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stefanbschneider

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[ "An ingredient is a substance that forms part of a mixture (in a general sense). For example, in cooking, recipes specify which ingredients are used to prepare a specific dish. Many commercial products contain secret ingredients that are purported to make them better than competing products. In the pharmaceutical industry, an active ingredient is that part of a formulation that yields the effect expected by the customer.\n", "FDA maintains a list of additives that are used in food in the United States as well as a list of additives Generally Recognized as Safe (GRAS, pronounced grass). Products that contain ingredients that are not GRAS are usually dietary supplements (for example, many energy drinks contain stimulants which are not GRAS).\n", "Food additives are substances added to food for preserving flavours, or improving taste or appearance. The processes are as old as adding vinegar for pickling or as an emulsifier for emulsion mixtures like mayonnaise. These are generally listed by \"E number\" in the European Union or GRAS (\"generally recognized as safe\") by the United States Food and Drug Administration.\n", "The base ingredients are first served. The leader amongst the diners or the restaurant server proceeds to add ingredients such as the fish, the crackers and the sauces while saying \"auspicious wishes\" ( ) as each ingredient is added, typically related to the specific ingredient being added. For example, phrases such as (; \"may there be abundance year after year\") are uttered as the fish is added, as the Chinese word for \"surplus\" or \"abundance\" ( ) sounds the same as the Chinese word for \"fish\" ( ).\n", "Ingredient-branding takes a special position in marketing, as it cannot be clearly allocated to either industrial or consumer goods marketing. On the one hand, the consumer is the end-user of the ingredient, but at the same time is not part of the buying decision for the component, as this is up to the producer of the end product. On the other hand the producer will only decide on the usage of the ingredient - or at least take it into account in the communication policy - if the image of this ingredient will have an effect on the consumer, meaning a positive influence on his or her buying decision.\n", "BULLET::::- A duty of manufacturers, producers, distributors and importers of food to inform, on their containers or on their labels, as to the ingredients contained, including all additives and their nutritional information, to follow food health regulations in which the characteristics and content of said food will determine the labelling, and especially to ensure that the information is sufficiently visible and comprehensible.\n", "The ingredients vary widely even within individual countries, but most include some variation on vinegar, tomato paste, or mayonnaise (or a combination thereof) as a base, as well as liquid smoke, onion powder, spices such as mustard and black pepper, and sweeteners such as sugar or molasses.\n" ]

[ "However, most jurisdictions have exceptions for situations where the lawyer has reason to believe that the client may kill or seriously injure someone, may cause substantial injury to the financial interest or property of another, or is using (or seeking to use) the lawyer's services to perpetrate a crime or fraud.\n", "In order to defend a person charged with criminal offense, an attorney must have a certificate entitling him to practice law (issued by Regional Qualification-Disciplinary Bar Commission) or a Power of Attorney letter.\n", "Most prosecutors are elected officials, but that is not true of federal prosecutors, whose conduct is subject to the Hyde Amendment. The decision to file charges can be affected by public opinion or politically-powerful groups. If prosecutors do not carefully screen the cases chosen to pursue, individuals may be charged even when there is insufficient evidence. The high public profile of the suspect or the sensational nature of the crime increasingly has more bearing on the decision to charge than the weight of the evidence or the nature of the crime.\n", "Prosecutors in some jurisdictions have the discretion to not pursue criminal charges, even when there is probable cause, if they determine that there is no reasonable likelihood of conviction. Prosecutors may dismiss charges in this situation by seeking a voluntary dismissal or nolle prosequi. \n", "Defendants under criminal prosecution who cannot afford to hire an attorney are not only guaranteed legal aid related to the charges, but they are guaranteed legal representation, either in the form of public defenders, or in absence of provisions for such or due to case overloads, a court-appointed attorney.\n", "A criminal defendant unable to retain counsel has the right to appointed counsel at the government's expense. While the Supreme Court recognized this right gradually, it currently applies in all federal and state criminal proceedings where the defendant faces authorized imprisonment greater than one year (a \"felony\") or where the defendant is actually imprisoned.\n", "The accused may hire a criminal defense lawyer to help with counsel and representation dealing with police or other investigators, perform his or her own investigation, and at times present exculpatory evidence that negates potential charges by the prosecutor. Criminal defense lawyers in the United States who are employed by governmental entities such as counties, state governments, and the federal government are often referred to as public defenders or court-appointed attorneys.\n" ]

[ "In all phases, the interstellar medium is extremely tenuous by terrestrial standards. In cool, dense regions of the ISM, matter is primarily in molecular form, and reaches number densities of 10 molecules per cm (1 million molecules per cm). In hot, diffuse regions of the ISM, matter is primarily ionized, and the density may be as low as 10 ions per cm. Compare this with a number density of roughly 10 molecules per cm for air at sea level, and 10 molecules per cm (10 billion molecules per cm) for a laboratory high-vacuum chamber. By mass, 99% of the ISM is gas in any form, and 1% is dust. Of the gas in the ISM, by number 91% of atoms are hydrogen and 8.9% are helium, with 0.1% being atoms of elements heavier than hydrogen or helium, known as \"metals\" in astronomical parlance. By mass this amounts to 70% hydrogen, 28% helium, and 1.5% heavier elements. The hydrogen and helium are primarily a result of primordial nucleosynthesis, while the heavier elements in the ISM are mostly a result of enrichment in the process of stellar evolution.\n", "The interstellar medium begins where the interplanetary medium of the Solar System ends. The solar wind slows to subsonic velocities at the termination shock, 90–100 astronomical units from the Sun. In the region beyond the termination shock, called the heliosheath, interstellar matter interacts with the solar wind. Voyager 1, the farthest human-made object from the Earth (after 1998), crossed the termination shock December 16, 2004 and later entered interstellar space when it crossed the heliopause on August 25, 2012, providing the first direct probe of conditions in the ISM .\n", "The warm–hot intergalactic medium (WHIM) refers to a sparse, warm-to-hot (10 to 10 K) plasma that cosmologists believe to exist in the spaces between galaxies and to contain 40–50% of the baryons (that is, 'normal matter' which exists as plasma or as atoms and molecules, in contrast to dark matter) in the universe at the current epoch. It can be described as a web of hot, diffuse gas. Much of what is known about the warmhot intergalactic medium comes from computer simulations of the cosmos. The WHIM is expected to form a filamentary structure of tenuous, highly ionized baryons with a density of 1−10 particles per cubic meter. Within the WHIM, gas shocks are created as a result of active galactic nuclei, along with the gravitationally-driven processes of merging and accretion. Part of the gravitational energy supplied by these effects is converted into thermal emissions of the matter by collisionless shock heating.\n", "The venting of atmosphere continues unabated into interstellar space, but when the outer surface of the exposed core reaches temperatures exceeding about 30,000 K, there are enough emitted ultraviolet photons to ionize the ejected atmosphere, causing the gas to shine as a planetary nebula.\n", "The Hot Ionized Medium (HIM), sometimes consisting of Coronal gas, in the temperature range 10 – 10 K emits X-rays. Stellar winds from young clusters of stars (often with giant or supergiant HII regions surrounding them) and shock waves created by supernovae inject enormous amounts of energy into their surroundings, which leads to hypersonic turbulence. The resultant structures – of varying sizes – can be observed, such as stellar wind bubbles and superbubbles of hot gas, by X-ray satellite telescopes. The Sun is currently traveling through the Local Interstellar Cloud, a denser region in the low-density Local Bubble.\n", "The ISM is usually far from thermodynamic equilibrium. Collisions establish a Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution of velocities, and the 'temperature' normally used to describe interstellar gas is the 'kinetic temperature', which describes the temperature at which the particles would have the observed Maxwell–Boltzmann velocity distribution in thermodynamic equilibrium. However, the interstellar radiation field is typically much weaker than a medium in thermodynamic equilibrium; it is most often roughly that of an A star (surface temperature of ~10,000 K) highly diluted. Therefore, bound levels within an atom or molecule in the ISM are rarely populated according to the Boltzmann formula .\n", "Interstellar planets generate little heat and are not heated by a star. In 1998, David J. Stevenson theorized that some planet-sized objects adrift in interstellar space might sustain a thick atmosphere that would not freeze out. He proposed that these atmospheres would be preserved by the pressure-induced far-infrared radiation opacity of a thick hydrogen-containing atmosphere.\n" ]

[ "Electrons can also be completely removed from a chemical species such as an atom, molecule, or ion. Complete removal of an electron from an atom can be a form of ionization, which is effectively moving the electron out to an orbital with an infinite principal quantum number, in effect so far away so as to have practically no more effect on the remaining atom (ion). For various types of atoms, there are 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc. ionization energies for removing the 1st, then the 2nd, then the 3rd, etc. of the highest energy electrons, respectively, from the atom originally in the ground state. Energy in corresponding opposite quantities can also be released, sometimes in the form of photon energy, when electrons are added to positively charged ions or sometimes atoms. Molecules can also undergo transitions in their vibrational or rotational energy levels. Energy level transitions can also be nonradiative, meaning emission or absorption of a photon is not involved.\n", "Atomic electron transition is a change of an electron from one energy level to another within an atom or artificial atom. It appears discontinuous as the electron \"jumps\" from one energy level to another, typically in a few nanoseconds or less. It is also known as an electronic (de-)excitation or atomic transition or quantum jump.\n", "Electrons that populate a shell are said to be in a bound state. The energy necessary to remove an electron from its shell (taking it to infinity) is called the binding energy. Any quantity of energy absorbed by the electron in excess of this amount is converted to kinetic energy according to the conservation of energy. The atom is said to have undergone the process of ionization.\n", "An amount of energy exceeding the atomic binding energy of the s electron must be supplied to that electron in order to eject it from the atom to result in IC; that is to say, internal conversion cannot happen if the decay energy of the nucleus is less than a certain threshold. There are a few radionuclides in which the decay energy is not sufficient to convert (eject) a 1s (K shell) electron, and these nuclides, to decay by internal conversion, must decay by ejecting electrons from the L or M or N shells (i.e., by ejecting 2s, 3s, or 4s electrons) as these binding energies are lower.\n", "where is any atom or molecule capable of ionization, is that atom or molecule with an electron removed, and is the removed electron. This is generally an endothermic process. Generally, the closer the outermost electrons are to the nucleus of the atom , the higher the atom's or element's ionization energy.\n", "So the atom decays exponentially and the atomic dipole moment shall oscillate. The dipole moment oscillates due to the Lamb shift, which is a shift in the energy levels of the atom due to fluctuations of the field.\n", "of an electronic transition within similar atomic orbitals, such as s-s or p-p, is forbidden due to the triple integral returning an ungerade (odd) product. Such transitions only redistribute electrons within the same orbital and will return a zero product. If the triple integral returns a gerade (even) product, the transition is allowed.\n" ]

[ "Bacon is a commentator on e-health and patient feedback. In June 2012, he formed part of a UK delegation invited to Washington for the Health Datapalooza, a US health data forum attended by UK health secretary Andrew Lansley, US President Barack Obama and Jon Bon Jovi. The discussion centred on how the two countries can work more closely to make health data a driver for innovation, economic growth and – most importantly – better care for patients.\n", "Bacon has also contributed music to many film and TV productions, including \"American Hustle\", \"\", and \"Goosebumps\". Bacon's next project is the Amazon reboot of \"The Tick\", directed by Wally Pfister.\n", "In a January 1994 interview with \"Premiere\" magazine Kevin Bacon mentioned while discussing the film \"The River Wild\" that \"he had worked with everybody in Hollywood or someone who's worked with them.\" Following this, a lengthy newsgroup thread which was headed \"Kevin Bacon is the Center of the Universe\" appeared. Four Albright College students, including Brian Turtle, claim to have invented the game that became known as \"Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon\" after watching two movies featuring Bacon back to back, \"Footloose\" and \"The Air Up There\". During the second they began to speculate on how many movies Bacon had been in and the number of people with whom he had worked. In the interview, Brian Turtle explained how \"it became one of our stupid party tricks I guess. People would throw names at us and we'd connect them to Kevin Bacon.\"\n", "A 2009 \"Baltimore Sun\" story describes bacon as being \"more than bacon,\" and stated that for \"obsessive and adoring Bacon Nation it's about cheap thrills and a chance for Internet fame.\" Calling it \"like an extreme sport\", the article described the innovators and enthusiasts celebrating bacon in all its incarnations.\n", "Bacon was again acclaimed for a dark starring role playing an offending pedophile on parole in \"The Woodsman\" (2004), for which he was nominated for best actor and received the Independent Spirit Award. He appeared in the HBO Films production of \"Taking Chance\", based on an eponymous story written by Lieutenant Colonel Michael Strobl, an American Desert Storm war veteran. The film premiered on HBO on February 21, 2009. Bacon won a Golden Globe Award and a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Miniseries or Television Movie for his role.\n", "Kevin Bacon was influenced to start SixDegrees.org because of a game called Six Degrees of Kevin Bacon.This game was made up to link Kevin Bacon to another star that he played a movie role with him. In this game an actor is selected at random and in six connections or less this actor is linked to Kevin Bacon. Bacon realized he could do the same thing with charitable organizations. Kevin Bacon used this ideology of linking celebrities to charities to create the business model of SixDegrees.org.\n", "Bacon: A Love Story, A Salty Survey of Everybody's Favorite Meat is a 2009 non-fiction book about bacon, written by American writer Heather Lauer. Lauer started the blog \"Bacon Unwrapped\" and a social networking site about bacon in 2005, after the idea came to her while she was out drinking with her two brothers; her online success inspired her to write the book, which describes curing and cooking bacon, gives over 20 bacon recipes, and analyzes the impact of bacon on popular culture. The text is interspersed with facts about bacon and bacon-related quips from comedian Jim Gaffigan.\n" ]

[ "Even when staying relatively motionless, a rider can balance a bike by the same principle. While performing a track stand, the rider can keep the line between the two contact patches under the combined center of mass by steering the front wheel to one side or the other and then moving forward and backward slightly to move the front contact patch from side to side as necessary. Forward motion can be generated simply by pedaling. Backwards motion can be generated the same way on a fixed-gear bicycle. Otherwise, the rider can take advantage of an opportune slope of the pavement or lurch the upper body backwards while the brakes are momentarily engaged.\n", "The track stand or standstill is a technique that bicycle riders can use to maintain balance while their bicycle remains stationary or moves only minimal distances. The technique originated in track cycling and is now used by other types of cyclists wishing to stop for a short time without putting a foot on the ground, such as bike commuters at stop signs. To perform a track stand, a cyclist holds the cranks in an approximately horizontal position with the front wheel steered to the left or right, and pedals forward, and back in the case of a fixed-gear bicycle, which the steered front wheel converts into a side-to-side motion.\n", "A cyclist executing a basic track stand holds the bicycle's cranks in a horizontal position, with his or her dominant foot forward. Track stands executed on bicycles with a freewheel usually employ a small uphill section of ground. The uphill needs to be sufficient to allow the rider to create backward motion by relaxing pressure on the pedals, thus allowing the bike to roll backwards. Once the track stand is mastered, even a very tiny uphill section is sufficient: e.g. the camber of the road, a raised road marking, and so on. Where no such uphill exists, or even if the gradient is downhill, a track stand can be achieved on a freewheeling bicycle by using a brake to initiate a backwards movement. If a fixed-gear bicycle is being used, an uphill slope is not needed since the rider is able to simply back pedal to move backwards. In both cases forward motion is accomplished by pedalling forwards. The handlebars are held at approximately a 45 degree angle, converting the bike's forward and back motion into side-to-side motion beneath the rider's body. This allows the rider to keep the bike directly below their center of gravity.\n", "This is seen when a bicycle wheel gets buckled. The wheel will not rotate itself when stationary due to gravity as it is still statically balanced, but will not rotate smoothly as the centre of mass is to the side of the centre bearing. The spokes on a bike wheel need to be tuned in order to stop this and keep the wheel operating as efficiently as possible.\n", "Many recumbent bicycles have at least a rear suspension because the rider is usually unable to lift themselves off the seat while riding. Single pivot is usually adequate when the pedaling thrust is horizontal - that is, forwards rather than downwards. This is usually the case provided the bottom bracket is higher than the seat's base height. Where the bottom bracket is significantly lower than the seat base, there may still be some pedalling-induced bounce.\n", "One consistent issue is that the seat tends to end up in line with, or behind, the rear axle, which creates a powerful tendency to lift the front wheel of the bicycle on acceleration. Some bicycle builders simply accept this tendency, but others solve the problem by moving the seat post forward, lowering the handlebars, or by using a smaller wheel in front, typically a 24\" instead of a 26\".\n", "Being unnecessarily elevated above road level means that each intersection requires a ramp. These are rarely continuous; rolling down from and up onto the lowered curb lead to discomfort and possible wheel damage. The ramps between buildings and the road are constructed for motorised vehicles not for the pedestrians and cyclists for whom the path is for. This effect is very noticeable even when walking, and more so when guiding a pram or wheelchair or bicycle. At easily attainable speeds, vehicle instability results from being lifted from the saddle through the up and down motion, requiring the cyclist to travel much more slowly than he/she would on the street running parallel.\n" ]

[ "Finally, there is a human capital dimension to the failure of post-Soviet reforms in Russia. The former Soviet population was not necessarily uneducated. Literacy was nearly universal, and the educational level of the Soviet population was among the highest in the world with respect to science, engineering, and some technical disciplines, although the Soviets devoted little to what would be described as \"liberal arts\" in the West. With the move to a post-Communist system, the Russian university system collapsed. Rampant credential inflation in the Russian university system made it difficult for employers to determine who was really skilled and the problems of the higher education system more generally made it difficult to remedy other issues of human capital that came from the transition to a market-oriented system, such as upskilling and re-skilling. For example, former state enterprise managers were highly skilled at coping with the demands on them under the Soviet system of planned production targets, but discouraged the risk-and-reward centered behavior of market capitalism. These managers were responsible for a broad array of social welfare functions for their employees, their families, and the population of the towns and regions where they were located. Profitability and efficiency, however, were generally not the most prominent priorities for Soviet enterprise managers. Thus, almost no Soviet employees or managers had firsthand experience with decision-making in the conditions of a market economy.\n", "The allegation that communist rule resulted in lower standards of living sharply contrasted with communist arguments boasting of the achievements of the social and cultural programs of the Soviet Union and other communist states. For instance, Soviet leaders boasted of guaranteed employment, subsidized food and clothing, free health care, free child care and free education. Soviet leaders also touted early advances in women's equality, particularly in Islamic areas of Soviet Central Asia. Eastern European communists often touted high levels of literacy in comparison with many parts of the developing world. A phenomenon called Ostalgie, nostalgia for life under Soviet rule, has been noted amongst former members of Communist countries, now living in Western capitalist states, particularly those who lived in the former East Germany.\n", "In the 1950s, Khrushchev repeatedly boasted that the USSR would soon surpass the West in material well-being. Other communists officials agreed that it would soon show its superiority, because capitalism was like a dead herring—shining as it rotted.\n", "Sorensen was one of the consultants who brought American know-how to the USSR during this era, before the Cold War made such exchanges unthinkable. As the Soviet Union developed and grew in power, both sides, the Soviets and the Americans, chose to ignore or deny the contribution that American ideas and expertise had made: the Soviets because they wished to portray themselves as creators of their own destiny and not indebted to a rival, and the Americans because they did not wish to acknowledge their part in creating a powerful communist rival. Anti-communism had always enjoyed widespread popularity in America, and anti-capitalism in Russia, but after World War II, they precluded any admission by either side that technologies or ideas might be either freely shared or clandestinely stolen.\n", "\"Example thesis from 2007 AP World Student for change over time essay:\" 'Significant cultural ideologies such as Communism and Stalinism became the leading factors toward political and cultural change in the Soviet Union throughout 1914-1945. Ultimately, none of these changes were able to improve the standard of living for the working classes of Russia, which ironically had been the goal of the Russian Revolution in the first place.'\n", "Soviet historiography interpreted this theory to mean that the creation of the Soviet Union was the most important turning event in human history, since the USSR was considered to be the first socialist society. Furthermore, the Communist Party—considered to be the vanguard of the working class – was given the role of permanent leading force in society, rather than a temporary revolutionary organization. As such, it became the protagonist of history, which could not be wrong. Hence the unlimited powers of the Communist Party leaders were claimed to be as infallible and inevitable as the history itself. It also followed that a worldwide victory of communist countries is inevitable. All research had to be based on those assumptions and could not diverge in its findings. In 1956, Soviet academician Anna Pankratova said that \"the problems of Soviet historiography are the problems of our Communist ideology.\"\n", "Soviet advocates and socialists responded to these criticisms by highlighting the ideological differences in the concept of \"freedom\". McFarland and Ageyev noted that \"Marxist–Leninist norms disparaged \"laissez-faire\" individualism (as when housing is determined by one's ability to pay), also [condemning] wide variations in personal wealth as the West has not. Instead, Soviet ideals emphasized equality—free education and medical care, little disparity in housing or salaries, and so forth\". When asked to comment on the claim that former citizens of Communist states enjoy increased freedoms, Heinz Kessler, former East German Minister of National Defence, replied: \"Millions of people in Eastern Europe are now free from employment, free from safe streets, free from health care, free from social security\". The early economic development policies of Communist states have been criticised for focusing primarily on the development of heavy industry.\n" ]

[ "Alternatively, the milk can be dried by drum drying. Milk is applied as a thin film to the surface of a heated drum, and the dried milk solids are then scraped off. However, powdered milk made this way tends to have a cooked flavour, due to caramelization caused by greater heat exposure.\n", "A second type of capsule allows hot chocolate drinks to be made. Although chocolate powder very quickly turns to a thick impenetrable paste when wetted, the jetting technology ensures complete emptying of the capsule and thorough mixing.\n", "Cocoa butter must be tempered to maintain gloss and coating. A chocolatier tempers chocolate by cooling the chocolate mass below its setting point, then rewarming the chocolate to between for milk chocolate, or between for semi-sweet chocolate. Compound coatings, however, do not need to be tempered. Instead, they are simply warmed to between above the coating's melting point.\n", "Hot chocolate can be made with dark, semisweet, or bittersweet chocolate chopped into small pieces and stirred into milk with the addition of sugar. American instant hot cocoa powder often includes powdered milk or other dairy ingredients so it can be made without using milk. In the United Kingdom, \"hot chocolate\" is a sweet chocolate drink made with hot milk or water, and powder containing chocolate, sugar, and powdered milk. \"Cocoa\" usually refers to a similar drink made with just hot milk and cocoa powder, then sweetened to taste with sugar (or not sweetened at all).\n", "In New Orleans, sweetened condensed milk is commonly used as a topping on chocolate or similarly cream-flavored snowballs. In Scotland, it is mixed with sugar and butter then boiled to form a popular sweet candy called tablet or Swiss milk tablet, this recipe being very similar to another version of the Brazilian candy brigadeiro called \"branquinho\". In some parts of the Southern United States, condensed milk is a key ingredient in lemon ice box pie, a sort of cream pie. In the Philippines, condensed milk is mixed with some evaporated milk and eggs, spooned into shallow metal containers over liquid caramelized sugar, and then steamed to make a stiffer and more filling version of \"crème\" caramel known as \"leche flan\", also common in Brazil under the name \"pudim de leite\".\n", "As a solid piece of chocolate, the cocoa butter fat particles are in a crystalline rigid structure that gives the chocolate its solid appearance. Once heated, the crystals of the polymorphic cocoa butter are able to break apart from the rigid structure and allow the chocolate to obtain a more fluid consistency as the temperature increases – the melting process. When the heat is removed, the cocoa butter crystals become rigid again and come closer together, allowing the chocolate to solidify.\n", "Milk is commonly used as the liquid in chocolate gravy, while some recipes use water. Some recipes devised in eastern Oklahoma use more sugar, and the fat comes from the use of butter after the gravy is complete, making it more like warm chocolate pudding served over biscuits. In a traditional gravy, a roux is made with fat and flour before the milk is added; in chocolate gravy all the dry ingredients are mixed first, milk slowly incorporated, then stirred continuously until cooked. When a thick and rich consistency is achieved, the butter and vanilla are added. Other ingredients, such as crumbled bacon, are usually added afterward near the end of preparation.\n" ]

[ "A surface loses heat through conduction, evaporation, convection, and radiation. The rate of convection depends on both the difference in temperature between the surface and the fluid surrounding it and the velocity of that fluid with respect to the surface. As convection from a warm surface heats the air around it, an insulating boundary layer of warm air forms against the surface. Moving air disrupts this boundary layer, or epiclimate, allowing for cooler air to replace the warm air against the surface. The faster the wind speed, the more readily the surface cools.\n", "At high speeds through the air, the object's kinetic energy is converted to heat through compression and friction. At lower speed, the object will lose heat to the air through which it is passing, if the air is cooler. The combined temperature effect of heat from the air and from passage through it is called the stagnation temperature; the actual temperature is called the recovery temperature. These viscous dissipative effects to neighboring sub-layers make the boundary layer slow down via a non-isentropic process. Heat then conducts into the surface material from the higher temperature air. The result is an increase in the temperature of the material and a loss of energy from the flow. The forced convection ensures that other material replenishes the gases that have cooled to continue the process.\n", "In all cases, the air has to be cooler than the object or surface from which it is expected to remove heat. This is due to the second law of thermodynamics, which states that heat will only move spontaneously from a hot reservoir (the heat sink) to a cold reservoir (the air).\n", "The first case is when natural convection aids forced convection. This is seen when the buoyant motion is in the same direction as the forced motion, thus accelerating the boundary layer and enhancing the heat transfer. Transition to turbulence, however, can be delayed. An example of this would be a fan blowing upward on a hot plate. Since heat naturally rises, the air being forced upward over the plate adds to the heat transfer.\n", "BULLET::::- Free or natural convection: when fluid motion is caused by buoyancy forces that result from the density variations due to variations of thermal ±temperature in the fluid. In the absence of an internal source, when the fluid is in contact with a hot surface, its molecules separate and scatter, causing the fluid to be less dense. As a consequence, the fluid is displaced while the cooler fluid gets denser and the fluid sinks. Thus, the hotter volume transfers heat towards the cooler volume of that fluid. Familiar examples are the upward flow of air due to a fire or hot object and the circulation of water in a pot that is heated from below.\n", "BULLET::::- Application of hot air (convective or direct drying). Air heating increases the drying force for heat transfer and accelerates drying. It also reduces air relative humidity, further increasing the driving force for drying. In the falling rate period, as moisture content falls, the solids heat up and the higher temperatures speed up diffusion of water from the interior of the solid to the surface. However, product quality considerations limit the applicable rise to air temperature. Excessively hot air can almost completely dehydrate the solid surface, so that its pores shrink and almost close, leading to crust formation or \"case hardening\", which is usually undesirable. For instance in wood (timber) drying, air is heated (which speeds up drying) though some steam is also added to it (which hinders drying rate to a certain extent) in order to avoid excessive surface dehydration and product deformation owing to high moisture gradients across timber thickness. Spray drying belongs in this category.\n", "However, when air is hot, it tends to expand, which lowers its density. Thus, hot air tends to rise and transfer heat upward. This is the process of convection. Convection comes to equilibrium when a parcel of air at a given altitude has the same density as its surroundings. Air is a poor conductor of heat, so a parcel of air will rise and fall without exchanging heat. This is known as an adiabatic process, which has a characteristic pressure-temperature dependence. As the pressure gets lower, the temperature decreases. The rate of decrease of temperature with elevation is known as the adiabatic lapse rate, which is approximately 9.8 °C per kilometre (or 5.4 °F per 1000 feet) of altitude.\n" ]

[ "From the physical-mathematical standpoint, the form of the nodal patterns is predetermined by the shape of the body set in vibration or, in the case of acoustic waves in a gas, the shape of the cavity in which the gas is contained. The sound wave, therefore, does not influence at all the shape of the vibrating body or the shape of the nodal patterns. The only thing that changes due to the vibration is the arrangement of the sand. The image formed by the sand, in turn, is influenced by the frequency spectrum of the vibration only because each vibration mode is characterized by a specific frequency. Therefore, the spectrum of the signal that excites the vibration determines which patterns are actually nodally displayed.\n", "Normann et al. showed that pitch circularity can be created using a bank of single tones; here the relative amplitudes of the odd and even harmonics of each tone are manipulated so as to create ambiguities of height. \n", "The linear dunes (dashes) were formed through the action of bidirectional winds, acting perpendicular to the line of the sand dune, causing a funneling effect directing the sand to accumulate along the linear axis of the dune. The round-shaped dunes (dots) were formed when the winds that caused the linearly-shaped accumulations were interrupted. The round dunes are classified as \"barchanoid dunes\". However, the exact mechanism of either formation is still unknown and this is the reason the area was chosen for imaging by the HiRISE mission.\n", "Fractal-like patterns work because the human visual system efficiently discriminates images which have different fractal dimension or other second-order statistics like Fourier spatial amplitude spectra; objects simply appear to pop out from the background. Timothy O'Neill helped the Marine Corps to develop first a digital pattern for vehicles, then fabric for uniforms, which had two colour schemes, one designed for woodland, one for desert.\n", "Since the earliest uses of pottery wheels to help shape clay vessels, pottery has had a strong relationship to symmetry. Pottery created using a wheel acquires full rotational symmetry in its cross-section, while allowing substantial freedom of shape in the vertical direction. Upon this inherently symmetrical starting point, potters from ancient times onwards have added patterns that modify the rotational symmetry to achieve visual objectives.\n", "Jenny made use of crystal oscillators and his so-called tonoscope to set plates and membranes vibrating. He spread quartz sand onto a black drum membrane 60 cm in diameter. The membrane was caused to vibrate by singing loudly through a cardboard pipe, and the sand produced symmetrical Chladni patterns, named after Ernst Chladni, who had discovered this phenomenon in 1787. Low tones resulted in rather simple and clear pictures, while higher tones formed more complex structures.\n", "D-Shape is a large 3-dimensional printer that uses binder-jetting, a layer by layer printing process, to bind sand with an inorganic seawater and magnesium-based binder in order to create stone-like objects. Invented by Enrico Dini, founder of Monolite UK Ltd, the first model of the D-Shape printer used epoxy resin, commonly used as an adhesive in the construction of skis, cars, and airplanes, as the binder. Dini patented this model in 2006. After experiencing problems with the epoxy, Dini changed the binder to the current magnesium-based one and patented his printer again in September 2008. In the future, Dini aims to use the printer to create full-scale buildings.\n" ]

[ "Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over a period of 50 million years, from an average of down to , eventually evolving into modern birds. This was based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times as fast as those of other dinosaur species.\n", "Recent theories propose that theropod body size shrank continuously over the past 50 million years, from an average of down to , as they eventually evolved into modern birds. This is based on evidence that theropods were the only dinosaurs to get continuously smaller, and that their skeletons changed four times faster than those of other dinosaur species.\n", "Body size is important because of its correlation with metabolism, diet, life history, geographic range and extinction rate. The modal body mass of dinosaurs lies between 1 and 10 tons throughout the Mesozoic and across all major continental regions. There was a trend towards increasing body size within many dinosaur clades, including the Thyreophora, Ornithopoda, Pachycephalosauria, Ceratopsia, Sauropomorpha, and basal Theropoda. Marked decreases in body size have also occurred in some lineages, but are more sporadic. The best known example is the decrease in body size leading up to the first birds; \"Archaeopteryx\" was below 10 kg in weight, and later birds \"Confuciusornis\" and \"Sinornis\" are starling- to pigeon-sized. This occurred for easier flight.\n", "Subsequent to the Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event that eliminated the non-avian dinosaurs about Ma (million years) ago, terrestrial mammals underwent a nearly exponential increase in body size as they diversified to occupy the ecological niches left vacant. Starting from just a few kg before the event, maximum size had reached ~50 kg a few million years later, and ~750 kg by the end of the Paleocene. This trend of increasing body mass appears to level off about 40 Ma ago (in the late Eocene), suggesting that physiological or ecological constraints had been reached, after an increase in body mass of over three orders of magnitude. However, when considered from the standpoint of rate of size increase per generation, the exponential increase is found to have continued until the appearance of \"Indricotherium\" 30 Ma ago. (Since generation time scales with \"body mass\", increasing generation times with increasing size cause the log mass vs. time plot to curve downward from a linear fit.)\n", "For example, mammaliformes (\"almost mammals\") and then mammals existed throughout the reign of the dinosaurs, but could not compete for the large terrestrial vertebrate niches which dinosaurs monopolized. The end-Cretaceous mass extinction removed the non-avian dinosaurs and made it possible for mammals to expand into the large terrestrial vertebrate niches. Ironically, the dinosaurs themselves had been beneficiaries of a previous mass extinction, the end-Triassic, which eliminated most of their chief rivals, the crurotarsans.\n", "BULLET::::- Theropods: dinosaurs that first evolved in the Triassic period but did not evolve into large sizes until the Jurassic. Most Triassic theropods, such as the \"Coelophysis\", were only around 1–2 meters long and hunted small prey in the shadow of the giant Rauisuchians.\n", "The sauropods were the largest and heaviest dinosaurs. For much of the dinosaur era, the smallest sauropods were larger than anything else in their habitat, and the largest were an order of magnitude more massive than anything else that has since walked the Earth. Giant prehistoric mammals such as \"Paraceratherium\" and \"Palaeoloxodon\" (the largest land mammals ever) were dwarfed by the giant sauropods, and only modern whales surpass them in size. There are several proposed advantages for the large size of sauropods, including protection from predation, reduction of energy use, and longevity, but it may be that the most important advantage was dietary. Large animals are more efficient at digestion than small animals, because food spends more time in their digestive systems. This also permits them to subsist on food with lower nutritive value than smaller animals. Sauropod remains are mostly found in rock formations interpreted as dry or seasonally dry, and the ability to eat large quantities of low-nutrient browse would have been advantageous in such environments.\n" ]

[ "Equine species can crossbreed with each other. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a male donkey and a female horse. With rare exceptions, these hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a male horse and a female donkey. Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse and a zonkey or zedonk, a hybrid of a zebra and a donkey. In areas where Grévy's zebras are sympatric with plains zebras, fertile hybrids do occur.\n", "Horses can crossbreed with other members of their genus. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a \"jack\" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, a hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey). Other hybrids include the zorse, a cross between a zebra and a horse. With rare exceptions, most hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce.\n", "Horses can crossbreed with other equine species to produce hybrids. These hybrid types are not breeds, but they resemble breeds in that crosses between certain horse breeds and other equine species produce characteristic offspring. The most common hybrid is the mule, a cross between a \"jack\" (male donkey) and a mare. A related hybrid, the hinny, is a cross between a stallion and a jenny (female donkey). Most other hybrids involve the zebra (see Zebroid). With rare exceptions, most equine hybrids are sterile and cannot reproduce. A notable exception is hybrid crosses between horses and \"Equus ferus przewalskii\", commonly known as Przewalski's horse.\n", "Hinnies and mules are hybrids resulting from a cross between a horse and a donkey or between a mare and a donkey, respectively. These animals are nearly always sterile due to the difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parent species. Both horses and donkeys belong to the genus \"Equus\", but \"Equus caballus\" has 64 chromosomes, while \"Equus asinus\" only has 62. A cross will produce offspring (mule or hinny) with 63 chromosomes, that will not form pairs, which means that they do not divide in a balanced manner during meiosis. In the wild, the horses and donkeys ignore each other and do not cross. In order to obtain mules or hinnies it is necessary to train the progenitors to accept copulation between the species or create them through artificial insemination.\n", "Donkeys can interbreed with other members of the family Equidae, and are commonly interbred with horses. The hybrid between a jack and a mare is a mule, valued as a working and riding animal in many countries. Some large donkey breeds such as the Asino di Martina Franca, the Baudet de Poitou and the Mammoth Jack are raised only for mule production. The hybrid between a stallion and a jenny is a hinny, and is less common. Like other inter-species hybrids, mules and hinnies are usually sterile. Donkeys can also breed with zebras in which the offspring is called a zonkey (among other names).\n", "Donkeys and wild equids have different numbers of chromosomes. A donkey has 62 chromosomes; the zebra has between 32 and 46 (depending on the species). In spite of this difference, viable hybrids are possible, provided the gene combination in the hybrid allows for embryonic development to birth. A hybrid has a number of chromosomes somewhere in between. The chromosome difference makes female hybrids poorly fertile and male hybrids generally sterile, due to a phenomenon called Haldane's rule. The difference in chromosome number is most likely due to horses having two longer chromosomes that contain similar gene content to four zebra chromosomes. Horses have 64 chromosomes, while most zebroids end up with 54 chromosomes.\n", "Bos (from Latin \"bōs: cow, ox, bull\") is the genus of wild and domestic cattle. \"Bos\" can be divided into four subgenera: \"Bos\", \"Bibos\", \"Novibos\", and \"Poephagus\", but these divisions are controversial. The genus has five extant species. However, this may rise to seven if the domesticated varieties are counted as separate species, and nine if the closely related genus \"Bison\" is also included.\n" ]

[ "Some argue that the U.S. corporate tax rate at 35% is the \"highest in the industrialized world\", while others argue it isn't. The rate varies from sector to sector, and can be as low as 21% in the manufacturing industry. A high tax rate would place the U.S. at a \"competitive disadvantage in the global marketplace.\" and encourages corporations to move to countries with lower taxes. The current tax system also provides a \"tax deduction for imported goods\", providing another incentive for companies to leave. Companies that import inventory before ultimately selling their product domestically to U.S. consumers can deduct the cost of imports from their taxable income as part of cost of goods sold giving the company a sometimes sizable benefit. As explained in \"Forbes,\" the border-adjustment tax \"would move away from a direct income tax, and more toward an indirect \"cash flow\" tax\" where a \"corporation would be entitled to immediately deduct the cost of all asset purchases.\" and the \"corporate tax rate would be reduced to 20%. Although this is being compared to a value added tax (VAT), \"under a typical VAT...the corporation couldn't deduct its wages.\" but under the Brady and Ryan blueprint, wages could be deducted so this would be an \"indirect VAT.\"\n", "The corporate tax rate was lowered from 35% to 21%, while some related business deductions and credits were reduced or eliminated. The Act also changed the U.S. from a global to a territorial tax system with respect to corporate income tax. Instead of a corporation paying the U.S. tax rate (35%) for income earned in any country (less a credit for taxes paid to that country), each subsidiary pays the tax rate of the country in which it is legally established. In other words, under a territorial tax system, the corporation saves the difference between the generally higher U.S. tax rate and the lower rate of the country in which the subsidiary is legally established. \"Bloomberg\" journalist Matt Levine explained the concept, \"If we're incorporated in the U.S. [under the old global tax regime], we'll pay 35 percent taxes on our income in the U.S. and Canada and Mexico and Ireland and Bermuda and the Cayman Islands, but if we're incorporated in Canada [under a territorial tax regime, proposed by the Act], we'll pay 35 percent on our income in the U.S. but 15 percent in Canada and 30 percent in Mexico and 12.5 percent in Ireland and zero percent in Bermuda and zero percent in the Cayman Islands.\" In theory, the law would reduce the incentive for tax inversion, which is used today to obtain the benefits of a territorial tax system by moving U.S. corporate headquarters to other countries.\n", "BULLET::::- Corporate taxes were 2.3% GDP in 2011, versus the OECD average of 3.0% GDP. Despite this, the US corporate tax rate was 35% prior to the passage of the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, ten percentage points higher than the OECD average of 25%; the TCJA reduced the American corporate tax rate to 21%, four percentage points lower than the OECD average at the time.\n", "The United States' corporate tax rate was at its highest, 52.8 percent, in 1968 and 1969. The top rate was hiked last in 1993 to 35 percent. Under the \"Tax Cuts and Jobs Act\" of 2017, the rate adjusted to 21 percent.\n", "U.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during 2012 while corporate tax revenue was below its historical average relative to GDP. For example, U.S. corporate after-tax profits were at record levels during the third quarter of 2012, at an annualized $1.75 trillion. U.S. corporations paid approximately 1.2% GDP in taxes during 2011. This was below the 2.7% GDP level in 2007 pre-crisis and below the 1.8% historical average for the 1990–2011 period. In comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%.\n", "In 2004, the United States Congress enacted such a tax holiday for U.S. multinational companies in the American Jobs Creation Act of 2004 (AJCA)) section 965, allowing them to repatriate foreign profits to the United States at a 5.25% tax rate, rather than the existing 35% corporate tax rate. Under this law, corporations brought $362 billion into the American economy, primarily for the purposes of paying dividends to investors, repurchasing shares, and purchasing other corporations. The largest multi-national companies, Apple Inc., Microsoft Corp., Alphabet Inc., Cisco Systems Inc., and Oracle Corp., recalled only 9% of their cash possessions following the 2004 act. In 2011, Senate Democrats, arguing against another repatriation tax holiday, issued a report asserting that the previous effort had actually cost the United States Treasury $3.3 billion, and that companies receiving the tax breaks had thereafter cut over 20,000 jobs. A second repatriation tax holiday was defeated in the United States Senate in 2009.\n", "In comparing corporate taxes, the Congressional Budget Office found in 2005 that the top statutory tax rate was the third highest among OECD countries behind Japan and Germany. However, the U.S. ranked 27th lowest of 30 OECD countries in its collection of corporate taxes relative to GDP, at 1.8% vs. the average 2.5%. Bruce Bartlett wrote in May 2011: \"...one almost never hears that total revenues are at their lowest level in two or three generations as a share of G.D.P. or that corporate tax revenues as a share of G.D.P. are the lowest among all major countries. One hears only that the statutory corporate tax rate in the United States is high compared with other countries, which is true but not necessarily relevant. The economic importance of statutory tax rates is blown far out of proportion by Republicans looking for ways to make taxes look high when they are quite low.\"\n" ]

[ "His life work was the establishment of the catechism course in his church of \"Unsere liebe Frau\" (Our Lady), whereby he has merited a place in the history of catechism. The origin and growth of this foundation is described in his large work \"Die gesamte christliche Lehre in ihrem Zusammenhang\" 'the whole Christian teaching in its context' (7 volumes, Munich, 1837–45). In the preface to the seventh volume he explains the manner in which he was wont to conduct his catechizing. In his simple statements is to be found a complete theory or system of catechism. He lays special stress on the Roman catechism and the catechism of Canisius. The deep veneration in which Haid, from his earliest youth, had held the latter found expression in his later writings, when he not only edited under different forms and translated the \"Summa doctrinæ christianæ\" of Peter Canisius, but also published some of the smaller works and a comprehensive biography of their author. During the closing years of his life he was afflicted with almost total blindness, but he bore his affliction with the greatest resignation. When death claimed him he had almost reached his ninetieth year. An account of a number of Haid's smaller works, not mentioned above, is to be found in the third volume of Kayser's \"Bucherlexikon\" (Leipzig, 1835), 16.\n", "The last part of the document is titled \"The Book\", which appears to allude to his authorship in mid-1938 of a still-unpublished manuscript called \"Excalibur\", which he refers to as \"The One Commandment\" in the Affirmations. He wrote that it had \"freed you forever from the fears of the material world and gave you material control over people.\" The document lists Hubbard's personal goals, self-compliments and statements of what he believed (or wanted to believe) were his extraordinary qualities. For instance:\n", "Dutch priest Henri Nouwen (1932–1996) was so taken by the painting that he eventually wrote a short book, \"The Return of the Prodigal Son: A Story of Homecoming\" (1992), using the parable and Rembrandt's painting as frameworks. He begins by describing his visit to the State Hermitage Museum in 1986, where he was able to contemplate the painting alone for hours. Considering the role of the father and sons in the parable in relation to Rembrandt's biography, he wrote:\n", "Where I Lived, and What I Lived For: Thoreau recollects thoughts of places he stayed at before selecting Walden Pond, and quotes Roman Philosopher Cato's advice \"consider buying a farm very carefully before signing the papers.\" His possibilities included a nearby Hollowell farm (where the \"wife\" unexpectedly decided she wanted to keep the farm). Thoreau takes to the woods dreaming of an existence free of obligations and full of leisure. He announces that he resides far from social relationships that mail represents (post office) and the majority of the chapter focuses on his thoughts while constructing and living in his new home at Walden.\n", "He was one of the ninety-six original members of the church and was the patriarch of a leading family in the Sleepy Hollow community. He has also been credited as the author of a private memorandum book that is now lost to history, which was heavily drawn upon in 1715 by Dirck Storm to compose the church's history. However, he signed his 1716 will by his mark, so it is more likely that the memoranda should be credited to his son, also named Abraham and a later elder of the church, who had predeceased his father about 1712.\n", "N.J. Higham argues that Bede designed his work to promote his reform agenda to Ceolwulf, the Northumbrian king. Bede painted a highly optimistic picture of the current situation in the Church, as opposed to the more pessimistic picture found in his private letters.\n", "\"The Plot\" was published by Granta in 2010. The book is partly a memoir of her father and partly an account of the chapel he built on an acre plot of land in North Yorkshire. \"Love Of Country: A Hebridean Journey\", published in 2016, concerns visits Bunting made to the Hebrides. It received positive reviews in \"The Scotsman\" and \"The Guardian\".\n" ]

[ "\"Anyone Seen the Bridge?\" (abbreviated as \"ASTB\") is an instrumental by the Dave Matthews Band, usually played as segue between two songs during a concert. It is an instrumental jam played by the entire band, with scat singing by Dave Matthews. Performances of the tune today typically are heard between \"So Much to Say\" and \"Too Much,\" and last around a minute and a half. The tune has been very popular during concerts since its debut, and has currently been played live over 400 times.\n", "The Bridge is the tenth studio album by American singer-songwriter Billy Joel, released on July 9, 1986. It was the last studio album produced by Phil Ramone as well as the last to feature Joel's long-time bassist Doug Stegmeyer and rhythm guitarist Russell Javors. The album yielded several successful singles, including \"A Matter of Trust\" (peaking at No. 10), \"Modern Woman\" (which also appeared on the \"Ruthless People\" soundtrack, peaking at No. 10), and \"This Is the Time\" (peaking at No. 18).\n", "The bridge of the song is the Saint-Bénézet bridge over the Rhône of which only four arches (out of the initial 22) now remain. A bridge across the Rhone was built between 1171 and 1185, with a length of some 900 m (2950 ft), but was destroyed during the siege of Avignon by Louis VIII of France in 1226. It was rebuilt but suffered frequent collapses during floods and had to be continually repaired. Several arches were already missing (and spanned by wooden sections) before the remainder was abandoned in 1669.\n", "The song is in the key of C major. The verses are in two phrases. Music professor Vincent Benitez finds the melody and harmony of the song particularly expressive. The melody of the first phrase begins on the tonic, C, goes up to the subdominant F, and concludes be descending to D. The melody of the second phrase of each verse is similar, except it ends with the sequence of a diminished seventh note followed by an ascending second, i.e., A flat up to B up to C. The melody of the bridge incorporates both leaps and steps, often going in opposite directions. Elements of the melodic structure are similar to those McCartney has used throughout his career, dating back to the Beatles arrangement of \"Falling in Love Again\" that they used in their 1962 concerts in Hamburg.\n", "The song is a romantic ballad composed in the key of E major with a chord progression of E-G#m-A. The bridge uses the progression of F#m-C#m-F#m-E-F#m-C#m-F#m-C#m. It is written in 4/4 time and is played at a slow tempo.\n", "The Bridge chord is a bitonal chord named after its use in the music of composer Frank Bridge (1879–1941). It consists of a minor chord with the major chord a whole tone above (CEG & DFA), as well as a major chord with the minor chord a semitone above (CEG & DFA), which share the same mediant (E/F). () Both form eleventh chords under inversion (DFACEG = D and DFACEG = Dm).\n", "\"The Bridge\" is a song from Elton John's 2006 album \"The Captain & the Kid\". It is a simple, stripped-down production focused on John and his piano, with sparse further accompaniment. This is the first song since the title track of \"Breaking Hearts\" with this arrangement. The song, which was only released as a promotional single, peaked at #19 on Billboard's Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks.\n" ]

[ "The role of a temp agency is as a third party between client employer and client employee. This third party handles remuneration, work scheduling, complaints, taxes, etc. created by the relationship between a client employer and a client employee. Client firms request the type of job that is to be done, and the skills required to do it. Client firms can also terminate an assignment and are able to file a complaint about the temp. Work schedules are determined by assignment, which is determined by the agency and can last for an indeterminate period of time, extended to any point and cut short. Because the assignments are temporary, there is little incentive to provide benefits and the pay is low in situations where there is a lot of labor flexibility. (Nurses are an exception to this as there is currently a shortage). Workers can refuse assignment but risk going through an indeterminate period of downtime since work is based on availability of assignments, which the agency cannot \"create\" only fill.\n", "The SFA does not receive an allowance from the government budget. Instead, it covers its expenses by charging rent for the real estate it leases. In 2008, the agency's revenue was 3.0 billion SEK, and its net income 67 million SEK. The rent is adjusted so that the net income — which goes into the state treasury — conforms to a predefined level of return on equity, as set by the Ministry of Finance. To finance investments, the SFA borrows money from the National Debt Office (), which acts as the internal bank of the government.\n", "According to its 2013–14 Annual Plan, the ATO employs an average of 22,022 people. In the 2012–13 financial year, the ATO collected revenues totalling $313.082 billion in individual income tax, company income tax, goods and services (GST) tax, excise and others.\n", "BULLET::::- Nearly 2,500 employees in CBP revenue positions collect over $30 billion annually in entry duties and taxes through the enforcement of trade and tariff laws. In addition, these employees fulfill the agency's trade mission by appraising and classifying imported merchandise. These employees serve in positions such as import specialist, auditor, international trade specialist, and textile analyst.\n", "The SFA employed 689 people in 2008. The majority of the employees work on a local level in real estate units linked to garrisons, where employees work in areas such as project management, property development and maintenance services. At the regional and national level, employees work in real estate purchasing and sales, defense facility development, and various management functions. The SFA considers its core competencies to be security and protective technology. The agency has stated that it aims to increase the amount of outsourcing, and as an experiment in 2006, it outsourced the property maintenance of two garrisons.\n", "As the Australian government's principal revenue collection body, the ATO collects income tax, goods and services tax (GST) and other federal taxes. The ATO also has responsibility for managing the Australian Business Register, delivering the Higher Education Loan Program, delivering many Australian government payments and administering key components of Australia's superannuation system.\n", "Adecco Staffing, USA is the second largest provider of recruitment and staffing services in the United States, offering human resource services such as temporary staffing, permanent placement, outsourcing, career transition or outplacement. Based in Jacksonville, FL, it serves small- and mid-sized businesses as well as Fortune 500 companies.\n" ]

[ "In Canada, the debit card is sometimes referred to as a \"bank card\". It is a client card issued by a bank that provides access to funds and other bank account transactions, such as transferring funds, checking balances, paying bills, etc., as well as point of purchase transactions connected on the Interac network. Since its national launch in 1994, Interac Direct Payment has become so widespread that, as of 2001, more transactions in Canada were completed using debit cards than cash. This popularity may be partially attributable to two main factors: the convenience of not having to carry cash, and the availability of automated bank machines (ABMs) and direct payment merchants on the network.\n", "In the United Kingdom, banks started to issue debit cards in the mid-1980s in a bid to reduce the number of cheques being used at the point of sale, which are costly for the banks to process; the first bank to do so was Barclays with the \"Barclays Connect\" card. As in most countries, fees paid by merchants in the United Kingdom to accept credit cards are a percentage of the transaction amount, which funds card holders' interest-free credit periods as well as incentive schemes such as points or cashback. For consumer credit cards issued within the EEA, the interchange fee is capped at 0.3%, with a cap of 0.2% for debit cards, although the merchant acquirers may charge the merchant a higher fee. Although merchants won the right through The Credit Cards (Price Discrimination) Order 1990 to charge customers different prices according to the payment method, few merchants in the UK charge less for payment by debit card than by credit card, the most notable exceptions being budget airlines and travel agents. Most debit cards in the UK lack the advantages offered to holders of UK-issued credit cards, such as free incentives (points, cashback etc. (the Tesco Bank debit card being one exception)), interest-free credit and protection against defaulting merchants under Section 75 of the Consumer Credit Act 1974. Almost all establishments in the United Kingdom that accept credit cards also accept debit cards, but a minority of merchants, for cost reasons, accept debit cards and not credit cards.\n", "Some consumers prefer \"credit\" transactions because of the lack of a fee charged to the consumer/purchaser. A few debit cards in the U.S. offer rewards for using \"credit\". However, since \"credit\" transactions cost more for merchants, many terminals at PIN-accepting merchant locations now make the \"credit\" function more difficult to access. For example, if you swipe a debit card at Wal-Mart or Ross in the U.S., you are immediately presented with the PIN screen for online debit. To use offline debit you must press \"cancel\" to exit the PIN screen, and then press \"credit\" on the next screen.\n", "Although the four largest bank card issuers (American Express, Discover Card, MasterCard, and Visa) all offer debit cards, there are many other types of debit card, each accepted only within a particular country or region, for example Switch (now: Maestro) and Solo in the United Kingdom, Interac in Canada, Carte Bleue in France, EC electronic cash (formerly Eurocheque) in Germany, UnionPay in China, RuPay in India and EFTPOS cards in Australia and New Zealand. The need for cross-border compatibility and the advent of the euro recently led to many of these card networks (such as Switzerland's \"EC direkt\", Austria's \"Bankomatkasse\", and Switch in the United Kingdom) being re-branded with the internationally recognized Maestro logo, which is part of the MasterCard brand. Some debit cards are dual branded with the logo of the (former) national card as well as Maestro (for example, EC cards in Germany, Switch and Solo in the UK, Pinpas cards in the Netherlands, Bancontact cards in Belgium, etc.). The use of a debit card system allows operators to package their product more effectively while monitoring customer spending.\n", "Canada has a nationwide EFTPOS system, called Interac Direct Payment (IDP). Since being introduced in 1994, IDP has become the most popular payment method in the country. Previously, debit cards have been in use for ABM usage since the late 1970s, with credit unions in Saskatchewan and Alberta introducing the first card-based, networked ATMs beginning in June 1977. Debit cards, which could be used anywhere a credit card was accepted, were first introduced in Canada by Saskatchewan Credit Unions in 1982. In the early 1990s, pilot projects were conducted among Canada's six largest banks to gauge security, accuracy and feasibility of the Interac system. Slowly in the later half of the 1990s, it was estimated that approximately 50% of retailers offered Interac as a source of payment. Retailers, many small transaction retailers like coffee shops, resisted offering IDP to promote faster service. In 2009, 99% of retailers offer IDP as an alternative payment form.\n", "Offline debit cards have the logos of major credit cards (for example, Visa or MasterCard) or major debit cards (for example, Maestro in the United Kingdom and other countries, but not the United States) and are used at the point of sale like a credit card (with payer's signature). This type of debit card may be subject to a daily limit, and/or a maximum limit equal to the current/checking account balance from which it draws funds. Transactions conducted with offline debit cards require 2–3 days to be reflected on users’ account balances.\n", "A debit card (also known as a bank card or check card) is a plastic card that provides an alternative payment method to cash when making purchases. A charge card is a plastic card that provides an alternative to cash when making purchases in which the issuer and the cardholder enter into an agreement that the debt incurred on the charge account will be paid in full and by due date. Debit and charge cards are used and accepted in many countries and can be used at a point of sale location or online.\n" ]

[ "The business strategy of Volkswagen is to standardize platforms, components, and technologies, thus improving the firm's profitability and growth. For example, Audi uses components from their more pedestrian counterparts, sold as Volkswagen Group's mass-market brands. As an effort to place Audi as a \"premium\" marque, Volkswagen introduces new technologies in Audi-branded cars before fitting them to mainstream products (such as the Direct-Shift Gearbox). Nevertheless, Volkswagen uses platform sharing extensively. For example, the basic A platform underpins the Golf, Jetta, New Beetle, Audi TT and A3, SEAT Leon and Toledo, as well as the Škoda Octavia, while the \"top end\" D platform served the VW Phaeton and Bentley Continental GT in steel form, and the Audi A8 in aluminum form during the 2000s.\n", "With the addition of a diesel particulate filter to capture soot, and on some vehicle models, a urea-based exhaust aftertreatment system, Volkswagen described the engines as being as clean as or cleaner than US and Californian requirements, while providing good performance. In reality, the system failed to combine good fuel economy with compliant emissions, and Volkswagen chose around 2006 to program the Engine Control Unit to switch from good fuel economy and high emissions to low-emission compliant mode when it detected an emissions test, particularly for the EA 189 engine. This caused the engine to emit levels above limits in daily operation, but comply with US standards when being tested, constituting a defeat device. In 2015 the news magazine \"Der Spiegel\" reported that at least 30 people at management level in Volkswagen knew about the deceit for years which Volkswagen denied in 2015.\n", "Volkswagen announced that 11 million cars were involved in the falsified emission reports, and that over seven billion dollars would be earmarked to deal with the costs of rectifying the software at the heart of the pollution statements. The newly appointed CEO of Volkswagen Mathias Müller stated that the software was only activated in a part of those 11 million cars, which has yet to be determined. The German tabloid \"Bild\" claimed that top management had been aware of the software's use to manipulate exhaust settings as early as 2007. Bosch provided the software for testing purposes and warned Volkswagen that it would be illegal to use the software to avoid emissions compliance during normal driving. \"Der Spiegel\" followed \"Bild\" with an article dated 30 September 2015 to state that some groups of people were aware of this in 2005 or 2006. \"Süddeutsche Zeitung\" had similarly reported, that Heinz-Jakob Neusser, one of Volkswagen's top executives, had ignored at least one engineer's warnings over \"possibly illegal\" practices in 2011.\n", "In 2015 Volkswagen abused the DMCA to hide their vehicles emissions cheat. It has been suggested that had the DMCA not prevented access to the software \"..a researcher with legal access to Volkswagen's software could have discovered the code that changed how the cars behave in testing..\"\n", "On 20 November 2015, the EPA said Volkswagen officials told the agency that all 3.0-liter TDI diesel engines sold in the US from 2009 through 2015 were also fitted with emissions-cheating software, in the form of \"alternate exhaust control devices\". These are prohibited in the United States, however the software is legal in Europe. Volkswagen acknowledges these devices' existence, but maintains that they were not installed with a \"forbidden purpose\". On 4 January 2016, the US Department of Justice filed a complaint in a federal court against VW, alleging that the respective 3.0-liter diesel engines only meet the legal emission requirements in a \"temperature conditioning\" mode that is automatically switched on during testing conditions, while at \"all other times, including during normal vehicle operation, the vehicles operate in a 'normal mode' that permits emissions of up to nine times the federal standard\". The complaint covers around 85,000 3.0 liter diesel vehicles sold in the United States since 2009, including the Volkswagen Touareg, Porsche Cayenne, Audi A6 Quattro, Audi A7 Quattro, Audi A8, Audi A8L, Audi Q5, and Audi Q7 models.\n", "In September 2015, Volkswagen's Belgian importer, D'Ieteren, announced that it would offer free engine upgrades to 800 customers who had ordered a vehicle with a diesel engine which was likely to have been fitted with illegal software.\n", "A full authority digital engine (or electronics) control (FADEC) is a system consisting of a digital computer, called an \"electronic engine controller\" (EEC) or \"engine control unit\" (ECU), and its related accessories that control all aspects of aircraft engine performance. FADECs have been produced for both piston engines and jet engines.\n" ]

[ "Bioresource Chemistry and Bioenvironmental Science focuses on essential knowledge and application of various chemical substances with biological functions, and on developing a solid foundation in the chemistry and biology of various ecosystems (from the terrestrial land to the seas).\n", "Biochemical engineering, also known as bioprocess engineering, is a field of study with roots stemming from chemical engineering and biological engineering. It mainly deals with the design, construction, and advancement of unit processes that involve biological organisms or organic molecules and has various applications in areas of interest such as biofuels, food, pharmaceuticals, biotechnology, and water treatment processes. The role of a biochemical engineer is to take findings developed by biologists and chemists in a laboratory and translate that to a large-scale manufacturing process.\n", "Chemical biology is a scientific discipline spanning the fields of chemistry and biology. The discipline involves the application of chemical techniques, analysis, and often small molecules produced through synthetic chemistry, to the study and manipulation of biological systems. In contrast to biochemistry, which involves the study of the chemistry of biomolecules and regulation of biochemical pathways within and between cells, chemical biology deals with chemistry \"applied to\" biology (synthesis of biomolecules, simulation of biological systems etc.).\n", "Biotechnology (commonly abbreviated as biotech) is the broad area of biology involving living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or \"any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use\" (UN Convention on Biological Diversity, Art. 2). Depending on the tools and applications, it often overlaps with the (related) fields of molecular biology, bio-engineering, biomedical engineering, biomanufacturing, molecular engineering, etc.\n", "In the scope of its subject, chemistry occupies an intermediate position between physics and biology. It is sometimes called the central science because it provides a foundation for understanding both basic and applied scientific disciplines at a fundamental level. For example, chemistry explains aspects of plant chemistry (botany), the formation of igneous rocks (geology), how atmospheric ozone is formed and how environmental pollutants are degraded (ecology), the properties of the soil on the moon (astrophysics), how medications work (pharmacology), and how to collect DNA evidence at a crime scene (forensics).\n", "BULLET::::- 'Chemical biology' seeks to develop new tools based on small molecules that allow minimal perturbation of biological systems while providing detailed information about their function. Further, chemical biology employs biological systems to create non-natural hybrids between biomolecules and synthetic devices (for example emptied viral capsids that can deliver gene therapy or drug molecules).\n", "Chemical biology is one of several interdisciplinary sciences that tend to differ from older, reductionist fields and whose goals are to achieve a description of scientific holism. Chemical biology has scientific, historical and philosophical roots in medicinal chemistry, supramolecular chemistry, bioorganic chemistry, pharmacology, genetics, biochemistry, and metabolic engineering.\n" ]

[ "Because radio telescopes have low resolution, they were the first instruments to use interferometry allowing two or more widely separated instruments to simultaneously observe the same source. Very long baseline interferometry extended the technique over thousands of kilometers and allowed resolutions down to a few milli-arcseconds.\n", "Most amateurs work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. This includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. The pioneer of amateur radio astronomy was Karl Jansky, who started observing the sky at radio wavelengths in the 1930s. A number of amateur astronomers use either homemade telescopes or use radio telescopes which were originally built for astronomy research but which are now available to amateurs (\"e.g.\" the One-Mile Telescope).\n", "Radio astronomy has continued to expand its capabilities, even using radio astronomy satellites to produce interferometers with baselines much larger than the size of the Earth. However, the ever-expanding use of the radio spectrum for other uses is gradually drowning out the faint radio signals from the stars. For this reason, in the future radio astronomy might be performed from shielded locations, such as the far side of the Moon.\n", "Most amateur astronomers work at visible wavelengths, but a small minority experiment with wavelengths outside the visible spectrum. An early pioneer of radio astronomy was Grote Reber, an amateur astronomer who constructed the first purpose built radio telescope in the late 1930s to follow up on the discovery of radio wavelength emissions from space by Karl Jansky. Non-visual amateur astronomy includes the use of infrared filters on conventional telescopes, and also the use of radio telescopes. Some amateur astronomers use home-made radio telescopes, while others use radio telescopes that were originally built for astronomical research but have since been made available for use by amateurs. The One-Mile Telescope is one such example.\n", "A radio telescope is a specialized antenna and radio receiver used to receive radio waves from astronomical radio sources in the sky. Radio telescopes are the main observing instrument used in radio astronomy, which studies the radio frequency portion of the electromagnetic spectrum emitted by astronomical objects, just as optical telescopes are the main observing instrument used in traditional optical astronomy which studies the light wave portion of the spectrum coming from astronomical objects. Radio telescopes are typically large parabolic (\"dish\") antennas similar to those employed in tracking and communicating with satellites and space probes. They may be used singly or linked together electronically in an array. Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can be used in the daytime as well as at night. Since astronomical radio sources such as planets, stars, nebulas and galaxies are very far away, the radio waves coming from them are extremely weak, so radio telescopes require very large antennas to collect enough radio energy to study them, and extremely sensitive receiving equipment. Radio observatories are preferentially located far from major centers of population to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, television, radar, motor vehicles, and other man-made electronic devices.\n", "Astronomers use many radio telescopes to look up at objects such as pulsars in our own Galaxy and at distant radio galaxies up to about half the distance of the observable sphere of our Universe. The use of radio frequencies for communication creates pollution from the point of view of astronomers, at best, creating noise or, at worst, totally blinding the astronomical community for certain types of observations of very faint objects. As more and more frequencies are used for communication, astronomical observations are getting more and more difficult.\n", "Beginning in 1930s, radio telescopes have been built for use in the field of radio astronomy to observe the Universe in the radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Such an instrument, or collection of instruments, with supporting facilities such as control centres, visitor housing, data reduction centers, and/or maintenance facilities are called \"radio observatories\". Radio observatories are similarly located far from major population centers to avoid electromagnetic interference (EMI) from radio, TV, radar, and other EMI emitting devices, but unlike optical observatories, radio observatories can be placed in valleys for further EMI shielding. Some of the world's major radio observatories include the Socorro, in New Mexico, United States, Jodrell Bank in the UK, Arecibo in Puerto Rico, Parkes in New South Wales, Australia, and Chajnantor in Chile.\n" ]

[ "A recoilless rifle (RR) or recoilless gun is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass, such as propellant gas, from the rear of the weapon at the moment of firing, creating forward thrust that counteracts most of the weapon's recoil. Technically, only devices that use a rifled barrel are recoilless \"rifles\". Smoothbore variants are recoilless \"guns\". This distinction is often lost, and both are often called recoilless rifles. Though similar in appearance to a rocket launcher, a recoilless weapon fires shells that use conventional gun propellant. The key difference from rocket launchers (whether man-portable or not) is that the projectile of the recoilless rifle is initially launched using conventional explosive propellant rather than a rocket motor. While there are rocket-assisted rounds for recoilless launchers, they are still ejected from the barrel by the detonation of an initial explosive propelling charge.\n", "A recoilless gun or recoilless rifle (RCL) is a lightweight weapon that fires a heavier projectile than would be practical to fire from a recoiling weapon of comparable size. Technically, only devices that use a rifled barrel are recoilless rifles. Smoothbore variants are recoilless guns. This distinction is often lost, and both are often called recoilless rifles.\n", "There is a solution to the recoil issue, though it is not without cost. A muzzle brake or recoil compensator is a device which redirects the powder gas at the muzzle, usually up and back. This acts like a rocket, pushing the muzzle down and forward. The forward push helps negate the feel of the projectile recoil by pulling the firearm forwards. The downward push, on the other hand, helps counteract the rotation imparted by the fact that most firearms have the barrel mounted above the center of gravity. Overt combat guns, large-bore high-powered rifles, long-range handguns chambered for rifle ammunition, and action-shooting handguns designed for accurate rapid fire, all benefit from muzzle brakes.\n", "A recoilless rifle, recoilless launcher or recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated \"RR\" or \"RCL\" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some form of countermass such as propellant gas from the rear of the weapon at the moment of firing, creating forward thrust that counteracts most of the weapon's recoil. This allows for the elimination of much of the heavy and bulky recoil-counteracting equipment of a conventional cannon as well as a thinner-walled barrel, and thus the launch of a relatively large projectile from a platform that would not be capable of handling the weight or recoil of a conventional gun of the same size. Technically, only devices that use spin-stabilized projectiles fired from a rifled barrel are recoilless rifles, while smoothbore variants (which can be fin-stabilized or unstabilized) are recoilless guns. This distinction is often lost, and both are often called recoilless rifles.\n", "Because some projectile velocity is inevitably lost to the recoil compensation, recoilless rifles tend to have inferior range to traditional cannons, although with a far greater ease of transport, making them popular with paratroop, mountain warfare and special forces units, where portability is of particular concern, as well as with some light infantry and infantry fire support units. The greatly diminished recoil allows for devices that can be carried by individual infantrymen: heavier recoilless rifles are mounted on light tripods, wheeled light carriages, or small vehicles, and intended to be carried by crew of two to five. The largest versions retain enough bulk and recoil to be restricted to a towed mount or relatively heavy vehicle, but are still much lighter and more portable than cannons of the same scale. Such large systems have mostly been replaced by guided anti-tank missiles in first-world armies.\n", "A \"recoil compensator\" is designed to direct the gases upwards at roughly a right angle to the bore, in essence making it a small rocket that pushes the muzzle downwards, and counters the \"flip\", or rise of the muzzle caused by the high bore line of most firearms. These are often found on \"raceguns\" used for action shooting and in heavy, rifle caliber handguns used in metallic silhouette shooting. In the former case, the compensator serves to keep the sights down on target for a quick follow-up shot, while in the latter case they keep the heavy recoil directed backwards, preventing the pistol from trying to twist out of the shooter's grip.\n", "Recoilless rifles are sometimes confused with rocket launchers. A recoilless rifle launches its projectile using an explosive powder charge, not a rocket engine, though some such systems have sustainer rocker motors.\n" ]

[ "Sometimes a shadow can be used to create a visual effect. Areas of the bluescreen or greenscreen with a shadow on them can be replaced with a darker version of the desired background video image, making it look like the person is casting a shadow on them. Any spill of the chroma key color will make the result look unnatural. A difference in the focal length of the lenses used can affect the success of chroma key.\n", "Shadowgraphs are images produced by casting a shadow on a surface, usually taken with a pinhole camera and are widely used for nondestructive testing. Such cameras provide low illumination levels that require long exposure times. They also provide poor spatial resolution. The resolution of such a lens cannot be smaller than the hole diameter. A good balance between illumination and resolution is obtained when the pinhole diameter is about 100 times smaller than the distance between the pinhole and the image screen, effectively making the pinhole an f/100 lens. The resolution of an f/100 pinhole is about half a degree.\n", "The goal in all photographs is not to create an impression of normality. But as with magic, knowing what the audience normally expects to see required to pull off a lighting strategy which fools the brain or creates an other than normal impression. Light direction relative to the camera can make a round ball appear to be a flat disk or a sphere. The position of highlights and direction and length of shadows will provide other clues to shape and outdoors the time of day. The tone of the shadows on an object or provide contextual clues about the time of day or environment and by inference based on personal experience the mood of person.\n", "Many people use eye shadow simply to improve their appearance, but it is also commonly used in theatre and other plays, to create a memorable look, with bright, bold colors. Depending on skin tone and experience, the effect of eye shadow usually brings out glamour and gains attention. The use of eye shadow attempts to replicate the natural eye shadow that some women exhibit due to a natural contrasting pigmentation on their eyelids. Natural eye shadow can range anywhere from a glossy shine to one's eyelids, to a pinkish tone, or even a silver look.\n", "This method most often appears as bright spots and reflections of surroundings that can contain entire images in the subject's eyes. This property is sometimes used as a plot point in movies and television. Typically, this trope (or cliché) is represented by computer magnification of an image to gain information about the surroundings of the person being photographed, essentially using the eye as a mirror. Audiences usually perceive eyes without specular highlights to be lifeless or evil, and for this reason many cinematographers specifically eliminate catch lights on antagonistic characters. It is also commonly found in anime, usually used in an over-dramatized manner to show different emotions accompanied by exaggerated expressions.\n", "In a scene with strong or harsh lighting, the \"ratio\" between highlight and shadow luminance values may well be larger than the \"ratio\" between the film's maximum and minimum useful exposure values. In this case, adjusting the camera's exposure settings (which only applies changes to the whole image, not selectively to parts of the image) only allows the photographer to choose between underexposed shadows or overexposed highlights; it cannot bring both into the useful exposure range at the same time. Methods for dealing with this situation include: using some kind of fill lighting to gently increase the illumination in shadow areas; using a graduated ND filter or gobo to reduce the amount of light coming from the highlight areas; or varying the exposure between multiple, otherwise identical, photographs (exposure bracketing) and then combining them afterwards in some kind of HDRI process.\n", "The phenomenon of the shadow has always aroused human curiosity and inspired artistic representation, as recorded by Pliny the Elder, and various forms of shadow play since the 1st millennium BCE. The photogram in essence is a means by which the fall of light and shade on a surface may be automatically captured and preserved. To do so required a substance that would react to light, and from the 17th century photochemical reactions were progressively observed or discovered in salts of silver, iron, uranium and chromium. In 1725 Johann Heinrich Schulze was the first to demonstrate a temporary photographic effect in silver salts, confirmed by Carl Wilhhelm Scheele in 1777, who found that violet light caused the greatest reaction in silver chloride. Humphry Davy and Thomas Wedgewood reported that they had produced pictures from stencils on leather and paper, but had no means of fixing them and some organic substances respond to light, as evidenced in sunburn (an effect used by Dennis Oppenheim in his 1970 \"Reading Position for Second Degree Burn\") and photosynthesis (with which Lloyd Godman forms images).\n" ]

[ "The kind of technology used in genetic engineering is also being developed to treat people with genetic disorders in an experimental medical technique called gene therapy. However, here the new gene is put in after the person has grown up and become ill, so any new gene is not inherited by their children. Gene therapy works by trying to replace the allele that causes the disease with an allele that works properly.\n", "I do not think the main problem with enhancement and genetic engineering is that they undermine effort and erode human agency. The deeper danger is that they represent a kind of hyperagency—a Promethean aspiration to remake nature, including human nature, to serve our purposes and satisfy our desires\".\n", "Genetic engineering could potentially fix severe genetic disorders in humans by replacing the defective gene with a functioning one. It is an important tool in research that allows the function of specific genes to be studied. Drugs, vaccines and other products have been harvested from organisms engineered to produce them. Crops have been developed that aid food security by increasing yield, nutritional value and tolerance to environmental stresses.\n", "Habermas suggested that genetic human enhancements would create asymmetric relationships that endanger democracy, which is premised on the idea of moral equality. He claims that regardless of the scope of the modifications, the very knowledge of enhancement obstructs symmetrical relationships between parents and their children. The child’s genome was interfered with nonconsensually, making predecessors responsible for the traits in question. Unlike for thinkers like Fukuyama, Habermas' point is not that these traits might produce different ‘types of humans’. Rather, he placed the emphasis on how \"others\" are responsible in choosing these traits. This is the fundamental difference between natural traits and human enhancement, and it is what bears decisive weight for Habermas: the child’s autonomy as self-determination is violated. However, Habermas does acknowledge that, for example, making one's son very tall in the hope that they will become a basketball player does not automatically determine that he will choose this path. \n", "Genetic engineering could be used to cure diseases, but also to change physical appearance, metabolism, and even improve physical capabilities and mental faculties such as memory and intelligence. Ethical claims about germline engineering include beliefs that every fetus has a right to remain genetically unmodified, that parents hold the right to genetically modify their offspring, and that every child has the right to be born free of preventable diseases. For parents, genetic engineering could be seen as another child enhancement technique to add to diet, exercise, education, training, cosmetics, and plastic surgery. Another theorist claims that moral concerns limit but do not prohibit germline engineering.\n", "Proponents of genetic engineering cite its ability to cure and prevent life-threatening diseases. Genetic engineering began in the 1970s when scientists began to clone and engineer genes. From this, scientists were able to create human insulin, the first-ever genetically-engineered drug. Because of this development, over the years scientists were able to create new drugs to treat devastating diseases. For example, in the early 1990s, a group of scientists were able to use a gene-drug to treat severe combined immunodeficiency in a young girl. \n", "Studies have shown that epigenetic changes can be passed on to future generations through meiosis and mitosis. These findings suggest that environmental factors that the parents face can possibly affect how the child's genetic code is regulated. Research findings have shown this to be true for patients with schizophrenia as well. In rats, the transmission of maternal behavior and even stress responses can be attributed to how certain genes in the hippocampus of the mother are methylated. Another study has shown that the methylation of the BDNF gene, which can be affected by early life stress and abuse, is also transmittable to future generations.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Online Presence Detection provides tracking of online and offline status of users and devices in realtime. Presence events are triggered when a connected device subscribes or unsubscribes from a channel, or times out. The Presence API also includes a “state” feature allowing for the persistent tracking of any name/value pair a software developer specifies, such as a “typing” event indicator in a basic chat application.\n", "Individuals have concerns over how, what, when, and where their location information is being stored as well as to what extent others have access to it. Not only pertaining to ride-sharing applications, but any applications that have sharing enabled of sorts, there are several types of applications that are location aware. Location based searching (LBS) occurs when a user's tracking returns items and buildings around the user's current location in order to be tracked. A map is drawn with the orientation of the surrounding buildings to determine a location. Geo-location services are having the user tracked with an environmental footprint. It's an estimate of a user's location. Mobile sensing is the process of pinpointing the user's physical device, which has sensors and information that can be collected. Location sharing is a voluntary state where the user is in live-time and their location is constantly being updated and tracked.\n", "Some online locators determine user location from the user's IP address, rather than asking a user to input his or her location. The company utilizes IP geolocation software from Digital Element to power the “My Local Ace” section of its website. Based on a site visitor’s location, the website can show the visitor how many stores are in their area, as well as a city-level locator map to help the customer find the store closest to their address.\n", "BULLET::::- Sitemap: A site map (or sitemap) is a list of pages of a web site accessible to crawlers or users. It can be either a document in any form used as a planning tool for Web design, or a Web page that lists the pages on a Web site, typically organized in hierarchical fashion.\n", "My Location is a geolocation service which uses the location of Wi-Fi access points to determine the toolbar user's location. This location is used to optimize search results based on where the user is located. Google Toolbar can also provide the geolocation data to third-party websites through the W3C Geolocation API.\n", "Clickstreams can be used to allow the user to see where they have been and allow them to easily return to a page they have already visited, a function that is already incorporated in most browsers. Clickstream can display the specific time and position that individuals browsed and closed the website, all the web pages they viewed, the duration they spent on each page and it can also show which pages are viewed most frequently. There is abundant information to be analyzed, individuals can check visitors clickstream in association with other statistical information, such as: visiting length, retrieval words, ISP, countries, explorers, etc. This process enables individuals to know their visitors deeply.\n", "Web tracking is the practice by which operators of websites collect and share information about a particular user's activity on the World Wide Web. Analysis of an individual user's behaviour may be used to provide content that relates to their implied preferences.\n" ]

[ "One of the functions of a central bank is to facilitate the transfer of funds through the economy, and the Federal Reserve System is largely responsible for the efficiency in the banking sector. There have also been specific instances which put the Federal Reserve in the spotlight of public attention. For instance, after the stock market crash in 1987, the actions of the Fed are generally believed to have aided in recovery. Also, the Federal Reserve is credited for easing tensions in the business sector with the reassurances given following the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States.\n", "The Federal Reserve has been the target of various criticisms, involving: accountability, effectiveness, opacity, inadequate banking regulation, and potential market distortion. Federal Reserve policy has also been criticized for directly and indirectly benefiting large banks instead of consumers. For example, regarding the Federal Reserve's response to the 2007–2010 financial crisis, Nobel laureate Joseph Stiglitz explained how the U.S. Federal Reserve was implementing another monetary policy—creating currency—as a method to combat the liquidity trap.\n", "The Federal Reserve will continue to take a leadership role with respect to liquidity in our markets. It is committed to using all of the tools at its disposal to provide the increased liquidity that is now required for the effective functioning of financial markets. In this regard, the authority to pay interest on reserves that was provided by EESA is essential, because it allows the Federal Reserve to expand its balance sheet as necessary to support financial stability while conducting a monetary policy that promotes the Federal Reserve's macroeconomic objectives of maximum employment and stable prices. The Federal Reserve and the Treasury Department are consulting with market participants on ways to provide additional support for term unsecured funding markets.\n", "A little-used tool of the Federal Reserve is the \"quantitative policy\". With that the Federal Reserve actually buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions. This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business.\n", "The Federal Reserve Act created the Federal Reserve System, consisting of twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks jointly responsible for managing the country's money supply, making loans and providing oversight to banks, and serving as a lender of last resort. To lead the Federal Reserve System, the act established the Federal Reserve Board of Governors, members of which are appointed by the president. The 1933 Banking Act amended the Federal Reserve Act to create the Federal Open Market Committee, which oversees the Federal Reserve's open market operations. A later amendment requires the Federal Reserve \"to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.\"\n", "The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long-term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve's dual mandate. Its duties have expanded over the years, and currently also include supervising and regulating banks, maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions. The Fed conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the Beige Book and the FRED database.\n", "The Federal Reserve System is an independent government institution that has private aspects. The System is not a private organization and does not operate for the purpose of making a profit. The stocks of the regional federal reserve banks are owned by the banks operating within that region and which are part of the system. The System derives its authority and public purpose from the Federal Reserve Act passed by Congress in 1913. As an independent institution, the Federal Reserve System has the authority to act on its own without prior approval from Congress or the President. The members of its Board of Governors are appointed for long, staggered terms, limiting the influence of day-to-day political considerations. The Federal Reserve System's unique structure also provides internal checks and balances, ensuring that its decisions and operations are not dominated by any one part of the system. It also generates revenue independently without need for Congressional funding. Congressional oversight and statutes, which can alter the Fed's responsibilities and control, allow the government to keep the Federal Reserve System in check. Since the System was designed to be independent while also remaining within the government of the United States, it is often said to be \"independent within the government\".\n" ]

[ "Records of people and place names from Roman times indicate that the Basques occupied an area somewhat larger than that which they currently inhabit, and supported a claim by Sabino Arana, the traditional founder of Basque Nationalism, that the Basque homeland has been occupied by the Basques longer than any other part of France or Spain has been inhabited by their people.\n", "Basque has been considered the last remnant of a wider, Western European linguistic stratum before Indo-European languages arrived in the area during the Iron Age. The Roman period bears witness to the existence of several peoples, place-names and inscriptions showing names with Basque-like morphology and lexical roots around the Pyrenees. Basque has borrowed during its history loanwords and structures from neighbouring Celtic and Latin/Romance languages (adstratum), holding a dynamic interaction with them. Basque shows a receding geographical trend overall at least since the Early Middle Ages. During the last 400 years its geographical extent has been largely confined to seven districts, the Basque Country (\"Euskal Herria\").\n", "Although little is known about the prehistory of the Basques before the period of Roman occupation owing to the difficulty in identifying evidence for specific cultural traits, the mainstream view today is that the Basque area shows signs of archaeological continuity since the Aurignacian period.\n", "All other tribes in the Iberian Peninsula had been, to a great extent, assimilated by Roman culture and language by the end of the Roman period or early period of the Early Middle Ages, while ethnic Basques inhabited well east into the lands of the Pyrenees (Pallars, Val d'Aran) from the 8th to the 11th century.\n", "Since ancient times there have been indications of a relationship between Southwestern France and the Basques. During the Roman conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar, Aquitania was the territory between the Garonne and the Pyrenees. It was inhabited by tribes of horsemen who Caesar said were very distinct in customs and language from the Celts of Gaul. During the Middle Ages, this territory was named \"Gascony\", derived from \"Vasconia\" and cognate with the word \"Basque\".\n", "According to some theories, Basques may be the least assimilated remnant of the Paleolithic inhabitants of Western Europe (specifically those of the Franco-Cantabrian region known as Azilian) to the Indo-European migrations. Basque tribes were mentioned by Greek writer Strabo and Roman writer Pliny, including the Vascones, the Aquitani, and others. There is considerable evidence to show their Basque ethnicity in Roman times in the form of place-names, Caesar's reference to their customs and physical make-up, the so-called Aquitanian inscriptions recording names of people and gods (approx. 1st century, see Aquitanian language), etc.\n", "Geographically, the Basque Country was inhabited in Roman times by several tribes: the Vascones, the Varduli, the Caristi, the Autrigones, the Berones, the Tarbelli, and the Sibulates. Some ancient place-names, such as Deba, Butrón, Nervión, Zegama, suggest the presence of non-Basque peoples at some point in protohistory. The ancient tribes are last cited in the 5th century, after which track of them is lost, with only Vascones still being accounted for, while extending far beyond their former boundaries, e.g. in the current lands of Álava and most conspicuously around the Pyrenees and Novempopulania.\n" ]

[ "TLP is a harmless problem. These bumps can become notably red or white and are quite tender for up to several days. While the cause of TLP is not known with certainty, most experts feel that local accidental trauma (rubbing, scraping or biting) is a major factor; however, contact reactions to things like certain foods have also been suggested. Lie bumps are not contagious and the discomfort is relatively minor. Typically these lesions heal within a few days with no treatment, though a doctor may refer a patient to an oral pathologist in prolonged cases.\n", "Deposits such as microbial plaque, calculus and food debris can accumulate on the dentures, which may lead to issues such as angular stomatitis, denture stomatitis, undesirable odours and tastes as well as staining. The deposits can also quicken the rate at which some of the denture materials wear down. Due to the presence of these deposits, there is an increased risk of the denture wearer and other people around them developing a systemic disease by organisms such as methicillin-resistant \"Staphylococcus aureus\" (MRSA), but research shows that denture cleaners are effective against MRSA. Therefore, denture cleaning is imperative for the overall health of the denture wearers as well as for the health of people they come into contact with.\n", "In adults, fissures may be caused by constipation, the passing of large, hard stools, or by prolonged diarrhea. In older adults, anal fissures may be caused by decreased blood flow to the area. When fissures are found laterally, tuberculosis, occult abscesses, leukemic infiltrates, carcinoma, acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) or inflammatory bowel disease should be considered as causes. Some sexually transmitted infections can promote the breakdown of tissue resulting in a fissure. Examples of sexually transmitted infections that may affect the anorectal area are syphilis, herpes, chlamydia and human papilloma virus.\n", "Croup is usually deemed to be due to a viral infection. Others use the term more broadly, to include acute laryngotracheitis, spasmodic croup, laryngeal diphtheria, bacterial tracheitis, laryngotracheobronchitis, and laryngotracheobronchopneumonitis. The first two conditions involve a viral infection and are generally milder with respect to symptomatology; the last four are due to bacterial infection and are usually of greater severity.\n", "Aphthous stomatitis (also termed recurrent aphthous stomatitis, RAS, and commonly called \"canker sores\") is a very common cause of oral ulceration. 10–25% of the general population suffer from this non-contagious condition. Three types of aphthous stomatitis exists based on their appearance, namely minor, major and herpetiform major aphthous ulceration. Minor aphthous ulceration is the most common type, presenting with 1–6 small (2-4mm diameter), round/oval ulcers with a yellow-grey color and an erythematous (red) \"halo\". These ulcers heal with no permanent scarring in about 7–10 days. Ulcers recur at intervals of about 1–4 months. Major aphthous ulceration is less common than the minor type, but produces more severe lesions and symptoms. Major aphthous ulceration presents with larger (1 cm diameter) ulcers that take much longer to heal (10–40 days) and may leave scarring. The minor and major subtypes of aphthous stomatitis usually produce lesions on the non-keratinized oral mucosa (i.e. the inside of the cheeks, lips, underneath the tongue and the floor of mouth), but less commonly major aphthous ulcers may occur in other parts of the mouth on keratinized mucosal surfaces. The least common type is herpetiform ulceration, so named because the condition resembles primary herpetic gingivostomatitis. Herpetiform ulcers begin as small blisters (vesicles) which break down into 2-3mm sized ulcers. Herpetiform ulcers appear in \"crops\" sometimes hundreds in number, which can coalesce to form larger areas of ulceration. This subtype may cause extreme pain, heals with scarring and may recur frequently.\n", "The number of new cases of leptospirosis is difficult to estimate since many cases are not reported. There are many reasons for this, but the biggest issue is differentiating the disease from other conditions with a similar presentation. Laboratory testing is lacking in many areas. The global incidence of leptospirosis has been underestimated because most affected countries lack notification or notification is not mandatory. \n", "Occlusal factors as an etiologic factor in TMD is a controversial topic. Abnormalities of occlusion (problems with the bite) are often blamed for TMD but there is no evidence that these factors are involved. Occlusal abnormalities are incredibly common, and most people with occlusal abnormalities do not have TMD. Although occlusal features may affect observed electrical activity in masticatory muscles, there are no statistically significant differences in the number of occlusal abnormalities in people with TMD and in people without TMD. There is also no evidence for a causal link between orthodontic treatment and TMD. The modern, mainstream view is that the vast majority of people with TMD, occlusal factors are not related. Theories of occlusal factors in TMD are largely of historical interest. A causal relationship between occlusal factors and TMD was championed by Ramfjord in the 1960s. A small minority of dentists continue to prescribe occlusal adjustments in the belief that this will prevent or treat TMD despite the existence of systematic reviews of the subject which state that there is no evidence for such practices, and the vast majority of opinion being that no irreversible treatment should be carried out in TMD (see Occlusal adjustment).\n" ]

[ "A sort of DIY option for privacy minded users is to use a software like Tor, which is an anonymity network. Tor functions by encrypting user data and routing queries through thousands of relays. While this process is effective at masking IP addresses, it can slow the speed of results. While Tor may work to mask IP addresses, there have also been studies that show that a simulated attacker software could still match search queries to users even when anonymized using Tor.\n", "Despite dataveillance compromising anonymity, anonymity itself presents a crucial issue. Online criminals who steal users' data and information may exploit it for their own gain. Tactics used by online users to conceal their identity, make it difficult for others to track the criminal behavior and lay claim to those responsible. Having unique identifiers such as IP addresses allows for the identification of users actions, which are often used to track illegal online activity such as piracy.\n", "Anonymity on the Internet can pertain to both the utilization of pseudonyms or requiring no authentication at all (also called \"perfect anonymity\") for posting on a website. Online anonymity is also limited by IP addresses. For example, WikiScanner associates anonymous Wikipedia edits with the IP address that made the change and tries to identify the entity that owns the IP address. On other websites, IP addresses may not be publicly available, but they can be obtained from the website administrators only through legal intervention. They might not always be traceable to the poster.\n", "In August 2010, DuckDuckGo introduced anonymous searching, including an exit enclave, for its search engine traffic using Tor network and enabling access through an onion service. This allows anonymity by routing traffic through a series of encrypted relays. Weinberg stated: \"I believe this fits right in line with our privacy policy. Using Tor and DDG, you can now be end to end anonymous with your searching. And if you use our encrypted homepage, you can be end to end encrypted as well.\"\n", "Utilising timing analysis, the anonymity of TORs can be broken. One of the reasons typical Internet connections are not considered anonymous, is the ability of Internet service providers to trace and log connections between computers. For example, when a person accesses a particular website, the data itself may be secured through a connection like HTTPS such that your password, emails, or other content is not visible to an outside party, but there is a record of the connection itself, what time it occurred, and the amount of data transferred. Onion routing creates and obscures a path between two computers such that there's no discernible connection directly from a person to a website, but there still exist records of connections between computers. Traffic analysis searches those records of connections made by a potential originator and tries to match timing and data transfers to connections made to a potential recipient. For instance, one can change the timings of the packets of a flow according to a specific pattern and look for that pattern on the other side of the network. Also, a person may be seen to have transferred exactly 51 kilobytes of data to an unknown computer just three seconds before a different unknown computer transferred exactly 51 kilobytes of data to a particular website. Factors that may facilitate traffic analysis include nodes failing or leaving the network and a compromised node keeping track of a session as it occurs when chains are periodically rebuilt.\n", "However, by simply hiding your IP doesn't make you anonymous in internet. There are cookies stored in web browsers and with smartphones, the locations can be tracked using GPS. To achieve complete anonymity, you need to use browsers that doesn't allow such activities or at least warn you when the websites are trying to use such features. Tor browser is one of the best tool available.\n", "An Anonymizer such as I2P – The Anonymous Network or Tor can be used for accessing web services without them knowing one's IP address and without one's ISP knowing what the services are that one accesses. Additional software has been developed that may provide more secure and anonymous alternatives to other applications. For example, Bitmessage can be used as an alternative for email and Cryptocat as an alternative for online chat. On the other hand, in addition to End-to-End encryption software, there are web services such as Qlink which provide privacy through a novel security protocol which does not require installing any software.\n" ]

[ "FedEx and United Parcel Service (UPS) directly compete with USPS Express Mail and package delivery services, making nationwide deliveries of urgent letters and packages. Due to the postal monopoly, they are not allowed to deliver non-urgent letters and may not directly ship to U.S. Mail boxes at residential and commercial destinations. However, both companies have transit agreements with the USPS in which an item can be dropped off with either FedEx or UPS who will then provide shipment up to the destination post office serving the intended recipient where it will be transferred for delivery to the U.S. Mail destination, including Post Office Box destinations. These services also deliver packages which are larger and heavier than USPS will accept. DHL Express was the third major competitor until February 2009, when it ceased domestic delivery operations in the United States.\n", "In February 2013, the USPS announced that in order to save about $2 billion per year, Saturday delivery service would be discontinued except for packages, mail-order medicines, Priority Mail, Express Mail, and mail delivered to Post Office boxes, beginning August 10, 2013. However, the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013, passed in March, reversed the cuts to Saturday delivery.\n", "Budget problems prompted consideration of dropping Saturday delivery starting around 2009. This culminated in a 2013 announcement that regular mail services would be cut to five days a week, which was reversed by Congress before it could take effect. (See the section Revenue decline and planned cuts.)\n", "The company has three fulfillment centers around the country in New Jersey, Nevada and Texas, which allow orders to be delivered within two days. The company also has a support office in San Mateo, California.\n", "In February 2013, the Postal Service announced that on Saturdays it would only deliver packages, mail-order medicines, Priority Mail, and Express Mail, effective August 10, 2013. However, this change was reversed by federal law in the Consolidated and Further Continuing Appropriations Act, 2013. They now deliver packages on Sunday—only for Amazon.com. During the four weeks preceding Christmas since 2013, packages from all mail classes and senders were delivered on Sunday in some areas.\n", "In an effort to attract customers, stores often extend their hours during these crucial days of the retail season. Some stores go as far as to leave their stores open all day long until Christmas Eve in hopes that customers will take the extra time during off-peak hours to both review alternative options and to spread out workloads for cashiers. Because stores predict double or triple their typical customer turnout on Super Saturday, many increase their staffing during these critical days to be able to handle the demand.\n", "In response to the expansion of FedEx and DHL, UPS partnered with the US Postal Service to offer UPS Mail Innovations, a program that allows UPS to pick up mail & packages weighing under one pound separately from the main ground network and transfer them to a USPS center, or destination delivery unit (DDU), for final distribution. This process is also known as zone skipping, long used by Parcel Consolidators. UPS also has a separate product called \"SurePost\" which uses the UPS Ground network to deliver packages weighing under 10 pounds to the nearest UPS Package Center, which transfers them to the USPS DDU for \"final mile\" delivery.\n" ]

[ "The Kogarah ANZAC Memorial is a war memorial located in the town square, on Belgrave Street, of Kogarah, New South Wales, Australia. Located between St George Hospital and the Greek Orthodox Church, it was built to recognize the sacrifice of Australian nurses and the significance of Greek support towards the Australian troops during World War One. Unveiled on the 4th of March 2017, the memorial consists of an bronze injured soldier backed by the outline of a nurse in a metal frame. A bronze plaque details a history of Lemnos’s part in the landing of Gallipoli, a map of the hospitals, a list of each nation’s casualties, and a recognition of the 2 692 Australian nurses who volunteered to serve internationally. The statue was created by the Georges River Council's first Artist in Residence, Takis Kozokos, with the help of a grant from the Department of Veterans Affairs' ANZAC Centenary Local Grants Program.\n", "The Anzac Memorial is a heritage-listed war memorial, museum and monument located in Hyde Park South, near Liverpool Street, in the Sydney central business district, in the City of Sydney local government area of New South Wales, Australia. The Art Deco monument was designed by C. Bruce Dellit, with the exterior adorned with monumental figural reliefs and sculptures by Rayner Hoff, and built from 1932 to 1934 by Kell & Rigby. It is also known as Anzac War Memorial, War Memorial Hyde Park and Hyde Park Memorial. The NSW Government-owned property was added to the New South Wales State Heritage Register on 23 April 2010.\n", "The ANZAC War Memorial, completed in 1934, is the main commemorative military monument in Sydney, designed by C. Bruce Dellit, has an exterior adorned with monumental figural reliefs and sculptures by Rayner Hoff, and is arguably the finest Art Deco structure in Australia.\n", "As at 19 September 2011, The ANZAC Memorial, completed in 1934, is of historical significance to the State for its embodiment of the collective grief of the people of NSW at the loss of Australian servicemen and women since World War I. It is associated with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915, since fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. It is also associated with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, which lobbied for the erection of the monument and occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is of State aesthetic significance as a great work of public art which is arguably the finest expression of Art Deco monumentality in Australia. The result of an outstanding creative collaboration between architect Bruce Dellit and sculptor Rayner Hoff, it contains complex symbolic embellishments that reinforce and enhance the commemorative meanings of the building. Its landscape context in Hyde Park was purposefully designed for it by Dellit including the large Pool of Reflection lined by poplars. Its positioning on a major axis linked to the Archibald Fountain contributes significantly to the physical character of Hyde Park and the city of Sydney. The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance as the largest and most ambitious of the numerous war memorials constructed throughout NSW after the Great War. The memorial is also representative as NSW's contribution to the group of \"national war memorials\", whereby each state capital city developed its own major war memorial in the inter-war period. In this group the ANZAC Memorial is outstanding in its size, integrity and aesthetic appeal.\n", "The ANZAC \"A\" badge is a brass insignia authorised in November 1917 for members of the First Australian Imperial Force who had served as a member of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs) during the Gallipoli campaign in 1915. In 1918, eligibility was extended to those who had served at Lemnos, Imbros and Tenedos and the transports and hospitals off Gallipoli as well as the communications line to Egypt.\n", "The ANZAC Memorial is of State significance for its association with the landing of Australian troops at Gallipoli on 15 April 1915. The landing at Gallipoli was a significant event in Australian history, having an enormous impact on the Australian psyche and the formation of the Australian character and fundraising for the memorial was established on the first anniversary of the landing. This association is strengthened by the presence of an Aleppo Pine in the western ground of the memorial, taken from the Lone Pine at Lone Pine Gap in Gallipoli. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance for its association with returned servicemen and their organisations including the RSL, Limbless and Maimed Soldier's Association and the T.B. Sailors and Soldier's Association of Australia. These groups both lobbied for the erection of the monument and have occupied offices within it. The ANZAC Memorial is also of State significance as for its associations with its architect Bruce Dellit and its sculptor Rayner Hoff, both of whom are famous largely because of their design work in creating the memorial, which is arguably the finest Art Deco building in Australia. The memorial is associated with Anzac Day and the Anzac Day march on the 25th of April each year which starts at the Cenotaph and concludes near Hyde Park.\n", "Codford's 'Anzac Badge' was the idea of an Australian Brigade Commander during World War I, who wished to leave a visible memento of his brigade when it departed. This consists of a gigantic Rising Sun badge (measuring 53 x 45 metres), carved in 1916 into the grass of a hillside to expose the underlying bright white chalk. The soldiers of 13 Trg Bn AIF who maintained the badge as a form of punishment named the site 'Misery Hill'.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Needing a cheaper alternative to buying, such as renting a movie: a person is unwilling to pay the full price for a movie, so they rent it for a lesser price, but give up the chance to view it again later.\n", "Between 2010 until 2011, due to the substantial increase in value added tax applied to foreign films, cinemas no longer have access to many foreign films, including Oscar-winning films. Foreign films include major box offices from the west, and other major film producers of the world. This has caused a massive ripple effect on the country's economy. It is assumed that this increases purchase of unlicensed DVDs. However, even copyright violating DVDs now take longer to obtain. The minimum cost to view a foreign film not screened locally, is 1 million Rupiah. This is equivalent to US$100, as it includes a plane ticket to Singapore.\n", "The movie theater pays an average of about 50-55% of its ticket sales to the movie studio, as film rental fees. The actual percentage starts with a number higher than that, and decreases as the duration of a film's showing continues, as an incentive to theaters to keep movies in the theater longer. However, today's barrage of highly marketed movies ensures that most movies are shown in first-run theaters for less than 8 weeks. There are a few movies every year that defy this rule, often limited-release movies that start in only a few theaters and actually grow their theater count through good word-of-mouth and reviews. According to a 2000 study by ABN AMRO, about 26% of Hollywood movie studios' worldwide income came from box office ticket sales; 46% came from VHS and DVD sales to consumers; and 28% came from television (broadcast, cable, and pay-per-view).\n", "The set-top box was sold for a one-time fee ($149.99 as of August 2007). The cost of viewing a movie varied from $1.99 for older movies in standard definition to $4.99 for newer releases in HD. Movie rentals expired 24 hours after the rental period began.\n", "At the Macworld 2008 keynote, Steve Jobs, who was Apple's CEO at the time, announced iTunes movie rentals. Movies are available for rent in iTunes Store on the same day they are released on DVD, though iTunes Store also offers for rental some movies that are still in theaters. Movie rentals are only viewable for 24 hours (in the US) or 48 hours (in other countries) after users begin viewing them. iTunes Store also offers one low-priced movie rental a week: in the United States, this rental costs 99 cents. Movie rentals are not yet available in all countries but it is available in the United States, Mexico, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia and New Zealand.\n", "These price drops were followed by a price drop of the Blockbuster UK online pay per rent service. Although some Blockbuster UK advertisements claim that the company no longer charges late fees, the fine print and/or voiceover clarifies that rentals will be charged an extra pound for every additional night. A \"Top Ticket\" feature was added in April 2011, allowing monthly subscription customers to rent an additional movie at no extra charge and to receive it before other movies they request. Support for online sales of used movie and game discs was added in July 2011. The Blockbuster UK website was enhanced in September 2011. During the following month, a new TV section was added to the website.\n", "Some low-budget films that would normally not have a theatrical release because of distribution costs might be shown in smaller engagements than the typical large release studio pictures. The cost of duplicating a digital \"print\" is very low, so adding more theaters to a release has a small additional cost to the distributor. Movies that start with a small release could scale to a much larger release quickly if they were sufficiently successful, opening up the possibility that smaller movies could achieve box office success previously out of their reach.\n" ]

[ "Discovery of late Stone Age jugs suggest that intentionally fermented drinks existed at least as early as the Neolithic period (cir. 10,000 BC). Many animals also consume alcohol when given the opportunity and are affected in much the same way as humans, although humans are the only species known to produce alcoholic drinks intentionally.\n", "Extensive research of Western cultures has consistently shown increased survival associated with light to moderate alcohol consumption. A 23-year prospective study of 12,000 male British physicians aged 48–78, found that overall mortality was significantly lower in current drinkers compared to non-drinkers even after correction for ex-drinkers. This benefit was strongest for ischemic heart disease, but was also noted for other vascular disease and respiratory disease. Death rate amongst current drinkers was higher for 'alcohol augmentable' disease such as liver disease and oral cancers, but these deaths were much less common than cardiovascular and respiratory deaths. The lowest mortality rate was found for consumption of 8 to 14 'units' per week. In the UK a unit is defined as 10ml or 8g of pure alcohol. Higher consumption increased overall mortality rate, but not above that of non-drinkers. Other studies have found age-dependent mortality risks of low-to-moderate alcohol use: an increased risk for individuals aged 16–34 (due to increased risk of cancers, accidents, liver disease, and other factors), but a decreased risk for individuals ages 55+ (due to lower incidence of ischemic heart disease).\n", "Alcohol has a long history of use and misuse throughout recorded history. Biblical, Egyptian and Babylonian sources record the history of abuse and dependence on alcohol. In some ancient cultures alcohol was worshiped and in others, its abuse was condemned. Excessive alcohol misuse and drunkenness were recognized as causing social problems even thousands of years ago. However, the defining of habitual drunkenness as it was then known as and its adverse consequences were not well established medically until the 18th century. In 1647 a Greek monk named Agapios was the first to document that chronic alcohol misuse was associated with toxicity to the nervous system and body which resulted in a range of medical disorders such as seizures, paralysis, and internal bleeding. In 1920 the effects of alcohol abuse and chronic drunkenness boosted membership of the temperance movement and led to the prohibition of alcohol in the United States, a nationwide constitutional ban on the production, importation, transportation, and sale of alcoholic beverages that remained in place until 1933; this policy resulted in the decline of death rates from cirrhosis and alcoholism. In 2005 alcohol dependence and abuse was estimated to cost the US economy approximately 220 billion dollars per year, more than cancer and obesity.\n", "Michael Niederman of \"New York Theatre Review\" notes, \"Caporale takes us on a millennia-long journey into just how much Western civilization has been influenced by the introduction and preservation of alcohol consumption. Basically, it is his thesis that without alcohol, it is very likely that we wouldn’t even have a civilization. In short, the regular consumption of alcoholic beverages made it possible for human beings to, in his words, 'not die'.\"\n", "The fermentation of sugar into ethanol is one of the earliest biotechnologies employed by humans. The intoxicating effects of ethanol consumption have been known since ancient times. Ethanol has been used by humans since prehistory as the intoxicating ingredient of alcoholic beverages. Dried residue on 9,000-year-old pottery found in China suggests that Neolithic people consumed alcoholic beverages.\n", "In his research for the Genocide Convention, Raphael Lemkin proposed that distribution of alcohol was one of several tools (such as forced relocations, destruction of cultural symbols, and \"re-education\" of children) by which European colonists obliterated indigenous cultures--not only in the Americas, but also in Tasmania and Australia. Lemkin theorized that the availability of alcohol undermined social integrity, promoted violence, impeded organized resistance, and contributed to the belief that Native Americans were culturally inferior. Lemkin argued that once a people becomes dependent on alcohol \"the desire for cheap individual pleasure [would] be substituted for the desire for collective feelings and ideals based on a higher morality.\"\n", "These profound economic and social changes, and the breakup of native culture contributed to the increasing addiction to alcohol. Before the Spanish arrived, the Incas had consumed alcohol only during religious ceremonies. Indian use of the coca leaf also increased, and, according to one chronicler, at the end of the 16th century \"in Potosí alone, the trade in coca amounts to over half a million pesos a year, for 95,000 baskets of it are consumed.\"\n" ]

[ "The agreement proved to be short lived. Just six months after it was signed, Germany invaded the Soviet Union, and economic relations between the two countries came to an end. The raw materials imported by Germany from the Soviet Union between 1939 and 1941 played a major role in supporting the German war effort against the Soviet Union after 1941.\n", "On February 11, 1940, Germany and the Soviet Union entered into an intricate trade pact in which the Soviet Union would send Germany 650 million Reichsmarks in raw materials in exchange for 650 million Reichmarks in machinery, manufactured goods and technology. The trade pact helped Germany to surmount the British blockade. The main raw materials specified in the agreement were one million tons of grain, 900,000 tons of oil and more than 500,000 tons of various metal ores (mostly iron ore) in exchange for synthetic material plants, ships, turrets, machine tools and coal. The first stipulation of the agreement provided that the Soviet Union must deliver its requisite goods within 18 months while Germany was to deliver its required goods within 27 months. The agreement also contained a \"Confidential Protocol\" providing the Soviet Union would undertake purchases from third party countries of \"metals and other goods\" on behalf of Germany.\n", "On February 11, 1940, Germany and the Soviet Union entered into the German-Soviet Commercial Agreement, an intricate trade pact in which the Soviet Union would send Germany 650 million Reichmarks in raw materials in exchange for 650 million Reichmarks in machinery, manufactured goods and technology. The trade pact helped Germany to surmount the British blockade of Germany. The main raw materials specified in the agreement were one million tons of grain, 900,000 tons of oil and more than 500,000 tons of various metal ores (mostly iron ore) in exchange for synthetic material plants, ships, turrets, machine tools and coal. The agreement also contained a \"Confidential Protocol\" providing the Soviet Union would undertake purchases from third party countries of \"metals and other goods\" on behalf of Germany.\n", "The countries later further expanded their economic relationship with a larger commercial agreement in February 1940. Thereafter, Germany received significant amounts of critical raw materials necessary for its future war efforts, such as petroleum, grain, rubber and manganese, while sending weapons, technology and manufacturing machinery to the Soviet Union. After unresolved negotiations regarding a potential Soviet entry into the Axis Pact, the countries settled several disputes and further expanded their economic dealings with the January 1941 German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement.\n", "Germany needed more of an economic alliance for raw materials than the economic partnership that the August 19, 1939 agreement provided. At the same time, the Soviet demands for manufactured goods, such as German machines, was increasing while its ability to import those goods decreased because many countries ceased trading relations after the Soviet entry into the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviet Union could offer precious little technology, while Germany possessed the technology the Soviet Union required to build a blue-water fleet. Accordingly, for the six weeks following the Soviet and German invasions of Poland, Germany pressed hard for an additional agreement.\n", "Germany and the Soviet Union entered an intricate trade pact on February 11, 1940 that was over four times larger than the one the two countries had signed in August 1939, providing for millions of tons of shipment to Germany of oil, foodstuffs and other key raw materials, in exchange for German war machines and other equipment. This was followed by a January 10, 1941, agreement setting several ongoing issues, including border specificity, ethnic migrations and further commercial deal expansion.\n", "A policy of the transit through Soviet territory of a third countries commodities purchased by Germany was later agreed. The countries followed up the agreement and resolved other issues with the January 10, 1941 German–Soviet Border and Commercial Agreement. In June 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact, and all economic agreements between the two countries were ended.\n" ]

[ "Watering houseplants on a regular basis is necessary for the plant to remain healthy and thrive. They should not, however, be watered on a scheduled basis, because different plant species need different amounts of water and sunlight so it is important to know the specifics for the particular plants that are being grown.\n", "Many garden plants have seeds that will germinate readily as soon as they have water and are warm enough, though their wild ancestors had dormancy. These cultivated plants lack seed dormancy because of generations of selective pressure by plant breeders and gardeners that grew and kept plants that lacked dormancy.\n", "Some varieties of bulbous plants thrive under adverse conditions such as poor soil or shade, and are therefore well suited to use in a garden. Varieties can be chosen that bloom at various times of year. They can be intermingled with other plants, used in pots, or even placed in the lawn or underneath fruit trees.\n", "It is widely naturalised in eastern North America and elsewhere, However, due to its attractive appearance, edibility and readiness to grow in many climates, often means it is permitted to grow when other 'weeds' are not. This plant, though common is not regarded as a threat to local ecosystems. It plays an arguably beneficial role in its environment, by providing nectar to pollinators and providing forage for animals, the seed is also eaten by many species of birds. However, non-native species can be criticized for destabilizing ecosystems by favoring certain species over others. They typically also do not provide food for insect larvae.\n", "Cultivated plants shows differences in chemical content compared to its wild counterparts. For example, research has shown that cultivated plants generally produce litters which decomposes faster and are easier to be recycled compared to wild plants. Wild plants, which had to generally thrive in nutrient poor soils promotes a higher content of recalcitrant molecules, such as lignin. This stimulates an increase in plant litter toughness, causing it to decompose longer.\n", "Plants prefer a warm and sunny position and rich soil, although they tolerate poor soil, salt or drought well. Modern cultivars flower continuously when watered and fertilised well, and dead-heading is not necessary, because they do not set seed easily. \n", "These plants will not tolerate drought or cold. Growing naturally in rain forest understory, they also require shade when young, as well as moist, humus rich soil. These particulars usually make the plant difficult to cultivate, even in tropical areas.\n" ]

[ "Scholars differ on the causes of the precipitous decline in crime in New York City (which also coincided with a nationwide drop in crime which some have termed the \"Great American Crime Decline\"). In a 2007 paper, economist Jessica Reyes attributes a 56% drop in nationwide violent crime in the 1990s to the removal of lead (a neurotoxin that causes cognitive and behavioral problems) from gasoline. The Brennan Center for Justice has estimated that between 0-5% of the drop in crime in the 1990s may be attributed to higher employment; 5-10% of the drop may be attributed to income growth; and 0-10% of the drop from increased hiring of police officers. Economists Steven Levitt and John J. Donohue III argue that the drop in crime in New York City, as in the United States generally, to the legalization of abortion following \"Roe v. Wade\" (see legalized abortion and crime effect).\n", "The Buchholz Hypothesis holds that crime is strongly correlated with interest rates. This hypothesis helps solve the puzzle of why crime fell during the Great Depression, even though conventional wisdom suggests that a bad economy leads people to commit more crime.\n", "After World War II, crime rates increased in the United States, peaking from the 1970s to the early-1990s. Violent crime nearly quadrupled between 1960 and its peak in 1991. Property crime more than doubled over the same period. Since the 1990s, however, contrary to common misconception, crime in the United States has declined steadily. Several theories have been proposed to explain this decline:\n", "Despite different means of measuring crime, the statistics show that crime rates in New Zealand rose through most of the twentieth century, following similar patterns in other Western countries. Towards the end of the century, the rate dropped and has stabilised or continued to drop slowly since then. There has been much speculation about the causes of the turnaround. The impact of economic downturns, unemployment rates, local disasters, better security, changing demographic patterns, increased policing and various changes in the culture and life-style have all been examined. Collectively, all these factors may play a part.\n", "The causes of the Great Depression in the early 20th century have been extensively discussed by economists and remain a matter of active debate. They are part of the larger debate about economic crises. The specific economic events that took place during the Great Depression are well established. There was an initial stock market crash that triggered a \"panic sell-off\" of assets. This was followed by a deflation in asset and commodity prices, dramatic drops in demand and credit, and disruption of trade, ultimately resulting in widespread unemployment (over 13 million people were unemployed by 1932) and impoverishment. However, economists and historians have not reached a consensus on the causal relationships between various events and government economic policies in causing or ameliorating the Depression.\n", "The crime epidemic that had begun during the late 1960s finally reached its climax in the early 1990s before starting a steady decline during the Clinton administration. Nevertheless, ongoing addiction (involving sales of marijuana and cocaine) continued to be a major factor in crime in the United States. The overall rate of major crimes fell during the period. In 2009, the FBI estimated 1,318,000 violent crimes occurred nationwide, which was 7.5% below the 2000 level of 1,425,000 and 31% below the 1991 level of 1,912,000. The decline in crime rates was attributed to several factors, including stricter judicial sentencing practices, the implementation of Three Strikes laws, improving law enforcement technology that made it easier to catch felons, and the end of the crack epidemic.\n", "The mainstream view among criminologists is that unemployment and poverty are strongly related to crime, because a decrease in opportunities for legal employment, in theory, should increase the frequency of illegal employment. Multiple studies of the United States, for example, have found that the improvement of the American economy coincided with a drop in crime throughout the 1990s. A 2015 Brennan Center for Justice report, however, estimated that no more than 5 percent of the 1990s crime drop in the United States was attributable to changes in unemployment. The view that higher unemployment rates cause higher crime rates has also been challenged by the fact that the United States crime rate reached a 40-year low in 2010, despite America's lagging economy.\n" ]

[ "While the dangerous accumulation of foreign debt occurred over a number of years, the debt crisis began when the international capital markets became aware that Latin America would not be able to pay back its loans. This occurred in August 1982 when Mexico's Finance Minister, Jesús Silva-Herzog, declared that Mexico would no longer be able to service its debt. Mexico stated that it could not meet its payment due-dates, and announced unilaterally a moratorium of 90 days; it also requested a renegotiation of payment periods and new loans in order to fulfill its prior obligations.\n", "BULLET::::- Five countries (France, Poland, Belgium, Estonia and Hungary) defaulted on their war debt payments to the United States in response to the U.S. Congress' rejection of the debt reduction plan agreed to at the Lausanne Conference.\n", "The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12 million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40 million and state governments owed $25 million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of promissory notes issued during the war to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.\n", "The national debt of the United States, according to the \"Report\", included $40 million in domestic debt and $12 million in foreign debt, both inherited from the Continental Congress. In addition, the thirteen states altogether owed $25 million from debts incurred during the American Revolution. The combined US debt, as calculated, stood at $77 million.\n", "In 1988 Abbé Pierre met representatives of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to discuss the difficult financial, monetary and human issues brought by the huge Third World debt (starting in 1982, Mexico had announced it could not pay the service of its debt, triggering the 1980s Latin American debt crisis). In the 1990s, the Abbé criticized the apartheid regime in South Africa. In 1995, after a three-year-long siege of Sarajevo, he went there to exhort nations of the world to put an end to the violence, and requested French military operation against the Serb positions in Bosnia. \n", "One month later Argentina, again, defaulted on its debt. Argentina then unsuccessfully attempted to sue the United States at the Hague for \"judicial malevolence\". The United Nations General Assembly condemned debt collection on sovereign debt. After Argentina continued to refuse to follow court orders, Judge Griesa held it in contempt. Creditors worldwide are imitating NML Capital, with Argentina losing lawsuits to creditors in Germany and England.\n", "The debtor nations put strong pressure on the U.S. in the 1920s to forgive the debts, or at least reduce them. The American government refused. Instead, U.S. banks began making large loans to the nations of Europe. Thus, debts (and reparations) were being paid only by augmenting old debts and piling up new ones. In the late 1920s, and particularly after the American economy began to weaken after 1929, the European nations found it much more difficult to borrow money from the U.S. At the same time, high U.S. tariffs were making it much more difficult for them to sell their goods in U.S. markets. Without any source of revenue from foreign exchange to repay their loans, they began to default.\n" ]

[ "Includes English monarchs from the installation of Alfred the Great as King of Wessex in 871 to Anne (House of Stuart) and the Acts of Union on 1 May 1707, when the crown became part of the Kingdom of Great Britain.\n", "There was no consistent title for the king of England before 1066, and monarchs chose to style themselves as they pleased. Imperial titles were used inconsistently, beginning with Athelstan in 930 and ended with the Norman conquest of England. Empress Matilda (1102–1167) is the only English monarch commonly referred to as \"emperor\" or \"empress\", but she acquired her title through her marriage to Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor.\n", "No monarch reigned between the execution of Charles I in 1649 and the Restoration of Charles II in 1660. Between 1649 and 1653, there was no single English head of state, as England was ruled directly by the Rump Parliament with the English Council of State acting as executive power during a period known as the Commonwealth of England. After a coup d'etat in 1653, Oliver Cromwell forcibly took control of England from Parliament. He dissolved the Rump Parliament at the head of a military force and England entered a period known as The Protectorate, under Cromwell's direct control with the title Lord Protector. \n", "The standard title for monarchs from Æthelstan until John was ' (\"King of the English\"). Canute the Great, a Dane, was the first to call himself \"King of England\". In the Norman period ' remained standard, with occasional use of ' (\"King of England\"). From John's reign onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of ' or \"\". In 1604 James I, who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) \"King of Great Britain\". The English and Scottish parliaments, however, did not recognise this title until the Acts of Union of 1707.\n", "BULLET::::- The monarchs of the United Kingdom and Commonwealth realms inherit the throne by virtue of the line of descent from the House of Stuart (Union of the Crowns 1603), combining the lines of succession of the kingdoms of England and Scotland going back to the 9th century. The succession to the English throne can be argued to originate with the House of Wessex, established in the 6th century; that to the Scottish throne with descent from Pictish kings which likewise enter the historical record around the 6th century. The line of succession and descent of the Scottish throne are unbroken, whereas the English throne shifted between several unrelated dynasties/families between 1013 and 1066. The monarchy of England was abolished in 1649 and that of Scotland i 1652 and replaced by various types of republican goverments between the years 1649 to 1660.\n", "Henry I of England (c. 1068 – 1 December 1135) was king from 1100 to 1135, ruling through the Curia regis. When he ascended to the throne he granted the Charter of Liberties, a series of decrees and assurances to the barons. Probably the most important statement in the charter is at the beginning, where the king admits \"\"that by the mercy of God and the common counsel of the barons of the whole kingdom of England I have been crowned king of said kingdom\"\". This represented a step away from absolute rule; the king had recognised that the right to rule came not only from God but also from the common counsel of the barons.\n", "With the death of Elizabeth I, the crown of England passed to her cousin and nearest heir, James VI of Scotland, who became James I of England. His dynasty would rule - interrupted by the Interregnum between 1649 and 1660 - until 1714. The Kingdom of England, however, was merged with the Kingdom of Scotland in 1707, to form a new Kingdom, the Kingdom of Great Britain, after which there ceased to be monarchs and consorts of England.\n" ]

[ "According to the Golden Bull of Sicily, the estates of Bohemia and Moravia were an autonomous and undivisible constituent of the Holy Roman Empire. The King of Bohemia was no longer subject to appointment by the Emperor, and was only required to attend Reichstag diets close to the Bohemian border. Although a subject of the Holy Roman Empire, the Bohemian king was to be the premier Prince-elector (\"Kurfürst\") of the Empire and to furnish all subsequent Emperors with a bodyguard of 300 knights when they went to Rome for their coronation. By this act Frederick II also declared that he and the Empire will give the investiture for Bohemia only to a ruler approved by the people of the country.\n", "The Bohemian Crown was neither a personal union nor a federation of equal members. Rather, the Kingdom of Bohemia had a higher status than the other incorporated constituent countries. There were only some common state institutions of the Bohemian Crown and they did not survive the centralization of the Habsburg Monarchy under Queen Maria Theresa in the 18th century. The most important of them was the Bohemian Court Chancellery which was united with the Austrian Chancellery in 1749.\n", "In the early 17th century most of the Bohemian estates, although under the dominion of the predominantly Roman Catholic Holy Roman Empire, had large Protestant populations, and had been granted rights and protections allowing them varying degrees of religious and political freedom. In 1617, as Emperor Matthias lay dying, his cousin Ferdinand — a fiercely devout Roman Catholic and proponent of the Counter-Reformation — was named his successor as Holy Roman Emperor and King of Bohemia. This led to deep consternation among many Bohemian Protestants, who feared not only the loss of their religious freedom, but also of their traditional semi-autonomy, under which many of the estates had separate, individual constitutions governing their relationship with the Empire, and where the King was elected by the local leaders.\n", "The Kingdom of Bohemia was a significant regional power during the Middle Ages. In 1212, King Ottokar I (bearing the title \"king\" since 1198) extracted a Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from the emperor Frederick II, confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants and the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a kingdom. Bohemian kings would be exempt from all future obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in the imperial councils. Charles IV set Prague to be the seat of the Holy Roman Emperor.\n", "The Lands of the Bohemian Crown, sometimes called \"Czech lands\" in modern times, were a number of incorporated states in Central Europe during the medieval and early modern periods connected by feudal relations under the Bohemian kings. The crown lands primarily consisted of the Kingdom of Bohemia, an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire according to the Golden Bull of 1356, the Margraviate of Moravia, the Duchies of Silesia, and the two Lusatias, known as the Margraviate of Upper Lusatia and the Margraviate of Lower Lusatia, as well as other territories throughout its history.\n", "The Kingdom of Bohemia was an elective monarchy, and despite being a kingdom, was a part of the Empire. Since 1526, the kings of Bohemia had all been members of the House of Habsburg; since 1555, these kings had also been Holy Roman Emperors. In the early seventeenth century, however, Bohemia faced a political crisis. The Estates of the realm of Bohemia became worried that the Habsburgs were planning to transform Bohemia into an absolute monarchy. A large number of Bohemian nobles were Protestant and feared that a Catholic emperor would attempt to impose Catholicism on Bohemia. Thus, a substantial opposition movement developed to the rule of Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor. Rudolf had waged the Long War against the Ottoman Empire from 1593 to 1606. Dissatisfied with the outcome, Rudolf sought to launch a new war against the Ottomans. To gain Bohemian support, Rudolf agreed to guarantee Bohemia's religious liberty, issuing his so-called Letter of Majesty in 1609. Still, the Bohemian nobles remained suspicious of Rudolf and in contact with the Protestant Union.\n", "His reign brought Bohemia to its peak both politically and in total area, resulting in his being the first King of Bohemia to also be elected as Holy Roman Emperor. Under his rule the Bohemian crown controlled such diverse lands as Moravia, Silesia, Upper Lusatia and Lower Lusatia, Brandenburg, an area around Nuremberg called New Bohemia, Luxembourg, and several small towns scattered around Germany.\n" ]

[ "Once oxides have been removed from the substrate surface, most liquid metals will wet to most metallic surfaces. Specifically though, room-temperature liquid metal can be very reactive with certain metals. Liquid metal can dissolve most metals; however, at moderate temperatures, only some are slightly soluble, such as sodium, potassium, gold, magnesium, lead, nickel and mercury. Gallium is corrosive to all metals except tungsten and tantalum, which have a high resistance to corrosion, more so than niobium, titanium and molybdenum.\n", "Unlike hot working, cold working causes the crystal grains and inclusions to distort following the flow of the metal; which may cause work hardening and anisotropic material properties. Work hardening makes the metal harder, stiffer, and stronger, but less plastic, and may cause cracks of the piece.\n", "When exposed to air, many metals naturally form a hard, relatively inert surface, as in the tarnish of silver. In the case of other metals, such as iron, a somewhat rough porous coating is formed from loosely adherent corrosion products. In this case, a substantial amount of metal is removed, which is either deposited or dissolved in the environment. Corrosion coating reduces the rate of corrosion by varying degrees, depending on the kind of base metal and its environment, and is notably slower in room-temperature air for aluminium, chromium, zinc, titanium, and silicon (a metalloid); the shell of corrosion inhibits deeper corrosion, and operates as one form of passivation. The inert surface layer, termed the \"native oxide layer\", is usually an oxide or a nitride, with a thickness of a monolayer of 0.1-0.3 nm (1-3 Å) for a noble metal such as platinum, about 1.5 nm (15 Å) for silicon, and nearer to 5 nm (50 Å) for aluminium after several years.\n", "Similar to wood, interaction with water can also prove detrimental to metal. When contaminants come into contact with metal, they either combine with any present moisture or attract moisture to the metal. This “[...] combination with moisture can produce corrosion.” \n", "Most metals show more plasticity when hot than when cold. Lead shows sufficient plasticity at room temperature, while cast iron does not possess sufficient plasticity for any forging operation even when hot. This property is of importance in forming, shaping and extruding operations on metals. Most metals are rendered plastic by heating and hence shaped hot.\n", "All metals, apart from pure gold, will corrode naturally when exposed to certain chemicals which can be present in air. High relative humidity, moisture, and air pollutants are common causes of corrosion in metals, including silver. Silver is known in the chemistry world as a noble metal which means it is resistant to corrosion, but not completely. Whether silver plating or pure silver, the composite of the metal will tarnish when exposed to air and sulfur.\n", "The metal takes on a bluish tinge when exposed to air at room temperature for extended periods. Despite a high melting point in elemental form (2,468 °C), it has a lower density than other refractory metals. Furthermore, it is corrosion-resistant, exhibits superconductivity properties, and forms dielectric oxide layers.\n" ]

[ "Light is electromagnetic radiation within a certain portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. The word usually refers to visible light, which is the visible spectrum that is visible to the human eye and is responsible for the sense of sight. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), or 4.00 × 10 to 7.00 × 10 m, between the infrared (with longer wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths). This wavelength means a frequency range of roughly 430–750 terahertz (THz).\n", "Light, or visible light, is the very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation that is visible to the human eye (about 400–700 nm), or up to 380–750 nm. More broadly, physicists refer to light as electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not.\n", "In physics, the term \"light\" sometimes refers to electromagnetic radiation of any wavelength, whether visible or not. In this sense, gamma rays, X-rays, microwaves and radio waves are also light. Like all types of EM radiation, visible light propagates as waves. However, the energy imparted by the waves is absorbed at single locations the way particles are absorbed. The absorbed energy of the EM waves is called a photon, and represents the quanta of light. When a wave of light is transformed and absorbed as a photon, the energy of the wave instantly collapses to a single location, and this location is where the photon \"arrives.\" This is what is called the wave function collapse. This dual wave-like and particle-like nature of light is known as the wave–particle duality. The study of light, known as optics, is an important research area in modern physics.\n", "Light, or visible light, is a very narrow range of electromagnetic radiation of a wavelength that is visible to the human eye, or 380–750 nm which equates to a frequency range of 790 to 400 THz respectively. More broadly, physicists use the term \"light\" to mean electromagnetic radiation of all wavelengths, whether visible or not.\n", "Visible light is an electromagnetic wave, consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields traveling through space. The frequency of the wave determines its color: is red light, is violet light, and between these (in the range 4-) are all the other colors of the visible spectrum. An electromagnetic wave can have a frequency less than , but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called infrared (IR) radiation. At even lower frequency, the wave is called a microwave, and at still lower frequencies it is called a radio wave. Likewise, an electromagnetic wave can have a frequency higher than , but it will be invisible to the human eye; such waves are called ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Even higher-frequency waves are called X-rays, and higher still are gamma rays.\n", "Natural sources produce EM radiation across the spectrum. EM radiation with a wavelength between approximately 400 nm and 700 nm is directly detected by the human eye and perceived as visible light. Other wavelengths, especially nearby infrared (longer than 700 nm) and ultraviolet (shorter than 400 nm) are also sometimes referred to as light.\n", "[[Electromagnetic radiation]] is characterized by its [[wavelength]] (or [[frequency]]) and its [[Luminous intensity|intensity]]. When the wavelength is within the visible spectrum (the range of wavelengths humans can perceive, approximately from 390 [[nanometre|nm]] to 700 nm), it is known as \"visible light\".\n" ]

[ "Chronic stress and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as depression and anxiety (see below for further information). This is particularly true regarding chronic stressors. These are stressors that may not be as intense as an acute stressor like a natural disaster or a major accident, but they persist over longer periods of time. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative impact on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily. This depletes the body's energy more quickly and usually occurs over long periods of time, especially when these microstressors cannot be avoided (i.e. stress of living in a dangerous neighborhood). See allostatic load for further discussion of the biological process by which chronic stress may affect the body. For example, studies have found that caregivers, particularly those of dementia patients, have higher levels of depression and slightly worse physical health than noncaregivers.\n", "Stress is thought to affect immune function through emotional and/or behavioral manifestations such as anxiety, fear, tension, anger and sadness and physiological changes such as heart rate, blood pressure, and sweating. Researchers have suggested that these changes are beneficial if they are of limited duration, but when stress is chronic, the system is unable to maintain equilibrium or homeostasis; the body remains in a state of arousal, where digestion is slower to reactivate or does not reactivate properly, often resulting in indigestion. Furthermore, blood pressure stays at higher levels.\n", "Chronic stress and a lack of coping resources available or used by an individual can often lead to the development of psychological issues such as delusions, depression and anxiety (see below for further information). This is particularly true regarding chronic stressors. These are stressors that may not be as intense as an acute stressor like a natural disaster or a major accident, but they persist over longer periods of time. These types of stressors tend to have a more negative effect on health because they are sustained and thus require the body's physiological response to occur daily.\n", "Anguish is made up of fear, distress, anxiety and panic. These stressors cause an enormous amount of dissonance, which could then lead to issues of mental health. While taken literally anguish may be defined as a physical event, but it may be extrapolated to an event of one’s psyche. It has been found that the anguish of a significant change in the way a young student lives (i.e. their new responsibilities, being on their own, multiple deadlines etc.) has contributed to significantly increased rates of college students suffering from anxiety and depression.\n", "It has long been believed that negative affective states, such as feelings of anxiety and depression, could influence the pathogenesis of physical disease, which in turn, have direct effects on biological process that could result in increased risk of disease in the end. However, studies done by the University of Wisconsin-Madison and other places have shown this to be partly untrue; although stress seems to increase the risk of reported poor health, the \"perception\" that stress is harmful increases the risk even further. For example, when humans are under chronic stress, permanent changes in their physiological, emotional, and behavioral responses are most likely to occur. Such changes could lead to disease. Chronic stress results from stressful events that persist over a relatively long period of time, such as caring for a spouse with dementia, or results from brief focal events that continue to be experienced as overwhelming even long after they are over, such as experiencing a sexual assault.\n", "Stress can cause depression and depression-like symptoms through monoaminergic changes in several key brain regions as well as suppression in hippocampal neurogenesis. This leads to alteration in emotion and cognition related brain regions as well as HPA axis dysfunction. Through the dysfunction, the effects of stress can be exacerbated including its effects on 5-HT. Furthermore, some of these effects are reversed by antidepressant action, which may act by increasing hippocampal neurogenesis. This leads to a restoration in HPA activity and stress reactivity, thus restoring the deleterious effects induced by stress on 5-HT.\n", "Responses to stress include adaptation, psychological coping such as stress management, anxiety, and depression. Over the long term, distress can lead to diminished health and/or increased propensity to illness; to avoid this, stress must be managed.\n" ]

[ "Her bones seem to be much more durable than normal; she had easily survived heavy hits in multiple areas of her body. For example, Flag-Smasher hit her twice on the head with his mace without much damage, and Sabertooth likewise threw her against a wall without harm. She also jumped off the Brooklyn Bridge twice (something that would have resulted in death or at least crippling injuries) without any major damage, being able to walk away from the scene.\n", "BULLET::::- Augmented reflexes, agility, equilibrium and enhanced leaping abilities, along with an accelerated healing factor, which enables him to easily dodge bullets from a point blank range, balance himself by touching the ground with only one or two of his fingers, leap across tall buildings and heal from fatal injuries and wounds (E.g.-broken bones, skin burns, bullet wounds, bruises and bodily scars) at a much faster rate than that of a normal human, which usually takes days or weeks, depending on the severity of said injuries.\n", "A person shot from about 1 meter with an 18x45T OSA pistol to the temporal region of the head suffered a penetrative injury, with the bullet traversing most of the brain, reducing the victim to a vegetative state.\n", "BULLET::::- On June 7, 2012, 16-year-old Yasser Lopez made national news when he successfully underwent a delicate 3-hour neurosurgical operation to remove a spear that a speargun had fired into his skull when it was accidentally discharged during a fishing trip; 3 feet of the spear protruded from the wound above his eye socket, and that part had to be specially cut off so he could get a brain CT scan. Miraculously, no major blood vessels were harmed and the only impairments thus far are amnesia for the period during and around the event, which is somewhat normal, and some sluggishness in a hand.\n", "The first story is one in which a man shoots himself in the head, but misses his brain completely, blowing part of his skull off and exposing his brain. He went to the doctor, who in turn pressed the man's brain with a spatula to get a reaction out of him, which he did.\n", "When the casualty has no specific trauma, it is possible to slide a long spine board little by little. A team member lifts a part of the body (head, then shoulders, then hips), and the other one slide the board.\n", "There are cases where a person that received major trauma to one side of the brain, such as a gunshot wound, has required a hemispherectomy and survived. The most notable case is that of Ahad Israfil, who lost the right side of his cerebrum in 1987 in a gun-related work accident. He eventually regained most of his faculties, though he still required a wheelchair. It was noted that reconstructive surgery was difficult due to the gunshot shattering his skull, and he is living with a large indentation on that side of his head.\n" ]

[ "Any person accused of committing a crime is presumed innocent until proven guilty in a court of law. Therefore, a person charged with a crime should not be denied freedom unless there is a good reason.\n", "When a person is arrested for a serious crime, the defendant will have their picture taken and be held in pre-trial prison. Under certain circumstances (that is where the public won't be endangered by one's release from custody), the defendant may be entitled to release on bail. If the accused cannot post a monetary bail, they will appear at their arraignment where the judge will determine if the bail set by the schedule should be lowered.\n", "If it is in the best interests of the accused, and not contrary to the public interest, a judge may discharge an accused after a finding of guilt. A discharge is only possible if there is no minimum sentence for the offence, and the offence is not punishable by 14 years of imprisonment or a life sentence. When the court grants a discharge, the accused is not considered to have been convicted of the crime, notwithstanding the finding of guilt.\n", "Since police can charge a person with a crime in a criminal case and charge his or her things in a civil case, issues such as double jeopardy have been raised. Further, there has been debate about whether seizures of property are considered as a fine or as a punishment in a legal sense. The distinction was clarified by the Supreme Court in \"United States v. Bajakajian\", which decreed that a criminal forfeiture could be considered as both a type of fine and a punishment, while a civil forfeiture was not intended as a punishment of a person but rather a \"legal fiction of punishing the property\". As a result, the court decreed that civil forfeitures that served as remedial were not considered as a type of fine.\n", "It is very important that the arrest be effected lawfully. If the arrest is not lawful, resistance or escape by the arrestee will not be unlawful, and the arrestor will have committed an assault. Furthermore, subsequent detention would also be unlawful, with the possibility of civil damages. The ensuing trial, however, would not automatically be invalid.\n", "To be convicted of an accessory charge, the accused must generally be proved to have had actual knowledge that a crime was going to be, or had been, committed. Furthermore, there must be proof that the accessory knew that his or her action, or inaction, was helping the criminals commit the crime, or evade detection, or escape. A person who unknowingly houses a person who has just committed a crime, for instance, may not be charged with an accessory offense because they did not have knowledge of the crime.\n", "Many people avoid criminal charges by staying out of the state where they committed the crime. A person facing state criminal charges is always prosecuted in the state where they committed the charges. A person may be able to get away with minor violations like a ticket, but they will not be able to hide from something like a misdemeanor or a felony. \n" ]

[ "Evolution is a 2017 study guide to evolution written by Steve Jones and illustrated by Rowan Clifford. The volume, according to the publisher's website, explores the extraordinary diversity of life on our planet through the complex interactions of one very simple theory, and, according to its author, goes from foxes to human frailty.\n", "In addition to complex structures and systems, among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain are consciousness, hominid intelligence, instincts, emotions, metamorphosis, photosynthesis, homosexuality, music, language, religion, morality, and altruism (see altruism in animals). Most of these, such as hominid intelligence, instinct, emotion, photosynthesis, language, and altruism, have been well-explained by evolution, while others remain mysterious, or only have preliminary explanations. Supporters of evolution further contend that no alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either.\n", "\"It results from this explanation that the theory of evolution is not exact ... Evolution is a kind of dogma which its own priests no longer believe, but which they uphold for the people. It is necessary to have the courage to state this if only so that men of a future generation may orient their research into a different direction.\"\n", "In the second example, Gould points out that many people wrongly believe that the process of evolution has a preferred direction—a tendency to make organisms more complex and more sophisticated as time goes by. Those who believe in evolution's drive towards progress often demonstrate it with a series of organisms that appeared in different eons, with increasing complexity, e.g., \"bacteria, fern, dinosaurs, dog, man\". Gould explains how these increasingly complex organisms are just one end of the complexity distribution, and why looking only at them misses the entire picture—the \"full house\". He explains that by any measure, the most common organisms have always been, and still are, the bacteria. The complexity distribution is bounded at one side (a living organism cannot be much simpler than bacteria), so an unbiased random walk by evolution, sometimes going in the complexity direction and sometimes going towards simplicity (without having an intrinsic preference to either), will create a distribution with a small, but longer and longer tail at the high complexity end.\n", "Evolution generally refers to biological evolution, but here it means a process in which the whole universe is a progression of interrelated phenomena, a gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex form (emergence). It should not be 'biologized' as it includes many areas of science. In addition, outside of the scientific community, the term evolution is frequently used differently from scientists' usage. Even respected dictionaries may present questionable definitions that are not scientific or only address genetic changes. Unfortunately it is common for the general public to enter into a discussion about evolution with a wrong definition in mind. This often leads to misunderstanding since scientists are viewing evolution from a different perspective. The same applies to the use of the term theory as used in the theory of evolution (see references for Evolution as theory and fact).\n", "The evolution is the development of all entities in the cosmos, including humans, in order to attain their fulfillment, including the discovery of spiritual Delight, which was, and always is, the experience of the Source Creator. The evolution is the progressive development from the original inconscience of matter into life (movement, sensation, desire, etc. and living physical beings), and from thence to mind (in conscious animals and most especially humans—the self-conscious thinking animal), and from thence to spiritualized mind, culminating in The Supermind or Truth Consciousness (as supramental individuals, and finally the supramental, i.e. a divine life on earth).\n", "BULLET::::4. \"Evolution\" starts with \"Is evolution a fact or a theory?\", discusses Intelligent Design, which is deemed an unfortunate use of language and a theological mistake, and explores whether the mind can be explained by evolution.\n" ]

[ "The Journal of the History of Ideas is a quarterly peer-reviewed academic journal covering intellectual history and the history of ideas, including the histories of philosophy, literature and the arts, natural and social sciences, religion, and political thought.\n", "Partial Answers: Journal of Literature and the History of Ideas is a peer-reviewed interdisciplinary academic journal that focuses on the study of literature and the history of ideas. The journal publishes articles on various national literatures including Hebrew, Yiddish, German, Russian, and (predominantly) English literature. It was named \"Best New Journal of 2004\" by the Council of Editors of Learned Journals.\n", "The discipline Idé och lärdomshistoria, translated as History of Science and Ideas, is an important part of the humanities faculties in most Swedish universities, most notably Stockholm, Uppsala, Lund, Gothenburg, Umeå and Södertörn. It is a broad field of study that often involves cross disciplinary research between intellectual history, history of science, medicine or philosophy, conceptual history, history of education and media history. It is taught in Universities at undergraduate and graduate levels, and is also an active field of research. The annual journal Lychnos publishes the current research of the discipline. \n", "The broad concept of the book covers the history of economics through the millennia, \"from the epic of Gilgamesh and the Old Testament to the emergence of Christianity, from Descartes and Adam Smith to Fight Club and The Matrix.\"\n", "These books are important primary references for the study of the history of science and technology, they can provide valuable insights into the historical development of the various fields of scientific inquiry (History of science, History of mathematics, etc.)\n", "He also penned several essay collections, including \"Defenders of the Text\" (1991), which deals with the relations between scholarship and science in the early modern period, and, most recently, \"Worlds Made by Words\". His most original and accessible book is \"The Footnote: A curious history\" (1997; published in German as \"Die Tragischen Ursprünge der deutschen Fußnote\"), a case study in what might be called the history of history from below.\n", "The Home University Library of Modern Knowledge was a series of popular non-fiction books from the first half of the twentieth century that ran to over 200 volumes. The authors were eminent scholars in their fields and included Isaiah Berlin, Harold J. Laski, Hilaire Belloc, Bertrand Russell and John Masefield.\n" ]

[ "Vitamins are classified as either water-soluble or fat-soluble. In humans there are 13 vitamins: 4 fat-soluble (A, D, E, and K) and 9 water-soluble (8 B vitamins and vitamin C). Water-soluble vitamins dissolve easily in water and, in general, are readily excreted from the body, to the degree that urinary output is a strong predictor of vitamin consumption. Because they are not as readily stored, more consistent intake is important. Fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed through the intestinal tract with the help of lipids (fats). Vitamins A and D can accumulate in the body, which can result in dangerous hypervitaminosis. Fat-soluble vitamin deficiency due to malabsorption is of particular significance in cystic fibrosis.\n", "This fundamental fat-soluble vitamin has been long known for its important role in calcium absorption in the body, especially in musculoskeletal health. The health impacts commonly caused by deficiency of Vitamin D are rickets in children and osteoporosis in the elderly populations. Low levels of Vitamin D have also been associated with other conditions such as heart disease, cancer and kidney disease but further research is required. Recent evidence suggests Vitamin D is also linked to many other health diseases such as cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, diabetes mellitus, multiple sclerosis and some form of cancer.\n", "Some vitamins cause acute or chronic toxicity, a condition called hypervitaminosis, which occurs mainly for fat-soluble vitamins if over-consumed by excessive supplementation. Hypervitaminosis A and hypervitaminosis D are the most common examples. Vitamin D toxicity does not result from sun exposure or consuming foods rich in vitamin D, but rather from excessive intake of vitamin D supplements, possibly leading to hypercalcemia, nausea, weakness, and kidney stones.\n", "Without functional chylomicrons certain fat-soluble vitamins such as vitamin D and vitamin E cannot be absorbed. Chylomicrons have a crucial role in fat absorption and transport, thus deficiency in chylomicron functioning reduces available levels of dietary fats and fat-soluble vitamins.\n", "It is very difficult to measure or estimate the actual human consumption of these substances. Highly unsaturated omega-3 rich oils such as fish oil are being sold in pill form so that the taste of oxidized or rancid fat is not apparent. The health food industry's dietary supplements are self-regulated and outside of FDA regulations. To properly protect unsaturated fats from oxidation, it is best to keep them cool and in oxygen-free environments.\n", "Generally, toxic levels of vitamins stem from high supplement intake and not from natural food. Toxicities of fat-soluble vitamins can also be caused by a large intake of highly fortified foods, but natural food rarely deliver dangerous levels of fat-soluble vitamins. The Dietary Reference Intake recommendations from the United States Department of Agriculture define a \"tolerable upper intake level\" for most vitamins.\n", "A related study found that the types of fat consumed is much more important than the amount of fat which is consumed with regards to coronary heart disease. Controlled clinical trials have proved that replacing saturated fat with polyunsaturated fat was much more effective in lowering serum cholesterol and reducing risk of CHD compared to reducing total fat consumption.\n" ]

[ "The Roman pantheon had numerous deities, both Greek and non-Greek. The more famed deities, found in the mythologies and the 2nd millennium CE European arts, have been the anthropomorphic deities syncretized with the Greek deities. These include the six gods and six goddesses: Venus, Apollo, Mars, Diana, Minerva, Ceres, Vulcan, Juno, Mercury, Vesta, Neptune, Jupiter (Jove, Zeus); as well Bacchus, Pluto and Hercules. The non-Greek major deities include Janus, Fortuna, Vesta, Quirinus and Tellus (mother goddess, probably most ancient). Some of the non-Greek deities had likely origins in more ancient European culture such as the ancient Germanic religion, while others may have been borrowed, for political reasons, from neighboring trade centers such as those in the Minoan or ancient Egyptian civilization.\n", "In Ancient Roman times, a new Roman mythology was born through syncretization of numerous Greek and other foreign gods. This occurred because the Romans had little mythology of their own, and inheritance of the Greek mythological tradition caused the major Roman gods to adopt characteristics of their Greek equivalents. The gods Zeus and Jupiter are an example of this mythological overlap. In addition to the combination of the two mythological traditions, the association of the Romans with eastern religions led to further syncretizations. For instance, the cult of Sun was introduced in Rome after Aurelian's successful campaigns in Syria. The Asiatic divinities Mithras (that is to say, the Sun) and Ba'al were combined with Apollo and Helios into one Sol Invictus, with conglomerated rites and compound attributes. Apollo might be increasingly identified in religion with Helios or even Dionysus, but texts retelling his myths seldom reflected such developments. The traditional literary mythology was increasingly dissociated from actual religious practice. The worship of Sol as special protector of the emperors and of the empire remained the chief imperial religion until it was replaced by Christianity.\n", "The Romans, identifying themselves as common heirs to a very similar civilization, identified Greek deities with similar figures in the Etruscan-Roman tradition, though without usually copying cult practices. (For details, see Interpretatio graeca.) Syncretic gods of the Hellenistic period found also wide favor in Rome: Serapis, Isis and Mithras, for example. Cybele as worshipped in Rome essentially represented a syncretic East Mediterranean goddess. The Romans imported the Greek god Dionysus into Rome, where he merged with the Latin mead god \"Liber\", and converted the Anatolian Sabazios into the Roman Sabazius.\n", "The ancient Greeks revered both gods and goddesses. These continued to be revered through the early centuries of the common era, and many of the Greek deities inspired and were adopted as part of much larger pantheon of Roman deities. The Greek religion was polytheistic, but had no centralized church, nor any sacred texts. The deities were largely associated with myths and they represented natural phenomena or aspects of human behavior.\n", "Unlike the Greek gods, Roman gods were originally considered to be numina: divine powers of presence and will that did not necessarily have physical form. At the time Rome was founded, Diana and the other major Roman gods probably did not have much mythology per se, or any depictions in human form. The idea of gods as having anthropomorphic qualities and human-like personalities and actions developed later, under the influence of Greek and Etruscan religion.\n", "Some deities dating to Rome's oldest religious stratum, such as Janus and Terminus, had no Greek equivalent. Other Greek divine figures, most notably Apollo, were adopted directly into Roman culture, but underwent a distinctly Roman development, as when Augustus made Apollo one of his patron deities. In the early period, Etruscan culture played an intermediary role in transmitting Greek myth and religion to the Romans, as evidenced in the linguistic transformation of Greek \"Heracles\" to Etruscan \"Her[e]cle\" to Roman \"Hercules\".\n", "When the Roman Republic conquered Greece in 146 BC, it took much of Greek religion (along with many other aspects of Greek culture such as literary and architectural styles) and incorporated it into its own. The Greek gods were equated with the ancient Roman deities; Zeus with Jupiter, Hera with Juno, Poseidon with Neptune, Aphrodite with Venus, Ares with Mars, Artemis with Diana, Athena with Minerva, Hermes with Mercury, Hephaestus with Vulcan, Hestia with Vesta, Demeter with Ceres, Hades with Pluto, Tyche with Fortuna, and Pan with Faunus. Some of the gods, such as Apollo and Bacchus, had earlier been adopted by the Romans. There were also many deities that existed in the Roman religion before its interaction with Greece that were not associated with a Greek deity, including Janus and Quirinus.\n" ]

[ "Ed Cole (Haley Joel Osment) feels like he is letting his life go by without him. He leaves his job at a bagel shop and works as an after-school detention teacher after impressing the principal (Matt Walsh). He moves out of his apartment, allowing his roommate JT (Glen Powell) to engage in kinky sex with his girlfriend Ally (Castille Landon). While working with his students, Ed realizes most of the troubled youths are sexually confused, and begins an after school sex ed program. At the same time JT convinces Ed to have sex with someone to end his dry spell, leading to a disastrous blind date with Trish (Abby Elliott), a former co-ed.\n", "Norman says the feeling of being different goes back as far as she can remember. In a cover story for \"New York Magazine\" she said \" it just seemed like I was living in the wrong body. I always felt female.\" For Norman her life at home as well as school was not easy. She had a father who was battling cancer and a family to whom she was afraid to come out.\n", "Revealing that the track makes her feel emotional, the singer identified \"Between You & Me\" as an ode to how she began writing music originally, recalling a time when she was 14 years-old and using solely a guitar or piano to write about her feelings. Admitting that the song's \"soft and demure\" nature was a conscious decision to a certain extent, Who explained that she intended \"to switch things up\" and \"emphasize the fact that I just wanna write songs\". Who hails its lyrics as \"one of my favorite stories I’ve ever told,” expounding, \"It feels so good to finally have it out in the world instead of banging around my own brain.” Thematically, Who drew similarities between the song and \"Just Thought You Should Know\", another track written for her then-forthcoming album\".\" A fan of the television series \"Parks and Recreation\", Who also believes that the song would serve as a suitable anthem for characters Leslie Knope (Amy Poehler) and Ben Wyatt (Adam Scott) before they became a couple.\n", "Spencer's personality is unique as it sometimes corresponds with his learning disabilities. He can sometimes act child like as his mental age is at the age of ten years. Fellow cast members have previously commented that the character is portrayed to show him doing what a normal characters in their twenties do, yet in a 'less adult way'.\n", "Despite living a comfortable and wealthy life, teenage Joaquin feels he is different due to his brain injury. His overprotective mother, Juliana (Carmina Villaroel), unknowingly hired teenage Chichay as his nanny. The two that had started off having an unpleasant relationship with each other eventually became friends. As they found comfort in each other's company, they learned various lessons in life such as the true meaning of friendship, of standing by your family, and of accepting one’s self. While their feelings blossomed into love, things also got complicated and had put them to the test as they encountered numerous conflicts like their parents' past, their economic gap and the cause of Joaquin's accident when he was still a kid.\n", "After work, Ali goes to meet with her father at a gym and bar, where she encounters a bartender named Will, who she becomes interested in. They leave the bar together and go to his home, where they have sex. She is too aggressive, not knowing that Will is not satisfied with her performance in the bedroom. The next morning she awakens to his son in the bedroom.\n", "As their parents are busy during the day, Manny and Luke have a double date with twin girls but during the date it turns out that Manny's girl has a lot in common with Luke and Luke's has a lot in common with Manny. However, when the boys suggest to exchange their girls, Manny's date reveals that she likes Latino guys and Luke's date says that she loves dumb boys, something that offends both of them. As they get up to leave, the girls suggest them to go at their home and makeout since their parents are not there.\n" ]

[ "Coffee is often served \"with great ceremony\", and it is customary to drink two or three cups to indicate your approval of the coffee. Cups are refilled unless a gesture—shaking your cup—is made to indicate you've had enough. It is considered good manners for a guest to eat heartily, and burping appreciatively \"verges on being considered good form\".\n", "Coffee is typically served after pouring back and forth between the dabara and the tumbler in huge arc-like motions of the hand. This serves several purposes: mixing the ingredients (including sugar) thoroughly; cooling the hot coffee to a sipping temperature; and most importantly, aerating the mix without introducing extra water (such as with a steam wand used for frothing cappucinos). An anecdote related to the distance between the pouring and receiving cup leads to another name for the drink, \"Meter Coffee\".\n", "It was designed to allow people suffering from the trembles to drink a beverage, initially hot chocolate. The cup sits in a saucer with either a well, or a raised rim to prevent the liquid from spilling. Cups were designed with or without handles, and optionally a lid.\n", "4) Each cup is filled halfway, once a cup is made you pull that cup and drink its contents, with the exception of a home run, in the event of a home run all remaining cups are consumed, and all cups are replaced.\n", "When a ball lands in a cup, the defending team must consume all of the beer inside that cup and all the cups below it, e.g. if the third cup is hit (a triple), the third, second and first cup are consumed. The cups are filled according to their position on the table. The cup closest to the opposing team is 1/4 full, the second cup is 1/2 full, the third cup is 3/4 full and the final cup nearest the edge is full. It is also common to have a glass of water with the purpose of cleaning the ball between throws. After consumption the cup is refilled to the appropriate level and placed back on the table.\n", "BULLET::::- Tea is usually served in little curved glasses that you hold not by the stem, but by the lip: you never add milk, but you can add water as you drink it to dilute the tea, which is sometimes still steeping when you get it. Coffee is generally available. The coffee is drunk carefully (there are grounds on the bottom); it is also thick and black, and each cup is individually brewed, often with the sugar already in it, and milk is usually not to be added. Since it is offered all the time and everywhere, it is a gesture of hospitality and you must always take the coffee or tea, even if you only put it to your lips or just take a few sips. Your cup will always be refilled if it is less than half full. Because you must never pour your own drink, you must always be alert throughout the meal as to whether your neighbor's cup or glass needs refilling. If it is less than half full, it needs refilling; alternately, if yours is less than half full, your neighbor is obliged to refill it. If he or she does not, do not refill it yourself, for this will cause him or her to lose face; instead, diplomatically indicate your need by pouring a little more drink into your neighbor's glass, even if it doesn't really need it.\n", "At the start, it is customary for the initiating players to make a toast, after which the first member of each team drinks the entirety of their beverage. When finished, the cup is placed open side up at the edge of the table, and the player who drank it attempts to flip the cup, by flicking or lifting the bottom of the cup until it flips and lands face down on the table, If a cup is knocked over in the chain whilst moving to the next cup the player must go back and re-flip. The player may not use two hands, or blow on the cup to guide it to flip over. If the player is unsuccessful on the first try, the cup is reset and re-flipped. Only after the first teammate is done flipping successfully can the next person proceed. Additionally, subsequent players may not touch or manipulate their cup until the previous player has successfully flipped their cup. Whichever team finishes drinking and flipping all its cups first wins.\n" ]

[ "Spoken on all continents, French is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world's most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence, the academy, and diplomacy.\n", "Because of its international status, there was a desire to regulate the French language. Several reforms of the French language worked to make it more uniform. The Renaissance writer François Rabelais (born 1494) helped to shape French as a literary language, Rabelais' French is characterised by the re-introduction of Greek and Latin words. Jacques Peletier du Mans (born 1517) was one of the scholars who reformed the French language. He improved Nicolas Chuquet's long scale system by adding names for intermediate numbers (\"milliards\" instead of \"thousand million\", etc.).\n", "Despite ample time for Louisiana French to diverge, the basic grammatical core of the language remains similar or the same as Standard French. Even so, it can be expected that the language would begin to diverge due to the various influences of neighboring languages, changing francophone demographics, and unstable opportunities for education. Furthermore, Louisiana French lacks any official regulating body unlike that of Standard French or Quebec French to take part in standardizing the language.\n", "French became an international language in the Middle Ages, when the power of the Kingdom of France made it the second international language, alongside Latin. This status continued to grow into the 18th century, by which time French was the language of European courts and diplomacy. The importance of French began to wane in the early 20th century, when the spread of English due to the British Empire and the rise of the English-speaking United States to superpower status eroding its place as the language of diplomacy.\n", "From the 17th to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe. The dominant position of French language in international affairs was overtaken by English, since the emergence of the United States as a major power.\n", "French is noticeably different from most other Romance languages. Some of the changes have been attributed to substrate influence – i.e., to carry-over effects from Gaulish (Celtic) or superstrate influence from Frankish (Germanic). In practice, it is difficult to say with confidence which sound and grammar changes were due to substrate and superstrate influences, since many of the changes in French have parallels in other Romance languages, or are changes commonly undergone by many languages in the process of development. However, the following are likely candidates.\n", "French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Olympic Committee, and the International Committee of the Red Cross. In 2011, \"Bloomberg Businessweek\" ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese.\n" ]

[ "With Gehrig's 1939 diagnosis of A.L.S. (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, a progressive neurodegenerative disease that causes muscle weakness, paralysis, and ultimately, respiratory failure), Rennie remained close to the ballplayer and his wife Eleanor through Gehrig's retirement and downhill slide until Gehrig's death in 1941. A much-cited interchange occurred when Gehrig returned from the consultation and diagnosis at the Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota. Rennie met his train in Washington, D.C., where the Yankees were to play. A group of Boy Scouts at the station joyfully greeted Gehrig, and yelled, \"Good luck with the Series!\" Gehrig returned their wave, and leaned toward friend Rennie. \"They’re wishing me luck,\" he said quietly, \"and I’m dying.\"\n", "Gehrig flew alone to Rochester from Chicago, where the Yankees were playing at the time, and arrived at the Mayo Clinic on June 13, 1939. After six days of extensive testing at the clinic, doctors confirmed the diagnosis of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) on June 19, 1939, which was Gehrig's 36th birthday. The prognosis was grim: rapidly increasing paralysis, difficulty in swallowing and speaking, and a life expectancy less than three years, although no impairment of mental functions would occur. Eleanor Gehrig was told that the cause of ALS was unknown, but it was painless, noncontagious, and cruel; the motor function of the central nervous system is destroyed, but the mind remains fully aware to the end.\n", "The BDI-II was a 1996 revision of the BDI, developed in response to the American Psychiatric Association's publication of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, which changed many of the diagnostic criteria for Major Depressive Disorder.\n", "The DSM-IV defines depressive personality disorder as \"a pervasive pattern of depressive cognitions and behaviors beginning by early adulthood and occurring in a variety of contexts.\" Depressive personality disorder occurs before, during, and after major depressive episodes, making it a distinct diagnosis not included in the definition of either major depressive episodes or dysthymic disorder. Specifically, five or more of the following must be present most days for at least two years in order for a diagnosis of depressive personality disorder to be made:\n", "Daniel Jeffrey Wallace (born October 27, 1949) is an American rheumatologist, clinical professor, author, and fellow. Wallace has published 400 peer reviewed publications, 8 textbooks, and 25 book chapters on topics such as Lupus, Sjogren syndrome, osteoarthritis, and fibromyalgia. He has the largest cohort of lupus patients in the United States (2000). A full professor of medicine (Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA), he is associate director of the Rheumatology Fellowship Program at Cedars-Sinai. His seminal contributions to research include being an author of the first paper to demonstrate vitamin D dysfunction and the importance of interleukin-6 in lupus, conducting the first large studies of apheresis in rheumatoid arthritis and lupus, and insights into the mechanisms of action of antimalarials. Wallace's research accomplishments also include conducting many clinical rheumatic disease trials, examining the role of microvascular angina and accelerated atherogenesis in lupus, and work on anti-telomere antibodies which have garnered him 5 papers in the New England Journal of Medicine. Wallace’s monograph, \"The Lupus Book\", has sold over 100,000 copies since 1995.\n", "The diagnostic criteria for depression in Alzheimer disease specify that it requires only 3 of the possible symptoms for major depressive disorder (MDD), rather than the 5 required to diagnose MDD itself, and the symptoms may fluctuate. Therefore, dAD often goes unrecognized within the spectrum of symptoms of Alzheimer's disease.\n", "Depressive Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (DD-NOS) is designated by the code \"311\" in the DSM-IV for depressive disorders that are impairing but do not fit any of the officially specified diagnoses. According to the DSM-IV, DD-NOS encompasses \"any depressive disorder that does not meet the criteria for a specific disorder.\" In the DSM-5, it is called unspecified depressive disorder.\n" ]

[ "Itch can originate in the peripheral nervous system (dermal or neuropathic) or in the central nervous system (neuropathic, neurogenic, or psychogenic). When there is no identifiable cause it is known as essential pruritus.\n", "\"D. gallinae\" is capable of infesting the ear canal, with symptoms including itching, internal inflammation and discharge. It can also infest the scalp, with severe itching—particularly at night as the primary symptom.\n", "Most patients with otosclerosis notice tinnitus (head noise) to some degree. The amount of tinnitus is not necessarily related to the degree or type of hearing impairment. Tinnitus develops due to irritation of the delicate nerve endings in the inner ear. Since the nerve carries sound, this irritation is manifested as ringing, roaring or buzzing. It is usually worse when the patient is fatigued, nervous or in a quiet environment.\n", "Signs of ear infection include shaking of the head, and scratching at or under the ear. Some animals may also paw the ear or try to rub it on other objects to relieve pain and discomfort. Ear infections often result in a darker red ear, dirt in the ear, or a general inflamed appearance.\n", "The phrase from which \"itching ears\" originates in the original Greek is κνηθόμενοι τὴν ἀκοήν (\"knēthomenoi tēn akoēn\"). κνηθόμενοι, the translation for \"having an itching ear\", is a present participle, signifying a present, continual action occurring.\n", "Many hypothesize LSC has a psychosomatic origin. Those predisposed to itch as a response to emotional tensions may be more susceptible to the itch-scratch cycle. It may also be associated with nervousness, anxiety, depression, and other psychological disorders. Many people with LSC are aware of the scratching they do during the day, but they might not be aware of the scratching they do in their sleep. LSC is also associated with atopy, or atopic dermatitis (eczema) and an increase of histamine levels.\n", "They are more common in some sites, such as the central chest (from a sternotomy), the back and shoulders (usually resulting from acne), and the ear lobes (from ear piercings). They can also occur on body piercings.\n" ]

[ "\"Centigrade 232\" is a poem by Robert Calvert, published in a 1977 book and released as an album in 2007. The title alludes to \"Fahrenheit 451\" by its metric equivalent, \"signifying the writer destroying his rough drafts\".\n", "Here the novel ends abruptly. A short post-scriptural note, ostensibly written by the book's editors, explains that Pym was killed in an accident and speculates his final two or three chapters were lost with him, though assuring the public the chapters will be restored to the text if found. The note further explains that Peters is alive in Illinois but cannot be interviewed at present. The editors then compare the shapes of the labyrinth and the wall marks noted by Pym to Arabian and Egyptian letters and hieroglyphs with meanings of \"Shaded\", \"White\", and \"Region to the South\".\n", "Chapter 2 is the shortest chapter in the piece and is only one sentence long. The entire chapter reads: \"Tilly Lally the Siptippidist Aradobo, the dean of Morocco, Miss Gittipin & Mrs Nannicantipot, Mrs Sigtagatist Gibble Gabble the wife of Inflammable Gass – & Little Scopprell enter'd the room (If I have not presented you with every character in the piece call me *Arse—)\"\n", "\"The Notorious Notations\" (February 2006, ) is the second of two commonplace books in the \"Unfortunate Events\" franchise. It is also 176 pages long, hardcover and contains quotations from the books and illustrations by Brett Helquist.\n", "At the end of some episodes from 2004-2007, Oscar the Grouch reads Slimey the Worm a chapter of Trash Gordon, a book with over 900 chapters. It is about a man named Trash Gordon (Gordon) who visits distant planets. At the end, Trash would announce what the letter and number of the day were.\n", "The novel alternates between episodes featuring Benny, Stencil and other members of the Whole Sick Crew (including Profane's sidekick Pig Bodine) in 1956 (with a few minor flashbacks), and a generation-spanning plot that comprises Stencil's attempts to unravel the clues he believes will lead him to \"V.\" (or to the various incarnations thereof). Each of these \"Stencilised\" chapters is set at a different moment of historical crisis; the framing narrative involving Stencil, \"V.\", and the journals of Stencil's British spy/diplomat father threads the sequences together. The novel's two storylines increasingly converge in the last chapters (the intersecting lines forming a V-shape, as it were), as Stencil hires Benny to travel with him to Malta.\n", "The title of the book seems to present a case of overdetermination, and a variety of proposals by scholars and reviewers alike have been made, pointing at different directions within the text. There is a general impression that, given the book's content as an escapee's fictional diary, Z213 could indicate inmate unique number, ward or section in a supposed detention center. A number of other interpretations have been suggested as follows:\n" ]

[ "Aquatic plants live in both the benthic and pelagic zones and can be grouped according to their manner of growth: 1) emergent = rooted in the substrate but with leaves and flowers extending into the air, 2) floating-leaved = rooted in the substrate but with floating leaves, 3) submersed = growing beneath the surface and 4) free-floating macrophytes = not rooted in the substrate and floating on the surface. These various forms of macrophytes generally occur in different areas of the benthic zone, with emergent vegetation nearest the shoreline, then floating-leaved macrophytes, followed by submersed vegetation. Free-floating macrophytes can occur anywhere on the system’s surface.\n", "The extant main islands of the archipelago have been above the surface of the ocean for fewer than 10million years; a fraction of the time biological colonization and evolution have occurred there. The islands are well known for the environmental diversity that occurs on high mountains within a trade winds field. On a single island, the climate around the coasts can range from dry tropical (less than annual rainfall) to wet tropical; on the slopes, environments range from tropical rainforest (more than per year), through a temperate climate, to alpine conditions with a cold, dry climate. The rainy climate impacts soil development, which largely determines ground permeability, affecting the distribution of streams and wetlands.\n", "Marine plants can be found in intertidal zones and shallow waters, such as seagrasses like eelgrass and turtle grass, \"Thalassia\". These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. Plant life can also flourish in the brackish waters of estuaries, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass beach grass might grow.\n", "Marine plants can be found in intertidal zones and shallow waters, such as seagrasses like eelgrass and turtle grass, \"Thalassia\". These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. Plant life can also flourish in the brackish waters of estuaries, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass beach grass might grow.\n", "Plants that survive in the sea are often found in shallow waters, such as the seagrasses (examples of which are eelgrass, \"Zostera\", and turtle grass, \"Thalassia\"). These plants have adapted to the high salinity of the ocean environment. The intertidal zone is also a good place to find plant life in the sea, where mangroves or cordgrass or beach grass might grow. \n", "Back in the Silurian, some phytoplankton evolved into red, brown and green algae. These algae then invaded the land and started evolving into the land plants we know today. Later in the Cretaceous some of these land plants returned to the sea as mangroves and seagrasses. These are found along coasts in intertidal regions and in the brackish water of estuaries. In addition, some seagrasses, like seaweeds, can be found at depths up to 50 metres on both soft and hard bottoms of the continental shelf.\n", "In marine systems, ocean currents have a key role determining which areas are effective as habitats, since ocean currents transport the basic nutrients needed to support marine life. Plankton are the life forms that inhabit the ocean that are so small (less than 2 mm) that they cannot effectively propel themselves through the water, but must drift instead with the currents. If the current carries the right nutrients, and if it also flows at a suitably shallow depth where there is plenty of sunlight, then such a current itself can become a suitable habitat for photosynthesizing tiny algae called phytoplankton. These tiny plants are the primary producers in the ocean, at the start of the food chain. In turn, as the population of drifting phytoplankton grows, the water becomes a suitable habitat for zooplankton, which feed on the phytoplankton. While phytoplankton are tiny drifting plants, zooplankton are tiny drifting animals, such as the larvae of fish and marine invertebrates. If sufficient zooplankton establish themselves, the current becomes a candidate habitat for the forage fish that feed on them. And then if sufficient forage fish move to the area, it becomes a candidate habitat for larger predatory fish and other marine animals that feed on the forage fish. In this dynamic way, the current itself can, over time, become a moving habitat for multiple types of marine life.\n" ]

[ "The Franciscan friar Juan Antonio Liendo y Goicoechea reformed university education towards the end of the 18th century by introducing science; Chemistry, Physics, Anatomy and Mathematics; and technology studies.\n", "There were several advancements made in 17th-century Italian education systems. One example could be the admission of Elena Cornaro Piscopia into the University of Padua. A mathematician, scholar and academic, Piscopia was the first woman in the world to ever graduate with a doctorate (PhD, or doctor of philosophy) in 1678. Several universities, colleges and institutions were founded in this century, such as the University of Cagliari in 1620.\n", "Ever since the Jesuits founded the first university in Argentina in the 17th century, education was managed by the clergy and conservative upper-class citizens . The universities' authorities were selected by them, and professors were appointed for life. Professors also decided on the subjects to be taught, usually following the preferences of the Church and suppressed modern ideas such as Darwin's theory of evolution \n", "In the early part of the 20th century, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced.\n", "In the early part of the 20th century, professional education expanded beyond the traditional fields of theology, law and medicine. Graduate training based on the German- inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced.\n", "In the early part of the 20th century, the need for higher education expanded beyond the classical fields of theology, law and medicine, and the university introduced science and social-science departments such as forestry and household science. In addition, graduate training based on the German-inspired American model of specialized course work and the completion of a research thesis was introduced.\n", "The history of the University is usually traced to 1841. It was in that year that five young men who were employed by local industrialist Frederic Schwann, who had been born in Frankfurt, approached their employer for support in establishing a new subscription library and some elementary educational classes, ‘to supply in some cases the deficiency of early instruction, and to procure for others the means of further improvement’. They first met in the Temperance Hotel, Cross Church Street, Huddersfield in May 1841. Classes began for the first 40 or so pupils in the room of the British School at Outcote Bank, and were taught by experienced staff from the local Collegiate Schools and businessmen like Schwann. A subscription library was founded, and classes were delivered in Reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, geography, design and French.\n" ]

[ "But by the beginning of the eighteenth century, even slave trade dwindled, with the Dutch becoming a rather small player in the trans-Atlantic trade. Since globally this trade peaked in the 18th century, this meant that the Dutch contribution to the Atlantic slave trade only amounts to 5% of the grand total, equalling around 500,000 slaves shipped from Africa to the Americas.\n", "When the Atlantic slave trade began, many of the local slave systems began supplying captives for chattel slave markets outside Africa. Although the Atlantic slave trade was not the only slave trade from Africa, it was the largest in volume and intensity. As Elikia M’bokolo wrote in \"Le Monde diplomatique\":\n", "Arab or Islamic slave trade lasted much longer than Atlantic or European slave trade: \"It began in the middle of the seventh century and survives today in Mauritania and Sudan. With the Islamic slave trade, we're talking of 14 centuries rather than four.\" Further, \"whereas the gender ratio of slaves in the Atlantic trade was two males to every female, in the Islamic trade, it was two females to every male,\" according to Ronald Segal\n", "Atlantic trade routes were more heavily used at the end of the 18th century, and led to a decline in the use of trans-Saharan routes. During this time, a stronger focus was placed on gold and minerals, and eventually slaves through the Atlantic slave trade. This time is also associated with periods of warfare and conflict with a group known as the Asante, who had a large influence on day to day stability and productiveness of those living in the Banda District.\n", "The Atlantic slave trade peaked in the late 18th century, when the largest number of slaves were captured on raiding expeditions into the interior of West Africa. The increase of demand for slaves due to the expansion of European colonial powers to the New World made the slave trade much more lucrative to the West African powers, leading to the establishment of a number of actual West African empires thriving on slave trade.\n", "The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade took place across the Atlantic Ocean from the 15th through to the 19th centuries. The Atlantic slave trade was significant in transforming Africans from a small percentage of the global population of slaves in 1600 into the overwhelming majority by 1800. The slave trade was transformed from a marginal aspect of the economies into the largest sector in a relatively short span. In addition, agricultural plantations increased significantly and became a key aspect in many societies. Finally, it transformed the traditional distribution of the slave practices.\n", "Debates on the economic impacts of the Atlantic trade were further stimulated by the publication of Philip Curtin's \"The Atlantic Slave Trade: A Census\" (1969), which argued that 9.566 million slaves were exported from Africa through the Atlantic trade. In the 1970s, the debate on the economic impacts of the Atlantic trade increasingly turned on demographic estimates of slave exports in relation to continental birth rates. Most scholars now believe that Curtin was too conservative in his calculation, with most estimates ranging between 11.5 million to 15.4 million. More recently, John K. Thornton has presented an argument closer to that of Fage, while Joseph Inikori, Patrick Manning and Nathan Nunn have argued that the slave trade had a long-term debilitating impact on African economic development.\n" ]

[ "As evidence, Wegner cites a series of experiments on magical thinking in which subjects were induced to think they had influenced external events. In one experiment, subjects watched a basketball player taking a series of free throws. When they were instructed to visualise him making his shots, they felt that they had contributed to his success.\n", "For the experiment, each child was exposed to the scenario individually, so as not to be influenced or distracted by classmates. The first part of the experiment involved bringing a child and the adult model into a playroom. In the playroom, the child was seated in one corner filled with appealing activities such as stickers and stamps. The adult model was seated in another corner containing a toy set, a mallet, and an inflatable Bobo doll. Before leaving the room, the experimenter explained to the child that the toys in the adult corner were only for the adult to play with.\n", "In addition, a more well-known experiment by Wimmer and Perner (1983) called the false-belief task demonstrates how children show their acquisition of theory of mind (ToM) as early as 4 years old. In this task, children see a scenario where one character hides a marble in a basket, walks out of the scene, and another character that is present takes out the marble and put it in a box. Knowing that the first character did not see the switching task, children were asked to predict where the first character would look to find the marble. The results show that children younger than 4 answer that the character would look inside the box, because they have the superior knowledge of where the marble actually is. It shows egocentric thinking in early childhood because they thought that even if the character itself did not see the entire scenario, it has the same amount of knowledge as oneself and therefore should look inside the box to find the marble. As children start to acquire ToM, their ability to recognize and process others' beliefs and values overrides the natural tendency to be egocentric.\n", "An early written thought experiment was Plato's allegory of the cave. Another historic thought experiment was Avicenna's \"Floating Man\" thought experiment in the 11th century. He asked his readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air isolated from all in order to demonstrate human self-awareness and self-consciousness, and the substantiality of the soul.\n", "The psychological experiment performed on young Rimmer at the beginning of the episode, in which an unsuspecting student gives erroneous answers to simple questions in order to conform to the behaviour of his peers, is based on the Asch conformity experiments conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s.\n", "\"He spoke about a friend who was a psychic and experiments they did. He said he set up a pinwheel experiment – I don't know how, but he knew how to set up an experiment that would be valid – and he told me that for about a week he could turn it with his mind, with his thoughts, but after about a week he couldn't do it anymore. He also told me a story about being in a car parked on the street, he was into thought experiments, and he said he projected a thought into her mind to get into my car, and as the woman was walking by the car she stopped, opened the door and sat down and looked at him, and I don't know if she shrieked or what but she was absolutely stunned at what she was doing. He said, I willed her to get into the car, and she did. I think he was as shocked as she was. They were both shocked.\n", "These experiments relate empirically to Bandura's social learning theory. This social science theory suggests that people learn by observing, imitating, and modeling; moreover, it suggests specifically that people learn not only by being rewarded or punished (as is claimed by behaviorism), but also by watching others being rewarded or punished (observational learning). The experiments are important because they resulted in much further study related to observational learning. As well, the data offered further practical working hypotheses, e.g., regarding how children might be influenced from watching violent media.\n" ]

[ "Aristotle primarily divided 'sensitive' biological organisms into animals and 'non-sensitive' biological organisms as plants. Unlike livestock, which have become tamed for at least a few century and have a much different appearance and character to their inhabitants in the wild, wild animals have intrinsic characteristics. People are accustomed to be more familiar to livestock and often know their original form as livestock. But, the difference between the livestock and wild fauna is that livestock evolved in a direction favorable to human, whilst other fauna still consist their wild instinct. To have a clear insight of South Korea's wild fauna, In the case of wolves, unlike dogs that evolved to actively pursue cooperation with humans, they do not show any reliance on humans. The wild version of the pig, the Wild Boar, is larger on average than the pigs used for food, and also has long hair with sharp tusks.\n", "In \"Bambi or Bessie: Are Wild Animals Happier?\" Christie Wilcox argues that wild animals do not appear to be happier than domestic animals, based on findings of wild animals having greater levels of cortisol and elevated stress responses relative to domestic animals. Additionally, unlike domestic animals, animals in the wild do not have some of their needs provided for them by human caretakers. Welfare economist Yew-Kwang Ng has written that evolutionary dynamics can lead to animal welfare which is worse than necessary for a given population equilibrium.\n", "The feline temperament is particularly malleable to a wide set of environmental factors, especially sudden stresses. For example, after dangerous floods in Canvey Island, cats showed behaviors of psychological shock akin to human struggles. Well-raised kittens frequently demonstrate affection towards humans and a pleasant, docile nature regardless of pedigree. These broad traits are not specific to any particular breed, as the upbringing of the animal is an important factor. Positive interaction with humans in the first few months of life is particularly vital.\n", "The risk of Clever Hans effects is one reason why comparative psychologists normally test animals in isolated apparatus, without interaction with them. However this creates problems of its own, because many of the most interesting phenomena in animal cognition are only likely to be demonstrated in a social context, and in order to train and demonstrate them, it is necessary to build up a social relationship between trainer and animal. This point of view has been strongly argued by Irene Pepperberg in relation to her studies of parrots (Alex), and by Allen and Beatrix Gardner in their study of the chimpanzee Washoe. If the results of such studies are to gain universal acceptance, it is necessary to find some way of testing the animals' achievements which eliminates the risk of Clever Hans effects. However, simply removing the trainer from the scene may not be an appropriate strategy, because where the social relationship between trainer and subject is strong, the removal of the trainer may produce emotional responses preventing the subject from performing. It is therefore necessary to devise procedures where none of those present knows what the animal's likely response may be.\n", "BULLET::::- Considering certain nonhuman animals to be superior to others because of an arbitrary similarity, familiarity, or usefulness to humans. For example, what could be called \"human-chimpanzee speciesism\" would involve human beings favoring rights for chimpanzees over rights for (say) dolphins, because of happenstance similarities chimpanzees have to humans that dolphins do not. Similarly, the common practice of humans treating dogs much better than cattle may have to do with the fact that many humans live in closer proximity to dogs and/or find the cattle easier to use for their own gain.\n", "Animals were also severely affected by Roog's judgement. Although rendered wild and \"mad\", they still retain their instinct, though their relations with humans would be changed forever. Some became human pets others retained their freedom away from human habitation. Despite this separation, animals are respected and would form part of Serer temism.\n", "However, mammals are the most popular pets in the Western world, with the most kept species being dogs, cats, and rabbits. For example, in America in 2012 there were some 78 million dogs, 86 million cats, and 3.5 million rabbits. There is a tension between the role of animals as companions to humans, and their existence as individuals with rights of their own.\n" ]

[ "As a result, banks have tended to buy in modern comprehensive software from large, specialist firms. This may be run by the bank itself or by an agency running the computing service on behalf of the bank.\n", "Banking software is used by millions of users across hundreds or thousands of branches. This means that the software must be managed on many machines even in a small bank. The core banking system is a major investment for a retail banks and maintaining and managing the system can represent a large part of the cost of running a bank.\n", "In 1964, National Bank of Commerce significantly increased deposits by offering one of the highest savings interest rates in the country. That same year, the bank bought a computer for its accounting and became one of the first banks in the region to computerize its operations, subsequently providing computer services to other banks.\n", "Over the following 30 years most banks moved to core banking applications to support their operations creating a Centralized Online Real-time Exchange (or Environment) (CORE). This meant that all the bank's branches could access applications from centralized data centers. Deposits made were reflected immediately on the bank's servers, and the customer could withdraw the deposited money from any of the bank's branches. \n", "Commercial or retail banks use what is known as core banking software which record and manage the transactions made by the banks' customers to their accounts. For example, it allows a customer to go to any branch of the bank and do its banking from there. In essence, it frees the customer from their home branch and enables them to do banking anywhere. Further, the bank's databases can be connected to other channels such as ATMs, Internet Banking, payment networks and SMS based banking.\n", "Microsoft thought that bank switching was a necessary, but inelegant and temporary, stopgap measure; Bill Gates said of expanded memory, \"It's garbage! It's a kludge! ... But we're going to do it\". The companies planned to launch the standard at the Spring 1985 COMDEX, with many expansion-card and software companies announcing their support.\n", "For example, consider a typical banking transaction that involves moving $700 from a customer's savings account to a customer's checking account. This transaction involves at least two separate operations in computer terms: debiting the savings account by $700, and crediting the checking account by $700. If one operation succeeds but the other does not, the books of the bank will not balance at the end of the day. There must therefore be a way to ensure that either both operations succeed or both fail, so that there is never any inconsistency in the bank's database as a whole.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Apocalypse of Weeks (93:1–10, 91:11–17): this subsection, usually dated to the first half of the 2nd century BC, narrates the history of the world using a structure of ten periods (said \"weeks\"), of which seven regard the past and three regard future events (the final judgment). The climax is in the seventh part of the tenth week where \"new heaven shall appear\" and \"there will be many weeks without number for ever, and all shall be in goodness and righteousness\".\n", "The legend begins at twilight, which, according to Sáenz, can be seen as a comparison to the decline of the indigenous civilization. The end of the war is announced and a night-long celebration of peace ensues among the aboriginal people in the story. There's a list of the squadrons of soldiers, and each one is distinguished by the colors of the feathers they wear. The head of the local Maya brings together those who are to be sacrificed. The moment of destruction begins as the priests exclaim ritual sentences to the volcano, while the Spaniards (\"white men\") approach. The tribes are terrified and flee to the lake to protect themselves against the invasion, leaving the treasure behind.\n", "The most-seen explanation for the apocalypse comes from the Sunner religion, a sect that worships Mother Sun and Father Moon. According to their legend, the Big Wet was a retribution on the people of A-Ree-Yass-I for shunning the 'gifts' Mother Sun and Father Moon offered them. It seems as though this mythic place's name is a play on words by the author, and a linguistic contraction in-world, for \"Area 1/I\" (or perhaps \"Area SI\" = Area 51)—a military base/lab where the bomb was created.\n", "I Am Legend is a 1954 science fiction horror novel by American writer Richard Matheson. It was influential in the development of the zombie-vampire genre and in popularizing the concept of a worldwide apocalypse due to disease. The novel was a success and was adapted into the films \"The Last Man on Earth\" (1964), \"The Omega Man\" (1971), and \"I Am Legend\" (2007). It was also an inspiration behind \"Night of the Living Dead\" (1968).\n", "\"X-Men Legends II: Rise of Apocalypse\" is not set in any particular Marvel Comics universe. The game takes place some time after the events of \"X-Men Legends\". The mutant supervillain Apocalypse, having witnessed the X-Men's defeat of Magneto remotely, declares that the Age of Apocalypse is nigh. Prior to the game's campaign he kidnaps Professor X and Polaris for unknown purposes. Locations include a military prison in Greenland, the fictional mutant sanctuary of Genosha, the Savage Land and Egypt.\n", "The legend is based on the \"Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius\", which was, after the Book of Daniel and the Book of Revelation, \"the most widespread apocalypse story in Europe\". It proposes a different Last Emperor from the previous figure, who fought against religious enemies, and introduced the conflict with Islam: he will \"go forth against them [the enemies of the faith] from the Ethiopian sea and will send the sword and desolation into Ethribus their homeland, capturing their women and children living in the Land of Promise\". After conquering his enemies he would travel to Jerusalem and relinquish his power on the Mount of Olives. The Last Emperor was further developed in the writings of Adso of Montier-en-Der, whose \"Libellus de Antichristo\" (ca. 954) was a popular biography of the Antichrist, whose coming was preceded by the rise of a Frankish ruler (the continuation of the Roman Empire); this Last Emperor would voluntarily give up his power and die, after which the Antichrist comes to power. Another important impetus came from the oracles of the Tiburtine Sibyl, first recorded in Latin around the year 1000; its legend proved particularly adaptable to rulers all over Europe, containing as it did a list of emperors and kings leading up to the Last Emperor which could be revised or added to as political and dynastic circumstances required. It still had great currency in the fifteenth century.\n", "The first trilogy in the series, \"The Age of Misrule\", told of the catastrophic return to Britain of the Old Gods of legend, and the battle of a group of five known as the Brothers and Sisters of Dragons to protect humanity. \"The Dark Age\" explored the lives of a new group of Brothers and Sisters, struggling to cope in the new world left behind in the wake of the first trilogy. \"Kingdom of the Serpent\" picks up the story where the cliffhanger ending of \"The Dark Age\" left off. The world, returning to the old ways due to the influence of the returning Gods, was dealt a dreadful blow by an entity known as the Void, recreating the menial, soul-destroying world it had become before the Gods' return, and trapping the Brothers and Sisters of Dragons - the only ones who could fight it - in menial lives, their heritage forgotten and their power lying dormant. The only one who can save them is Jack Churchill who, following the final battle with the dark god \"Balor\" has found himself lost in Bronze-age Britain\n" ]

[ "Other ecogeographical rules include Bergmann's Rule, coined by Carl Bergmann in 1857, which states that homeotherms closer to the Equator tend to be smaller than their more northerly or southerly conspecifics. One of the proposed reasons for this cline is that larger animals have a relatively smaller surface area to volume ratio and therefore improved heat conservancy – an important advantage in cold climates. The role of the environment in imposing a selective pressure and producing this cline has been heavily implicated due to the fact that Bergmann’s Rule has been observed across many independent lineages of species and continents. For example, the house sparrow, which was introduced in the early 1850s to the eastern United States, evolved a north-south gradient in size soon after its introduction. This gradient reflects the gradient that already existed in the house sparrow’s native range in Europe. \n", "Bergmann’s rule states that endothermic animal subspecies living in colder climates have larger bodies than that of the subspecies living in warmer climates. Individuals with larger bodies are better suited for colder climates because larger bodies produce more heat due to having more cells, and have a smaller surface area compared to smaller individuals, which reduces heat loss. A study by Frederick Foster and Mark Collard found that Bergmann’s rule can be applied to humans when the latitude and temperature between groups differ widely.\n", "Low (warm) latitudes contain significantly more species than high (cold) latitudes. This has been shown for many animal and plant groups, although exceptions exist (see latitudinal gradients in species diversity). An example of an exception is helminths of marine mammals, which have the greatest diversity in northern temperate seas, possibly because of small population densities of hosts in tropical seas that prevented the evolution of a rich helminth fauna, or because they originated in temperate seas and had more time for speciations there. It has become more and more apparent that species diversity is best correlated with environmental temperature and more generally environmental energy. These findings are the basis of the hypothesis of effective evolutionary time. Species have accumulated fastest in areas where temperatures are highest. Mutation rates and speed of selection due to faster physiological rates are highest, and generation times which also determine speed of selection, are smallest at high temperatures. This leads to a faster accumulation of species, which are absorbed into the abundantly available vacant niches, in the tropics. Vacant niches are available at all latitudes, and differences in the number of such niches can therefore not be the limiting factor for species richness. The hypothesis also incorporates a time factor: habitats with a long undisturbed evolutionary history will have greater diversity than habitats exposed to disturbances in evolutionary history.\n", "Habitat quality is highly variable and as a result smaller species tend to be present in less of their range. Instead, they are only found in patches of their range where there is good habitat. A correlate to this argument is that the opposite is true for larger species. Larger species have lower beta diversity and are replaced less frequently across landscapes and as a result tend to occupy more of their range (see Occupancy-abundance relationship relationships) (Brown and Maurer, 1989; Brown and Nicoletto, 1991). This mechanism likely contributes to the shift in body size-species richness distribution observed between continental and local scales.\n", "For animals to be able to live in the polar region they have to have adaptations which allow them to live in the cold and windy environments. These animals have originated with these adaptations, and animals that live in these regions are accumulating adaptations to be able to live in this type of environment. Some of these adaptations may be to be big and insolated, have a lot of fur, and to be darker. Also, many animals live in groups to be able to protect themselves from the cold. Animals also tend to be homeotherms which are animals that maintain a high temperature. Smaller invertebrates also tend to be smaller in polar regions which helps them conserve energy.\n", "Due to the harsh weather in the polar regions, there are not many animals. The animals that do exist in the polar region are similar between the Antarctic and Arctic regions. The animals do differ by the temperature. In the Arctic some invertebrates include spiders, mites, mosquitoes and flies. In warmer areas of the polar regions moths, butterflies and beetles can be found. Some of the larger animals that exist are foxes, wolves, rabbits, hares, polar bears, reindeer/caribou. There are various bird species that have been spotted in the Arctic. Eight species of birds reside on the polar tundra year round while 150 breed in the Arctic. The birds that do breed go to the Arctic between May and July. One of the known birds is the snowy owl, which has enough fat on it to be able to survive in the cold temperatures.\n", "The size of continents is also important. Because of the stabilizing effect of the oceans on temperature, yearly temperature variations are generally lower in coastal areas than they are inland. A larger supercontinent will therefore have more area in which climate is strongly seasonal than will several smaller continents or islands.\n" ]

[ "Hypertension can also be produced by diseases of the renal arteries supplying the kidney. This is known as renovascular hypertension; it is thought that decreased perfusion of renal tissue due to stenosis of a main or branch renal artery activates the renin–angiotensin system.\n", "Although hypercholesterolemia itself is asymptomatic, longstanding elevation of serum cholesterol can lead to atherosclerosis (hardening of arteries). Over a period of decades, elevated serum cholesterol contributes to formation of atheromatous plaques in the arteries. This can lead to progressive narrowing of the involved arteries. Alternatively smaller plaques may rupture and cause a clot to form and obstruct blood flow. A sudden blockage of a coronary artery may result in a heart attack. A blockage of an artery supplying the brain can cause a stroke. If the development of the stenosis or occlusion is gradual, blood supply to the tissues and organs slowly diminishes until organ function becomes impaired. At this point tissue ischemia (restriction in blood supply) may manifest as specific symptoms. For example, temporary ischemia of the brain (commonly referred to as a transient ischemic attack) may manifest as temporary loss of vision, dizziness and impairment of balance, difficulty speaking, weakness or numbness or tingling, usually on one side of the body. Insufficient blood supply to the heart may cause chest pain, and ischemia of the eye may manifest as transient visual loss in one eye. Insufficient blood supply to the legs may manifest as calf pain when walking, while in the intestines it may present as abdominal pain after eating a meal.\n", "The pathogenesis of pulmonary \"arterial\" hypertension (WHO Group I) involves the narrowing of blood vessels connected to and within the lungs. This makes it harder for the heart to pump blood through the lungs, much as it is harder to make water flow through a narrow pipe as opposed to a wide one. Over time, the affected blood vessels become stiffer and thicker, in a process known as fibrosis. The mechanisms involved in this narrowing process include vasoconstriction, thrombosis, and vascular remodeling (excessive cellular proliferation, fibrosis, and reduced apoptosis/programmed cell death in the vessel walls, caused by inflammation, disordered metabolism and dysregulation of certain growth factors). Over time, vascular remodeling causes the affected blood vessels to become progressively stiffer and thicker. This further increases the blood pressure within the lungs and impairs their blood flow. In common with other types of pulmonary hypertension, these changes result in an increased workload for the right side of the heart. The right ventricle is normally part of a low pressure system, with systolic ventricular pressures that are lower than those that the left ventricle normally encounters. As such, the right ventricle cannot cope as well with higher pressures, and although right ventricular adaptations (hypertrophy and increased contractility of the heart muscle) initially help to preserve stroke volume, ultimately these compensatory mechanisms are insufficient; the right ventricular muscle cannot get enough oxygen to meet its needs and right heart failure follows. As the blood flowing through the lungs decreases, the left side of the heart receives less blood. This blood may also carry less oxygen than normal. Therefore, it becomes harder and harder for the left side of the heart to pump to supply sufficient oxygen to the rest of the body, especially during physical activity.\n", "When blood vessels dilate, the flow of blood is increased due to a decrease in vascular resistance and increase in cardiac output. Therefore, dilation of arterial blood vessels (mainly the arterioles) decreases blood pressure. The response may be intrinsic (due to local processes in the surrounding tissue) or extrinsic (due to hormones or the nervous system). In addition, the response may be localized to a specific organ (depending on the metabolic needs of a particular tissue, as during strenuous exercise), or it may be systemic (seen throughout the entire systemic circulation).\n", "It is not clear whether or not vasoconstriction of arteriolar blood vessels plays a role in hypertension. Hypertension is also associated with decreased peripheral venous compliance which may increase venous return, increase cardiac preload and, ultimately, cause diastolic dysfunction.\n", "The lenticulostriate arteries supply a substantial amount of the internal capsule. These small vessels are particularly vulnerable to narrowing in the setting of chronic hypertension and can result in small, punctate infarctions or intraparenchymal haemorrhage due to vessel rupture.\n", "The combination of anemia and low blood pressure means that the blood is carrying less oxygen to the tissues. The optic nerve can be at very high risk for damage from insufficient blood supply due to swelling (from lack of oxygen) in a confined bony space resulting in a compartment syndrome. Restricted blood flow can lead to permanent damage to the optic nerve and result in blindness (often in both eyes). For technical reasons this occurs more frequently with spinal surgeries.\n" ]

[ "The modern concept of a sandwich using slices of bread as found within the West can arguably be traced to 18th-century Europe. However, the use of some kind of bread or bread-like substance to lie under (or under \"and\" over) some other food, or used to scoop up and enclose or wrap some other type of food, long predates the eighteenth century, and is found in numerous much older cultures worldwide.\n", "The lettuce sandwich (bread with a lettuce filling) was a common food in the United States and England during the first half of the 20th century. Lettuce sandwiches have been served at fine luncheons,\n", "In the United States, the sandwich was first promoted as an elaborate meal at supper. By the early twentieth century, as bread became a staple of the American diet, the sandwich became the same kind of popular, quick meal as was already widespread in the Mediterranean.\n", "\"Quick bread\" most probably originated in the United States at the end of the eighteenth century. Before the creation of quick bread, baked goods were leavened either with yeast or by mixing dough with eggs.\n", "Before being known as sandwiches, this food combination seems to simply have been known as \"bread and meat\" or \"bread and cheese\". These two phrases are found throughout English drama from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.\n", "This is a list of American breads. Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been popular around the world and is one of humanity's oldest foods, having been of importance since the dawn of agriculture.\n", "Bread is a staple food prepared from a dough of flour and water, usually by baking. Throughout recorded history it has been a prominent food in large parts of the world and is one of the oldest man-made foods, having been of significant importance since the dawn of agriculture.\n" ]

[ "Many people may go on road trips for recreational purpose (e.g. sightseeing or to reach a desired location, typically during a vacation period (e.g., in the US, driving to Disneyland from Oregon)). Other motivations for long distance travel by automobile include visitation of relatives, who may live far away, or relocation of one's permanent living space.\n", "Although remote and hardly accessible, this area attracts some tourists and dachniks (owners of seasonal second homes, usually log cabins or small cottages) due to its untouched nature, ecology, traditional way of life and some objects of cultural and historical heritage of local significance. The quality of rural roads is very poor and in winter and rainy seasons it is hard to reach the village and nearby settlements with an ordinary car.\n", "It is not uncommon for residents to access other remote areas by foot.  Most locals can tell you how many days it would take to walk to most locations within the country.  Walking often is the only way for people to get to their local villages anyway, as many local airstrips are in disrepair. The maintenance of airstrips is a Local Level Government responsibility, and many LLGs in the surrounding area are severely underfunded.\n", "The majority of the people earn their livelihood through agriculture. There are also a number in government services, mostly army and police. Many young people go abroad and so people from the village are found in USA, France, South Africa, Spain, Greece, Italy, Salalah-Muscat (Oman), Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Dubai.\n", "The village harbors 73 main streets and 1500 registered houses. People there are mainly self-employed, working at local businesses.The majority of the locals work in Abroad while many of the young peoples do business and working in the Middle East, Europe, United States and South East Asia. \n", "Currently there are less than 100 people living in the small community as there are only 33 houses, a church and an old school that has been transformed into a Community Centre. The closest town is 40 miles away so people have to have vehicles if they want to work. The kids take a school bus to Hythe Regional for the younger ones and then to Beaverlodge Regional High for grades 10-12. \n", "The new road can easily take 10 minutes off any journey which would otherwise involve travelling through the three towns and as a result has proven very popular amongst people who make such journeys - for example people from Largs and West Kilbride to the north who now have swifter access to the shopping facilities of Irvine and Ayr and the Morrisons supermarket at Stevenston, as well as any football fans who may be travelling to watch Kilmarnock FC.\n" ]

[ "\"The History of the World Backwards\" tells the story of the world, but in a world where time flows forwards whilst history told backwards. In other words, if you were born in 2007, you would be 60 years old in 1947. All the major historical events happen backwards, so for example, Nelson Mandela enters jail a Spice Girls fan, and comes out as a terrorist intent in overthrowing the state. There are several recurring themes, such as the \"Technology collapse\", where scientific discoveries are lost, forgotten or made unworkable.\n", "But what made history even at school was the plots in satire, criticism and humor created by Luiz Fernando Reis where they constitute a formula that spoke Inflation have criticized politicians asked Diretas Já that please and spoke to the public. However the revisionist school, and this style, culminating in various descents, to access groups.\n", "Unlike most western scholars who preceded them, including classical liberals, classical Marxists, empiricists, dialectical thinkers and positivists, historical institutionalists do not accept that history necessarily develops in a straightforward, linear fashion. Instead, they examine the conditions under which a particular trajectory was followed and not others, a phenomenon that Gabriel Almond refers to as the \"historical cure\". As a consequence, specifying why particular paths were \"not\" taken is as important as specifying the actual trajectory of history.\n", "Robert Bain in \"How Students Learn\" described a similar approach called \"problematizing history\". First a learning curriculum is organized around central concepts. Next, a question and primary sources are provided, such as eyewitness historical accounts. The task for inquiry is to create an interpretation of history that will answer the central question. Students will form a hypothesis, collect and consider information and revisit their hypothesis as they evaluate their data.\n", "BULLET::::- The main reason for studying history is not because we should assign praise or blame, or simply because it is interesting, but because we need to study past experience to understand the present and the future. History can be seen as a \"laboratory\", the lab-record of which shows how, under given conditions, people tried to achieve their goals, and what the results of their experimentations were. This can provide insight into what is likely or unlikely to succeed in future. At the very least, each generation has to come to grips with the experience of the previous generation, as well as educating the future generation.\n", "The book reflects Loewen's belief that history should not be taught as straightforward facts and dates to memorize, but rather as analysis of the context and root causes of events. Loewen recommends that teachers use two or more textbooks, so that students may realize the contradictions and ask questions, such as, \"Why do the authors present the material like this?\"\n", "BULLET::::2. Teaching of national history begins much later than in most national schools. History is taught from twelve years old. First the world history is taught, then insertion of national history is done to its proper and relative importance.\n" ]

[ "Limb-sparing techniques, also known as limb-saving or limb-salvage techniques, are performed in order to give patients an alternative to amputation. There are many different types of limb-sparing techniques, including arthrodesis, arthroplasty, alloprosthetic composite, endoprosthetic reconstruction, prosthetic implants, and rotationplasty.\n", "By definition, a nonunion will not heal if left alone. Therefore the patient's symptoms will not be improved and the function of the limb will remain impaired. It will be painful to bear weight on it and it may be deformed or unstable. The prognosis of nonunion if treated depends on many factors including the age and general health of the patient, the time since the original injury, the number of previous surgeries, smoking history, the patient's ability to cooperate with the treatment. In the region of 80% of nonunions heal after the first operation. The success rate with subsequent surgeries is less.\n", "Outcome of major limb replantations can be predicted by the potassium level of the blood which flows out of the replanted part after revascularization as a high level of potassium can be a marker of muscle and tissue death.\n", "Loss of upper-limb function in patients with following a spinal cord injury is a major barrier to regain autonomy. The functional abilities of a tetraplegic patient increase substantially for instance if the patient can extend the elbow. This can increase the workspace and give a better use of a manual wheelchair. To be able to hold objects a patient needs to have a functional pinch grip, this can be useful for performing daily living activities. \n", "There are many different treatment options for phantom limb pain that are actively being researched. Most treatments do not take into account the mechanisms underlying phantom pains, and are therefore ineffective. However, there are a few treatment options that have been shown to alleviate pain in some patients, but these treatment options usually have a success rate less than 30%. It is important to note that this rate of success does not exceed the placebo effect. It is also important to note that because the degree of cortical reorganization is proportional to phantom limb pains, any perturbations to the amputated regions may increase pain perception.\n", "Another important clinical decision during acute management of open fractures involves the effort to avoid preventable amputations, where functional salvage of the limb is clearly desirable. Care must be taken to ensure this decision is not solely based on an injury severity tool score, but rather a decision made following a full discussion of options between doctors and the person, along with their family and care team.\n", "Limb regeneration occurs when a part of an organism is destroyed, and the organism must reform that structure. The general steps for limb regeneration are as follows: epidermis covers the wound which is called the wound healing process, the mesenchyme dedifferentiates into a blastema and a apical ectodermal cap forms, and the limb re-differentiates to form the full limb.\n" ]

[ "In meiosis, DNA replication is followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the original parent cell. The two meiotic divisions are known as Meiosis I and Meiosis II. Before meiosis begins, during S phase of the cell cycle, the DNA of each chromosome is replicated so that it consists of two identical sister chromatids, which remain held together through sister chromatid cohesion. This S-phase can be referred to as \"premeiotic S-phase\" or \"meiotic S-phase\". Immediately following DNA replication, meiotic cells enter a prolonged G2-like stage known as meiotic prophase. During this time, homologous chromosomes pair with each other and undergo genetic recombination, a programmed process in which DNA is cut and then repaired, which allows them to exchange some of their genetic information. A subset of recombination events results in crossovers, which create physical links known as chiasmata (singular: chiasma, for the Greek letter Chi (X)) between the homologous chromosomes. In most organisms, these links are essential to direct each pair of homologous chromosomes to segregate away from each other during Meiosis I, resulting in two haploid cells that have half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell. During Meiosis II, the cohesion between sister chromatids is released and they segregate from one another, as during mitosis. In some cases all four of the meiotic products form gametes such as sperm, spores, or pollen. In female animals, three of the four meiotic products are typically eliminated by extrusion into polar bodies, and only one cell develops to\n", "Meiosis begins with a diploid cell, which contains two copies of each chromosome, termed homologs. First, the cell undergoes DNA replication, so each homolog now consists of two identical sister chromatids. Then each set of homologs pair with each other and exchange DNA by homologous recombination leading to physical connections (crossovers) between the homologs. In the first meiotic division, the homologs are segregated to separate daughter cells by the spindle apparatus. The cells then proceed to a second division without an intervening round of DNA replication. The sister chromatids are segregated to separate daughter cells to produce a total of four haploid cells. Female animals employ a slight variation on this pattern and produce one large ovum and two small polar bodies. Because of recombination, an individual chromatid can consist of a new combination of maternal and paternal DNA, resulting in offspring that are genetically distinct from either parent. Furthermore, an individual gamete can include an assortment of maternal, paternal, and recombinant chromatids. This genetic diversity resulting from sexual reproduction contributes to the variation in traits upon which natural selection can act.\n", "In cell biology, mitosis () is a part of the cell cycle when replicated chromosomes are separated into two new nuclei. Cell division gives rise to genetically identical cells in which the number of chromosomes is maintained. In general, mitosis (division of the nucleus) is preceded by the S stage of interphase (during which the DNA is replicated) and is often accompanied or followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles and cell membrane into two new cells containing roughly equal shares of these cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of an animal cell cycle—the division of the mother cell into two daughter cells genetically identical to each other.\n", "During normal mitosis, sister chromatids separate into two identical daughter cells. In meiosis is a diploid cell (2N) duplicates its DNA once and undergoes two rounds of cell division to produce four haploid (1N), germ cells that promotes the recombination of large expanses of chromosomal DNA, potentially similar in size to those lost or gained in cancer. In meiotic division, homologous chromosomes are held together by cohesions, and after resolution of chiasma (the recombination crossover points with the other chromosome pair), the homologous chromosomes are segregated together. In these cells chiasma occurs and sister chromatids are partly held together by cohesions; when cell division occurs, the sister chromatids are sheared and mis-segregated which results in an aneuploid state.\n", "In meiosis, the DNA is replicated only once, while the cell divides twice. DNA replication only occurs before meiosis I. DNA replication does not occur when the cells divide the second time, in meiosis II. Replication, like all cellular activities, requires specialized proteins for carrying out the job.\n", "Immediately after DNA replication a human cell will have 46 \"double chromosomes\". In each double chromosome there are two copies of that chromosome's DNA molecule. During mitosis the double chromosomes are split to produce 92 \"single chromosomes\", half of which go into each daughter cell. During meiosis, there are two chromosome separation steps which assure that each of the four daughter cells gets one copy of each of the 23 types of chromosome.\n", "Homologous chromosomes do not function the same in mitosis as they do in meiosis. Prior to every single mitotic division a cell undergoes, the chromosomes in the parent cell replicate themselves. The homologous chromosomes within the cell will ordinarily not pair up and undergo genetic recombination with each other. Instead, the replicants, or sister chromatids, will line up along the metaphase plate and then separate in the same way as meiosis II - by being pulled apart at their centromeres by nuclear mitotic spindles. If any crossing over does occur between sister chromatids during mitosis, it does not produce any new recombinant genotypes.\n" ]

[ "Soaps are formed from the reaction of glycerides with sodium hydroxide. The product of the reaction is glycerol and salts of fatty acids. Fatty acids in the soap emulsify the oils in dirt, enabling the removal of oily dirt with water.\n", "Ordinary soap is a salt of a fatty acid. Soaps are mainly used as surfactants for washing, bathing, and cleaning. Soaps for cleansing are made by treating vegetable or animal oils and fats with a strongly alkaline solution. Fats and oils are composed of triglycerides; three molecules of fatty acids are attached to a single molecule of glycerol. The alkaline solution, which is often called lye (although the term \"lye soap\" refers almost exclusively to soaps made with sodium hydroxide), brings about a chemical reaction known as saponification. In this reaction, the triglyceride fats are first hydrolyzed into free fatty acids, and then these combine with the alkali to form crude soap: a combination of various soap salts, excess fat or alkali, water, and liberated glycerol (glycerin).\n", "Handmade soap from the cold process also differs from industrially made soap in that an excess of fat is used, beyond that needed to consume the alkali (in a cold-pour process, this excess fat is called \"superfatting\"), and the glycerol left in acts as a moisturizing agent. However, the glycerine also makes the soap softer. Addition of glycerol and processing of this soap produces glycerin soap. Superfatted soap is more skin-friendly than one without extra fat, although it can leave a \"greasy\" feel. Sometimes, an emollient is added, such as jojoba oil or shea butter. Sand or pumice may be added to produce a scouring soap. The scouring agents serve to remove dead cells from the skin surface being cleaned. This process is called exfoliation. \n", "Glycerin soaps are soaps that contain glycerin, a component of fat or oil. They are recognizably different from other soaps because they are translucent. The clarity is due to the alignment of the soap molecules, which can be induced through the addition of alcohol and sugar. This is usually done for homemade glycerin soaps that are not remeltable.\n", "The soap comes packaged in paper similar to bar body soap and is most often found in the laundry section of a supermarket or grocery store. It is intended for the pre-treatment of stains by rubbing the dampened product on a soiled area prior to laundering. The manufacturer claims it to be most effective in removing chocolate, baby formula, perspiration, and make-up.\n", "A soap substitute refers to detergents or cleansing creams, other than soap, for cleaning the skin, especially removing greasy films or glandular exudates. Soap contains a increasingly high amount of synthetic elements than actual ingredients intended to cleanse the skin. The use of everyday cleansing soap has correlated to several cases of topical skin problems like acne and eczema. Making the switch to soap alternatives welcomes the replacement of chemical-ridden body wash for eco-friendly products. Soap substitutes can be made from a variety of sources including plants with high saponin levels. Soap substitutes should not be confused with natural cleaning products which are cleaning agents for kitchen and house use. Plants with high saponin levels are purported to contain saponins in sufficient quantities to produce lather (when mashed plant parts are beaten in water) and can be used either as is or in soap or shampoos.\n", "In 2006 a sample of the soap archived at the International Court of Justice in The Hague was given for analysis to , an expert in the chemistry of fats from the Gdansk University of Technology in Poland. He concluded that some of the fat in the sample tested was of human origin. The sample of soap had previously been used as evidence in the post-World War II Nuremberg trials, but at the time the technology was unavailable to determine whether the soap had been produced from human fat. The human remains used to make the soap were believed to have been brought from and Stutthof concentration camp.\n" ]

[ "\" Blowin 'in the Wind\" is a cover of the song written by Bob Dylan in 1962 and released on his album \"The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan\" in 1963. The refrain \"The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind\" has been described as \"impenetrably ambiguous: either the answer is so obvious it is right in your face, or the answer is as intangible as the wind\".\n", "\"Blowin' in the Wind\" is a song written by Bob Dylan in 1962 and released as a single and on his album \"The Freewheelin' Bob Dylan\" in 1963. Although it has been described as a protest song, it poses a series of rhetorical questions about peace, war, and freedom. The refrain \"The answer, my friend, is blowin' in the wind\" has been described as \"impenetrably ambiguous: either the answer is so obvious it is right in your face, or the answer is as intangible as the wind\".\n", "Wind has a range of effects, the first being the effect of making the projectile deviate to the side (horizontal deflection). From a scientific perspective, the \"wind pushing on the side of the projectile\" is not what causes horizontal wind drift. What causes wind drift is drag. Drag makes the projectile turn into the wind, much like a weather vane, keeping the centre of air pressure on its nose. This causes the nose to be cocked (from your perspective) into the wind, the base is cocked (from your perspective) \"downwind.\" So, (again from your perspective), the drag is pushing the projectile downwind in a nose to tail direction.\n", "Blow the Wind Southerly is a traditional English folk song from Northumberland. It tells of a woman desperately hoping for a southerly wind to blow her lover back home over the sea to her. It is Roud number 2619.\n", "Getting the wind knocked out of you, also referred to as being or getting \"winded\" is a commonly used idiom that refers to a kind of diaphragm spasm that occurs when sudden force is applied to the abdomen which puts pressure on the solar plexus. This often happens in contact sports, from a forceful blow to the abdomen, or by falling on the back. It results in a temporary paralysis of the diaphragm that makes it difficult to breathe. The sensation of being unable to breathe can lead to anxiety and there may be residual pain from the original blow, but the condition typically clears spontaneously in a minute or two. Victims of a winding episode often groan in a strained manner until normal breathing resumes.\n", "\"Any the Wind Blows\" is a song written by John McFee and Andre Pessis, and recorded by American country music group Southern Pacific. It was released in June 1989 as the first single from the album \"County Line\". The song reached No. 4 on the \"Billboard\" Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart. It was featured in the 1989 movie \"Pink Cadillac\".\n", "Finally, consider the effects of wind. The wind acts on the bomb through drag and is thus a function of the wind speed. This is typically only a fraction of the speed of the bomber or the terminal velocity, so it only becomes a factor if the bomb is dropped from altitudes high enough for this small influence to noticeably affect the bomb's path. The difference between the impact point and where it would have fallen if there had been no wind is known as \"drift\", or \"cross trail\".\n" ]

[ "In India, \"black money\" refers to funds earned on the black market, on which income and other taxes have not been paid. The black money market situation in India is epidemic. India currently tops the list for illegal monies in the entire world, estimated to be almost US$1,456 billion stored in Swiss banks in the form of unaccounted money. According to the data provided by the Swiss Banking Association, India has more black money than the rest of the world combined. Indian Swiss bank account assets are worth 13 times (1300%) the country’s national debt, and, if this black money is seized and brought back to the country, India has the potential to become one of the richest countries in the world. Allegations of Indians holding trillions in black money in Switzerland are, however, in dispute. Later reports, including those by Swiss Bankers Association and the Government of Switzerland, claim that these allegations are false and fabricated, and the total amount held in all Swiss banks by citizens of India is about 2 billion.\n", "Black money refers to money that is not fully or legitimately the property of the 'owner'. A government white paper on black money in India suggests two possible sources of black money in India; the first includes activities not permitted by the law, such as crime, drug trade, terrorism and corruption, all of which are illegal in India and secondly, wealth that may have been generated through lawful activity but accumulated by failure to declare income and pay taxes. Some of this black money ends up in illicit financial flows across international borders, such as deposits in tax haven countries.\n", "In India, black money is funds earned on the black market, on which income and other taxes have not been paid. Also, the unaccounted money that is concealed from the tax administrator is called \"black money\". The black money is accumulated by the criminals, smugglers, hoarders, tax-evaders and other anti-social elements of the society. Around 22000 crores of rupees are supposed to have been accumulated by the criminals for vested interests, though writ petitions in the supreme court estimate this to be even larger, at ₹90 lakh crores.\n", "Media reports indicate that black money in education in India is generating more than 40,000 crores, while black money generation in medical education would be more than 10,000 crores. The Special Investigation Team (SIT) probing into black money practices in India has started its probe into the area, which was outside the ambit of SIT.\n", "James Nason of Swiss Bankers Association in an interview about allowed black money from India, suggests \"The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never said or published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them.\"\n", "India has an underground economy, with a 2006 report alleging that India topped the worldwide list for black money with almost $1,456 billion stashed in Swiss banks. This would amount to 13 times the country's total external debt. These allegations have been denied by the Swiss Banking Association. James Nason, the Head of International Communications for the Swiss Banking Association, suggested \"The (black money) figures were rapidly picked up in the Indian media and in Indian opposition circles, and circulated as gospel truth. However, this story was a complete fabrication. The Swiss Bankers Association never published such a report. Anyone claiming to have such figures (for India) should be forced to identify their source and explain the methodology used to produce them.\"\n", "India Today magazine claimed that it had verified a letter confirming that $8 billion in black money was in a Swiss bank UBS account and the Government of India too has verified this with UBS. However, the Swiss bank UBS denied Indian media reports alleging that it maintained a business relationship with or had any assets or accounts for Hasan Ali Khan accused in the $8 billion black money case. Upon formal request by Indian and Swiss government authorities, the bank announced that the documentation supposedly corroborating such allegations were forged and numerous media reports claiming $8 billion in stashed black money were false.\n" ]

[ "Supernovae can result from the death of an extremely massive star, many times heavier than the Sun. At the end of the life of this massive star, a non-fusible iron core is formed from fusion ashes. This iron core is pushed towards the Chandrasekhar limit till it surpasses it and therefore collapses.\n", "A near-Earth supernova is a supernova close enough to the Earth to have noticeable effects on its biosphere. Depending upon the type and energy of the supernova, it could be as far as 3000 light-years away. Gamma rays from a supernova would induce a chemical reaction in the upper atmosphere converting molecular nitrogen into nitrogen oxides, depleting the ozone layer enough to expose the surface to harmful ultraviolet solar radiation. This has been proposed as the cause of the Ordovician–Silurian extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.\n", "A near-Earth supernova is an explosion resulting from the death of a star that occurs close enough to the Earth (roughly less than 10 to 300 parsecs (30 to 1000 light-years) away) to have noticeable effects on Earth's biosphere.\n", "Gamma ray bursts from \"dangerously close\" supernova explosions occur two or more times per billion years, and this has been proposed as the cause of the end Ordovician extinction, which resulted in the death of nearly 60% of the oceanic life on Earth.\n", "A supernova is a transient astronomical event that occurs during the last stellar evolutionary stages of a massive star's life, whose dramatic and catastrophic destruction is marked by one final titanic explosion. This explosion can happen in one of many ways, but in all of them a significant proportion of the matter in the star is blown away into the surrounding space at extremely high velocities (up to 10% of the speed of light). Unless there is perfect spherical symmetry in these explosions (i.e., unless matter is spewed out evenly in all directions), there will be gravitational radiation from the explosion. This is because gravitational waves are generated by a changing quadrupole moment, which can happen only when there is asymmetrical movement of masses. Since the exact mechanism by which supernovae take place is not fully understood, it is not easy to model the gravitational radiation emitted by them.\n", "Some media outlets tied the fact that the red supergiant star Betelgeuse would undergo a supernova at some point in the future to the 2012 phenomenon. However, while Betelgeuse was certainly in the final stages of its life, and would die as a supernova, there was no way to predict the timing of the event to within 100,000 years. To be a threat to Earth, a supernova would need to be no further than 25 light years from the Solar System. Betelgeuse is roughly 600 light years away, and so its supernova would not affect Earth. In December 2011, NASA's Francis Reddy issued a press release debunking the possibility of a supernova occurring in 2012.\n", "A supernova is a violent explosion of a star that occurs under two principal scenarios. The first is that a white dwarf star, which is the remnant of a low-mass star that has exhausted its nuclear fuel, undergoes a thermonuclear explosion after its mass is increased beyond its Chandrasekhar limit by accreting nuclear-fuel mass from a more diffuse companion star (usually a red giant) with which it is in binary orbit. The resulting runaway nucleosynthesis completely destroys the star and ejects its mass into space. The second, and about threefold more common, scenario occurs when a massive star (12–35 times more massive than the sun), usually a supergiant at the critical time, reaches nickel-56 in its core nuclear fusion (or burning) processes. Without exothermic energy from fusion, the core of the pre-supernova massive star loses heat needed for pressure support, and collapses owing to the strong gravitational pull. The energy transfer from the core collapse causes the supernova display.\n" ]

[ "On 23 October 2011 Mahfouz held a teach-in at Liberty Plaza, in a show of support for the Occupy Wall Street movement. When asked why she came to the OWS protest, she replied, \"Many of U.S. residents were in solidarity with us. So, we have to keep going all over the world, because another world is possible for all of us.\"\n", "According to the official website, the protest asked U.S. \"legislators to oppose the FISA Improvements Act, support the USA Freedom Act, and enact protections for non-Americans.\" Protest organizers said roughly 96,000 calls were placed to members of Congress and 555,000 \"pro-privacy emails\" were sent via the website.\n", "Dada Pranakrsnananda has warned that the focus of the OWS protests could shift to the conflict between the movement and the police, when it should remain on the injustice of corporate greed and inequity of wealth in society.\n", "More recent prototypes for OWS include the British student protests of 2010, 2009-2010 Iranian election protests, the Arab Spring protests, and, more closely related, protests in Chile, Greece, Spain and India. These antecedents have in common with OWS a reliance on social media and electronic messaging, as well as the belief that financial institutions, corporations, and the political elite have been malfeasant in their behavior toward youth and the middle class. Occupy Wall Street, in turn, gave rise to the Occupy movement in the United States. David Graeber has argued that the Occupy movement, in its anti-hierarchical and anti-authoritarian consensus-based politics, its refusal to accept the legitimacy of the existing legal and political order, and its embrace of prefigurative politics, has roots in an anarchist political tradition. Sociologist Dana Williams has likewise argued that \"the most immediate inspiration for Occupy is anarchism\", and the \"LA Times\" has identified the \"controversial, anarchist-inspired organizational style\" as one of the hallmarks of OWS.\n", "OWS's goals included a reduction in the influence of corporations on politics, more balanced distribution of income, more and better jobs, bank reform (especially to curtail speculative trading by banks), forgiveness of student loan debt or other relief for indebted students, and alleviation of the foreclosure situation. Some media labeled the protests \"anti-capitalist\", while others disputed the relevance of this label. Nicholas Kristof of \"The New York Times\" noted \"while alarmists seem to think that the movement is a 'mob' trying to overthrow capitalism, one can make a case that, on the contrary, it highlights the need to restore basic capitalist principles like accountability\". \"Rolling Stone\" writer Matt Taibbi asserted, \"These people aren't protesting money. They're not protesting banking. They're protesting corruption on Wall Street.\" In contradiction to such views, academic Slavoj Zizek wrote, \"capitalism is now clearly re-emerging as the name of the problem,\" and Forbes columnist Heather Struck wrote, \"In downtown New York, where protests fomented, capitalism is held accountable for the dire conditions that a majority of Americans face amid high unemployment and a credit collapse that has ruined the housing market and tightened lending among banks.\"\n", "The group regularly makes demonstrations highlighting the plight of individuals. It has also set up the We Are Here Academy, a scheme to offer university level qualifications for undocumented migrants.\n", "Onofiok's human right activism is evident in some of the bills and motions he moves on the floor of the Akwa Ibom State House of Assembly. Such include his bill which seeks a law to protect the Physically challenged persons in his state from all forms of discrimination and to provide for equal opportunities for every person. He is also pushing the state executive to establish a state Department for Disability Affairs in order to safeguard the rights and privileges of people living with disability.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::4. USB cable - Small and light weight, has support for voltage source and most computers have extra ports available. The distance between the circuit to be programmed and the computer is limited by the length of USB cable - it must usually be less than 180 cm. This can make programming devices deep in machinery or cabinets a problem.\n", "BULLET::::- Universal Serial Bus (USB) scanners can transfer data quickly. The early USB 1.1 standard could transfer data at 1.5 megabytes per second (slower than SCSI), but the later USB 2.0/3.0 standards can transfer at more than 20/60 megabytes per second in practice.\n", "In 2012, IBM announced that it had achieved optical components at the 90 nanometer scale that can be manufactured using standard techniques and incorporated into conventional chips. In September 2013, Intel announced technology to transmit data at speeds of 100 gigabits per second along a cable approximately five millimeters in diameter for connecting servers inside data centers. Conventional PCI-E data cables carry data at up to eight gigabits per second, while networking cables reach 40 Gbit/s. The latest version of the USB standard tops out at ten Gbit/s. The technology does not directly replace existing cables in that it requires a separate circuit board to interconvert electrical and optical signals. Its advanced speed offers the potential of reducing the number of cables that connect blades on a rack and even of separating processor, storage and memory into separate blades to allow more efficient cooling and dynamic configuration.\n", "As USB has become faster, devices have also become hungrier for data and so there is now demand for sending large amounts of data - either to be stored on the device, or be relayed over wireless links (see 3GPP Long Term Evolution).\n", "Most USB flash drives weigh less than . While some manufacturers are competing for the smallest size with the biggest memory, some manufacturers differentiate their products by using elaborate housings, which are often bulky and make the drive difficult to connect to the USB port. Because the USB port connectors on a computer housing are often closely spaced, plugging a flash drive into a USB port may block an adjacent port. Such devices may carry the USB logo only if sold with a separate extension cable. Such cables are USB-compatible but do not conform to the USB standard.\n", "The theoretical maximum data rate in USB 2.0 is 480 Mbit/s (60 MB/s) per controller and is shared amongst all attached devices. Some personal computer chipset manufacturers overcome this bottleneck by providing multiple USB 2.0 controllers within the southbridge.\n", "Practically all long-distance communication transmits data one bit at a time, rather than in parallel, because it reduces the cost of the cable. The cables that carry this data (other than \"the\" serial cable) and the computer ports they plug into are usually referred to with a more specific name, to reduce confusion.\n" ]

[ "Some claim that \"Romani people\" originated in parts of the Rajasthan. Indian origin was suggested on linguistic grounds as early as 200 years ago. The \"roma\" ultimately derives from a form \"ḍōmba\" (\"man living by singing and music\"), attested in Classical Sanskrit. Linguistic and genetic evidence indicates the Romanies originated from the Indian subcontinent, emigrating from India towards the northwest no earlier than the 11th century. Contemporary populations sometimes suggested as sharing a close relationship to the Romani are the Dom people of Central Asia and the Banjara of India.\n", "\"Roma\" is a term primarily used in political contexts to refer to the Romani people as a whole. Still, some subgroups of Romani do not self-identify as Roma, therefore some scholars avoid using the term \"Roma\" as not all Romani subgroups accept the term.\n", "\"Romani\" is the feminine adjective, while \"Romano\" is the masculine adjective. Some Romanies use \"Rom\" or \"Roma\" as an ethnic name, while others (such as the Sinti, or the Romanichal) do not use this term as a self-ascription for the entire ethnic group.\n", "Because all Romanies use the word \"Romani\" as an adjective, the term became a noun for the entire ethnic group. Today, the term \"Romani\" is used by some organizations, including the United Nations and the US Library of Congress. However, the Council of Europe and other organizations consider that \"Roma\" is the correct term referring to all related groups, regardless of their country of origin, and recommend that \"Romani\" be restricted to the language and culture: Romani language, Romani culture.\n", "The genetic evidence identified an Indian origin for Roma. Genetic evidence connects the Romani people to the descendants of groups which emigrated from South Asia towards Central Asia during the medieval period.\n", "The Romani people are today found in many countries. Typically, Romani adopt given names that are common in the country of their residence. Seldom do modern Romani use traditional names from their own language, such as Papush, Luludi, Patrin, etc. Being the only Indo-Aryan language that has been spoken exclusively around Europe since the Middle Ages, speakers use many terms for their language. They generally refer to their language as \"řomani čhib\" translated as ‘the Romani language’, or \"řomanes\", ‘in a Rom way’. The English term, Romani, has been used by scholars since the 19th Century, where previously they had used the term 'Gypsy Language'.\n", "The Romani people originate from Northern India, most likely from the northwestern Indian states Rajasthan and Punjab. Linguistic evidence indicates that the roots of Romani language lie in India; the language shares grammatical characteristics with Indian languages, as well as a large part of the basic lexicon, such as body parts or daily routines. More specifically, Romani shares its basic lexicon with Hindi and Punjabi. It shares many phonetic features with Marwari, while its grammar is closest to Bengali.\n" ]

[ "During the American Revolutionary War in 1776, a British loyalist, William Lounsbery, was attacked and killed by a group of revolutionaries led by John Flood. Several other skirmishes occurred that year between loyalists and revolutionaries.\n", "During the American Revolutionary War, Walter Butler, a New York Loyalist, led a mixed force of Indians and Loyalists to the area, resulting in the Cherry Valley Massacre, during which more than 40 people were killed and many were captured. This massacre was followed by a second raid in 1780, leading to the temporary abandonment of the village.\n", "The Affair at Cedar Bridge in Barnegat Township was the last conflict between British allied forces of the American Revolution which took place in December 1782. One Patriot was killed, and four were wounded. Four Loyalists were wounded, including Bacon.\n", "Regardless of the extent to which they were true or false, the reports of British atrocities motivated Whig-leaning colonials to support the American Revolution. In the event, on 7 October 1780, at the Battle of Kings Mountain, South Carolina, soldiers of the Continental Army, having heard of the slaughter at Waxhaw Creek, killed surrendering American Loyalists, after a sniper killed their British commanding officer, Maj. Patrick Ferguson.\n", "Historians continue to speculate about what person or group was behind the killing and what was the motive. Some contemporary accounts claimed Treutlen was killed by Tories angry about the American victory in the Revolutionary War. Others blamed the killing on South Carolinians who resented his opposition to merging Georgia into South Carolina during the war. There was also speculation at the time that the motive was a purely-personal grudge. The multiplicity of accounts and theories of his death indicates that there was never a consensus about the cause of the event.\n", "BULLET::::- 1778 – Cherry Valley massacre: Loyalists and Seneca Indian forces attack a fort and village in eastern New York during the American Revolutionary War, killing more than forty civilians and soldiers.\n", "In 1772, Warwick was the scene of the first violent act against the British Crown in the \"Gaspee\" Affair. Local patriots boarded the \"Gaspee\", a revenue cutter that enforced the Stamp Act 1765 and Townshend Acts in Narragansett Bay. It was here that the first blood was spilled in the American Revolution when \"Gaspee's\" commanding officer Lt. Dudingston was shot and seriously wounded during the struggle for the ship. The \"Gaspee\" was stripped of all cannon and arms, then burned.\n" ]

[ "A thermocouple can produce current to drive some processes directly, without the need for extra circuitry and power sources. For example, the power from a thermocouple can activate a valve when a temperature difference arises. The electrical energy generated by a thermocouple is converted from the heat which must be supplied to the hot side to maintain the electric potential. A continuous transfer of heat is necessary because the current flowing through the thermocouple tends to cause the hot side to cool down and the cold side to heat up (the Peltier effect).\n", "A thermocouple is a thermoelectric device that can convert thermal energy directly into electrical energy, using the Seebeck effect. It is made of two kinds of metal (or semiconductors) that can both conduct electricity. If they are connected to each other in a closed loop and the two junctions are at different temperatures, an electric current will flow in the loop. Typically a large number of thermocouples are connected in series to generate a higher voltage.\n", "Electrically-heated infrared heaters radiate up to 86% of their input as radiant energy. Nearly all the electrical energy input is converted into infrared radiant heat in the filament and directed onto the target by reflectors. Some heat energy is removed from the heating element by conduction or convection, which may be no loss at all for some designs where all of the electrical energy is desired in the heated space, or may be considered a loss, in situations where only the radiative heat transfer is desired or productive.\n", "Thermoelectric acclimatization depends on the possibility of a Peltier Cell of absorbing heat on one side and rejecting heat on the other side.. Consequently, it is possible to use them for heating on one side and cooling on the other and as a temperature control system . \n", "If the average power dissipated by a resistor is more than its power rating, damage to the resistor may occur, permanently altering its resistance; this is distinct from the reversible change in resistance due to its temperature coefficient when it warms. Excessive power dissipation may raise the temperature of the resistor to a point where it can burn the circuit board or adjacent components, or even cause a fire. There are flameproof resistors that fail (open circuit) before they overheat dangerously.\n", "Heat dissipation is an unavoidable by-product of electronic devices and circuits. In general, the temperature of the device or component will depend on the thermal resistance from the component to the environment, and the heat dissipated by the component. To ensure that the component does not overheat, a thermal engineer seeks to find an efficient heat transfer path from the device to the environment. The heat transfer path may be from the component to a printed circuit board (PCB), to a heat sink, to air flow provided by a fan, but in all instances, eventually to the environment.\n", "There has been a technological advance in kerosene heaters: some now use electricity to power a fan to force the heated air out, making it possible to heat up rooms faster. There is also thermostat controlled operation installed in modern kerosene heaters as well. However, most kerosene heaters require no electricity to operate. Most heaters contain a battery-operated or piezo-electric ignitor to light the heater without the need for matches. If the ignitor should fail the heater can still be started manually.\n" ]

[ "Illusions may occur with any of the human senses, but visual illusions (optical illusions) are the best-known and understood. The emphasis on visual illusions occurs because vision often dominates the other senses. For example, individuals watching a ventriloquist will perceive the voice is coming from the dummy since they are able to see the dummy mouth the words.\n", "Optical illusions (also called visual illusions) are characterized by visually perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by the eye is processed in the brain to give a percept that differs from the object being imaged. Optical illusions can be the result of a variety of phenomena including physical effects that create images that are different from the objects that make them, the physiological effects on the eyes and brain of excessive stimulation (e.g. brightness, tilt, colour, movement), and cognitive illusions where the eye and brain make unconscious inferences.\n", "Types of visual illusions include oscillopsia, halos around objects, illusory palinopsia (visual trailing, light streaking, prolonged indistinct afterimages), akinetopsia, visual snow, micropsia, macropsia, teleopsia, pelopsia, Alice in Wonderland syndrome, metamorphopsia, dyschromatopsia, intense glare, blue field entoptic phenomenon, and purkinje trees.\n", "Pathological visual illusions arise from pathological changes in the physiological visual perception mechanisms causing the aforementioned types of illusions; they are discussed e.g. under visual hallucinations.\n", "The effect of both optical illusions is often explained by a neural process called lateral inhibition. The intensity at a point in the visual system is not simply the result of a single receptor, but the result of a group of receptors which respond to the presentation of stimuli in what is called a receptive field.\n", "Mimicry and camouflage enable animals to appear to be other than they are. Prey animals may appear as predators, or \"vice versa\"; both predators and prey may be hard to see (crypsis), or may be mistaken for other objects (mimesis). In Batesian mimicry, harmless animals may appear to be distasteful or poisonous. In automimicry, animals may have eyespots in less important parts of the body than the head, helping to distract attack and increase the chance of survival.\n", "We are unable to do away with such optical illusions by convincing ourselves rationally that our eyes have played tricks on us: obstinately and unswervingly, the mechanism follows its own rule and thus wields an imperious mastery over the human mind. While optical illusions are the most obvious instances of unconscious inference, people's perceptions of each other are similarly influenced by such unintended, unconscious conclusions. Helmholtz's second example refers to theatrical performance, arguing that the strong emotional effect of a play results mainly from the viewers' inability to doubt the visual impressions generated by unconscious inference:\n" ]

[ "9-pin connectors are used in graphics systems that feature the ability to input video as well as output it. Again, there is no standardization between manufacturers as to which pin does what, and there are two known variants of the connector in use. As can be seen from the diagram above, although the S-Video signals are available on the corresponding pins, neither variant of the connector will accept an unmodified 4-pin S-Video plug, though they can be made to fit by removing the key from the plug. In the latter case, it becomes all too easy to misalign the plug when inserting it with consequent damage to the small pins.\n", "Non-standard 7-pin mini-DIN connectors (termed \"7P\") are used in some computer equipment (PCs and Macs). A 7-pin socket accepts, and is pin compatible with, a standard 4-pin S-Video plug. The three extra sockets may be used to supply composite (CVBS), an RGB or YPbPr video signal, or an I²C interface. The pinout usage varies among manufacturers. In some implementations, the remaining pin must be grounded to enable the composite output or disable the S-Video output.\n", "In addition to digital, some DVI connectors also have pins that pass an analog signal, which can be used to connect an analog monitor. The analog pins are the four that surround the flat blade on a DVI-I or DVI-A connector. A VGA monitor, for example, can be connected to a video source with DVI-I through the use of a passive adapter. Since the analog pins are directly compatible with VGA signaling, passive adapters are simple and cheap to produce, providing a cost-effective solution to support VGA on DVI. The long flat pin on a DVI-I connector is wider than the same pin on a DVI-D connector, so even if the four analog pins were manually removed, it still wouldn't be possible to connect a male DVI-I to a female DVI-D. It is possible, however, to join a male DVI-D connector with a female DVI-I connector.\n", "DMS-59 (Dual Monitor Solution, 59 pins) is generally used for computer video cards. It provides two Digital Visual Interface (DVI) or Video Graphics Array (VGA) outputs in a single connector. An adapter cable is needed for conversion from DMS-59 (digital) to DVI (digital) or VGA (analog), and different types of adapter cables exist. The connector is four pins high and 15 pins wide, with a single pin missing from the bottom row, in a D-shaped shell, with thumbscrews.\n", "A female 9-pin connector on an IBM compatible personal computer may be a video display output such as MDA, Hercules, CGA, or EGA (rarely VGA or others). Even though these all use the same DE9 connector, the displays cannot all be interchanged and monitors or video interfaces may be damaged if connected to an incompatible device using the same connector.\n", "The four-pin mini-DIN connector is the most common of several S-Video connector types. The same mini-DIN connector is used in the Apple Desktop Bus for Macintosh computers and the two cable types can be interchanged. Other connector variants include seven-pin locking \"dub\" connectors used on many professional S-VHS machines, and dual \"Y\" and \"C\" BNC connectors, often used for S-Video patch panels. Early Y/C video monitors often used phono (RCA connector) that were switchable between Y/C and composite video input. Though the connectors are different, the Y/C signals for all types are compatible.\n", "Mini-VGA connectors are a non-standard, proprietary alternative used on some laptops and other systems in place of the standard VGA connector, although most laptops use a standard VGA connector. Apple, HP and Asus have separate implementations using the same name. Apart from its compact form, mini-VGA ports have the added ability to output both composite and S-Video in addition to VGA signals through the use of EDID.\n" ]

[ "Crimes considered heinous by society have no statute of limitations. Although there is usually no statute of limitations for murder (particularly first-degree murder), judges have been known to dismiss murder charges in cold cases if they feel the delay violates the defendant's right to a speedy trial. For example, waiting many years for an alibi witness to die before commencing a murder trial would be unconstitutional. In 2003, the U.S. Supreme Court in \"Stogner v. California\" ruled that the retroactive extension of the statute of limitations for sexual offenses committed against minors was an unconstitutional \"ex post facto\" law.\n", "All 50 states have their own penal codes. Therefore, for any particular crime somewhere, it would be necessary to look it up in that jurisdiction. However, statutes derive from the common law. For example, if a state's murder statute does not define \"human being,\" that state's courts will rely on the common-law definition.\n", "U.S. jurisdictions recognize exceptions to statutes of limitation that may allow for the prosecution of a crime or civil lawsuit even after the statute of limitations would otherwise have expired. Some states stop the clock for a suspect who is not residing within the state or is purposely hiding. Kentucky, North Carolina, and South Carolina have no statutes of limitation for felonies, while Wyoming includes misdemeanors as well. However, the right to speedy trial may derail any prosecution after many years have passed.\n", "The nature, scope, and type of habitual offender statutes vary, but generally they apply when a person has been convicted twice for various crimes. Some codes may differentiate between classes of crimes (for example, some codes only deal with violent crime) and the length of time between convictions. Usually, the sentence is greatly enhanced; in some circumstances, it may be substantially more than the maximum sentence for the crime.\n", "Prosecution of most crimes must be commenced within a certain time period that is established by a statute of limitation. The state generally has six years to commence prosecution of a felony (a crime for which a person may be sentenced to one year or more in prison) and three years for a misdemeanor (a crime for which the maximum penalty is a year in jail). However, there is no time limit for the prosecution of homicide. The main purpose of time limits is to ensure that criminal cases are tried while the evidence is still available and witnesses' memories are fresh. A case is commenced when a warrant, summons, or indictment is issued or an information is filed.\n", "BULLET::::- Not even the law is adjusted on 1 January 2006, with crimes punishable by life imprisonment (including murder) no longer barred because it is not retroactive. (See also the principle of legality)\n", "The United States and some individual state jurisdictions provide for stronger criminal penalties for crimes when committed against a person because of that person's religious or some other affiliations. For instance, Section 3A1.1 of the 2009 United States Sentencing Guidelines states that: \"If the finder of fact at trial or, in the case of a plea of guilty or nolo contendere, the court at sentencing determines beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant intentionally selected any victim or any property as the object of the offense of conviction because of the actual or perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, disability, or sexual orientation of any person,\" the sentencing court is required to increase the standard sentencing range.\n" ]

[ "A temporal dimension is a dimension of time. Time is often referred to as the \"fourth dimension\" for this reason, but that is not to imply that it is a spatial dimension. A temporal dimension is one way to measure physical change. It is perceived differently from the three spatial dimensions in that there is only one of it, and that we cannot move freely in time but subjectively move in one direction.\n", "In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space: height, width and depth. Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional spacetime, three spatial dimensions and one time dimension. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.\n", "In geometric units, every time interval is interpreted as the distance travelled by light during that given time interval. That is, one second is interpreted as one light-second, so time has the geometric units of length. This is dimensionally consistent with the notion that, according to the kinematical laws of special relativity, time and distance are on an equal footing.\n", "In the theory of special relativity, physical quantities are expressed in terms of four-vectors that include time as a fourth coordinate along with the three space coordinates. These vectors are generally represented by capital letters, for example for position. The expression for the \"four-momentum\" depends on how the coordinates are expressed. Time may be given in its normal units or multiplied by the speed of light so that all the components of the four-vector have dimensions of length. If the latter scaling is used, an interval of proper time, , defined by\n", "Unlike the four dimensionalist, the three dimensionalist considers time to be a unique dimension that is not analogous to the three spatial dimensions: length, width and height. Whereas the four dimensionalist proposes that objects are extended across time, the three dimensionalist adheres to the belief that all objects are wholly present at any moment at which they exist. While the three dimensionalist agrees that the parts of an object can be differentiated based on their spatial dimensions, they do not believe an object can be differentiated into temporal parts across time. For example, in the three dimensionalist account, \"Descartes in 1635\" is the same object as \"Descartes in 1620\", and both are identical to Descartes, himself. However, the four dimensionalist considers these to be distinct temporal parts.\n", "In everyday life, there are three familiar dimensions of space: height, width and length. Einstein's general theory of relativity treats time as a dimension on par with the three spatial dimensions; in general relativity, space and time are not modeled as separate entities but are instead unified to a four-dimensional spacetime. In this framework, the phenomenon of gravity is viewed as a consequence of the geometry of spacetime.\n", "The original meaning of the word \"dimension\", in Fourier's \"Theorie de la Chaleur\", was the numerical value of the exponents of the base units. For example, acceleration was considered to have the dimension 1 with respect to the unit of length, and the dimension −2 with respect to the unit of time. This was slightly changed by Maxwell, who said the dimensions of acceleration are LT, instead of just the exponents.\n" ]

[ "In response to an informal study that named him the 'World's Greatest Singer\" based on a study of vocal ranges, Rose told \"Spin\" in 2014, \"If I had to say who I thought the best singers were, I'd say first that I don't know there's a definitive answer as in my opinion it's subjective, and second that my focus is primarily rock singers. That said, I enjoy Freddie Mercury, Elvis Presley, Paul McCartney, Dan McCafferty, Janis Joplin, Michael Jackson, Elton John, Roger Daltrey, Don Henley, Jeff Lynne, Johnny Cash, Frank Sinatra, Jimmy Scott, Etta James, Fiona Apple, Chrissie Hynde, Stevie Wonder, James Brown and a ton of others (predominantly Seventies rock singers) and would rather hear any of them anytime rather than me!\"\n", "Seeing all the singers, you really come face to face with a lot of people that are predominantly younger. That's inspiring, because they come up to you and they're such big fans and they share with you what song touched them the most and how they had to learn every single ad lib and dissect it. As a vocalist it brought me back to, 'Yeah, that's what I used to do to my Whitney Houston record and my Mariah Carey record and my Etta James record.' It brings you back to a place where it becomes your personal responsibility to infuse the next generation with more information about learning every intricate note. That's why a song called 'Sing for Me' is a special song. It's one of those singer's songs where if you're not a vocalist you can't mess with that song.\n", "He was one of the greatest singers of all time... We were proud of him because he was the first Black popular singer singing popular songs in our race. We, the whole music profession, were so happy to see him achieve what he was doing. He was one of the greatest singers of that era... He was our singer.\"\n", "Williams named many singers as heroines: \"I love Debbie Harry and Siouxsie Sioux. I grew up listening to The Distillers [...] Girl groups are really important to me, but the Shangri-Las especially\". Williams also explained that bands such as U2, \"who are massive, and do whatever they want, write whatever they want and they stand for something,\" Jimmy Eat World, \"who I don’t think ever disappoint their fans,\" and No Doubt, who \"have done amazing things,\" act as a pattern for the path in which Paramore would like to take their career. In 2012, Williams contributed vocals to MewithoutYou's fifth studio album, \"Ten Stories\".\n", "Some of the nation's most promising young singers have appeared on the company's stages and in concert. These have included Luciano Pavarotti, Beverly Sills, Renée Fleming, Diana Soviero, Lawrence Brownlee, Barbara Dever, Jeannine Altmeyer, Ashley Putnam, Cristina Nassif, Frederick Burchinal, John Aler, Rockwell Blake, Randy Locke, Jake Gardner, Sujung Kim, Frank Porretta, Grant Youngblood, Fabiana Bravo, Mary Elizabeth Williams, Nmon Ford, Jeniece Goldbourne, Randall Scarlata, and Thomas Rolf Truhitte.\n", "Musical ability is inherent in almost all people, to a greater or lesser extent. However, those who develop it to a high level are generally encouraged to play an instrument or to sing at an early age. Late bloomers in music are generally composers or artists who became prominent later in life, but had displayed musical ability much earlier.\n", "In an article about world music, The Independent stated \"All young female singers in this region seem to be clones of her\" and that \"she's such an important artist that you have to get to grips with her\".\n" ]

[ "A state may withdraw diplomatic recognition of another state, or simply refuse to deal with that other country, after withdrawing from all diplomatic relations with that country, such as embassies and consulates, and requiring the other country to do the same. The state will appoint a protecting power to represent its interests in the other state.\n", "In some cases the deposed head of state or Head of government are allowed to go into exile following a coup or other change of government, allowing a more peaceful transition to take place or to escape justice. Examples include:\n", "\"\"States, which have undergone a change of government due to revolution, the result of which threaten other states, ipso facto cease to be members of the European Alliance, and remain excluded from it until their situation gives guarantees for legal order and stability. If, owing to such alterations, immediate danger threatens other states the powers bind themselves, by peaceful means, or if need be, by arms, to bring back the guilty state into the bosom of the Great Alliance.\"\"\n", "BULLET::::- Willingly work for a foreign government for ideological reasons such as being against their government, but live in a country that doesn't allow political opposition. They may elect to work with a foreign power to change their own country because there are few other ways available.\n", "Besides recognizing other states, states also can recognize the governments of states. This can be problematic particularly when a new government comes to power by illegal means, such as a coup d'état, or when an existing government stays in power by fixing an election. States once formally recognized both the government of a state and the state itself, but many no longer follow that practice, even though, if diplomatic relations are to be maintained, it is necessary that there be a government with which to engage in diplomatic relations. Countries such as the United States answer queries over the recognition of governments with the statement: \"The question of recognition does not arise: we are conducting our relations with the new government.\"\n", "Section 2. People may alter or abolish form of government − proviso. The people of this state have the sole and exclusive right of governing themselves, as a free, sovereign and independent state; and to alter and abolish their constitution and form of government whenever they may deem it necessary to their safety and happiness, provided, such change be not repugnant to the constitution of the United States.\n", "All states are both independent & autonomous in their internal administration. The federal government cannot intervene in any particular state's affairs unless there is a full cessation of government powers and through previous study, recommendation and/or approval of the Congress of the Union. The states cannot make an alliance with any foreign power or with any other state. They cannot unilaterally declare war against a foreign nation unless their territory is invaded & cannot wait for the Congress of the Union to issue a declaration of war.\n" ]

[ "According to a myth in many cultures, cats have multiple lives. In many countries, they are believed to have nine lives, but in Italy, Germany, Greece, Brazil and some Spanish-speaking regions, they are said to have seven lives, while in Turkish and Arabic traditions, the number of lives is six. The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life-threatening situations. Also lending credence to this myth is the fact that falling cats often land on their feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall.\n", "7 Vidas is a Spanish sitcom which aired on Telecinco from 1999 to 2006. Its title translates as \"7 lives\" and the symbol of the sitcom is a cat, in reference to the belief that cats have 7 lives (in contrast to English-speaking countries, where they are believed to have nine lives).\n", "BULLET::::- In some cultures cats are believed to bring good luck. In Japan, for instance, the legendary maneki neko is a symbol of good fortune. Sailors often preferred to bring a black ship's cat along with them. Anarchists have used it as their symbol. And there is also the ancient belief that cats have multiple lives, which explains how they manage to survive so many unfortunate situations. In many countries cat's lives are traditionally believed to be nine, but in Italy, Germany, Greece and some Spanish-language regions it's said to be seven, while in Turkish and Arabic traditions it's six. The idea of cat's luck is also based on the fact that falling cats often land on their feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Despite this ability they can still be injured or killed by a high fall.\n", "Cats with the condition are known as 'Janus cats', after the Roman god. In July 2006, a 6-year-old male Janus cat called \"Frank and Louie\" from Millbury, Massachusetts, USA, received publicity. In their case, only one esophagus (and possibly only one trachea) were functional; this aided survival. In September 2011, when Frank and Louie were 12 years old, it was announced that they would appear in the 2012 Guinness Book of World Records as the longest-surviving Janus cat on record. In 2014, Frank and Louie died at the age of 15.\n", "In 2012, the \"Guinness Book of World Records\" recognized Frank and Louie as the world's oldest living janus cat. This was an uncommon distinction because most janus cats die within days. Armelle deLaforcade of the Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine stated, \"The condition itself is very rare, and I think that the fact that this cat became an adult, a healthy adult, is remarkable.\"\n", "Tiffany Two (March 13, 1988 – May 22, 2015) was the world's second oldest living cat, aged 27 years, according to Guinness World Records. This distinction is different from the oldest cat ever verified; Creme Puff lived for 38 years, 3 days.\n", "Some people believed that the Cat Sìth was a witch that could transform voluntarily into its cat form and back nine times. If one of these witches chose to go back into their cat form for the ninth time, they would remain a cat for the rest of their lives. It is believed by some that this is how the idea of a cat having nine lives originated.\n" ]

[ "When, in the opinion of the House of Representatives, a Senate-introduced bill that raises revenue or appropriates money is passed by the Senate and sent to the House for its consideration, the House places a blue slip on the legislation that notes the House's constitutional prerogative and immediately returns it to the Senate without taking further action. This blue-slipping procedure, done by an order of the House, is routinely completed to enforce its interpretation that the House is the sole body to introduce revenue or appropriations legislation. The failure of the House to consider the legislation means it cannot become a law. This tactic is historically of great use to the House and, as a practical matter, the Senate does not introduce tax or revenue measures to avoid a blue slip.\n", "The composition of the committee is roughly proportional to that of the House itself, so it is rare that amendments are accepted that are contrary to a majority Government's wishes. As the overall purpose of a Bill has been set by its Second Reading in the House, amendments at the committee stage may not make drastic changes.\n", "The legislation that sets government spending is called appropriations legislation. Since the 1990s, Congress has often failed to pass the twelve to thirteen appropriation bills that set government-wide spending, often passing \"continuing resolutions (CR)\" to extend existing spending law at or near current levels, and \"omnibus\" bills that combine many appropriations bills into one. Budget negotiations can be difficult when the president is not of the party that controls one or both houses of Congress. The last budget was passed on April 29, 2009.\n", "Some of the reasons that Congress might not complete all the separate bills include partisan disagreement, disagreement amongst members of the same political party, and too much work on other bills. According to Walter J. Oleszek, a political science professor and \"senior specialist in American national government at the Congressional Research Service\", omnibus bills have become more popular since the 1980s because \"party and committee leaders can package or bury controversial provisions in one massive bill to be voted up or down.\"\n", "The extent to which a bill changes during this process varies. If the select committee that considered the bill did not have a government majority and made significant alterations, the Government may make significant \"corrective\" amendments. There is some criticism that bills may be amended to incorporate significant policy changes without the benefit of select committee scrutiny or public submissions, or even that such major changes can be made with little or no notice. However, under the MMP system when the Government is less likely to have an absolute majority, any amendments will usually need to be negotiated with other parties to obtain majority support.\n", "BULLET::::1. \"That Congress shall not alter, modify, or interfere in the times, places and manner of holding elections for Senators and Representatives, or either of them, except when the Legislature of any State shall neglect, refuse, or be disabled by invasion or rebellion to prescribe the same, or in case when the provision made by the State is so imperfect as that no consequent election is had.\"\n", "Critics suggest that Congress has the power to fix itself, but is reluctant to sacrifice money and power. One report suggested that those in control had an \"unbroken record of finding ways to navigate around reform laws or turn regulatory standards to their own advantage.\"\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- Poison ivy and poison oak are still harmful when the leaves have fallen off, as the toxic residue is persistent, and exposure to any parts of plants containing urushiol can cause a rash at any time of the year.\n", "The pentadecylcatechols of the oleoresin within the sap of poison ivy and related plants causes the allergic reaction; the plants produce a mixture of pentadecylcatechols, which collectively is called urushiol. After injury, the sap leaks to the surface of the plant where the urushiol becomes a blackish lacquer after contact with oxygen.\n", "\"Schefflera\" poisoning is due to the species containing \"sharp\" calcium oxalate crystals that are insoluble and damage the cells and tissues of the animals ingesting them. Depending on the amount that a pet consumes the resulting damage (swelling) of exposed tissues and digestive tract may be fatal to the animal. Household pets should be kept away from consuming this plant (nibbling) for their own safety as should all children. \n", "Like many species in the forget-me-not family, poodle-dog bush causes severe irritation if touched, akin to poison oak. It can raise blisters lasting as long as several weeks. There may be a delay of several days before the reaction starts. The hairs stick to skin and clothing. The allergic contact dermatitis is due to prenylated phenolics exuded by hairs (glandular trichomes) of the plant. The principal irritants are derivatives of farnesyl hydroquinone and 3-farnesyl-P-hydroxybenzoic acid. Once the immune system has been sensitized to the irritant, later exposure can cause a memory response, in which previously exposed areas erupt even though they were not exposed the second time.\n", "The plants are also poisonous to horses, goats, and sheep. Signs of poisoning in these animals include depression and lethargy, placement of hind feet close together (horses, goats, cattle) or held far apart (sheep), nasal discharge, excessive salivation, arched body posture, and rapid or difficult breathing.\n", "The rash that develops from poison ivy, poison oak, and poison sumac contact is commonly mistaken for urticaria. This rash is caused by contact with urushiol and results in a form of contact dermatitis called urushiol-induced contact dermatitis. Urushiol is spread by contact, but can be washed off with a strong grease- or oil-dissolving detergent and cool water and rubbing ointments.\n", "The risk of animals becoming ill during the fall is increased, as many plants slow their growth in preparation for winter, and equines begin to browse on the remaining plants. Many toxic plants are unpalatable, so animals avoid them where possible. However, this is not always the case; locoweeds, for example, are addictive and once a horse has eaten them, it will continue to eat them whenever possible, and can never be exposed to them again. When a toxic plant is ingested, it can be difficult to diagnose, because exposure over time can cause symptoms to occur after the animal is no longer exposed to the plant. Toxins are often metabolized before the symptoms become obvious, making it hard or impossible to test for them. Hungry or thirsty horses are more likely to eat poisonous plants, as are those pastured on overgrazed lands. Animals with mineral deficiencies due to poor diets will sometimes seek out poisonous plants. Poisonous plants are more of a danger to livestock after wildfires, as they often regrow more quickly.\n" ]

[ "The Vikings are known to have fielded close to 1000 mail clad warriors. There is no mention of berserkers but a contingent of \"champions\" were noted as fighting from horseback. The rebel Irish, held in reserve, were swept away with the Viking rout after having played little or no part in the battle. Their leaders were later hunted down and killed by Brian in subsequent campaigns.\n", "In 878 King Alfred of Wessex defeated a Viking army at the Battle of Edington. Guthrum, the Viking leader, retreated with the remnants of his army to their \"stronghold\", where Alfred besieged him. After fourteen days the Vikings \"thoroughly terrified by hunger, cold and fear\" sought peace and sent an emissary to Alfred.\n", "Not all was lost however. Indeed, many of their finest warriors were elsewhere, fighting against the evil minions of the Witch King. In this way they were able to preserve their traditions and skills, but it was an embittered few that returned to their drowned land. Since then, they have spent their time tending their herds and preparing for battles. They serve in any of Asur's armies, especially those that fight the Dark Elf kin, and will travel many days and nights to join a force on the road to war.\n", "The remaining warriors return to the village (losing Helfdane while trying to escape) and prepare for a final battle they do not expect to survive. Buliwyf staggers outside before the fight and inspires the warriors with a Viking prayer for the honored dead who will enter Valhalla. Buliwyf succeeds in killing the Wendol warlord, causing their defeat, before succumbing to the poison. Ahmad witnesses Buliwyf's royal funeral before returning to his homeland, grateful to the Norsemen for helping him to \"become a man and a useful servant of God\". He is seen at the movie's end writing down the tale of his time with them.\n", "BULLET::::- The legendary Jomsburgers also appear in Creative Assembly's Medieval Total War Viking Invasion expansion pack, though they are called Joms Viking. They are the most highly skilled warrior available to the Vikings.\n", "The Vikings were bold raiders, perhaps because of the code of honour they are purported to have had, According to legend, the god of war, Odin, from the Asa line of gods, prepared to fight for the world and its survival. He sent his messengers, the valkyries, to escort the bravest warriors killed in a battle to Valhalla. The warriors who gathered there, called \"Einherjar\", practised the art of warfare during the daytime. In the evening, after their wounds had healed, the army of the dead moved into Odin's hall together, where there was always a filled drinking horn and a good meal. Whether this code of honour existed or not, much of their fighting was, in any case, against civilian populations and weakly defended towns and monasteries.\n", "\"Los Vikingos\" won their lone title in the 1993 season, although they finished runners-up in 1991 and 1996-97. They were relegated at the end of the 2000-2001 season, and ceased to exist after just one season in Primera A.\n" ]

[ "The fact that the stars visible from the north and south poles do not overlap must mean that the two observation spots are on opposite sides of the Earth, which is not possible if the Earth is a single-sided disc, but is possible for other shapes (like a sphere, but also any other convex shape like a donut or dumbbell).\n", "Although a Counter-Earth would not be directly visible from the Earth since the Sun is in the way, if such a planet actually existed, it could still be detected from the Earth for a number of reasons.\n", "The two inferior planets, Mercury and Venus, which have orbits that are smaller than the Earth's, exhibit the full range of phases as does the Moon, when seen through a telescope. Their phases are \"full\" when they are at superior conjunction, on the far side of the Sun as seen from the Earth. (It is possible to see them at these times, since their orbits are not exactly in the plane of Earth's orbit, so they usually appear to pass slightly above or below the Sun in the sky. Seeing them from the Earth's surface is difficult, because of sunlight scattered in Earth's atmosphere, but observers in space can see them easily if direct sunlight is blocked from reaching the observer's eyes.) The planets' phases are \"new\" when they are at inferior conjunction, passing more or less between the Sun and the Earth. (Sometimes they appear to cross the solar disk, which is called a transit of the planet.) At intermediate points on their orbits, these planets exhibit the full range of crescent and gibbous phases.\n", "Because the Sun travels on a narrow fixed path across the sky, some solar telescopes are fixed in position (and are sometimes buried underground), with the only moving part being a heliostat to track the Sun. One example of this is the McMath-Pierce Solar Telescope.\n", "This problem can also be solved without using thermal infrared, by positioning a space telescope away from Earth, closer to the Sun. The telescope can then look back towards Earth from the same direction as the Sun, and any asteroids closer to Earth than the telescope will then be in opposition, and much better illuminated. There is a point between the Earth and Sun where the gravities of the two bodies are perfectly in balance, called the Sun-Earth L1 Lagrange point (SEL1). It is approximately 1 million miles from Earth, about four times as far away as the Moon, and is ideally suited for placing such a space telescope. One problem with this position is Earth glare. Looking outward from SEL1, Earth itself is at full brightness, which prevents a telescope situated there from seeing that area of sky. Fortunately, this is the same area of sky that ground-based telescopes are best at spotting asteroids in, so the two complement each other.\n", "When observed at points in space other than from the Earth's surface, the Sun can be eclipsed by bodies other than the Moon. Two examples include when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the in 1969 and when the \"Cassini\" probe observed in 2006.\n", "Observing a planet inside the orbit of Mercury is difficult, since the telescope must be pointed very close to the Sun, where the sky is only dark during a solar eclipse. Also, an error in pointing the telescope can result in damage for the optics, and injury to the observer if viewing directly. The huge amount of light present even quite far away from the Sun can produce false reflections inside the optics, thus fooling the observer into seeing things that do not exist.\n" ]

[ "A serial killer is typically a person who murders three or more people, usually in service of abnormal psychological gratification, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant period of time between them. Different authorities apply different criteria when designating serial killers. For example, while most authorities set a threshold of three murders, others extend it to four or lessen it to two. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines serial killing as \"a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone\".\n", "A serial killer is typically a person who murders three or more people, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant period of time between them. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines serial killing as \"a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone\".\n", "A serial killer is typically a person who murders three or more people, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant period of time between them. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) defines serial killing as \"a series of two or more murders, committed as separate events, usually, but not always, by one offender acting alone\".\n", "When defining serial killers, researchers generally use \"three or more murders\" as the baseline, considering it sufficient to provide a pattern without being overly restrictive. Independent of the number of murders, they need to have been committed at different times, and are usually committed in different places. The lack of a cooling-off period (a significant break between the murders) marks the difference between a spree killer and a serial killer. The category has, however, been found to be of no real value to law enforcement, because of definitional problems relating to the concept of a \"cooling-off period\". Cases of extended bouts of sequential killings over periods of weeks or months with no apparent \"cooling off period\" or \"return to normality\" have caused some experts to suggest a hybrid category of \"spree-serial killer\".\n", "Ronald and Stephen Holmes define serial murder as \"the killing of three or more people over a period of more than 30 days, with a significant cooling-off period between the killings.\" Under this definition, Andrew Cunanan would be categorized as a serial killer and not a spree killer.\n", "Although psychological gratification is the usual motive for serial killing, and most serial killings involve sexual contact with the victim, the FBI states that the motives of serial killers can include anger, thrill-seeking, financial gain, and attention seeking. The murders may be attempted or completed in a similar fashion. The victims may have something in common, for example, demographic profile, appearance, gender or race. A serial killer is neither a mass murderer, nor a spree killer, although there may be conceptual overlaps between serial killers and spree killers.\n", "A serial killer is a person who murders three or more people, usually in service of abnormal psychological gratification, with the murders taking place over more than a month and including a significant break (i.e., a \"cooling off period\") between them.\n" ]

[ "Fog produced with liquid air does not present the hazards of carbon dioxide or liquid nitrogen because the liquid air has the same composition as ordinary atmospheric air (including the same level of breathable oxygen).\n", "Fog begins to form when water vapor condenses into tiny liquid water droplets that are suspended in the air. Six examples of ways that water vapor is added to the air are by wind convergence into areas of upward motion; precipitation or virga falling from above; daytime heating evaporating water from the surface of oceans, water bodies, or wet land; transpiration from plants; cool or dry air moving over warmer water; and lifting air over mountains. Water vapor normally begins to condense on condensation nuclei such as dust, ice, and salt in order to form clouds. Fog, like its elevated cousin stratus, is a stable cloud deck which tends to form when a cool, stable air mass is trapped underneath a warm air mass.\n", "Virgae can cause varying weather effects, because as rain is changed from liquid to vapor form, it removes significant amounts of heat from the air due to water's high heat of vaporization. Precipitation falling into these cooling down drafts may eventually reach the ground. In some instances these pockets of colder air can descend rapidly, creating a wet or dry microburst which can be extremely hazardous to aviation. Conversely, precipitation evaporating at high altitude can compressionally heat as it falls, and result in a gusty downburst which may substantially and rapidly warm the surface temperature. This fairly rare phenomenon, a heat burst, also tends to be of exceedingly dry air.\n", "Mist is a phenomenon caused by small droplets of water suspended in air. Physically, it is an example of a dispersion. It is most commonly seen where warm, moist air meets sudden cooling, such as in exhaled air in the winter, or when throwing water onto the hot stove of a sauna. It can be created artificially with aerosol canisters if the humidity and temperature conditions are right. It can also occur as part of natural weather, when humid air cools rapidly, for example when the air comes into contact with surfaces that are much cooler than the air. \n", "Precipitation occurs when local air becomes saturated with water vapor, and can no longer maintain the level of water vapor in gaseous form. This occurs when less dense moist air cools, usually when an airmass rises through the atmosphere. However, an airmass can also cool (e.g. through radiative cooling, or ground contact with cold terrain) without a change in altitude.\n", "In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour that falls under gravity. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, graupel and hail. Precipitation occurs when a portion of the atmosphere becomes saturated with water vapor, so that the water condenses and \"precipitates\". Thus, fog and mist are not precipitation but suspensions, because the water vapor does not condense sufficiently to precipitate. Two processes, possibly acting together, can lead to air becoming saturated: cooling the air or adding water vapor to the air. Precipitation forms as smaller droplets coalesce via collision with other rain drops or ice crystals within a cloud. Short, intense periods of rain in scattered locations are called \"showers.\"\n", "Fog normally occurs at a relative humidity near 100%. This occurs from either added moisture in the air, or falling ambient air temperature. However, fog can form at lower humidities, and can sometimes fail to form with relative humidity at 100%. At 100% relative humidity, the air cannot hold additional moisture, thus, the air will become supersaturated if additional moisture is added.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- In \"The Muppets' Wizard of Oz\" (2005), the Wizard of Oz is portrayed by Jeffrey Tambor. This version is a former tour bus driver named Francis Cornfine from Hollywood, CA who came to the Land of Oz where the residents assumed he was an all-powerful figure. Cornfine's talent at manipulating his fingers impressed the populace. Feeling a need to \"give the public what they want,\" he developed a number of devices and tricks to maintain the illusion of \"Oz, the great and powerful.\" Using special effects, he appeared as a dragon to Fozzie, a fire-like entity to Scarecrow, a sexy woman turning into a chicken (performed by Julianne Buescher) to Tin Thing, and a big green monstrous head to Dorothy and Toto.\n", "\"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\" has been adapted to other media numerous times, most famously in \"The Wizard of Oz\", the 1939 film starring Judy Garland, Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, and Bert Lahr. Until this version, the book had inspired a number of now less well known stage and screen adaptations, including a profitable 1902 Broadway musical and three silent films. The 1939 film was considered innovative because of its songs, special effects, and revolutionary use of the new Technicolor.\n", "The references to \"The Wizard of Oz\" (both the film and the original book) underline the central theme of both Potter's play and Frank Baum's Oz stories, which are often viewed as satires for \"glitzy commercialism\" and the American Dream.\n", "The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a 1910 American silent fantasy film and the earliest surviving film version of L. Frank Baum's 1900 novel \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz\", made by the Selig Polyscope Company without Baum's direct input. It was created to fulfill a contractual obligation associated with Baum's personal bankruptcy caused by \"The Fairylogue and Radio-Plays\", from which it was once thought to have been derived. It was partly based on the 1902 stage musical \"The Wizard of Oz\", though much of the film deals with the Wicked Witch of the West, who does not appear in the musical.\n", "\"The Wizard of Oz\" was first turned into a musical extravaganza by Baum himself. A loose adaptation of his 1900 novel (there is no Wicked Witch or Toto, and there are some new characters), it first played in Chicago in 1902 and was a success on Broadway the following year. It then toured for nine years. The 1939 film adaptation bore a closer resemblance to the storyline of Baum's original novel than most previous versions. It was a strong success, winning the Academy Awards for Best Original Song and Original Score, and continues to be broadcast perennially.\n", "The Wizard of Oz is a 1939 American musical fantasy film produced by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer. Widely considered to be one of the greatest films in cinema history, it is the best-known and most commercially successful adaptation of L. Frank Baum's 1900 children's book \"The Wonderful Wizard of Oz.\" Directed primarily by Victor Fleming (who left production to take over the troubled production of \"Gone with the Wind\"), the film stars Judy Garland as Dorothy Gale alongside Ray Bolger, Jack Haley and Bert Lahr.\n", "\"The Wizard of Oz\" was first turned into a musical extravaganza by L. Frank Baum himself. A loose adaptation of Baum's 1900 novel (there is no Wicked Witch or Toto, and there are some new characters), it first played in Chicago in 1902 and was a success on Broadway the following year. It then toured for seven years. The 1939 film adaptation bore a closer resemblance to the storyline of Baum's original novel than most previous versions. It was a strong success, won the Academy Awards for best song and best score, and has been frequently broadcast on television. This was followed, in 1945, by a musical theatre adaptation presented at the St. Louis Municipal Opera (MUNY). The script was adapted by Frank Gabrielson from the novel, but it is influenced in some respects by the motion picture script and uses most of the songs from the film. A new song was added for Dorothy to sing in the Emerald City, called \"Evening Star\", and the Wizard goes home in a rocketship instead of a hot air balloon. The MUNY version continues to receive frequent revivals.\n" ]

[ "The Earth's crust ranges from in depth and is the outermost layer. The thin parts are the oceanic crust, which underlie the ocean basins (5–10 km) and are composed of dense (mafic) iron magnesium silicate igneous rocks, like basalt. The thicker crust is continental crust, which is less dense and composed of (felsic) sodium potassium aluminium silicate rocks, like granite. The rocks of the crust fall into two major categories – sial and sima (Suess, 1831–1914). It is estimated that sima starts about 11 km below the Conrad discontinuity (a second order discontinuity). The uppermost mantle together with the crust constitutes the lithosphere. The crust-mantle boundary occurs as two physically different events. First, there is a discontinuity in the seismic velocity, which is most commonly known as the Mohorovičić discontinuity or Moho. The cause of the Moho is thought to be a change in rock composition from rocks containing plagioclase feldspar (above) to rocks that contain no feldspars (below). Second, in oceanic crust, there is a chemical discontinuity between ultramafic cumulates and tectonized harzburgites, which has been observed from deep parts of the oceanic crust that have been obducted onto the continental crust and preserved as ophiolite sequences.\n", "Mid-ocean ridges are long underwater mountain chains that occur at divergent plate boundaries in the ocean, where new oceanic crust is formed by upwelling mantle material as a result of tectonic plate spreading and relatively shallow (above ~60 km) decompression melting. The upwelling mantle and fresh crust are hotter and less dense than the surrounding crust and mantle, but cool and contract with age until reaching equilibrium with older crust at around 90 Ma. This produces an isostatic response that causes the young regions nearest the plate boundary to rise above older regions and gradually sink with age, producing the mid-ocean ridge morphology. The greater heat at the ridge also weakens rock closer to the surface, raising the boundary between the brittle lithosphere and the weaker, ductile asthenosphere to create a similar elevated and sloped feature underneath the ridge.\n", "As new seafloor forms and spreads apart from the mid-ocean ridge it slowly cools over time. Older seafloor is, therefore, colder than new seafloor, and older oceanic basins deeper than new oceanic basins due to isostasy. If the diameter of the earth remains relatively constant despite the production of new crust, a mechanism must exist by which crust is also destroyed. The destruction of oceanic crust occurs at subduction zones where oceanic crust is forced under either continental crust or oceanic crust. Today, the Atlantic basin is actively spreading at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. Only a small portion of the oceanic crust produced in the Atlantic is subducted. However, the plates making up the Pacific Ocean are experiencing subduction along many of their boundaries which causes the volcanic activity in what has been termed the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific is also home to one of the world's most active spreading centers (the East Pacific Rise) with spreading rates of up to 13  cm/yr. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a \"textbook\" slow-spreading center, while the East Pacific Rise is used as an example of fast spreading. Spreading centers at slow and intermediate rates exhibit a rift valley while at fast rates an axial high is found within the crustal accretion zone. The differences in spreading rates affect not only the geometries of the ridges but also the geochemistry of the basalts that are produced.\n", "The uppermost layer of the crust is called sial consisting of silicate and Aluminium (Si =silicate, Al= aluminium). On an average, the thickness of sial is till 25 km from the surface. The continents are composed mainly of lighter Rock material formed from silicon and Aluminium, so the sial Is thick over the continents and very thin or absent on the ocean floor especially the Pacific Ocean. Average density of sial is 2.7 gm/cc.\n", "Mid-Ocean ridges are active volcanic mountain ranges snaking through the depths of the Earth’s oceans. They occur where the edges of the Earth’s tectonic plates are separating, allowing mantle rock to rise to the seafloor and harden, creating new crust. The addition of this crust can cause ocean basins to widen perpendicular to the ridge. This seafloor spreading is the engine of continental drift. At intervals along the mid-ocean ridges super-heated mineral-rich fluids are vented from the seabed. These hydrothermal vents are populated by animal and bacterial species not found elsewhere on Earth.\n", "The Kerguelen LIP covered making it the second largest LIP on Earth (after the Ontong Java Plateau in the Pacific). Both these enormous LIPs reaches above the surrounding ocean floor and have a crustal thickness of (compared to oceanic crust typically around thick.)\n", "Because both continental and oceanic crust are less dense than the mantle below, both types of crust \"float\" on the mantle. This is isostasy, and it's also one of the reasons continental crust is higher than oceanic: continental is less dense and so \"floats\" higher. As a result, water pools in above the oceanic crust, forming the oceans. \n" ]

[ "Law enforcement officers are not prohibited from seizing any property from the premises. For example, in one 2010 case federal investigators broke into an Cleveland apartment, collected evidence, and then \"trashed the place to make it look like a burglary.\" According to a Department of Justice document, DEA agents used a delayed-notice warrant to steal a suspect's car in March 2004. After following the suspect to a restaurant in Buffalo, New York, one agent \"used a duplicate key to enter the vehicle and drive away while other agents spread broken glass in the parking space to create the impression that the vehicle had been stolen.\" Sneak and peek warrants are especially beneficial to illegal drug manufacturing investigations because they allow investigative teams to search the premises for chemicals and drug paraphernalia so that they can return with a traditional search warrant.\n", "Store detectives patrol the store wearing plainclothes and acting as if they are real shoppers. They may browse, examine, carry or even try on merchandise, all the while looking for signs of shoplifting and looking for possible shoplifters. Many large retail companies use this technique. Store detectives will watch a shoplifting suspect conceal an item, then stop them after they have exited the store. These types of personnel must follow a strict set of rules because of very high liability risks. Many big retail or grocery stores like Walmart, Rite Aid, Zellers, Loblaws, etc. have a store detective to watch for shoplifters. Most of these stores use secret verbal codes over the PA system to alert management, other loss prevention personal and associates that there is a shoplifter. Store detectives must follow a suspect around the store by foot or by watching video monitors and observe every move the person makes so that they do not face a lawsuit for apprehending or arresting the wrong person.\n", "In 2010, it was noted that mall security officials were instructed to question or detain individuals exhibiting what they deemed \"suspicious behavior\". Signs of suspicious behavior included photographing air-conditioning ducts, or signs that a shopper was hiding something. At the time, some officials within the Bloomington Police Department worried that the mall's security methods may infringe on rights.\n", "Every entrance of the mall is guarded by a security guard. Some entrances have guards that carry a sensor to detect a firearm or another unwanted item inside the mall. Remaining entrances have a security guard present with a screening sensor a customer must walk through.\n", "In the United States, store employees who detain suspects outside of and inside the store premises are generally granted limited powers of arrest by state law, and have the power to initiate criminal arrests or civil sanctions, or both, depending upon the policy of the retailer and the state statutes governing civil demands and civil recovery for shoplifting as reconciled with the criminal laws of the jurisdiction.\n", "In September 2008, an incident occurred in which a police officer's firearm was used in the mall's parking lot. According to local authorities, the suspect was seen trying to steal a GPS device from a vehicle when the officer noticed him. The suspect was treated and released from the hospital, and later charged.\n", "The presence of uniformed officers acts as a deterrent to shoplifting activity and they are mostly used by high-end retail establishments. Shoppers in some stores are asked when leaving the premises to have their purchases checked against the receipt. Some expensive merchandise will be in a locked case requiring an employee to get items at a customer's request. The customer is either required to purchase the merchandise immediately or it is left at the checkout area for the customer to purchase when finishing shopping. Many stores also lock CDs, DVDs, and video games in locking cases, which can only be opened by the checkout operator once the item has gone through the checkout. Some stores will use dummy cases, also known as \"dead boxes\", where the box or case on the shelf is entirely empty and the customer will not be given the item they have paid for until the transaction has been completed, usually by other store staff.\n" ]

[ "Today, roadways are primarily asphalt or concrete. Both are based on McAdam's concept of stone aggregate in a binder, asphalt cement or Portland cement respectively. Asphalt is known as a flexible pavement, one which slowly will \"flow\" under the pounding of traffic. Concrete is a rigid pavement, which can take heavier loads but is more expensive and requires more carefully prepared subbase. So, generally, major roads are concrete and local roads are asphalt. Concrete roads are often covered with a thin layer of asphalt to create a wearing surface.\n", "Contemporary sidewalks are most often made of concrete in North America, while tarmac, asphalt, brick, stone, slab and (increasingly) rubber are more common in Europe. Different materials are more or less friendly environmentally: pumice-based trass, for example, when used as an extender is less energy-intensive than Portland cement concrete or petroleum-based materials such as asphalt or tar-penetration macadam). Multi-use paths alongside roads are sometimes made of materials that are softer than concrete, such as asphalt.\n", "Gravel is an important commercial product, with a number of applications. Many roadways are surfaced with gravel, especially in rural areas where there is little traffic. Globally, far more roads are surfaced with gravel than with concrete or asphalt; Russia alone has over of gravel roads. Both sand and small gravel are also important for the manufacture of concrete.\n", "In general, roads in India are primarily bitumen-based macadamised roads. However, a few of the National Highways have concrete roads too. In some locations, such as in Kanpur, British-built concrete roads are still in use. Concrete roads were less popular prior to the 1990s because of low availability of cement then. However, with large supplies of cement in the country and the virtues of concrete roads, they are gaining popularity. Concrete roads are durable, weather-proof and require lower maintenance compared to bituminous roads. Moreover, new concrete pavement technology has developed such as cool pavement, quiet pavement and permeable pavement, which has rendered it more attractive and eco-friendly.\n", "An asphalt concrete surface will generally be constructed for high-volume primary highways having an average annual daily traffic load greater than 1200 vehicles per day. Advantages of asphalt roadways include relatively low noise, relatively low cost compared with other paving methods, and perceived ease of repair. Disadvantages include less durability than other paving methods, less tensile strength than concrete, the tendency to become slick and soft in hot weather and a certain amount of hydrocarbon pollution to soil and groundwater or waterways.\n", "Most roads are cambered (crowned), that is, made so that they have rounded surfaces, to reduce standing water and ice, primarily to prevent frost damage but also increasing traction in poor weather. Some sections of road are now surfaced with porous bitumen to enhance drainage; this is particularly done on bends. These are just a few elements of highway engineering. As well as that, there are often grooves cut into the surface of cement highways to channel water away, and rumble strips at the edges of highways to rouse inattentive drivers with the loud noise they make when driven over. In some cases, there are raised markers between lanes to reinforce the lane boundaries; these are often reflective. In pedestrian areas, speed bumps are often placed to slow cars, preventing them from going too fast near pedestrians.\n", "Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects. Sub-base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt poured over it. The US Federal Highway Administration may use techniques such as these to build new highways from the materials of old highways. Crushed recycled concrete can also be used as the dry aggregate for brand new concrete if it is free of contaminants. Also, concrete pavements can be broken in place and used as a base layer for an asphalt pavement through a process called rubblization.\n" ]

[ "Autumn in New England begins in Late September and ends in late December, it marks the transition from summer to winter and is known for its vibrant colors and picturesque beauty. The autumn color of the trees and flora in New England has been reported to be some of the most brilliant natural color in the United States, as such it is a popular tourist destination, attracting visitors from across North America and overseas. Travelers flock to Vermont, New Hampshire, Maine, and parts of Massachusetts to see the colors each fall, a practice known as leaf peeping. Hiking during Autumn has become popular, and several areas offer guided tours.\n", "Fall is a pleasant time of year with some of the warmest temperatures in Canada. The season will usually start off warm and pleasant with a few scattered showers. The first frosts will generally hold off until the later half of October which gives the trees plenty of time to turn beautiful shades of yellow and red. Temperatures will range from 20 °C to −3 °C. Later in the season there can sometimes be a severe fall storm called the witch of November. These storms can deepen in pressures over the lakes and cause severe winds, rain, and snow. Lake effect snow starts off in November bringing poor visibility and storm winds from the northwest. \n", "Weather commonly associated with the fall season typically begins in October and lasts to the first days of December. Daily high temperatures in October and November range from the 50s to 60s (Fahrenheit) with nights in the 40s and upper 30s. Colorful foliage begins across northern parts of the state in early October and moves south and east reaching southeast Connecticut by early November. Far southern and coastal areas, however, have more oak and hickory trees (and fewer maples) and are often less colorful than areas to the north. By December daytime highs are in the 40's F for much of the state, and average overnight lows are below freezing.\n", "“Color for Fall/Winter is less intuitive, so I find this bright color kind of a real hsot in the arm”, observed Linda Fargo. “The opening pieces, those were easy, but you know, I like how Raf moved it through though.”\n", "The 2014–15 North American winter refers to winter in North America as it occurred across the continent from late 2014 through early 2015. While both the meteorological and astronomical definitions of winter involve the onset of winter occurring in December, many places in North America experienced their first wintry weather during mid November. A period of below-average temperatures affected much of the contiguous United States, and several records were broken. An early trace of snowfall was recorded in Arkansas. There were greater accumulations of snow across parts of Oklahoma as well. A quasi-permanent phenomenon referred to as the polar vortex may have been partly responsible for the cold weather. Temperatures in much of the United States dropped below average by November 19 following a southward \"dip\" of the polar vortex into the eastern two-thirds of the country. The effects of this dip were widespread, bringing about temperatures as low as in Pensacola, Florida. Following a significant snowstorm there, Buffalo, New York received several feet of snow from November 17–21. During the 2014–15 winter season, Boston broke its all-time official seasonal snowfall record from the winter of 1995–96, with a total snowfall record of as of March 15, 2015.\n", "Although rare, a delay caused by snow has been known to happen in baseball. This is usually the case in the early parts of the season that, although always starts after the spring equinox, is still within the traditional snow season in the northern half of North America. In fact, the first ever game of the Toronto Blue Jays in 1977, although not delayed, was affected by a minor snowstorm. Although some areas of North America begin to receive snow in October, it is still too warm for snow to start accumulating, and with most teams done playing for the season by that point due to the MLB playoffs, is largely a non-issue anyway, and very rarely does the World Series extend into November—something that has only happened six times (2001 World Series, 2009 World Series, 2010 World Series, 2015 World Series, 2016 World Series and 2017 World Series).\n", "The 2015–16 North American winter refers to winter in North America as it occurred across the continent from late 2015 through early 2016. Contrary to the past two winters, the United States (including the Northeast) experienced warmer conditions, mainly due to a strong El Niño. However, despite the warmth, significant weather systems still occurred, including a a snowstorm and flash flooding in Texas at the end of December and a large tornado outbreak at the end of February. The main event of the winter was when a crippling and historic blizzard struck the Northeast in late January, dumping up to of snow in and around the metropolitan areas.\n" ]

[ "ISIS was founded on a belief that scientists have an obligation to participate actively in solving major problems of national and international security. ISIS focuses primarily on four parts: 1) prevent the spread of nuclear weapons and related technology to other nations and terrorists, 2) lead to greater transparency of nuclear activities worldwide, 3) reinforce the international non-proliferation regime, and 4) cut down nuclear arsenals. Furthermore, ISIS seeks to build stable foundations for various efforts to reduce the threat posed by nuclear weapons to U.S. and international security by integrating technical, scientific and policy research. As the effectiveness of ISIS was appreciated and recognized in the Global “Go-To Think Tanks” rankings, ISIS consistently places in the top 25 Science and Technology Think Tanks in the world and in 2015 placed as one of the top United States and foreign policy think tanks in the world.\n", "ISIL has been accepted as a sufficiently organized non-State armed group to be considered as a party to the non-international armed conflicts in Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic and the situations in both countries amount to armed conflicts of a non-international character.\n", "The Geneva Conventions are rules that apply only in times of armed conflict and seek to protect people who are not or are no longer taking part in hostilities; these include the sick and wounded of armed forces on the field, wounded, sick, and shipwrecked members of armed forces at sea, prisoners of war, and civilians. \n", "American newspapers have also reported on the justifications that the United States government has for ordering the airstrikes targeting ISIL members. As the Associated Press reported, \"A U.S.-led coalition has been launching airstrikes on Islamic State militants and facilities in Iraq and Syria for months, as part of an effort to give Iraqi forces the time and space to mount a more effective offensive.\" By stating what problems that ISIS has created, the American media is portraying ISIS as deserving of the actions that the U.S. military is taking against them. This reasoning also justifies why President Barack Obama ordered another 1,500 troops to Iraq in order to stop the progress of ISIL, as CNN reported. \n", "International humanitarian law is applicable to armed conflicts of a non-international character thus applicable to both Iraq and the Syrian Republic. All parties to the conflict which include ISIL are thus bound by common article 3 of Geneva Conventions. This establishes the minimum standards relating to the treatment and protection of civilians, those no longer actively participating in the hostilities and civilian objects. \n", "The other Geneva Conventions are not applicable in this situation but only the provisions contained within Article 3, and additionally within the language of Protocol II. The rationale for the limitation is to avoid conflict with the rights of Sovereign States that were not part of the treaties. When the provisions of this article apply, it states that:\n", "In light of the increased power of ISIL, Ebadi communicated in April 2015 that she believes the Western world should spend money funding education and an end to corruption rather than fighting with guns and bombs. She reasons that because the Islamic State stems from an ideology based on a \"wrong interpretation of Islam,\" physical force will not end ISIS because it will not end its beliefs.\n" ]

[ "Everyone has the essential right to life, as confirmed under Article 3 of the UDHR. However, if people are not adequately clothed, they are far more exposed to the elements. Without warm clothing, a person may well die from hypothermia during a cold winter; clothing that is inappropriately warm, on the other hand, could contribute to heat stroke, dehydration and exhaustion during summer or in tropical climates. Furthermore, inadequate clothing could increase exposure to ultraviolet rays; aggravate allergies and skin conditions; and worsen pre-existing medical conditions.\n", "The evaporation of the moisture from the clothes will cool the indoor air and increase the humidity level, which may or may not be desirable. In cold, dry weather, moderate increases in humidity make most people feel more comfortable. In warm weather, increased humidity makes most people feel even hotter. Increased humidity can also increase growth of fungi, which can cause health problems.\n", "The most obvious function of clothing is to protect the wearer from the elements. In hot weather, clothing provides protection from sunburn or wind damage. In the cold it offers thermal insulation. Shelter can reduce the functional need for clothing. For example, coats, hats, gloves and other outer layers are normally removed when entering a warm place. Similarly, clothing has seasonal and regional aspects, so that thinner materials and fewer layers of clothing are generally worn in warmer regions and seasons than in colder ones.\n", "This reddened skin or rash may signal a deeper, more serious infection of the inner layers of skin. Once below the skin, the bacteria can spread rapidly, entering the lymph nodes and the bloodstream and spreading throughout the body. This can result in influenza-like symptoms with a high temperature and sweating or feeling very cold with shaking, as the sufferer cannot get warm.\n", "BULLET::::- When clothes are hung on a laundry line, even though the ambient temperature is below the boiling point of water, water evaporates. This is accelerated by factors such as low humidity, heat (from the sun), and wind. In a clothes dryer, hot air is blown through the clothes, allowing water to evaporate very rapidly.\n", "Another important factor is humidity. Water is a better conductor of heat than air, thus if clothes are damp — because of sweat, rain, or immersion — water replaces some or all of the air between the fibres of the clothing, causing thermal loss through conduction and/or evaporation.\n", "In addition to providing warmth for residents, cold weather rules help prevent damage to homes. Wintertime temperatures can freeze Water pipes, potentially causing bursts in the lines as the water inside expands as it turns into ice. Cleaning up after this can lay heavy burdens upon people who are already of limited financial means.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- The lenses used for the telescope were not manufactured for this purpose, so they're not able to achieve a sharp focus at high magnification across the whole field of view. For wide-field, low power views of the heavens these telescopes work well and low power Copyscopes can make good finder scopes when used on larger telescopes.\n", "The speed of the ALFA permits it to survey large areas of the sky quickly, while the telescope provides unequalled sensitivity. With the seven feeds it is also possible to detect structures which are too big to be seen with radio interferometers or single-pixel detectors.\n", "Even at the best ground-based observatories, airglow limits the photosensitivity of optical telescopes. Partly for this reason, space telescopes like Hubble can observe much fainter objects than current ground-based telescopes at visible wavelengths.\n", "Binoculars are widely used by amateur astronomers; their wide field of view makes them useful for comet and supernova seeking (giant binoculars) and general observation (portable binoculars). Binoculars specifically geared towards astronomical viewing will have larger aperture objectives (in the 70 mm or 80 mm range) because the diameter of the objective lens increases the total amount of light captured, and therefore determines the faintest star that can be observed. Binoculars designed specifically for astronomical viewing (often 80 mm and larger) are sometimes designed without prisms in order to allow maximum light transmission. Such binoculars also usually have changeable eyepieces to vary magnification. Binoculars with high magnification and heavy weight usually require some sort of mount to stabilize the image. A magnification of 10x is generally considered the practical limit for observation with handheld binoculars. Binoculars more powerful than 15×70 require support of some type. Much larger binoculars have been made by amateur telescope makers, essentially using two refracting or reflecting astronomical telescopes.\n", "Largest does not always equate to being the best telescopes, and overall light gathering power of the optical system can be a poor measure of a telescope's performance. Space-based telescopes, such as the Hubble Space Telescope, take advantage of being above the Earth's atmosphere to reach higher resolution and greater light gathering through longer exposure time. Location in the northern or southern hemisphere of the Earth can also limit what part of the sky can be observed.\n", "Wide-field binoculars are possible, but require bulkier, heavier, and more complex eyepieces. The diameter of the objective lenses is unimportant for field of view. The widest-angle eyepieces used in telescopes are so large that two would not fit side-by-side for use in binoculars.\n", "Many modern telescopes and observatories are located in space to observe astronomical objects in wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum that cannot penetrate the Earth's atmosphere (such as ultraviolet radiation, X-rays, and gamma rays) and are thus impossible to observe using ground-based telescopes.\n" ]

[ "BULLET::::- energy indirectly consumed is, as much as possible, renewable. Examples would be reducing either the amount or fossil carbon content of applied pest control chemicals and fertilizers, or accomplishing deliveries of farm inputs or of finished bioethanol fuel to market that minimize the use of fossil fuels. Optimally located biomass and ethanol production must balance many factors: minimizing distances to and from markets, effectively collecting and employing biomass wastes, maximizing crop yields based on enduring soil quality, available natural pest control and adequate sun and water, and optimizing a sufficient mix and rotation of plant species on cultivated, fallow and preserved land for human, animal and energy consumption.\n", "Management of human consumption of resources is an indirect approach based largely on information gained from economics. Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability: renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield (the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration); for non-renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment.\n", "Regenerative farming or 'regenerative agriculture' calls for the creation of demand on agricultural systems to produce food in a way that is beneficial to the production and the ecology of the environment. It uses the science of systems ecology, and the design and application through permaculture. As understanding of its benefits to human biology and ecological systems that sustain us is increased as has the demand for organic food. Organic food grown using regenerative and permaculture design increases the biodiversity and is used to develop business models that regenerate communities. Whereas some foods are organic some are not strictly regenerative because it is not clearly seeking to maximize biodiversity and the resilience of the environment and the workforce. Regenerative agriculture grows organic produce through ethical supply chains, zero waste policies, fair wages, staff development and wellbeing, and in some cases cooperative and social enterprise models. It seeks to benefit the staff along the supply chain, customers, and ecosystems with the outcome of human and ecological restoration and regeneration.\n", "Sustainable harvesting and use of renewable resources (i.e., maintaining a positive renewal rate) can reduce air pollution, soil contamination, habitat destruction and land degradation. Biomass energy is derived from six distinct energy sources: garbage, wood, plants, waste, landfill gases, and alcohol fuels. Historically, humans have harnessed biomass-derived energy since the advent of burning wood to make fire, and wood remains the largest biomass energy source today.\n", "In addition to reusing materials waste products can go through biological treatment. There are two types of biological treatments anaerobic digestion or composting. Simply stated, biological treatment is the breaking down of material through the action of micro-organisms. Materials are broken down to carbon dioxide, water and biomass. Biomass consists of wood, crops, yard and animal waste. Biomass is considered a renewable energy because more can be grown in a short amount of time. Biomass contributes to roughly four percent of our energy. Biomass energy although its burned, does not pollute the air as much as fossil fuels. Some materials easily break down, others do not. The environment in which the material is placed determines the speed of breakdown.\n", "Sustainable use of materials has targeted the idea of dematerialization, converting the linear path of materials (extraction, use, disposal in landfill) to a circular material flow that reuses materials as much as possible, much like the cycling and reuse of waste in nature. This approach is supported by product stewardship and the increasing use of material flow analysis at all levels, especially individual countries and the global economy. The use of sustainable biomaterials that come from renewable sources and that can be recycled is preferred to the use on non-renewables from a life cycle standpoint.\n", "In creating the sustainable habitats, environmental scientists, designers, engineers and architects must consider no element as a waste product to be disposed of somewhere off site, but as a nutrient stream for another process to feed on. Researching ways to interconnect waste streams to production creates a more sustainable society by minimizing pollution.\n" ]

[ "The term itself was brought up on April 2000 by Kuomintang politician Su Chi, who later in 2006 stated that he made up the term. The term, as described by some observers, means that, on the subject of the \"One China principle\", both sides recognize there is only one \"\"China\"\": both mainland China and Taiwan belong to the same China, but both sides agree to interpret the meaning of that one China according to their own definition.\n", "The PRC has explicitly stated that it is flexible about the meaning \"one China\", and that \"one China\" may not necessarily be synonymous with the PRC, and has offered to talk with parties on Taiwan and the government on Taiwan on the basis of the Consensus of 1992 which states that there is one China, but that there are different interpretations of that one China. For example, in Premier Zhu Rongji's statements prior to the 2000 Presidential Election in Taiwan, he stated that as long as any ruling power in Taiwan accepts the One China Principle, they can negotiate and discuss anything freely.\n", "The terms are contentious and potentially ambiguous because they relate to the controversial issues of the political status of Taiwan and Cross-Strait relations between \"Taiwan\" and \"China\", in that whether they are two separate countries or \"two areas of one country\". Since 1949, two countries with the name \"China\" (Two Chinas) actually exist, namely the Republic of China (ROC, founded 1912 and now commonly known as \"Taiwan\") and the People's Republic of China (PRC, founded 1949 and now commonly known as \"China\", and \"\"the\" China\"). However, only one \"China\" actually rules Taiwan, namely Republic of China, and has an administrative division called \"Taiwan Province\" but refers to it as \"Taiwan Province, Republic of China\"; whereas, the other \"China\", namely the People's Republic of China, which is the one internationally recognized as \"China\" (not the ROC), \"claims\" but does not control Taiwan as part of its territory.\n", "\"One-China policy\" is a policy saying that there is only one sovereign state under the name China, despite the fact that there are two states, the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC), whose official names incorporate \"China\". Many states follow a one China policy, but the meanings are not the same. The PRC exclusively uses the term \"One China Principle\" in its official communications.\n", "The meaning of \"one China\" adopted by the \"national unification council\" on 1 August 1992 says that \"both sides of the Taiwan Straits agree that there is only one China. However, the two sides of the Straits have different opinions as to the meaning of 'one China'.\" This would later known as the 1992 consensus.\n", "In addition, the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan) share the 1992 Consensus that there is only \"One China\"; thus, each claims sovereignty over the entire territory of the other.\n", "One Country on Each Side () is a concept originating in the Democratic Progressive Party government led by Chen Shui-bian, the former President of the Republic of China (2000–2008), regarding the political status of Taiwan. It emphasised that the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (commonly known as \"Taiwan\") are two different countries, (namely \"One China, one Taiwan\"), as opposed to two separate political entities within the same country of \"China\". This is the position of the supporters of the Pan-Green coalition.\n" ]

[ "One of the biggest successes of Soviet foreign intelligence was the penetration of the American Manhattan Project, which was the code name for the effort during World War II to develop the first nuclear weapons of the United States with assistance from the United Kingdom and Canada. Information gathered in the United States, Great Britain and Canada, especially in USA, by NKVD and NKGB agents then supplied to Soviet physicists, allowed them to carry out the first Soviet nuclear explosion already in 1949.\n", "Midway through World War II, in 1943, the Army Signal Intelligence Service (later the Army Security Agency) began intercepting Soviet (Russian) intelligence traffic sent mainly from New York City; they assigned the code name \"Venona\" to the project. Although the United States had become allies with the Soviet Union in 1941, many officials were suspicious of the communist government and society. By 1945, some 200,000 messages had been transcribed, a measure of Soviet activity. \n", "The atomic and industrial espionages in the United States by American sympathisers of communism who were controlled by their \"rezident\" Russian officials in North America greatly aided the speed of the Soviet atomic project from 1942–54. Willingness of sharing classified information to Soviet Union by recruited American communist sympathizers increased when the Soviet Union faced possible defeat during the German invasion in World War II. The Russian intelligence network in the United Kingdom also played a vital role in setting up the spy rings in the United States when the Russian State Defense Committee approved resolution 2352, in September 1942.\n", "Even before the war in Europe ended the various allied states had begun the search for German scientists and other German expertise. Signals intelligence had been vital during World War II and especially the British work with breaking the German codes, from the Enigma had been of huge importance. The Yalta Conference in February 1945 had revealed conflicts of interest between the western allied nations on one side and the Soviet Union and the relation was severely strained.\n", "Over the years of the pre-World War II five-year plans (1929–1940), there was a rapid development of the Soviet communication system and industry. High-frequency equipment was introduced for long-distance communication. Use of such equipment allowed to transmit three, four, or 12 telephone calls over a pair of wires or 16 telegrams over a single telephone channel. In 1939, construction of a high-frequency three-channel line between Moscow and Khabarovsk (8,600 km) provided dependable communication between the USSR central regions and the Far East. By late 1940, the Moscow Central Telegraph Office had 22 facsimile lines. In 1941, a 12-channel line between Moscow and Leningrad was put into operation that meant the concurrent transmission of 12 telephone calls over a single pair of wires.\n", "In the 1990s, with the declassification of Soviet intelligence materials, which showed the extent and the type of the information obtained by the Soviets from US sources, a heated debate ensued in Russia and abroad as to the relative importance of espionage, as opposed to the Soviet scientists' own efforts, in the making of the Soviet bomb. The vast majority of scholars agree that whereas the Soviet atomic project was first and foremost a product of local expertise and scientific talent, it is clear that espionage efforts contributed to the project in various ways and most certainly shortened the time needed to develop the atomic bomb.\n", "One significant aid (mentioned by the NSA) in the early stages may have been work done in cooperation between the Japanese and Finnish cryptanalysis organizations; when the Americans broke into Japanese codes during World War II, they gained access to this information. There are also reports that copies of signals purloined from Soviet offices by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) were helpful in the cryptanalysis. The Finnish radio intelligence sold much of its material concerning Soviet codes to OSS in 1944 during Operation Stella Polaris, including the partially burned code book.\n" ]