobic glycolysis. Cardiac muscle on the other hand, can readily consume any of the three macronutrients (protein, glucose and fat) aerobically without a 'warm up' period and always extracts the maximum ATP yield from any molecule involved. The heart, liver and red blood cells will also consume lactic acid produced and excreted by skeletal muscles during exercise. At rest, skeletal muscle consumes 54.4 k J/kg (13.0 kcal/kg) per day. This is larger than adipose tissue (fat) at 18.8 k J/kg (4.5 kcal/kg), and bone at 9.6 k J/kg (2.3 kcal/kg). [15]Efficiency The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, [16] this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis. Strength Muscle is a result of three factors that overlap: physiological strength (muscle size, cross sectional area, available crossbridging, responses to training), neurological strength (how strong or weak is the signal that tells the muscle to contract), and mechanical strength (muscle's force angle on the lever, moment arm length, joint capabilities). [ citation needed]Physiological strength Main article: Physical strength Grading of muscle strength Grade 0 No contraction Grade 1 Trace of contraction, but no movement at the joint Grade 2 Movement at the joint with gravity eliminated Grade 3 Movement against gravity, but not against added resistance Grade 4 Movement against external resistance, but less than normal Grade 5 Normal strength Vertebrate muscle typically produces approximately 25–33 N (5.6–7.4 lb f) of force per square centimeter of muscle cross-sectional area when isometric and at optimal length. [17] Some invertebrate muscles, such as in crab claws, have much longer sarcomeres than vertebrates, resulting in many more sites for actin and myosin to bind and thus much greater force per square centimeter at the cost of much slower speed. The force generated by a contraction can be measured non-invasively using either mechanomyography or phonomyography, be measured in vivo using tendon strain (if a prominent tendon is present), or be measured directly using more invasive methods. The strength of any given muscle, in terms of force exerted on the skeleton, depends upon length, shortening speed, cross sectional area, pennation, sarcomere length, myosin isoforms, and neural activation of motor units. Significant reductions in muscle strength can indicate underlying pathology, with the chart at right used as a guide. The "strongest" human muscle This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2016) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message)Since three factors affect muscular strength simultaneously and muscles never work individually, it is misleading to compare strength in individual muscles, and state that one is the "strongest". But below are several muscles whose strength is noteworthy for different reasons. In ordinary parlance, muscular "strength" usually refers to the ability to exert a force on an external object—for example, lifting a weight. By this definition, the masseter or jaw muscle is the strongest. The 1992 Guinness Book of Records records the achievement of a bite strength of 4,337 N (975 lb f) for 2 seconds. What distinguishes the masseter is not anything special about the muscle itself, but its advantage in working against a much shorter lever arm than other muscles. If "strength" refers to the force exerted by the muscle itself, e.g., on the place where it inserts into a bone, then the strongest muscles are those with the largest cross-sectional area. This is because the tension exerted by an individual skeletal muscle fiber does not vary much. Each fiber can exert a force on the order of 0.3 micronewton. By this definition, the strongest muscle of the body is usually said to be the quadriceps femoris or the gluteus maximus. Because muscle strength is determined by cross-sectional area, a shorter muscle will be stronger "pound for pound" (i.e., by weight) than a longer muscle of the same cross-sectional area. The myometrial layer of the uterus may be the strongest muscle by weight in the female human body. At the time when an infant is delivered, the entire human uterus weighs about 1.1 kg (40 oz). During childbirth, the uterus exerts 100 to 400 N (25 to 100 lbf) of downward force with each contraction. The external muscles of the eye are conspicuously large and strong in relation to the small size and weight of the eyeball. It is frequently said that they are "the strongest muscles for the job they have to do" and are sometimes claimed to be "100 times stronger than they need to be." However, eye movements (particularly saccades used on facial scanning and reading) do require high speed movements, and eye muscles are exercised nightly during rapid eye movement sleep. The statement that "the tongue is the strongest muscle in the body" appears frequently in lists of surprising facts, but it is difficult to find any definition of "strength" that would make this statement true. Note that the tongue consists of eight muscles, not one. The heart has a claim to being the muscle that performs the largest quantity of physical work in the course of a lifetime. Estimates of the power output of the human heart range from 1 to 5 watts. This is much less than the maximum power output of other muscles; for example, the quadriceps can produce over 100 watts, but only for a few minutes. The heart does its work continuously over an entire lifetime without pause, and thus does "outwork" other muscles. An output of one watt continuously for eighty years yields a total work output of two and a half gigajoules. [18]Exercise Main article: Physical exercise Exercise is often recommended as a means of improving motor skills, fitness, muscle and bone strength, and joint function. Exercise has several effects upon muscles, connective tissue, bone, and the nerves that stimulate the muscles. One such effect is muscle hypertrophy, an increase in size. This is used in bodybuilding. Various exercises require a predominance of certain muscle fiber utilization over another. Aerobic exercise involves long, low levels of exertion in which the muscles are used at well below their maximal contraction strength for long periods of time (the most classic example being the marathon ). Aerobic events, which rely primarily on the aerobic (with oxygen) system, use a higher percentage of Type I (or slow-twitch) muscle fibers, consume a mixture of fat, protein and carbohydrates for energy, consume large amounts of oxygen and produce little lactic acid. Anaerobic exercise involves short bursts of higher intensity contractions at a much greater percentage of their maximum contraction strength. Examples of anaerobic exercise include sprinting and weight lifting. The anaerobic energy delivery system uses predominantly Type II or fast-twitch muscle fibers, relies mainly on ATP or glucose for fuel, consumes relatively little oxygen, protein and fat, produces large amounts of lactic acid and can not be sustained for as long a period as aerobic exercise. Many exercises are partially aerobic and partially anaerobic; for example, soccer and rock climbing involve a combination of both. The presence of lactic acid has an inhibitory effect on ATP generation within the muscle; though not producing fatigue, it can inhibit or even stop performance if the intracellular concentration becomes too high. However, long-term training causes neovascularization within the muscle, increasing the ability to move waste products out of the muscles and maintain contraction. Once moved out of muscles with high concentrations within the sarcomere, lactic acid can be used by other muscles or body tissues as a source of energy, or transported to the liver where it is converted back to pyruvate. In addition to increasing the level of lactic acid, strenuous exercise causes the loss of potassium ions in muscle and causing an increase in potassium ion concentrations close to the muscle fibres, in the interstitium. Acidification by lactic acid may allow recovery of force so that acidosis may protect against fatigue rather than being a cause of fatigue. [19]Delayed onset muscle soreness is pain or discomfort that may be felt one to three days after exercising and generally subsides two to three days later. Once thought to be caused by lactic acid build-up, a more recent theory is that it is caused by tiny tears in the muscle fibers caused by eccentric contraction, or unaccustomed training levels. Since lactic acid disperses fairly rapidly, it could not explain pain experienced days after exercise. [20]Health Jogging is one form of aerobic exercise. Humans are genetically predisposed with a larger percentage of one type of muscle group over another. An individual born with a greater percentage of Type I muscle fibers would theoretically be more suited to endurance events, such as triathlons, distance running, and long cycling events, whereas a human born with a greater percentage of Type II muscle fibers would be more likely to excel at sprinting events such as 100 meter dash. [ citation needed]Clinical significance Hypertrophy Main article: Muscle hypertrophy Independent of strength and performance measures, muscles can be induced to grow larger by a number of factors, including hormone signaling, developmental factors, strength training, and disease. Contrary to popular belief, the number of muscle fibres cannot be increased through exercise. Instead, muscles grow larger through a combination of muscle cell growth as new protein filaments are added along with additional mass provided by undifferentiated satellite cells alongside the existing muscle cells. [12]Biological factors such as age and hormone levels can affect muscle hypertrophy. During puberty in males, hypertrophy occurs at an accelerated rate as the levels of growth-stimulating hormones produced by the body increase. Natural hypertrophy normally stops at full growth in the late teens. As testosterone is one of the body's major growth hormones, on average, men find hypertrophy much easier to achieve than women. Taking additional testosterone or other anabolic steroids will increase muscular hypertrophy. Muscular, spinal and neural factors all affect muscle building. Sometimes a person may notice an increase in strength in a given muscle even though only its opposite has been subject to exercise, such as when a bodybuilder finds her left biceps stronger after completing a regimen focusing only on the right biceps. This phenomenon is called cross education. [ citation needed]Atrophy Main article: Muscle atrophy Prisoner of war exhibiting muscle loss as a result of malnutrition. Muscles may atrophy as a result of malnutrition, physical inactivity, aging, or disease. Inactivity and starvation in mammals lead to atrophy of skeletal muscle, a decrease in muscle mass that may be accompanied by a smaller number and size of the muscle cells as well as lower protein content. [21] Muscle atrophy may also result from the natural aging process or from disease. In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles. [22] [23] Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats. [24]During aging, there is a gradual decrease in the ability to maintain skeletal muscle function and mass, known as sarcopenia. The exact cause of sarcopenia is unknown, but it may be due to a combination of the gradual failure in the "satellite cells" that help to regenerate skeletal muscle fibers, and a decrease in sensitivity to or the availability of critical secreted growth factors that are necessary to maintain muscle mass and satellite cell survival. Sarcopenia is a normal aspect of aging, and is not actually a disease state yet can be linked to many injuries in the elderly population as well as decreasing quality of life. [25]There are also many diseases and conditions that cause muscle atrophy. Examples include cancer and AIDS, which induce a body wasting syndrome called cachexia. Other syndromes or conditions that can induce skeletal muscle atrophy are congestive heart disease and some diseases of the liver. Disease Main article: Neuromuscular disease In muscular dystrophy, the affected tissues become disorganized and the concentration of dystrophin (green) is greatly reduced. Neuromuscular diseases are those that affect the muscles and/or their nervous control. In general, problems with nervous control can cause spasticity or paralysis, depending on the location and nature of the problem. A large proportion of neurological disorders, ranging from cerebrovascular accident (stroke) and Parkinson's disease to Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease, can lead to problems with movement or motor coordination. Symptoms of muscle diseases may include weakness, spasticity, myoclonus and myalgia. Diagnostic procedures that may reveal muscular disorders include testing creatine kinase levels in the blood and electromyography (measuring electrical activity in muscles). In some cases, muscle biopsy may be done to identify a myopathy, as well as genetic testing to identify DNA abnormalities associated with specific myopathies and dystrophies. A non-invasive elastography technique that measures muscle noise is undergoing experimentation to provide a way of monitoring neuromuscular disease. The sound produced by a muscle comes from the shortening of actomyosin filaments along the axis of the muscle. During contraction, the muscle shortens along its longitudinal axis and expands across the transverse axis, producing vibrations at the surface. [26]Evolution The evolutionary origin of muscle cells in metazoans is a highly debated topic. In one line of thought scientists have believed that muscle cells evolved once and thus all animals with muscles cells have a single common ancestor. In the other line of thought, scientists believe muscles cells evolved more than once and any morphological or structural similarities are due to convergent evolution and genes that predate the evolution of muscle and even the mesoderm - the germ layer from which many scientists believe true muscle cells derive. Schmid and Seipel argue that the origin of muscle cells is a monophyletic trait that occurred concurrently with the development of the digestive and nervous systems of all animals and that this origin can be traced to a single metazoan ancestor in which muscle cells are present. They argue that molecular and morphological similarities between the muscles cells in cnidaria and ctenophora are similar enough to those of bilaterians that there would be one ancestor in metazoans from which muscle cells derive. In this case, Schmid and Seipel argue that the last common ancestor of bilateria, ctenophora, and cnidaria was a triploblast or an organism with three germ layers and that diploblasty, meaning an organism with two germ layers, evolved secondarily due to their observation of the lack of mesoderm or muscle found in most cnidarians and ctenophores. By comparing the morphology of cnidarians and ctenophores to bilaterians, Schmid and Seipel were able to conclude that there were myoblast -like structures in the tentacles and gut of some species of cnidarians and in the tentacles of ctenophores. Since this is a structure unique to muscle cells, these scientists determined based on the data collected by their peers that this is a marker for striated muscles similar to that observed in bilaterians. The authors also remark that the muscle cells found in cnidarians and ctenophores are often contests due to the origin of these muscle cells being the ectoderm rather than the mesoderm or mesendoderm. The origin of true muscles cells is argued by others to be the endoderm portion of the mesoderm and the endoderm. However, Schmid and Seipel counter this skepticism about whether or not the muscle cells found in ctenophores and cnidarians are true muscle cells by considering that cnidarians develop through a medusa stage and polyp stage. They observe that in the hydrozoan medusa stage there is a layer of cells that separate from the distal side of the ectoderm to form the striated muscle cells in a way that seems similar to that of the mesoderm and call this third separated layer of cells the ectocodon. They also argue that not all muscle cells are derived from the mesendoderm in bilaterians with key examples being that in both the eye muscles of vertebrates and the muscles of spiralians these cells derive from the ectodermal mesoderm rather than the endodermal mesoderm. Furthermore, Schmid and Seipel argue that since myogenesis does occur in cnidarians with the help of molecular regulatory elements found in the specification of muscles cells in bilaterians that there is evidence for a single origin for striated muscle. [27]In contrast to this argument for a single origin of muscle cells, Steinmetz et al. argue that molecular markers such as the myosin II protein used to determine this single origin of striated muscle actually predate the formation of muscle cells. This author uses an example of the contractile elements present in the porifera or sponges that do truly lack this striated muscle containing this protein. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. present evidence for a polyphyletic origin of striated muscle cell development through their analysis of morphological and molecular markers that are present in bilaterians and absent in cnidarians, ctenophores, and bilaterians. Steimetz et al. showed that the traditional morphological and regulatory markers such as actin, the ability to couple myosin side chains phosphorylation to higher concentrations of the positive concentrations of calcium, and other My HC elements are present in all metazoans not just the organisms that have been shown to have muscle cells. Thus, the usage of any of these structural or regulatory elements in determining whether or not the muscle cells of the cnidarians and ctenophores are similar enough to the muscle cells of the bilaterians to confirm a single lineage is questionable according to Steinmetz et al. Furthermore, Steinmetz et al. explain that the orthologues of the My Hc genes that have been used to hypothesize the origin of striated muscle occurred through a gene duplication event that predates the first true muscle cells (meaning striated muscle), and they show that the My Hc genes are present in the sponges that have contractile elements but no true muscle cells. Furthermore, Steinmetz et all showed that the localization of this duplicated set of genes that serve both the function of facilitating the formation of striated muscle genes and cell regulation and movement genes were already separated into striated myhc and non-muscle myhc. This separation of the duplicated set of genes is shown through the localization of the striated myhc to the contractile vacuole in sponges while the non-muscle myhc was more diffusely expressed during developmental cell shape and change. Steinmetz et al. found a similar pattern of localization in cnidarians with except with the cnidarian N. vectensis having this striated muscle marker present in the smooth muscle of the digestive track. Thus, Steinmetz et al. argue that the pleisiomorphic trait of the separated orthologues of myhc cannot be used to determine the monophylogeny of muscle, and additionally argue that the presence of a striated muscle marker in the smooth muscle of this cnidarian shows a fundamentally different mechanism of muscle cell development and structure in cnidarians. [28]Steinmetz et al. continue to argue for multiple origins of striated muscle in the metazoans by explaining that a key set of genes used to form the troponin complex for muscle regulation and formation in bilaterians is missing from the cnidarians and ctenophores, and of 47 structural and regulatory proteins observed, Steinmetz et al. were not able to find even on unique striated muscle cell protein that was expressed in both cnidarians and bilaterians. Furthermore, the Z-disc seemed to have evolved differently even within bilaterians and there is a great deal diversity of proteins developed even between this clade, showing a large degree of radiation for muscle cells. Through this divergence of the Z-disc, Steimetz et al. argue that there are only four common protein components that were present in all bilaterians muscle ancestors and that of these for necessary Z-disc components only an actin protein that they have already argued is an uninformative marker through its pleisiomorphic state is present in cnidarians. Through further molecular marker testing, Steinmetz et al. observe that non-bilaterians lack many regulatory and structural components necessary for bilaterians muscle formation and do not find any unique set of proteins to both bilaterians and cnidarians and ctenophores that are not present in earlier, more primitive animals such as the sponges and amoebozoans. Through this analysis the authors conclude that due to the lack of elements that bilaterians muscles are dependent on for structure and usage, nonbilaterian muscles must be of a different origin with a different set regulatory and structural proteins. [28]In another take on the argument, Andrikou and Arnone use the newly available data on gene regulatory networks to look at how the hierarchy of genes and morphogens and other mechanism of tissue specification diverge and are similar among early deuterostomes and protostomes. By understanding not only what genes are present in all bilaterians but also the time and place of deployment of these genes, Andrikou and Arnone discuss a deeper understanding of the evolution of myogenesis. [29]In their paper Andrikou and Arnone argue that to truly understand the evolution of muscle cells the function of transcriptional regulators must be understood in the context of other external and internal interactions. Through their analysis, Andrikou and Arnone found that there were conserved orthologues of the gene regulatory network in both invertebrate bilaterians and in cnidarians. They argue that having this common, general regulatory circuit allowed for a high degree of divergence from a single well functioning network. Andrikou and Arnone found that the orthologues of genes found in vertebrates had been changed through different types of structural mutations in the invertebrate deuterostomes and protostomes, and they argue that these structural changes in the genes allowed for a large divergence of muscle function and muscle formation in these species. Andrikou and Arnone were able to recognize not only any difference due to mutation in the genes found in vertebrates and invertebrates but also the integration of species specific genes that could also cause divergence from the original gene regulatory network function. Thus, although a common muscle patterning system has been determined, they argue that this could be due to a more ancestral gene regulatory network being coopted several times across lineages with additional genes and mutations causing very divergent development of muscles. Thus it seems that myogenic patterning framework may be an ancestral trait. However, Andrikou and Arnone explain that the basic muscle patterning structure must also be considered in combination with the cis regulatory elements present at different times during development. In contrast with the high level of gene family apparatuses structure, Andrikou and Arnone found that the cis regulatory elements were not well conserved both in time and place in the network which could show a large degree of divergence in the formation of muscle cells. Through this analysis, it seems that the myogenic GRN is an ancestral GRN with actual changes in myogenic function and structure possibly being linked to later coopts of genes at different times and places. [29]Evolutionarily, specialized forms of skeletal and cardiac muscles predated the divergence of the vertebrate / arthropod evolutionary line. [30] This indicates that these types of muscle developed in a common ancestor sometime before 700 million years ago (mya). Vertebrate smooth muscle was found to have evolved independently from the skeletal and cardiac muscle types. See also Electroactive polymers —materials that behave like muscles, used in robotics research Hand strength Meat Muscle memory Myotomy Preflexes Rohmert's law —pertaining to muscle fatigue References^ Mackenzie, Colin (1918). The Action of Muscles: Including Muscle Rest and Muscle Re-education. England: Paul B. Hoeber. p. 1. 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ISBN 0-697-23486-X.^ a b Poole, RM, ed. (1986). The Incredible Machine. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. pp. 307–311. ISBN 0-87044-621-5.^ a b c Sweeney, Lauren (1997). Basic Concepts in Embryology: A Student's Survival Guide (1st Paperback ed.). Mc Graw-Hill Professional.^ Kardong, Kenneth (2015). Vertebrates: Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. New York, NY: Mc Graw Hill Education. pp. 374–377. ISBN 978-1-259-25375-1.^ Heymsfield, SB; Gallagher, D; Kotler, DP; Wang, Z; Allison, DB; Heshka, S (2002). "Body-size dependence of resting energy expenditure can be attributed to nonenergetic homogeneity of fat-free mass". American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism. 282 (1): E132–E138. doi: 10.1152/ajpendo.2002.282.1.e132. PMID 11739093.^ "Concept II Rowing Ergometer, user manual" (PDF). 1993. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 December 2010.^ Mc Ginnis, Peter M. (2013). Biomechanics of Sport and Exercise (3rd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. ISBN 9780736079662.^ Muslumova, Irada (2003). "Power of a Human Heart". The Physics Factbook.^ Nielsen, OB; Paoli, F; Overgaard, K (2001). "Protective effects of lactic acid on force production in rat skeletal muscle". Journal of Physiology. 536 (1): 161–6. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7793.2001.t01-1-00161.x. PMC 2278832. PMID 11579166.^ Robergs, R; Ghiasvand, F; Parker, D (2004). "Biochemistry of exercise-induced metabolic acidosis". Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 287 (3): R502–16. doi: 10.1152/ajpregu.00114.2004. PMID 15308499.^ Fuster, G; Busquets, S; Almendro, V; López-Soriano, FJ; Argilés, JM (2007). "Antiproteolytic effects of plasma from hibernating bears: a new approach for muscle wasting therapy?". Clin Nutr. 26 (5): 658–61. doi: 10.1016/j.clnu.2007.07.003. PMID 17904252.^ Roy, RR; Baldwin, KM; Edgerton, VR (1996). "Response of the neuromuscular unit to spaceflight: What has been learned from the rat model". Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 24: 399–425. doi: 10.1249/00003677-199600240-00015. PMID 8744257.^ "NASA Muscle Atrophy Research (MARES) Website". Archived from the original on 4 May 2010.^ Lohuis, TD; Harlow, HJ; Beck, TD (2007). "Hibernating black bears ( Ursus americanus) experience skeletal muscle protein balance during winter anorexia". Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, Biochem. Mol. Biol. 147 (1): 20–28. doi: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2006.12.020. PMID 17307375.^ Roche, Alex F. (1994). "Sarcopenia: A critical review of its measurements and health-related significance in the middle-aged and elderly". American Journal of Human Biology. 6 (1): 33–42. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.1310060107. PMID 28548430.^ Dumé, Belle (18 May 2007). " ' Muscle noise' could reveal diseases' progression". New Scientist.com news service.^ Seipel, Katja; Schmid, Volker (2005-06-01). "Evolution of striated muscle: Jellyfish and the origin of triploblasty". Developmental Biology. 282 (1): 14–26. doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2005.03.032. PMID 15936326.^ a b Steinmetz, Patrick R. H.; Kraus, Johanna E. M.; Larroux, Claire; Hammel, Jörg U.; Amon-Hassenzahl, Annette; Houliston, Evelyn; Wörheide, Gert; Nickel, Michael; Degnan, Bernard M. (2012). "Independent evolution of striated muscles in cnidarians and bilaterians". Nature. 487 (7406): 231–234. doi: 10.1038/nature11180. PMC 3398149. PMID 22763458.^ a b Andrikou, Carmen; Arnone, Maria Ina (2015-05-01). "Too many ways to make a muscle: Evolution of GRNs governing myogenesis". Zoologischer Anzeiger. Special Issue: Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Invertebrate Morphology. 256: 2–13. doi: 10.1016/j.jcz.2015.03.005.^ OOta, S.; Saitou, N. (1999). "Phylogenetic relationship of muscle tissues deduced from superimposition of gene trees". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 16 (6): 856–867. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026170. ISSN 0737-4038. External links Look up muscle in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Media related to muscles at Wikimedia Commons University of Dundee article on performing neurological examinations (Quadriceps "strongest")Muscle efficiency in rowing Muscle Physiology and Modeling Scholarpedia Tsianos and Loeb (2013)Human Muscle Tutorial (clear pictures of main human muscles and their Latin names, good for orientation)Microscopic stains of skeletal and cardiac muscular fibers to show striations. Note the differences in myofibrilar arrangements. [ show]v t e Biological tissues [ show]v t e Muscular system [ show]v t e Muscle tissue [ show]v t e Muscles of the head [ show]v t e Muscles of the neck [ show]v t e Muscles of the thorax and back [ show]v t e Muscles and ligaments of abdomen and pelvis [ show]v t e Muscles of the arm [ show]v t e Muscles of the hip and human leg Authority control NDL: 00565842Categories: Exercise physiology Muscular system Soft tissue Tissues (biology) | Anatomical terms of muscle Anatomical terms of muscle From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (Redirected from Origin (anatomy))navigation search This article is part of a series on Anatomical terminology Bone Location Microanatomy Motion Muscle Neuroanatomyv t e Muscles are described using unique anatomical terminology according to their actions and structure. Contents [ hide ]1 Types1.1 Skeletal muscle1.2 Smooth muscle1.3 Cardiac muscle2 Actions of skeletal muscle2.1 Agonists and antagonists2.2 Agonist-antagonist pairs2.3 Synergistic action2.4 Neutralizer Action2.4.1 Composite muscle3 Form3.1 Insertion and origin3.2 Muscle fibres4 State4.1 Hypertrophy and atrophy5 See also6 References Types [ edit]There are three types of muscle tissue in the human body: skeletal, smooth, and cardiac. Skeletal muscle [ edit]Skeletal striated muscle, or "voluntary muscle", primarily joins to bone with tendons. Skeletal muscle enables movement of the bones of the human skeleton and maintains posture. [1]Smooth muscle [ edit]Smooth muscle tissue is found in parts of the body where it conveys action without conscious intent. The majority of this type of muscle tissue is found in the digestive and urinary systems where it acts by propelling forward food, chyme, and feces in the former and urine in the latter. Other places smooth muscle can be found are within the uterus, where it helps facilitate birth, and the eye, where the pupillary sphincter controls pupil size. [2]Cardiac muscle [ edit]Cardiac muscle is specific to the heart. It is also involuntary in its movement, and is additionally self-excitatory, contracting without outside stimuli. [3]Actions of skeletal muscle [ edit]As well as anatomical terms of motion, which describe the motion made by a muscle, unique terminology is used to describe the action of a set of muscles. Agonists and antagonists [ edit]Agonist muscles and antagonist muscles refer to muscles that cause or inhibit a movement. Agonist muscles cause a movement to occur through their own activation. [4] For example, the triceps brachii contracts, producing a shortening contraction, during the up phase of a push-up (elbow extension). During the down phase of a push-up, the same triceps brachii actively controls elbow flexion while producing a lengthening contraction. It is still the agonist, because while resisting gravity during relaxing, the triceps brachii continues to be the prime mover, or controller, of the joint action. Agonists are also interchangeably referred to as "prime movers," since they are the muscles considered primarily responsible for generating or controlling a specific movement. Another example is the dumbbell curl at the elbow. The "elbow flexor" group is the agonist, shortening during the lifting phase (elbow flexion). During the lowering phase the "elbow flexor" muscles lengthen, remaining the agonists because they are controlling the load and the movement (elbow extension). For both the lifting and lowering phase, the "elbow extensor" muscles are the antagonists (see below). They lengthen during the dumbbell lifting phase and shorten during the dumbbell lowering phase. Here it is important to understand that it is common practice to give a name to a muscle group (e.g. elbow flexors) based on the joint action they produce during a shortening (concentric) contraction. However, this naming convention does not mean they are only agonists during shortening. This term typically describes the function of skeletal muscles. [5]Antagonist muscles are simply the muscles that produce an opposing joint torque to the agonist muscles. [6] This torque can aid in controlling a motion. The opposing torque can slow movement down - especially in the case of a ballistic movement. For example, during a very rapid (ballistic) discrete movement of the elbow, such as throwing a dart, the triceps muscles will be activated very briefly and strongly (in a "burst") to rapidly accelerate the extension movement at the elbow, followed almost immediately by a "burst" of activation to the elbow flexor muscles that decelerates the elbow movement to arrive at a quick stop. To use an automotive analogy, this would be similar to pressing your gas pedal rapidly and then immediately pressing the brake. Antagonism is not an intrinsic property of a particular muscle or muscle group; it is a role that a muscle plays depending on which muscle is currently the agonist. During slower joint actions that involve gravity, just as with the agonist muscle (mentioned above), the antagonist muscle can shorten and lengthen. Using the example above of the triceps brachii during a push-up, the elbow flexor muscles are the antagonists at the elbow during both the up phase and down phase of the movement. During the dumbbell curl, the elbow extensors are the antagonists for both the lifting and lowering phases. [ citation needed]Agonist-antagonist pairs [ edit]The antagonistic pair of biceps and triceps working to flex the elbow. Antagonist and agonist muscles often occur in pairs, called antagonistic pairs. As one muscle contracts, the other relaxes. An example of an antagonistic pair is the biceps and triceps; to contract - the triceps relaxes while the biceps contracts to lift the arm. "Reverse motions" need antagonistic pairs located in opposite sides of a joint or bone, including abductor-adductor pairs and flexor-extensor pairs. These consist of an extensor muscle, which "opens" the joint (by increasing the angle between the two bones) and a flexor muscle, which does the opposite by decreasing the angle between two bones. However muscles don't always work this way - sometimes agonists and antagonists contract at the same time to produce force, as per Lombard's paradox. Also, sometimes during a joint action controlled by an agonist muscle (see above definition of agonist), the antagonist will be slightly activated, naturally. This occurs normally and is not considered to be a problem unless it is excessive or uncontrolled and disturbs the control of the joint action. This is called agonist/antagonist co-activation and serves to mechanically stiffen the joint. Not all muscles are paired in this way. An example of exception is the deltoid. Synergistic action [ edit]The biceps brachii flexes the lower arm. The brachioradialis, in the forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the upper arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion. Synergist muscles perform, or help perform, the same set of joint motion as the agonists. Synergists muscles act on movable joints. Synergists are sometimes referred to as "neutralizers" because they help cancel out, or neutralize, extra motion from the agonists to make sure that the force generated works within the desired plane of motion. Muscle fibers can only contract up to 40% of their fully stretched length. Thus the short fibers of pennate muscles are more suitable where power rather than range of contraction is required. This limitation in the range of contraction affects all muscles, and those that act over several joints may be unable to shorten sufficiently to produce the full range of movement at all of them simultaneously (active insufficiency, e.g., the fingers cannot be fully flexed when the wrist is also flexed). Likewise, the opposing muscles may be unable to stretch sufficiently to allow such movement to take place (passive insufficiency). For both these reasons, it is often essential to use other muscles, called fixators or synergists, in this type of action to fix certain of the joints so that others can be moved effectively, e.g., fixation of the wrist during full flexion of the fingers in clenching the fist. Synergists are muscles that facilitate the fixation action. There is an important difference between a helping synergist muscle and a true synergist muscle. A true synergist muscle is one that only neutralizes an undesired joint action, whereas a helping synergist is one that neutralizes an undesired action but also assists with the desired action. [ citation needed]Neutralizer Action [ edit]A muscle that fixes or holds a bone so that the agonist can carry out the intended movement is said to have a neutralising action. A good famous example of this are the hamstrings; the semitendinosus and semimembranosus muscles perform knee flexion and knee internal rotation whereas the biceps femoris carries out knee flexion and knee external rotation. For the knee to flex while not rotating in either direction, all three muscles contract to stabilize the knee while it moves in the desired way. Composite muscle [ edit]Composite or hybrid muscles have more than one set of fibers that perform the same function, and are usually supplied by different nerves for different set of fibers. For example, the tongue itself is a composite muscle made up of various components like longitudinal, transverse, horizontal muscles with different parts innervated having different nerve supply. Form [ edit]Insertion and origin [ edit]The seven general types of skeletal muscle The insertion and origin of a muscle are the two places where it is anchored, one at each end. The tissue of the attachment is called an enthesis. The origin of a muscle is the bone, typically proximal, which has greater mass and is more stable during a contraction than a muscle's insertion. [7] For example, with the latissimus dorsi muscle, the origin site is the torso, and the insertion is the arm. When this muscle contracts, normally the arm moves due to having less mass than the torso. This is the case when grabbing objects lighter than the body, as in the typical use of a lat pull down machine. This can be reversed however, such as in a chin up where the torso moves up to meet the arm. The insertion of a muscle is the structure that it attaches to and tends to be moved by the contraction of the muscle. [8] This may be a bone, a tendon or the subcutaneous dermal connective tissue. Insertions are usually connections of muscle via tendon to bone. [9] The insertion is a bone that tends to be distal, have less mass, and greater motion than the origin during a contraction. Muscle fibres [ edit]Different skeletal muscle types: A: fusiform. B: unipennate. C: bipennate. ( P. C. S., physiological cross-section)Muscles may also be described by the direction that the muscle fibres run in. Fusiform muscles have fibres that run parallel to the length of the muscle, and are spindle -shaped. [10] For example, the pronator teres muscle of the forearm. Unipennate muscles have fibres that run the entire length of only one side of a muscle, like a quill pen. For example, the fibularis muscles. Bipennate muscles consist of two rows of oblique muscle fibres, facing in opposite diagonal directions, converging on a central tendon. Bipennate muscle is stronger than both unipennate muscle and fusiform muscle, due to a larger physiological cross-sectional area. Bipennate muscle shortens less than unipennate muscle but develops greater tension when it does, translated into greater power but less range of motion. Pennate muscles generally also tire easily. Examples of bipennate muscles are the rectus femoris muscle of the thigh, and the stapedius muscle of the middle ear. State [ edit]Hypertrophy and atrophy [ edit]Main articles: Hypertrophy and Atrophy Example of an atrophied muscle Hypertrophy is increase in muscle size from an increase in size of individual muscle cells. This usually occurs as a result of exercise. See also [ edit]Reciprocal inhibition Anatomical terms of location Anatomical terms of motion Anatomical terms of bone Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy References [ edit]This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918)^ Skeletal Muscle^ Smooth Muscle^ Cardiac Muscle^ Taber 2001, pp. "Agonist".^ Baechle, Thomas (2008). Essentials of Strength Training and Conditioning. USA: National Strength and Conditioning Association. ISBN 978-0-7360-8465-9.^ Taber 2001, pp. "Antagonist".^ OED 1989, "origin".^ Taber 2001, "insertion".^ Martini, Frederic; William C. Ober; Claire W. Garrison; Kathleen Welch; Ralph T. Hutchings (2001). Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 5th Ed. Prentice Hall. ISBN 0130172928.^ Taber 2001, "Fusiform". Books Willert, editor Donald Venes, Coeditor Clayton L. Thomas, Managing Editor Elizabeth J. Egan, Assistant Editors Nancee A. Morelli and Alison D. Nell. /copy Editor Ann Houska Proofreaders Joy Matkowski and Christopher Muldor. Dictionary Illustrator Beth Anne (2001). Taber's cyclopedic medical dictionary (Ed. 19, illustrated in full color ed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Co. ISBN 0-8036-0655-9. J. A. Simpson, ed. (1989). The Oxford English dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 9780198611868. [ hide]v t e Muscular system Tissue Muscle tissue Cardiac muscle Skeletal muscle Smooth muscle Fascia Superficial Deep Visceral Fascial compartment Tendon / Aponeurosis Shape Fusiform Pennate muscle Unipennate Bipennate Other Anatomical terms of muscle Origin Insertion List of muscles of the human body Composite muscle Anatomy portal Categories: Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 20th edition of Gray's Anatomy (1918) Human anatomy Muscular system Lists of human anatomical features |
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