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stefanbschneider

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[ "BULLET::::- Gradual thinning of hair with age is a natural condition known as involutional alopecia. This is caused by an increasing number of hair follicles switching from the growth, or anagen, phase into a resting phase, or telogen phase, so that remaining hairs become shorter and fewer in number.\n", "The growth problem is even worse in the simple virilizing forms of CAH which are detected when premature pubic hair appears in childhood, because the bone age is often several years advanced at the age of diagnosis. While a boy (or girl) with simple virilizing CAH is taller than peers at that point, he will have far fewer years remaining to grow, and may go from being a very tall 7-year-old to a 62-inch 13-year-old who has completed growth. Even with adrenal suppression, many of these children will have already had central precocious puberty triggered by the prolonged exposure of the hypothalamus to the adrenal androgens and estrogens. If this has begun, it may be advantageous to suppress puberty with a gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist such as leuprolide to slow continuing bone maturation.\n", "Like much of the hair on the human body, leg, arm, chest, and back hair begin as vellus hair. As people age, the hair in these regions will often begin to grow darker and more abundantly. This will typically happen during or after puberty. Men will often have more abundant, coarser hair on the arms and back, while women tend to have a less drastic change in the hair growth in these areas but do experience a significant change in thickness of hairs. However, some women will grow darker, longer hair in one or more of these regions.\n", "Children born with some hair colors may find it gradually darkens as they grow. Many blond, light brown, or red haired infants experience this. This is caused by genes being turned on and off during early childhood and puberty.\n", "Although graying of hair increases with age, hair graying cannot be called a biomarker of ageing. Similarly, skin wrinkles and other common changes seen with aging are not better indicators of future functionality than chronological age. Biogerontologists have continued efforts to find and validate biomarkers of aging, but success thus far has been limited. Levels of CD4 and CD8 memory T cells and naive T cells have been used to give good predictions of the expected lifespan of middle-aged mice.\n", "Premature greying of hair, also known as canities, can have negative effects on appearance, confidence, self-esteem, and social acceptance of the affected individual. Hair is said to have greyed prematurely if it occurs before the age of 20 years in Whites, before 25 years in Asians, and before 30 years in Africans.\n", "BULLET::::- Hair usually becomes grayer and also might become thinner. As a rule of thumb, around age 50, about 50% of Europeans have 50% grey hair. Many men are affected by balding, and women enter menopause.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- As with the \"Star Trek\" incident, major films or television productions frequently give out scripts to the cast and crew in which one or two lines are different in each individual version. Thus if the entire script is copied and leaked to the public, the producers can track down the specific person who leaked the script. In practice this does not prevent generalized information about the script from being leaked, but it does discourage leaking verbatim copies of the script itself.\n", "The series' existence has not been confirmed. The possibility remains that most episodes were lost because of the wiping of videotapes. This remained a common practice as late as 1976, long after the invention of the videocassette, especially in syndication companies as opposed to networks; the fact that syndication practice at the time required tapes to be physically distributed to stations would suggest that episodes may have survived, but that they are not centralized in any archive.\n", "As part of the series 8 leaks, both the script and a rough cut of the episode were leaked online from a server in Miami. Despite the fact that the initial online copy of the episode contained a glitch that prevented downloading, a workable version found its way online by the second week of August 2014.\n", "The music that featured many popular bands was predominantly removed or replaced with stock music on the DVD releases, in order to avoid paying royalties to the artists involved (unlike the actual run of a series, where studios would only have to pay royalties to the artist for that single episode, and maybe for syndication). Episodes were also often edited to remove content by cutting out lines that were deemed to be inappropriate.\n", "Each news server generally allocates a certain amount of storage space for post content in each newsgroup. When this storage has been filled, each time a new post arrives, old posts are deleted to make room for the new content. If the network bandwidth available to a server is high but the storage allocation is small, it is possible for a huge flood of incoming content to overflow the allocation and push out everything that was in the group before it. If the flood is large enough, the beginning of the flood will begin to be deleted even before the last part of the flood has been posted.\n", "In the sleeve notes of the Series One audiobook, written in 2006, series writer Graham Duff asks for assistance in finding episodes \"currently missing from the BBC archive\". The article is a parody of when television and radio stations such as the BBC used to \"wipe\" episodes of TV and radio programmes, and record over them, especially the loss of many early \"Doctor Who\" and \"Dad's Army\" episodes. In the notes, Duff claims that as a result of wiping, \"many classic \"Nebulous\" episodes were destroyed, along with editions of iconic Radio 4 shows such as \"Gardeners' Question Time\" and \"Money Box Live\".\"\n", "Most of the shows have since been erased by the BBC, after Shaw asked for them to put the film on videotape. Only two episodes (episodes 2 & 3) have survived, after being returned to the BBC from overseas in the early 1990s. Episode 2 was shown on BBC2 shortly after being recovered. The audio tracks to some episodes have survived and pirate versions can sometimes be found on the internet but are generally hard to find.\n" ]

[ "A single water molecule can participate in a maximum of four hydrogen bonds because it can accept two bonds using the lone pairs on oxygen and donate two hydrogen atoms. Other molecules like hydrogen fluoride, ammonia and methanol can also form hydrogen bonds. However, they do not show anomalous thermodynamic, kinetic or structural properties like those observed in water because none of them can form four hydrogen bonds: either they cannot donate or accept hydrogen atoms, or there are steric effects in bulky residues. In water, intermolecular tetrahedral structures form due to the four hydrogen bonds, thereby forming an open structure and a three-dimensional bonding network, resulting in the anomalous decrease in density when cooled below 4 °C. This repeated, constantly reorganizing unit defines a three-dimensional network extending throughout the liquid. This view is based upon neutron scattering studies and computer simulations, and it makes sense in the light of the unambiguously tetrahedral arrangement of water molecules in ice structures.\n", "It just so happens that hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are both diatomic molecules, thus we have H and O. To form water, one of the O atoms breaks off from the O molecule and react with the H compound to form HO. But, there is one oxygen atom left. It reacts with another H molecule. Since it took two of each atom to balance the compound, we put the coefficient 2 in front of HO:\n", "The rules state each oxygen is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms, and that the oxygen atom in each water molecule forms two hydrogen bonds with other oxygens, so that there is precisely one hydrogen between each pair of oxygen atoms.\n", "The formation of one water molecule requires the presence of two adjacent hydroxyl groups, or a cascade of successive reactions of one oxygen atom with two protons. This could constitute a limiting factor and decreases the probability of water production, if the proton density per surface unit is too low.\n", "There are multiple ways for many transformations to occur. For example, hydrogen and oxygen can be combined to form water through a free-radical mechanism commonly referred to as combustion. Useful energy can be obtained from the thermal heat of this reaction through an internal combustion engine with an upper efficiency of 60% (for compression ratio of 10 and specific heat ratio of 1.4) based on the Otto thermodynamic cycle. It is also possible to combine the hydrogen and oxygen through redox mechanism as in the case of a fuel cell. In this process, the reaction is broken into two half-reactions which occur at separate electrodes. In this situation the reactant's energy is directly converted to electricity.\n", "Liquid water can be split into the elements hydrogen and oxygen by passing an electric current through it—a process called electrolysis. The decomposition requires more energy input than the heat released by the inverse process (285.8 kJ/mol, or 15.9 MJ/kg).\n", "A ubiquitous example of a hydrogen bond is found between water molecules. In a discrete water molecule, there are two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two molecules of water can form a hydrogen bond between them that is to say oxygen-hydrogen bonding; the simplest case, when only two molecules are present, is called the water dimer and is often used as a model system. When more molecules are present, as is the case with liquid water, more bonds are possible because the oxygen of one water molecule has two lone pairs of electrons, each of which can form a hydrogen bond with a hydrogen on another water molecule. This can repeat such that every water molecule is H-bonded with up to four other molecules, as shown in the figure (two through its two lone pairs, and two through its two hydrogen atoms). Hydrogen bonding strongly affects the crystal structure of ice, helping to create an open hexagonal lattice. The density of ice is less than the density of water at the same temperature; thus, the solid phase of water floats on the liquid, unlike most other substances.\n" ]

[ "Hirschman showed, cf. Hirschman uncertainty, that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a particular lower bound on the sum of the classical distribution entropies of the \"quantum observable\" probability distributions of a quantum mechanical state, the square of the wave-function, in coordinate, and also momentum space, when expressed in Planck units. The resulting inequalities provide a tighter bound on the uncertainty relations of Heisenberg.\n", "In quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle (also known as Heisenberg's uncertainty principle) is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle, known as complementary variables or canonically conjugate variables such as position \"x\" and momentum \"p\", can be known or, depending on interpretation, to what extent such conjugate properties maintain their approximate meaning, as the mathematical framework of quantum physics does not support the notion of simultaneously well-defined conjugate properties expressed by a single value.\n", "In March 1927, working in Niels Bohr's institute, Werner Heisenberg formulated the principle of uncertainty thereby laying the foundation of what became known as the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics. Heisenberg had been studying the papers of Paul Dirac and Pascual Jordan. He discovered a problem with measurement of basic variables in the equations. His analysis showed that uncertainties, or imprecisions, always turned up if one tried to measure the position and the momentum of a particle at the same time. Heisenberg concluded that these uncertainties or imprecisions in the measurements were not the fault of the experimenter, but fundamental in nature and are inherent mathematical properties of operators in quantum mechanics arising from definitions of these operators.\n", "In quantum mechanics, information theory, and Fourier analysis, the entropic uncertainty or Hirschman uncertainty is defined as the sum of the temporal and spectral Shannon entropies. It turns out that Heisenberg's uncertainty principle can be expressed as a lower bound on the sum of these entropies. This is \"stronger\" than the usual statement of the uncertainty principle in terms of the product of standard deviations.\n", "The term Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics was often used interchangeably with and as a synonym for Heisenberg's uncertainty principle by detractors (such as Einstein and the physicist Alfred Landé) who believed in determinism and saw the common features of the Bohr–Heisenberg theories as a threat. Within the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics the uncertainty principle was taken to mean that on an elementary level, the physical universe does not exist in a deterministic form, but rather as a collection of probabilities, or possible outcomes. For example, the pattern (probability distribution) produced by millions of photons passing through a diffraction slit can be calculated using quantum mechanics, but the exact path of each photon cannot be predicted by any known method. The Copenhagen interpretation holds that it cannot be predicted by any method, not even with theoretically infinitely precise measurements.\n", "In the book, after briefly discussing various theories, including quantum theory, Heisenberg discusses the basis for the fundamental concepts of quantum theory. Also by this time Heisenberg has stated, \"the interaction between observer and object causes uncontrollable and large changes in the [atomic] system being observed...\". In this work Heisenberg also discusses his uncertainty principle or uncertainty relations.\n", "Historically, the uncertainty principle has been confused with a related effect in physics, called the observer effect, which notes that measurements of certain systems cannot be made without affecting the systems, that is, without changing something in a system. Heisenberg utilized such an observer effect at the quantum level (see below) as a physical \"explanation\" of quantum uncertainty. It has since become clearer, however, that the uncertainty principle is inherent in the properties of all wave-like systems, and that it arises in quantum mechanics simply due to the matter wave nature of all quantum objects. Thus, \"the uncertainty principle actually states a fundamental property of quantum systems and is not a statement about the observational success of current technology\". It must be emphasized that \"measurement\" does not mean only a process in which a physicist-observer takes part, but rather any interaction between classical and quantum objects regardless of any observer.\n" ]

[ "Collective bargaining is a process of negotiation between employers and a group of employees aimed at agreements to regulate working salaries, working conditions, benefits, and other aspects of workers' compensation and rights for workers. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong. The collective agreements reached by these negotiations usually set out wage scales, working hours, training, health and safety, overtime, grievance mechanisms, and rights to participate in workplace or company affairs.\n", "Collective bargaining is a process of negotiations between employers and a group of employees aimed at reaching agreements that regulate working conditions. The interests of the employees are commonly presented by representatives of a trade union to which the employees belong.\n", "Collective bargaining regulates the terms under which employers hire employees and the future treatment of future employees. Collective bargaining is a mechanism which allows employees, employers and representation parties to express their objectives with respect to work.\n", "Broadly, then, the collective-bargaining process may be defined as a process whereby employers (or employers’ organisations) bargain with employee representatives (trade unions) about terms and conditions of employment, and about other matters of mutual interest.\n", "A collective bargaining agreement (i.e. a contract) is a set of bylaws that establishes a partnership agreement between two groups of people, where one group is management and the other group is employees. The collective bargaining agreement also provides the same protection for managers, except managers are not entitled to union representation during labor disputes.\n", "Collective bargaining is performed by bargaining agents, namely trade unions and employers’ organisations. The LRA sets requirements for unions and organisations relating to registration. A trade union is defined as an association of employees whose principal purpose is to regulate the relations between employers or employers’ organisations and employees. Only employees may be members of a trade union. Job seekers and ex-employees may not be members of a trade union.\n", "A collective agreement, collective labour agreement (CLA) or collective bargaining agreement (CBA) is a written contract negotiated through collective bargaining for employees by one or more trade unions with the management of a company (or with an employers' association) that regulates the terms and conditions of employees at work. This includes regulating the wages, benefits, and duties of the employees and the duties and responsibilities of the employer or employers and often includes rules for a dispute resolution process.\n" ]

[ "When drying corn kernels it is important to keep in mind that cracks and fractures in the corn can lead to many problems in both the storage and processing. The major problem that occurs from high temperature drying and then rapid cooling of the grain is stress-cracking. Stress-cracking is when fractures become present in the corn endosperm. Stress-cracked kernels often absorb water too quickly, are more likely to become broken, and are increasingly susceptible to insect and mold damage during dry storage. In order to reduce the amount of grain that is lost due to stress-cracking, medium temperature and slow cooling, or natural air and low temperature drying methods should be employed.\n", "Because corn is a self-fertilizing plant, the prevention of inbreeding when producing hybrid seeds required time-consuming detasseling. In the 1940s and 50's, Jones collaborated with Paul Mangelsdorf of Harvard University to eliminate the need to remove the tassels from plants in seed production through utilizing a sterile plant and male restorer gene, making the production of corn more cost-efficient.\n", "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a barley seed, that is like a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. Hard corns are especially problematic for people with insensitive skin due to damaged nerves (e.g., in people with diabetes mellitus). The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n", "The hard part at the center of the corn resembles a funnel with a broad raised top and a pointed bottom. Because of their shape, corns intensify the pressure at the tip and can cause deep tissue damage and ulceration. The scientific name for a corn is \"heloma\" (plural \"helomata\"). A hard corn is called a \"heloma durum\", while a soft corn is called a \"heloma molle\".\n", "Previously, consuming untreated corn was thought to cause pellagra (niacin deficiency)—either from the corn itself or some infectious element in untreated corn. However, further advancements showed that it is a correlational, not causal, relationship. In the 1700s and 1800s, areas that depended highly on corn as a diet staple were more likely to have pellagra. This is because humans cannot absorb niacin in untreated corn. The nixtamalization process frees niacin into a state where the intestines can absorb it. This was discovered primarily by exploring why Mexican people who depended on maize did not develop pellagra. One reason was that Mayans treated corn in an alkaline solution to soften it, in the process now called nixtamalization. The earliest known use of nixtamalization was in what is present-day southern Mexico and Guatemala around 1500–1200 BC.\n", "Corn Products suffered large losses in the early 1930s, when prices of its main raw material grain corn rose dramatically during droughts in the Midwest's Dust Bowl. As a result, it later engaged futures contracts to protect itself from such prices rises in the future.\n", "BULLET::::- Most of the corn produced in the US is field corn, not sweet corn, and not digestible by humans in its raw form. Most corn is used for livestock feed and not human food, even the portion that is exported.\n" ]

[ "Air at any temperature above absolute zero contains some energy. An air-source heat pump transfers ('pumps') some of this energy as heat from one place to another, for example between the outside and inside of a building. This can provide space heating and/or hot water. A single system can be designed to transfer heat in either direction, to heat or cool the interior of the building in winter and summer respectively. For simplicity, the description below focuses on use for interior heating.\n", "The building replaces 100% outside air; no air is recirculated through the system. Two underground tubes exchange outside and inside air eight feet beneath the ground, passively warming or cooling the air to match the temperature of the ground (~55°F year round). The house transfers heat between the outgoing air and the incoming air before it reaches the rooms, resulting in a difference of less than 10°F between the incoming fresh air and the desired room temperature, even in the midst of Minnesotan winter.\n", "When there is a high temperature differential (e.g., when an air-source heat pump is used to heat a house with an outside temperature of, say, 0 °C (32 °F)), it takes more work to move the same amount of heat to indoors than on a milder day. Ultimately, due to Carnot efficiency limits, the heat pump's performance will decrease as the outdoor-to-indoor temperature difference increases (outside temperature gets colder), reaching a theoretical limit of 1.0 at −273 °C. In practice, a COP of 1.0 will typically be reached at an outdoor temperature around −18 °C (0 °F) for air source heat pumps.\n", "The heat drawn from ground-sourced systems is in most cases stored solar heat, and it should not be confused with direct geothermal heating, though the latter will contribute in some small measure to all heat in the ground. True geothermal heat, when used for heating, requires a circulation pump but no heat pump, since for this technology the ground temperature is higher than that of the space that is to be heated, so the technology relies only upon simple heat convection.\n", "Heat exchangers – The heat exchangers take the heat from outgoing air and preheat the cold fresh incoming air, which is then sent around the building. It is calculated that the heat exchangers will maintain an average temperature of 11 degrees Celsius, which means that only a small use of the heating system is needed to top up the building's requirements.\n", "Heating degree days are typical indicators of household energy consumption for space heating. The air temperature in a building is on average higher than that of the air outside. A temperature of indoors corresponds to an outside temperature of about . If the air temperature outside is below 15.5 °C, then heating is required to maintain a temperature of about 18 °C. If the outside temperature is below the average temperature it is accounted as 1 degree-day. The sum of the degree days over periods such as a month or an entire heating season is used in calculating the amount of heating required for a building. Degree Days are also used to estimate air conditioning usage during the warm season.\n", "The earth absorbs the sun's energy and stores it as heat in the oceans and underground. The ground temperature remains constant at a point of all year round depending on where you live on earth. A geothermal heating system takes advantage of the consistent temperature found below the Earth's surface and uses it to heat and cool buildings. The system is made up of a series of pipes installed underground, connected to pipes in a building. A pump circulates liquid through the circuit. In the winter the fluid in the pipe absorbs the heat of the earth and uses it to heat the building. In the summer the fluid absorbs heat from the building and disposes of it in the earth.\n" ]

[ "The laser cutter is a machine that uses a laser to cut materials such as chip board, matte board, felt, wood, and acrylic up to 3/8 inch (1 cm) thickness. The laser cutter is often bundled with a driver software which interprets vector drawings produced by any number of CAD software platforms.\n", "The Laser Cutter is a small tracked vehicle with a powerful front-mounted laser that can gain precise and rapid entry to secure buildings such as vaults and bunkers. The laser gun has a number of settings from single beams to pulsed energy bursts as well as an onboard timer and a high powered fan to blow away cuttings. The vehicle is seen in action in the episode \"30 Minutes After Noon\" (carried in Pod 5) but can be seen in the Pod in \"Sun Probe\". Numerous models of the vehicle exist including Konami and Bandai models. \n", "CNC laser involves moving a lens assembly carrying a beam of laser light over the surface of the metal. Oxygen, nitrogen or air is fed through the same nozzle from which the laser beam exits. The metal is heated and burnt by the laser beam, cutting the metal sheet. The quality of the edge can be mirror smooth and a precision of around can be obtained. Cutting speeds on thin sheet can be as high as per minute. Most laser cutting systems use a CO2 based laser source with a wavelength of around 10 µm; some more recent systems use a YAG based laser with a wavelength of around 1 µm.\n", "Laser cutting for metals has the advantages over plasma cutting of being more precise and using less energy when cutting sheet metal; however, most industrial lasers cannot cut through the greater metal thickness that plasma can. Newer laser machines operating at higher power (6000 watts, as contrasted with early laser cutting machines' 1500 watt ratings) are approaching plasma machines in their ability to cut through thick materials, but the capital cost of such machines is much higher than that of plasma cutting machines capable of cutting thick materials like steel plate.\n", "A chemical laser is a laser that obtains its energy from a chemical reaction. Chemical lasers can reach continuous wave output with power reaching to megawatt levels. They are used in industry for cutting and drilling.\n", "A \"laser microjet\" is a water-jet guided laser in which a pulsed laser beam is coupled into a low-pressure water jet. This is used to perform laser cutting functions while using the water jet to guide the laser beam, much like an optical fiber, through total internal reflection. The advantages of this are that the water also removes debris and cools the material. Additional advantages over traditional \"dry\" laser cutting are high dicing speeds, parallel kerf, and omnidirectional cutting.\n", "Laser welding is advantageous in that it can weld at speeds of up to 100 mm/s as well as the ability to weld dissimilar metals. Laser cladding is used to coat cheap or weak parts with a harder material in order to improve the surface quality. Drilling and cutting with lasers is advantageous in that there is little to no wear on the cutting tool as there is no contact to cause damage.\n" ]

[ "A microphone is used to capture the input of sound waves created by people speaking into the device. The sounds are then turned into electrical energy; this energy then flows along a metal antenna. As the electrons in the electric current move back and forth up the antenna, the current creates an invisible electromagnetic radiation in the form of radio waves. The waves travel at the speed of light, taking the radio program (voices recorded) with them.\n", "In some conferences, sound engineers have to provide microphones for a large number of people who are speaking, in the case of a panel conference or debate. In some cases, automatic mixers are used to control the levels of the microphones, and turn off the channels for microphones which are not being spoken into, to reduce unwanted background noise and reduce the likelihood of feedback.\n", "In case the array consists of omnidirectional microphones they accept sound from all directions, so electrical signals of the microphones contain the information about the sounds coming from all directions. Joint processing of these sounds allows selecting the sound signal coming from the given direction. \n", "Various standard techniques are used with microphones used in sound reinforcement at live performances, or for recording in a studio or on a motion picture set. By suitable arrangement of one or more microphones, desirable features of the sound to be collected can be kept, while rejecting unwanted sounds.\n", "In most of these cases, direct sound from the loudspeaker (not the person at the far end, otherwise referred to as the Talker) enters the microphone almost unaltered. The difficulties in cancelling echo stem from the alteration of the original sound by the ambient space. These changes can include certain frequencies being absorbed by soft furnishings, and reflection of different frequencies at varying strength.\n", "Microphones can be thought of as speakers in reverse. The sound waves strike the thin diaphragm, causing it to vibrate. Microphone diaphragms, unlike speaker diaphragms, tend to be thin and flexible, since they need to absorb as much sound as possible. In a condenser microphone, the diaphragm is placed in front of a plate and is charged. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm is glued to a magnetic coil, similar to the one in a dynamic loudspeaker. (In fact, a dynamic speaker can be used as a rudimentary microphone, and vice versa.)\n", "Some microphones are designed \"not\" to have their impedance matched by the load they are connected to. Doing so can alter their frequency response and cause distortion, especially at high sound pressure levels. Certain ribbon and dynamic microphones are exceptions, due to the designers' assumption of a certain load impedance being part of the internal electro-acoustical damping circuit of the microphone.\n" ]

[ "Note: this does not include the 12 bytes of flags indicating whether the next chunk of text is a pointer or a literal. Adding it, the text becomes 106 bytes long, which is still shorter than the original 177 bytes.\n", "Messages can be of any type, and the data contained within is not restricted. Message bodies were initially limited to 8KB in size but was later raised to 64KB on 2010-07-01 and then 256KB on 2013-06-18. For larger messages, the user has a few options to get around this limitation. A large message can be split into multiple segments that are sent separately, or the message data can be stored using Amazon Simple Storage Service (Amazon S3) or Amazon DynamoDB with just a pointer to the data transmitted in the SQS message. Amazon has made an Extended Client Library available for this purpose An extension to the Amazon SQS client that enables sending and receiving messages up to 2GB via Amazon S3. : awslabs/amazon-sqs-java-extended-client-lib.\n", "Arbitrary Messages enable the sending of encrypted or plain text, which can also function to send and store up to 1000 bytes of data permanently, or 42 kilobytes of data for a limited amount of time. As a result, it can be used to build file-sharing services, decentralized applications, and higher-level Nxt services.\n", "A message of seven bytes or less is sent in a single frame, with the initial byte containing the type (0) and payload length (1-7 bytes). With the 0 in the type field, this can also pass as a simpler protocol with a length-data format and is often misinterpreted as such.\n", "A single SMS message has a maximum size of 1120 bits. This is important because there are two types of character encodings, GSM and Unicode. Latin-based languages like English are GSM based encoding, which are 7 bits per character. This is where text messages typically get their 160 character per SMS limit. Long messages that exceed this limit are concatenated. They are split into smaller messages, which are recombined by the receiving phone.\n", "A tremendous number of possible messages, N, can be generated using even this limited set of characters: N = 26, where L is the length of the message. However, only a smaller set of them is readable plaintext due to the rules of the language, perhaps M of them, where M is likely to be very much smaller than N. Moreover, M has a one-to-one relationship with the number of keys that work, so given K possible keys, only K × (M/N) of them will \"work\". One of these is the correct key, the rest are spurious.\n", "Any bytes after the headers in the packet are considered the message body. The length of the message body is implied by the datagram length. When bound to UDP, the entire message MUST fit within a single datagram. When used with 6LoWPAN as defined in RFC 4944, messages SHOULD fit into a single IEEE 802.15.4 frame to minimize fragmentation.\n" ]

[ "Notable diseases not originally known as present in Americas before 1492 include those such as smallpox, malaria, bubonic plague, typhus, influenza, measles, diphtheria, yellow fever, and whooping cough. During the Atlantic slave trade following the discovery of the New World, diseases such as these possessed the capability of obliterating populations such as the Natives by the masses as short amount of time as a few weeks or months.\n", "Encounters between explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced new diseases, which sometimes caused local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. For example, smallpox, measles, malaria, yellow fever, and others were unknown in pre-Columbian America.\n", "In Europe during the age of exploration, diseases such as smallpox, measles and tuberculosis (TB) had already been introduced centuries before through trade with Asia and Africa. People had developed some antibodies to these and other diseases from the Eurasian continent. When the Europeans traveled to new lands, they carried these diseases with them. (Note: Scholars believe TB was already endemic in the Americas.) When such diseases were introduced for the first time to new populations of humans, the effects on the native populations were widespread and deadly. The Columbian Exchange, referring to Christopher Columbus's first contact with the native peoples of the Caribbean, began the trade of animals, and plants, and unwittingly began an exchange of diseases.\n", "Also, with modern advances in medicine, society had begun to believe that epidemics and incurable illnesses were a thing of the past. The advent of AIDS proved these conclusions to be wrong. The \"plague\" notion was revived, but when it had been previously used to conceptualize punishment of a society, it was adapted to be a punishment visited on an individual or small group.\n", "In pre-columbian exchange times, a variety of diseases existed in the Americas. The limited populations and interactions between those populations (as compared to places like Europe), hampered the development of widespread, deadly diseases in the Americas. One notable disease of American origin is syphillis. The American era of limited disease would end with the arrival of Europeans in the Americas. European diseases and epidemics, while still present among Native American populations today, were especially influential in Native American life of the past. Diseases and epidemics can be chronicled from centuries ago when European settlers brought forth diseases that devastated entire tribes. Transitioning into more modern times, similar diseases still plague Native American populations. The current crises in diseases and epidemics are being addressed by many different groups, both governmental and independent, and are done through a multitude of programs.\n", "The natives of the Americas were faced with several new diseases at once creating a situation where some who successfully resisted one disease might die from another. Multiple simultaneous infections (e.g., smallpox and typhus at the same time) or in close succession (e.g., smallpox in an individual who was still weak from a recent bout of typhus) are more deadly than just the sum of the individual diseases. In this scenario, death rates can also be elevated by combinations of new and familiar diseases: smallpox in combination with American strains of yaws, for example.\n", "Health, or lack of health, was once merely attributed to biological or natural conditions. Sociologists have demonstrated that the spread of diseases is heavily influenced by the socioeconomic status of individuals, ethnic traditions or beliefs, and other cultural factors. Where medical research might gather statistics on a disease, a sociological perspective on an illness would provide insight on what external factors caused the demographics who contracted the disease to become ill.\n" ]

[ "When used within a moving vehicle, the device measures the relative speed of the police and target vehicle. Police are required to follow the offending vehicle for 200 metres and have a certified speedometer, largely negating advantages of the device.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed recognition device: Some police cars are fitted with devices to measure the speed of vehicles being followed, such as ProViDa, usually through a system of following the vehicle between two points a set distance apart. This is separate to any radar gun device which is likely to be handheld, and not attached to the vehicle.\n", "Officers in some jurisdictions may also use pacing, particularly where a more convenient radar speed measuring device is not available—a police vehicle's speed is matched to that of a target vehicle, and the calibrated speedometer of the patrol car used to infer the other vehicle's speed.\n", "By monitoring how long it takes a vehicle to pass two ANPR cameras and then dividing the time by the distance between the cameras, an average speed can be measured and used to inform motorists via VMS how long it will take them to reach a destination, or to set diversions.\n", "One device law enforcement use to measure the expected speed of a moving vehicle is doppler radar, which uses the doppler effect to measure the relative speed of a vehicle. Doppler radar works by beaming a radio wave at a vehicle to then measure the expected change in frequency of the reflected wave (that bounces off the vehicle). Law enforcement often employs doppler radar via hand-held radar guns, from vehicles, or from fixed objects such as traffic signals.\n", "BULLET::::- Speed cameras that identify vehicles traveling over the legal speed limit. Many such devices use radar to detect a vehicle's speed or electromagnetic loops buried in each lane of the road.\n", "Going back to our auto. The rate we sample the street signs for information is going to be different from when we look at the speedometer. We may also change our sampling rate when certain outside influences introduce themselves into the feedback mix. If we have a police car behind us, odds are that we will be sampling the speedometer much more often than if a police car was not there.\n" ]

[ "For more than a thousand years, until the late 19th century, salt was extracted from brine at the saltworks by boiling. The brine was brought up from a deposit under the town. The breaking of the salt monopoly in the wake of annexation by Prussia in 1866 led to a fall in price, which in turn led to the industry’s end. The last salt was produced in 1906.\n", "Vending of common salt (sodium chloride) was historically a natural monopoly. Until recently, a combination of strong sunshine and low humidity or an extension of peat marshes was necessary for producing salt from the sea, the most plentiful source. Changing sea levels periodically caused salt \"famines\" and communities were forced to depend upon those who controlled the scarce inland mines and salt springs, which were often in hostile areas (e.g. the Sahara desert) requiring well-organised security for transport, storage, and distribution.\n", "Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 6,000 BC, when people living in the area of present-day Romania boiled spring water to extract salts; a salt-works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara on camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt have led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural and traditional significance.\n", "In the 18th century salt was an essential and valuable commodity. At the time, salt was widely used for the preservation of foods such as meat or fish. The ubiquity of salt use caused the French government to impose the gabelle, a tax on salt consumption. The government mandated that all people over the age of 8 years buy an amount of salt per year at a price that the government had set. The \"Ferme Générale\" was responsible for collecting the \"gabelle\".\n", "In the early 19th century salt was being produced in southern Illinois along the Ohio River, making salt production in La Saline decline. In 1822, some seventeen workers were still using 100-150 kettles to extract salt, but by 1825, all production had ceased. As a village without any economic base and with efforts to make it a district post having failed, La Saline depopulated.\n", "Before the advent of the modern internal combustion engine and earth-moving equipment, mining salt was one of the most expensive and dangerous of operations, due to rapid dehydration caused by constant contact with the salt (both in the mine passages and scattered in the air as salt dust), among other problems borne of accidental excessive sodium intake. While salt is now plentiful, until the Industrial Revolution it was difficult to come by, and salt mining was often done by slave or prison labor and life expectancy among those sentenced was low.\n", "Since World War I the salt production (due in part to the development of chillers as a more modern method for the conservation of food) started decreasing so the company's revenues were not as expected. Many inhabitants of Puerto Pirámides left the village because of the depression.\n" ]

[ "For this year only, the Super Bowl decided not to use a Roman numeral (\"L\") and instead used the standard numerals \"50.\" According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n", "This game set the record for most Roman numerals in a Super Bowl title (seven). This will not be matched until Super Bowl LXXVIII after the 2043 NFL season and Super Bowl LXXXVII after the 2052 season, and not surpassed until Super Bowl LXXXVIII after the 2053 season.\n", "The most obvious similarity between the Roman numerals and those older number systems is the use of 10 as the base, instead of 60 (as had been in use in Mesopotamia for a millennium) or 20. That choice, however, seems to have been made through most of Eurasia, including in India and China.\n", "A decimal system with 2 and 5 as a sub-bases is called biquinary, and is found in Wolof and Khmer. Roman numerals are a biquinary system. The numbers 1, 5, 10, and 50 are written as I, V, X, and L respectively. Eight is VIII and seventy is LXX.\n", "Super Bowl 50 decided the 2015 NFL Champion and was played at Levi's Stadium in Santa Clara, California on Sunday, February 7, 2016. Instead of naming it Super Bowl L with Roman numerals like in previous Super Bowls, this game was marketed with the Arabic numeral \"50\". According to Jaime Weston, the league's vice president of brand and creative, the primary reason was that the league's graphic designers had difficulty designing a suitable, aesthetically pleasing logo with only the Roman numeral \"L\".\n", "The Roman numerals, in particular, are directly derived from the Etruscan number symbols: \"𐌠\", \"𐌡\", \"𐌢\", \"𐌣\", and \"𐌟\" for 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 (They had more symbols for larger numbers, but it is unknown which symbol represents which number). As in the basic Roman system, the Etruscans wrote the symbols that added to the desired number, from higher to lower value. Thus the number 87, for example, would be written 50 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 5 + 1 + 1 = 𐌣𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌡𐌠𐌠 (this would appear as 𐌠𐌠𐌡𐌢𐌢𐌢𐌣 since Etruscan was written from right to left.)\n", "One of the drawbacks of the Roman numeral system is that it is not always immediately obvious which of two numbers is the smaller. On the other hand, with the positional notation of the Hindu–Arabic numeral system, comparing numbers is easy, because the natural order on nonnegative integers is the same as the variant shortlex of the lexicographic order. In fact, with positional notation, a nonnegative integer is represented by a sequence of numerical digits, and an integer is larger than another one if either it has more digits (ignoring leading zeroes) or the number of digits is the same and the first digit which differs is larger.\n" ]

[ "Later in the Middle Ages, massed archery techniques were developed. English and Welsh longbowmen in particular were famed for the volume and accuracy of their shooting, to which cavalry and poorly armoured infantry were particularly vulnerable.\n", "Longbows were very difficult to master because the force required to deliver an arrow through the improving armour of medieval Europe was very high by modern standards. Although the draw weight of a typical English longbow is disputed, it was at least and possibly more than . Considerable practice was required to produce the swift and effective combat shooting required. Skeletons of longbow archers are recognisably affected, with enlarged left arms and often osteophytes on left wrists, left shoulders and right fingers.\n", "Archery was described by contemporaries as ineffective against plate armour in the Battle of Neville's Cross (1346), the siege of Bergerac (1345), and the Battle of Poitiers (1356); such armour became available to European knights and men at arms of fairly modest means by the middle of the 14th century, though never to all soldiers in any army. Longbowmen were, however, effective at Poitiers, and this success stimulated changes in armour manufacture partly intended to make armoured men less vulnerable to archery. Nevertheless, at the battle of Agincourt in 1415 and for some decades thereafter, English longbowmen continued to be an effective battlefield force.\n", "There were also horse archers, who had the ability to shoot on horseback – the Parthians, Scythians, Mongols, and other various steppe people were especially fearsome with this tactic. By the 3rd–4th century AD, heavily armored cavalry became widely adopted by the Parthians, Sasanians, Byzantines, Eastern Han dynasty and Three Kingdoms, etc.\n", "If the people practised archery, it would be that much easier for the king to recruit the proficient longbowmen he needed for his wars. Along with the improving ability of gunfire to penetrate plate armour, it was the long training needed by longbowmen that eventually led to their being replaced by musketeers.\n", "Longbows as used by English Archers in the Middle Ages at such battles as Crecy and Agincourt were straight limb bows. Usually made of yew, these bows were used to great effect by many archers shooting together in massed volleys. The arrows were long and heavy ('clothyard shafts') with armour piercing 'bodkin' heads. Practice for such long range warfare survives today in a clout shoot, named after a type of shirt.\n", "This feature was common in skeletons recovered from the Mary Rose shipwreck: it is thought that in those men, much archery practice from childhood on with the mediaeval war bow (which needs a pull three times as strong as the modern standard Olympic bow) pulled at the acromion so much that it prevented bony fusion of the acromion with the scapula.\n" ]

[ "In anthropology, privilege is a special right, advantage, or immunity granted or available only to a particular person or group. In sociology, privilege is the perceived rights or advantages that are assumed to be available only to a particular person or group of people. The term is commonly used in the context of social inequality, particularly in regard to age, disability, ethnic or racial category, gender, gender identity, sexual orientation, religion, and social class. Two common examples involve having access to a higher education and housing. Under a newer usage of the term, privilege can also be emotional or psychological, regarding comfort and personal self-confidence, or having a sense of belonging or worth in society. It began as an academic concept, but has since been invoked more widely, outside of academia.\n", "\"\"Privilege\" in this context denotes the legal exemption from some duty, burden, attendance or liability to which others are subject. It has long been accepted that in order to perform their functions, legislative bodies require certain privileges relating to the conduct of their business. It has also long been accepted that these privileges must be held absolutely and constitutionally if they are to be effective; the legislative branch of our government must enjoy a certain autonomy which even the Crown and the courts cannot touch.\n", "A privilege is a certain entitlement to immunity granted by the state or another authority to a restricted group, either by birth or on a conditional basis. Land-titles and taxi medallions are pronounced examples of transferable privilege. These can be revoked in certain circumstances. In modern democratic states, a \"privilege\" is conditional and granted only after birth. By contrast, a \"right\" is an inherent, irrevocable entitlement held by all citizens or all human beings from the moment of birth. Various examples of old common law privilege still exist, to title deeds, for example. Etymologically, a privilege (\"privilegium\") means a \"private law\", or rule relating to a specific individual or institution.\n", "Privilege is any circumstance that justifies or excuses a prima facie tort. It can be said that privilege recognizes a defendant's action stemmed from an interest of social importance – and that society wants to protect such interests by not punishing those who pursue them. Privilege can be argued whenever a defendant can show that he acted from a justifiable motive. While some privileges have long been recognized, the court may create a new privilege for particular circumstances – privilege as an affirmative defense is a potentially ever-evolving doctrine. Such newly created or circumstantially recognized privileges are referred to as residual justification privileges.\n", "Privilege—note the Latin etymology of the word—refers to a personal right to refuse to give or disclose otherwise admissible evidence. A witness, otherwise compellable, is not obliged to answer certain questions. See \"Ferreira v Levin\".\n", "Privilege is the modern term applied to those considerations which avoid liability where it might otherwise follow. As it is generally used, the term applies to any circumstance used to justify or excuse a prima facie tort, such as an assault, battery or trespass. It signifies that the defendant has acted to further an interest of such social importance that it is entitled to protection, even at the expense of damage to the plaintiff. The defendant is allowed freedom of action because his own interests, or those of the public, require it, and because social policy will best be served by permitting it. The privilege is bounded by current ideas of what will most effectively promote the general welfare. The question of \"privilege\" as a defense arises almost exclusively in connection with intentional torts. Negligence is a matter of risk and probability of harm; and where the likelihood of injury to the plaintiff is relatively slight, the defendant will necessarily be allowed greater latitude than where the harm is intended, or substantially certain to follow. It is the bare value of the respective interests involved and the extent of the harm from which the act is intended to protect the one as compared with that which it is intended to cause to the other which determines the existence or nonexistence of the privilege.\n", "In the law of evidence, a privilege is a rule of evidence that allows the holder of the privilege to refuse to disclose information or provide evidence about a certain subject or to bar such evidence from being disclosed or used in a judicial or other proceeding.\n" ]

[ "With the evolution of hairless skin, abundant sweat glands, and skin rich in melanin, early humans could walk, run, and forage for food for long periods of time under the hot sun without brain damage due to overheating, giving them an evolutionary advantage over other species. By 1.2 million years ago, around the time of \"Homo ergaster\", archaic humans (including the ancestors of \"Homo sapiens\") had exactly the same receptor protein as modern sub-Saharan Africans.\n", "Loss of fur occurred at least 2 million years ago, but possibly as early as 3.3 million years ago judging from the divergence of head and pubic lice, and aided persistence hunting (the ability to catch prey in very long distance chases) in the warm savannas where hominins first evolved. The two main advantages are felt to be bipedal locomotion and greater thermal load dissipation capacity due to better sweating and less hair.\n", "Markus J. Rantala of the Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Finland, said humans evolved by \"natural selection\" to be hairless when the trade off of \"having fewer parasites\" became more important than having a \"warming, furry coat\".\n", "The deliberate and conscious wearing of clothing is a behavioural adaptation, which among all known extant and extinct animals is a uniquely human characteristic arising from functional needs such as protection from the elements. Protection from the elements includes the sun (for depigmented human populations) and cold temperatures after the loss of body hair and the migration of humans to colder regions (around 100,000 years ago) in which they had not evolved and thus lacked the necessary physical adaptations.\n", "Due to natural selection, people who lived in areas of intense sunlight developed dark skin colouration to protect against ultraviolet (UV) light and to protect their body mainly from folate depletion. Evolutionary pigmentation of the skin was caused by ultraviolet radiation of the sun. As hominids gradually lost their fur between 1.2 million to 4 million years ago, to allow for better cooling through sweating, their naked and lightly pigmented skin was exposed to sunlight. In the tropics, natural selection favoured dark-skinned human populations as high levels of skin pigmentation protected against the harmful effects of sunlight. Indigenous populations’ skin reflectance (the amount of sunlight the skin reflects) and the actual UV radiation in a particular geographic area is highly correlated, which supports this idea. Genetic evidence also supports this notion, demonstrating that around 1.2 million years ago there was a strong evolutionary pressure which acted on the development of dark skin pigmentation in early members of the genus Homo. The effect of sunlight on folic acid levels has been crucial in the development of dark skin.\n", "As hominins adapted to bipedalism they would have lost some speed, becoming less able to catch prey with short, fast charges. They would, however, have gained endurance and become better adapted to persistence hunting. Although many mammals sweat, few have evolved to use sweating for effective thermoregulation, humans and horses being notable exceptions. This coupled with relative hairlessness would have given human hunters an additional advantage by keeping their bodies cool in the midday heat.\n", "Thompson next investigated the insulating properties of various materials, including fur, wool and feathers. He correctly appreciated that the insulating properties of these natural materials arise from the fact that they inhibit the convection of air. He then made the somewhat reckless, and incorrect, inference that air and, in fact, all gases, were perfect non-conductors of heat. He further saw this as evidence of the argument from design, contending that divine providence had arranged for fur on animals in such a way as to guarantee their comfort. \n" ]

[ "In 1918 it was proved that the law of conservation of energy is the direct mathematical consequence of the translational symmetry of the quantity conjugate to energy, namely time. That is, energy is conserved because the laws of physics do not distinguish between different moments of time (see Noether's theorem).\n", "Since many laws of physics express some kind of conservation, conserved quantities commonly exist in mathematical models of physical systems. For example, any classical mechanics model will have energy as a conserved quantity so long as the forces involved are conservative.\n", "The conservation of energy is a common feature in many physical theories. From a mathematical point of view it is understood as a consequence of Noether's theorem, developed by Emmy Noether in 1915 and first published in 1918. The theorem states every continuous symmetry of a physical theory has an associated conserved quantity; if the theory's symmetry is time invariance then the conserved quantity is called \"energy\". The energy conservation law is a consequence of the shift symmetry of time; energy conservation is implied by the empirical fact that the laws of physics do not change with time itself. Philosophically this can be stated as \"nothing depends on time per se\".\n", "Energy conservation is the effort made to reduce the consumption of energy by using less of an energy service. This can be achieved either by using energy more efficiently (using less energy for a constant service) or by reducing the amount of service used (for example, by driving less). Energy conservation is a part of the concept of eco-sufficiency. Energy conservation reduces the need for energy services and can result in increased environmental quality, national security, personal financial security and higher savings.\n", "In other words, if the physical system is invariant under the continuous symmetry of time translation then its energy (which is canonical conjugate quantity to time) is conserved. Conversely, systems which are not invariant under shifts in time (an example, systems with time dependent potential energy) do not exhibit conservation of energy – unless we consider them to exchange energy with another, external system so that the theory of the enlarged system becomes time invariant again. Conservation of energy for finite systems is valid in such physical theories as special relativity and quantum theory (including QED) in the flat space-time.\n", "In physics and chemistry, the law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be \"conserved\" over time. This law means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred from one form to another. For instance, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy when a stick of dynamite explodes. If one adds up all the forms of energy that were released in the explosion, such as the kinetic energy and potential energy of the pieces, as well as heat and sound, one will get the exact decrease of chemical energy in the combustion of the dynamite. Classically, conservation of energy was distinct from conservation of mass; however, special relativity showed that mass is related to energy and vice versa by \"E = mc\", and science now takes the view that mass–energy is conserved.\n", "Thus, the rule of \"conservation of energy\" over time in special relativity continues to hold, so long as the reference frame of the observer is unchanged. This applies to the total energy of systems, although different observers disagree as to the energy value. Also conserved, and invariant to all observers, is the invariant mass, which is the minimal system mass and energy that can be seen by any observer, and which is defined by the energy–momentum relation.\n" ]

[ "The effects for negative g-force can be more dangerous producing hyperemia and also psychotic episodes. In space, G forces are almost zero, which is called microgravity, meaning that the person is floating in the interior of the vessel. This happens because the gravity acts on the spaceship and in the body equally, both are pulled with the same forces of acceleration and also in the same direction.\n", "G-force induced loss of consciousness (abbreviated as G-LOC, pronounced 'JEE-lock') is a term generally used in aerospace physiology to describe a loss of consciousness occurring from excessive and sustained g-forces draining blood away from the brain causing cerebral hypoxia. The condition is most likely to affect pilots of high performance fighter and aerobatic aircraft or astronauts but is possible on some extreme amusement park rides. G-LOC incidents have caused fatal accidents in high performance aircraft capable of sustaining high \"g\" for extended periods. High-G training for pilots of high performance aircraft or spacecraft often includes ground training for G-LOC in special centrifuges, with some profiles exposing pilots to 9 \"g\"s for a sustained period.\n", "During takeoff and reentry space travelers can experience several times normal gravity. An untrained person can usually withstand about 3g, but can blackout at 4 to 6g. G-force in the vertical direction is more difficult to tolerate than a force perpendicular to the spine because blood flows away from the brain and eyes. First the person experiences temporary loss of vision and then at higher g-forces loses consciousness. G-force training and a G-suit which constricts the body to keep more blood in the head can mitigate the effects. Most spacecraft are designed to keep g-forces within comfortable limits.\n", "The g-force experienced by an object is due to the vector sum of all non-gravitational and non-electromagnetic forces acting on an object's freedom to move. In practice, as noted, these are surface-contact forces between objects. Such forces cause stresses and strains on objects, since they must be transmitted from an object surface. Because of these strains, large g-forces may be destructive.\n", "Various simulators help visitors understand the spaceflight experience. Space Shot lets the rider experience launch-like 4 gs and 2–3 seconds of weightlessness. G-Force Accelerator offers 3 gs of acceleration for an extended period by means of a centrifuge. Several other simulators entertain and educate visitors.\n", "Space motion sickness is an event that can occur within minutes of being in changing gravity environments (i.e. from 1g on Earth prior to launch to more than 1g during launch, and then from microgravity in space to hypergravity during re-entry and again to 1g after landing). The symptoms range from drowsiness and headaches, to nausea and vomiting. There are three general categories of space motion sickness:\n", "Space neuroscience is the scientific study of the central nervous system (CNS) functions during spaceflight. Living systems can integrate the inputs from the senses to navigate in their environment and to coordinate posture, locomotion, and eye movements. Gravity has a fundamental role in controlling these functions. In weightlessness during spaceflight, integrating the sensory inputs and coordinating motor responses is harder to do because gravity is no longer sensed during free-fall. For example, the otolith organs of the vestibular system no longer signal head tilt relative to gravity when standing. However, they can still sense head translation during body motion. Ambiguities and changes in how the gravitational input is processed can lead to potential errors in perception, which affects spatial orientation and mental representation. Dysfunctions of the vestibular system are common during and immediately after spaceflight, such as space motion sickness in orbit and balance disorders after return to Earth.\n" ]

[ "Human factors can also be significant. Rohloff demonstrates that overall efficiency can be improved in some cases by using a slightly less efficient gear ratio when this leads to greater human efficiency (in converting food to pedal power) because a more effective pedalling speed is being used.\n", "Power efficiency is another important measurement in modern computers. A higher power efficiency can often be traded for lower speed or higher cost. The typical measurement when referring to power consumption in computer architecture is MIPS/W (millions of instructions per second per watt).\n", "The efficiency of an entity (a device, component, or system) in electronics and electrical engineering is defined as useful power output divided by the total electrical power consumed (a fractional expression), typically denoted by the Greek small letter eta (η – ήτα).\n", "The efficiency of human muscle has been measured (in the context of rowing and cycling) at 18% to 26%. The efficiency is defined as the ratio of mechanical work output to the total metabolic cost, as can be calculated from oxygen consumption. This low efficiency is the result of about 40% efficiency of generating ATP from food energy, losses in converting energy from ATP into mechanical work inside the muscle, and mechanical losses inside the body. The latter two losses are dependent on the type of exercise and the type of muscle fibers being used (fast-twitch or slow-twitch). For an overall efficiency of 20 percent, one watt of mechanical power is equivalent to 4.3 kcal per hour. For example, one manufacturer of rowing equipment calibrates its rowing ergometer to count burned calories as equal to four times the actual mechanical work, plus 300 kcal per hour, this amounts to about 20 percent efficiency at 250 watts of mechanical output. The mechanical energy output of a cyclic contraction can depend upon many factors, including activation timing, muscle strain trajectory, and rates of force rise & decay. These can be synthesized experimentally using work loop analysis.\n", "World records of power performance by humans are of interest to work planners and work-process engineers. The average level of human power that can be maintained over a certain duration of time⁠  — say over the extent of one minute, or one hour⁠ ⁠— is interesting to engineers designing work operations in industry. Human power is occasionally used to generate, and sometimes to store, electrical energy in batteries for use in the wilderness.\n", "The idea of power efficiency builds off the difference between energy (kWh) and power (kW). Energy efficiency focuses on reducing the amount of energy consumed while power efficiency focuses on reducing the rate at which energy is used, also known as peak demand.\n", "BULLET::::- Energy efficiency: Using less power to perform the same tasks. This involves a permanent reduction of demand by using more efficient load-intensive appliances such as water heaters, refrigerators, or washing machines.\n" ]

[ "In the European Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls—Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is a well-preserved example—and more important cities had citadels, forts, or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. Complex systems of tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia, similar to those used much later in Vietnam during the Vietnam War.\n", "Urban sites were on the decline from the late Roman period and remained of very minor importance until around the 9th century. The largest cities in later Anglo-Saxon England however were Winchester, London and York, in that order, although London had eclipsed Winchester by the 11th century. Details of population size are however lacking.\n", "The city is the most complete medieval city in the United Kingdom, including cobbled streets such as Elm Hill, Timber Hill and Tombland, ancient buildings such as St Andrew's Hall, half-timbered houses such as Dragon Hall, The Guildhall and Strangers' Hall, the Art Nouveau of the 1899 Royal Arcade, many medieval lanes and the winding River Wensum that flows through the city centre towards Norwich Castle. The city has two universities, the University of East Anglia and the Norwich University of the Arts, and two cathedrals, Norwich Cathedral and St John the Baptist Cathedral.\n", "Between 1297 and 1344 a new defensive wall was constructed on the huge banks that surrounded the city, replacing the earlier palisade and gates. The area enclosed was the largest for any city in England, although inside was a considerable amount of pasture land, which was slowly absorbed as new monastic settlements, houses, markets and industrial sites appeared. By 1400 Norwich had grown to become a major city of perhaps 10,000 inhabitants.\n", "The skylines of many important medieval cities had large numbers of high-rise urban towers, built by the wealthy for defense and status. The residential Towers of 12th century Bologna numbered between 80 and 100 at a time, the tallest of which is the high Asinelli Tower. A Florentine law of 1251 decreed that all urban buildings be immediately reduced to less than 26 m. Even medium-sized towns of the era are known to have proliferations of towers, such as the 72 up to 51 m height in San Gimignano.\n", "The ancient medieval city of Norwich within the walls at one time had 57 parish churches, the largest collection of urban medieval buildings in any one city north of the Alps. Ten are still in use by the Church of England, while many are in use for other purposes.\n", "In the Middle Ages, virtually all large cities had city walls – Dubrovnik in Dalmatia is an impressive and well-preserved example – and more important cities had citadels, forts or castles. Great effort was expended to ensure a good water supply inside the city in case of siege. In some cases, long tunnels were constructed to carry water into the city. In other cases, such as the Ottoman siege of Shkodra, Venetian engineers had designed and installed cisterns that were fed by rain water channeled by a system of conduits in the walls and buildings. Complex systems of underground tunnels were used for storage and communications in medieval cities like Tábor in Bohemia. Against these would be matched the mining skills of teams of trained sappers, who were sometimes employed by besieging armies.\n" ]

[ "Archaeologists have discovered that knot tying dates back to prehistoric times. Besides their uses such as recording information and tying objects together, knots have interested humans for their aesthetics and spiritual symbolism. Knots appear in various forms of Chinese artwork dating from several centuries BC (see Chinese knotting). The endless knot appears in Tibetan Buddhism, while the Borromean rings have made repeated appearances in different cultures, often representing strength in unity. The Celtic monks who created the Book of Kells lavished entire pages with intricate Celtic knotwork.\n", "Archaeological studies indicate that the art of tying knots dates back to prehistoric times. Recent discoveries include 100,000-year-old bone needles used for sewing and bodkins, which were used to untie knots. However, due to the delicate nature of the medium, few examples of prehistoric Chinese knotting exist today. Some of the earliest evidence of knotting have been preserved on bronze vessels of the Warring States period (481–221 BCE), Buddhist carvings of the Northern Dynasties period (317–581) and on silk paintings during the Western Han period (206 BCE–6 CE).\n", "Knots have been used for basic purposes such as recording information, fastening and tying objects together, for thousands of years. The early, significant stimulus in knot theory would arrive later with Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and his theory of vortex atoms.\n", "The use of ropes for hunting, pulling, fastening, attaching, carrying, lifting, and climbing dates back to prehistoric times. It is likely that the earliest \"ropes\" were naturally occurring lengths of plant fibre, such as vines, followed soon by the first attempts at twisting and braiding these strands together to form the first proper ropes in the modern sense of the word. Impressions of cordage found on fired clay provide evidence of string and rope-making technology in Europe dating back 28,000 years. Fossilized fragments of \"probably two-ply laid rope of about 7 mm diameter\" were found in one of the caves at Lascaux, dating to approximately 15,000 BC.\n", "In prehistoric times, Korean knots were used solely for practical purposes. They were tied around the waist and used to carry stone-axes, swords, and other tools used for hunting and food. Tools from the Stone Age exhibit holes where thread was looped through and then knotted. Similar evidence is found in relics of the Bronze Age. The knots were strengthened by twisting or weaving multiple strings.\n", "The Indian rope trick is a magic trick said to have been performed in and around India during the 19th century. Sometimes described as \"the world’s greatest illusion\", it reputedly involved a magician, a length of rope, and one or more boy assistants.\n", "During the period of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, people began to see aesthetic value in knots and started to use them as decorations on clothes, swords, and more. The Samguk Sagi, the oldest extant record of Korean history, describes knot usage in everyday life during the Silla dynasty, noting rulers enjoyed using knots to adorn horses.\n" ]

[ "Thus, relative isolation is ultimately what a life-bearing system needs. If the Sun were crowded amongst other systems, the chance of being fatally close to dangerous radiation sources would increase significantly. Further, close neighbors might disrupt the stability of various orbiting bodies such as Oort cloud and Kuiper belt objects, which can bring catastrophe if knocked into the inner Solar System.\n", "The migration of planets can lead to planets being captured in resonances and chains of resonances if their orbits converge. The orbits of the planets can converge if the migration of the inner planet is halted at the inner edge of the gas disk, resulting in a systems of tightly orbiting inner planets; or if migration is halted in a convergence zone where the torques driving Type I migration cancel, for example near the ice line, in a chain of more distant planets.\n", "Astronomer Mike Brown notes that if this object's orbit were as described, it would only have remained in the Solar System for about a million years before Jupiter expelled it, and, even if such a planet existed, its magnetic field would have no effect on Earth's. Lieder's assertions that the approach of Nibiru would cause the Earth's rotation to stop or its axis to shift violate the laws of physics. In his rebuttal of Immanuel Velikovsky's \"Worlds in Collision\", which made the same claim that the Earth's rotation could be stopped and then restarted, Carl Sagan noted that, \"the energy required to brake the Earth is not enough to melt it, although it would result in a noticeable increase in temperature: The oceans would [be] raised to the boiling point of water ... [Also,] how does the Earth get started up again, rotating at approximately the same rate of spin? The Earth cannot do it by itself, because of the law of the conservation of angular momentum.\"\n", "By this time, the collision of the Milky Way and Andromeda galaxies should be underway. Although this could result in the Solar System being ejected from the newly combined galaxy, it is considered unlikely to have any adverse effect on the Sun or its planets.\n", "These objects are \"leaving\" the Solar System because their velocity and direction are taking them away from the Sun, and at their distance from the Sun, its gravitational pull is not sufficient to pull these objects back or into orbit. They are not impervious to the gravitational pull of the Sun and are being slowed down, but they have enough velocity to coast into interstellar space, i.e. retaining sufficient escape velocity to leave the Solar System.\n", "If Jupiter's core formed close to the Sun, its outward migration across the inner Solar System could have pushed material outward in its resonances, leaving the region inside Venus's orbit depleted. In a protoplanetary disk that was evolving via a disk wind, planetary embryos could have migrated outward before merging to form planets, leaving the Solar System without planets inside Mercury's orbit. An early generation of inner planets could have been lost due to catastrophic collisions during an instability, resulting in the debris being ground small enough to be lost due to Poynting-Robertson drag. If planetesimal formation only occurred early, the inner edge of the planetesimal disk might have been located at the silicate condensation line at this time. The formation of planetesimals closer than Mercury's orbit may have required that the magnetic field of the star be aligned with the rotation of the disk, enabling the depletion of the gas so that solid to gas ratios reached values sufficient for streaming instabilities to occur. The formation of super-Earths may require a higher flux of inward drifting pebbles than occurred in the early Solar System.\n", "The Solar System is stable in human terms, and far beyond, given that it is unlikely any of the planets will collide with each other or be ejected from the system in the next few billion years, and the Earth's orbit will be relatively stable.\n" ]

[ "National identity can be thought as a collective product. Through socialization, a system of beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations is transmitted to group members. The collective elements of national identity may include national symbols, traditions, and memories of national experiences and achievements. These collective elements are rooted in the nation's history. Depending on how much the individual is exposed to the socialization of this system, people incorporate national identity to their personal identity to different degrees and in different ways, and the collective elements of national identity may become important parts of individual's definition of the self and how they view the world and their own place in it.\n", "National identity requires the process of self-categorization and it involves both the identification of in-group (identifying with one's nation), and differentiation of out-groups (other nations). By recognizing commonalities such as having common descent and common destiny, people identify with a nation and form an in-group, and at the same time they view people that identify with a different nation as out-groups. Social identity theory suggests a positive relationship between identification of a nation and derogation of other nations. By identifying with one's nation, people involve in intergroup comparisons, and tend to derogate out-groups. However, several studies have investigated this relationship between national identity and derogating other countries, and found that identifying with national identity does not necessarily result in out-group derogation.\n", "According to Hazony, national identity is based not on race or biological homogeneity, but on \"bonds of mutual loyalty\" to a shared culture and a shared history that bind diverse groups into a national unit. Hazony argues that the social cohesion enabled by a nation-state where a common language and history are shared by the majority of the population can produce a level of trust that enables the production of social and moral goods, such as civil and political liberties.\n", "The role of national identification in mental structure or psychological role of national identity emanates from the ideology of identity formation, which in other cases, is referred to as individuation. Therefore, individuation is the development of dissimilar temperament of a person, which constitutes to a continuous entity and how a person is known or recognized. Thus, national identification is both a philosophical and ethical concept. It is where all citizens are alienated into nations delimited by specific geographical boundaries, thus sharing same social, cultural and political ideology. Members of a specific nation forming national identity share collective identity.\n", "National identity is an ethical and philosophical concept whereby all humans are divided into groups called nations. Members of a \"nation\" share a common identity, and usually a common origin, in the sense of ancestry, parentage or descent.\n", "Identity formation, also known as individuation, is the development of the distinct personality of an individual regarded as a persisting entity (known as personal continuity) in a particular stage of life in which individual characteristics are possessed and by which a person is recognized or known (such as the establishment of a reputation). This process defines individuals to others and themselves. Pieces of the person's actual identity include a sense of continuity, a sense of uniqueness from others, and a sense of affiliation. Identity formation leads to a number of issues of personal identity and an identity where the individual has some sort of comprehension of themselves as a discrete and separate entity. This may be through individuation whereby the undifferentiated individual tends to become unique, or undergoes stages through which differentiated facets of a person's life tend toward becoming a more indivisible whole.\n", "National identity is not an inborn trait and it is essentially socially constructed. A person's national identity results directly from the presence of elements from the \"common points\" in people's daily lives: national symbols, language, colors, nation's history, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, and so on. Under various social influences, people incorporate national identity into their personal identities by adopting beliefs, values, assumptions and expectations which align with one's national identity. People with identification of their nation view national beliefs and values as personally meaningful, and translate these beliefs and values into daily practices.\n" ]

[ "Epistemology – philosophy of knowledge. It is the study of knowledge and justified belief. It questions what knowledge is and how it can be acquired, and the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given subject or entity can be acquired. Much of the debate in this field has focused on the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to connected notions such as truth, belief, and justification.\n", "Epistemology (from Greek ἐπιστήμη – \"episteme\"-, \"knowledge, science\" and λόγος, \"logos\") or theory of knowledge is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope (limitations) of knowledge. It addresses the questions \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", \"What do people know?\", \"How do we know what we know?\", and \"Why do we know what we know?\". Much of the debate in this field has focused on analyzing the nature of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth, belief, and justification. It also deals with the means of production of knowledge, as well as skepticism about different knowledge claims.\n", "Epistemology or theory of knowledge – branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. The term was introduced into English by the Scottish philosopher James Frederick Ferrier (1808–1864). Epistemology asks the questions: \"What is knowledge?\", \"How is knowledge acquired?\", and \"What do people know?\"\n", "The role of epistemology is to show the history of the (scientific) production of concepts; those concepts are not just theoretical propositions: they are simultaneously abstract and concrete, pervading technical and pedagogical activity. This explains why \"The electric bulb is an object of scientific thought… an example of an abstract-concrete object.\" To understand the way it works, one has to take the detour of scientific knowledge. Epistemology is thus not a general philosophy that aims at justifying scientific reasoning. Instead it produces regional histories of science.\n", "BULLET::::- Epistemology: (from the Greek words \"episteme\" (knowledge) and \"logos\" (word/speech)) The branch of philosophy that deals with the nature, origin and scope of knowledge. Historically, it has been one of the most investigated and most debated of all philosophical subjects. Much of this debate has focused on analysing the nature and variety of knowledge and how it relates to similar notions such as truth and belief. Much of this discussion concerns the justification of knowledge claims, that is the grounds on which one can claim to know a particular fact.\n", "Epistemology is the study of the nature of knowledge, justification, and the rationality of belief. Much debate in epistemology centers on four areas: (1) the philosophical analysis of the nature of knowledge and how it relates to such concepts as truth, belief, and justification, (2) various problems of skepticism, (3) the sources and scope of knowledge and justified belief, and (4) the criteria for knowledge and justification. Epistemology addresses such questions as: \"What makes justified beliefs justified?\", \"What does it mean to say that we know something?\", and fundamentally \"How do we know that we know?\"\n", "Epistemology is the study of knowledge (Greek episteme). Epistemologists study the putative sources of knowledge, including intuition, a priori reason, memory, perceptual knowledge, self-knowledge and testimony. They also ask: What is truth? Is knowledge justified true belief? Are any beliefs justified? Putative knowledge includes propositional knowledge (knowledge that something is the case), know-how (knowledge of how to do something) and acquaintance (familiarity with someone or something). Epistemologists examine these and ask whether knowledge is really possible.\n" ]

[ "Sometimes you know something's coming. You can feel it. In the air. In your gut. And you don't sleep at night. The voice in your head is telling you that something is going to go terribly wrong and there's nothing you can do to stop it. That's how I felt when my brother came home.\n", "I remember that day, even though it makes me sad thinking of it or when I'm questioned about it. I remember that night, well, that afternoon when I called Janko [Lehotský], I mean by phone, that I didn't feel well and [I] didn't want to go to the concert, if there's something [he] could do about it. Of course there wasn't, there was a concert in Brno, so we went. It was very bad weather, I can remember that. But after the concert, there was so much sadness in the dressing room, because then, well, Meky [Žbirka] announced, I mean, that he's done with Janko and is leaving with Laco [Lučenič] to make a solo band. And I, actually, didn't know who I belonged to. It was a very sad moment ... point in time. Well then, Janko didn't make a comment on anything and I, I didn't know, I mean, whether I'm staying with Janko or whom in fact. And that's how we actually split up, said good-byes and went home. And well then, what happened just happened. That's how I recall it. I don't know, guys, if they want to have their say. I see it like this.\n", "\"I had just gone through an experience that made me write this song about like knowing the second you see someone like, 'Oh, this is going to be interesting. It's going to be dangerous, but look at me going in there anyway... I think that for me, it was the first time I ever kind of noticed that in myself, like when you are curious about something you know might be bad for you, but you know that you are going to go for it anyway because if you don't, you'll have greater regrets about not seeing where that would go, but I think that for me it all went along with this record that was pushing boundaries, like the sound of this record pushes boundaries, it was writing about something I hadn't written before.\"\n", "In \"Déjà pensé\", a completely new thought sounds familiar to the person and he feels as he has thought the same thing before at some time.This feeling can be caused by seizures which occur in certain parts of the temporal lobe and possibly other areas of the brain as well.\n", "\"I just felt like, [when] being gone for such a long time, you need to come back with something strong and shock people. Make them go, 'Wow, who is that? Oh my God, that's Brandy? I didn't' even know she can sound like that. Didn't know she would do a song like that?' Because It's completely different than anything I've ever done.\"\n", "Yeah. He's heard this song. He's only seen us play once, and I played this song for him when we were in this club opening for Iggy Pop. I'll never forget it. He was standing in the back and he heard all the words and stuff. Of course, I was never in Vietnam and he won't talk about it, but when I wrote this it felt right...like these were things he might have felt or thought. And I remember when we played it he was back by the soundboard and I could see him. He was back there with his big gray Stetson and his cowboy boots — he's a total Oklahoma man — and at the end, he took his hat off and just held it in the air. And he was crying the whole time. This song means a lot to me. A lot.\n", "He later clarified, \"I want every night to feel like those people saw something that only happened that night [...] I've been on stage a lot over my life and I probably feel more at home there than anywhere.\"\n" ]

[ "Their flight is delicate and they have a circling flight to avoid walls when they are trapped indoors. The long streamer is conspicuous when the insects are flying and these are the elongated and spatulate hindwings.\n", "The lesser house fly or little house fly, Fannia canicularis, is somewhat smaller () than the common housefly. It is best known for its habit of entering buildings and circling near the center of rooms. It is slender, and the median vein in the wing is straight. Larvae feed on all manner of decaying organic matter, including carrion. Among the Fanniidae, this species is the one most frequently associated with myiasis.\n", "The habitat of the fly is generally hardwood forest. It is nocturnal, resting during the day in dark, humid spots such as holes in trees or animal burrows. Oviposition and larval development take place in similar spots, often in crevices filled with organic debris. In the United States it is common in the hollows of tree species such as laurel oak (\"Quercus laurifolia\") and southern live oak (\"Q. virginiana\").\n", "Disadvantages of flies include that a person is still exposed to the elements such as mosquitoes and cold weather and that it can be difficult to put a fly up if there are limited natural vertical structures such as trees in the camping area. Flies, however, can be put up using poles or jury-rigged, for example, using paddles.\n", "They are not strong flyers and will fly distances only at night, presumably to avoid predators. They tend not to leave their home base if there is sufficient food. If disturbed they will dive and re-surface 10–15 metres away rather than fly.\n", "The housefly is a very common and cosmopolitan species which transmits diseases to man. The organisms of both amoebic and bacillary dysenteries are picked up by flies from the faeces of infected people and transferred to clean food either on the fly's hairs or by the fly vomiting during feeding. Typhoid germs may be deposited on food with the fly's faeces. The house fly cause the spread of yaws germs by carrying them from a yaws ulcer to an ordinary sore. Houseflies also transmit poliomyelitis by carrying the virus from infected faeces to food or drink. Cholera and hepatitis are sometimes fly-borne. Other diseases carried by houseflies are Salmonella, tuberculosis, anthrax, and some forms of ophthalmia. They carry over 100 pathogens and transmit some parasitic worms. The flies in poorer and lower-hygiene areas usually carry more pathogens. Some strains have become immune to most common insecticides.\n", "Flies are a nuisance, disturbing people at leisure and at work, but they are disliked principally because of their habits of contaminating foodstuffs. They alternate between breeding and feeding in dirty places with feeding on human foods, during which process they soften the food with saliva and deposit their faeces, creating a health hazard. However, fly larvae are as nutritious as fish meal, and could be used to convert waste to feed for fish and livestock.\n" ]

[ "Elevators often have a red two-way button on the control panel which is either marked \"Emergency Stop\" or \"Run/Stop\". Normally, the button is in the \"up\" or unpushed position, allowing the elevator to \"run\" in normal service. When the button is pushed, the elevator comes to an immediate stop. When the button is pulled back out, it resumes normal service, thus the reason for the use of the phrase \"Run/Stop\". Escalators will typically have a key-operated control that will turn the escalator off, or change its direction to up or down. Next to the key switch will be a red \"Emergency Stop\" button, which is used in the event of equipment failure, or where there is a potential for injury, such as when someone's shoe gets stuck in the \"comb\" at the top or bottom of the escalator and there is a risk of serious injury. The key switch is used to return the escalator to service after it has been stopped.\n", "Sometimes, call buttons work only at some intersections, at certain times of day, or certain periods of the year, such as in New York City or in Boston, Massachusetts. In Boston, some busy intersections are programmed to give a pedestrian cycle during certain times of day (so pushing the button is not necessary) but at off-peak times a button push is required to get a pedestrian cycle. In neighboring Cambridge, a button press is always required if a button is available, though the city prefers to build signals where no button is present and the pedestrian cycle always happens between short car cycles. In both cases the light will not turn immediately, but will wait until the next available pedestrian slot in a pre-determined rotation.\n", "Reports suggest that many walk buttons in some areas, such as New York City and the United Kingdom, may actually be either placebo buttons or nonworking call buttons that used to function correctly. In the former case, these buttons are designed to give pedestrians an illusion of control while the crossing signal continues its operation as programmed. However, in instances of the latter case, such as New York City's, the buttons were simply deactivated when traffic signals were updated to automatically include pedestrian phases as part of every signal cycle. In such instances these buttons may be removed during future updates to the pedestrian signals. In the United Kingdom, pressing a button at a standalone pedestrian crossing that is unconnected to a junction will turn a traffic light red immediately, but this is not necessarily the case at a junction.\n", "Elevators have a car top inspection station that allows the car to be operated by a mechanic in order to move it through the hoistway. Generally, there are three buttons: UP, RUN, and DOWN. Both the RUN and a direction button must be held to move the car in that direction, and the elevator will stop moving as soon as the buttons are released. Most other elevators have an up/down toggle switch and a RUN button. The inspection panel also has standard power outlets for work lamps and powered tools.\n", "Call buttons are installed at traffic lights with a dedicated pedestrian signal, and are used to bring up the pedestrian \"walk\" indication in locations where they function correctly. In the majority of locations where call buttons are installed, pushing the button does not light up the pedestrian walk sign immediately. One Portland State University researcher notes of call buttons in the US, \"Most [call] buttons don’t provide any feedback to the pedestrian that the traffic signal has received the input. It may appear at many locations that nothing happens.\" However, there are some locations where call buttons do provide confirmation feedback. At such locations, pedestrians are more likely to wait for the \"walk\" indications.\n", "A pivoting arm equipped with a stop sign is a piece of equipment required by law on North American school buses. The sign normally stows flat on the left side of the bus, and is deployed by the driver while picking up or dropping off passengers. Some buses have two such stop arms, one near the front facing forwards, and one near the rear facing backwards. The stop sign is retroreflective and equipped either with red blinking lights above and below the legend or with a legend that is illuminated by LEDs. Unlike a normal stop sign, this sign requires other vehicles travelling in both directions to remain stopped until the sign is retracted.\n", "Some transit buses, such as those in New York, have had, since at least the 1950s, turn signals activated by floor-mounted momentary-contact footswitches on the floor near the driver's left foot (on left-hand drive buses). The foot-activated signals allow bus drivers to keep both hands on the steering wheel while watching the road and scanning for passengers as they approach a bus stop. New York City Transit bus drivers, among others, are trained to step continuously on the right directional switch while servicing a bus stop, to signal other road users they are intentionally dwelling at the stop, allowing following buses to skip that stop. This method of signalling requires no special arrangements for self-cancellation or passing.\n" ]

[ "Trade in the early Roman Empire allowed Rome to become as vast and great as it did. Emperor Augustus, despite his intense public and private spending, took control of trade from the government and expanded Roman influence by opening new trading markets in overseas areas such as Britain, Germany, and Africa. Rome dominated trade and influence over the world in the age of the Roman Empire but could not advance in their industrial and manufacturing processes. This ultimately threatened the expanding trading and commerce industries that Augustus brought about, as well as the strong standing of the Empire in the eyes of the Romans and the world.\n", "Trade between different nations was an integral reason for travel. During the Roman Empire, trade was conducted with nations as disparate as China, India, and Tanzania. Generally, Roman and Chinese traders exchanged statues and other processed goods in exchange for Chinese silk. Trade in the city of Rome was focused around providing food for the city's massive population; as such, the trade of grain and other foods was subsidized by the government. Grain was brought into the city from all around empire: Egypt, Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily were all sources for the city.\n", "Soon after the Roman conquest of Egypt in 30 BCE, regular communications and trade between China, Southeast Asia, India, the Middle East, Africa, and Europe blossomed on an unprecedented scale. The Roman Empire inherited eastern trade routes that were part of the Silk Road from the earlier Hellenistic powers and the Arabs. With control of these trade routes, citizens of the Roman Empire received new luxuries and greater prosperity for the Empire as a whole. The Roman-style glassware discovered in the archeological sites of Gyeongju, capital of the Silla kingdom (Korea) showed that Roman artifacts were traded as far as the Korean peninsula. The Greco-Roman trade with India started by Eudoxus of Cyzicus in 130 BCE continued to increase, and according to Strabo (II.5.12), by the time of Augustus, up to 120 ships were setting sail every year from Myos Hormos in Roman Egypt to India. The Roman Empire connected with the Central Asian Silk Road through their ports in Barygaza (known today as Bharuch ) and Barbaricum (known today as the city of Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan ) and continued along the western coast of India. An ancient \"travel guide\" to this Indian Ocean trade route was the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written in 60 CE.\n", "Rome played an important part in the Eastern oriental trade of antiquity, they imported many goods from India and at the same time set up their own trading stations in the country. According to Cobb, trading through land routes such as crossing the Arabian Peninsula and Mesopotamia, and through seaborne trade from the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean were used by the Romans.\n", "After Rome's expansion during the First Punic War (263-241 BC), Roman imperialism around the Mediterranean Sea saw the beginnings of economic exploitations of newly formed provinces. This naval activity increased throughout the third century. The passage of the \"lex Claudia\", designed to restrict shipping, is indicative of this increased naval activity. For if there was no naval merchant activity, there would have been no need for such a law. The development of coinage and credit systems as well as the advancement in communication through roads, rivers and harbours, meant that long-distance trade became a significant aspect of the empire's economy. Imported goods included food, slaves, metals and luxury goods, while exports consisted largely of pottery, gold and silver. Rome's commercial interests were further expanded after Sicily and Sardinia become a province at the end of the First Punic War. Commercial ships were expensive and costly to maintain, meaning that only members of the upper classes (senators and equestrians) were able to invest in long-distance shipping. However, it should be noted that little is definitively known concerning the exact circumstances that led to the creation of the \"lex Claudia.\"\n", "From the beginning of Greek civilization until the fall of the Roman empire in the 5th century, a financially lucrative trade brought valuable spice to Europe from the far east, including India and China. Roman commerce allowed its empire to flourish and endure. The latter Roman Republic and the Pax Romana of the Roman empire produced a stable and secure transportation network that enabled the shipment of trade goods without fear of significant piracy, as Rome had become the sole effective sea power in the Mediterranean with the conquest of Egypt and the near east.\n", "This was a condition to permanent trade relations during the rise of Rome. It was during the 2nd century BC that the Roman praetors started using this principle, as commerce grew in the Mediterranean sea.\n" ]

[ "Apple initially sued Samsung on grounds of patent infringement, specifically European patents 2.059.868, 2.098.948, and 1.964.022. On the 24th of October, 2011, a court in the Hague ruled only a photo gallery app in Android 2.3 was indeed infringing a patent (EP 2.059.868), resulting in an import ban of three Samsung telephones (the Galaxy S, Galaxy S II, and Ace) running the infringing software. Phones operating more recent versions of Android remained unaffected. This made the import and sale of the banned phone models with updated software still legal. This ruling was widely interpreted as a favourable one for Samsung, and an appeal by Apple may still be forthcoming.\n", "Xerox did go to trial to protect the Star user interface. In 1989, after Apple sued Microsoft for copyright infringement of its Macintosh user interface in Windows, Xerox filed a similar lawsuit against Apple. However, this suit was thrown out on procedural grounds, not substantive, because a three-year statute of limitations had passed. In 1994, Apple lost its suit against Microsoft, not only the issues originally contested, but all claims to the user interface.\n", "In late October 2011, the civil court in The Hague ruled for Apple in rejecting Samsung's infringement arguments and denied Samsung's motion made there; Samsung appealed the decision and in January 2012, the Dutch appeals court overruled the civil court decision, rejecting Apple's claim that Samsung's Galaxy Tab 10.1 infringed its design rights.\n", "Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation, 35 F.3d 1435 (9th Cir. 1994), was a copyright infringement lawsuit in which Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.) sought to prevent Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard from using visual graphical user interface (GUI) elements that were similar to those in Apple's Lisa and Macintosh operating systems. The court ruled that, \"Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a graphical user interface, or the idea of a desktop metaphor [under copyright law]...\". In the midst of the \"Apple v. Microsoft\" lawsuit, Xerox also sued Apple alleging that Mac's GUI was heavily based on Xerox's. The district court dismissed Xerox's claims without addressing whether Apple's GUI infringed Xerox's. Apple lost all claims in the \"Microsoft\" suit except for the ruling that the trash can icon and folder icons from Hewlett-Packard's NewWave windows application were infringing. The lawsuit was filed in 1988 and lasted four years; the decision was affirmed on appeal in 1994, and Apple's appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court was denied.\n", "The court ruled that Samsung violated one of Apple's utility patents, over the so-called \"bounce-back\" effect in iOS, and that Apple was in violation of two of Samsung's wireless patents. Apple's claims that Samsung copied the designs of the iPhone and iPad were deemed invalid. The court also ruled that there was \"no possibility\" that consumers would confuse the smartphones of the two brands, and that Samsung's smartphone icons did not infringe upon Apple's patents.\n", "On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. filed a lawsuit against Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System Software. Apple claimed the \"look and feel\" of the Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft on all but 10 of the 189 graphical user interface elements that Apple sued on, and the court found the remaining 10 GUI elements could not be copyrighted.\n", "On September 9, 2011, the German court ruled in favor of Apple, with a sales ban on the Galaxy Tab 10.1. The court found that Samsung had infringed Apple's patents. Presiding judge Johanna Brueckner-Hofmann said there was a \"clear impression of similarity\". Samsung would appeal the decision.\n" ]

[ "In the first two weeks that the muscles are unloaded from carrying the weight of the human frame during space flight, whole muscle atrophy begins. Postural muscles contain more slow fibers, and are more prone to atrophy than non-postural muscle groups. The loss of muscle mass occurs because of imbalances in protein synthesis and breakdown. The loss of muscle mass is also accompanied by a loss of muscle strength, which was observed after only 2–5 days of spaceflight during the Soyuz-3 and Soyuz-8 missions. Decreases in the generation of contractile forces and whole muscle power have also been found in response to microgravity.\n", "In humans, prolonged periods of immobilization, as in the cases of bed rest or astronauts flying in space, are known to result in muscle weakening and atrophy. Atrophy is of particular interest to the manned spaceflight community, because the weightlessness experienced in spaceflight results is a loss of as much as 30% of mass in some muscles. Such consequences are also noted in small hibernating mammals like the golden-mantled ground squirrels and brown bats.\n", "The International Space Station developed exercise equipment, including treadmills and resistance devices to limit muscle atrophy in a low gravity environment. Weightlessness causes body fluids in astronauts to accumulate in the upper half of the body, leading to facial edema and unwelcome side effects. One problem may be the low gravity affecting the body in unforeseen ways and it can be hard detect the cause and effect of gravity on the body. Space seems to cause trouble for a number of body parts including bone, sometimes the eyes, and a classic problem is space sickness.\n", "\"Disuse atrophy\" of muscles and bones, with loss of mass and strength, can occur after prolonged immobility, such as extended bedrest, or having a body part in a cast (living in darkness for the eye, bedridden for the legs etc.). This type of atrophy can usually be reversed with exercise unless severe. Astronauts in microgravity must exercise regularly to minimize atrophy of their limb muscles.\n", "Adaptation to weightlessness involves not just the Sensory-motor coupling functions, but some autonomic nervous system functions as well. Sleep disorders and orthostatic intolerance are also common during and after spaceflight. There is no hydrostatic pressure in a weightless environment. As a result, the redistribution of body fluids toward the upper body causes a decrease in leg volume, which may affect muscle viscosity and compliance. An increase in intracranial pressure may also be responsible for a decrease in near visual acuity. In addition, muscle mass and strength both decrease as a result of the reduced loading in weightlessness. Moreover, approximately 70% of astronauts experience space motion sickness to some degree during the first days. The drugs commonly used to combat motion sickness, such as scopolamine and promethazine, have soporific effects. These factors can lead to chronic fatigue. The challenge of integrative space medicine and physiology is to investigate the adaptation of the human body to spaceflight as a whole, and not just as the sum of body parts because all body functions are connected and interact with each other.\n", "A major effect of long-term weightlessness involves the loss of bone and muscle mass. Without the effects of gravity, skeletal muscle is no longer required to maintain posture and the muscle groups used in moving around in a weightless environment differ from those required in terrestrial locomotion. In a weightless environment, astronauts put almost no weight on the back muscles or leg muscles used for standing up. Those muscles then start to weaken and eventually get smaller. Consequently, some muscles atrophy rapidly, and without regular exercise astronauts can lose up to 20% of their muscle mass in just 5 to 11 days The types of muscle fibre prominent in muscles also change. Slow twitch endurance fibres used to maintain posture are replaced by fast twitch rapidly contracting fibres that are insufficient for any heavy labour. Advances in research on exercise, hormone supplements and medication may help maintain muscle and body mass.\n", "The muscle volume can decrease up to 20% over a six-month mission, and the bone density can decrease at a rate of approximately 1.4% at the hip in a month's time. A study done by Fitts and Trappe examined the effects of prolonged space flight (defined as approximately 180 days) on human skeletal muscle using muscle biopsies. Prolonged weightlessness was shown to cause significant loss in the mass, force, and power production in the soleus and gastrocnemius muscles. Many countermeasures to these effects exist, but thus far they are not sufficient to compensate for the detrimental effects of space travel and astronauts need extensive rehabilitation upon their return to Earth.\n" ]

[ "This period saw a systematic rise and fall of civilizations. Many civilizations went through the same cycle of creation, fluorescence, and fall of centralized states which include: the middle Elamite kingdom in western Iran, Kassite Babylonia in southern Mesopotamia, the Hittite new kingdom in Anatolia, and the new kingdom Egypt. While they did not all rise to the equal amount of power and influence at the same time, they did organize and participate in an international system of diplomacy, trade, and culture.\n", "BULLET::::- Arnold J. Toynbee in his \"A Study of History\" suggested that there had been a much larger number of civilizations, including a small number of arrested civilizations, and that all civilizations tended to go through the cycle identified by Mommsen. The cause of the fall of a civilization occurred when a cultural elite became a parasitic elite, leading to the rise of internal and external proletariats.\n", "\"Rise of Legends\" retains most of the features from \"Rise of Nations\", like city building, borders, attrition, assimilations, non-depletable resources and the Conquer The World (CTW) campaigns. However, \"Rise of Legends\" also introduces new features of its own, such as city districts, heroes, dominances, a more simplified economy (with only two resources) and neutral, siegeable units and buildings. The reality-based resource wood has been replaced by Timonium. Unlike its predecessor, which offered the player 18 civilizations to choose from, \"Rise of Legends\" has only three races. These are the technological Vinci, the magical Alin, and the alien-like Cuotl, who replace the Wealth resource with Energy, offering a new gather strategy. Each race is completely distinct from the others, allowing for different gameplay depending on the player's choice. It also makes use of the AGEIA PhysX physics engine.\n", "Reversion/Simplification: A society's adaptive capacity may be reduced by either a rapid change in population or societal complexity, destabilizing its institutions and causing massive shifts in population and other social dynamics. In cases of collapse, civilizations tend to revert to less complex, less centralized socio-political forms using simpler technology. These are characteristics of a Dark Age. Examples of such societal collapse are: the Hittite Empire, the Mycenaean civilization, the Western Roman Empire, the Mauryan and Gupta Empires in India, the Mayas, the Angkor in Cambodia, the Han and Tang dynasties in China and the Mali Empire.\n", "Civilizations have generally ended in one of two ways; either through being incorporated into another expanding civilization (e.g. As Ancient Egypt was incorporated into Hellenistic Greek, and subsequently Roman civilizations), or by collapse and reversion to a simpler form, as happens in what are called Dark Ages.\n", "In the true history of the world (according to the comic \"Before The Great Flood\"), two major civilizations emerged on two different continents, named Mu (a pseudo-Asiatic realm ruled by an authoritarian, collectivistic philosophy) and Atlantis (a proto-Aryan regime devoted to individualism and capitalism); despite their ideological differences, both had developed advanced civilizations, comparable to the 'Eighties' ideas of an early 21st century. As a result of their rivalry, a great war flared up after several proxy conflicts fought over Gondwana, which ultimately saw the employment of nuclear warheads and other final weapons; in the end the losing side, triggered a doomsday machine, which plunged the world in a veritable cataclysm, destroying nearly every sign of the antediluvian civilization.\n", "...examined the rise and fall of 26 civilizations in the course of human history, and he concluded that they rose by responding successfully to challenges under the leadership of creative minorities composed of elite leaders.\n" ]

[ "A number of Old West gangs left a lasting impression on American history. While rare, the incidents were retold and embellished by dime novel and magazine authors during the late 19th century. The most notable shootouts took place on the American frontier in Arizona, New Mexico, Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Some like the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral were the outcome of long-simmering feuds and rivalries but most were the result of a confrontation between outlaws and law enforcement.\n", "Operating primarily in Wyoming Territory (1868–1890), Hannibal Heyes and Jedediah 'Kid' Curry (whose boyish face spawned the nickname) are the two most successful outlaws in the history of the West. However, the West is starting to catch up with the modern world; safes are becoming harder to crack, trains more difficult to stop, and posses more adept at tracking them down.\n", "The Wild Bunch was the most powerful outlaw group in the Old West for a time. However, because of the relentless pursuit of the Three Guardsmen (lawmen Bill Tilghman, Chris Madsen, and Heck Thomas) many of the gang had been either captured or killed by the end of 1894. In late 1894, gang member Bill Dalton was killed by U.S. marshals. Rewards were offered for their capture or death, the lure of which often turned friends into foes to collect the money. On May 1, 1895, gang members Charlie Pierce and George \"Bittercreek\" Newcomb were shot and killed by the bounty hunters known as the Dunn Brothers. The bounty hunter team that killed Pierce and Newcomb were the older brothers of George Newcomb's teenage girlfriend, Rose Dunn. It was alleged that she had betrayed Newcomb, but it is more likely that her brothers simply trailed her to the outlaws' hideout.\n", "In the nineteenth and early twentieth century the Badlands formed the northern end of the \"Outlaw Trail\", a series of trails and stopping areas utilized by outlaws in the American West spanning from Canada to Mexico. Outlaws such as Henry Borne and his brother Coyote Pete, Sam Kelly, the Pigeon Toed Kid, and the notorious Sundance Kid turned up in the area. Today ranching and tourism are important in the sparsely populated area.\n", "The Wild Bunch, also known as the Doolin–Dalton Gang or the Oklahombres, were a gang of American outlaws based in the Indian Territory that were active in Kansas, Missouri, Arkansas, and Oklahoma Territory during the 1890s—robbing banks and stores, holding up trains, and killing lawmen. They were also known as The Oklahoma Long Riders because of the long dusters that they wore. Of all the outlaw gangs produced by the American Old West (the gang was formed in the last decade of the 19th century), none met a more violent end than the Wild Bunch. Only two of its eleven members survived into the 20th century, and all eleven met violent deaths in gun battles with lawmen.\n", "The major type of banditry was conducted by the infamous outlaws of the West, including Jesse James, Billy the Kid, the Dalton Gang, Black Bart, Butch Cassidy and the Wild Bunch and hundreds of others who preyed on banks, trains, stagecoaches, and in some cases even armed government transports such as the Wham Paymaster Robbery and the Skeleton Canyon Robbery. Some of the outlaws, such as Jesse James, were products of the violence of the Civil War (James had ridden with Quantrill's Raiders) and others became outlaws during hard times in the cattle industry. Many were misfits and drifters who roamed the West avoiding the law. In rural areas Joaquin Murieta, Jack Powers, Augustine Chacon and other bandits terrorized the state. When outlaw gangs were near, towns would occasionally raise a posse to drive them out or capture them. Seeing that the need to combat the bandits was a growing business opportunity, Allan Pinkerton ordered his National Detective Agency, founded in 1850, to open branches out West, and they got into the business of pursuing and capturing outlaws. There was plenty of business thanks to the criminals such as the James Gang, Butch Cassidy, Sam Bass, and dozens of others. To take refuge from the law, outlaws would use the advantages of the open range, remote passes and badlands to hide. While some settlements and towns in the frontier also house outlaws and criminals, which were called \"outlaw towns\".\n", "Over the next few years, Chacon led a gang which operated primarily as horse thieves and cattle rustlers. They lived in the Sierra Madre of Sonora but routinely crossed into Arizona to commit crimes and sell off stolen property. The author of \"Famous sheriffs & western outlaws\", William MacLeod Raine, says that Chacon's band was the \"worst gang of outlaws that ever infested the border.\" Multiple murders, rapes, robberies and other crimes were attributed to the gang, but they always seemed to escape capture.\n" ]

[ "Because of its fundamental role in carrying a single phone call, the DS0 rate forms the basis for the digital multiplex transmission hierarchy in telecommunications systems used in North America. To limit the number of wires required between two involved in exchanging voice calls, a system was built in which multiple DS0s are multiplexed together on higher capacity circuits. In this system, twenty-four (24) DS0s are multiplexed into a DS1 signal. Twenty-eight (28) DS1s are multiplexed into a DS3. When carried over copper wire, this is the well-known T-carrier system, with T1 and T3 corresponding to DS1 and DS3, respectively. \n", "According to the Acceptable use policy of most providers where this limitation is in place, the speed is comparable to that of an old dial-up connection. However, there were numerous complaints by customers that the actual speed was lower. In response to these complaints, Telenet (cable internet provider) in October 2007 increased the speed from 32 kbps downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream to 192 kbit/s downstream and 64 kbit/s upstream, for http data traffic only. All other traffic shaping remained at 32 kbit/s downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream.\n", "The wire speed should not be confused with the line bitrate, also known as \"gross bit rate\", \"raw bitrate\" or data signalling rate, which is 125 Mbit/s in fast Ethernet. In case there is a physical layer overhead, for example due to line coding or error-correcting codes, the line bitrate is higher than the wire speed. \n", "Modern dial-up modems typically have a maximum theoretical transfer speed of 56 kbit/s (using the V.90 or V.92 protocol), although in most cases, 40–50 kbit/s is the norm. Factors such as phone line noise as well as the quality of the modem itself play a large part in determining connection speeds.\n", "The majority of users who were 500 metres or less from their local telephone exchanges were expected to achieve connection speeds close to the advertised maximum; with Annex M and interleaving disabled ('fastpath') on a 300-metre loop length, a sync speed of 24 Mbit/s downstream and 2.5 Mbit/s upstream was easily achievable.\n", "The line-length limitations from telephone exchange to subscriber impose severe limits on data transmission rates. Technologies such as VDSL provide very high-speed but short-range links. VDSL is used as a method of delivering \"triple play\" services (typically implemented in fiber to the curb network architectures).\n", "Dial-up modems developed by Gandalf Technologies and Telebit in the 1970s and 1980s used OFDM to achieve higher speeds. Amati Communications Corp. used its discrete multi-tone (DMT) form of OFDM to transmit data at higher speeds over phone lines also carrying phone calls in digital subscriber line (DSL) applications. OFDM is part of the digital audio broadcasting (DAB) and digital video broadcasting (DVB) standards developed in Europe. OFDM is also used in the 802.11a and 802.11g wireless LAN standards.\n" ]

[ "Most people who live in the area are aged between 30 and 59. This tends to be couples who are likely to have children, due to there being a great number of people aged up to 14 years in the area and few single parents. In 1995 it was recorded that there were 0 single parents and 32 children aged 0–14.\n", "People from 0–4 years old were 7.45% of the population, children from ages 5–17 were 23.2% of the population, adults 18-64 were 62.04% of the total, and people 65 and over were 7.31% of the population.\n", "As you can probably guess, it's not easy to be a parent, now try to imagine how hard it would be if you were a sixteen-year-old high school student. Karly Hart called us so she could show other teens how traumatic and exhausting the experience can be; and how the parenting process voids out any remaining sense of freedom and youthful abandon.\n", "From 1999 to 2015, there have been 20,058 Koreans adopted by US families. Of these 20,058 children, 12,038 (about 60%) have been male and 8,019 (about 40%) have been female. Of these 20,058 children, 16,474 were adopted when they were less than one year old, 3,164 were adopted when they were between one and two years old and 310 were adopted when they were between three and four years old. Of these 20,058 children, 19,222 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-4 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa, and 836 of them immigrated to the United States using the IR-3 Immediate Relative Immigrant Visa.\n", "The child must have at least one U.S. citizen parent by birth or naturalization, be under 18 years of age (at the time the law took effect, the child had to be born no earlier than February 27, 1983), live in the legal and physical custody of the U.S. citizen parent, and be admitted as an immigrant for lawful permanent residence. In addition, if the child is adopted, the adoption must be full and final.\n", "The person must be a natural-born citizen of the United States and must have been a permanent resident of the United States of America for at least 14 years. Each candidate must be at least 35 years of age.\n", "The 2010 US Census showed that nearly 7.4 million children under the age of five who had working mothers were in some form of care other than their parents. By elementary school age (considered ages 5 to 11) more than six percent of these children were home without adult supervision.\n" ]

[ "The electrons of a single, isolated atom occupy atomic orbitals each of which has a discrete energy level. When two or more atoms join together to form into a molecule, their atomic orbitals overlap. The Pauli exclusion principle dictates that no two electrons can have the same quantum numbers in a molecule. So if two identical atoms combine to form a diatomic molecule, each atomic orbital splits into two molecular orbitals of different energy, allowing the electrons in the former atomic orbitals to occupy the new orbital structure without any having the same energy.\n", "When two nearby atoms have unpaired electrons, whether the electron spins are parallel or antiparallel affects whether the electrons can share the same orbit as a result of the quantum mechanical effect called the exchange interaction. This in turn affects the electron location and the Coulomb (electrostatic) interaction and thus the energy difference between these states.\n", "When an electron in a molecule with a singlet ground state is excited (\"via\" absorption of radiation) to a higher energy level, either an excited singlet state or an excited triplet state will form. A singlet state is a molecular electronic state such that all electron spins are paired. That is, the spin of the excited electron is still paired with the ground state electron (a pair of electrons in the same energy level must have opposite spins, per the Pauli exclusion principle). In a triplet state the excited electron is no longer paired with the ground state electron; that is, they are parallel (same spin). Since excitation to a triplet state involves an additional \"forbidden\" spin transition, it is less probable that a triplet state will form when the molecule absorbs radiation.\n", "For molecules with a closed electron shell, in which each molecular orbital is doubly occupied, the localized and delocalized orbital descriptions are in fact equivalent and represent the same physical state. It might seem, again using the example of water, that placing two electrons in the first bond and two \"other\" electrons in the second bond is not the same as having four electrons free to move over both bonds. However, in quantum mechanics all electrons are identical and cannot be distinguished as \"same\" or \"other\". The total wavefunction must have a form which satisfies the Pauli exclusion principle such as a Slater determinant (or linear combination of Slater determinants), and it can be shown that if two electrons are exchanged, such a function is unchanged by any unitary transformation of the doubly occupied orbitals.\n", "Several rules govern the placement of electrons in orbitals (\"electron configuration\"). The first dictates that no two electrons in an atom may have the same set of values of quantum numbers (this is the Pauli exclusion principle). These quantum numbers include the three that define orbitals, as well as , or spin quantum number. Thus, two electrons may occupy a single orbital, so long as they have different values of . However, \"only\" two electrons, because of their spin, can be associated with each orbital.\n", "Electron behavior is elaborated by other principles of atomic physics, such as Hund's rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. Hund's rule asserts that if multiple orbitals of the same energy are available, electrons will occupy different orbitals singly before any are occupied doubly. If double occupation does occur, the Pauli exclusion principle requires that electrons which occupy the same orbital must have different spins (+1/2 and −1/2).\n", "Due to the Pauli exclusion principle, two electrons cannot share the same set of quantum numbers within the same system; therefore, there is room for only two electrons in each spatial orbital. One of these electrons must have, (for some chosen direction \"z\") \"m\" = , and the other must have \"m\" = −. Hund's first rule states that the lowest energy atomic state is the one that maximizes the total spin quantum number for the electrons in the open subshell. The orbitals of the subshell are each occupied singly with electrons of parallel spin before double occupation occurs. (This is occasionally called the \"bus seat rule\" since it is analogous to the behaviour of bus passengers who tend to occupy all double seats singly before double occupation occurs.)\n" ]

[ "A vaccine against a particular virus is relatively easy to create. The virus is foreign to the body, and therefore expresses antigens that the immune system can recognize. Furthermore, viruses usually only provide a few viable variants. By contrast, developing vaccines for viruses that mutate constantly such as influenza or HIV has been problematic.\n", "Vaccines are very effective on stable viruses, but are of limited use in treating a patient who has already been infected. They are also difficult to successfully deploy against rapidly mutating viruses, such as influenza (the vaccine for which is updated every year) and HIV. Antiviral drugs are particularly useful in these cases.\n", "Currently, no vaccine exists to prevent infection by all parvoviruses, but recently, the virus's capsid proteins, which are noninfectious molecules, have been suggested acting as antigens for improving of vaccines.\n", "The most commonly encountered strains of ANTI have only subtle effects, and thus can exist and spread indefinitely without being noticed until an antivirus application is run. Due to a bug in the virus, it cannot spread if MultiFinder is running, which prevents it from infecting System 7 and later versions of Mac OS as well as System 5 and 6 running MultiFinder.\n", "Vaccination is a cheap and effective way of preventing infections by viruses. Vaccines were used to prevent viral infections long before the discovery of the actual viruses. Their use has resulted in a dramatic decline in morbidity (illness) and mortality (death) associated with viral infections such as polio, measles, mumps and rubella. Smallpox infections have been eradicated. Vaccines are available to prevent over thirteen viral infections of humans, and more are used to prevent viral infections of animals. Vaccines can consist of live-attenuated or killed viruses, or viral proteins (antigens). Live vaccines contain weakened forms of the virus, which do not cause the disease but, nonetheless, confer immunity. Such viruses are called attenuated. Live vaccines can be dangerous when given to people with a weak immunity (who are described as immunocompromised), because in these people, the weakened virus can cause the original disease. Biotechnology and genetic engineering techniques are used to produce subunit vaccines. These vaccines use only the capsid proteins of the virus. Hepatitis B vaccine is an example of this type of vaccine. Subunit vaccines are safe for immunocompromised patients because they cannot cause the disease. The yellow fever virus vaccine, a live-attenuated strain called 17D, is probably the safest and most effective vaccine ever generated.\n", "Another common anti-vaccine myth is that natural infection produces better immune protection against contracting the illness in the future when compared to vaccination. In some cases, actual infection with the illness may produce lifelong immunity; however, natural disease carries a higher risk of harming a person's health than vaccines. For example, natural varicella infection carries a higher risk of bacterial superinfection with Group A streptococci.\n", "Most vaccines consist of viruses that have been attenuated, disabled, weakened or killed in some way so that their virulent properties are no longer effective. Genetic engineering could theoretically be used to create viruses with the virulent genes removed. In 2001, it was reported that genetically modified viruses can possibly be used to develop vaccines against diseases such as, AIDS, herpes, dengue fever and viral hepatitis by using a proven safe vaccine virus, such as adenovirus, and modify its genome to have genes that code for immunogenic proteins that can spike the immune systems response to then be able to fight the virus. Genetic engineered viruses should not have reduced infectivity, invoke a natural immune response and there is no chance that they will regain their virulence function, which can occur with some other vaccines. As such they are generally considered safer and more efficient than conventional vaccines, although concerns remain over non-target infection, potential side effects and horizontal gene transfer to other viruses. Another approach is to use vectors to create novel vaccines for diseases that have no vaccines available or the vaccines that are do not work effectively, such as AIDS, malaria, and tuberculosis. Vector-based vaccines have already been approved and many more are being developed.\n" ]

[ "According to Einstein's special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an \"absolute\" sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space. If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will generally assign different times to the two events (the only exception being when motion is exactly perpendicular to the line connecting the locations of both events).\n", "The problem can be understood in terms of the relativity of simultaneity in special relativity, which says that different inertial reference frames will disagree on whether two events at different locations happened \"at the same time\" or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the two events (technically, these disagreements occur when the spacetime interval between the events is 'space-like', meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone of the other).\n", "Einstein (\"The Meaning of Relativity\"): \"Two events taking place at the points A and B of a system K are simultaneous if they appear at the same instant when observed from the middle point, M, of the interval AB. Time is then defined as the ensemble of the indications of similar clocks, at rest relative to K, which register the same simultaneously.\"\n", "Special relativity eliminates the concept of absolute simultaneity and a universal present: according to the relativity of simultaneity, observers in different frames of reference can have different measurements of whether a given pair of events happened at the same time or at different times, with there being no physical basis for preferring one frame's judgments over another's. However, there are events that may be non-simultaneous in all frames of reference: when one event is within the light cone of another—its causal past or causal future—then observers in all frames of reference show that one event preceded the other. The causal past and causal future are consistent within all frames of reference, but any other time is \"elsewhere\", and within it there is no present, past, or future. There is no physical basis for a set of events that represents the present.\n", "In special relativity, however, the distance between two points is no longer the same if measured by two different observers when one of the observers is moving, because of Lorentz contraction. The situation is even more complicated if the two points are separated in time as well as in space. For example, if one observer sees two events occur at the same place, but at different times, a person moving with respect to the first observer will see the two events occurring at different places, because (from their point of view) they are stationary, and the position of the event is receding or approaching. Thus, a different measure must be used to measure the effective \"distance\" between two events.\n", "Rather than the thought experiment being at all incompatible with aether theories (which it is not), the youthful Einstein appears to have reacted to the scenario out of an intuitive sense of wrongness. He felt that the laws of optics should obey the principle of relativity. As he grew older, his early thought experiment acquired deeper levels of significance: Einstein felt that Maxwell's equations should be the same for all observers in inertial motion. From Maxwell's equations, one can deduce a single speed of light, and there is nothing in this computation that depends on an observer's speed. Einstein sensed a conflict between Newtonian mechanics and the constant speed of light determined by Maxwell's equations.\n", "BULLET::::- Relativity of simultaneity: Suppose two events occur simultaneously () along the x axis, but separated by a nonzero displacement . Then in , we find that formula_16, so the events are no longer simultaneous according to a moving observer.\n" ]

[ "Absorption through the skin is increased when lotions are applied and then covered with an occlusive layer, when they are applied to large areas of the body, or when they are applied to damaged or broken skin.\n", "Caffeine from coffee or other beverages is absorbed by the small intestine within 45 minutes of ingestion and distributed throughout all bodily tissues. Peak blood concentration is reached within 1–2 hours. It is eliminated by first-order kinetics. Caffeine can also be absorbed rectally, evidenced by suppositories of ergotamine tartrate and caffeine (for the relief of migraine) and chlorobutanol and caffeine (for the treatment of hyperemesis). However, rectal absorption is less efficient than oral: the maximum concentration (C) and total amount absorbed (AUC) are both about 30% (i.e., 1/3.5) of the oral amounts.\n", "Caffeine is a bio-active ingredient found in commonly consumed beverages such as coffee, tea, and sodas. Short-term physiological effects of caffeine include increased blood pressure and sympathetic nerve outflow. Habitual consumption of caffeine may inhibit physiological short-term effects. Consumption of caffeinated espresso increases parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers; however, decaffeinated espresso inhibits parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers. It is possible that other bio-active ingredients in decaffeinated espresso may also contribute to the inhibition of parasympathetic activity in habitual caffeine consumers.\n", "In contrast to neonicotinoids such as acetamiprid, clothianidin, imidacloprid, and thiamethoxam, which are absorbed through the skin to some extent, fipronil is not absorbed substantially through the skin.\n", "In a healthy liver, caffeine is mostly broken down by hepatic enzymes. The excreted metabolites are mostly paraxanthines—theobromine and theophylline—and a small amount of unchanged caffeine. Therefore, the metabolism of caffeine depends on the state of this enzymatic system of the liver.\n", "Caffeine is also an ingredient of several medications, many of them over-the-counter and prescription drugs. The consensus is to consider caffeine a drug with pharmacological effects acting throughout the body.\n", "Caffeine is a central nervous system stimulant that reduces fatigue and drowsiness. At normal doses, caffeine has variable effects on learning and memory, but it generally improves reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination. The amount of caffeine needed to produce these effects varies from person to person, depending on body size and degree of tolerance. The desired effects arise approximately one hour after consumption, and the desired effects of a moderate dose usually subside after about three or four hours.\n" ]

[ "A fortune cookie is a crisp and sugary cookie usually made from flour, sugar, vanilla, and sesame seed oil with a piece of paper inside, a \"fortune\", on which is an aphorism, or a vague prophecy. The message inside may also include a Chinese phrase with translation and/or a list of lucky numbers used by some as lottery numbers; since relatively few distinct messages are printed, in the recorded case where winning numbers happened to be printed, the lottery had an unexpectedly high number of winners sharing a prize. Fortune cookies are often served as a dessert in Chinese restaurants in the United States and other Western countries, but are not a tradition in China. The exact origin of fortune cookies is unclear, though various immigrant groups in California claim to have popularized them in the early 20th century. They most likely originated from cookies made by Japanese immigrants to the United States in the late 19th or early 20th century. The Japanese version did not have the Chinese lucky numbers and was eaten with tea.\n", "BULLET::::- A fortune cookie is a crisp cookie usually made from flour, sugar, vanilla, and oil with a \"fortune\" wrapped inside. A \"fortune\" is a piece of paper with words of faux wisdom or a vague prophecy. In the United States, it is usually served with Chinese food in Chinese restaurants as a dessert. The message inside may also include a list of lucky numbers and a Chinese phrase with translation. Contrary to belief, the fortune cookie associated as a Chinese invention is a fallacy. In 1914, the Japanese-American named Makoto Hagiwara of the Japanese Tea Garden in San Francisco, California, introduced the fortune cookie and is thus recognized as its inventor.\n", "The random fortunes in fortune cookies may be derived from o-mikuji; this is claimed by Seiichi Kito of Fugetsu-Do, and supported by evidence that American fortune cookies derive from 19th century Kyoto cookies.\n", "The Great American Fortune Cookie Novel is a romance made by collaging together more than 2,000 different fortune cookie fortunes to tell the story. Over 500 people donated fortunes to the project, and they are listed in the book as co-authors. Backwords Planet, a sci-fi fantasy novel, is a word-order palindrome in which the words in the first half reverse their order to make the second half. Haloosa Nation, a love story, has four levels of nonsense and uses puns throughout.\n", "Fortune cookies have become an iconic symbol in American culture, inspiring many products. There are fortune cookie-shaped jewelry, a fortune cookie-shaped Magic 8 Ball, and silver-plated fortune cookies. Fortune cookie toilet paper, with words of wisdom that appear when the paper is moistened, has become popular among university students in Italy and Greece.\n", "Fortune cookies are used for marketing. For example, the film \"Kung Fu Panda 3\" was promoted by putting quotes from the protagonist of the film on fortune cookie slips. Lotteries have also been advertised by suggesting lottery number picks on fortune cookie slips.\n", "The non-Chinese origin of the fortune cookie is humorously illustrated in Amy Tan's 1989 novel \"The Joy Luck Club\", in which a pair of immigrant women from China find jobs at a fortune cookie factory in America. They are amused by the unfamiliar concept of a fortune cookie but, after several hilarious attempts at translating the fortunes into Chinese, come to the conclusion that the cookies contain not wisdom but \"bad instruction\".\n" ]

[ "On the other hand, a curveball, thrown with topspin, creates a higher pressure zone on top of the ball, which deflects the ball downward in flight. Instead of counteracting gravity, the curveball adds additional downward force, thereby gives the ball an exaggerated drop in flight.\n", "Over the distance from the pitcher's mound to home plate, the effect of these forces is that the knuckleball can \"flutter,\" \"dance,\" \"jiggle,\" or curve in two different directions during its flight. A pitch thrown completely without spin is less desirable, however, than one with only a very slight spin (so that the ball completes between one-quarter and one-half a rotation on its way from the pitcher to the batter). This will cause the position of the stitches to change as the ball travels, which changes the drag that gives the ball its motion, thus making its flight even more erratic. Even a ball thrown without rotation will \"flutter\", due to the \"apparent wind\" it feels as its trajectory changes throughout its flight path.\n", "The delivery of a curveball is entirely different from that of most other pitches. The pitcher at the top of the throwing arc will snap the arm and wrist in a downward motion. The ball first leaves contact with the thumb and tumbles over the index finger thus imparting the forward or \"top-spin\" characteristic of a curveball. The result is the exact opposite pitch of the four-seam fastball's backspin, but with all four seams rotating in the direction of the flight path with forward-spin, with the axis of rotation perpendicular to the intended flight path much like a reel-type mower or a bowling ball.\n", "When throwing a gyroball, a pitcher holds the side of the ball with a fastball grip placed on the baseball's center (or equator). The pitcher's hips and throwing shoulder must be in near-perfect sync, something the book refers to as \"double-spin mechanics.\" According to Tezuka, the arm angle needs to be low, no higher than a sidearm delivery. As the pitcher rotates his shoulder, he snaps his wrist and pulls down his fingers rather than flipping them over the ball, as happens with curveballs. For the correct spin axis, the equatorial plane must first be determined by the proper finger pressure during release. The ball rolls off the index and middle fingers to the thumb side of the hand as the pitch is released. If gripped in the right manner, the rotation will have a true side-spin; if the ball is held above or below its equator, the rotation would be unstable. When the pitcher lets go, he must pronate his wrist, or turn it so the palm faces third base. \n", "From a hitter's perspective, the curveball will start in one location (usually high or at the top of the strike zone) and then dive rapidly as it approaches the plate. The most effective curveballs will start breaking at the height of the arc of the ball flight, and continue to break more and more rapidly as they approach and cross through the strike zone. A curveball that a pitcher fails to put enough spin on will not break much and is colloquially called a \"hanging curve\". Hanging curves are usually disastrous for a pitcher because the low velocity, non-breaking pitch is left high in the zone where hitters can wait on it and drive it for power.\n", "The various spins pitchers commonly employ—fastballs, curveballs, sliders, cutters—cause the ball to diverge from a \"normal\" trajectory. This is caused by the Magnus effect, which makes the ball move in the direction of its rotation. Batters learn these spins and their likely trajectories, but predominantly from high-axis pitchers whose pitches rotate around a mostly horizontal axis. Sidearm pitches rotate similarly, but around an approximately vertical axis. This causes common pitches to behave very uncommonly. For example, the four-seam fastball, when thrown by overhand power pitchers, seems to \"hop\", or rise on its way to the plate. This is because the ball is rotating backwards, lowering the air pressure above the ball. The same pitch thrown by the sidearm pitcher causes a horizontal rotation, and consequent sideways movement. Sidearm pitchers whose deliveries are below the horizontal throw a fastball that rotates nearly forward, so the ball will sink rather than rise.\n", "In baseball, the curveball, a type of pitch which usually has downward movement, is thrown in such a way as to put topspin on the ball. Its close relatives are the slider and the slurve. The \"curve\" of the ball varies from pitcher to pitcher.\n" ]

[ "The increase of the media at these conventions originally led to a growth in the public's interest in elections. Voter turnout in the primaries increased from less than five million voters in 1948 to around thirteen million in 1952. By broadcasting the conventions on the television, people were more connected to the suspense and the decisions being made, therefore making them more politically aware, and more educated voters. When scholars studied the 1976 conventions they determined that by watching nomination conventions, even viewers that were not previously very politically active developed a much stronger interest in the election process and the candidate.\n", "Political scientists have suggested that television coverage has subtly transformed the political system, with a spotlight on leaders rather than parties, thereby making for more of an American presidential-style system. In this election, television news focused on international issues, especially terrorism and asylum seekers. Minor parties were largely ignored as the two main parties monopolised the media's attention. The election was depicted as a horse-race between Howard and Beazley, with Howard running ahead and therefore being given more coverage than his Labor rival.\n", "Advances in technology and media have also affected presidential campaigns. The invention of both radio and television have given way to the reliance of national political advertisements across those methods of communication. National advertisements such as Lyndon B. Johnson's 1964 commercial \"Daisy\", Ronald Reagan's 1984 commercial \"Morning in America\", and George H. W. Bush's 1988 commercial \"Revolving Door\" became major factors in those respective elections. In 1992, George H. W. Bush's promise of \"\" was extensively used in the commercials of Bill Clinton and Bush's other opponents with significant effect during the campaign.\n", "In late 2004, the National Annenberg Election Survey at the University of Pennsylvania ran a study of American television viewers and found that fans of \"The Daily Show\" had a more accurate idea of the facts behind the 2004 presidential election than most others, including those who primarily got their news through the national network evening newscasts and through reading newspapers. However, in a 2004 campaign survey conducted by the Pew Research Center those who cited comedy shows such as \"The Daily Show\" as a source for news were among the least informed on campaign events and key aspects of the candidates' backgrounds while those who cited the Internet, National Public Radio, and news magazines were the most informed. Even when age and education were taken into account, the people who learned about the campaigns through the Internet were still found to be the most informed, while those who learned from comedy shows were the least informed.\n", "The study found that the US news media deprive the American public of what Americans say they want: voters are eager to know more about the candidates’ positions on issues and their personal backgrounds, more about lesser-known candidates and more about debates. Commentators have pointed out that when covering election campaigns news media often emphasize trivial facts about the candidates but more rarely provide the candidates' specific public stances on issues that matter to voters.\n", "Since the first televised presidential debate in 1960, the rise of media, especially visual media, has had increased importance on political elections. By televising elections, more emphasis was placed on the physical appearance of the candidates and how that reflected their perceived ability or skill. As well, the idea of what a president looked like was cemented in American minds as a white male. This such coverage has only increased since the rise of social media. This poses additional challenges to female candidates. They have difficulties getting equal news coverage to their male counterparts, receiving 50% less coverage. When covered, the information emphasizes on the female candidates’ personal traits, such as physical appearance, rather than their positions on political issues.\n", "That same year, George Gallup, an advertising executive who had begun a scientific poll, predicted that Roosevelt would win the election, based on a quota sample of 50,000 people. He also predicted that the \"Literary Digest\" would mis-predict the results. His correct predictions made public opinion polling a critical element of elections for journalists and indeed for politicians. The Gallup Poll would become a staple of future presidential elections, and remains one of the most prominent election polling organizations.\n" ]

[ "Flat roofs exist all over the world and each area has its own tradition or preference for materials used. In warmer climates, where there is less rainfall and freezing is unlikely to occur, many flat roofs are simply built of masonry or concrete and this is good at keeping out the heat of the sun and cheap and easy to build where timber is not readily available. In areas where the roof could become saturated by rain and leak, or where water soaked into the brickwork could freeze to ice and thus lead to 'blowing' (breaking up of the mortar/brickwork/concrete by the expansion of ice as it forms) these roofs are not suitable. Flat roofs are characteristic of the Egyptian, Persian, and Arabian styles of architecture.\n", "Roofs are traditionally constructed from Alpine rocks such as pieces of schist, gneiss or slate. Such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys, as in the Maurienne valley in Savoy, where the amount of snow during the cold months is important. The inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40%, allowing the snow to stay on top, thereby functioning as insulation from the cold. In the lower areas where the forests are widespread, wooden tiles are traditionally used. Commonly made of Norway spruce, they are called \"tavaillon\".\n", "In general, the pitch of the roof is proportional to the amount of precipitation. Houses in areas of low rainfall frequently have roofs of low pitch while those in areas of high rainfall and snow, have steep roofs. The longhouses of Papua New Guinea, for example, being roof-dominated architecture, the high roofs sweeping almost to the ground. The high steeply-pitched roofs of Germany and Holland are typical in regions of snowfall. In parts of North America such as Buffalo, USA or Montreal, Canada, there is a required minimum slope of 6 inches in 12 inches, a pitch of 30 degrees.\n", "...because the buildings all have flattened roofs, covered with birch-bark and verdant turfs in the same manner as the peasant's cottages in Russia. The roofs serve as pasturage, and on some goats are kept grazing, whom occasionally jumps over the street from one building to another and then back again.\n", "Roof shapes vary from almost flat to steeply pitched. They can be arched or domed; a single flat sheet or a complex arrangement of slopes, gables and hips; or truncated (terraced, cut) to minimize the overall height.\n", "Some claim thatch cannot cope with regular snowfall but, as with all roofing materials, this depends on the strength of the underlying roof structure and the pitch of the surface. A law passed in 1640 in Massachusetts outlawed the use of thatched roofs in the colony for this reason. Thatch is lighter than most other roofing materials, typically around , so the roof supporting it does not need to be so heavily constructed, but if snow accumulates on a lightly constructed thatched roof, it could collapse. A thatched roof is usually pitched between 45–55 degrees and under normal circumstances this is sufficient to shed snow and water. In areas of extreme snowfall, such as parts of Japan, the pitch is increased further.\n", "The great roof, with its long overhangs, sweeps right down to the ground floor at the sides, shading the walls of the house in summer whilst allowing the sun, now much lower in the sky, to warm the walls in winter. Depending on the situation, the roof was covered with wooden shingles or thatch, whilst today they are generally covered with tiles. In the high regions of the Black Forest, where cattle farming and forestry predominate, shingles are overwhelmingly used, whilst in the valleys, thatch is most common. The half-hipped roof, with its sides sloping in all directions, reduces the wind loading area and reduces wear.\n" ]

[ "In United States politics, a brokered convention (sometimes referred to as an open convention and closely related to a contested convention) can occur during a presidential election when a political party fails to choose a nominee on the first round of delegate voting at the party's nominating convention.\n", "Nearly all states have a \"binding\" primary or caucus, in which the results of the election depending on state law or party rules legally \"bind\" some or all of the delegates to vote for a particular candidate at the national convention, for a certain number of ballots or until the candidate releases the delegates. Some binding primaries are \"winner-take-all\" contests, in which all of a state's delegates are required to vote for the same candidate. In a \"proportional vote\", a state's delegation is allocated in proportion to the candidates' percent of the popular vote in a congressional district. In many of those states that have proportional vote primaries, a candidate must meet a certain threshold in the popular vote to be given delegates.\n", "The Nevada caucuses are an electoral event in which citizens of the U.S. state of Nevada meet in precinct caucuses to elect delegates to the corresponding county conventions. There are 17 counties in Nevada and so there are 17 conventions. The county conventions then select delegates to Nevada's State Convention, which then choose delegates for the presidential nominating conventions.\n", "The Democratic Party presidential primaries and caucuses are indirect elections in which voters elect delegates to the 2016 Democratic National Convention; these delegates in turn directly elect the Democratic Party's presidential nominee. In some states, the party may disregard voters' selection of delegates or selected delegates may vote for any candidate at the state or national convention (\"non-binding\" primary or caucus). In other states, state laws and party rules require the party to select delegates according to votes, and delegates must vote for a particular candidate (\"binding\" primary or caucus). There are 4,051 pledged delegates and 714 superdelegates in the 2016 cycle. Under the party's delegate selection rules, the number of pledged delegates allocated to each of the 50 U.S. states and Washington, D.C. is determined using a formula based on three main factors:\n", "The presidential primary elections and caucuses held in the various states, the District of Columbia, and territories of the United States form part of the nominating process of candidates for United States presidential elections. The United States Constitution has never specified the process; political parties have developed their own procedures over time. Some states hold only primary elections, some hold only caucuses, and others use a combination of both. These primaries and caucuses are staggered, generally beginning sometime in January or February, and ending about mid-June before the general election in November. State and local governments run the primary elections, while caucuses are private events that are directly run by the political parties themselves. A state's primary election or caucus is usually an indirect election: instead of voters directly selecting a particular person running for president, they determine the number of delegates each party's national convention will receive from their respective state. These delegates then in turn select their party's presidential nominee. The first state in the United States to hold its presidential primary was New Hampshire in 1920.\n", "In case of a brokered convention, Rule 40(b) of the 2016 convention rules states that a candidate must have the support of a majority of the delegates of at least eight delegations in order to get the nomination. On the first ballot, delegates from all states and territories except Colorado, Wyoming, North Dakota, Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam and a few from Louisiana must vote for the candidate who won their support on the day of their state's primary or caucus. On the second ballot, 55 percent of the delegates are free to vote for whomever they want. By the third ballot, 85 percent of the delegates are free.\n", "The Texas caucuses are a political event associated with primaries, the process by which voters in the U.S. state of Texas ultimately select their parties' nominees for various offices. The process as a whole has been referred to as the Texas Two-step, after the partner dance of the same name, because Texans were required to first vote in the primary election in order to be eligible for participation in party caucuses in which delegates were selected. \n" ]

[ "The liquid-fuel rocket is a rocket with an engine that uses propellants in liquid form. On March 16, 1926 in Auburn, Massachusetts, Dr. Robert H. Goddard, the \"father of modern rocketry\", launched the first liquid-fueled rocket in history, which used liquid oxygen and gasoline as propellants.\n", "Rocket fuel consists of solid, liquid and gel state fuels for propulsion. In order to power rockets, a fuel and an oxidiser are mixed within the combustion chamber, producing a high energy propulsive exhaust as thrust. The main uses for rocket fuel are for space shuttle boosters in order to propel the craft out of the atmosphere, or for missiles. Solid rocket propellant does not degrade in long-term storage and remains reliable on combustion. This allows munitions to remain loaded and fired when needed, which is highly regarded for military use. Once ignited, solid rocket propellants cannot be shutdown. The fuel and the oxidiser are stored within a metal casing. Once ignited, the fuel burns from the centre of the solid compound towards the edges of the metal casing. Burn rates and intensity are manipulated by the changing of the shape of a channel between the fuel and the casing shell. Two varieties of solid rocket fuel propellants exist. These include homogeneous and composite solid rocket fuels. These fuels are characteristically dense, stable at ordinary temperatures and easily storable. Liquid fuels are more controllable than solid rocket fuels, and can be shutoff after ignition and restarted, as well as offering greater thrust control. Liquid propellants are stored in two parts in an engine, as the fuel in one tank and an oxidiser in another. These liquids are mixed in the combustion chamber and ignited. Hypergolic fuel is mixed and ignites spontaneously, requiring no separate ignition. Liquid fuel compounds include petroleum, hydrogen and oxygen.\n", "Rocket Fuel Is The Key formed in early 1994 when guitarist Scott McNearney moved to Kansas City and began to search for like-minded people to make music with. Bringing in Ed Przychodzki on drums and Vic Denson on bass guitar the lineup was finished six months later. Following the creation of a demo and extensive touring the band they were approached by a New York label to record their debut album.\n", "These fuels utilize the beneficial liquid cryogenic properties along with the flammable nature of the substance as a source of power. These types of fuel are well known primarily for their use in rockets including the Intercontinental ballistic missile. Some common combustible fuels include:\n", "Rocket propellant is mass that is stored, usually in some form of propellant tank or casing, prior to being used as the propulsive mass that is ejected from a rocket engine in the form of a fluid jet to produce thrust. For chemical rockets often the propellants are a fuel such as liquid hydrogen or kerosene burned with an oxidizer such as liquid oxygen or nitric acid to produce large volumes of very hot gas. The oxidiser is either kept separate and mixed in the combustion chamber, or comes premixed, as with solid rockets.\n", "Since the energy ultimately comes from fuel, these considerations mean that rockets are mainly useful when a very high speed is required, such as ICBMs or orbital launch. For example, NASA's space shuttle fires its engines for around 8.5 minutes, consuming 1,000 tonnes of solid propellant (containing 16% aluminium) and an additional 2,000,000 litres of liquid propellant (106,261 kg of liquid hydrogen fuel) to lift the 100,000 kg vehicle (including the 25,000 kg payload) to an altitude of 111 km and an orbital velocity of 30,000 km/h. At this altitude and velocity, the vehicle has a kinetic energy of about 3 TJ and a potential energy of roughly 200 GJ. Given the initial energy of 20 TJ, the Space Shuttle is about 16% energy efficient at launching the orbiter.\n", "A fuel is any material that can be made to react with other substances so that it releases energy as heat energy or to be used for work. The concept was originally applied solely to those materials capable of releasing chemical energy but has since also been applied to other sources of heat energy such as nuclear energy (via nuclear fission and nuclear fusion).\n" ]

[ "Ten years after the US Supreme Court ruled in \"Brown II (1955)\" for school racial integration with \"all deliberate speed,\" many school districts in states with school segregation gave their students the right to choose between white and black schools, independently of their race. In practice, most schools remained segregated, with only a small minority of black students choosing to attend a white school and no white student choosing black schools.\n", "In a precursor to \"Brown v. Board\" the 1947, federal legal case \"Mendez v. Westminster\" fought to take down segregated schools for Mexican American and white students, in doing so this prompted Governor Earl Warren to repeal a state law calling for segregation of Native American and Asian American students in California. Further proof that East Asians were segregated in the American education system during the Jim Crow era of the United States. However, as a result of the Wysinger vs. Crookshank, 82 Cal 588, 720, (1890) ruling, Blacks were integrated into California's education system and thus never attended segregated public schools during the Jim Crow era in California.\n", "After World War II, the League of United Latin American Citizens filed a lawsuit in Texas to eliminate educational segregation of Mexican-American children in school systems. In June 1948, the federal court in Austin stated that this kind of segregation was unconstitutional because it violated the Fourteenth Amendment. After the decision, Mexican-Americans were officially classified as white, and were no longer subject to the \"separate-but-equal\" doctrine. The Texas State Board of Education issued an accommodating statement of policy and instructed local school districts to abolish segregation of Mexican Americans.\n", "The implementation of school integration policies did not just affect black and white students; in recent years, scholars have noted how the integration of public schools significantly affected Hispanic populations in the south and southwest. Historically, Hispanic-Americans were legally considered white. A group of Mexican-Americans in Corpus Christi, Texas challenged this classification, as it resulted in discrimination and ineffective school integration policies. In \"Cisneros v. Corpus Christi Independent School District\" (1970), the Federal District Court decreed that Hispanic-Americans should be classified as an ethnic minority group, and that the integration of Corpus Christi schools should reflect that. In 2005, historian Guadalupe San Miguel authored \"Brown Not White\", an in-depth study of how Hispanic populations were used by school districts to circumvent truly integrating their schools. It detailed that when school districts officially categorized Hispanic students as ethnically white, a predominately African-American school and a predominately Hispanic school could be combined and successfully pass the integration standards laid out by the U.S. government, leaving white schools unaffected. San Miguel describes how the Houston Independent School District used this loophole to keep predominately white schools unchanged, at the disadvantage of Hispanic students.\n", "In 1954, the US Supreme Court ruled in \"Brown vs. Board of Education\" that segregation of public schools was unconstitutional. Schools and other public facilities were segregated by state law in Southern states. Some sources claim that the first White Citizens' Council started after this in Greenwood, Mississippi. Others say that the group originated in Indianola, Mississippi. The recognized leader was Robert B. Patterson of Indianola, a plantation manager and a former captain of the Mississippi State University football team. Additional chapters were established in many other southern towns. \n", "In the 20th century, when schools were legally segregated by race (the Jim Crow era), Mexican-Americans attended schools legally designated for white students. Until 1970 the Houston Independent School District (HISD) counted its Hispanic and Latino students as \"white.\"\n", "Prior to the Brown v Board of Education decision in 1954, Arkansas law required school districts to maintain separate schools for black and white students. Traditionally, schools were operated on a neighborhood basis, and this allowed the white-dominated school board to continue operating segregated schools because the neighborhoods themselves were segregated. In 1959 the court case \"Dove v. Parham\" ruled that three negro students had the right to attend Dollarway High School. Segregationists including Jim Johnson and Amis Guthridge incited a riot and prevented this from happening for some period of time. Because of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the school board reluctantly instituted a choice plan, which resulted in a very small number of black students attending Dollarway, but no white students attending Townsend Park. A very small number of teachers had also been transferred between the old systems. Judge Henley ruled in \"Cato v. Parham\" that this did not satisfy the requirement for integration. White members of the school board admitted that race was still a consideration in their zoning, and that they ignored the input of the board's only black member. Judge Henley ordered that the zoning be withdrawn and that the faculty be reassigned so that the percentages were approximately equal to the percentages of the population. In 1970 the schools were finally integrated, with Townsend Park High School becoming Townsend Park Elementary, which it remained until it closed in 2016. High school students were sent to Dollarway High School.\n" ]

[ "According to Hendry, moving clouds may also sometimes confuse observers by creating induced motion. Hendry believes this occasionally makes observers also believe objects have suddenly disappeared or make a rapid departure.\n", "However, because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere, and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it, the air flow from center to periphery is not direct, but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect, or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference. Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet.\n", "Perhaps the most commonly encountered rotating reference frame is the Earth. Moving objects on the surface of the Earth experience a Coriolis force, and appear to veer to the right in the northern hemisphere, and to the left in the southern. Movements of air in the atmosphere and water in the ocean are notable examples of this behavior: rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would on a non-rotating planet, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator, and to the left of this direction south of the equator. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n", "These patterns are formed from a phenomenon known as a Kármán vortex which is named after the engineer and fluid dynamicist Theodore von Kármán. Wind driven clouds can form into parallel rows that follow the wind direction. When the wind and clouds encounter high elevation land features such as a vertically prominent islands, they can form eddies around the high land masses that give the clouds a twisted appearance.\n", "In popular (non-technical) usage of the term \"Coriolis effect\", the rotating reference frame implied is almost always the Earth. Because the Earth spins, Earth-bound observers need to account for the Coriolis force to correctly analyze the motion of objects. The Earth completes one rotation per day, so for motions of everyday objects the Coriolis force is usually quite small compared to other forces; its effects generally become noticeable only for motions occurring over large distances and long periods of time, such as large-scale movement of air in the atmosphere or water in the ocean. Such motions are constrained by the surface of the Earth, so only the horizontal component of the Coriolis force is generally important. This force causes moving objects on the surface of the Earth to be deflected to the right (with respect to the direction of travel) in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. The horizontal deflection effect is greater near the poles, since the effective rotation rate about a local vertical axis is largest there, and decreases to zero at the equator. Rather than flowing directly from areas of high pressure to low pressure, as they would in a non-rotating system, winds and currents tend to flow to the right of this direction north of the equator and to the left of this direction south of it. This effect is responsible for the rotation of large cyclones (see Coriolis effects in meteorology).\n", "Geophysical fluid dynamics is a primary tool in physical oceanography and meteorology. The rotation of the Earth has profound effects on the Earth's fluid dynamics, often due to the Coriolis effect. In the atmosphere it gives rise to large-scale patterns like Rossby waves and determines the basic circulation patterns of storms. In the ocean they drive large-scale circulation patterns as well as Kelvin waves and Ekman spirals at the ocean surface. In the Earth's core, the circulation of the molten iron is structured by Taylor columns.\n", "Tropospheric clouds exert numerous influences on Earth's troposphere and climate. First and foremost, they are the source of precipitation, thereby greatly influencing the distribution and amount of precipitation. Because of their differential buoyancy relative to surrounding cloud-free air, clouds can be associated with vertical motions of the air that may be convective, frontal, or cyclonic. The motion is upward if the clouds are less dense because condensation of water vapor releases heat, warming the air and thereby decreasing its density. This can lead to downward motion because lifting of the air results in cooling that increases its density. All of these effects are subtly dependent on the vertical temperature and moisture structure of the atmosphere and result in major redistribution of heat that affect the Earth's climate.\n" ]

[ "Particle-beam weapons can use charged or neutral particles, and can be either endoatmospheric or exoatmospheric. Particle beams as beam weapons are theoretically possible, but practical weapons have not been demonstrated yet. Certain types of particle beams have the advantage of being self-focusing in the atmosphere.\n", "High intensity neutron beams are generally generated by spallation at linac particle accelerators such as the Spallation Neutron Source. Neutrons diffract crystals similarly to X-rays and can be used for structural determination. Hydrogen atoms, with between one and zero electrons in a biological setting, diffract X-rays poorly and are effectively invisible under normal experimental conditions. Neutrons scatter from atomic nuclei, and are therefore capable of detecting hydrogen and deuterium atoms.\n", "These accelerators are being used for nuclear medicine in medical physics, sample analysis using techniques such as PIXE in the material sciences, depth profiling in solid state physics, and to a lesser extent secondary ion mass spectrometry in geologic and cosmochemical works, and even neutron beams can be made from the charged particles emerging from these accelerators to perform neutron crystallography in condensed matter physics. The principles used in electrostatic nuclear accelerators could be used to accelerate any charged particles, but particle physics operates at much higher energy regimes than these machines can achieve, and there are various better methods suited for making electron beams, so these accelerators are used for accelerating nuclei.\n", "In particle accelerators an ion source creates a particle beam at the beginning of the machine, the \"source\". The technology to create ion sources for particle accelerators depends strongly on the type of particle that needs to be generated: electrons, protons, H ion or a Heavy ions.\n", "Traditional particle accelerators with hydrogen (H), deuterium (D), or tritium (T) ion sources may be used to produce neutrons using targets of deuterium, tritium, lithium, beryllium, and other low-Z materials. Typically these accelerators operate with energies in the 1 MeV range.\n", "A particle-beam weapon uses a high-energy beam of atomic or subatomic particles to damage the target by disrupting its atomic and/or molecular structure. A particle-beam weapon is a type of directed-energy weapon, which directs energy in a particular and focused direction using particles with minuscule mass. Some particle-beam weapons have potential practical applications, e.g. as an antiballistic missile defense system for the United States and its cancelled Strategic Defense Initiative. They have been known by myriad names: phasers, particle accelerator guns, ion cannons, proton beams, lightning rays, rayguns, etc.\n", "Particle accelerators can also produce neutrino beams. Neutron beams are mostly produced by nuclear reactors. For the production of electromagnetic radiation, there are many methods, depending upon the wave length (see electromagnetic spectrum).\n" ]

[ "A holographic screen is a two dimensional display technology that uses coated glass media for the projection surface of a video projector. \"Holographic\" refers not to a stereoscopic effect (for that, see Holographic display), but to the coating that bundles light using formed microlenses. The lens design and attributes match the holographic area. The lenses may appear similar to the fresnel lenses used in overhead projectors. The resulting effect is that of a free-space display, because the image carrier appears very transparent. Additionally, the beam manipulation by the lenses can be used to make the image appear to be floating in front of or behind the glass, rather than directly on it. However, this display is only two-dimensional and not true three-dimensional. It is unclear if such a technology will be able to provide acceptable three-dimensional images in the future.\n", "Alternatively, the holographic image can be brought to life by a holographic 3D display (a display which operates on the basis of interference of coherent light), bypassing the need of having to fabricate a \"hardcopy\" of the holographic interference pattern each time. Consequently, in recent times the term \"computer-generated holography\" is increasingly being used to denote the whole process chain of synthetically preparing holographic light wavefronts suitable for observation.\n", "The screensaver is also a creative outlet for computer programmers. The Unix-based screensaver XScreenSaver collects the display effects of other Unix screensavers, which are termed \"display hacks\" in the \"jargon file\" tradition of US computer science academics. It also collects forms of computer graphics effects called \"demo effects\", originally included in demos created by the demo scene.\n", "A holographic display is a type of display that utilizes light diffraction to create a virtual three-dimensional image of an object. Holographic displays are distinguished from other forms of 3D imaging in that they do not require the aid of any special glasses or external equipment for a viewer to see the image.\n", "Video games have used fictional holographic technology that reflected real life misrepresentations of potential military use of holograms, such as the \"mirage tanks\" in \"\" that can disguise themselves as trees. Holographic decoys are used in games such as \"\" and \"Crysis 2\".\n", "Touchable holograms were originally a Japanese invention that became further developed by American microprocessor company Intel. Touchable hologram technology is the closest modern representation of the holographic displays that one might see in sci-fi movies such as Star Wars and particularly in the Star Trek television franchise. This display is unique in that it can detect a user's touch by sensing movements in the air. The device then provides haptic feedback to the user by sending an ultrasonic air blast in return. In Intel's demonstration of this technology, the display was showcased representing a touchless, responsive piano. A possible implementation for this technology would be interactive displays in public kiosks; because this type of display does not require a user to physically touch a screen, it ensures that bacteria and viruses do not get transmitted from person to person.\n", "Video games have used fictional holographic technology that reflected real life misrepresentations of potential military use of holograms, such as the \"mirage tanks\" in \"\" that can disguise themselves as trees. Holographic decoys are used in games such as \"Halo Reach\" and \"Crysis 2\".\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- In \"World's Fair 1992\" by Robert Silverberg (1968), a U.S.-led expedition reaches Pluto in less than two weeks using a nuclear-powered spacecraft capable of continuous acceleration. The spacecraft, \"Pluto I,\" collects five crab-like indigenous Plutonians and returns them to Earth orbit for study.\n", "In May 1989, a group of scientists and engineers, including Alan Stern and Fran Bagenal, formed an alliance called the \"Pluto Underground\". It was named in homage of the Mars Underground, another group of scientists that successfully lobbied for the restart of missions to Mars, following the lack of such since the Viking program. The group started a letter writing campaign which aimed to bring to attention Pluto as a viable target for exploration. In 1990, because of pressure from the scientific community, including those of the Pluto Underground, engineers at NASA decided to look into concepts for a mission to Pluto. At the time, it was thought that the atmosphere of Pluto would freeze and fall to the surface during winter, and so a lightweight spacecraft was desirable, as it would be able to reach Pluto before such an event would occur. One of the earliest concepts was for a 40-kilogram spacecraft that would reach Pluto in five to six years. The idea was shortly scrapped, however, because of the infeasibility of miniaturizing scientific instruments aboard such a spacecraft to that size.\n", "After an intense political battle, a revised mission to Pluto called \"New Horizons\" was granted funding from the US government in 2003. \"New Horizons\" was launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission leader, S. Alan Stern, confirmed that some of the ashes of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed aboard the spacecraft.\n", "As proposed by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1992, the Pluto Fast Flyby mission was to be two craft weighing 150 kg (330.7 lb) each. The voyage from Earth to Pluto was to take seven or eight years, with a launch as early as 1998. The two craft would be timed to view different sides of Pluto. The budget for the mission was said to be no more than $400-million, with NASA administrator Daniel Goldin wholeheartedly supporting the proposal.\n", "BULLET::::- NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft performs a close flyby of Pluto, becoming the first spacecraft in history to visit the distant world. It will explore the area for five months, before entering the Kuiper belt and eventually leaving the Solar System.\n", "A Pluto orbiter/lander/sample return mission was proposed in 2003. The plan included a twelve-year trip from Earth to Pluto, mapping from orbit, multiple landings, a warm water probe, and possible \"in situ\" propellant production for another twelve-year trip back to Earth with samples. Power and propulsion would come from the bimodal MITEE nuclear reactor system.\n", "BULLET::::- 2015 – On July 14, NASA's \"New Horizons\" spacecraft became the first to fly by Pluto, on a mission to photograph and collect data on its planetary system. No other spacecraft has yet performed such a mission so far from Earth.\n" ]

[ "The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries. Baghdad was the largest multicultural city of the Middle Ages, peaking at a population of more than a million, and was the centre of learning during the Islamic Golden Age. The Mongols destroyed the city and burned its library during the siege of Baghdad in the 13th century.\n", "On 10 February 1258, Baghdad was captured by the Mongols led by Hulegu, a grandson of Chingiz Khan (Genghis Khan), during the siege of Baghdad. Many quarters were ruined by fire, siege, or looting. The Mongols massacred most of the city's inhabitants, including the caliph Al-Musta'sim, and destroyed large sections of the city. The canals and dykes forming the city's irrigation system were also destroyed. During this time, in Baghdad, Christians and Shia were tolerated, while Sunnis were treated as enemies. The sack of Baghdad put an end to the Abbasid Caliphate. It has been argued that this marked an end to the Islamic Golden Age and served a blow from which Islamic civilisation never fully recovered.\n", "The Baghdad Battery or Parthian Battery is a set of three artifacts which were found together: a ceramic pot, a tube of copper, and a rod of iron. It was discovered in modern Khujut Rabu, Iraq, close to the metropolis of Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parthian (150 BC – 223 AD) and Sasanian (224–650 AD) empires, and it is considered to date from either of these periods.\n", "Baghdad was founded 1,250 years ago on 30 July 762. It was designed by caliph Al-Mansur. According to 11th-century scholar Al-Khatib al-Baghdadi – each course consisted of 162,000 bricks for the first third of the wall's height, 150,000 for the second third and 140,000 for the final section, bonded together with bundles of reeds. The outer wall was 80ft high, crowned with battlements and flanked by bastions. A deep moat ringed the outer wall perimeter.\n", "For centuries, Baghdad was the capital of the Abbasid caliphate; its library was unrivalled and a magnet for intellectuals around the known world. However, in 1258, Baghdad fell to the Mongol invaders, who pillaged the city, decimating mosques, libraries and palaces, thereby destroying most of the city's literary, religious and artistic assets. The Mongols also killed between 200,000 and one million people, leaving the population totally demoralised and the city barely habitable. Iraqi art historians view this period as a time when the \"chain of pictorial art\" was broken.\n", "The Mongols under Chinese general Guo Kan laid siege to the city on January 29, 1258, constructing a palisade and a ditch and wheeling up siege engines and catapults. The battle was short by siege standards. By February 5 the Mongols controlled a stretch of the wall. The caliph tried to negotiate but was refused. On February 10 Baghdad surrendered. The Mongols swept into the city on February 13 and began a week of destruction. The Grand Library of Baghdad, containing countless precious historical documents and books on subjects ranging from medicine to astronomy, was destroyed. Survivors said that the waters of the Tigris ran black with ink from the enormous quantity of books flung into the river. Citizens attempted to flee but were intercepted by Mongol soldiers.\n", "Jerusalem, considered the holiest city for Christians and Jews, was one of the earliest cities conquered by the Muslim Arabs. The Dome of the Rock is the oldest preserved Islamic structure in the world. Today the city still contains several mosques, including the Al-Aqsa mosque which served as the first \"qibla\" for about a year.\n" ]

[ "In 2018, the world's oldest brewery was found, with residue of 13,000-year-old beer, in a prehistoric cave near Haifa in Israel when researchers were looking for clues into what plant foods the Natufian people were eating. This is 8,000 years earlier then experts had previously thought beer was invented.\n", "Based on these and other claims, the \"Stiftskulinarium\" is perhaps the oldest existing restaurant in the world, and likely the oldest in Europe. Christopher Columbus, Johann Georg Faust, and Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart are said to have been served at the restaurant.\n", "The world's oldest brewery was discovered in 2018 in a prehistoric burial site in a cave near Haifa in Israel. Researchers have found residue of 13,000-year-old beer that they think might have been used for ritual feasts to honor the dead. The traces of a wheat-and-barley-based alcohol were found in stone mortars carved into the cave floor. It had been thought that beer-making originated in Babylon 5000 years ago. This new discovery precedes that by 8000 years.\n", "A 4,000-year-old Mesopotamian recipe for brewing beer from multigrain loaves of bread mixed with honey is the oldest surviving beer recipe in the world. The Brussels Beer Project microbrewery in Belgium has developed an amber beer with a 7% alcohol by volume named Babylone that incorporates this recipe using leftover, unsold fresh bread donated by supermarkets.\n", "Archaeologists have confirmed that a beverage dated to 7000–6600 B.C. and brewed in the Neolithic settlement of Jiahu, is the oldest known grog. Analysis on pottery shows the chemical makeup of the drink was from a combination of honey mead, mixed with a concoction of rice, grapes, and hawthorn fruit—creating a mixed beer and wine beverage. Though the process used to break down the rice grain, whether chewing or malting, is unknown, women in both Japan and Taiwan in the modern age still engage in chewing rice to begin the fermentation process for making alcohol. In Chinese legend, Yi Di, wife of Yu the Great, is credited with making the first alcohol from rice grains. A female divine being in Ainu mythology known as Kamui Fuchi was the protector of brewing and brewers prayed to her and offered libations to ensure the warding off of evil spirits which might spoil the batch.\n", "On 10 March 2010 the \"Mirror\" wrote an article on the oldest food found in people's homes. One of these mentioned was a 69-year-old gas-proof tin of Mazawattee tea. The tin has never been opened and belongs to a resident of Cowes in the Isle of Wight.\n", "In the late 1990s, the laboratory and collaborators analyzed the extraordinarily well-preserved organic residues inside the largest known Iron Age drinking-set, excavated inside the burial chamber of the Midas Tumulus at Gordion in Turkey, ca. 740-700 B.C. The reconstruction of the \"funerary feast\"–which paired a mixed or extreme fermented beverage of grapes, barley and honey, viz. wine, beer and mead (\"Midas Touch,\" see below) with a spicy, barbecued lamb and lentil stew–is the first time that an ancient meal has been re-created based solely on the chemical evidence.\n" ]

[ "The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium. Sound cannot travel through a vacuum.\n", "Radio waves in a vacuum travel at the speed of light. When passing through a material medium, they are slowed according to that object's permeability and permittivity. Air is thin enough that in the Earth's atmosphere radio waves travel very close to the speed of light.\n", "There is no air in outer space, nor there is any other type of medium capable of transmitting any vibration from a source to a human ear. However, there are sources in outer space that do vibrate at frequencies that would be audible by a human, if only there were some sort of transmitting media to carry those vibrations from the source to a human eardrum.\n", "Radio waves in vacuum travel at the speed of light. The Earth's atmosphere is thin enough that radio waves in the atmosphere travel very close to the speed of light, but variations in density and temperature can cause some slight refraction (bending) of waves over distances.\n", "For instance, sound will travel 1.59 times faster in nickel than in bronze, due to the greater stiffness of nickel at about the same density. Similarly, sound travels about 1.41 times faster in light hydrogen (protium) gas than in heavy hydrogen (deuterium) gas, since deuterium has similar properties but twice the density. At the same time, \"compression-type\" sound will travel faster in solids than in liquids, and faster in liquids than in gases, because the solids are more difficult to compress than liquids, while liquids in turn are more difficult to compress than gases.\n", "Sound typically travels fastest and farthest through solids, then liquids, then gases such as the atmosphere. Sound is affected during fog conditions due to the small distances between water droplets, and air temperature differences.\n", "Electromagnetic radiation can be transmitted through an optical medium, such as optical fiber, or through twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, or dielectric-slab waveguides. It may also pass through any physical material that is transparent to the specific wavelength, such as water, air, glass, or concrete. Sound is, by definition, the vibration of matter, so it requires a physical medium for transmission, as do other kinds of mechanical waves and heat energy. Historically, science incorporated various aether theories to explain the transmission medium. However, it is now known that electromagnetic waves do not require a physical transmission medium, and so can travel through the \"vacuum\" of free space. Regions of the insulative vacuum can become conductive for electrical conduction through the presence of free electrons, holes, or ions.\n" ]

[ "In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length, equal to . It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant. According to the generalized uncertainty principle (a concept from speculative models of quantum gravity), the Planck length is, in principle, within a factor of 10, the shortest measurable length – and no theoretically known improvement in measurement instruments could change that. By contrast, the largest measurable thing is the observable universe. The proper distance – the distance as would be measured at a specific time, including the present – between Earth and the edge of the observable universe is , making the diameter of the observable universe about .\n", "The Planck time (also known as Planck second) was first suggested by Max Planck in 1899. He suggested that there existed some fundamental natural units for length, mass, time and energy. Planck derived these using dimensional analysis only using what he considered the most fundamental universal constants: the speed of light, the Newton gravitational constant and the Planck constant. The Planck time is considered by many physicists to be the shortest possible measurable time interval; however, this is still a matter of debate.\n", "Planck time (~ 5.4 × 10 seconds) is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. Current established physical theories are believed to fail at this time scale, and many physicists expect that the Planck time might be the smallest unit of time that could ever be measured, even in principle. Tentative physical theories that describe this time scale exist; see for instance loop quantum gravity.\n", "In physics, the Planck length, denoted , is a unit of length that is the distance light travels in one unit of Planck time. It is equal to It is a base unit in the system of Planck units, developed by physicist Max Planck. The Planck length can be defined from three fundamental physical constants: the speed of light in a vacuum, the Planck constant, and the gravitational constant.\n", "The Planck time is the unique combination of the gravitational constant , the special-relativistic constant , and the quantum constant , to produce a constant with dimension of time. Because the Planck time comes from dimensional analysis, which ignores constant factors, there is no reason to believe that exactly one unit of Planck time has any special physical significance. Rather, the Planck time represents a rough time scale at which quantum gravitational effects are likely to become important. This essentially means that while smaller units of time can exist, they are so small their effect on our existence is negligible. The nature of those effects, and the exact time scale at which they would occur, would need to be derived from an actual theory of quantum gravity.\n", "The Planck constant is one of the smallest constants used in physics. This reflects the fact that on a scale adapted to humans, where energies are typically of the order of kilojoules and times are typically of the order of seconds or minutes, the Planck constant (the quantum of action) is very small. One can regard the Planck constant to be only relevant to the microscopic scale instead of the macroscopic scale in our everyday experience.\n", "In quantum mechanics, the Planck time () is the unit of time in the system of natural units known as Planck units. A Planck time unit is the time required for light to travel a distance of 1 Planck length in a vacuum, which is a time interval of approximately 5.39 × 10 s. The unit is named after Max Planck, who was the first to propose it.\n" ]

[ "For several years after World War II, the United States developed and maintained a strategic force based on the Convair B-36 bomber that would be able to attack any potential enemy from bomber bases in the United States. It deployed atomic bombs around the world for potential use in conflicts. Over a period of a few years, many in the American defense community became increasingly convinced of the invincibility of the United States to a nuclear attack. Indeed, it became generally believed that the threat of nuclear war would deter any strike against the United States.\n", "World War I, in which the United States and its allies fought - among other Central Powers - the German Empire, raised concern about the German threat to the United States. The Espionage Act of 1917 and the Sedition Act of 1918 were passed in response.\n", "German agents monitoring American newspapers wired the compromised secret program to Berlin where Franz Halder, Chief of the German General Staff, realized its critical importance. On 12 December, Adolf Hitler issued Directive 39 which countered the American strategic bombing and invasion plans by massing air defenses around key industries and by greatly increasing Atlantic Ocean attacks so that an Allied invasion fleet could not be formed. Hitler directed his forces opposing the Soviet Union to go on the defensive so that they could hold their ground at least cost. Four days later, after visiting the Eastern Front and seeing the extent of his strategic failures there, Hitler \"angrily and irrationally rescinded Directive 39\" and focused his armies once again on the attack.\n", "BULLET::::- Small, Melvin. \"The United States and the German \"Threat\" to the Hemisphere, 1905–1914.\" \"The Americas\" 28#3 (1972): 252–270. Says there was no threat because Germany accepted the Monroe Doctrine.\n", "The US-British Staff Conference Report of 1941 established the general military principles, resources, and deployment strategies for a joint Allied military strategy. The British approach to the Nazi problem varied from the initial US plan. The British initially called for a Sun Tsu approach of attacking the flanks and periphery of the Nazi interests (North Africa, middle east, etc.). By contrast, the US, following a Clausewitz-based approach sought a sledge-hammer, mass on mass battle with Nazi Germany. The plan assumed that if the U.S. went to war with Nazi Germany, it would likely go to war with both Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan as well. The general principles of agreement stated that:\n", "In January 1941, Raeder launched the successful Operation Berlin, where \"Gneisenau\" and \"Scharnhorst\" were sent out on a raid into the North Atlantic that lasted until March 1941. On 4 February 1941, Raeder sent Hitler a memo suggesting that the continual neutrality of the United States was not in the best interests of the \"Reich\", and suggested that having the United States as an enemy might even be \"advantageous for the German war effort\" if that would bring in Japan into the war against Britain and the United States. Hitler rejected that advice, saying that it was better at present to keep the U.S. neutral, since as long as the Americans were neutral, they were limited in how far they could support the British. On 18 March 1941, Raeder asked Hitler to end the rules that U-boats could not fire on American warships unless fired upon first, and instead demanded a policy that would allow the \"Kriegsmarine\" to sink all American warships on sight. Raeder also warned Hitler that Germany needed to take over the French colonies in West Africa, and warned that it would \"most dangerous\" if the United States should gain influence in French Africa. Hitler said he needed more time to think about what Raeder had suggested.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Clash of Eagles\" by Leo Rutman, in December, 1941. Nazi Germany has vanquished the United Kingdom and launches a major invasion across the Atlantic. German forces under Erwin Rommel land in Quebec and sweep down Canada, New England, and the Ohio Valley to New York City and declared the eastern United States an occupied territory. The rest of the United States remains unoccupied but perilously exposed to further attacks. President Franklin Roosevelt and the government administration evacuate the endangered Washington, D.C. and flee westward to California. Eventually, he would be able to return victoriously after a courageous rebellion in New York has driven the Nazis out.\n" ]

[ "In terms of infant feeding, breastfeeding has been found to be associated with more waking at night than bottle-fed infants because of the infant’s ability to digest breast milk more quickly than formula. Thus, breast-fed infants have been observed to begin sleeping through the night at a later age than bottle-fed infants: bottle fed infants tend to begin sleeping through the night between 6–8 weeks, while breastfed infants may take until 17 weeks before sleeping through the night. Seventeen weeks of age is still within the first 4–5 months of the infants’ life; therefore, this cannot really be considered a delay in sleep consolidation. There are many benefits to breastfeeding infants. \n", "Every child is different and each child's sleep becomes regular at different ages within a particular range. In the first few months of life, each time the baby is laid down for bed and each time he or she awakens is an opportunity for the infant to learn sleep self-initiation and to fall asleep without excessive external help from their caregiver. Experts say that the ideal bedtime for an infant falls between 6 pm and 8 pm, with the ideal wake-up time falling between 6 am and 7 am. At four months of age, infants typically take hour naps two to three times a day, with the third nap dropped by about nine months. By one year of age, the amount of sleep that most infants get nightly approximates to that of adults.\n", "The technique is targeted at infants as young as four months of age. A few babies are capable of sleeping through the night at three months, and most are capable of sleeping through the night at six months. Before six months of age, the baby may still need to feed during the night and it is probable that the baby will require a night feeding before three months.\n", "BULLET::::- Encouraging prone playtime (tummy time). Although the Back to Sleep campaign promotes infants sleeping on their backs to avoid sudden infant death syndrome during sleep, parents should still ensure that their infants spend some waking hours on their stomachs.\n", "- Parents of middle class children were more likely to report behavior problems before the age of nine and the children had sleep problems. This may be because children start preschool between the ages of three and four. Puerto Rican children under the age of five showed rare signs of sleep problems, however, sleep problems became more common at the age of six.\n", "In 2018, BRI researchers contributed to a key finding about babies’ sleep patterns: Many infants sleep better – and longer – when they start eating solid foods. In the study, half the babies subsisted entirely on breast milk until six months of age, while the other half started eating solid foods at three months of age. Compared to babies who were solely breast-fed, the infants who ate solid food slept for two more hours per week and woke up two fewer times per night. The findings were published in JAMA Pediatrics, and the study was led by Gideon Lack, a professor at King's College London whose work is funded by the Immune Tolerance Network – which is housed at BRI.\n", "Many parents try to understand, once the baby is asleep, how to keep them sleeping through the night. It is thought that it is important to have structure in the way a child is put to sleep so that he or she can establish good sleeping patterns. Dr Sylvia Bell of Johns Hopkins University reported: by the end of the first year individual differences in crying reflect the history of maternal responsiveness rather than constitutional differences in infant irritability. She also notes: consistency and promptness of maternal response is associated with decline in frequency and duration of infant crying. The sleep position is also important to prevent SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome).\n" ]

[ "While astronomers had detected more than 180 extrasolar planets, XO-1b is only the tenth planet discovered using the transit method. It is only the second planet found using telephoto lenses. The first, TrES-1, in the constellation Lyra, was reported in 2004. The transit method allows astronomers to determine a planet's mass and size. Astronomers use this information to deduce the planet's characteristics, such as density.\n", "In 2013, astronomers reported, based on \"Kepler\" space mission data, that there could be as many as 40 billion Earth- and super-Earth-sized planets orbiting in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars and red dwarfs within the Milky Way. 11 billion of these estimated planets may be orbiting Sun-like stars. The nearest such planet may be 12 light-years away, according to the scientists. However, this does not give estimates for the number of extrasolar terrestrial planets, because there are planets as small as Earth that have been shown to be gas planets (see KOI-314c).\n", "OGLE-2014-BLG-0124Lb is known as an exoplanet. These planets are located outside of our solar system. The Kepler telescope has allowed astronomers to discover thousands of these types of planets. Exoplanets obviously range in size, types, and orbits, but using this technique will help us search for planets that are of similar size to Earth. Since microlensing can determine the distance from the planet to the star and astronomers can identify its size, it can help determine if a planet could be habitable.\n", "There is at least one planet on average per star. About 1 in 5 Sun-like stars have an \"Earth-sized\" planet in the habitable zone, with the nearest expected to be within 12 light-years distance from Earth. Assuming 200 billion stars in the Milky Way, that would be 11 billion potentially habitable Earth-sized planets in the Milky Way, rising to 40 billion if red dwarfs are included. The rogue planets in the Milky Way possibly number in the trillions.\n", "There are over 400 exoplanets thus far discovered, and only a very small number are categorized as Super-earth class. Finding such planets as HD156668b, which are closer to earth in size, has become a priority in Astronomy science. For example, the Kepler mission, is part of the intense popular interest surrounding the discovery of hundreds of planets orbiting other stars. Kepler telescope, however has a more specific mission - to discover hundreds of terrestrial planets which are defined as exoplanets that are one half to twice the size of the Earth.\n", "In June 2008, European researchers announced the discovery of three super-Earths around the star HD 40307, a star that is only slightly less massive than our Sun. The planets have at least the following minimum masses: 4.2, 6.7, and 9.4 times Earth's. The planets were detected by the radial velocity method by the HARPS (High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher) in Chile.\n", "Several thousands of planets around other stars (\"extrasolar planets\" or \"exoplanets\") have been discovered in the Milky Way. As of , known extrasolar planets in planetary systems (including multiple planetary systems), ranging in size from just above the size of the Moon to gas giants about twice as large as Jupiter have been discovered, out of which more than 100 planets are the same size as Earth, nine of which are at the same relative distance from their star as Earth from the Sun, i.e. in the circumstellar habitable zone. On December 20, 2011, the Kepler Space Telescope team reported the discovery of the first Earth-sized extrasolar planets, Kepler-20e and Kepler-20f, orbiting a Sun-like star, Kepler-20. A 2012 study, analyzing gravitational microlensing data, estimates an average of at least 1.6 bound planets for every star in the Milky Way.\n" ]

[ "When used with a derisive attitude (e.g., \"that was so gay\"), the word \"gay\" is pejorative. While retaining its other meanings, its use among young people as a general term of disparagement is common. This pejorative usage has its origins in the late 1970s, with the word gaining a pejorative sense by association with the previous meaning: homosexuality was seen as inferior or undesirable. Beginning in the 1980s, and especially in the late 1990s, the usage as a generic insult became common among young people.\n", "In English, the word's primary meaning was \"joyful\", \"carefree\", \"bright and showy\", and the word was very commonly used with this meaning in speech and literature. For example, the optimistic 1890s are still often referred to as the \"Gay Nineties\". The title of the 1938 French ballet \"Gaîté Parisienne\" (\"Parisian Gaiety\"), which became the 1941 Warner Brothers movie, \"The Gay Parisian\", also illustrates this connotation. It was apparently not until the 20th century that the word began to be used to mean specifically \"homosexual\", although it had earlier acquired sexual connotations.\n", "A research study of 78 eleven to fourteen-year-old boys conducted in twelve schools in London, England between 1998 and 1999 revealed that respondents who used the word \"gay\" to label another boy in a derogatory manner intended the word as \"just a joke\", \"just a cuss\" and not as a statement of one's perceived sexual orientation. American sociologist Michael Kimmel and American psychologist Gregory Herek write that masculinity is a renunciation of the feminine and that males shore up their sense of their masculinity by denigrating the feminine and ultimately the homosexual. Building on the notion of masculinity defining itself by what it is not, some researchers suggest that in fact the renunciation of the feminine may be misogyny. These intertwining issues were examined in 2007, when American sociologist CJ Pascoe described what she calls the \"fag discourse\" at an American high school in her book, \"Dude, You're a Fag\".\n", "BULLET::::- Gay — Originally meant (13th century) \"lighthearted\", \"joyous\" or (14th century) \"bright and showy\", it also came to mean \"happy\"; it acquired connotations of immorality as early as 1637, either sexual e.g., \"gay woman\" \"prostitute\", \"gay man\" \"womanizer\", \"gay house\" \"brothel\", or otherwise, e.g., \"gay dog\" \"over-indulgent man\" and \"gay deceiver\" \"deceitful and lecherous\". In the United States by 1897 the expression \"gay cat\" referred to a hobo, especially a younger hobo in the company of an older one; by 1935, it was used in prison slang for a homosexual boy; and by 1951 and clipped to \"gay\", referred to homosexuals.\n", "In a 2013 article published in the \"Journal of Interpersonal Violence\", University of Michigan researchers Michael Woodford, Alex Kulick and Perry Silverschanz, alongside Appalachian State University professor Michael L. Howell, argued that the pejorative use of the word \"gay\" was a microaggression. Their research found that college-age men were more likely to repeat the word pejoratively if their friends said it, while they were less likely to say it if they had lesbian, gay or bisexual peers.\n", "At about the same time, a new, pejorative use became prevalent in some parts of the world. Among younger speakers, the word has a meaning ranging from derision (e.g., equivalent to \"rubbish\" or \"stupid\") to a light-hearted mockery or ridicule (e.g., equivalent to weak, unmanly, or lame). In this use, the word rarely means \"homosexual\", as it is often used, for example, to refer to an inanimate object or abstract concept of which one disapproves. The extent to which these usages still retain connotations of homosexuality has been debated and harshly criticized.\n", "Many terms that originated as gay slang have become part of the popular lexicon. For example, the word \"drag\" was popularized by Hubert Selby Jr. in his book \"Last Exit to Brooklyn\". \"Drag\" has been traced back by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) to the late 19th Century. Conversely, words such as \"banjee\", while well-established in a subset of gay society, have never made the transition to popular use. Conversations between gay men have been found to use more slang and fewer commonly known terms about sexual behavior than conversations between straight men.\n" ]

[ "The rulers of China and (once Westerners became aware of the role) Japan were always accepted in the West as emperors, and referred to as such. The claims of other East Asian monarchies to the title may have been accepted for diplomatic purposes, but it was not necessarily used in more general contexts.\n", "After the Tang dynasty, non-Han Chinese empires gained prestige by connecting themselves with China, and the Khitan Gurkans used the title of \"Chinese emperor\", and was also called the \"Khan of Chīn\". The Qara Khitai used the \"image of China\" to legitimize their rule to the Central Asians. The Chinese emperor, together with the rulers of the Turks, Arabs, India and the Byzantine Romans, were known to Islamic writers as the world's \"five great kings\". Qara Khitai kept the trappings of a Chinese state, such as Chinese coins, Chinese imperial titles, the Chinese writing system, tablets, seals, and used Chinese products like porcelein, mirrors, jade and other Chinese customs. The adherence to Liao Chinese traditions has been suggested as a reason why the Qara Khitai did not convert to Islam. Despite the Chinese trappings, there were comparatively few Han Chinese among the population of the Qara Khitai. These Han Chinese had lived in Kedun during the Liao dynasty, and in 1124 migrated with the Khitans under Yelü Dashi along with other people of Kedun, such as the Bohai, Jurchen, and Mongol tribes, as well as other Khitans in addition to the Xiao consort clan.\n", "According to Russian scholars S.V. Dmitriev and S.L. Kuzmin, despite usage of the term \"China\", these empires had their official names by the names of their dynasties. Non-Han people considered themselves as subjects of the Yuan and Qing states not equating them to China. This resulted from different ways of the Yuan and Qing legitimization for different peoples in these empires. The Qing Emperor was referred to as Bogda Khan by the Mongols. According to Dmitriev and Kuzmin, Liao, Jin, Yuan and Qing were multi-national empires led by non-Chinese peoples, to whom the conquered China or its part was joined.\n", "Apart from the English name of \"China\" or the \"Chinese Empire\", it is also known in similar names in other western languages such as \"Chine\" in French, \"Китаем\" in Russian, and \"Sinici Imperii\" in Latin, which are the standard translations for \"China\" or \"Chinese Empire\" in these languages. For example, in the Sino-Russian Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, the first international treaty signed by the Qing, the term \"Китайском\" meaning \"Chinese\" was used to refer to the Qing side in the Russian version of the treaty, and the term \"Imperium Sinicum\" meaning \"Chinese Empire\" was used to refer to the Qing empire in the Latin version of the treaty. Sometimes the names for \"Great Qing\" also appeared in such treaties. For example, the term \"Imperii Tai-tscim\" meaning \"Empire of the Great Qing\" appeared in the Latin version of the Treaty of Kyakhta (1727) along with \"Sinenses\" meaning \"Chinese\". In Japanese-language version of some treaties during the Qing dynasty, the Kanji for the \"Qing state\" (淸國, \"Shinkoku\") was also used, although it is not found in Chinese-language version of treaties during the Qing dynasty (in Chinese version of the treaties the word for Great (大) always appeared before the word for Qing (淸)\n", "Japanese monarchs were given their official title by the Chinese emperor. The new Japanese monarch after coming into power would send a representative to China and receive the anointment. They would receive their official title on several golden plates of several meters tall. Since the Japanese monarchs changed their title to 天皇 (Heavenly Emperor) in 607, the Chinese emperor refused to anoint the Japanese king, thus, ending relations with Japan for the next few hundred years. Although the Japanese emperors used Chinese imperial titles, rarely was the Chinese-style \"Son of Heaven\" used. In the Japanese language, the word \"tennō\" is restricted to Japan's own monarch; \"kōtei\" (皇帝) is used for foreign emperors. Historically, retired emperors often kept power over a child-emperor as de facto regent. For a long time, a \"shōgun\" (formally the imperial generalissimo, but made hereditary) or an imperial regent wielded actual political power. In fact, through much of Japanese history, the emperor has been little more than a figurehead.\n", "However in 607 Prince Shotoku of Japan stated its perspective of being independent and equal to China in a diplomatic letter by referring to the Japanese ruler as an emperor (“日出處天子致書日沒處天子無恙云云” An emperor of where the sun rises is writing to an emperor of where the sun sets). It was taken as an insult by the Chinese emperor of the time, Emperor Yang of Sui, since in Hua–Yi distinction emperor is a title for the ruler of China, but not for other foreign countries.\n", "Throughout history, emperors and rulers ranging from the Western Zhou dynasty (c. 1000 BC) in China to Alexander the Great (c. 360 BC) to the Emperor of Japan (c. 600 AD) have assumed titles that reflect a filial relationship with deities.\n" ]

[ "The most notable advantage of the scary sharp system is speed and cost. Anyone with access to sandpaper and a reasonably flat surface can sharpen any cutting tool, often with good results. Unlike traditional stones, no maintenance is required for the scary-sharp set-up, since the sharpening surface does not form a hollow with repeated, uneven usage. A hollowed surface is undesirable in most sharpening situations, an example being the flat surface required in the back (as opposed to the beveled surface) of most woodworking plane irons. Compared to stones, sandpaper is lower in cost as well. A fresh sheet of sandpaper often cuts significantly faster than a bench sharpening stone. For this reason, coarse-grit papers can be used to dress damaged cutting edge quickly, removing chips along the edge and preparing it for the next stage/grit of edge refinement.\n", "The region of sharpness can also be made very small by using large tilt and a small \"f\"-number. For example, with 8° tilt on a 90 mm lens for a small-format camera, the total vertical DoF at the hyperfocal distance is approximately\n", "In applications such as landscape photography, getting everything sharp is often the objective; by using tilt, both the foreground and background can often be made sharp without the use of a large \"f\"-number. When the PoF coincides with an essentially flat subject, the entire subject is in focus; for a subject that is not flat, obtaining foreground and background sharpness relies on the depth of field, though the sharpness can often be obtained with a smaller \"f\"-number than would be needed without the use of tilt. Basically, this shifts the whole plane of focus keeping one of the three axes as it is.\n", "Sharp corners increase concentrations, which are prone to air entrapments, air voids, and sink marks hence weakening the structural integrity of the plastic part. It must be eliminated using radii whenever is possible.\n", "If point-sized objects are always simple, then a gunky object does not have any point-sized parts. By usual accounts of gunk, such as Alfred Tarski's in 1929, three-dimensional gunky objects also do not have other degenerate parts shaped like one-dimensional curves or two-dimensional surfaces. (See also \"Whitehead's point-free geometry\".)\n", "A sharp object works by concentrating forces which creates a high pressure due to the very small area of the edge, but high pressures can nick a thin blade or even cause it to roll over into a rounded tube when it is used against hard materials. An irregular material or angled cut is also likely to apply much more torque to hollow-ground blades due to the \"lip\" formed on either side of the edge. More blade material can be included directly behind the cutting edge to reinforce it, but during sharpening some proportion of this material must be removed to reshape the edge, making the process more time-consuming. Also, any object being cut must be moved aside to make way for this wider blade section, and any force distributed to the grind surface reduces the pressure applied at the edge.\n", "A sharps container is a hard plastic container that is used to safely dispose of hypodermic needles and other sharp medical instruments, such as IV catheters and disposable scalpels. They are often sealable and self-locking, as well as rigid, which prevents waste from penetrating or damaging the sides of the container. In the United States, sharps containers are usually red and marked with the universal biohazard symbol for ease of recognition. Elsewhere, they are often yellow. Waste is loaded into the container until it reaches a certain height, which is usually around three-quarters of the way full. At that point, the container is emptied or disposed of.\n" ]

[ "This can be seen when the eyes are closed and looking at the back of the eyelids. In a bright room, a dark red can be seen, owing to a small amount of light penetrating the eyelids and taking on the color of the blood it has passed through. In a dark room, blackness can be seen or the object can be more colourful. But in either case it is not a flat unchanging redness/blackness. Instead, if actively observed for a few minutes, one becomes aware of an apparent disorganized motion, a random field of lightness/darkness that overlays the redness/blackness of closed eyelids.\n", "Human vision is unable to distinguish color in conditions of either high brightness or high darkness. In conditions with insufficient light levels, color perception ranges from achromatic to ultimately black.\n", "Certain types of light can cause film and digital cameras to have a colour cast. Illuminating a subject with light sources of different colour temperatures will usually cause colour cast problems in the shadows. In general, the human eye does not notice the unnatural colour, because our eyes and brains adjust and compensate for different types of light in ways that cameras cannot.\n", "The wholly empirical approach holds that this experience is the sole determinant of perceptual qualities. The reason percipients see an object as dark or light, the argument goes, is that in both our own past and the past of the species it paid off to see it that particular way. Returning to the bucket analogy, imagine that each of the three hoses pumps out water of a different color: one pumps out black water, one pumps out gray water, and one pumps out clear water. All one sees is the water in the bucket, which can be clear, gray, black, or any shade in between. As expected, it is impossible to perform some calculation on the color of the water in the bucket to find out how much water came out of each hose. Now imagine that it is your job to bet on how much water came out of the gray hose. The output ratios of the hoses are not random, but co-vary in all kinds of complicated ways based on the time of day, how long it takes to fill up the bucket, etc. At first your behavior in response to the color of the bucket might not be so good, but over time this would gradually improve as different shades and behaviors in response became associated by trial and error. The key is that in order to improve you have to know whether or not your behaviors worked by interacting with the world.\n", "Since the colour phenomenon relies on the adjacency of light and dark, there are two ways to produce a spectrum: with a light beam in a dark room, and with a dark beam (i.e., a shadow) in a light room.\n", "Readers with normal vision should see the individual shades of green relatively easily, while the shades of red should be difficult to see, and the shades of blue are likely indistinguishable. More rarely, some systems support having the extra bit of colour depth on the red or blue channel, usually in applications where that colour is more prevalent (photographing of skin tones or skies, for example).\n", "Michael Tye argues, among other things, that there is only one correct way to see colors. Therefore, the colorblind and most mammals do not really have color vision because their vision differs from the vision of \"normal\" humans. Similarly, creatures with more advanced color vision, although better able to distinguish objects than people, are suffering from color illusions because their vision differs from humans. Tye advanced this particular position in an essay called \"True Blue\".\n" ]

[ "Foucault is a 1986 book on the work of Michel Foucault by Gilles Deleuze. Deleuze, like in his other works on major philosophers, thinks along with Foucault instead of trying to write a guide to his philosophy. The book focuses on the conceptual underpinnings of Foucault's extensive work by considering in depth two of his paradigmatic works, \"The Archaeology of Knowledge\" (1969) and \"Discipline and Punish\" (1975). \n", "In \"The Essential Foucault: Selections from Essential Works of Foucault\", Michel Foucault also offers alternatives for thought and new courses for active learners in education in his discussion of the reshaping of the self, “…even for the slave or for the mad, under situations where the models of selfhood are imposed from outside, a certain self-crafting is required…and each crafting of a relation with the self arises out of, and entails, a crafting of one’s relations to others – be they one’s superiors, one’s pupils, one’s colleagues…” (xxi) This idea is similar to Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s understanding of the child as an “active” learner and also Paulo Freire’s \"conscientization\". American anthropologist Clifford Geertz also posits the importance of the local knowledge and common sense of people involved in everyday life:\n", "Foucault (1985; second edition 1991) is a book about the French intellectual Michel Foucault by the Brazilian critic and sociologist José Guilherme Merquior, in which the author provides a critical evaluation of Foucault and his works, including \"Madness and Civilization\" (1961) and \"The History of Sexuality\" (1976). \"Foucault\" received praise from several scholars.\n", "Foucault incorporates this inevitable mutuality into his neologism power-knowledge, the most important part of which is the hyphen that links the two aspects of the integrated concept together (and alludes to their inherent inextricability).\n", "Colin Gordon reviewed \"Foucault\" in \"The Times Literary Supplement\". Alan Swingewood gave the book a positive review in the \"British Journal of Sociology\", calling it \"elegant and well-informed\". Swingewood endorsed many of Merquior's criticisms of Foucault, and wrote that Merquior was perhaps correct to conclude that Foucault \"embraces nihilism.\" Merquior's work was praised by the critics Roger Kimball and Camille Paglia, who both suggested that it shows that Foucault made elementary errors in every area he wrote about; Paglia called Merquior's exposé hilarious. Though supportive of \"Foucault\" in general, Paglia criticized Merquior for failing to discuss what she saw as Foucault's enormous debts to French sociologist Émile Durkheim. The literature professor John M. Ellis called \"Foucault\" the best general account of Foucault's \"oeuvre\", while Gregory R. Johnson called it one of Merquior's \"minor classics.\" Conversely, Paul Bové, writing in his introduction to the English translation of Gilles Deleuze's \"Foucault\" (1986), dismissed Merquior's criticisms of Foucault as arrogant and stupid.\n", "LaRouche is highly critical of contemporary college curricula, and has designed his own pedagogy for members of his youth movement, which he describes as \"the reliving of the crucial discoveries of universal physical-scientific principle by, successively, the ancient Pythagoreans and Plato and the modern science of Johannes Kepler,\" combined with the performance of classical vocal music, particularly Johann Sebastian Bach's \"Jesu, meine Freude\". They spend time in what are called \"Monge brigades,\" which emphasize readings of Vladimir Vernadsky, Alexander Hamilton, Carl Gauss and Bernhard Riemann. The LaRouche Youth have been assisted around the U.S. in performance workshops on classical music, as well as African-American spirituals, by well known musicians William Warfield and Sylvia Olden Lee, and in drama performance by actor Robert Beltran.\n", "Foucault desired to leave Vincennes and become a fellow of the prestigious Collège de France. He requested to join, taking up a chair in what he called the \"history of systems of thought,\" and his request was championed by members Dumézil, Hyppolite, and Vuillemin. In November 1969, when an opening became available, Foucault was elected to the Collège, though with opposition by a large minority. He gave his inaugural lecture in December 1970, which was subsequently published as \"L'Ordre du discours\" (\"The Discourse of Language\"). He was obliged to give 12 weekly lectures a year—and did so for the rest of his life—covering the topics that he was researching at the time; these became \"one of the events of Parisian intellectual life\" and were repeatedly packed out events. On Mondays, he also gave seminars to a group of students; many of them became a \"Foulcauldian tribe\" who worked with him on his research. He enjoyed this teamwork and collective research, and together they would publish a number of short books. Working at the Collège allowed him to travel widely, giving lectures in Brazil, Japan, Canada, and the United States over the next 14 years. In 1970 and 1972, Foucault served as a professor in the French Department of the University at Buffalo in Buffalo, New York.\n" ]

[ "Good storage can extend the life of an item and is an important aspect of preventative conservation. Storage should be cool, dry, clean, and stable. Items should be kept away from radiators or vents, which can cause environmental fluctuations.\n", "In addition to maintaining a shelf-life and reducing total mass, the ability to grow food in space would help reduce the vitamin gap in astronaut's diets and provide fresh food with improved taste and texture. Currently, much of the food supplied to astronauts is heat treated or freeze dried. Both of these methods, for the most part, retain the properties of the food pre-treatment. However, vitamin degradation during storage can occur. A 2009 study noted significant decreases in vitamins A, C and K as well as folic acid and thiamin can occur in as little as one year of storage. A mission to Mars could require food storage for as long as five years, thus a new source of these vitamins would be required.\n", "Vacuum packing greatly reduces the bulk of non-food items. For example, clothing and bedding can be stored in bags evacuated with a domestic vacuum cleaner or a dedicated vacuum sealer. This technique is sometimes used to compact household waste, for example where a charge is made for each full bag collected.\n", "Various food preservation and packaging techniques are used to extend a food's shelf life. Decreasing the amount of available water in a product, increasing its acidity, or irradiating or otherwise sterilizing the food and then sealing it in an air-tight container are all ways of depriving bacteria of suitable conditions in which to thrive. All of these approaches can all extend a food's shelf life without unacceptably changing its taste or texture.\n", "Food storage allows food to be eaten for some time (typically weeks to months) after harvest rather than solely immediately. It is both a traditional domestic skill and, in the form of food logistics, an important industrial and commercial activity. Food preservation, storage, and transport, including timely delivery to consumers, are important to food security, especially for the majority of people throughout the world who rely on others to produce their food. Food is stored by almost every human society and by many animals. Storing of food has several main purposes:\n", "Shelf life can be maximised by keeping the cell in the sealed bag as supplied by the manufacturer until being put into service, storing the cell before and between use at or below room temperature, - a range of from 10 to 22°C is recommended by a manufacturer - and avoid storing the cell in warm or dry environments for prolonged periods, particularly areas exposed to direct sunlight.\n", "The viability of using compressed air as energy storage has been questioned in cars and other forms of transportation given the energy losses during the air compression and dehydration process, the need for energy to add heat during the expansion phase and the low energy density of compressed air compared to rechargeable batteries. On the other hand, the compressed air tanks require no exotic materials and have fewer problems with safe disposal at the end of their life.\n" ]

[ "Vinyl records are easily scratched and vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops and, in extreme cases, they can cause the needle (stylus) to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating an unintentional locked groove that repeats the same 1.8 seconds (at 33⅓ RPM) or 1.3 seconds (at 45 RPM) of track over and over again. Locked grooves are not uncommon and are even heard occasionally in broadcasts. The locked groove gave rise to the expression \"broken record\" referring to someone who continually repeats the same statement with little if any variation.\n", "Vinyl records do not break easily, but the soft material is easily scratched. Vinyl readily acquires a static charge, attracting dust that is difficult to remove completely. Dust and scratches cause audio clicks and pops. In extreme cases, they can cause the needle to skip over a series of grooves, or worse yet, cause the needle to skip backwards, creating a \"locked groove\" that repeats over and over. This is the origin of the phrase \"like a broken record\" or \"like a scratched record\", which is often used to describe a person or thing that continually repeats itself. Locked grooves are not uncommon and were even heard occasionally in radio broadcasts.\n", "No post-production overdubbing was done in the studio. Occasional wrong notes can be heard in the final product of the recording. Wednesday 13 admitted, \"First off, let me say this is a live recording. This is not a live recording where we went back into the studio and overdubbed guitar parts or vocals. This is us ... LIVE! If we make a mistake, you will hear it. If my voice cracks, you hear it. This is as close to a live experience as we could give.\"\n", "The \"broken record\" technique consists of simply repeating your requests or your refusals every time you are met with resistance. The term comes from vinyl records, the surface of which when scratched would lead the needle of a record player to loop over the same few seconds of the recording indefinitely. \"As with a broken record, the key to this approach is repetition ... where your partner will not take no for an answer.\"\n", "Vinyl records are vulnerable to dust, heat warping, scuffs, and scratches. Dust in the groove is usually heard as noise and may be ground into the vinyl by the passing stylus, causing lasting damage. A warp can cause a regular \"wow\" or fluctuation of musical pitch, and if substantial it can make a record physically unplayable. A scuff will be heard as a swishing sound. A scratch will create an audible tick or pop once each revolution when the stylus encounters it. A deep scratch can throw the stylus out of the groove; if it jumps to a place farther inward, part of the recording is skipped; if it jumps outward to a part of the groove it just finished playing, it can get stuck in an infinite loop, playing the same bit over and over until someone stops it. This last type of mishap, which in the era of brittle shellac records was more commonly caused by a crack, spawned the simile \"like a broken record\" to refer to annoying and seemingly endless repetition.\n", "Many of the recordings on this album are band improvisations. \"The Law of Maximum Distress\" appears in two sections, as the tape ran out in the middle of the song. Much of the missing material seems to be used on \"The Mincer\" from \"Starless and Bible Black\". As Robert Fripp notes in the CD jacket, \"Most live recording follows the policy of two machines in use simultaneously to meet an eventuality such as this. We learn.\"\n", "The majority of the first 1,500 vinyl copies were destroyed due to bad pressing quality. The third track \"Pack Yr Romantic Mind\" was re-recorded because the song initially had a George Harrison sample the band was unable to receive permission to use. The end of the last track, \"Lock-Groove Lullaby\", extends into a lock groove repeating a phrase sampled from Perrey and Kingsley's \"The Savers\" on their album \"\".\n" ]

[ "In tax law, amortization refers to the cost recovery system for intangible property. Although the theory behind cost recovery deductions of amortization is to deduct from basis in a systematic manner over an asset's estimated useful economic life so as to reflect its consumption, expiration, obsolescence or other decline in value as a result of use or the passage of time, many times a perfect match of income and deductions does not occur for policy reasons. \n", "In accounting, amortization refers to expensing the acquisition cost minus the residual value of intangible assets in a systematic manner over their estimated \"useful economic lives\" so as to reflect their consumption, expiry, and obsolescence, or other decline in value as a result of use or the passage of time.\n", "Conceptually, amortization is a mechanism that allows taxpayers to recover the cost of property over the life of an asset when they are precluded from taking an immediate and full deduction. Practically, this means that taxpayers may recover the cost in small amounts over time. There are two forms of such recovery: depreciation and amortization. \"Selig\" deals with amortization. The general rule for amortization is set forth in Section 197 of the Internal Revenue Code. The \"Selig\" case demonstrates some of the practical problems in cost allocation prior to the enactment of Section 197.\n", "Amortisation (or amortization; ) is paying off an amount owed over time by making planned, incremental payments of principal and interest. To amortise a loan means \"to kill it off\". In accounting, amortisation refers to charging or writing off an intangible asset's cost as an operational expense over its estimated useful life to reduce a company's taxable income.\n", "While theoretically amortization is used to account for the decreasing value of an intangible asset over its useful life, in practice many companies will amortize what would otherwise be one-time expenses through listing them as a capital expense on the cash flow statement and paying off the cost through amortization, having the effect of improving the company's net income in the fiscal year or quarter of the expense.\n", "Accelerated depreciation refers to any one of several methods by which a company, for 'financial accounting' or tax purposes, depreciates a fixed asset in such a way that the amount of depreciation taken each year is higher during the earlier years of an asset’s life. For financial accounting purposes, accelerated depreciation is expected to be much more productive during its early years, so that depreciation expense will more accurately represent how much of an asset’s usefulness is being used up each year. For tax purposes, accelerated depreciation provides a way of deferring corporate income taxes by reducing taxable income in current years, in exchange for increased taxable income in future years. This is a valuable tax incentive that encourages businesses to purchase new assets. \n", "Depreciation is a corresponding concept for tangible assets. Methodologies for allocating amortization to each accounting period are generally the same as these for depreciation. However, many intangible assets such as goodwill or certain brands may be deemed to have an indefinite useful life and are therefore not subject to amortization (although goodwill is subjected to an impairment test every year).\n" ]

[ "European domestic dogs arrived in Australia in the 18th century, during the European colonization. Since then, some of those dogs dispersed into the wild (both deliberately and accidentally) and founded feral populations, especially in places where the dingo numbers had been severely reduced due to human intervention. Although there are few records of such releases, their occurrence is supported by reports of free-living dogs of specific breeds being seen or captured in remote areas. The spread of farming and grazing activities in the 19th century led to a further spread of other domestic dogs, both pet and feral ones. Interbreeding with the native dingoes has probably been occurring since the arrival of domestic dogs in the year 1788.\n", "European domestic dogs first arrived in Australia during the European colonisation. These dogs reverted to the wild (both unintentionally and intentionally), produced feral populations and interbred with the existing dingoes. Hybrids of dingoes and domestic dogs exist today in all wild dog populations of Australia, with their numbers having increased to such a degree that any completely \"pure\" populations may no longer exist.\n", "Since human settlement, many placental mammals have been introduced to Australia and are now feral. The first was the dingo; fossil evidence suggests that people from the north brought the dingo to Australia about years ago. When Europeans settled Australia they intentionally released many species into the wild, including the red fox, brown hare, and the European rabbit. Other domestic species have escaped and over time have produced wild populations, including the cat, fallow deer, rusa deer, chital, domestic horse, donkey, pig, domestic goat, water buffalo, and dromedary. Only three species of Australia's non-indigenous placental mammals were not deliberately introduced: the house mouse, black rat and brown rat. \n", "Similar to how Europeans acquired dingoes, the Aboriginal people of Australia acquired dogs from the immigrants very quickly. This process was so fast that Francis Barrallier (surveyor on early expeditions around the colony at Port Jackson) discovered in 1802 that five dogs of European origin were there before him. One theory holds that other domestic dogs adopt the role of the \"pure\" dingo. Introduced animals, such as the water buffalo and the domestic cat, have been adopted into the indigenous Aboriginal culture in the forms of rituals, traditional paintings, and dreamtime stories.\n", "For thousands of years, dogs (\"qimugta\" \"qimugtek\" \"qimugtet\" in Yup'ik and Cup'ik, \"qimugta\" \"qimugteg\" \"qimugtet\" in Cup'ig) as sled dogs, have been tightly interwoven in the Yup'ik way of life, for transportation and companionship. Except for dogs, there were no important domesticated animals in aboriginal times.\n", "The Spaniards were also skilled at breeding dogs for war, hunting and protection. The Molossers, Spanish war dogs and sheep dogs they used in battle were effective as a psychological weapon against the natives, who, in many cases, had never seen domesticated dogs. Although some indigenous peoples of the Western Hemisphere did have domestic dogs, including the current Southwestern US, Aztec and other Central American peoples, the inhabitants of the Arctic/Tundra regions (Inuit, Aleut, Cree), and possibly some South American groups similar to South American fox (\"Pseudalopex culpaeus\") or Yagan dog, during the conquest of the Americas, Spanish conquistadors used Spanish Mastiffs and other Molossers in battle against the Taínos, Aztecs and Mayans. These specially trained dogs were feared because of their strength and ferocity. The strongest big breeds of broad-mouthed dogs were specifically trained for battle. These war dogs were used against barely clothed troops. They were armoured dogs trained to kill and disembowel.\n", "That \"wild dogs\" exist is debated. Some authors propose that this term applies to the Australian dingo and dingo-feral dog hybrids. They believe that these have a history of independence from humans and should no longer be considered as domesticated. Others disagree, and propose that the dingo was once domesticated and is now a feral dog.\n" ]

[ "Pornography rated X18 is permitted by the law only if sold to persons over the age of 18 in registered stores. It is an offense to host a pornographic web site in South Africa because of the difficulty of age-verification and the requirement that pornography only be distributed from designated, licensed physical premises. It is also unlawful to visually represent bestiality (also rated XX), but not in text descriptions. Supplying violent pornography is an offence in any form, but the law allows the production of pornography that is not prohibited.\n", "Within nations that allow at least some types of pornography, models are often required to be at least a specific age (18 is most common). Various nations have various rules as to how a site must ensure that all porn models featured on it are of age such as strict record-keeping laws.\n", "Many nations that allow at least some types of pornography attempt to ensure that those under their legal age for accessing pornography (often 18 or 21) cannot easily access it. Various measures have been tried but with varying success. Within the United States, most websites have taken voluntary steps to ensure that visitors to their sites are not underage. Many Web sites provide a warning upon entry, warning minors and those not interested in viewing porn not to view the site, and requiring one to affirm that one is at least 18 and wishing to view pornographic content. Such warnings are at times used with other techniques, specifically on commercial and premium streaming sites. Commercial pornography websites generally restrict access to any pornographic content until a membership has been purchased using a credit card. This serves as both a way to collect payment and an age verification method since credit cards are usually not issued to minors. Age verification services have also appeared offering access to any Web site that participates in their program without additional charge. The users need only verify their age with the verification service, which then issues a username and password that can access all sites that use its services. Most age verification sites charge either a monthly or yearly fee to those wanting access to participating sites.\n", "Adult non-pornographic websites are difficult to classify in most mainstream web directories and search engines. Due to the nature of their sexual content, they are often mistaken in searches as pornographic sites, even when the \"adult\" content is informational. However, people who visit them are often seeking something other than pornography, such as information on a wide variety of sexual topics or discussions with other individuals. Wikipedia's articles on these relevant topics can be lumped into this category of website because of their graphic nature and educational intent.\n", "\"Indecent\" websites, such as those offering unrated games, any kind of pornography (not only child pornography), and gambling, are also blocked. Attempts to access these sites are automatically redirected to the warning page showing \"This site is legally blocked by the government regulations.\" Search engines are required to verify age for some keywords deemed \"inappropriate\" for minors.\n", "\"Indecent\" websites, such as those offering unrated games, any kind of pornography (not only child pornography), and gambling, are also blocked. Attempts to access these sites are automatically redirected to the warning page showing \"This site is legally blocked by the government regulations.\" Search engines are required to verify age for some keywords deemed \"inappropriate\" for minors.\n", "The UK has also announced plans requiring pornography sites worldwide to add age verification to prevent children from viewing them. UK based websites which fail to comply will be fined, while overseas sites will be blocked.\n" ]

[ "The name at the head of this pedigree is that of another legendary Scandinavian, \"Geat\", apparently the eponymous ancestor of the Geats and perhaps once a god. This individual has also been taken as corresponding to Gapt, the head of the genealogy of the Goths as given by Jordanes.\n", "There were two known branches of the Baggins Family. These were the Chubb-Bagginses and the Sackville-Bagginses. This happened when a female head of a family marries a male of another family. In order for the female's maiden name to be preserved through her descendants, a double surname is given.\n", "Certain surnames derives from clan names of old nobility such as Safavi, Bakikhanov and others. Most of these were already adopted by nobility in early stages of Russian Empire domination in Caucasus. Older surnames also have suffix \"-ski\" like Shikhlynski or Hajinsky. Others mostly incorporate noble titles like \"bey\" or \"khan\" with addition of suffixes like \"-ov\" or \"-li\" (for instance, \"Rustamkhanli\" or \"Amirkhanov\").\n", "The personal name \"\" was commonly employed by the Cumbrian royal dynasty. This name lays behind the place name of Dundonald/Dundonald Castle (), derived from the British \"*Din Dyfnwal\". Although no Cumbrian monarch can be specifically linked to this location, any one of those named \"Dyfnwal\" could be the eponym. Another place that could have been named after any of these like-named kings is Cardonald ().\n", "Although official, titles shared by members of a dynasty are non-substantive, the \"Almanach de Gotha\" historically recording them as prefixes to the given name, whereas substantive titles usually followed the titleholder's given name. Substantive titles are often granted to royalty in honour of an important dynastic occasion: with the baptism of a new dynast, coming of age, or an approved wedding. Recent examples include Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex. The \"Almanach de Gotha\" treated similarly titles used by dynasties of abolished monarchies: the head of the house bearing a traditional title of the dynasty in lieu of or after the given name (e.g. Duarte Pio, Duke of Braganza), while cadets shared a princely title as prefix in addition to any suffixed substantive title accorded them as individuals by the head of the house (e.g. Infante Miguel, Duke of Viseu and Prince Aimone, Duke of Apulia).\n", "Certain kings of Sweden appear in the Danish \"Gesta Danorum\" by Saxo Grammaticus. Of these, some (for example Athisl/Adils, Hunding/Fjölnir, Halfdan, Sigurd Hring, Ragnar Lodbrok and Erik and Alrik) are based on the same traditions as the West Norse Ynglingatal, Ynglinga saga and \"Historia Norwegiae\". Moreover, the dynasties are the same, i.e. the descendants of the god Frey (i.e. the Ynglings) and intermediary Skjöldungs.\n", "The two dynasties were different in several ways. Only one king of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty is known to have a name ending in \"-bala\", while all but one kings of the Mekala dynasty had names ending in -\"bala\". The copper-plate inscriptions of the Dakshina Kosala dynasty are composed in prose, and are inscribed in \"box-headed\" characters (although some private stone inscriptions from their reign are inscribed in \"nail-headed characters\"). On the other hand, the inscriptions of the Mekala dynasty are composed in a mixture of prose and verse, and are inscribed in \"nail-headed\" characters. The Dakshina Kosala rulers prefixed the word \"mahat\" to their names, which was not a practice among the Mekala rulers. Lastly, the Dakshina Kosala rulers were Vaishnavites, unlike the Mekala rulers, who were Shaivites.\n" ]

[ "The tradition of protest songs in the United States is a long one that dates back to the 18th century and colonial period, the American Revolutionary War and its aftermath. In the 19th century topical subjects for protest in song included abolition, slavery, poverty, and the Civil War amongst other subjects. In the 20th century civil liberties, civil rights, women's rights, economic injustice, politics and war were among the popular subjects for protest in song. In the 21st century the long tradition continues.\n", "In the 1960s the songs of Pete Seeger, Joan Baez, Bob Dylan, and others protested further racism, war, and the military-industrial complex, continuing an American artistic tradition of political protest founded during its colonial era.\n", "During this period, the term \"protest music\" was often used to characterize folk music with topical political themes. The convergence of the civil rights movement and folk music on the college campus led to the popularity of artists like Bob Dylan and his brand of protest music. As Folk singers and songwriters such as Phil Ochs, Buffy Sainte-Marie, Arlo Guthrie and Tom Paxton followed in Woody Guthrie's footsteps, writing \"protest music\" and topical songs and expressing support for various causes including the American Civil Rights Movement and anti-war causes associated with the Vietnam War. . Songs like Dylan's \"Blowin' in the Wind\" became an anthem for the civil rights movement, and he sang ballads about many other current issues of the time, such as \"Hard Rain's Gonna Fall\" about the Cuban missile crisis. Dylan is quoted having said \"there's other things in this world besides love and sex that're important, too.\" A number of performers who had begun their careers singing largely traditional material, as typified by Baez and Collins, began to write their own material.\n", "BULLET::::- Protest song is a song which protests perceived problems in society. Every major movement in Western history has been accompanied by its own collection of protest songs, from slave emancipation to women's suffrage, the labor movement, civil rights, the anti-war movement, the feminist movement, the environmental movement. Over time, the songs have come to protest more abstract, moral issues, such as injustice, racial discrimination, the morality of war in general (as opposed to purely protesting individual wars), globalization, inflation, social inequalities, and incarceration.\n", "The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s often used Negro spirituals as a source of protest, changing the religious lyrics to suit the political mood of the time. The use of religious music helped to emphasize the peaceful nature of the protest; it also proved easy to adapt, with many improvised call-and-response songs being created during marches and sit-ins. Some imprisoned protesters used their incarceration as an opportunity to write protest songs. These songs were carried across the country by Freedom Riders, and many of these became Civil Rights anthems. Many soul singers of the period, such as Sam Cooke (\"A Change Is Gonna Come\" (1965)), Otis Redding and Aretha Franklin (\"Respect\"), James Brown (\"Say It Loud - I'm Black and I'm Proud\" (1968); \"I Don't Want Nobody to Give Me Nothing (Open Up the Door, I'll Get It Myself)\" (1969)), Curtis Mayfield & The Impressions (\"We're a Winner\") (1967); and Nina Simone (\"Mississippi Goddam\" (1964), \"To Be Young, Gifted and Black\" (1970)) wrote and performed many protest songs which addressed the ever-increasing demand for equal rights for African Americans during the civil rights movement. The predominantly white music scene of the time also produced a number of songs protesting racial discrimination, including Janis Ian's \"Society's Child (Baby I've Been Thinking)\" in 1966, about an interracial romance forbidden by a girl's mother and frowned upon by her peers and teachers and a culture that classifies citizens by race. Steve Reich's 13-minute-long \"Come Out\" (1966), which consists of manipulated recordings of a single spoken line given by an injured survivor of the Harlem Race Riots of 1964, protested police brutality against African Americans. In late 1968, Sly and the Family Stone released the single \"Everyday People\", which became the band's first number-one hit. \"Everyday People\" was a protest against prejudices of all kinds, and popularized the catchphrase \"different strokes for different folks.\" The Family Stone featured Caucasians Greg Errico and Jerry Martini in its lineup, as well as females Rose Stone and Cynthia Robinson; making it the first major integrated band in rock history. Sly & the Family Stone's message was about peace and equality through music, and this song reflects the same.\n", "Music of the civil rights era was crucial to the productivity of the movement. Music communicated unspeakable feelings and the desire for radical change across the nation. Music strengthened the movement, adding variety to freedom progression strategies. Music was highly successful in that the songs were direct and repetitive, getting the message across clearly and efficiently. Melodies were simple with repeating choruses, which allowed easy involvement within both black and white communities furthering the spread of the song's message. There was often more singing than talking during protests and demonstrations, showing how powerful the songs really were. Nurturing those who came to participate in the movements was vital, which would be done in the form of song. Participants felt a connectedness with one another and their movement through the songs. Freedom songs were often used politically to grab the attention of the nation to address the severity of segregation.\n", "These industrial protest songs were largely ignored during the first English folk revival of the later 19th and early 20th century, which had focused on songs that had been collected in rural areas where they were still being sung and on music education. They were revived in the 1960s and performed by figures such as A. L. Lloyd on his album \"The Iron Muse\" (1963). In the 1980s the anarchist rock band Chumbawamba recorded several versions of traditional English protest songs as \"English Rebel Songs 1381–1914\".\n" ]

[ "A bread making machine or bread maker is a home appliance for turning raw ingredients into baked bread. It consists of a bread pan (or \"tin\"), at the bottom of which are one or more built-in paddles, mounted in the center of a small special-purpose oven. This small oven is usually controlled by a simple built-in computer using settings input via a control panel. Most bread machines have different cycles for different kinds of dough—including white bread, whole grain, European-style (sometimes labelled \"French\"), and dough-only (for pizza dough and shaped loaves baked in a conventional oven). Many also have a timer to allow the bread machine to activate without operator attendance, and some high-end models allow the user to program a custom cycle.\n", "The machine takes a few hours to make a loaf of bread. The ingredients are first rested and bought up to optimal temperature. The ingredients are then turned into a dough by stirring with a paddle. The dough is then proofed using ideal temperature control, and then baked.\n", "The bread is made by mixing flour (either white or self raising), yeast (if not using self-raising flour), butter, mixed dried fruit (such as raisins, currants and sultanas), mixed spices and an egg. Some recipes favour soaking the dried fruit in tea overnight before the baking. This mixture is then proofed to allow fermentation to take place. After an initial period, the air is knocked out of the mixture and it is allowed to proof once more. This period of preparation can take up to two hours, including the resting time for the bread mixture. It is then baked in an oven. Bara brith is traditionally served at tea time, alongside tea. It is normally served in slices with butter spread on one side.\n", "Bread making began with the milling of the grain. It was a difficult and time-consuming task, performed by women. Each household stored its own grain, and it is estimated that it required at least three hours of daily effort to produce enough flour to make sufficient bread for a family of five. The earliest milling was performed with a pestle and mortar, or a stone quern consisting of a large lower stone that held the grain and a smooth upper stone that was moved back and forth over the grains (). This often left small pieces of grit in the flour. The use of the millstone became more widespread during the Iron Age, resulting in greater speed and increased production of flour. Smaller versions for household use, the rotary or beehive quern, appeared during the early Persian period.\n", "The bread is made by mixing rye and wheat flour, water, salt, yeast and a leavening agent into a dough, which is formed into a round shape. After 70 to 90 minutes, the surface is cut with a knife to create a decorative lozenge pattern and the bread is baked first at a high, then at a moderate temperature until the crust is crunchy.\n", "The Chorleywood bread process allows the use of lower-protein wheats and reduces processing time, the system being able to produce a loaf of bread from flour to sliced and packaged form in about three and a half hours. This is achieved through the addition of Vitamin C, fat, yeast, and intense mechanical working by high-speed mixers, not feasible in a small-scale kitchen.\n", "Bread had for millennia been made from wheat flour by manually kneading a dough with a raising agent, typically yeast, leaving it to ferment, then baking. In 1862 a radically new and much cheaper industrial-scale process was developed by John Dauglish, using water with dissolved carbon dioxide instead of yeast, with no need for an eight-hour fermentation. Dauglish's method, used by the Aerated Bread Company that he set up, dominated commercial bread baking for a century until the Chorleywood process was developed.\n" ]

[ "This is a list of the Greek democracies for which there is some evidence in the Archaic period, following Eric Robinson's book \"The First Democracies\" (Stuttgart, 1997). Most of them probably pre-date the establishment of democracy in Athens by Cleisthenes in 508-507 BC.\n", "The period of Ancient Greece 4th century B.C. and later of the Roman Empire marks the beginning not only of democracy, but as well as its connection to economic growth. All throughout history, up until the present they have stayed intertwined. While there is no doubt of their existing relationship, whether it being in favor of economic development or democracy, there is no evidence to claim that it is in fact a causal relationship.\n", "Before the establishment of a democracy, the Ancient Greek city-state of Argos was ruled by kings. Most of them are probably mythical or only semi-historical. This list is based on that given by Eusebius of Caesarea.\n", "Athenian democracy developed around the sixth century BC in the Greek city-state (known as a polis) of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, and is often described as the first known democracy in the world. Other Greek cities set up democracies, most following the Athenian model, but none are as well documented as Athens'.\n", "However, when Rome fought Macedonia in 200, the Athenians abolished the first two new tribes and created a twelfth tribe in honour of the Pergamene king. The Athenians declared for Rome, and in 146 BC Athens became an autonomous \"civitas foederata\", able to manage internal affairs. This allowed Athens to practice the forms of democracy, though Rome ensured that the constitution strengthened the city's aristocracy.\n", "In the age of Cicero and Caesar, Rome was a republic, but not a democracy. Furthermore, it would be misleading to say that the tradition of Athenian democracy was an important part of the 18th-century revolutionaries' intellectual background. The classical example that inspired the American and French revolutionaries, as well as the English radicals, was Rome rather than Greece. Thus, the Founding Fathers who met in Philadelphia in 1787, did not set up a Council of the Areopagos, but a Senate, that, eventually, met on the Capitol. Following Rousseau (1712–1778), \"democracy came to be associated with popular sovereignty instead of popular participation in the exercise of power.\"\n", "Athenian democracy developed in the Greek city-state of Athens, comprising the city of Athens and the surrounding territory of Attica, around 600 BC. Athens was one of the very first known democracies. Other Greek cities set up democracies, and even though most followed an Athenian model, none were as powerful, stable, or well-documented as that of Athens. In the direct democracy of Athens, the citizens did not nominate representatives to vote on legislation and executive bills on their behalf (as in the United States) but instead voted as individuals. The public opinion of voters was influenced by the political satire of the comic poets in the theatres.\n" ]

[ "When the Mongols conquered most of Asia and Russia in the 13th century and constructed the Mongol Empire, they lived as minorities in many of the regions they had subdued, such as Iran and China. As a result, the Mongols in these regions quickly adopted the local culture. For example, in the Persian Ilkhanate the Mongol khans adopted Islam after less than half a century, while the khans of the Yuan Dynasty embraced Chinese court customs. In contrast, the Mongols and their subordinates who settled in what came to be known as Moghulistan were in origin steppe nomads from Mongolia. Because of this, they were much more resistant to changing their way of life; they retained their primarily nomadic lifestyle for several centuries and were among the last of the Mongols who converted to Islam to do so. During the 14th century the inhabitants of Moghulistan were known as \"Mogul\" and the area they occupied was called \"Mirza/Baig\". This term is also used by numerous people in South Asia.\n", "The Mongol Empire — at its height the largest contiguous empire in history — had a lasting impact, unifying large regions. Some of these (such as eastern and western Russia and the western parts of China) remain unified today. Mongols might have been assimilated into local populations after the fall of the empire, and some of their descendants adopted local religions; for example, the eastern khanate largely adopted Buddhism, and the three western khanates adopted Islam, largely under Sufi influence.\n", "During what was the late Middle Ages of Western Europe, the Caucasus was invaded by Mongols and their Turkic vassals. The first appearance of Mongol troops in the Caucasus was an arrival of scouts in 1220-1222. Kypchak Turkic peoples - some of which becoming future affiliates of Genghis Khan - had been invading and settling areas further and further South and West (a process that had was continuing since the fall of the Khazars), including the fertile river valleys of the Terek and the Kuban. In the 1230s, the Mongols gained rule over the Kypchaks, and turned them into vassals. \n", "The decade was perhaps most dominated by the Mongols, who under the leadership of Möngke Khan continued their rapid expansion throughout Asia both to the east and west of their home territories. The Mongols destroyed the Kingdom of Dali in Laos, and captured the Goryeo kingdom in Korea, Anatolia in Turkey, and the Islamic center of Baghdad, where tens or hundreds of thousands were killed as the city was burned to the ground. In Thailand the Lannathai kingdom was founded. In Japan, a new sect of Buddhism was formed, while in Korea the carving of Buddhist scriptures on 81,000 wooden blocks was completed.\n", "The Mongols conquered the steppes as far as the Lower Danube. They massacred or enslaved many Cumans, but significant Cuman groups survived and preserved their separate identity in the Mongol Empire until the end of the 14th century. The Holy See did not abandon the idea of proselytizing in Cumania after the Mongol invasion, and Pope Innocent IV praised the Dominicans for their successful missions to the Cumans in 1253. However, Pope Nicholas III mentioned in a 7 October 1278 letter that Catholics had disappeared from the Diocese of Cumania because no bishop lived there since the destruction of the episcopal see. The pope urged Philip, Bishop of Fermo (his legate in Hungary) to investigate the situation in the former bishopric.\n", "The Mongols under Genghis Khan (1162-1227) created in 1206 one of the largest land-based empires in history, permanently joining much of Eurasia into one political system. Since then, there has existed a portion of Mongolian society that adopted Turkic languages. For example, from the modern Mongolian ethnic group, the Uriankhai, who live in the Xinjiang (Western China) and in the western part of Mongolia, speak the Tuvan language (one of the Turkic languages) as their native language. Nations of Turkic nomadic people such as the Göktürks and Uighurs and ethnic groups that spoke Turkic languages such as Naimans and Ongud lived in the Mongolian Plateau during the time of Genghis Khan.\n", "Some of the Mongolian tribes became Islamized. Following the brutal Mongol invasion of Central Asia under Hulagu Khan and after the Battle of Baghdad (1258), Mongol rule extended across the breadth of almost all Muslim lands in Asia. The Mongols destroyed the caliphate and persecuted Islam, replacing it with Buddhism as the official state religion. In 1295 however, the new Khan of the Ilkhanate, Ghazan, converted to Islam, and two decades later the Golden Horde under Uzbeg Khan (reigned 1313-1341) followed suit. The Mongols had been religiously and culturally conquered; this absorption ushered in a new age of Mongol-Islamic synthesis that shaped the further spread of Islam in central Asia and the Indian subcontinent.\n" ]

[ "The battles are fought in a tactical role-playing game fashion. However, unlike other games in this genre, the battles tend to last less than a minute, with the exception of boss battles, and require little tactics. This makes the game stand out in its genre and may have also led to its limited mainstream success with more hardcore players of the genre.\n", "The battle system received mixed reviews. AllGame's J.C. Barnes found the game's use of elemental attacks awkward; \"Rooms can have anywhere from three to five monsters at a time, each having different elemental attributes. This means that gamers will most likely have to kill a monster that's weak against a specific attribute, open the weapon menu, select another attribute for the other monster, close the menu and repeat until all the monsters are defeated. He also found the dungeon crawling aspect somewhat repetitive. \"GamePro\" called the fighting \"monotonous,\" arguing that the game \"doesn't do the basics right.\"\n", "Because of this, the Vs. Battle Mode plays like a regular 3D fighting game but with some unique RPG elements. In addition to regular punching, kicking, and grappling attacks, energy can be saved up to five times to allow for combos, achieved by either the player editing their own during a fight (one move at a time), or by choosing preset or saved combos. The battle system of \"Hybrid Heaven\" has a strong emphasis on leveling up. Experience using an offense or a defense directly correlates with the player's statistical abilities when performing that move in the future, with separate statistics for each limb, the torso, and the head.\n", "\"Battle of Z\" is a team fighting action title that lets up to eight players battle it out against one another in a gameplay and graphical style similar to those of \"Dragon Ball: Zenkai Battle Royale\". The game can have up to four players in cooperative play, and lets players perform attacks together and heal one another. It also supports online multiplayer battles, and PS Vita ad-hoc connection. A multiplayer restriction in this game is that two players can not play on the same console; the developers say this is due to wanting a player having the best possible graphics in full screen. \"Battle of Z\" features over 70 characters, as well as team battles against giant characters such as Great Ape Vegeta, Great Ape Gohan, and Hirudegarn.\n", "Battle mode consists of the traditional maze-like gameplay, where multiple Bomber People blow their way through obstacles, collect power-ups, and attempt to defeat the other Bomber People. Also, the game allows players to compete in a deathmatch contest with 10 players in LAN or across the world with the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection.\n", "Battles occur whenever the player's and enemy forces occupy the same sector. This can happen if enemy or player forces arrive at a hostile sector or the player's actions cause a previously friendly or neutral force to become hostile. The game proceeds in real-time until a member of one force spots an enemy. The game then switches to turn-based play. The battles are played on the tactical screen.\n", "The Battle Mode comprises the arcade mode, which unveils part of the game's story after the player defeats eight opponents; a versus mode, in which the player can have offline battles with a second player or against a CPU; and a special \"M.O.M\" mode. The M.O.M. Mode, which is an acronym for \"Medal of Millionaires\", is a variation of the regular survival mode in which the player earns medals based on performance and improves through a progression system.\n" ]

[ "Studies on human brain size, largely based on participants of European ancestry, tend to find an average adult brain volume of 1260 cubic centimeters (cm) for men and 1130 cm for women. There is, however, substantial variation between individuals; one study of 46 adults, aged 22–49 years and of mainly European descent, found an average brain volume of 1273.6 cm for men, with a range of 1052.9 to 1498.5 cm, and 1131.1 cm for women, with a range of 974.9 to 1398.1 cm.\n", "The adult human brain is estimated to contain from 10 to 5 × 10 (100–500 trillion) synapses. Every cubic millimeter of cerebral cortex contains roughly a billion (short scale, i.e. 10) of them. The number of synapses in the human cerebral cortex has separately been estimated at 0.15 quadrillion (150 trillion)\n", "The total length of the human genome is over 3 billion base pairs. The genome is organized into 22 paired chromosomes, plus the X chromosome (one in males, two in females) and, in males only, one Y chromosome. These are all large linear DNA molecules contained within the cell nucleus. The genome also includes the mitochondrial DNA, a comparatively small circular molecule present in each mitochondrion. Basic information about these molecules and their gene content, based on a reference genome that does not represent the sequence of any specific individual, are provided in the following table. (Data source: Ensembl genome browser release 87, December 2016 for most values; Ensembl genome browser release 68, July 2012 for miRNA, rRNA, snRNA, snoRNA.)\n", "BULLET::::- The human genome is the genome of Homo sapiens, which is stored on 23 chromosome pairs. Whereas a genome sequence lists the order of every DNA base in a genome, a genome map identifies the landmarks. A genome map is less detailed than a genome sequence and aids in navigating around the genome. While working at the National Institute of Health, Craig Venter discovered a technique for rapidly identifying all of the mRNAs present in a cell, and began to use it to identify human brain genes. The short cDNA sequence fragments discovered by this method are called expressed sequence tags. Through his scientific research of bringing the world one step closer to personalized medicine, Craig Venter was listed on Time Magazine's 2007 and 2008 Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world.\n", "In addition, the scale of the human brain is not currently well-constrained. One estimate puts the human brain at about 100 billion neurons and 100 trillion synapses. Another estimate is 86 billion neurons of which 16.3 billion are in the cerebral cortex and 69 billion in the cerebellum. Glial cell synapses are currently unquantified but are known to be extremely numerous.\n", "In eukaryotes, genome size, and by extension the amount of noncoding DNA, is not correlated to organism complexity, an observation known as the C-value enigma. For example, the genome of the unicellular \"Polychaos dubium\" (formerly known as \"Amoeba dubia\") has been reported to contain more than 200 times the amount of DNA in humans. The pufferfish \"Takifugu rubripes\" genome is only about one eighth the size of the human genome, yet seems to have a comparable number of genes; approximately 90% of the \"Takifugu\" genome is noncoding DNA. Therefore, most of the difference in genome size is not due to variation in amount of coding DNA, rather, it is due to a difference in the amount of non-coding DNA.\n", "The human mitochondrial genome is a circular DNA molecule of about 16 kilobases. It encodes 37 genes: 13 for subunits of respiratory complexes I, III, IV and V, 22 for mitochondrial tRNA (for the 20 standard amino acids, plus an extra gene for leucine and serine), and 2 for rRNA. One mitochondrion can contain two to ten copies of its DNA.\n" ]

[ "Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) is a planned space probe that will demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon for planetary defense purposes. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft impact could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth.\n", "BULLET::::- : Used in the first and second seasons, this involves using the Shock Cannons to fire showers of small metal probes into asteroid fields; these devices are magnetically controlled and can bring the asteroids close to the ship, forming a hard shell resistant to enemy fire. This can then be turned into a fast-rotating orbiting ring, its angle controlled from the bridge, which can be used to block individual shots. As a final act, the asteroids can be expelled at high speed in all directions to destroy any ships that venture too close.\n", "During their journey, their spaceship narrowly evades collision with asteroids in Axar's orbit, but a slight impact leads to the risk of the ship detonating maximised to the highest degree and endangers the crew. Involving danger to his life, Motu attempts a manual docking operation to repair the damaged part of the ship but nearly dies after floating away and landing on an asteroid. Patlu saves him.\n", "A Hypervelocity Asteroid Intercept Vehicle (HAIV) is a spacecraft being developed by NASA to deflect dangerous Near Earth objects (NEOs) such as comets and asteroids that threaten colliding with Earth. HAIVs focus on utilizing powerful explosives, such as nuclear bombs, to achieve deflection by detonating on the surface of the NEO to change its trajectory away from Earth. This method of asteroid impact avoidance is intended to be used on dangerous NEOs detected within a short time frame (less than 5 years) before a possible impact event with Earth. The idea came about when asteroid detection became accurate and since then, scientists and engineers have come up with a well thought out design for an HAIV.\n", "After detecting many of the asteroids in the Solar System and observing their composition through meteorite remains, NASA has identified multiple large asteroids that may collide with Earth. To combat these NEOs, NASA has come up with the following design for an HAIV. The vehicle is split into two major parts; the leader craft and the follower craft.\n", "OSIRIS-REx will then halt the drift away from the asteroid in case it is necessary to return for another sampling attempt. The spacecraft will use images and spinning maneuvers to verify the sample has been acquired as well as determine its mass and verify it is in excess of the required . In the event of a failed sampling attempt, the spacecraft will return for another try. There is enough nitrogen gas for three attempts.\n", "The Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA) mission is a proposed pair of space probes which would study and demonstrate the kinetic effects of crashing an impactor spacecraft into an asteroid moon. The mission is intended to test whether a spacecraft could successfully deflect an asteroid on a collision course with Earth. The concept proposes two spacecraft: \"Hera\" (built by ESA) would orbit the asteroid, and \"Double Asteroid Redirection Test\" (\"DART\") (built by NASA) would impact its moon. Besides the observation of the change of orbital parameters of the asteroid moon, the observation of the plume, the crater, and the freshly exposed material will provide unique information for asteroid deflection, science and mining communities.\n" ]

[ "Normally, individuals obtain the necessary nutrients their bodies require through normal daily diets that process the foods accordingly within the body. Nevertheless, there are circumstances such as disease, distress, stress, and so on that may prevent the body from obtaining sufficient nutrients through diets alone. In such conditions, a dietary supplementation specifically formulated for their individual condition may be required to fill the void created by the specific condition. This can come in form of Medical Nutrition.\n", "A nutrient is a substance used by an organism to survive, grow, and reproduce. The requirement for dietary nutrient intake applies to animals, plants, fungi, and protists. Nutrients can be incorporated into cells for metabolic purposes or excreted by cells to create non-cellular structures, such as hair, scales, feathers, or exoskeletons. Some nutrients can be metabolically converted to smaller molecules in the process of releasing energy, such as for carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and fermentation products (ethanol or vinegar), leading to end-products of water and carbon dioxide. All organisms require water. Essential nutrients for animals are the energy sources, some of the amino acids that are combined to create proteins, a subset of fatty acids, vitamins and certain minerals. Plants require more diverse minerals absorbed through roots, plus carbon dioxide and oxygen absorbed through leaves. Fungi live on dead or living organic matter and meet nutrient needs from their host.\n", "Essential nutrients are defined as those that cannot be synthesized \"de novo\" in sufficient quantities for normal physiological function. This definition is met for LA and ALA but not the longer chain derivatives in adults. The longer chain derivatives particularly, however, have pharmacological properties that can modulate disease processes, but this should not be confused with dietary essentiality.\n", "Non-essential nutrients are substances within foods that can have a significant impact on health; these substances can be beneficial or toxic. For example, dietary fiber is not absorbed in the human digestive tract, but is important in maintaining the bulk of a bowel movement to avoid constipation. A subset of dietary fiber, soluble fiber, can be metabolized by bacteria residing in the large intestine. Soluble fiber is marketed as serving a prebiotic functionpromoting \"healthy\" intestinal bacteria. Bacterial metabolism of soluble fiber also produces short-chain fatty acids like butyric acid, which may be absorbed into intestinal cells as a source of calories.\n", "Some nutrients are complex molecules (for example vitamin B) which would be destroyed if they were broken down into their functional groups. To digest vitamin B non-destructively, haptocorrin in saliva strongly binds and protects the B molecules from stomach acid as they enter the stomach and are cleaved from their protein complexes.\n", "An essential nutrient is a nutrient required for normal physiological function that cannot be synthesized in the body – either at all or in sufficient quantities – and thus must be obtained from a dietary source. Apart from water, which is universally required for the maintenance of homeostasis in mammals, essential nutrients are indispensable for various cellular metabolic processes and maintaining tissue and organ function. In the case of humans, there are nine amino acids, two fatty acids, thirteen vitamins and fifteen minerals that are considered essential nutrients. In addition, there are several molecules that are considered conditionally essential nutrients since they are indispensable in certain developmental and pathological states.\n", "The list of nutrients that people are known to require is, in the words of Marion Nestle, \"almost certainly incomplete\". As of 2014, nutrients are thought to be of two types: macronutrients which are needed in relatively large amounts, and micronutrients which are needed in smaller quantities. A type of carbohydrate, dietary fiber, i.e. non-digestible material such as cellulose, is required, for both mechanical and biochemical reasons, although the exact reasons remain unclear. Some nutrients can be stored - the fat-soluble vitamins - while others are required more or less continuously. Poor health can be caused by a lack of required nutrients, or for some vitamins and minerals, too much of a required nutrient.\n" ]

[ "The international book inventories and historical collections of the library are one of a kind and made available to researchers in a scientific reading room for studies. A scholarship program for foreign scientists, financed by the Foreign Office, pursues the goal of supporting the research in the area of the international child and youth literature, supporting the illustration, and promoting scientific exchange and international co-operation.\n", "Pages containing the most recent papers published in the entire set of journals are available for some subjects, including bioinformatics, biology, biomarkers, cancer, chemistry, drugs & therapeutics, genes & therapeutics, and medicine.\n", "There are many fields of research in which important new advances and original research are published as either articles or letters in \"Nature.\" The papers that have been published in this journal are internationally acclaimed for maintaining high research standards. Fewer than 8% of submitted papers are accepted for publication.\n", "Scientific literature comprises scholarly publications that report original empirical and theoretical work in the natural and social sciences, and within an academic field, often abbreviated as the literature. Academic publishing is the process of contributing the results of one's research into the literature, which often requires a peer-review process. Original scientific research published for the first time in scientific journals is called the primary literature. Patents and technical reports, for minor research results and engineering and design work (including computer software), can also be considered primary literature. Secondary sources include review articles (which summarize the findings of published studies to highlight advances and new lines of research) and books (for large projects or broad arguments, including compilations of articles). Tertiary sources might include encyclopedias and similar works intended for broad public consumption.\n", "Scientific Research Publishing (SCIRP) is an academic publisher of presumably peer-reviewed open-access electronic journals, conference proceedings, and scientific anthologies of questionable quality. Although it has an address in southern California, in reality it is a \"Chinese operation\". \n", "As a result of all these studies, over 120 scientific papers have been published in national and international scientific journals as well as in 14 author's patents. In addition, these findings were included in 14 Ph.D. dissertations by research fellows and assistant professors as well as many student's thesis.\n", "The pieces that the Library plans to use in the scientific portion of its digital library focuses on original \"scientific\" manuscripts. The Library holds a large collection in the history of science. These begin with the works of Sir Isaac Newton. The Library also has many papers from other famous scientists, including Charles Darwin, Lord Kelvin, Adam Sedgwick, J.J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, James Clerk Maxwell, and Sir George Gabriel Stokes.\n" ]

[ "NATS is an open-source messaging system (sometimes called message-oriented middleware). The NATS server is written in the Go programming language. Client libraries to interface with the server are available for dozens of major programming languages. The core design principles of NATS are performance, scalability, and ease of use.\n", "NAT devices allow the use of private IP addresses on private networks behind routers with a single public IP address facing the Internet. The internal network devices communicate with hosts on the external network by changing the source address of outgoing requests to that of the NAT device and relaying replies back to the originating device.\n", "The simplest type of NAT provides a one-to-one translation of IP addresses. RFC 2663 refers to this type of NAT as \"basic NAT\"; it is often also called a \"one-to-one NAT\". In this type of NAT, only the IP addresses, IP header checksum and any higher level checksums that include the IP address are changed. Basic NATs can be used to interconnect two IP networks that have incompatible addressing.\n", "NAT traversal, through TCP hole punching, establishes bidirectional TCP connections between Internet hosts in private networks using NAT. It does not work with all types of NATs, as their behavior is not standardized. \n", "Synadia develops and provides support for NATS. NATS was originally developed by Derek Collison as the messaging control plane for Cloud Foundry and was written in Ruby. NATS was later ported to Go. The source code is released under the Apache 2.0 License. NATS consists of:\n", "NAT was founded October 1987 as a non-government organisation (NGO) by the Department of Health, in order to deal with the escalating concern with HIV and AIDS nationally. Today NAT's funding comes from public donations, corporate supporters, grant-making trusts and foundations and its own fundraising work – it doesn't receive funding from the UK Government. NAT is a policy and campaigning charity, working to improve the national response to HIV through policy development, expertise and the provision of practical resources rather than through offering direct support services to people living with HIV.\n", "Especially, most NATs combine \"symmetric NAT\" for outgoing connections with \"static port mapping\", where incoming packets addressed to the external address and port are redirected to a specific internal address and port. Some products can redirect packets to several internal hosts, \"e.g.\", to divide the load between a few servers. However, this introduces problems with more sophisticated communications that have many interconnected packets, and thus is rarely used.\n" ]

[ "Various studies have shown marathon runners to be more economical than middle distance runners and sprinters at speeds of 6–12 miles per hour (10-19 kilometers per hour). At those speeds, film analysis has shown that sprinters and middle distance have more vertical motion than marathoners.\n", "Biomechanical factors associated with elite runners include increased hip function, use and stride length over recreational runners. An increase in running speeds causes increased ground reaction forces and elite distance runners must compensate for this to maintain their pace over long distances.\n", "Some middle-distance runners have specialized in acting as pacemakers in longer races, receiving a fee without even finishing the race, and possibly a bonus if a record results. This is a useful occupation for athletes who are capable of running accurately to a specified pace, but not capable of the very fastest times to become champions in their own right.\n", "A 2015 qualitative study by the University of Loughborough found that runners attending a parkrun for the first time were typically motivated for weight loss or an improvement in their physical fitness. On the other hand, there were a range of different motivations for runners to continue regularly taking part, with runners wanting to beat their personal record time, to reach a certain number of runs and join a \"milestone club\", to enjoy being outdoors at the park, to make new friends through volunteering or to meet existing friends or family for the run.\n", "BULLET::::- The Runners - A track team runs very fast and have gotten good at it…mainly because their coach is a lion that chases them and that their field has a lot of obstacles that they have to jump over.\n", "The elite race has featured a number of high profile runners, including former marathon world record holder and champion Catherine Ndereba, two-time Saint Silvester Road Race winner James Kwambai, Olympic medallist and New York City Marathon champion Joyce Chepchumba and 2005 World Half Marathon champion Fabiano Joseph. The race is not typically conducive to fast times as the city is located at 2,600 meters above sea level, some 8,530 feet, a factor which inhibits long distance runners. However, it is considered a perfect training ground for professional athletes and runners looking to run the World's Marathon Majors in Berlin, Chicago and New York happening in the fall each year.\n", "The difference even between world class and national level distance runners has been associated with more efficient hip joint function. The increase in velocity likely comes from the increased range of motion in hip flexion and extension, allowing for greater acceleration and velocity. The hip extensors and hip extension have been linked to more powerful knee extension during toe-off, which contributes to propulsion.\n" ]

[ "The Government of the Dominion was able to fix the problem caused by the importation and commerce created by American coinage imported into Canada. they printed additional $.25 notes with no plate number. This ended the importation and Canadians used Canadian notes to fuel their economy.\n", "The 1850s in Canada were a decade of wrangling over whether to adopt a sterling monetary system or a decimal monetary system based on the US dollar. The British North American provinces, for reasons of practicality in relation to the increasing trade with the neighbouring United States, had a desire to assimilate their currencies with the American unit, but the imperial authorities in London still preferred sterling as the sole currency throughout the British Empire. The British North American provinces nonetheless gradually adopted currencies tied to the American dollar.\n", "In 1863, the Bank of Upper Canada complained to the Canadian government that it had a hard time trying to issue their final coinage because of the change to decimal currency. The government bought the coins and stored them in a warehouse as copper bullion. After Canadian Confederation, the coins were melted in 1873 under government supervision.\n", "There had been repeated debate about ceasing production of the penny because of the cost of producing it and a perceived lack of usefulness. In mid-2010 the Standing Senate Committee on National Finance began a study on the future of the one-cent coin. On December 14, 2010, the Senate finance committee recommended the penny be removed from circulation, arguing that a century of inflation had eroded the value and usefulness of the one-cent piece. A 2007 survey indicated that 37 percent of Canadians used pennies, but the government continued to produce about 816million pennies per year, equal to 24 pennies per Canadian. The Royal Canadian Mint had been forced to produce large numbers of pennies because they disappeared from circulation, as people hoarded these coins or simply avoided using them. In 2011 the Royal Canadian Mint had minted 1.1billion pennies, more than doubling the 2010 production number of 486.2million pennies. In late 2010, finance committee members of the Canadian Senate estimated that the average Canadian had as many as 600 pennies hoarded away, taken out of circulation.\n", "Canada and Newfoundland did not join the sterling area because their dollar currencies had effectively been linked to the US dollar until they were forced off the gold standard in 1931 along with Britain. But while Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa all responded to the end of the gold standard by pegging their pounds to the pound sterling, Canada and Newfoundland instead pegged their dollars to the US dollar. So Canada and Newfoundland did not stand to gain by joining an exchange control bloc intended to protect the external value of sterling. The absence of Canada and Newfoundland from the sterling area was beneficial to Britain, as it curtailed capital flight to the North American mainland. Canada nevertheless introduced its own exchange controls at the outbreak of war; these were maintained until 1953. Canada's exchange controls were 'sterling area-friendly', in that their purpose was more to prevent capital flight to the US than to prevent flight to the sterling area.\n", "In Canada, a penny is a coin worth one cent, or of a dollar. According to the Royal Canadian Mint, the official national term of the coin is the \"one-cent piece\", but in practice the terms \"penny\" and \"cent\" predominate. Originally, \"penny\" referred to a two-cent coin. When the two-cent coin was discontinued, \"penny\" took over as the new one-cent coin's name. \"Penny\" was likely readily adopted because the previous coinage in Canada (up to 1858) was the British monetary system, where Canada used British pounds, shillings, and pence as coinage alongside U.S. decimal coins and Spanish milled dollars.\n", "Due to a rise in the price of silver, Canadian coinage was debased from sterling silver (925 fine) to 800 fine in 1920. In 1922, silver was removed entirely from the five-cent coin, replacing it with a coin of roughly the same dimensions and mass as the American nickel. However, unlike the American coin, which was 75% copper and 25% nickel, the Canadian coin was pure nickel, as Canada was the world's largest producer of the metal. This coin has since been known almost universally as the nickel.\n" ]

[ "The Simple English Wikipedia is an English-language edition of the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia, primarily written in basic English and special English. It was launched in 2001. It is one of five Wikipedias written in an Anglic language, the others being the English Wikipedia, the Pitkern-Norfuk Wikipedia, the Scots Wikipedia, and the Old English Wikipedia, though the last is largely unintelligible to speakers of the modern language. The site has the stated aim of providing an encyclopedia for \"people with different needs, such as students, children, adults with learning difficulties, and people who are trying to learn English\". As of 2020, the site contains over content pages, and has more than registered users, of whom are currently active.\n", "The articles on the Simple English Wikipedia are usually shorter than their English Wikipedia counterparts, typically presenting only basic information: Tim Dowling of \"The Guardian\" newspaper explained that \"the Simple English version tends to stick to commonly accepted facts\". The interface is also more simply labeled; for instance, the \"Random article\" link on the English Wikipedia is replaced with a \"Show any page\" link; users are invited to \"change\" rather than \"edit\" pages; clicking on a red link shows a \"page not created\" message rather than the usual \"page does not exist\". The project uses around 1,500 common English words, and is based on Basic English, an 850-word auxiliary international language created by Charles Kay Ogden in the 1920s.\n", "The Simple English Wikipedia is a variation in which most of the articles use only basic English vocabulary. There is also the Old English (Ænglisc/Anglo-Saxon) Wikipedia (). Community-produced news publications include \"The Signpost\".\n", "Simple English Wikipedia's basic presentation style makes it ideal for beginners learning English. Its simpler word structure and syntax, while detracting from the raw information standpoint, can make the information easy to understand. Material from the Simple English Wikipedia forms the basis for One Encyclopedia per Child, a One Laptop per Child project.\n", "The English Wikipedia is the English-language edition of the free online encyclopedia Wikipedia. Founded on 15 January 2001, it is the first edition of Wikipedia and, , has the most articles of any of the editions. As of 2020, of articles in all Wikipedias belong to the English-language edition. This share has gradually declined from more than 50 percent in 2003, due to the growth of Wikipedias in other languages. As of 08 2020, there are articles on the site, having surpassed the 5 million mark on 1 November 2015. In October 2015, the combined text of the English Wikipedia's articles totalled 11.5 gigabytes when compressed.\n", "In addition to the top six, nine other Wikipedias have over one million articles each: Russian, Italian, Spanish, Waray-Waray, Polish, Vietnamese, Japanese, Chinese and Portuguese), four more have over 500,000 articles (Ukrainian, Persian, Catalan and Arabic), 40 more have over 100,000 articles, and 78 more have over 10,000 articles. The largest, the English Wikipedia, has over 0.1*floor(/100000) million articles. , according to Alexa, the English subdomain (en.wikipedia.org; English Wikipedia) receives approximately 57% of Wikipedia's cumulative traffic, with the remaining split among the other languages (Russian: 9%; Chinese: 6%; Japanese: 6%; Spanish: 5%).\n", "The English Wikipedia, which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage. By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the copyleft GNU Free Documentation License. As of August 2009, Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined in over 250 languages. Wikipedia currently has articles in English. Since 2003, other free encyclopedias like the Chinese-language Baidu Baike and Hudong, as well as English language encyclopedias like Citizendium and Knol have appeared. Knol has been discontinued.\n" ]

[ "that no one is perfect but most people are good; that people can't be judged by their worst or weakest moments; that harsh judgments can make hypocrites of us all; that a lot of life is just showing up and hanging on; that laughter is often the best, and sometimes the only, response to pain.\n", "I could reply: “Because I love you”. If someone from outside addresses me the same question, what do you think I should reply? “Because I love them”. Even this sounds like a sentence that has become rusty by centuries of abandonment. We have become Pharisees and always prefer considering the poor as the sole responsibles of their misery.»\n", "BULLET::::2. Show respect for the other person's opinions. Never say \"You're wrong.\" We must never tell people flat out that they are wrong. It will only serve to offend them and insult their pride. No one likes to be humiliated; we must not be so blunt.\n", "\"Maybe what we're hearing from our politicians in Washington about how bad things are, how divided we are, maybe that's not true. Maybe the American people are sensible and do have this common ground.\" \n", "\"'Political correctness' has become a popular phrase because it catches a certain kind of self-righteous and judgmental tone in some and a pervasive anxiety in others – who, fearing that they may do something wrong, adjust their facial expressions, and pause in their speech to make sure they are not doing or saying anything inappropriate. The climate this has created on campuses is at least as bad in Canada as in the United States.\"\n", "People who support and found reasons to feel good over these incidents are doing more than one wrong thing: first, ignoring the tragedy of killing an innocent group of people. Second, not thinking about the reaction of showing they found satisfaction in the incidents. Third, they are considered accomplices in the crime. Fourth, they are committing a wrongful act not approved by religion.\n", "Misconception: \"\"I feel badly\" is the correct negative response to \"How do you feel?\"\" The expression \"I feel badly\" is often used in English, but it is not usually possible as a meaningful reply to this question because it means \"I feel guilty\" and implies or often requires an addition beginning with \"about...\". According to Paul Brians in \"Common Errors in English Usage\", \" 'I feel bad' is standard English\", and \" 'I feel badly' is an incorrect hyper-correction by people who think they know better than the masses.\"\n" ]

[ "At its peak, Sanctuary involved over 500 in the United States which, by declaring themselves official \"sanctuaries,\" committed to providing shelter, protection, material goods and often legal advice to Central American refugees. Various denominations were involved, including the Lutherans, United Church of Christ, Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox, Presbyterians, Methodists, Baptists, Jews, Unitarian Universalists, Quakers, and Mennonites.\n", "A sanctuary campus is any college or university, typically in North America and Western Europe, that adopts policies to protect members of the campus community who are undocumented immigrants. The term is modeled after \"sanctuary city\", a status that has been adopted by over 30 municipalities. Proposed policies on sanctuary campuses include:\n", "Sanctuary city (; ) refers to municipal jurisdictions, typically in North America and Western Europe, that limit their cooperation with the national government's effort to enforce immigration law. Leaders of sanctuary cities say they want to reduce fear of deportation and possible family break-up among people who are in the country illegally, so that such people will be more willing to report crimes, use health and social services, and enroll their children in school. In the United States, municipal policies include prohibiting police or city employees from questioning people about their immigration status and refusing requests by national immigration authorities to detain people beyond their release date, if they were jailed for breaking local law. \n", "There is no official definition of \"sanctuary city\". Cities which have been referred to as \"sanctuary cities\" by various politicians include Washington, D.C.; New York City; Los Angeles; Chicago; San Francisco; San Diego; Austin; Salt Lake City; Dallas; Detroit; Honolulu; Houston; Jersey City; Minneapolis; Miami; Denver; Aurora, Colorado; Baltimore; Seattle; Portland, Oregon; Portland, Maine; and Senath, Missouri, have become \"sanctuary cities\", having adopted ordinances refraining from stopping or questioning individuals for the sole purpose of determining their immigration status. Most of these ordinances are in place at the state and county, not city, level. These policies do not prevent the local authorities from investigating crimes committed by illegal immigrants.\n", "There has been controversy around sanctuary cities, one response from the state and local governments. Many American cities have designated themselves as sanctuary cities and many other state and municipal governments discourage the reporting of illegal immigrants to U.S. immigration and Customs Enforcement. A sanctuary city is defined as a city that follows certain practices to protect illegal immigrants; these include – cities that do not allow municipal funds or resources to be used to enforce federal immigration laws, usually by not allowing police or municipal employees to inquire about one's immigration status.\n", "The Sanctuary movement was a religious and political campaign in the United States that began in the early 1980s to provide safe-haven for Central American refugees fleeing civil conflict. The movement was a response to federal immigration policies that made obtaining asylum difficult for Central Americans.\n", "BULLET::::- Berkeley became the first city in the United States to pass a sanctuary resolution on November 8, 1971. Additional local governments in certain cities in the United States began designating themselves as sanctuary cities during the 1980s. Some have questioned the accuracy of the term \"sanctuary city\" as used in the US. The policy was initiated in 1979 in Los Angeles, to prevent the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) from inquiring about the immigration status of arrestees. Many Californian cities have adopted \"sanctuary\" ordinances banning city employees and public safety personnel from asking people about their immigration status.\n" ]

[ "One can say that the photon is not a particle but as a mere quantum of energy that is usually exchanged in integer multiples of ħω, but not always, as it is the case in the above experiment. From this point of view, photons are quasiparticles, akin to phonons and plasmons, in a sense less \"real\" than electrons and protons. Before dismissing this view as unscientific, its worth recalling the words of Willis Lamb, who won a Nobel prize in the area of quantum electrodynamics:\n", "Like all elementary particles, photons are currently best explained by quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality, exhibiting properties of both waves and particles. For example, a single photon may be refracted by a lens and exhibit wave interference with itself, and it can behave as a particle with definite and finite measurable position or momentum, though not both at the same time as per Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The photon's wave and quantum qualities are two observable aspects of a single phenomenon—they cannot be described by any mechanical model; a representation of this dual property of light that assumes certain points on the wavefront to be the seat of the energy is not possible. The quanta in a light wave are not spatially localized.\n", "In the Standard Model of particle physics, photons and other elementary particles are described as a necessary consequence of physical laws having a certain symmetry at every point in spacetime. The intrinsic properties of particles, such as charge, mass, and spin, are determined by this gauge symmetry. The photon concept has led to momentous advances in experimental and theoretical physics, including lasers, Bose–Einstein condensation, quantum field theory, and the probabilistic interpretation of quantum mechanics. It has been applied to photochemistry, high-resolution microscopy, and measurements of molecular distances. Recently, photons have been studied as elements of quantum computers, and for applications in optical imaging and optical communication such as quantum cryptography.\n", "In the quantum theory, photons are seen as wave packets of the waves described in the classical theory of Maxwell. The quantum theory was needed to explain effects even with visual light that Maxwell's classical theory could not (such as spectral lines).\n", "In 1923 Louis de Broglie addressed the question of whether all particles can have both a wave and a particle nature similar to the photon. Photons differ from many other particles in that they are massless and travel at the speed of light. Specifically de Broglie asked the question of whether a particle that has both a wave and a particle associated with it is consistent with Einstein's two great 1905 contributions, the special theory of relativity and the quantization of energy and momentum. The answer turned out to be positive. The wave and particle nature of electrons was experimentally observed in 1927, two years after the discovery of the Schrödinger equation.\n", "The main evidence indicating that photons are bosons comes from the Blackbody radiation experiments which are in agreement with Planck's distribution. Perkins calculated the photon distribution for Blackbody radiation using the second quantization method, but with a composite photon.\n", "There are two ways in which probability can be applied to the behavior of photons; probability can be used to calculate the probable number of photons in a particular state, or probability can be used to calculate the likelihood of a single photon to be in a particular state. The former interpretation violates energy conservation. The latter interpretation is the viable, if nonintuitive, option. Dirac explains this in the context of the double-slit experiment:\n" ]

[ "As the calories required for energy homeostasis decreases as the organisms's mass decreases, if a moderate deficit is maintained eventually a new (lower) weight will be reached and maintained, and the organism will no longer be at caloric deficit. A permanent severe deficit, on the other hand, which contains too few calories to maintain a healthy weight level, will eventually result in starvation and death.\n", "A commonly asserted \"rule\" for weight gain or loss is based on the assumption that one pound of human fat tissue contains about 3,500 kilocalories (often simply called \"calories\" in the field of nutrition). Thus, eating 500 fewer calories than one needs per day should result in a loss of about a pound per week. Similarly, for every 3500 calories consumed above the amount one needs, a pound will be gained.\n", "Continuing weight loss may deteriorate into wasting, a vaguely defined condition called cachexia. Cachexia differs from starvation in part because it involves a systemic inflammatory response. It is associated with poorer outcomes. In the advanced stages of progressive disease, metabolism can change so that they lose weight even when they are getting what is normally regarded as adequate nutrition and the body cannot compensate. This leads to a condition called anorexia cachexia syndrome (ACS) and additional nutrition or supplementation is unlikely to help. Symptoms of weight loss from ACS include severe weight loss from muscle rather than body fat, loss of appetite and feeling full after eating small amounts, nausea, anemia, weakness and fatigue.\n", "Weight loss is achieved by adopting a lifestyle in which fewer calories are consumed than are expended. According to the UK National Health Service this is best achieved by monitoring calories eaten and supplementing this with physical exercise.\n", "The \"empty calories\" argument states that a diet high in added sugar will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. This nutrient displacement occurs if sugar makes up more than 25% of daily energy intake, a proportion associated with poor diet quality and risk of obesity. Displacement may occur at lower levels of consumption.\n", "Some popular beliefs attached to weight loss have been shown to either have less effect on weight loss than commonly believed or are actively unhealthy. According to Harvard Health, the idea of metabolism being the \"key to weight\" is \"part truth and part myth\" as while metabolism does affect weight loss, external forces such as diet and exercise have an equal effect. They also commented that the idea of changing one's rate of metabolism is under debate. Diet plans in fitness magazines are also often believed to be effective, but may actually be harmful by limiting the daily intake of important calories and nutrients which can be detrimental depending on the person and are even capable of driving individuals away from weight loss.\n", "GEBN's view of weight and metabolic health promoted the idea that weight loss can be achieved by taking more exercise while maintaining the same level of consumption - this view \"crosses a line by advancing a view that falls outside the scientific consensus\", and presents an overly simplistic view of the energy balance equation, with experts noting that \"evidence for eating less as a weight-loss strategy is much, much stronger than the evidence for moving more\".\n" ]

[ "The history of foreign migration to Athens dates back to the archaic period. Solon was said to have offered Athenian citizenship to foreigners who would relocate to his city to practice a craft. However, metic status did not exist during the time of Solon.\n", "Several thinkers suggest that ancient Sparta, not Athens, was the originator of the concept of citizenship. Spartan citizenship was based on the principle of equality among a ruling military elite called Spartiates. They were \"full Spartan citizens\"—men who graduated from a rigorous regimen of military training and at age 30 received a land allotment called a kleros, although they had to keep paying dues to pay for food and drink as was required to maintain citizenship. In the Spartan approach to phalanx warfare, virtues such as courage and loyalty were particularly emphasized relative to other Greek city-states. Each Spartan citizen owned at least a minimum portion of the public land which was sufficient to provide food for a family, although the size of these plots varied. The Spartan citizens relied on the labor of captured slaves called helots to do the everyday drudgework of farming and maintenance, while the Spartan men underwent a rigorous military regimen, and in a sense it was the labor of the helots which permitted Spartans to engage in extensive military training and citizenship. Citizenship was viewed as incompatible with manual labor. Citizens ate meals together in a \"communal mess\". They were \"frugally fed, ferociously disciplined, and kept in constant training through martial games and communal exercises,\" according to Hosking. As young men, they served in the military. It was seen as virtuous to participate in government when men grew older. Participation was required; failure to appear could entail a loss of citizenship. But the philosopher Aristotle viewed the Spartan model of citizenship as \"artificial and strained\", according to one account. While Spartans were expected to learn music and poetry, serious study was discouraged. Historian Ian Worthington described a \"Spartan mirage\" in the sense that the mystique about military invincibility tended to obscure weaknesses within the Spartan system, particularly their dependence on helots. In contrast with Athenian women, Spartan women could own property, and owned at one point up to 40% of the land according to Aristotle, and they had greater independence and rights, although their main task was not to rule the homes or participate in governance but rather to produce strong and healthy babies.\n", "It has been widely accepted that the historical origins of citizenship date back to Ancient Greece, but citizenship and citizenship law, as we understand them today, came into existence along with the formation of modern nation-states in the 18th and 19th centuries. \"Ius doni\", as a specific mode of citizenship acquisition, is a result of social transformation. The gradual development of citizenship from a more formal structure to a subjective right was precipitated by the French Revolution. This transition from the birthright principle (\"ius soli\") to the principle of descent (\"ius sanguinis\") represented a significant paradigm shift brought about by the Code Civil in 1804. This transition ultimately extended to all of Europe.\n", "There is more widespread agreement that the first real instances of citizenship began in ancient Greece. And while there were precursors of the relation in societies before then, it emerged in readily discernible form in the Greek city-states which began to dot the shores of the Aegean Sea, the Black Sea, the Adriatic Sea, and elsewhere around the Mediterranean perhaps around the 8th century BCE. The modern day distinction sometimes termed \"consent versus descent\" distinction—that is, citizenship by choice versus birthright citizenship, has been traced back to ancient Greece. And thinkers such as J.G.A. Pocock have suggested that the modern-day ideal of citizenship was first articulated by the ancient Athenians and Romans, although he suggested that the \"transmission\" of the sense of citizenship over two millennia was essentially a myth enshrouding western civilization. One writer suggests that despite the long history of China, there never was a political entity within China similar to the Greek polis.\n", "Athenian citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community rather than rights given to its members. This was not a problem because people had a strong affinity with the polis; their personal destiny and the destiny of the entire community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous. It was a source of honour and respect. According to one view, the citizenry was \"its own master\". The people were sovereign; there was no sovereignty outside of the people themselves. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled. Further, important political and judicial offices were rotated to widen participation and prevent corruption, and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly. Pocock explained:\n", "While there is disagreement about when the relation of citizenship began, many thinkers point to the early city-states of ancient Greece, possibly as a reaction to the fear of slavery, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years. In Roman times, citizenship began to take on more of the character of a relationship based on law, with less political participation than in ancient Greece but a widening sphere of who was considered to be a citizen. In the Middle Ages in Europe, citizenship was primarily identified with commercial and secular life in the growing cities, and it came to be seen as membership in emerging nation-states. In modern democracies, citizenship has contrasting senses, including a \"liberal-individualist\" view emphasizing needs and entitlements and legal protections for essentially passive political beings, and a \"civic-republican\" view emphasizing political participation and seeing citizenship as an active relation with specific privileges and obligations.\n", "Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. \"Polis\" meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might \"really have worked\" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state.\n" ]

[ "All seven volumes of \"Studies in the Psychology of Sex\" were widely accepted in the scientific community, even with the progressive perspectives in which it portrayed human sexuality and perversions. Despite this, the book was not published in England until the middle of the 20th century, as it was strongly believed that putting Ellis’ ideas into the public would increase the rates of individuals with sexual perversions. For a long time, concepts like eonism and undinism were assumed to be effects of other psychological disorders such a schizophrenia. Ellis’ innovative take on these perversions and their origins attempted to normalise them and demonstrate that these individuals can be functioning members of society.\n", "In modern times, the genuine clinical study of sexual problems is usually dated back no further than 1970 when Masters and Johnson's \"Human Sexual Inadequacy\" was published. It was the result of over a decade of work at the Reproductive Biology Research Foundation in St. Louis, involving 790 cases. The work grew from Masters and Johnson's earlier \"Human Sexual Response\" (1966).\n", "The clinical study \"Human Sexual Response\" was published by Masters and Johnson in 1966, and the topic suddenly became more commonplace in America. The 1969 book \"Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex (But Were Afraid to Ask)\" by psychiatrist David Reuben was a more popular attempt at answering the public's curiosity regarding such matters. Then in 1972 appeared \"The Joy of Sex\" by Alex Comfort, reflecting an even more candid perception of love-making. By this time, the recreational or 'fun' aspects of sexual behavior were being discussed more openly than ever before, and this more 'enlightened' outlook resulted not just from the publication of such new books as these, but from a more pervasive sexual revolution that had already been well underway for some time.\n", "Sexologists such as Henry Havelock Ellis and Alfred Kinsey began conducting research in the area of human sexuality during the first half of the 20th century. This work was groundbreaking and controversial in the scientific arena.\n", "By this time, medical authority had grown to the point where the medical profession became able to determine the validity of someone's sex. Reis describes how medical discourse during the mid 19th-century typified \"the themes of dishonesty and sexual promiscuity lurk in what were otherwise dispassionate and clinical medical cases. Foremost in the narrative is the subject’s shiftiness, as if bodily ambiguity meant that the person’s word also lacked clarity and could not be trusted\".\n", "During the beginning of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries, many changes in sexual standards occurred. New, dramatic, artificial birth control devices such as the condom and diaphragm were introduced. Doctors started claiming a new role in sexual matters, urging that their advice was crucial to sexual morality and health. New pornographic industries grew and Japan adopted its first laws against homosexuality. In western societies, the definition of homosexuality was constantly changing; western influence on other cultures became more prevalent. New contacts created serious issues around sexuality and sexual traditions. There were also major shifts in sexual behavior. During this period, puberty began occurring at younger ages, so a new focus on adolescence as a time of sexual confusion and danger emerged. There was a new focus on the purpose of marriage; it was increasing regarded as being for love rather than only for economics and reproduction.\n", "Research into youthful sexuality has been largely conducted over the 20th century in the Western World and is mostly concerned with suppression for reasons of religion and/or fears about the spread of sexually transmitted infections.\n" ]

[ "The operation is rudimentary: the cashier swipes a customer's ATM card on the terminal and keys in payment amount. The cardholder then selects his bank account and keys in the ATM Personal identification number (PIN). If the requested amount is successfully debited from the customer's account, receipts will be printed for both the customer and retailer. \n", "To withdraw cash from an automated teller machine (ATM), a bank customer inserts an ATM card into a cash machine and types a PIN. The input PIN is compared to the PIN stored on the card’s chip. If the two match, the ATM withdrawal can proceed.\n", "In some modern automated teller machines, currency counters allow for cash deposits without envelopes, since they can identify which bills have been inserted instead of just how many. The user is given the chance to review the automatic counter's idea of the quantity and kinds of the inserted banknotes before the deposit is complete.\n", "Modern cash registers may be connected to a handheld or stationary barcode reader so that a customer's purchases can be more rapidly scanned than would be possible by keying numbers into the register by hand. The use of scanners should also help prevent errors that result from manually entering the product's barcode or pricing. At grocers, the register's scanner may be combined with a scale for measuring product that is sold by weight.\n", "To aid in reliability, some ATMs print each transaction to a roll-paper journal that is stored inside the ATM, which allows its users and the related financial institutions to settle things based on the records in the journal in case there is a dispute. In some cases, transactions are posted to an electronic journal to remove the cost of supplying journal paper to the ATM and for more convenient searching of data.\n", "Using an ATM, customers can access their bank deposit or credit accounts in order to make a variety of financial transactions, most notably cash withdrawals and balance checking, as well as transferring credit to and from mobile phones. ATMs can also be used to withdraw cash in a foreign country. If the currency being withdrawn from the ATM is different from that in which the bank account is denominated, the money will be converted at the financial institution's exchange rate. Customers are typically identified by inserting a plastic ATM card (or some other acceptable payment card) into the ATM, with authentication being by the customer entering a personal identification number (PIN), which must match the PIN stored in the chip on the card (if the card is so equipped), or in the issuing financial institution's database.\n", "Electronic cash counters tend to be small in size, silent, battery operated, very fast and accurate. They are often used on the desktops of bank tellers to check customer deposits or withdrawals or by retailers to count money from cash registers. Although their capability varies by model, typically they can count both notes and coins and check standard bank bundles or bags/rolls of coin to ensure that they are correct. This technology was invented in 1979 by Edgar Biss who went on to form the global company Tellermate.\n" ]

[ "Kinetic weapons have always been widespread in conventional warfare—bullets, arrows, swords, clubs, etc.—but the energy a projectile would gain while falling from orbit would make such a weapon rival all but the most powerful explosives. A direct hit would presumably destroy all but the most hardened targets without the need for nuclear weapons.\n", "BULLET::::- Practical probability of success 83.3% (for 1 missile, not 2). One day overcome 1500 km (railway transport), occupied position. Destroyed 10 targets, applied 12 missiles. Targets were at extra high and super low height. In conditions of strong interference, and at the maximum range (250 km), a small-sized target (China) was destroyed, the target speed was 3 km/s (ballistic missile).\n", "Some kinetic weapons for targeting objects in spaceflight are anti-satellite weapons and anti-ballistic missiles. Since in order to reach an object in orbit it is necessary to attain an extremely high velocity, their released kinetic energy alone is enough to destroy their target; explosives are not necessary. For example: the energy of TNT is 4.6 MJ/kg, and the energy of a kinetic kill vehicle with a closing speed of 10 km/s is of 50 MJ/kg. This saves costly weight and there is no detonation to be precisely timed. This method, however, requires direct contact with the target, which requires a more accurate trajectory. Some hit-to-kill warheads are additionally equipped with an explosive directional warhead to enhance the kill probability (e.g. Israeli Arrow missile or U.S. Patriot PAC-3).\n", "A kinetic bombardment or a kinetic orbital strike is the hypothetical act of attacking a planetary surface with an inert projectile, where the destructive force comes from the kinetic energy of the projectile impacting at very high speeds. The concept originated during the Cold War.\n", "When the projectile reaches the point of neutral attraction, the rockets are fired, but it is too late. The projectile begins a fall onto the Earth from a distance of 160,000 miles, and it is to strike the Earth at a speed of 115,200 miles per hour, the same speed at which it left the mouth of the Columbiad. All hope seems lost for Barbicane, Nicholl and Ardan. Four days later, the crew of a US Navy vessel, \"Susquehanna\", spots a bright meteor fall from the sky into the sea. This turns out to be the returning projectile, and the three men inside are found to be alive and are rescued. They are treated to lavish homecoming celebrations as the first people to leave Earth.\n", "Kinetic bombardment has the advantage of being able to deliver projectiles from a very high angle at a very high speed, making them extremely difficult to defend against. In addition, projectiles would not require explosive warheads, and—in the simplest designs—would consist entirely of solid metal rods, giving rise to the common nickname \"Rods from God\". Disadvantages include the technical difficulties of ensuring accuracy and the high costs of positioning ammunition in orbit.\n", "BULLET::::- Limited kill probability: even if the missile is hit and damaged, this may not be enough to destroy it entirely or to alter its course enough to prevent the missile, or fragments from it, from hitting its intended target, particularly as the interception distance is short. This is especially true if the gun fires kinetic-energy-only projectiles.\n" ]

[ "For the first time in the festival Stozhary history the philosophic round-table discussions took place. Headed by Nazip Hamitov (Ph. D., professor, author and radio programme host, writer, script writer and psychoanalyst) the discussions analysed wide spectrum of issues involving: \"Eros and Thanatos in cinema\", \"The Evolution of Masculine and Feminine\", \"Masculinization of a Woman and Feminization of a Man\", \"Love Metamorphoses in Cinema on the Turn of Millennia: passion, friendship, co-creativity\".\n", "\"Big Questions of Our Time\" is a collection of essays by Sundeep Waslekar and Ilmas Futehally, which anticipate the worlds future. Including the future of governance as well as the technological, ecological, economic, political, social, cultural and philosophical changes that may take place in the twenty-first century. This book was also published in Marathi by Saket Publications with the title \"Navya Yugacha Arambh\". Three editions of the Marathi version have already been published since the books release.\n", "It is for his contribution to the Intensification debate that Lourandos is best known. Intensification involved an increase in human manipulation of the environment (for example, the construction of eel traps in Victoria), population growth, an increase in trade between groups, a more elaborate social structure, and other cultural changes. A shift in stone tool technology, involving the development of smaller and more intricate points and scrapers, occurred around this time. This was probably also associated with the introduction to the mainland of the Australian dingo.\n", "Because Thompson wrote her account some forty years after the events she describes she was able to identify the period as a pivotal point in rural history: the time when the quiet, close-knit and peaceful rural culture, governed by the seasons, began a transformation, through agricultural mechanisation, better communications and urban expansion, into the homogenised society of today. The transformation is not explicitly described. It appears as allegory, for example in Laura's first visit to Candleford without her parents: the journey from her tiny village to the sophisticated town representing the temporal changes that would affect her whole community. Although the works are autobiographical, Thompson distances herself from her childhood persona by telling the tale in the third person; she appears in the book as \"Laura Timmins\", rather than her real maiden name of Flora Timms. This device allows Thompson to comment on the action, using the voice of \"Laura\" as the child she was and as the adult narrator, without imposing herself into the work.\n", "In the course of this enquiry I found that much more had been done than I had been aware of, when I first published the Essay. The poverty and misery arising from a too rapid increase of population had been distinctly seen, and the most violent remedies proposed, so long ago as the times of Plato and Aristotle. And of late years the subject has been treated in such a manner by some of the French Economists; occasionally by Montesquieu, and, among our own writers, by Dr. Franklin, Sir James Stewart, Mr. Arthur Young, and Mr. Townsend, as to create a natural surprise that it had not excited more of the public attention.\n", "The colloquium was at the heart of the festival, and was held daily during first two weeks of activities. About 700 writers, artists and scholars participated in the lectures. The theme of the lectures borders on the lack of intellectual freedom and the ambivalence experienced by Third World countries that sometimes turn to their colonizers for expertise while attempting to establish an image of confidence and independence to themselves as well as the rest of the world. The declared purpose of the colloquium was to seek answers to the questions of how to revive and foster black and African artists and how to facilitate international acceptance and access to outlets.\n", "Cultural lag creates problems for a society in a multitude of ways. The issue of cultural lag tends to permeate any discussion in which the implementation of some new technology is a topic. For example, the advent of stem cell research has given rise to many new, potentially beneficial medical technologies; however these new technologies have also raised serious ethical questions about the use of stem cells in medicine. Cultural lag is seen as a critical ethical issue because failure to develop broad social consensus on appropriate applications of modern technology may lead to breakdowns in social solidarity and the rise of social conflict.\n" ]

[ "The atmospheric pressure on Mars is about 150 times less than that of Earth. In such a thin atmosphere, a balloon with a volume of 5,000 to 10,000 cubic meters (178,500 to 357,000 cubic feet) could carry a payload of 20 kilograms (44 pounds), while a balloon with a volume of 100,000 cubic meters (3,600,000 cubic feet) could carry 200 kilograms (440 pounds).\n", "At present it has not been established whether the gravity of Mars, 0.38 times that of the Earth, would be sufficient to avoid bone decalcification and loss of muscle tone experienced by astronauts living in a micro-g environment. In contrast, Venus is close in size and mass to the Earth, resulting in a similar surface gravity (0.904 \"g\") that would likely be sufficient to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness. Most other space exploration and colonization plans face concerns about the damaging effect of long-term exposure to fractional \"g\" or zero gravity on the human musculoskeletal system.\n", "Life support systems must be capable of supporting human life for weeks, months or even years. A breathable atmosphere of at least 35 kPa (5psi) must be maintained, with adequate amounts of oxygen, nitrogen, and controlled levels of carbon dioxide, trace gases and water vapor.\n", "Humans take in oxygen and expel carbon dioxide and water vapor when they breathe, and typically breathe between 12 and 20 times per minute at rest and up to 45 times per minute under high activity. At standard sea level conditions on Earth of , humans are breathing in 20.9% oxygen, at a partial pressure of . This is the required oxygen supply corresponding to normal Earth conditions. Humans generally require supplemental oxygen at altitudes above , so the absolute minimum safe oxygen requirement is a partial pressure of For reference, the Apollo EMU used an operating pressure of on the Moon.\n", "Humans have survived for two years at , 475 millibars of atmospheric pressure), which is the highest recorded permanently tolerable altitude; the highest permanent settlement known, La Rinconada, is at . At extreme altitudes, above , 383 millibars of atmospheric pressure), sleeping becomes very difficult, digesting food is near-impossible, and the risk of HAPE or HACE increases greatly.\n", "The average mass of the atmosphere is about 5 quadrillion (5) tonnes or 1/1,200,000 the mass of Earth. According to the American National Center for Atmospheric Research, \"The total mean mass of the atmosphere is 5.1480 kg with an annual range due to water vapor of 1.2 or 1.5 kg, depending on whether surface pressure or water vapor data are used; somewhat smaller than the previous estimate. The mean mass of water vapor is estimated as 1.27 kg and the dry air mass as 5.1352 ±0.0003 kg.\"\n", "But the Martian atmosphere contains only 0.13–0.14% oxygen, compared to 20.9% of Earth's atmosphere. Thus breathing the Martian atmosphere is impossible; oxygen must be supplied, at a pressure in excess of the Armstrong limit.\n" ]

[ "More radical approaches have been studied. A duck or goose with a ventromedian hypothalamic (VMH) lesion will tend not to feel satiated after eating, and will therefore eat more than a non-lesioned animal. By producing such lesions surgically, it is possible to increase the bird's food consumption when permitted to eat \"ad libitum\", by a factor of more than two.\n", "Excessive dietary energy intake is believed to be the cause of fatty liver hemorrhagic syndrome. Heredity may also play a role, but it is not the entire cause for the disease. Birds housed in cages will more likely be affected because they are unable to exercise to burn off the extra dietary energy. A 2019 study showed 74% of caged hens died from FLHS whereas only 0–5% of mortalities in hens from cage-free barn or free-range systems were attributed to this condition . Walking hens are less likely to develop this problem. The disease is observed most often in birds that appear to be healthy and in a state of high egg production. As a result, death can occur quite unexpectedly.\n", "The birds are noted for their fast, non-stop flying capabilities over huge distances. They can fly up to , with researchers finding little evidence of wind assistance. Some have been recorded to fly non-stop for 84 hours over . Their wings are not especially aerodynamic, lacking pointed tips, and they typically do not stop to feed despite having opportunities. The birds instead rely on stores of fat.\n", "Insects are promising to be used as the animal feed. For instance, fly larvae can replace the fish meal due to the similar amino acid composition. It is possible to formulate the fish meal to increase unsaturated fatty acid. Wild birds and free-range poultry can consume insects inform an adult, larval and pupal naturally. Grasshoppers and moth, as well as the housefly, are reported as the feed supplements of poultry. Apart from that, insects have the potential as the feeds for reptile, soft monkey as well as birds.\n", "Some birds die during forced molting and it has been recommended that the flock must be managed so that mortality does not exceed 1.25% over the 1–2 weeks of (nearly complete) feed withdrawal, compared to a 0.5% to 1.0% monthly mortality in a well-managed flock under low-stress conditions. Alternative methods of forced molting which do not use total food withdrawal, e.g. creating a dietary mineral imbalance, generally result in lower mortality rates.\n", "This large and powerful bird eats mainly carrion, scraps, and faeces but will opportunistically eat almost any animal matter it can swallow. It occasionally eats other birds including \"quelea\" nestlings, pigeons, doves, pelican and cormorant chicks, and even flamingos. During the breeding season, adults scale back on carrion and take mostly small, live prey since nestlings need this kind of food to survive. Common prey at this time may consist of fish, frogs, insects, eggs, small mammals and reptiles such as crocodile hatchlings and eggs, and lizards and snakes. Though known to eat putrid and seemingly inedible foods, these storks may sometimes wash food in water to remove soil. When feeding on carrion, marabou frequently follow vultures, which are better equipped with hooked bills for tearing through carrion meat and may wait for the vultures to cast aside a piece, steal a piece of meat directly from the vulture or wait until the vultures are done. As with vultures, marabou storks perform an important natural function by cleaning areas via their ingestion of carrion and waste. Increasingly, marabous have become dependent on human garbage and hundreds of the huge birds can be found around African dumps or waiting for a hand out in urban areas. Marabous eating human garbage have been seen to devour virtually anything that they can swallow, including shoes and pieces of metal. Marabous conditioned to eating from human sources have been known to lash out when refused food.\n", "The birds are kept free range for at least four months. From about 35 days they are fed cereals and dairy products; the diet is intentionally kept low in protein so that the birds will forage for insects. They are then \"finished\" in an épinette, a cage in a darkened fattening shed, where they are intensively fed on maize and milk. \"Poulets\" or pullets are fattened for two weeks, and slaughtered at a minimum age of four months and a minimum weight of ; \"poulardes\" or large hens are fattened for four weeks and slaughtered at five months, when they weigh at least ; \"chapons\" or capons are also fattened for four weeks, and are slaughtered at eight months or more, at a minimum weight of .\n" ]

[ "In the natural world, ants of some species (initially) wander randomly, and upon finding food return to their colony while laying down pheromone trails. If other ants find such a path, they are likely not to keep travelling at random, but instead to follow the trail, returning and reinforcing it if they eventually find food (see Ant communication).\n", "The species is capable of surviving in environments other than forests, but it is not yet known if they can survive easily without even a small nearby forest. This ant species inspired early swarm intelligence studies.\n", "Foraging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark. In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk. Diurnal desert ants of the genus \"Cataglyphis\" such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled. Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow). Directions are measured using the position of the sun.\n", "This ant usually builds its nest in a hollow in a large live or dead tree. A small entrance may lead to a complex of tunnels and chambers, all excavated by the ants. From the nest the workers emerge by day to forage on other parts of the tree, or cross to contiguous trees, and make use of the crevices in the bark as runways to descend to the ground where they also forage. Auxiliary nests may sometimes be found a little apart from the main colony.\n", "While pheromones explain the pharaoh ant's foraging ability, each forager's capability to find its way back to the nest requires a different explanation. In fact, the pharaoh ant relies on geometry to show it the way home. Each fork in the trail system spreads at an angle between 50 and 60 degrees. When returning to the nest, a forager that encounters a fork will almost always take the path that deviates less from its current direction. In other words, it will never choose an acute angle that would drastically change its direction. Using this algorithm, each forager is able to find its way back to the nest. If the fork angle is experimentally increased to an angle between 60 and 120 degrees, \"M. pharaonis\" foragers were significantly less able to find their nest. This method of decision-making reduces the wasted energy that would result from traveling in the wrong direction and contributes to the pharaoh ant's efficiency in foraging.\n", "The habitat of \"Solenopsis molesta\" is vast, because they can survive just about anywhere. They can live in people’s homes, in the cracks or under the floorboards. They can build nests anywhere, but usually near the nests of other species they steal from. They usually nest under rocks, in any exposed soil, or rotting logs. If they cannot find any of these things, then they move into another colony. Their nests are generally large for the ants’ size, and have tunnels that lead to another ant colony for a reliable and steady food source.\n", "They prefer to settle in areas of dry forest as they nest in various sections such as under rocks, within the soils or in rotten logs. The ant’s main habitat within the dry forest is dense coastal shrub. They also sometimes inhabit the abandoned nests of other ant species. Within New Zealand, Darwin’s Ant has become a household pest, owing to its wide food preference, in particularly sugary food items. There have been cases of nests being found in potted plants outside urban dwellings.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- The Ankara Agreement was signed in the capital of Turkey, between representatives of the European Economic Community (EEC) and Turkey, and provided for gradual entrance of Turkey into the European Community.\n", "The city held the strategic position between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. It was also on the historic Silk Road. It controlled rail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and was the only sea route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Russia always wanted control so it would have an outlet. In 1923 Ankara was chosen instead as the new Turkish capital after the Turkish War of Independence, and the city's name was changed to Istanbul. Nevertheless, the city maintained its prominence in geopolitical and cultural affairs. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across Anatolia have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them. Arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established towards the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network in the city.\n", "On 23 April 1920 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey was established in Ankara, which became the headquarters of Atatürk and the Turkish National Movement during the Turkish War of Independence. Ankara became the new Turkish capital upon the establishment of the Republic on 29 October 1923, succeeding in this role the former Turkish capital Istanbul (Constantinople) following the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The government is a prominent employer, but Ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city, located at the center of Turkey's road and railway networks. The city gave its name to the Angora wool shorn from Angora rabbits, the long-haired Angora goat (the source of mohair), and the Angora cat. The area is also known for its pears, honey and muscat grapes. Although situated in one of the driest places of Turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation except for the forested areas on the southern periphery, Ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant, at per head.\n", "Istanbul has always been the \"financial capital\" of Turkey, even after Ankara became the new political capital in 1923. The opening of specific markets in the city during the 1980s further strengthened this status. Inaugurated at the beginning of 1986, the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) is the sole securities market of Turkey, established to provide trading in equities, right coupons, Government bonds, Treasury bills, revenue sharing certificates, bonds issued by the Privatization Administration and corporate bonds, and to carry out overnight transactions.\n", "The culture of Istanbul has its basis in the city that has been the capital of the Byzantine and Ottoman Empires. However, when the Turkish Republic turned its focus away from Istanbul and toward Ankara, the city's cultural scene throughout the mid-20th century lay relatively stagnant, seeing limited success on the international, and even national, level. The government of the new republic established programs that served to engender Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital. Although much of Turkey's culture had its roots in Istanbul, it was not until the 1980s and 1990s that Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.\n", "After Ankara became the capital of the newly founded Republic of Turkey, new development divided the city into an old section, called \"Ulus\", and a new section, called \"Yenişehir\". Ancient buildings reflecting Roman, Byzantine, and Ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section. The new section, now centered on Kızılay Square, has the trappings of a more modern city: wide streets, hotels, theaters, shopping malls, and high-rises. Government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section. Ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made Turkey's capital in 1923, when it was \"a small town of no importance\". In 1924, the year after the government had moved there, Ankara had about 35,000 residents. By 1927 there were 44,553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286,781. Ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked Izmir as Turkey's second largest city, after Istanbul. Ankara's urban population reached 4,587,558 in 2014, while the population of Ankara Province reached 5,150,072 in 2015.\n", "Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward Ankara. The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital. Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory.\n" ]

[ "Nicknames can be a descriptor of a personality characteristic or the opposite of a personality characteristic. These types of nicknames were often used in fairy tales such as \"Snow White\". Sometimes such nicknames may be indicative of a physical disorder.\n", "Nicknames are usually awarded to a person and they are not always chosen by the recipient themselves. Some nicknames are derogatory name calls. Note: the majority of the following examples are American English usage. Please see bullying definition.\n", "To inform an audience or readership of a person's nickname without actually calling them by their nickname, English nicknames are generally represented in quotes between the bearer's first and last names (e.g., \"Dwight David \"Ike\" Eisenhower\", \"Daniel Lamont \"Bubba\" Franks\", etc.). However, it is also common for the nickname to be identified after a comma following the full real name or later in the body of the text, such as in an obituary (e.g., \"Frankie Frisch, \"The Fordham Flash\"\"). The middle name is generally eliminated (if there is one), especially in speech. Like English, German uses (German-style) quotation marks between the first and last names (e.g., \"Andreas Nikolaus „Niki“ Lauda\"). Other languages may use other conventions; for example, Italian writes the nickname after the full name followed by \"detto\" 'called' (e.g., \"Salvatore Schillaci detto Totò\"), in Spanish the nickname is written in formal contexts at the end in quotes following \"alias\" (e.g. \"Alfonso Tostado, alias «el Abulense»\"), and Slovenian represents nicknames after a dash or hyphen (e.g., \"Franc Rozman – Stane\"). The latter may cause confusion because it resembles an English convention sometimes used for married and maiden names.\n", "In Anglo-American culture, a nickname is often based on a shortening of a person's proper name. However, in other societies, this may not necessarily be the case. For example: \"my nickname is farmer Phil\"\n", "This is a list of nickname-related list articles on Wikipedia. A nickname is \"a familiar or humorous name given to a person or thing instead of or as well as the real name.\" A nickname is often considered desirable, symbolising a form of acceptance, but can sometimes be a form of ridicule. A moniker also means a nickname or personal name. The word often distinguishes personal names from nicknames that became proper names out of former nicknames. English examples are Bob and Rob, nickname variants for Robert.\n", "To avoid confusion, nicknames were — and are — used in daily life. These vary enormously, and are sometimes attached to a single person but sometimes also to a family, and often a combination of both. The nickname can be derived from someone's real name, refer to one of his or her parents (and sometimes multiple generations back), and/or come from something completely different — again, combinations of these factors are commonplace. Outsiders who are not aware of this custom can experience difficulties because of it, since someone's real name is sometimes only barely known: he or she is really only known by the nickname, and remembering the real name is a bit of an effort.\n", "Some of the nicknames are positive, while others are derisive. The unofficial nicknames listed here are those that have been used for such a long time or have gained so wide a currency that they have become well known in their own right.\n" ]

[ "Until 2014, the license plate showing white text on black background, with aluminum plate Scripture by removing the black coating production reasons silver precipitates. Decorative fonts are officially not allowed, but are tolerated in private vehicles; License plates do not exist.\n", "Depending on the type of vehicle, license plates have different colors. Since June 2012, with the modification of the vehicle code, the form of the license plates was modified. Private vehicles continue with black characters on a white background. For non-private vehicles, the new license plates keep the same differentiating color as previously used, but the color is no longer applied to the entire license plate. These newer plates only have a colored upper border, and the rest of the license plate is white. This change was made in a way that improves the visibility of license plates, in particular to cameras and radars. All older style plates were expected to be replaced by 2019; however, the older style plates will remain valid until replaced.\n", "Vehicle registration plates are an important part of traffic enforcement and in most jurisdictions the government holds a monopoly on the their manufacture, although this may be contracted out. Normally it is illegal for private citizens to modify, make and affix their own plates, as this is equivalent to forging an official document. California plates are required to be 6 in tall and 12 in wide, a usual standard, and have a reflective surface that is particularly sensitive to infrared light, which enables it to be imaged at night, enables Automatic License Plate Recognition, allows LIDAR devices to receive a strong reflective signal return, and have tamper-resistant markings.\n", "\"Responding to complaints that temporary vehicle tags help criminals escape detection, Secretary of State Jessie White announced a $2 million program [on] Tuesday [June 19, 2001] to introduce tamper-proof temporary license plates that will allow police to know the identity of vehicle owners.\" He also called the black on yellow permit design, \"One of the finest devised by man.\" These tags were the size of regular license plates, they incorporated a hologram in a strip across the entire plate, they had numbers the same size as a regular license plate, and they were immediately entered into law enforcement databases upon being issued. The expiration date was under a clear film to make them tamper-proof. Plates were valid for 90 days, which was the same length as the old system, and only a single permit for the rear of the vehicle was issued. The first day of issue was June 12, 2001 with these earliest permits being distributed to drivers license facilities, auto dealers, and currency exchanges.\n", "Many countries now use license plates that are retroreflective. This returns the light back to the source and thus improves the contrast of the image. In some countries, the characters on the plate are not reflective, giving a high level of contrast with the reflective background in any lighting conditions. A camera that makes use of active infrared imaging (with a normal colour filter over the lens and an infrared illuminator next to it) benefits greatly from this as the infrared waves are reflected back from the plate. This is only possible on dedicated ANPR cameras, however, and so cameras used for other purposes must rely more heavily on the software capabilities. Further, when a full-colour image is required as well as use of the ANPR-retrieved details, it is necessary to have one infrared-enabled camera and one normal (colour) camera working together.\n", "In the table below, a light green background indicates that the owner of the vehicle was required to provide their own license plates. These plates are called \"prestate\" by most collectors. In the prestate era many states only provided the license plate number on a small disc or on paper, and the owner was required to have their license plate(s) made. These early license plates were created from kits that could be purchased at a hardware store, may have been available from automobile clubs or associations, they were forged by blacksmiths or other tradesmen, or the owner may have made their own plate with whatever materials they had on hand. Prestate plates were made from a variety of materials, but most often were made of leather, steel, or wood.\n", "In the table below, a light green background indicates that the owner of the vehicle was required to provide their own license plates. These plates are called \"prestate\" by most collectors. In the prestate era many states only provided the license plate number on a small disc or on paper, and the owner was required to have their license plate(s) made. These early license plates were created from kits that could be purchased at a hardware store, may have been available from automobile clubs or associations, they were forged by blacksmiths or other tradesmen, or the owner may have made their own plate with whatever materials they had on hand. Prestate plates were made from a variety of materials, but most often were made of leather, steel, or wood.\n" ]

[ "Vampires in the Buffyverse live on a diet of blood, preferring fresh human blood; they can distinguish the blood of different animals by flavor, and those who do not drink human blood enjoy that of otters. They require no other food or drink, and although they can ingest it they generally find it bland. Prolonged deprivation of blood can impair a vampire's higher brain functions and they become \"living skeletons\", but lack of blood will not result in a vampire's death. They do not need to breathe airalthough they can breathe to speak or smokeand they cannot pass breath on to others via CPR. They are affected by drugs, poisons, and electricity and they can be sedated and tasered. Some vampires enjoy both alcoholic and caffeinated beverages, and tobacco.\n", "The vampires in \"The Darren Shan Saga\" are different from vampires found in popular culture. They are alive, meaning that they can be killed by a well-placed bullet, mutilation, decapitation or piercing of the heart (though they will wake up within a day or less if their neck is broken). Vampires do not have fangs nor do they drink from the neck, but cut a vein of a victim with their hard, and sharp nails; drinking small amounts of blood, and then healing it with their saliva. Their nails can also be used to scale walls in a spider-like manner. Draining all of a human's blood would have a vampire part of the spirit of the victim, allowing the vampire to see into their memories (Darren does this in \"The Vampire's Assistant\", to save the spirit of his dying friend). Vampires do not combust when exposed to sunlight, but it will burn them easily and exposure for four to five hours will kill them. They can, however, remain active during the day (provided they remain in the shade) and are not bothered by garlic, silver, or holy objects. Fresh human blood is the most nutritious for vampires, but they can feed on preserved human blood or the blood of certain animals when necessary. Some animals' blood, however, is toxic to vampires. Vampires cannot reproduce; further vampires are created by blood-to-blood contact with humans, traditionally through the fingertips, but if any creature, human or animal, were to orally ingest vampire blood, it would be driven into a murderous frenzy and then die (similar to rabies). Vampires are not immortal; they age at one-tenth the human rate (half-vampires at one-fifth). This comes into play in the series when Darren meets an old girlfriend he had; now they are adults but Darren still looks about the same as he did when they first met. The oldest vampire in the series is Paris Skyle, who was \"Blooded\" at age two and lived for over eight hundred years. Vampires cast reflections and shadows but cannot be photographed due to a particular vibration of their atoms. Also, as in folklore, vampires sleep in coffins.\n", "\"Vampire\" is based on the Storyteller System. In addition to the general Storyteller rules, it uses a number of specific mechanics aimed towards simulating the vampiric existence. A vampire has a \"blood pool\" signifying the amount of human blood or \"vitae\" currently in their body; this blood can be spent to power abilities and perform supernatural tricks. These tricks simulate many of those portrayed in film, such as turning into animals or mist, sleeping in the ground or having unnatural charisma and powers of hypnotic suggestion.\n", "Vampires are finding their own undead bodies being mutated by the pollution of the host's blood, tainted with hard drugs and sexually transmitted diseases, alcohol, diabetes, anti-depressants, and cigarettes: substances that change the blood and makes it undrinkable for vampires. The scarcity of good blood has incited an underground civil war between various groups of vampires. A clique of 4 vampires, led by Benedict (Mark Hengst), struggle to find sustenance by seeking victims with untainted blood. The group is being stalked by a samurai sword-wielding vampire-killing Priest (Tim Thomerson), who leaves a note on the bodies of slain vampires in the form of a playing card inscribed with the words \"Live Evil\". In order to survive both their race's own fierce infighting and the biological pollution found in human blood, the group desperately seeks out Max (Ken Foree), a \"blood pusher\" who steals from hospital blood banks to offer the freshest and purest blood around. But they may not have time to enjoy it, because the vengeful Priest is hot on their trail.\n", "Vampires in the series are depicted as ageless and immortal. They are stronger and faster than normal humans, to the extent that a physical encounter between a human and vampire will almost always be fatal for the human. Vampires lack most of the supernatural powers attributed to them in folklore, such as turning into bats, mist or wolves. The folkloric lack of a reflection is extended in the series: vampires are invisible to electronic devices. They can not be imaged by video cameras, and can not be recorded on video tape or film. Their voices can not be transmitted electronically and ink will not hold an impression of their fingerprints. Vampire DNA is invisible under an electron microscope. Vampires use voice synthesis software to communicate via telephone. They use cars with blacked out windows in order to move outside during the day, and time-locked coffins for long-distance travel.\n", "BULLET::::- \"Superhuman Physical Attributes\". A key characteristic which distinguishes vampires from humans and even other undead is their supernaturally augmented bodies. Their strength is superhuman; able to lift average-sized cars and injure humans with ease, and they move with incredible celerity. Vampires slowly and subtly grow stronger both in physical prowess as well as psychic potency with age; those with several centuries of undeath can send grown men flying across a room with the slightest touch, accidentally kill a human with a backhanded slap, eviscerate giant animals, and move with such speed that they appear to teleport.\n", "Vampires may create more of themselves by draining a human to the point of death and then feeding the victim some of their blood. The creator vampire is known as a \"sire\", the newly created vampire a \"childe\" and the creation process is referred to as the \"embrace\". Very little vitae is required to trigger the metamorphosis but the victim must be freshly dead. It does not work on corpses that are more than a few minutes old.\n" ]

[ "Pets are not allowed at the event. This is due to concerns for the safety of both the animals (loud noises and an inhospitable environment), and the participants. In addition, fireworks, flares and fire lanterns are not permitted. \n", "The local residents and festival organizers claim that the dogs are killed humanely and that \"eating dog is no different from eating pork or beef\". Animal rights activists and campaigners, however, claim that the animals are \"treated cruelly\", based on photographs of the event. A witness claimed that some of the dogs eaten appeared to be stolen household pets, judging by their collars.\n", "City ordinances banning performances by wild animals have been enacted in San Francisco (2015), Los Angeles (2017), and New York City (2017). These bans include movies, TV shows, ads, petting zoos, or any showcase of animals where they are in direct contact with the audience. The reason being the high chance of the animals to harm someone in the audience. This is due to their instincts which humans cannot control.\n", "Despite their use for centuries, there has been growing concern by some about the potential danger to cause crop or building fires and even harm animals that may eat their remains. Despite the general lack of prevalence some places have banned them for these reasons.\n", "Many public slaughters were held in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Farmers would kill their own animals in front of media representatives. However, this effort backfired because it angered television audiences to see animals being needlessly and wastefully killed.\n", "Each episode deals with two or three stories of people who keep animals as pets that are generally not meant to live in domestic environments and often are hostile to mankind in general. Episodes explore how these owners come to develop a psychological dependence on these animals, to the point of allowing themselves to get so close to these animals that the line between predator and prey becomes blurred or even non-existent. Episodes usually depict someone getting hurt or killed as a result of keeping exotic species as household pets. Each story is tied together at the end, as part of the overall theme of why wild animals should remain in the wild and not in backyards.\n", "The show also highlights the work of various private companies that remove wild animals from places they shouldn't be, including escaped exotic pets which can pose a hazard to native wildlife and/or local residents if left unchecked. The most frequently featured of these private contractors is Todd Hardwick of Pesky Critters Wildlife Control.\n" ]

[ "The Canadian writer Farley Mowat says that many returned veterans after World War II sought a meaningful life far from the ignobility of modern warfare, regarding his own experience as typical of the pattern. In Canada, those who sought a life completely outside of the cities, suburbs, and towns frequently moved into semi-wilderness environs.\n", "On 20 February 1948, Dr. Nkrumah and Dr. J. B. Danquah met and addressed World War II veterans who had been agitating for their end-of-service benefits following World War II at the Palladium Cinema, Accra. These veterans had fought with the Gold Coast Regiment of the Royal West African Frontier Force and had not been paid their gratuities on their return home. Nkrumah and Danquah both gave their support and encouraged the veterans in their protest over their post-war neglect.\n", "After World War II, countless veterans came back to America and many of them had a difficult time readjusting to civilian life. They searched for the adventure and adrenaline rush associated with life at war that had now left them. Civilian life felt too monotonous for some men who also craved feelings of excitement and danger. Others sought the close bonds and camaraderie found between men in the army. Furthermore, certain men wanted to combat their horrifying war memories and experiences that haunted them, many in the form of post-traumatic stress disorder. Thus, motorcycling emerged stronger than ever as a substitute for wartime experiences such as adventure, excitement, danger and camaraderie. Men who had been a part of the motorcycling world before the war were now joined by thousands of new members. The popularity of motorcycling grew dramatically after World War II because of the effects of the war on veterans.\n", "Soldiers (and other frontline personnel) returning home from World War I suffered greatly from the horrors of war that they had witnessed. Many returning veterans suffered from what was then known as shell shock; now known as post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).\n", "Many returning veterans from World War II enrolled at the institution in the latter 1940s, taking advantage of new G.I. Bill of Rights assistance. Conditions were so overcrowded for a time that the former soldiers slept in the gymnasium, and beds were brought from a former prisoner of war camp in Hereford.\n", "World War I veterans built on a history of postwar political activism to play an important role in the expansion of state-sponsored social welfare in Canada. Arguing that their wartime sacrifices had not been properly rewarded, veterans claimed that they were entitled to state protection from poverty and unemployment on the home front. The rhetoric of patriotism, courage, sacrifice, and duty created powerful demands for jobs, relief, and adequate pensions that should, veterans argued, be administered as a right of social citizenship and not a form of charity. At the local, provincial, and national political levels, veterans fought for compensation and recognition for their war service, and made their demands for jobs and social security a central part of emerging social policy.\n", "Veterans of World War I had little affection for the military hospitals; many memoirists complained of an inhumanity that seemed to increase with distance from the battlefield. At the front, wounded soldiers were treated by fellow-combatants and by familiar regimental doctors. 'The wounded man' recalled one soldier, ‘ is in a moment a little baby and all the rest become the tenderest of mothers. One holds his hand; another lights his cigarette. Before this, it is given to few to know the love of those who go together through the long valley of the shadow of death.' (76) All this changed in the rear of the battle zone and in the general hospitals back in ‘Blighty’. Given the restrictions on wartime transport their journey from the front might be surprisingly rapid. Gilbert Spencer (Stanley Spencer's younger brother who also served as a medical orderly) recalled his first terrifying moments at Beaufort when he was surrounded by a 'ward full of wounded Gallipoli soldiers, their skins sunburnt and their clothes bleached and the soil of Suvla Bay still on their boots.'\n" ]

[ "According to the Acceptable use policy of most providers where this limitation is in place, the speed is comparable to that of an old dial-up connection. However, there were numerous complaints by customers that the actual speed was lower. In response to these complaints, Telenet (cable internet provider) in October 2007 increased the speed from 32 kbps downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream to 192 kbit/s downstream and 64 kbit/s upstream, for http data traffic only. All other traffic shaping remained at 32 kbit/s downstream and 16 kbit/s upstream.\n", "For the highest possible throughput, it is important that the transmitter is not forced to stop sending by the sliding window protocol earlier than one round-trip delay time (RTT). The limit on the amount of data that it can send before stopping to wait for an acknowledgment should be larger than the bandwidth-delay product of the communications link. If it is not, the protocol will limit the effective bandwidth of the link.\n", "The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) Local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), is an example of a protocol that employs packet aggregation to increase efficiency.\n", "The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides a way to create a high-speed (up to 1 gigabit/s) local area network using existing home wiring (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), is an example of a protocol that employs packet segmentation to increase reliability over noisy media.\n", "At the speeds commonly used to transmit packet radio data (rarely higher than 9,600 bit/s, and typically 1,200 bit/s), the use of additional network layers with AX.25 is impractical due to the data overhead involved. This is not a limitation of AX.25 \"per se\", but places constraints on the sophistication of applications designed to use it.\n", "As of 2012, operators had \"successfully demonstrated long-term, error-free transmission at 100 Gbps across Atlantic Ocean\" routes of up to , meaning a typical cable can move tens of terabits per second overseas. Speeds improved rapidly in the previous few years, with 40 Gbit/s having been offered on that route only three years earlier in August 2009.\n", "Since the next packet of data cannot be sent until the ACK for the previous packet is received. In the case of XModem, for instance, that means it takes of a second for the cycle to complete for a single packet. This means that the overall speed is only half the theoretical maximum, or a 50% channel efficiency.\n" ]